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THE 


Jewish Encyclopedia 


A DESCRIPTIVE RECORD OF 


THE HISTORY, RELIGION, 


LITERATURE, AND CUS- 


TOMS OF THE JEWISH PEOPLE FROM THE 
EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESENT DAY 


Prepared by More than Four Hundred Scholars and Specialists 


UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE FOLLOWING EDITORIAL BOARD 


Cyrus ADLER, PH.D. (Departments of Post- 
Biblical Antiquities ; the Jews of America), 

GoOTTHARD Deutscu, Pu.D. (Department of 
History from 1492 to 1903). 

RICHARD GOTTHEIL, PH.D. (Departments of 
History from Esra to 1492; History of Post- 
Talmudic Literature). 

Emit G. Hirscu, PH.D., LL.D. (Department of 
the Bible). 

JosEPH JACOBS, B.A. (Departments of the Jews 
of England and Anthropology; Revising Editor). 


ISAAC K. FUNK, D.D., LL.D. 
Chairman of the Board 


KAUFMANN KOHLER, PH.D. (Departments of 


Theology and Philosophy). 


HERMAN ROSENTHAL (Department of the Jews of 
Russia and Poland). 


SOLOMON SCHECHTER, M.A., Litt.D. (Depart- 
ment of the Talmud). 


IsIDORE SINGER, PH.D. (Department of Modern 
Biography from 1750 to 1903). 

CrawForp H. Toy, D.D., LL.D. (Departments 
of Hebrew Philology and Hellenistic Literature). 


FRANK H. VIZETELLY, F.S.A. 
Secretary of the Board 


WILLIAM PoppER, M.A., PH.D. 
Associate Revising Editor; Chief of the Bureau of Translation 


ISIDORE SINGER, Ph.D. 


Projector and Managing Editor 


ASSISTED 


BY AMERICAN AND. FOREIGN BOARDS OF CONSULTING EDITORS 


COMPLETE IN TWELVE VOLUMES 


EMBELLISHED WITH MORE THAN TWO THOUSAND ILLUSTRATIONS 


FUNK AND WAGNALLS COMPANY 


NES YORK, AND: LOAD GS 


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THE 


ewish Encyclopedia 


A DESCRIPTIVE RECORD OF 


THE HISTORY, RELIGION, LITERATURE, AND CUS- 
TOMS OF THE JEWISH PEOPLE FROM THE 
EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESENT DAY 


Prepared by More than Six Hundred Scholars and Specialists 


UNDER THE DIRECTION 


Cyrus ADLER, PH.D. (Departments of Post- 
Biblical Antiquities ; the Jews of America). 


WILHELM BACHER, PH.D. ( Departments of the 
Talmud and Rabbinical Literature). 


GOTTHARD DeEutTscH, PH.D. (Department of 


ffistory from 1492 to 1906). 


RICHARD GOTTHEIL, PH.D. (Departments of 
Lfistory from Ezra to 1492; ftistory of Post- 
Lalmudic Literature). 

Emiv G. Hirscnu, PH.D., LL.D. (Department of 
the Bible). 


ISAAC K FUNK, D.D., LL.D. 
Chairman of the Board 


OF THE FOLLOWING EDITORIAL BOARD 


JosEPH JAcosBS, B.A. (Departments of the Jews 
of England and Anthropology; Revising Editor). 


KAUFMANN KOHLER, PH.D. 
Theology and Philosophy). 


(Departments of 


HERMAN ROSENTHAL (Department of the Jews of 
Russia and Poland ). 


ISIDORE SINGER, PH.D, (Department of Modern 
Biography from 1750 to 1906). 


CRAWFORD H. Toy, D.D., LL.D. (Departments 
of Hebrew Philology and Frellenistic Literature). 


FRANK H. VIZETELLY, F.S.A. 
Secretary of the Board 


WILLIAM Popper, M.A., PH.D. 
Associate Revising Editor ; Chief of the Bureau of Translation 


ISIDORE SINGER, Ph.D. 
Projector and Managing Editor 


ASSISTED BY AMERICAN AND FOREIGN BOARDS OF CONSULTING EDITORS 


VOLUME XII 
TALMUD—ZWEIFEL 


NEW YORK AND LONDON 


FUNK AND WAGNALLS COMPANY 


COPYRIGHT, 1905, 1y09, 1912, BY 
FUNK & WAGNALLS COMPANY 


All rights of translation reserved 


Registered at Stationers’ Hall, London, England 


(evrinted tn the Uneted States of A merice} 


LITERARY DIRECTORATE 


EDITORIAL BOARD 


CYRUS ADLER, Ph.D. KAUFMANN KOHLER, Ph.D. 
(Departments of Theology and Philosophy.) 
President of Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati, Ohio; Rabbi 


Emeritus of Temple Beth-El, New York. 
HERMAN ROSENTHAL. 


(Department of the Jews of Russia and Poland.) 
Chief of the Slavonic Department, New York Public Library. 


Professor in the Jewish Theological Seminary, Budapest, ISIDORE SINGER, Ph.D. 


(Departments of Post-Bihlical Antiquities and the Jews of | 
Hungary. MANAGING EDITOR. 


America) 
President of the American Jewish Historical Society ; Assistant 
Secretary, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. 


WILHELM BACHER, Ph.D. 


(Departments of the Talinud and Rabbinical Literature.) 


GOTTHARD DEUTSCH, Ph.D (Department of Modern Biography from 170 to 1903.) 
; DD. 
(Department of History from 1492 to 1905.) CRAWFORD HOWELL TOY, D.D., LL.D. 


Professor of Jewish History, Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati, (Departments of Hebrew Philolugy and Hellenistic 


iterature. 
Ohio: Editor of ‘* Deborah.” : Pier 4 : : 
Professor of Hebrew in Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.; 


Author of ‘* The Religion of Israel,” ete. 


RICHARD GOTTHEIL, Ph.D. 


(Departments of History from Ezra to 1492 and History of 


Post-Talnudie Literature.) I, K. FUNK, D.D., LL.D. 
Professor of Semitic Languages, Columbia University, New York ; (Chairman of the Board.) 
Chief of the Oriental Department, New York Public Library. Editor-in-Chief of the SrANDARD DICTIONARY OF THE ENGLISH 


LANGUAGE, ete. 
FRANK H. VIZETELLY, F.S.A. 
(Sceretary of the Board.) 
Associate Editor of the STANDARD DICTIONARY, ** The Colum- 
bian Cyclopedia,” ete. 


WILLIAM POPPER, M.A., Ph.D. 


EMIL G. HIRSCH, Ph.D., LL.D. 
(Departinent of the Bible.) 


Rabbi of Chicago Sinai Congregation, Chicago, I11.; Professor of 
Rabbinical Literature and Philosophy, University of 
Chicago; Editor of ** The Reform Advocate.” 


JOSEPH J ACOBS, B.A. (Associate Revising Editor: Chief of the Bureau of 
(Departments of the Jews of England and Anthropology: Translation.) 
Revising Editor.) Gustav Gottheil Lecturer in Semitic Languages, Columbia 
Formerly President of the Jewish Historical Society of England ; University, New York (1903-5); Author of ‘* The Censorship 
Author of ** Jews of Angevin England,” ete. of Hebrew Books.”’ 


AMERICAN BOARD OF CONSULTING EDITORS 


BERNARD DRACHMAN, Ph.D., MORRIS JASTROW, Jr., Ph.D., 
Rabbi of the Congregation Zichron Ephraim; Instructor in | Professor of Semitic Languages and Librarian in the University 
the Bible and in Hebrew Grammar, Jewish Theological of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.; Author of * Re- 
Seminary of America, New York. ligion of the Babylonians and Assyrians,” etc. 
B. FELSENTHAL, Ph.D 
e 9 
Rabbi Emeritus of Zion Congregation, Chicage, Ill.; Author of J. FREDERIC McCURDY, Ph.D., LL.D., 
‘A Practical Grammar of the Hebrew Language.” Professor of Oriental Languages, University College, Toronto, 
Canada; Author of ‘* History, Prophecy, and 
GUSTAV GOTTHEIL, Ph.D. the Monuments.” 
(DECEASED), 
Late Rabbi Emeritus of Temple Emanu-E], New York. H. PEREIRA MENDES, M.D., 
HENRY HYVERNAT. D.D Rabbi of the Shearith Israel Congregation (Spanish and Portu- 
» paee: uese), New York ; President of the Board of Jewish 
Head of the Department of Semitic and Egyptian Literatures, . Ministers, New York. 
Catholic University of America, Washington, D. C. 
MARCUS JASTROW, Ph.D. MOSES MIELZINER, Ph.D., D.D. 
(DECEASED), ; (DECEASED), 


Late Rabbi Emeritus of the Congregation Rodef Shalom, Phila- Late President of the Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati, Ohio; 
delphia, Pa.; Author of ‘‘ Dictionary of the Talmud.” Author of ‘ Introduction to the Talmud.” 


vi LITERARY DIRECTORATE 


GEORGE F. MOORE, M.A., D.D., SOLOMON SCHECHTER, M.A., Litt.D., 
Professor of Biblical Literature and the History of Religions | President of the Facuity of the Jewish Theological Seminary of 
in Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.; Author of Amerie¢a, New York: Author of ‘Studies in Judaism.” 

‘4 Commentary on the Book of Judges,” ete. 
DAVID PHILIPSON, D.D., JOSEPH SILVERMAN, D.D., 
Rabbi of the Congregation B'ne Israel: Professor of Homiletics, | President of Central Conference of American Rabbis; Pabbi of 
Hebrew Union College, Cineinnati, Ohio; President of Temple Emann-E), New York. 
Hebrew Sabbath School Union of America. 
IRA MAURICE PRICE, B.D., Ph.D., JACOB VOORSANGER, D.D., 
Professor of Semitic Languages and Literatures, University of | Rabbi of the Congregation Emann-Fl, San Francisco, Cal.; Pro- 
Chicago, Ill.; Author of ° The Monuinents and fessor of Semitic Languages and Literatures, Uni- 
the Old Testament,” ete. versity of California, Berkeley, Cal. 


FOREIGN BOARD OF CONSULTING EDITORS 


ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A., MORITZ LAZARUS, Ph.D. 
Coeditor of ** The Jewish Quarterly Review ’’; Author of “ Jew- (DECEASED), 
ish Life in the Middie Ages,” etc.; Reader in Talmudie, Late Professor Emeritus of Psychology, University of Berlin: 
Cambridge University, England. Meran, Austria. 


ANATOLE LEROY-BEAULIEU, 


Member of the Institut de France; Professor at the Free School 
of Political Science, Paris, France; Author of 
** Israel chez les Nations.” 


ISRAEL LEVI, 


M. BRANN, Ph.D., 
Professor in the Jewish Theological Seminary, Breslau, Ger. 
many; Editor of ‘* Monatsschrift fiir Geschichte und 
Wissenschaft des Judenthums.” 


a OLIN 


H. BRODY, Ph.D., Professor in the Jewiso Theological Seminary ; Editor of 
Rabbi, Nachod, Bohemia, Austria; Coeditur of “* Zeitschrift fiir * Revue des Etudes Juives,”’ Paris, France. 
4 Ahlic ia 
Hebraische Bibliographie. EUDE LOLLI, D.D. 
ABRAHAM DANON Sate 
DDN DALE THK WoRian: TAOS ICR Sei en aaatinonl Late Chief Rabbi of Padua; Late Professor of Hebrew at the 
rincipal of the Jewis eological Seminary, Constantinople, University, Padua, Italy. 
Turkey. } 
IMMANUEL LOW, Ph.D., 
HARTWIG DERENBOURG, Ph.D., Chief Rabbi of Szegedin, Hungary; Author of * Die Aramaischen 
Professor of Literal Arabic at the Special Sehool of Oriental Pflanzennamen.”’ 
Languages, Paris; Member of the Institut de France, Ss. H. M ARGULIES, Ph.D., 
Ss. M. DUBNOW Principal of the Jewish Theological Seminary; Chief Rabbi of 
GAS Giciee ae eee Florence, Italy. 
Author of ** Istoriya Yevreyey,” Wilna, (russia. 
H. OORT, D.D., 
MICHAEL FRIEDLANDER, Ph.D., Professor of Hebrew Language and Archeology at the State 
Principal of Jews’ College, London, England; Author of “The University, Leyden, Holland. 
Jewish Religion,” ete. ABBE PIETRO PERREAU, 
Formerly Librarian of the Reale Biblioteca Palatina, Parma. 
IGN AZ GOLDZIHER, Ph.D., Italy. : : 
Professor of Semitic Philoiogy, University of Budapest, 
Hungary. MARTIN PHILIPPSON, Ph.D., 
te Formerly Professor of History at the Universities of Bonn and 
M. GUDEMANN, Ph.D., Brussels; President of the Deutsch-Israelitischer 
Chief Rabbi of Vienna, Austria. Gemeindebund, Berlin, Germany. 
BARON DAVID GUNZBURG, SAMUEL POZNANSKEI, Ph.D., 


Rabbi in Warsaw, Russia. 


E. SCHWARZFELD, LL.D., 


St. Petersburg, Russia. 


A. DE HARKAVY ’ Ph.D., Secretary-General of the Jewish Colonization Association, Paris, 
Chief of the Hebrew Department of the Imperial Public Library, France. 
St. Petersburg, Russia. 
LUDWIG STEIN, Ph.D., 
ZADOC K AHN, a of Fae ennai os sea eats ; Editor 
Chief Rabbi of France; Honorary President of the Alliance OL = ar BUNS A TCUIE CEN EE VROB UNG). ene: 
Israélite Universelle: Officer of the Legion HERMANN L. STRACK, Ph.D., 
of Honor, Paris, France. Professor of Old ‘Testament Exegesis and Semitic Languages, 
University of Berlin, Germauy, 
M. KAYSERLING, Ph.D. 


CHARLES TAYLOR, D.D., LL.D., 
Master of St. John’s College, Cambridge, England; Editor of 
** Sayings uf the Jewish Fathers,”’ ete. 


(DECEASED), 
Late Rabbi, Budapest, Hungary ; Late Corresponding Member 
of the Royal Academy of History, Madrid, Spain. 


SYSTEMS OF TRANSLITERATION AND OF CITATION 


I. 


d. 


6, 


2. 


OF PROPER NAMES" 


A.—Rules for the Transliteration of Hebrew and Aramaic. 


All important names which occur in the Bible are cited as found in the authorized King James 
version: ¢.g., Moses, not Mosheh; Jsaac, not Yizhak; Saul, not Sha‘ul or Shatil; Solomon, not 
Shelomoh, etc. 


Names that have gained currency in English books on Jewish subjects, or that have become 
familiar to English readers, are always retained and cross-references given, though the topic 
be treated under the form transliterated according to the system tabulated below. 


Hebrew subject-headings are transcribed according to the scheme of transliteration ; cross-refer- 
ences are made as in the case of personal names. 


The following system of transliteration has been used for Hebrew and Aramaic: 
x Not noted at the beginning or the end of a word ; otherwise’ or by dieresis; e.g., pe’er or Meir. 
5b } z 4 l mh with dagesh, p w sh 
1 9 ma Dm s without dagesh, f ys 
“ad ot 3 7 ¥ 2 net 
ah 7 y Ds pk 
1 w ak y ' 797 


NoTE: The presence of dagesh lene is not noted except in the case of pe. Dagesh forte is indi- 
cated by doubling the letter. 


The vowels have been transcribed as follows: 


~ a Ty, U -—- a w «e 5 Oo 
—- 1 e = a 3 wu 


Kamez hatuf is represented by o. 
The so-called ‘‘ Continental” pronunciation of the English vowels is implied. 


The Hebrew article is transcribed as ha, followed by a hyphen, without doubling the following 
letter. [Not hak-Kohen or hak-Cohen, nor Rosh ha-shshanah. 


B.—Rules for the Transliteration of Arabic. 


All Arabic names and words except such as have become familiar to English readers in another 
form. as Mohammed, Koran, mosque, are transliterated according to the following system : 


% See & above rag kh L- sh E gh Ww % 
mate nes ws wif oak 
qt 3 ah et i # Ds 
wi th Jr Lt 2 we Y 
Gi )2 {, z J! 
T ims eS em 


Only the three vowels —a, i, u—are represented : 


f - . - ? =- 
— aora 7 tori — uort 


No account has been taken of the imdlah; i has not been written e, nor u written o. 


pees es es 
* Tn all other matters of orthography the spelling preferred by the STANDARD DICTIONARY has usually been followeé Typo- 
graphical exigencies bave rendered occasional deviations from these systems necessary. 


Vill SYSTEMS OF TRANSLITERATION AND OF CITATION OF PROPER NAMES 


2%, The Arabic article is invariably written al, no account being taken of the assimilation of the 7 to 
the following letter; eg., Abu al-Salt, not Abu-l-Salt; Nafis al-Daulah, not Nafis ad-Daulah. 
The article is joined by a hyphen to the following word. 


4. At the end of words the feminine termination is written ah; but when followed by a genitive, 
at; eg., Risalah dhat al-Kursiyy, but Hi'at al-Ajlak. 


®. No account is taken of the overhanging vowels which distinguish the cases; e.g., “Amr, not “Amri 
or ‘Amrun; Yathub, not Va‘kubun; or ina title, Attub al-Amanat wal-l'tikacat. 


C.—Rules for the Transliteration of Russian. 


All Russian names and words, except such as have become familiar to English readers in other 
forms, as Czar, Alewander, deciatine, Moscow, are transliterated according to the following system : 


Aa a Hu n lin sheh 
b 6 b Qo 0 bth mute 
BB v ll u i) bi a yf 
Tr h,v, org . P Pp r bs halfmute 
J a ad Ce S BS ye 
Ke e and ye TT t 9 e 
oe. 
sh & zh yy u IO 10 yu 
38 a ® ff 7 sl ya 
WYuli t XX kh 0 0 F 
hk k Uw tz Vy ce 
Aa l Uy ch i kt ” 
Mum m I m sh 


Rules for the Citation of Proper Names, Personal and Otherwise. 


A, Whenever possible, an author is cited under his most specific name; e.g., Moses Nigrin under 
Nigrin; Moses Zacuto under Zacuto: Moses Rieti under Rieti; all the Kimhis (or Kambhis) 
under Himhi; Israel ben Joseph Drohobiczer under Drohobiczer. Cross-references are freely 
made from any other form to the most specific one; ¢.g., to Moses Vidal from Moses Narboni ; to 
Solomon Nathan Vidal from Menahem JMeiri: to Samuel Kansi from Samuel Astruc Dascola ; 
to Jedaiah Penint from both Bederst and En Bonet; to John of Avignon from Moses de 
Roquemaure. 


%, When a person is not referred to as above, he is cited under his own personal name followed 
by his official or other title ; or, where he has borne no such title, by ‘‘of” followed by the place 
of his birth or residence: e.g., Johanan ha-Sandlar ; Samuel ha-Nagid ; Judah he-Hasid; Gershom 
of Metz; Isaac of Corbeil. 


2. Names containing the words d’, de, da, di, van. von, y, of, ben, ha-, tbn* are arranged under the 
letter of the name following this word: e.g., de Pomis under Pomis, de Barrios under Barrios, 
Jacob d’Illescas under Illescas. The order of topics is illustrated by the folowing examples : 


Abraham of Augsburg Abraham de Balmes Abraham ben Benjamin Aaron 
Abraham of Avila Abraham ben Baruch Abraham ben Benjamin Zeeb 
Abraham ben Azriel Abraham of Beja Abraham Benveniste 


* When IBn has come to be a specific part of a name. as Ipn Ezra, such name is treated in its alphabetical place under “I.” 


NOTE TO THE READER. 


Subjects on which further information is afforded elsewhere in this work are indicated by the 
use of capitals and small capitals in the text: as, ABBA ARIKA; PUMBEDITA; VOCALIZATION. 


LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 


fSelf-evident abbreviations, particularly those used in the bibliographies, are not included here. ] 


shee Abot, Pirke 


a RINT abot de-Rabbi Natan 

“AD. ZAVAD va ceneee *Abodah Zarab 

ae 1 ere ....-at the place; to the passage cited 
olathe .«..,.in the year of the Hegira 

ie "Zeit. "des Jud... Allgemeine Zeitung des Judenthums 

Am, Jew. Hist. sae American Jewish Historical Society 

alts one See ; American Journal of Semitic Languages 

sel ew. "Asser. .Anglo-Jewish Association 

APOC recivissetos 142 Apocalypse 

APOCY veceererereeeed Apoerypha 

Apost. Const. ‘ , Apostolical Constitutions 

TAT a ag gtoreh manson .Arakin (Talmud) 

Areh. Isfe..eeee eee ed Archives Israelites 


» Aronius, Regesten zur Geschichte der Juden 


aronius, Regesten - in Deutschland 

A. Tisses eee ce Das Alte Testament 

A. Viseeee re eee Authorized Version 

Dad ciate eases es ben vr bar or born 

ae Ag, Bab. | ; Bacher, Agada der Babylonischen Amorier 

Bacher, “Ag. Pal, : Bacher, Agada der Palastinensischen Amo- 
AMIOY cece ees 4) Vier 

Bacher, Ag. Tan....Bacher, Agada der Tannaiten 

Ba Bowers ehdewee aes Baba Batra (Talmud 

BX cees ae . before the Christian era 

i err ee Bekorot. (Taimud) 

Benzinger, Arch....Benzinger, Hebraische Archdéologie 

Reris ss al pces eras Berakot (Talmud) 

Pn Lo F pet . Festschrift zum 70ten Geburtstag Berliners 

Berliner’s i Berliner’s Magazin fiir die Wissenschaft des 
Magazin. ...... 1 Judenthums 

Bibl. Rab........ .. Bibliotheca Rabbinica 

BiB es ccce eds naw .. BikkKurim (Talmud) 

Be Kiiiissweade ee teen Baba Kamma (Talmud) 

Bo Melo ben Gast Baba Mezi* a (Talmud) 


.Boletin de la Real Academia de la Historia 
Jtidisch-Theologischen 


Boletin Acad. Hist. . 
Breslauer Jahres- | Jahresbericht des 


bericht........5 ' Seminars FranEelscherstiftung 
Brit. SUS iiacesse aes British Museuin 

Bat mia ‘ Brall’s Jahrbiicher ftir Jiidische Geschichte 
Brilll’s Jahrb... “7 und Litteratur 
Bulletin Alt. Isr.... Bulletin of the A}lianee lsraélite Universelle 
Cotesia ates aoe aS abotit 
CON kana tecteracas Canticles (Song of Solomon) 


Cat. Anglo-Jew. «Catalogue of Anglo-Jewish Historical Ex- 
Hist. Exh...... ' hibition F 
Cazes, Notes Bi- + Cazes, Notes Bibliographiques sur la Littéra- 

bliographiques. 4) ture Juive-‘Tunisienne 


OW ids nig 'yireieslnte. pte .. COMMON era 

2 Veg tetk at ack veoeeese. Chapter or chapters 

file ea ee ke - Cheyne and Black, Encyclopedia Biblica 
Recueil des Travaux Rédigés en Mémoire 

hy Ounce | du Jubilé Scientifique de M. Daniel Chwol- 

seeeeotS t son, 1846-1896 

Oe) Eee eee enone . Corpus Inseriptionum Aiticarum 

Os a G rare ee fea ne orpus Inseriptionum Grecarum 

C. 1. H.............Corpus Inseriptionum Hebraicarum 

Me Ne Vise ecdntencas Corpus Inseriptionum Latinarum 

C0 Po... ........ Corpus Inseriptionum Peloponnesi 

C.1.8.............-Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum 

COMP wcsccecccsecens compare 

Curinier, Dict.  (E. E. Curinier, Dictionnaire Natione! des 

NEG iice crake ». § Contemporains 
i) Fa eeerree veces Cied 
Dixcewas ainvarece aac _.. Deuteronomist 


De Gubernatis, (De Gubernatis, Dizionario Biografico cegli 
Diz. Biog....... 4  Serittori Contemporanei 

De Gubernatis, (De Gubernatis, Dictionnaire International 
EcrivainsduJour} des Ecrivains du Jour 

De je Roi, Juden-! De le Roi, Geschichte der Evangelischen 
ae rere -.) Juden-Mission 

Dem .........2. .Demai (Talmud) : é 

Dere 'y Derenbourg, Essai sur I’Histoire et la Géo- 

nbourg, Hist ' graphie de la Palestine, etc. 

De Rossi, Dizio-| De Rossi, Dizionario Storico degli Autori 
Nario.........., { Ebrei e delle Loro Opere 

) De Rossi-Hamberger, Historisches Worter- 
buch der Jiidischen Schriftsteller und 
_ ihrer Werke 

S. R. Driver, An Introduction to the Liter- 


iOn......, veeee $ attire of the Old Testament 
: teres Sohal oats vee eee ELOhIst 
OO a taa alee hema . Ecclesiastes 


sre - Ecclesiasticus 
."Eduvot (Talmud) 
Eisenberg, Biog. ( Ludwig Eisenberg's Grosses Biographisches 
Lex ~ Lexikon der Deutschen Bithne im XIX. 
“'*s (Jahrhundert 
+-oee.. Encvelopzdia Britannica 
. English 


* 


Ecclus. (3irach 
Eduy .. H 


Po weseen eos 


Encyec. Brit.. 
Eng 


ies 3 Boe, 


Epiphanius, Heeres, Epiphanius, Adversus Hzereses 

"EY ....ceeceeeeeese) Hrubin (Talmud) 

Ersch and ( Erseh and Graber, Allgemeine Eneyklopadie 
Gruber, Eneye..{ der Wissenschaften ‘und Kiinste 

ESQ sss see tessa vee 0 ESUYAS 

EL SEQ. co veeeeceee ss nl following 

Eusebius, Hist. Eccl. Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 

Ewald, Gesch,..... Ewald, Geschichte des Volkes Israel 

Frankel, Mebo.....Frankel, Mebo Yerushalimi 

First, Bibl. Jud.... First. Bibliotheca Judaica 

F aoe = oe f First, Geschichte des Kariierthums 

Gaster, Hist. of ( Gaster, Bevis Marks Memorial Volume 


Bevis Marks.... § 
Geiger, Ursehrift und Uebersetzungen der 
Geiger, Urschrift. Bibel in Ihrer Abhangigkeit von der In- 
neren Entwicklung des Judenthums 
ae ee . fGeiger’s Jiidische Zeitschrift fiir Wissen- 
Geiger's Jud, Zeit. schaft und Leben 
Geiger’s Wiss. ( Geiger’s Wissenschaftliche Zeitschrift fiir 
Zeit. Jud. Theol.)  Jiidische ‘Theologie 
Gesch..... seeeeeee- Geschichte 
Gesenius, Gr.......Gesenius, Grammar 
Gesenius, Th.......Gesenius, Thesaurus 
Gibbon, Deciine ¢( Gibbon, History of the Decline and Fall of 
and Fall........ j a Roman Empire A ‘ 
m5 10 Di insburg’s New Massoretico-Critical Text 
Ginsbure’s Bible. 71 of the Hebrew Bible 


Git ...........6-.6.-Gittin (Talmud) 
Gractz, Hist........ Graetz, History of the Jews 
Gratz, Gesch.......Griitz, Geschichte der Juden 


\ Giidemann, Gesehichte des Erziehungs- 
wesens und der Cultur der Abendlindi- 
schen Juden 


Gidemann, 
Gesch..... 


@rese 


ED ees Santee tot dares Holiness Code 
TAG sss 6 wane wn ae Haggai 


.. Hagigah (Talmud) 


AP ies Rees 
.Hallah (Talmud) 


FA dado OR elaree wed 


Hamburges, ( Hamburger, Realencyclopidie fiir Bibel 
R. B. T........$ und Talmud 

Be Dict. Hastings, Dictionary of the Bible 

Heb.........+.+---- Epistle to the Hebrews 


HED erdecaa ees Masoretic Text 

Herzog -Plitt or (| Herzog-Plitt or Herzog-Haueck, Real-Ency- 
Herzog - Hauck, klopadie fiir Protestantische Theologie und 
Real-EncyG.... Kirche Aas and 3d editions respectively} 
ae . § Hirsch, Biographisches Lexikon der Hervor- 

Hirsch, Blog.Lex: ( ragenden Aerzte Aller Zeiten und Vdélker 


HOM ..cececeveee ees HOravot (Talmud) 
Hilkivesss veooeeeee Hullin (Talmud) 
Ula vicng nokee eeoeeee Sume place 


TAC oo .ceccceceee SAME Author 

Isr. Letterbode.....Israelitische Letterbode 

a) sseereiecaubheeeccntesmieen Mok as Jahvist 

Jaarboeken ..,..... Jaarboeken voor de Israeliten in Nederland 


' j Jacobs, Inquiry into the Sources of Spanish- 
Jacobs, Sources.. J ewish History 


dv } Z 
Par Peon ‘" - Jacobs and Wolf, Bibliotheca Anglo-Judaica 


Jahrb. Gesch. der ( Jahrbuch fiir die Geschichte der Juden und 

Jud.. des J ve ai 
Roan astrow, Dictionary of the Targumim, Tal: 

Jastrow, Diet..... 1 mudim, and Midrashim 

Jellinek. B. H......Jellinek, Bet ha-Midrash 

Jew. Chron......... Jewish Chronicle, London 

Jew, Encyc........The Jewish Encyclopedia 

Jew. Hist. Soc. Eng. Jewish Historical Society of England 

Jew. World ........ Jewish World, London 

Josephus, Ant...... Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews 

Josephus, B. J......Josephus, De Bello Judaico 

Josephus,Contra Ap.Josephus, Contra Apionem 

POSTE 40d ee 2a bieeiers Joshua 

Jost’s Annalen.,....Jost’s Israelitische Annalen 

Jour. Bib. Lit...... Journal of Biblical Literature 

J: Os Rinse eteeunas Jewish Quarterly Review 

weeeeeeee JOUFNAL Of the Royal Asiatic Society 

Bae ee cunt \ Justin, Dialogus cam Tryphone Judzxo 

Kaufmann CG a Gedenkbuch zur Erinnerung an David Kauf- 
denkbuch...... f mann 

Kautzsch, Apo- i Kautzsch. Die Apokryphen und Pseudepi- 
kryphen....... } graphen des Alten Testaments 

Kayserling, Bibl. t Kayserling, Biblioteca Espanola-Portugueza- 
Esp.-Port.-Jud.. Judaica 


re ee rae | Kayserling, Die Jiidischen Frauen in der 


i San Geschichte, Literatur und Kunst 
Ker ....ceeeeeee eee KETItOt (Talmud) 
Ket oc. ccocececcees HEtUDOLE (Talmud) 
K.H.C ieee Hand-Commentar zum Alten Testa- 
So taagta ge ec cee ee ment, ed. Marti 
Kid .,..eseeeeeeeeee-Kiddushin (Talmud) 
Kil....seseseeeeees-hil'ayim (Talmud) 
Kin.....s.0..-e06.-Kinnim (Talmud) 


Sepsee- e's wren 


x LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 


Koht i i sae anne . 
wont Memorial”! semitic Studies in Memory of A. Kohut 
Krauss, Lehn- ' Krauss, Griechische und Lateiniseche Lehn- 
WOrter .....00 0 )  worter im Talmud, Midrasch, und Targum 
Finlei- ? Kuenen, Historisch-hritische Eimleitunpg in 


TUNG eccicaesest .' die Bucher des Alten Testaments 
Se )} Larousse, Grand Dictionnaire Universel du 
LiGcecceceeseveeeees dh the place cited 7 7 
Levy, Chal Levy. Chaldéisches Worterbuch fiber die 
Worterb,.......( Targumim 
Levy. Nenhebriisches und Chaldiisches 
Re ye NE 2 JT. wee +s wave s . 4 a 
I pear br Worterbueh uber die Talmudim und Mia- 
nica rasechim 


Lewysohn, Z. T....Lewysohn, Zoologie des Talmuds 


Re asd rads jueeee literally 

Liw, Lebensalter - ) Low, Die Lebensalter in der Judisehen Li- 
‘ ter atu 

MAN Peay esadeettien: ocd res 

Mo ee eetececs married 

Ma‘as,.... ee tee Ma‘aserot (Talmud) 


Ma‘as. Sh.. .. Ma‘aser Sheni (Talmud) 

MAC Cag eke osheeen Sack , Maccabees 

Maimonides, Moreh.Maimonices, Moreh Nebukim 
Maimoniaes, Yad . Maimonides. Yad ha-Hazakah 


Mak.....ceccee eee Makkot CPaimud) 
Maksh.............Makshirin (Talmud) 
ES Wises Se esa eS wv ene ...slasorah 

Massek .....006-- ... Masseket 


oS see McClintoek and Strong, Cyclopedia of Bib- 
McClintock and lical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Liter- 
Strong, Cyc... } nnaeen 


MUG ....., coeeeee MeGilah (Talmud) 


Me‘i...............-deHlah (Talmud) 

LOWY pintuad Wrcetieatewreeeess Mekilta 

MOU iesags.aiecee we Peles Menahot (Talmud) 
Mid........c00000.-. Middot (Talmud) 

MAY wise as ces Gaesne bie Midrash 

Midr. Teh.......... Midrash Tebillim (Psalms) 
Mik . seceeeees Mikwa’ot (Talmud) 

M. Kina ieee ac ee Moe ed Katan (Talmnd) 


Monatsschrift ftir die Geschichte und Wis- 
senschaft des Judenthums 

.Mortara, Indice Alfabetico 

Fragmenta Historicorum Greeco- 


Monatsschrift..... }’ 


Mortara, Indice... 
Miler, Frag. Hist. ) Miller, 


rt } rum F 
- oN Munk, Mélanges de Philosophie Juive 
Munk, Mélanges. _— A PADE m 


Murray’s Eng. Diet.A. H. Murray, A New English Dictionary 


NNT ceca nto Wiecece ie oo Nazir (Talmud) 
Paes beet eos no date 

NOG chico soeesee .. Nedarim (Talmud) 
NOG .areecceces ee ee NOGA IM 


Neubauer, Cat. 4 Neubauer, Catalogue of the Hebrew MSS, 
Bodl. Hebr, MSS. f in the Bodleian Library 

Nenbauer, &. T....Neubauer, Géographie du Talmud 

a ake M. : Mec ees Medizeval Jewish Chronicles 


n.p.. wes .no place of publication stated 
N. T. 4 Aautecesth ate eae New Testament 

Oest. Wochenschrift.Oesterreichische Wochenschrift 
(OD Cos sccigarnieee .... Ohalot (Talmud) 

CN 2 g5 aetante dave! s Onkelos 

Orient, Lit.......... Literaturblatt des Orients 

OTs er yada awn gs Old Testament 

| ee ee seeees Priestly Code 


r Pagel. Biographisches Lexikon Hervorragen- 

Pagel, Biog. Lex, + der Aerzte des Neunzebnten Jahrhunderts 

Pal. Explor. Fund..Palestine Exploration Fund 

Pallas LeEx.......... Pallas Nagy Lexicon 

Pauly-Wissowa, | Pauly-Wissowa, Real-Encyclopadie der Clas- 
Real-Eneyc.....§ sischen Altertumswissenschaft 


Pes...... eer reer Pesahim (Talmud) 

POSH pasate nies ....+.Peshito, Peshitta 

Pesik ....., ..Pesikta de-Rab Kahana 

Pesik. R..... . Pesikta Rabbati 

Pirke R. EL. ssa hedaes Pirke Rabbi Eli‘ezer 

PLOC ..eeeeee aaees Proceedings 

Pwd §6. veces aves .. Publieations 

caste od trea ... Rab or Rabbi or Rabbah or Redactor 
aha ae - ( Rahmer's Jiidisches Litteratur-Blatt 
Regesty ...........- Regesty i Nadpisi 

Re Be disicays »...... Revue des Etudes Juives 

Rev. Bib..... iterate Revue Biblique 

Rev. Sém.........5 Revue Sémitique 

Re Hie ces ee .Rosh ba-Shanah (Talmud) 


, Pane Amador de los Rios, Estudios Histéricos, 
Rios, Estudios. ... ; Politicos y Literarios, ete. 
Rios. Hist {Amador de los Rios, Historia... de los 
; rsterees 4 Judios de Espaiia y Portugal 
; : Ritter, Die Erdkunde im Verhidltnis zur 
Ritter, Erdkunde. ; Natur und zur Gesehichte des Menschen 
Robinson, Later een Later Biblical Researches in Pal- 
Researches estine andthe Adjacent Regions ... 1852 
Robinson, Re- t Robinson, Biblical Researches in Palestine, 
searches Mt, Sinai, and Arahia Petrwa .. . 1838 
Roest. Cat. | Roest, Catalog der Hebraica und Judaica 
Rosenthal. Bibl. { aus der L. Rosenthal’schen Bibliothek 
R. V.....0-0-e0ee REVISEd Version 


Salfeld, Martrro- ( Salfeld, Das Martyrologium des Nirnberger 
LOPIUM. cevecees Memorbuches 
Sanh...............sanhedrin (Talmuq) 
S. B. E.,.....5066-.9acred Books of the Fast 
S.B.0.T § (Sacred Books of the Old Testament) Poly- 
oe em eseveses + chrome Bible, ed. Paul Haupt 


8 -He 8 : 
schaif-Herzog, Schaff-Herzog, A Religious Encyclopedia 


BUCY vice vseue S 
seer sane. “serve ine Cniversity Library, Can. 
Schrader, ' Schrader, Cuneiform Inscriptions and the 

C.1.Q0. T.......§ Old Testament, Eng. transl. . 
Schrader, K. A. “ s Suna Keilinsebriften und das Alte Tes- 
Schrader, kK. B.....Sehrader, Keilinschriftliche Bibliothek 
Schrader. K. G. F ee eas Keilinscehriften und Ceschichts- 


forsehung 
Schiirer, Geseh.,...Schiirer, Geschichte des Jidischen Voikes 
SOM, oo ..eeeeeeee se EMANHOL (Talmud) 
SHA aces vacbew ene dace Shabbat (Talmud) 
PHO Dine aenecd cavasee Shebi‘it (Talmud) 
Shebu..............shebu‘ot (Talmud) 
DNLOK vi aidatatm ae wetas Shekalim (Talmud) 
Sibyllines .......... Sibylline Books 


Smith, Rel. of Sem..8mith, Lectures on Religion of the Semites 
Soe. Bibl. Arch.....Society of Biblical Archeeology 

. 43 ; --, | Stade’s Zeitschrift fiir die Alttestament- 
s r © . aul Ss . ~ aa Pere 

tade's Zeitschrift | Tiene Wissenschaft 


Steinschneider, j Steinschneider, Catalogue of the Hebrew 
Cat. Bodl...... .! Books in the Bodleian Library 
eins : ( Steinschneider. Catalogus Codicum Hebriv- 
Steinsehneider, "rum Bibliotheess Academize Lugduno- 
Cat. Leyden.... } Batic 
€ 


| Steinschneider, Die Hebriischen Hand- 
schriften der K. Hof- und Staats-Bibhic- 
thek in Munchen 


t Steinschneider, Hebriéische Bibliographie. 


Steinsechneider, | 
Cat. Munich... | 


Steinschueider, 
Hebr. Bibl... 

ae 4 Steinschneider, Hebraische Uebersetzungen 

tpt ‘Strack. Das Blut im Glauben und Aber- 

Strack, Das Blut. ; glauben der Menschheit 

Suk ......5...06... SUKKab (Talmud) 


NU Ain seaiew ose eee ‘under the word 

ODA AN oe aor heave 4 bce Ta‘anit (Talmud) 
Tan.....seeeeeeeees banhuma 

VAT ecceaks hcastnamace Targumim 

Targ. Onk.......606 Targuin Onkelos 

Targ. Yer..... v.05 Targum Yerushalmi or Targum Jonathan 
TOT o sagicnaiee's ¥ sae Temurah (‘Lahnud) 

pi reer veeseee es PeTUMOL (Falmud) 

Test. Patr BG hata setae Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs 
TOU sAagead Galelneand Tohorot 

LOS a0 vax es .. Tosafot 

TOSET ci see since wse Tosefta 

Bia delwieteaecene Transactions 


transi ..............translation 

Tristram, Nat. Hist. Tristram, Natural History of the Bible 
.-Tebul Yom (Tabnud) 

“Ug (Paknud) 


@nreone e 


r. 
‘Uk 
ee Se LS etree oe eo 


Virchow" S srohiv fiir Pathologische Anato- 


Virchow’s co mie und Physiologie, und fir Klinische 


Medizin 
8 19 Une preeoceis Vulgate 
Weiss, Dor..... -...- Weiss, Dor Dor we-Dorshaw 
WwW ellhausen, ( Wellhausen, Israelitische und Jiidische 
Dede Gratad aed. Geschichte 
Winer: Bo hieikisceae Winer, Biblisches Realwérterbuch 
Wisdom satiate Wisdom of Solomon 


Wolf, Bibl. Hebr...Wolf, Bibliotheea Hebraea 

W.Z.K.M § Wiener Zeitschrift fur die Kunde des 
Me se omerssses )  Morgenjandes 

NAG ca sieceieaenuwies Yadayim (lalmud) 

“Vad”. occcceeseee Vad ha-Hazakah 

Vath aise ccseesseas YALU 

VODe 5 oercdvcuniaes Yebamot (Talmud) 

Ver... ccscceceeee ees VErUSHAlMI (Jerusaiem Talmud) 

YHWH.......00.+.. Yahweh, Jehovah 

TA G4 608,00 wedi G nds Zabim (Talmud) 

7. D.M.G | Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenlindi- 
sie ae Meesseoee) sehen Gesellschaft 

Z. D. P. V..........-Zeitschrift des Dentschen Palastina-Vereins 

ZOU ceww ees weeee oe 2EDaHIM (Talmud) 

zedner, Cat. Hebr. i Zedner, Catalogue of the Hebrew Books in 
Books Brit.Mus.} the British Museum 

Zeit. fiir Assyr..... Zeitsehrift fir Assyriologie 

Zeit. fiir Hebr. Bibl. Zeitschrift fiir Hebraische Bibliographie 

Zeitlin, Bibl. Post- ¢ Zeitlin, Bibliotheca Hebraica Post-Mendels- 
Mendels........ f sohniana 

Zunz, G.S..........Zunz, Gesammelte Schriften 

Zunz, G. V,.....-..4unZ, Gottesdienstliche Vortrage 

Zunz, Literatur- (¢Zunz, Literaturgeschichte der Synagogalen 


gesch ,.........§  Poesie 
zunz, Ritus...... ; Tee ins Ritus des Synagogalen Gottes- 
Zunz, 8. P..... ....2unz, Synagogale Poesie des Mittelalters 


Zunz, Z. G.......-..Luonz, Zur Geschichte und Literatur 


CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME XII 


A...cssosereee Cyrus Adler, Ph.D., . 
President of the American Jewish Historical 
Society; Former President of the Board of 
Directors of the Jewish Thenlogical Seminary 
of America; Assistant Secretary of the Smith- 
sonian Institution, Washington, D.C, 

... Alexander Buchler, Ph.D., 

Rabbi, Keszthely, Hungary. 

AcRe dss Alfred Feilchenfeld, Ph.D., 

Prineipal of the Realschule, Furth, Bavaria, 
Germany. 

... Abraham Galante, 

Formerly Editor of ‘*La Buena Esperanza,” 
Smyrna; Cairo, Egypt. 

.... Alois Kaiser, 

Cantor, Temple Oheb Shalom, Baltimore, Md. 

A. Ke.......- A. Kecskemeti, 

Rabbi, Makow, Hungary. 
A. Ki..,..... Alexander Kisch, Ph.D., 
Rabbi, Meysel Synagoge, Prague, Bohemia, 
Austria. 

..A. Kurrein, Ph.D., 
Rabbi, Teplitz, Bohemia, Austria. 

A. Lew...... Abraham Lewinsky, Ph.D., 

Chief Rabbi, Hildesheim, Hanover, Germany. 

A. Lu........Abraham Lubarsky, 

New York City. 
A. M. F.,....A. M, Friedenberg, B.S., LL.B., 
Counselor at Law, New York City. 
A. M. H.....A. M. Hyamson, 
London, England. 

A.M. Ho...A. M. Hofmann, 

United States National Museum, Washington, 
D. Cc. 

wees A. Porter (Office Editor), 

Formerly Associate Editor of ** The Forum.”’ 
New York; Revising Editor of **Standard Cy- 
clopedia” ; New York City. 

A. Pe........A. Peiginsky, Ph.D., 

New York City. 

A. S.......... Abram Simon, 

Rabbi, Hebrew Congregation, Washington, 
D.C. 
A. §.1....... Abram 8S. Isaacs, Ph.D., 
Professor of German Language and Litera- 
ture, New York University Graduate Seini- 
nary, New York City; Rabbi, B’nai Jeshurun 
Congregation, Paterson, N. J 

A. S.W,....A.S. Waldstein, B.A., 
New York City. 

A. Ta. .......Aaron Tanzer, Ph.D., 

Rabbi, Hohenems, Tyrol, Austria. 

A.V.W.J..A.V.W.Jackson, Ph.D., Lit.D., LL.D., 

Professcr of Indo-Iranian Languages, Colum 
bia University, New York City. 

eeeee .-Bernhard Pick, Ph.D., D.D., 

Pastor of St. John’s Lutheran Church, Newark, 
N, J. 
B. R... ere tee .Baer Ratner, 
Author, Wilna, Russia. 

C. I. de S,...Clarence I. de Sola, 

President of the Federation of Canadian Zion- 
ists: Belgian Consul, Montreal, Canada. 


C.J. ¥F.......Charles J. Freund, 
Rabbi, Congregation B’nai Israel, Salt Lake 
City, Utah. 


A. Ku..... 


Bs Pics 


B. P.... 


C.L..........Caspar Levias, M.A., 
Formerly Instructorin Exegesis and Talmudic 
Aramaic, Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati, 
Ohio, 
D....cceeeee-. Gotthard Deutsch, Ph.D., 
Professor of Jewish History, Hebrew Union 
College, Cincinnati, Obio. 
D. P..........David Philipson, D.D., 
Rabbi, B’ne Israel Congregation ; Professor of 
Homiletics, Hebrew Union College, Ciucin< 
nati, Ohio. 
E. A. 'V......Ernest A. Vizetelly, 
Author of ‘*‘Emile Zola, Novelist and Re. 
former’; London, England. 
E. C..........mxecutive Committee of the Editoriat 
Board. 
E. Co. ee@¢@sn es .prnst Cohn, 
Berlin University, Berlin, Germany. 
E. G. H......mil G. Hirsch, Ph.D., LL.D., 
Rabbi, Sinai Congregation ; Professor of Rabe 
binical Literature and Philosophy, University 
of Chicago; Chicago, Ill. 
E. K.,.........Hduard Konig, Ph.D., LL.D., 
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, Univer- 
sity of Bonn, Germany. 
EK. L.........ude Lolli (leceased), 
Late Chief Rabbi; Professor of Hebrew at the 
University of Padua, Italy. 
.ooee Guard Meyer, Ph.D., 
Professor of Ancient Ilistory, University of 
Berlin, Germany. 


New York City. 
E. N.........Eduard Neumann, Ph.D., 
Chief Rabbi, Nagy-Kanizsa, Hungary. 
E. 0. A. M..E. O. Adelbert Marx, Ph.D., 
Professor, Heidelberg, Germany. 
E. Se......... Emil Schlesinger, Ph.D., 
Rabbi, St. Gallen, Switzerland. 
F. C..........¢rank Cramer, B.Sc., 
New York City. 
F. C. C......Frederick C. Conybeare, M.A., 
Late Fellow of University College, Oxford, 
England. 
BOs. Viewssus Frank H, Vizetelly, F.S.A., 
Associate Editor of the STANDARD DICTION. 
ARY; author of ** The Preparation of Manu- 
seripts for the Printer,” New York City. 
F. L. C..... Francis L. Cohen, 
Chief Minister, Sydney, N.S. W., Australia, 
F.N. L...... Florence N. Levy, 
New York City. 
F. S. W..,. o¢ Franklin S. Wilson, M.A., 
New York City. 
F. T. H...... Frederick T. Haneman, M.D., 
Brooklyn, N. Y. 
G. @@#eooeveser ene Richard Gottheil, Ph.D., 
Professor of Semitic Languages, Columbia 
University, New York; Chief of the Oriental 
Department, New York Public Library; New 
York City. 
G. A. B......George A. Barton, Ph.D., 
Professor of Biblical Literature and Semitic 
Languages, Bryn Mawr College, Bryn Mawr, 
Pa. 
G. L. @eaeeead Goodman Lipkind, B. A.,, 
Rabbi, New York City. 


xii 

Ge S6een ccs: G. Selikovitch, 
Journalist, New York City. 

Fe Biciicaies H. Brody, Ph.D., 
Rabbi; Coeditor of the “ Zeitschrift fiir He- 
oraische Bibliographie’’?; Nachod, Bohemia, 
Austria. 

bs ee, © renee Henry Cohen, 
Rabbi B’uai Israel Congregation, Galveston, 
Tex. 

We Pivcascacis Herbert Friedenwald, Ph.D., 


Formerly Superintendent of the Department 
of Manuscripts, Library of Congress, Wash- 
ington, D. C.; Recording Secretary of the 
Aimerican Jewish Historical Society; Phila- 
delphia, Pa, 

FE dean ccs: Harry Levi, 
Wheeling, W. Va. 

H.L.R......Harry L. Rosenthal, 
Ardwieck, Manchester, Engiand. 

j > OM Geer Henry Malter, Ph.D., 
Professor of Talmud and Instructor in Judseo- 
Arabie Philosophy, Hebrew Union College, 
Cincinnati, Ohio. 


HA. Ma..... .. Hillel Malachowsky, 
Teacher, New York City. 
Be Bis esses Herman Rosenthal, 


Chief of the Slavonic Department of the New 
York Public Library, New York City. 


Bs ie — eee Henrietta Szold, 
Secretary of the Publication Committee of the 
Jewish Puhbiieation Society of America, New 
York City. 

f. A. H......Isaac A. Hourwich, Ph.D., 
Expert Special Agent of the Bureau of the 
Census, Department of Couimerce and Labor, 
Washington, D.C. 


4 BO .ostise53 Immanuel Benzinger, Ph.D., 
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, Uni- 
versity of Berlin, Germany; Jerusalem, Pal- 
estine. 

I. Br......... Isaac Broydé (Office Editor), 
Doctor of the University of Paris, France; for- 
merly Librarian of the Alliance Israélite Uni- 
verselle, Paris, France; New York City. 

Ei Glvedaasius Ignatio Guidi, 
Professor of Hebrew Language and Compara- 
tive Semitic Philology, University of Rome, 
Italy. 

i es 2 Sey Isidore Harris, A.M.,, 
Rabbi, West London Synagogue, London, 
Engjaud. 

Di Boi vacate Isidor Kahan, 
Rabbi, Znaim, Moravia, Austria. 


ore i. L. Bril, 
Associate Editor of the *‘ American Hebrew ” ; 
New York City. 

I. Lév........Isaac Lévy, 

Chief Rabbi, Bordeaux, France. 


TAO ais Immanuel Low, Ph.D., 
Chief Rabbi, Budapest. Hungary. 

Pods. Cy ecaes I. M. Casanowicz, Ph.D., 
United States National Museum, Washington, 
D.C. 


I. M. P......Ira Maurice Price, Ph.D., LL.D., 
Professor of Semitic Languages and Litera- 
ture, University of Chicago, Chicago, Ml. 
I. Ruceeeeeeee I. Rosenberg, Ph.D., 
Thorn, Prussia. 
weoeeeee Le Sachs, 
Paris, France. 
I. Sc.........4gnaz Schipper, Ph.D., 
Szcezakowa, Galicia, Austria. 
J se oeheon sae . soseph Jacobs, B.A., 
Formerly President of the Jewish Historical 
Society of England; Corresponding Member 
of the Royal Academy of History, Madrid ; 
New York City. 


JONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME XII 


J. De Bes iss: Judah David Eisenstein, 
Author, New York City. 
J.deH...... J. de Haas, 
Journalist, New York City. 
02D: Pie John Dyneley Prince, Ph.D., 


Professor of Semitic Languages, Columbia 
University, New York. 

J.F.McL... J. F. McLaughlin, M.A., B.D., 
Professor of Oriental Languages and Litera- 
ture, Victoria College, Toronto, Canada, 

J.G.L....,...05.@. Lipman, Ph.D., 

Assistant Agriculturist, New Jersey State Ex- 
periment Station, New Brunswick, N. J. 


J. Go........- Julius Gottlieb, M.A., Ph.D., 
New York City. 
CO  EAV fides J. Hyams, 
jombay, India. 
8 es eee Jacques Kahn, 
Rabbi, Paris, France. 
J. Leb......... Joseph Lebovich, 
Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. 
J. Si...... .... Jakob Singer, 
Rabbi, Temesvar, Hungary. 
Js SOussxiak ... Joseph Sohn, 
Musical Critic on the ‘‘American and 


Journal,’ New York City. 

J. Z. L.......Jacob Zatiel Lauterbach, Ph.D. (Office 

Editor). 

Rabbi. Corg. Agudat Achim, Peoria, IL. 

BS ere Khiacees Kaufmann Kohler, Ph D., 
Rabbi Emeritus of Temple Beth-El, Nev 
York ; President of the Hebrew Union Col- 
lege, Cincinnati, Ohio. 

Lie Beniiess ... wudwig Blau, Ph.D., 
Professor, Jewish Theological Seminary; Edi- 
tor of ‘* Magyar Zsidé Szemle”; Budapest, 
Hungary. 

i Foe © eee ..Louis Ginzberg, Ph.D., 
Professor of Talmud, Jewish Theologica\ 
Seminary of America, New York City. 


L. Grii........ Lazarus Grinhut, 
Director of Orphan Asylum, Jerusalem, Pales- 
tine. 

L. H. G..... .Louis H. Gray, Ph.D., 


Assistant Editor of the ** Orientalische Biblio- 
graphie’’ and ** The New International En- 
cyclopedia ’?; Newark, N. J. 


Lis Aves. L. Huhner, A.M., LL.B., 
Counselor at Law, New York City, 
3 ee: eee Lesser Knoller, Ph.D., 
Rabbi; Prineipal of the Bildungsanstalt ftir 
Jiidische Lehrer; Hanover, Germany, 
a eee 0: eee Laura Landau, 
New York City. 
L. Lew......Louis Lewin, Ph.D., 
Rabbi, Pinne, Posen, Germany. 
L. Loe...... Louis Loewenstein, 
Troy, N. Y. 
L.N.D...... Lewis N. Dembitz, D.H.L., 
Counselor at Law, Louisville, Ky. 
L.N. Le..... Lilian N. Levy, 


New York City. 
L. R.......... Louis Roth, 
New York City. 
L. V.........Ludwig Venetianer, Ph.D., 
Rabbi, Ujpest, Hungary. 
L. Wi...... ..Leo Wise, 
o Editor of the “* American Israetite,”* Cincin- 
nati, Ohio. 
M. B......... Moses Beer, 
Berlin, Germany. 
...M. Caimi, 
Corfu, Greece, 
M. Fi........ Maurice Fishberg, M.D., 
Surgeon to the Beth Israel Hospital Dispen- 
sary; Medical Examiner to the United States 
Hebrew Charities, New York City. 


CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME NII xiii 


M. Franco, 


Principal, Alliance JIsraélite Universelle 
School, Gallipoli, Turkey. 
M.H.H __..M. H. Harris, Ph.D., 
ae Rabbi, Temple Israel of Harlem, New York 
city. 
M. K....--+ Meyer Kayserling, Ph.D. (deceased), 


Late Rabbi, Budapest, Hungary. 
M. L. B....-- Moses Lib Bamberger, Ph.D., 
; Rabbi; Lecturer on Rabbinics, Jewish Semi- 
nary, Wiirzburg, Bavaria, Germany. 
wu. L. M..... Max lL. Margolis, Ph.D., 
° Professor of Biblical Exegesis, Hebrew Union 
College, Cincinnati, Ohio. 
M.L.S...:.: MW. L. Stern, Ph.D., 
° Rabbi, Triesch, Moravia, Austria. 


M. Lw.....--: M. Lewin, Ph.D., 
Rabbi, Wreschen, Posen, Germany. 


M.R.....---- Max Rosenthal, M.D., 
Visiting Physician, German Dispensary, New 
York City. 

M. Ri.....-.- M. Richtmann, Ph.D., 
Budapest, Hungary. 

M. Sa......-- Max Samfield, Ph.D., 


Rabbi, Children of Israel Congregation ; Edi- 
tor of the “* Jewish Spectator,’’ Memphis, Tenn. 
M. Sal....... Marcus Salzman, 
Wilkesbarre, Pa. 
..Max Schloessinger, Ph.D., 
Librarian and Lecturer on Biblical Exegesis, 
Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati, Ohio. 
Iq. Sel....... Max Seligsohn (Office Editor), 
Doctor of the University of Paris, France; 
New York City. 


M. Si........ Moritz Silberstein, Ph.D., 
Rabbi, Wiesbaden, Nassau, Germany. 
M. W.M....Mary W. Montgomery, Ph.D., 
New York City. 


MZ eecuinds M. Zametkin, 
New York City. 
Ni. Discs ..Newell Dunbar, B.D., 


Author, Newark, N. J. 
N.E.B.E...N. E. B. Ezra, 
Shanghai, China. 
NY Sl vccsnss N. Slouschz, 
Doctor of the University of Paris, France: 
Lecturer on Neo-Hebraic Literature, Univer- 
sity of Paris, France. 
N.T.L..... .N. T. London, 
New York City. 
PeS iM sien Percival S. Menken, 
New York City. 
P. Wi .......Peter Wiernik, 
Journalist, New York City. 
.....negina Neisser, 
Author, Breslau, Silesia, Germany. 


R.N.... 


Sineiyawe ce! Isidore Singer, Ph.D., 

MANAGING EDITOR, New York City. 
S.Hu........ S. Hurwitz, 

New York City. 
Se Serer at S. Janovsky, 

Counselor at Law, &t. Petersburg, Russia. 
Si We ovine. S. Kahn, 

Rabbi, Nimes. France. 
= ee. eee Samuel Krauss, Ph.D., 

Professor, Normal College, Budapest, Hungary. 
S. Led....... Sampson Lederhindler, 


New York City. 
S. Man......5. Mannheimer, B.L., 
Instructor, Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati, 


Ohio. 
S. Oisauiaiets Schulim Ochser, Ph.D. (Office Editor), 
Rabbi, New York City. 
S. Sa........Siezgmund Salfeld, Ph.D., 
Rabbi, Mayence, Hesse, Germany. 
S.5S. W......Stephen S. Wise, Ph.D., 
Rabbi, Temple Beth Israel. Portland, Ore. 
S. We........ Samuel Wessel, Ph.D., 
Rabbi, Sarajevo, Bosnia. 
Deeusheeaeees Crawford Howell Toy, D.D., LL.D., 


Professor of Hebrew, Harvard University, 
Cambridge, Mass. 


J beep Oe heer eer T. EF. Joseph, 

Rabbi, Teniple de Hirseh, Seattle, Washington. 
3 ies « eee Theodor Kroner, Ph.D., 

Rabbi, Stuttgart, Wiirttemberg, Germany. 
De Lavon sii: Theodor Lieben, Ph.D., 


Secretary of the Israelitische Kultusgemeinde, 
Vienna, Austria. 


WD  Cretasnis: Umberto Cassuto, 
Editor of ‘“‘La Rivista Israelitica,’? Florence, 
Italy. 
Wie Giscisusts Vittore Castiglione, 
Chief Rabbi, Roine, Italy. 
ee ee bees Victor Rousseau Emanuel, 
New York City. 
Wages Vasili Rosenthal, 
Krementchug, Russia. 
W.. Bioscssewe: Wilhelm Bacher, Ph.D., 


Professor, Jewish Theological Seminary, Buda- 
pest, Hungary. 

WwW. M.-A, ee Ww. Muss-Arnolt, Ph.D., 
Assistant Professor of Biblical Philology, Uni- 
versity of Chicago, Chicago, Tl. 

W. M. M....W. Max Muller, Ph.D., 
Professor of Bible Exegesis, Reformed Episco- 
pal Theological Seminary, Philadelphia, Pa. 


W.N......... Wilhelm Nowack, Ph.D., 
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, Uni: 
versity of Strasburg, Germany. 

W. Sa........W. Salzberger, Ph.D., 
Erfurt, Germany. 


Hosted by Google 


LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME XII. 


N. B.—In the foilowing list subjects likely to be sought for under various headings are repeated | 
under each heading. Cross-references in this list are to other items in the list, not to articles in 


the Encyclopedia. 


PAGE 
Altdorf, Title-Page of “ Sefer Nizzahou,” Printed in 1644 at... cc ec cece cena 153 
America: see UNITED STATES, 
Amsterdam, Tombstones from the Cemetery at... 0... ccc cece cece cece cen eee t een e ee ee ee eeeeeanes 189 
ree Typography : Page from Mikra’ot:Gedolot,”” 11240. 162 sted ao dwe sy taktiowaees ee ss. eaeee eae 303 
__- —— Part of Page from a Passover Haggadah, 1695 0... ... cc cece ce cece eee eee e tenes 302 
aoe Title-Pareo! Dine, IOC nett tennuiene gene Gls pene Mahe ee awe Ree tetas a sees ea aigis 155 
__—. __— Title-Page of Later Prophets, with Abravanel’s Commentary, 1641...................004. 157 
ot Ti pld-Page of a. Miniature “Siddur’ Ti29is.6 ataws senate ese ee sagedee ieee aussie totes 156 
> Title-Pace of a Shabbethnan “Tikkin,” €..1 00024 0.248 pan she oS ieee gana aye taos ees ets 156 
Aychot ius at OMCs 2 o.cop te eh.ve ciead ds Sade ay secrete aeons hae tea aeetnn 164, 165 and Frontispiece 
Archeology: see TEMPLE; Titus; Tirus, ArcH or; TomBs; TomBsTones; VESPAsIAN; WEIGHT; 

YORK. 


Architecture: see SYNAGOGUES; TEMPLE; Tittus, ARci or; TOLEDO; Tombs; ToMBsSTONES; TRIPOLI; 
VENICE; VIENNA; YORK. 

Art: see ARCHEOLOGY; ARCHITECTURE; CosTuME; PotntErs; TENT; Types; TYPOGRAPHY; WELL; 
ZEDAKAH BoxEs. 


Bible, Hebrew: see TYPOGRAPHY. 
Bomberg, Daniel, Page from the First Complete Edition of the Babylonian Talmud, Printed in 1520- 


1523 DY ncaa dese sand BSA he oS RS Aa eet Bie Soe eRe ree ieee ee Saree 17 
Cemetery at Cochin Ina... os wa cates dt oke eens Mi aeae AR Oe as eka WOM aes aw eh ewe EER ORG es 192 
SA ON Ca sinecan eee aa eau ke ee Eee a Eee REESE bee POs CRN LU GREEN OC ERE CEN Oa NG 190 
Se PSs hore a oe we SS te ee ORE Nae COREE EE Oe DERE RE Oe Meenas 198, 276 
SS SSAG VICONA ts owas abd eter eed al oe ea RO eae a De OLE PaO de aaa eee kerte ab tas 438 
Se WN oa ae esate tsar antes teem ea ie ate a eae ee eeu Mae Seat he tade dea eae ehaa eae ats 528 
ea W OMS hua t werd. c ne Leta SOEs eet Lhe wala eaeae eee meee wean Pe re ee ee er eee 562 
Ceremonial: see TasHiik; YAD. 

Charity Boxes............ cece ce ccecaee ceeeceees ehh udioae tious wale mee Capea tademw Bans Se aaerwads 649 
Cochin, India, Cemetery of the White Jews Of.....cccccecsscccecctsecescceteeetetceseseseeeteeees 192 
Coins: see Tirus; VESPASIAN. 

Column from the Temple of Herod ......... ccecsceeccvcccccuceeveccceeeeeeceees Piiaials owed 89 


Costume: see TEHERAN; TIBERIAS: TRIPOLL; Tunis; TURKEY; YEMEN. 


First Editions: see TypoGRAPHY. 


Gate Leading to the Old “Judenstadt” at Vienna.............ccccccceccess acta caer pacatie aap oo asttoel ates 427 
Germany: see Worms, 

Ghetto at Venice, Views of the .........ccceccceccccuccacccecuceeveecsacess bab lebicn aeeee 408, 409, 411 
—— see also SurninAM; ToLEDO; VALENCIA; VIENNA; WINCHESTER. 

Hanau, Title-Page of “Shefa‘ Tal,” Printed in 1612 at.........ccccccccccccccccccccececeeeceeceucs 154 
Herod, Temple of, Column from Saimeecnics sole eee EG wou eda venta aes ere aobhance Ware aOR eases i saeae, 139 
——— —— Sectional View of, Looking South.......... deavbiaiera aceueanste Seeisieetaieins Nigcanrsadapiwiumeas,. oOC 


—— Substructure of, now Called “Solomon’s Stables” .....ccsccecccvcceceees ne ee 86 


LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME XII 


rn 
PAGE 
. 100 
93 


xvi 


Holy of Holies, “Dome of the Rock,” Showing Traditional Site Of the. <.a.cc cece 
— —— of the Temple at Jerusalem, Reconstructed by ChipieZ... ccc cece cccou ese veen 
Hungary: see TEMESVAR; Tisza-ESZLAR. 


ees oe eoe@eteoeoeee oes 


eteoeooao@to54veveece 9 


Incunabula: see SONCINO. 

Inscription, Greek, Found on Site of Temple Area, Forbidding Gentiles to Enter Within the Inner 
Walls 

Italy: see Rome; TurIN; VENICE. 


85 


e@oeerosvn ee ee @ eon eeeerer eres eer oes eereeseeaevesaevegesoeeaoveHeeseovesetoeodve 


.. 201 
249: 


Japanese Pictures Showing the Supposed Order of March of Israelites to Japan.....-...cce.eee-s 
— Types Showing Jewish Features..... ee 
Jerusalem, Temple of: see TEMPLE. 

—— Tombs Outside the City Walls of ... 
“ Judenturm,” The Old, of Vienna ... 


eeseuvueeoeveevee2He7e28 Ces ® ese eee eae os eoseeeesesetvne@etone 6 & 


184, 185, 186 
429 


oseeorvreaearvpreeaneone ees eeoo teense @ 


pee ee reese eer eee se er sat eeHrEeHTseHeHsHSH . BeeHReTEHeer Terese r ses 


Manuscripts: sce TALMUD. 

Map of Turkish Empire, Showing Places Where Jews Reside. ... 
——of United States, Showing Places of Jewish Interest and Development of Jewish Population 

| plate between 874-375 


289: 


eaereoeeseevneseesnew@it'eaeeneoveeeetteoneeo ete eee 


see also PLAN. 
Monument Erected in Memory of the Jewish Soldiers Who Died in the Civil War, Cypress Hills Cem- 


etery, New York ....... eee eee eee eee ee er eee LoCaieg goes ots eae 363 
Music: “U-Ba le-Ziyyon ...... ccc cece newer cee n cree e rer er ee teasrarenee Maa SRA ULE AG ees S8R GOO ly OOS 
—~ “Wa-Ani Tefillati”.......... “Alicante WEBS eas es Sa Bechet, ieee siamese tee tear an eae 
—— “Wayehi ‘Ereb”... ...... ania deta , eT ee ee Te rrr re ee ee eres oor, wees. 478 
—— “We-'Al Kullom”..... ..... ioeaes er ee Ser S sila Gard aied san Sea CL eee eae eas weeee 479 
WV Ge Slig nicht "s544eyens ee eee eRe chasse id OU iat era tet threes: le iia ante hee acute a aaah e iaet dae neue ... 505-506 
—— “We-Ye’e Tayu”.........c0ceee hid Sarid tid wena Nea eater as ee ee er ee er re 512 
a NE I aes ee creeene gies peices piiatiretoeels DeGea eeweae nes paceeens ened er ae Pr eee OF7, OF 
— “Yah Shimeka” ....... Oe hee eS eee ee er rere Lic SiatmsonGatec aici ad hee so ake GeerN 580 
— “YVigdal”...........4- ihe Hae ES Rab seteceu ce Cidee Wieeted eke Oe bRcceda eked Races BS oedema 607-610 
see ON IN IOIGA COMA xcraweo eu ou aennt <4 Spleen nee warner Sais aeons : ahaa Ware ee Suede aaa ees bil 
es SW israel NOSHa! ? esssagy kw a ee een wes eres ies oid Gao tele ate garantie ee Ges ese Ee Pre tase hha ; 612, 613 
Se“ Felker Bent sansa ents bes Sih ace et mintargrackahshs en ave eat arpa Tae Serer Pek awuseoa ds 654, 655 
ea S 7eMirol 14.05. 6 WN a oe eas scilts hon ebte ictelaca tla eaeig Ab tee EEE Oe e wh eer DAIADNe 
Numismatics: see TITUS; VESPASIAN. 

Palestine : see TIBERIAS; WELL. 
Persia: see TEHERAN. 
Piotrkow, Page from the Latest Edition of the Jerusalem Talmud, Printed in 1899-1908 at........... 29 
Plan of the Old “Judenstadt” at Vienna..... 0... ccc eee eee ce ee eee Srasa eaanet aout ae eumeesee ipwatite! 228 
—— of the Roya) Buildings Erected by Solomon on the Temple Mound......---- ee ee er ee oe 99 
— of the Temple, According to the Talmud...... 0.6.6 s eee e cece rete ec ees Cee ee ere eS 94, 95 
—— of Valencia Showing Position of the Jewish Quarter...........-+- Schnee pale Oniee Sic tates 396 
——- of Venice in 1640, Showing Position of the Ghetto... ..... cece eee cere eee ces or re 409 
—— of Winchester Showing Position of the Jewish Quarter.......--..--++5 eee i Pita eae OE 
Pointers for Scrolls of the Law....... ccc cece eee cere eee eens cdg ae Wats ; er ee mere 
Portraits: see 

TIKTIN, ABRAHAM WEIL, GUSTAV WISSOTZKI, KALONYMOS 

TOURO, JUDAH WEIL, HENRY WOLF, JONANN CHRISTOPH 

VALABREGUE, MARDOCHEE-GEORGES WEISS, ISAAC HIRSCH WOLF, SIMON 

VAMBERY, ARMINIUS WERTHEIMER, JOSEPH ZANGWILL, ISRAEL 

VAN OVEN, JOSHUA WESSELY, NAPHTALI HIRZ ZUNZ, LEOPOLD 

WAHRMAN, MORITZ WISE, ISAAC MAYER 
Rome, Arch of Titus at....... Uidlein anne cen ecu ae weenie wes ned bidie eta af dea organs es een ated i 

19 


Jewish Cemetery at... ccc cee nec ew ee te ee eee eens 


Russia: see St. PETERSBURG; WARSAW; WILNA 


esc es @ © we ees wo 


LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME XII xvii 


PAGE 

Sabbionetta, Page from Tractate Kiddushin of the Babylonian Talmud, Printed in 1559 at........ 20 

St. Petersburg, Russia, Vault of Friedlander Family at............. iudine Aide gece auee eae aoe 194 

Samuel ha-Levi, House of, at Toledo, Fourteenth Century ............. cc cece cece cece wees 179 
Shabbethai Zebi, Incidents in the Career of, Depicted on the Title-Page of a “Tikkun” Printed at 

Amsterdam ¢. 1666................06. eee ee ee ee eR re ee 156 


Solomon: see TEMPLE. 
Soncino, Page from an Unknown Edition of Tractate Baba Mezi‘a of the Babylonian Talmud, 


Printed Before 1500, Probably by........... cece ccc e cece eee eee nee eee 13 
Spain: see TOLEDO; VALENCIA. 
Surinam, Dutch Guiana, View of the “Jooden Savane” at.... 0.2.2... sees cece e cece e ener ence eens 508 


Synagogues: see TEHERAN; TEMESVAR; T1sza-EszLar; ToLEDO; TuNIs; TURIN; VENICE; VIENNA; 
Warsaw; WILNA; WORMS. 


Talmud, Babylonian, Page from the First Complete Edition of the, Printed by Daniel Bomberg, 


Venice, L0c0 20! acc wre atng Seine a cee eee pea aioe Rod hee eMac Rae eee eee chalks 17 
__— -—_— Page from the Munich Manuscript of ING 2 evasion. ota oan ws Oates Cee ee aka 9 
_—- —— Page from Tractate Kiddushin of the, pavbionetta, 1999 6c isc ses fessor ediehaleccanseges 21 
__- ——. Page from Tractate Shabbat of the, Wilna, 1886............ 0.0... ee ee ee eee plate between 22-238 
_—- —— Page from an Unknown Edition of Tractate Baba Mezi‘a of the, Printed Before 1500, Proba- 

DIV DY SONCINO issue ene tk eeaa emanated ea hoanes au peigine dl hia boasanagiahen tls Gea asgncs nuance ae . 18 
—_—_- —_—- Title-Page of Tractate Menahot of the, Printed by Daniel Bomberg, Venice, 1522.......... 152 
—— Jerusalem, Page from the Latest Edition of the, Piotrkow, 1899-1908. .......... cece cess eeees 25 
—__— —— Pages from a Manuscript of the. From the Cairo genizah..... Tree te Te Tee ree 4 
Tashlik Scene at Galizia, From a painting by Stryowski.......... Weenie ieweaw wheels plate facing 66 
Teheran, Interior of the Great Synagogue at......... 0... cee cece ee ee eee ee ee re er ree 73 
—— Interior of the Synagogue of Asher the Physician at.............0-00- pal Svepiveieiare Sota wastes 04 
2 JOW isi SCHOOMEL cic neh Gia es aiewr Gees ea eae dunaeS aaneee aay ae Maat tena See bau Atenas vis) 
Temesvar; AUDSAary, SYNAsOCUC as acs cares side Se Adan dined $4.0 U VaAe) Weare ee eens owes 80 
Temple Area, Structures of, Reconstructed by Chipiez...... ee ee ee ee ee ee ee 90 
—- Court of Priests, Reconstructed by Chipiez ............. cece cece cee e eect eve cceseeseserseess 92 
—— Greek Inscription, Found on the Site of the, Forbidding Gentiles to Enter Within the Inner 

W al6i2 Suis ose e was eee ods pa wulew bathe earee ed ce aeae ewan ueeeehe meteors 85 
— of Herod, Column from the... 2... ... ccc ccc cece ecw wee ee ccc ceces eae eis ee re ee ‘Sneeae 89 
— —— Sectional View of the, Looking South ......... cece cece cece cence cence aster ese cenees 88 
—— —— Substructure of the, Now Called “Solomon’s Stables ”..... 0... 0. ccc cece ccc cece eee ecces 86 
——— Holy of Holies, Reconstructed by ChipieZ.......... ccecee cece cece cece cece cence eee reeeeeeses 93 
—— Interior of the “Dome of the Rock,” Showing Traditional Site of the Holy of Holies............ 100 
—— at Jerusalem. From a Passover Haggadah of 1695........ 0.0: e ccc ee cero c cece eee etaeeeees 82 
—— Plan of the Royal Buildings Erected by Solomon on the Mound of the..............6. carat aroeais 99 
—— Plans of the, According to the Talmud...........ccccccccccccnsccccccnerscccscnsceess ween 94, 95 
—— of Solomon, View of the. From a model by Schick............ Dials atSls Ge ies haan, se waeteare eaten 87 
—— Spoils of the, Pictured on the Arch of Titus........ Ba Eade aed new amelie as oh oetancaiee wee OS 165 
—— Utensils. From an illuminated Hebrew manuscript of the thirteenth century ..... eas eeeweie 83 
Tent, Bedouin. ...... 0.2.0.0... cee e eee Fereeselaen en ae era bea tede now caneaas Kd Meee Min ee als 105 
Tiberias, Jewish School-Children at ...........e. cc cuccccecccceccceceasscseseuseseceeeceeusveess 148 
—— View of, Showing Tomb of Rabbi Meir...............-20085 Aedoiaie Ridin e Seer sae adatoe set 144 
Tiktin, Abraham, German Rabbi..............-0++ Cea ese a cint Maced. wine Wie aes sees 146 
Tisza-Eszlar, PYNAPOLUCSiy32 J cccsaascseowe deur wate wes« onus Baa Milena eso owe Caw wee me eaauek 149 
Title-Page of Bible, Amsterdam, 1679 .....,.......ececeeesceeece sahieace ses tuninta tes stediaaateee 155 
—— —— of Bible, Wilna, S69. 2c ct ee Oa ean ee. Pens Maes Be Fe cccer ta a tah aha ett it id cgay etal 157 
—— —— of Giinzburg’s “Ornamentation des Anciens Manuscrits,” St. Petersburg, 1904, Imitating 

Vignettes in Hebrew Manuscripts............. ccc ccece ccc ce cee ceeenccusccucecteeeseressecs 159 
~—~— —— of Later Prophets, with Abravanel’s Commentary, Amsterdam, IGAL ckoiaieGecuds Sesecees 157 
——— —— of a Miniature “Siddur,” Amsterdam, 1728... 0.0.0.0... . 0 cece cee cee eee ccc er eceee ate 156 
~~ —— of a Ritual, Venice, 1680 ........ aaa ete Da ceannis eee tard oe whe eee detente Heats arenas 414 
“os OL Sefer Nigzation.”’ Altdort, 1644 0c vs.asbanw cane ace oeancdwelknkd Godawedia deeeewd ode 153 
~~ —— of a Shabbethaian “Tikkun,” Amsterdam, ¢. 1666... ....ccccce ccc ce cece etevecesseeeenes 156 
OL Sheta’ Tal” Hana, 1619002 0ccadoer a axe Cadows dorociwhceskyonss Ae nang Gore ean 154 


~—— of Tractate Menahot, Printed by Daniel Bomberg, Venice, 1522...........c0ceseeeceneeees 152 


xviii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME XII 


PAGE 
TPittis, TCH Ol At OMG: 23 dale bone tates Oe eae lh Seed te lara ati ecg ik aie Saka Re a ala Sate eee 164 
—— —— Spoils of the Temple Pictured on the... ..... 0... cece e eee ete eceres 165 and Frontispiece 
-———~ Coin of, with Inscription “Ivdaea Devicta”..... cee ccc cc cece cere cece eee cece er eeenees 163 
—— —— with Inscription “Ivdaea Navalis”... 20.0... ccc ccc ce cee cect cece ene eeetsesneneesees 163 
Toledo: Details of Interior Ornamentation on the Wall of “El Transito”.... 00... 00.0. cece cee ences 178 
Exterior and Interior Views of “El Transito,” Formerly a Synagogue...........-..-22200- 177, 182 
—— Exterior and Interior Views of St. Maria la Blanca, Formerly a Synagogue ................. 176, 183 
—— House of Samuel ha-Levi, Fourteenth Century... .... ccc e ccc ee ce cee tebe tenes anaes 179 
— View of the Old Juderia Of oo... ccc ccc ce eet cence nee eeceeees a ee re eee 180 
Tombs, Ancient, Outside the City Walls of Jerusalem ....... 0... ccc ccc ccc cece eet cee seres weeee 185 
— of the Judges, Traditional, Interior View of the, Showing Arrangement............0000. Sines 186 
—— of the Kings, Traditional, near Jerusalem.................. Bai pita acl 2 Ae he Sins dete: SVs ahs 184 
Tombstone, Italian, of the Sixteenth Century.... 0.0... ccc cece ec cee tence eee scan eeees 187 
See DANISH, ACEC LODO sateen areata ahaa aie wr anaa. sialanw wasn can ewe waa ee meena eee Cea 188 
— Vault of Arnheim and Zorkowski Families, Salem Fields Cemetery, New York.............200: 195 
—— Vault of Friedlander Family, St. Petersburg, Russia........... ccc eee cece cece eee neeceeeeeeees 194 
Tombstones: Cemetery at ROmGs nse nnsisc.w een. de hs wad Saud sareeeSeeed ieee daewns eases eee weal 190 
<== Cemetery at TUnisic.c4io nanan aabaeged seit getweehetats Si clarat aves arenh ees ammeter ea Mies «+. 193, 276 
—— Cemetery at. Viennese onic i aseid ay ved Seen ew tease raaietewseaeels eee re erates ere iedd 438 
—— Cemetery of the White Jews of Cochin, India.... cc cece ccc cee cece ret ceneenees -.+. 192 
—— Forms of, from the Old Cemetery at Frankfort-on-the-Main.. 0.0.0.0... 0. ccc cece cece cece cence 187 
Ornamental], from the Cemetery at Amsterdam ............. 00. cece ee ee cece ete teen eeeeeseans 189 
—— Section of the Old Chatham Square Cemetery, New York............ Rind lose anys haute ora kates 191 
Touro, Judah, American Philanthropist.............c0cceeeecacceeceeceesetees sees ssdusbet uahanien gute ze 212 
Tree-Worship: Sacred Terebinth on Jabal Ausha‘, Palestine. ......... 0. cece eee cee eees er ere 239 
Tribes, Lost Ten: Japanese Ty pes Showing Jewish Features ......... 00.0 0c ce eee eeeeees ore wees. 249 
—— —~— Supposed Order of March of Israelites to Japan... 2... ccc eee eee cee eee tect enes 251 
Triennial Cycle, Diagrams Showing Arrangement of Readings from the Law, Prophets, and Psalms 
Dune Tet. ou cwaiks shale netode i uehee mee wae ewe ea A wes bees 255, 256 and plate between 256-257 
‘Tripoll.. Interior ola. beta la LiUas hh aN oar nae os ice caw nat tia wea eee Veen ae eda S's tunes: 262 
Tihs COMeEtChY Aliso te vecatuar se iedss ein tena ceamneneeatse aaa gap aAcarmaiee mae iat. Rt Saae a crsics 193, 276 
Great Synagogue at...... Liens. SAA tobe Oe bed cal taeeeomewres tees austen 4. 272, 274: 
SH  Jewerol, Ti Natl ve Atle ya xee-sne de baa er bab awa ean ia AGRE Raa EES Reena RES Q71, 278, 275, 276 
Vurin; [tally Sy nacosue ats... nade aces. ches RB a said ade eae eee ee er errr Se eee ie 278 
Turkey, Costumes of Sixteenth-Century Jews 0f.......... cc ccc scene eeeeeer ences eee tree 285 
Map of, Showing Places Where Jews Reside............... eit To teas Bacula ad ee et fore ere 289 
Types: Composite Portraits of Jewish Boys, London.......... tasers da leaealecary Seid BA ui ate Set Nc Shei at ooo. 298 
Composite Portraits of Jewish Boys, New York..........c0.ecesseees Le id rea ante plate facing 294 
—— see also TEHERAN; TIBERIAS; Tries, Lost Ten; Tunis; YEMEN, | 
Typography: Specimens from the Hebrew Presses of: _ ae os 
Aden: “Zimrot Yisrael,” 1891........ 0... cece ccc ceveececcees Sandee ateaastencecass 326 
Aleppo: Hayyim Vital’s “Sha‘are Kedushshah,” 1866............... Pe ee re eer er 324 
Altdorf: “Sefer Nizzahon,” 1644 0.0.0... ccc ccc ccc cece ene se cere eee nese cence eee 153 
Amsterdam: Bible, 1679 ....... 2.0... cee cece c eee aes ee ee re re eee Ra Bacnaniqnetae . 155 
Later Prophets, 1641 2.4 cc...c0c0c.se sense once bend vawe vs Stacia ease as scaoe ea oaatalea Ss Ge avegaey 157 
eMikra oO Gedoloty Pi24. 0.35 tau ctetes wigan een swesemieted soda sales See Seu delineates 303 
Passover Haceadah, 1690.2 sa4e. asad soe toes cds pe S es Mela oS oa ORE es wees. 302 
Pentateuch< 1120s wits were ie eae al sewers saat Bee wat wae eee ® ee Coen Bieies eeareaue 304 
“Seder Tefillot,” 1789 ....... ihre uesdetad amused se dsatns cautes pienemae casera eeas 297 
Shabbethaian “ Dikkun,” 22 200s. 2is as Ghs-ob aes oagemsads o4enesds owt CONS Sake ona ewes 156 
Baltimore: Szold’s Commentary on Job, 1886......... cece cere eee eens ee eee ee ea 829 
Basel! WiKKUGNS 1900s dre Fates Genie inte dane wit albnats Se ewe EMS eerie wa iaameNe eae 298 
Cambridge: Lowe, “The Mishna,” 1888. ............ 0. cesses eeweeee Sag den eaias steers Lew 327 
Carlsruhe: Eybeschiitz, “She’elot u-Teshubot,” 1773 00... ccc cece cece ee eee MRE reese ines 008 
Constantinople: Pentateuch, 1516 ........ 0.0.6 cece cen e cence rennet ereteenetenas Goines awn. 297 
Cracow: Commentary on Pirke Abot, 1589....... 2.0.0... cece ee eee ne oueuweneciess hee eese se 300 
Schorr’s “Sefer ha-‘Ittim,” 1902... ... ccd amhee Lawene te wine Wate uasi ante sr sraela acellake arovecieere oe 327 


Frankfort-on-the-Main: Bacharach’s “Hawwot Yair,” 1699............0.. nr er ore 304 


LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME XII Xix 


PAGE 
Typography: Specimens from the Hebrew Presses of: 

" Guzlow: “Sefer Gan “Eden,” 1866... 0.0... cece eee cece eee eee eee e teen etree nescence: 325 
Hamburg: Hutter Bible, 158¢................ SaieiMedaearee eae wire alah maaan e eee Cae Sees: 299 
Hanau: “Shefa’ Tal,” 1612... 1... ccc cece rece e eer eee e tenn eran ener seenseneeens pxee Shes 154 
Heddernheim: Selihah, 1546.1... ... cc ce cece eee eee eee as Gee alae ne Gta tere eee wie eae ie rere 299 
Jitomir: Jerusalem Talmud, 1865................ shige We ea Rae Garena aaa sere apes ale ae Aare Garena Asus 325 
Konigsberg: “ Siddur Hegyon Leb,” 1845....... Kiet wane nea oeennielas ete wa vapene ae owas 307 
Leghorn: “Koh Tebareku,” 1653... 2.0... 0. cece ce eens Pe a ery ee ee reer ee ere ee eee 297 

“Sefer Hokmat ha-Mishkan,” 1772. 2.0... 0. ce ccc ccc eect e cee eee Se er ree rere ee 306 
Leipsic: “Steinschneider Festschrift,” 1896..... PE eee ee eee ere ee ere rr ee oot 
Tondon.°* Serer hao bury 1850s ah cea an ne seeniweaiees ee gales s wesasanewenaa sta sense sean s 324 
Lublin: Pentateuch, 1897.......... ee er ee ee re ee Waiea wig wie s oawuee Rares eee 329 
Lyck: Buber’s “ Pesikta,” 1868 2.0.1... . cece ee cece cece eee e eect e ree eees opiate Se Wied ahicaner 2. 829 
Munich: Rabbinowicz, “Catalog soe ame PVBSS ei sche wane Saas re re er ee eee 326 
Piotrkow: Jerusalem Talmud, 1899-1908........ ccc ceccccecsccceces Keira sewseews pave wees 20 
Prague: “ Meleket ha-Heshbon,” 1775... ccc cece cece cee cceesee ps a tais are nate eee aia eiavasulate Sree 306 

Passover Haggadah, 1526........... cece ees PUiuee saat eae ie eesa Gees See aysieteee eaten 296 
Ridelheim: Heidenheim Mahzor, 1882....... dite de WN CARS beatae vce eRe sone Stee aan s 323 
Sabbionetta: Pentateuch, 1557 .............. IT er re Cae er eT gi aeoie rcotens Beatie a ade 298 

Tractate; WiddUshin, 1000 nests te len ta adn tte bared saa ee se ataae wawak ueresesees 21 
Safed: Commentary on Song of Songs, 1578..........0008 irene ureters eta ats Atay qiadiaatiraaraabte 300 
Sulzbach: “ Tefillot Ma‘ariv,” 17386 ............. oreo PRN eM Se ATES OS OPER. BUORO wea. 297 
Venice: Kehillot: Ya ako,” 1008. oc us wines eneGeeek se wae view (et aeree ea ew ke (aba sess Se saee seas 301 

Rill. 1680.04. i.e aaede ew eeiee atesags ohne seas wataes lowest wen saeas Sseaenu eases 414 

Tractate Baba Mezi‘a, 1515...........000. Ss os eae athe eta howled bo Scans aaa athehanats 295 

TPractate- Itt bin, Lael, oy.csacin been. ecenh ava weeeeatedn ehaaeedaewns oe ueeees eee ond canes 296 

Tractate Menahot, 1522......... Saluceee@ ere Sera a ee eee ces so sAciphesties Cas Sete ae US eee 
Verona: “Seder Tetillot,” 1648 ........... 0c cae ie EES Ge Daa ee a OH ee meieee 297 
Vienna: Karaite “Siddur,” 1851. 0.0.0.0... cece cee ce ewes Die nee ha Gowan shea ake 307 

Letters BIDIG,- 1898 vet ocd ebie ene tanta Coca dn aca es Re oe Oe lates oesahe as 331 

Pentateuch, POO Nerd, xcs nee bers Sa ae hie wea oo Nae aioe aber SOs eta Oe bie Ge ee ems 307 

Schechter’s “ Midrash ha-Gadol,” 1902........... ee ee ere Be oieeee eee re ey ee 827 
Wilaae Shullian ATU. 1880: is.osceauswh cd veuw xe une Oas-a ee sh ban boy ee aes ba woe eeae Somes eneas Ras 

Tractate Shabbat, 1886......... 0... cc cece een cece ecace be a tas ee ee . plate between 22-28 

"U-Ba, leeAiyy On, MUSIC Or Load hasiigeetanecenawmted eects se wurewtcecas eee eesceseees BdI-B38 
United States, Letter of Welcome to President Washington by the Jewish Congregation of New- 
DOG 1190 os owen wis d ena eeteae ea heen ear euae Ramee an mane aowlemecleon aoe plate facing 348 


——— 


Map of, Showing Places of Jewish Interest and Development of Jewish Population, 
plate between 374-875 
—— ~—— Monument Erected in Memory of the Jewish Soldiers Who Died in the Civil War, Cypress 


Bills Cemetery, NOW VY Orleid ies to eG euius oe eeu awe eG a tvinet de Mage ea ohameecenouits genes 363 
Valabrégue, Mardochée-Georges, French General........0. 00.0 cece cece cece eee cee teens eeteeeaey 395 
Valencia, Plan of, in the Fourteenth Century, Showing Position of the Jewish Quarter.............. 396 
Vambéry, Arminius, Hungarian Traveler and Orientalist ........ ccc cece ccc ce cee e nce cen ese reens 400 
Van Oven, Joshua, English-Communal W Orkery cowscioa dod sd Whe Aes Bin ke ewe Been we saa eow es 401i 
Vauits, Interior View of the Traditional Tombs of the Judges, Showing Arrangement of. sascaes: 166 
Venice, Interior of the SY NAPORUC AU cccu rie ccakelaeeaeeeneee twauseeeie Be cate ia iecds soar aiene aieereyA 413 
rm DIOGE DIG Ne tbOn ahs n2 a5 t9 sue ciseesanaie bk aes oy ara ate Nee a Via San ee oees 408, 411 
—— Plan of, in 1640, Showing Position of the Ghetto...........ccccceeccecencceececneeeeenceeceees 409 
—— Typography: Page from the First Complete Edition of the Babylonian Talmud, 1520-238........ 17 
—— —— Title-Page of a Ritual Used by Jewish Community of Tripoli, Printed in 1680............. 414 
~~ ———~ Title-Page of Tractate Menahot, 1522. .........cccccccecseec et ceees Denniacele nied era itating 152 
V €spasian, Brass Coin of, with Inscription “ Fedaes Capta;” Struck in 72:00. i 62c6uiaaxrwanisaer saa ees 426 

‘lenna, Exterior and Interior Views of the Leopoldstrasse Synagogue at ........ cc ccee ee eeenees 430, 431 
—— Gate Leading to the Old “Judenstadt ” at.. 00.0... ccc cca ce ceae cee ceencteneceneeeeesaseeaeeas 427 


—— “Hohe Warte,” the Jewish Institute for the Blind DRE sicad sa areal ene aee nears an ere ... 434 


xx LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME XII 


PAG 

Vienna, Interior of the Polish Synagogue at..... 0... ec cece cece cece cece eee eee tenet tees een ences 433 
—— Interior of the Turkish Temple at... 0.0... 0. ccc cece ccc cece rete eee e eee veces eee teeeeeeee snes 435 
—— Jewish Orphan Asylums at.... 0.0... 2. cee eee cee ee (Metisewistacateees ee ee 432, 436 
Sa IMEEM UUTM Abs cle weatsnt euncae dake rckdvataerm Vale uo an Weak ae Ss cae earn ale ate eu boo ateati 429 
fa areOL (le Old emetery atsuics ais ones Sateen ad. akeeun danni e spat ewiaw ow aaa ahudosec tac 438 
—-=> Plan-of the Old: *Judenstudt” atin. 0.04 ict dowcnGaw Ride yond asewdaNw ese ius ey baxetuared eeaden«ee 428 
—— see also TYPOGRAPHY. 
SOW Ant Den llati,  MISICHOL acc. cect atndu aise haa ha saa e ewe Dae wee emee WaT NE hee BRE eS 454 
Wahrman, Moritz, Hungarian Politician... 0.0.2... ce ccc cee ete nc cece eee senses eeeenees 457 
Warsaw, Exterior of the Great Synagogue at... 2.0... cece ccc cece teen e ete e eee eeenetenes AT 
“Wayehi ‘Ereb,” Music of............cccccrecececes ane dines fe derma toate a satan dt aly Sa oP ns a eke + ut oa 478 
“ We-‘Al Kullom,” Music of............006 Re a ey PEE Lena ETA EoD mT ne eee te Ten Onan ee eee 479 
Weight, Babylonian, in the Form of a Lion. ...... 0... cece ccc ccc cee cece tenet eect eet eneeteeeeeces 484 
Weil, Gustav, French Orientalist........ ee re Bee Sarde s Staines Radek od Atha Gade e Sed cheshire 491 
—— Henry, French Hellenic Scholar. ............ re er eee Pee eee eT ee rrr 492 
Weiss, Isaac Hirsch, Austrian Rabbi....... Riek eee are eee heumad Moeeatees Seah Musee aahayene atest ByeO Says 496 
Well, Viliage, in Use in Palestine.........0.. 0. cee cee Si dacutntleie wkaeus aes aha daha saa. raha ee 499 
Wertheimer, Joseph, Austrian Philanthropist..............2.0. cc ceeeeees er ree errr ee 502 

Samson, Tombstone of, at Vienna. ....... 0. ccc cece ce cee cc cee eect e a eae cere rest atecseteues 504 
“We Shamerl.” MUSIC Of. iucacsee tl holt nan anaes onl ae eae meadantoncdnnsous eee eoRe eee 505, 506 
Wessely, Naphtali Hirz, German Hebrew Poet..... poi eatavt be ee cnet SG ae Oe eG 507 
West Indies: View of the “ Jooden Savane” at Surinam, Dutch Guiana, Seventeenth Century........ 508 
Mes Ye eC LAV, MUSICO! aseisci'o cen tcam a dive Wesaveussteauuh setae tah Get eneteneucs eee 512 
Wilna, Interior of the Old Synagogue at............. 0.0005 EC eT eee re eee er eee 527 
> Fart of tie Old Cemetery Ab %.¢. ade can oetubu a cue o ene hu nado ties sides ah enoten ele ks ee we ates 528 
—— Typography: Page from Babylonian Talmud, Printed by Romm, 1886........... plate between 22-23 
—— —— Page from Shulhan ‘Aruk, Printed by Romm, 1880 ......... 0... cece cece cece sent eer eeee 529 
Winchester, Plan of, Twelfth Century, Showing Position of Jewish Quarter........... MARLeLeRhas 531 
Wise, Isaac Mayer, American Rabbi............. \santewte haem ee iis taiteird saa aie inet ke ous ena obnnie 541 
Wissotzki, Kalonymos, Russian Philanthropist... 22.2... 0... ccc cece ee cee e eee eect ee eeaeteseeees 543 
Wolf, Johann Christoph, Christian Hebraist and Bibliographer .......... 0 ccc cece cee ce reece seennce 548 
—— Simon, American Communal Worker .. ..........ccccecceases bucaases ee rr ee eee 550 
Worms, Exterior and Interior Views of the Old Synagogue at ....... ccc cecc cc ceveveseees 560, 561, 564 
—_— Interior View of the Women’s Section in the Old Synagogue at ............ PO ee 565 
—— “Judenbischof” of Seventeenth Century .......... 0c cee cece cece ec ec cece esenees seed arenes aiie% 563 
== Old: Cemetery ab icccannuee goku wae esis oi aa bas 5 00s CNR RARE e SEO SeGee Cea ees eae Se ere 562 - 
Va glen.” MUSIC Of occ Aceh bS5 i Sage nse 6 oS Sea HG RGSS O MENA RAGS: wa Eee eM eg eee a: 57%, 578 
Yad, Specimens of the, for Scrolls of the Tia Wise eenet rae Co ahs ne eae ene ae 579 
“Yah Shimeka,” Music: Of ca. ciscsesteorssteecdesasectaveds Oe ee ee ee Mpedatahudla wena 580 
Yemen, Jews of.........cccrececes SG rguSl a ene unetve eye ehgus Seadecianwedas Seékinkea yess: oT eer en re 594 
~ Vigdal. Music Of sida teqeat det wie ven senee ees pod Rist od ore 6 atWarae ROe ieee sea homen Sewanee 607, 610 
“Vink AGOMA. “MUSIC OL 58.830 nk cases GaSe we ora eo tenes mente oad SOU aaa eeee Re eene ss 611 
“Yisrael Nosha:.” MaisiC Ol: .csvantetiwseciaw asked ietaswwts sie caste sdasieseeeiads ea Badia ke 612, 613 
York, England: Clifford’s Tower. ..........se. cece sighu anew outatences pis wiiinigiead susan meaeuaatind anes G 621 
Zangwill, Israel, English Author........ iewey saree eaalel eaten toey a waawtinae ue eae ee mesa ous 634 
Zedakah Boxes, Wooden and Metallic.......... Ghats ata ete anaana sete eero maalneenats piruihad sara eae eas 649 
“Zekor Berit,” Music of........0cccceceeceves ame gas fe sean a apis ecesuasceneaan tum Soi waane aaei sae 654, 655 
ST einirOl,” MUSIC OF «1s. a carncu Acie. Seer cw esceeh ne ndatiee eee ecu esas pees eee eee 657-659 
Zionism; Interview Between William IJ and Theodor Herzl Outside of Jerusalem, 1902............. os 


Zunz, Leopold, German Rabbi and Author..........cccece see e eee e eee ee reece eeeeeceseeeece eas 


THE 


JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


TALMUD (s195n): Name of two works which 
have been preserved to posterity as the product of 
the Palestinian and Babylonian schools during the 
amoraic period, which extended from the third to 
the fifth century c.E. One of these compilations is 
entitled “Talmud Yerushalmi” (Jerusalem Talmud) 
and the other “ Talmud Babli” (Babylonian Talmud). 
Used alone, the word “Talmud” generally denotes 
“Talmud Babli,” but it frequently servesasa generic 
designation for an entire body of literature, since the 
Talmud marks the culmination of the writings of 
Jewish tradition, of which it is, from a historical 
point of view, the most important production. 

“TaJmud” is an old scholastic term of the Tan- 
naim, and is a noun formed from the verb “lim- 
med” = “to teach.” It therefore means primarily 

“teaching,” although it denotes also 
The Name. “learning”; it is employed in this 

latter sense with special reference to 
the Torah, the terms “talmud ” and “ Torah” being 
usually combined to indicate the study of the Law 
both in its wider and in its more restricted sense, as 
in Pe’ah i. 1, where the term “talmud Torah” ig 
applied to study asa religious duty. On the other 
hand, the learning acquired by study is also called 
“talmud,” so that Akiba’s pupil Judah ben Iai 
could say: “He from whom one derives the greater 
part of his knowledge [“talmudo”] must be re- 
garded as the teacher ” (Tosef., B. M. ii., end; Yer. 
B. M. 8d; B. M. 38a has “hokmah” instead of “ tal- 
mud”). To designate the study of religion, the 
word “talmud ” is used in contrast with “ma‘aseh,” 
which connotes the practise of religion. Akiba’s 
view that on this account the “talmud” ranked 
above the “ma‘aseh” was adopted as a resolu- 
tion by a famous conference at Lydda during the 
Hadrianic persecution (see Sifre, Deut. 41; Kid. 
40b; Yer. Pes. 30b; Cant. R. ii. 14). The two terms 
are contrasted differently, however, in the tannaitic 
saying (B. B. 180b), “The Halakah [the principles 
guiding decisions in religious law} may not be 
drawn from a teaching of the master [“talmud ”] 
nor be based upon an act of his [“ma‘aseh ”], unless 
the master expressly declare that the teaching or act 
under consideration is the one which is applicable 
to the practise,” 

In the second place, the word “talmud "—gen- 
erally in the phrase “talmud lomar ”—is frequently 
used im tannaitic terminology in order to denote in- 
struction by means of the text of the Bible and of 
the exegetic deductions therefrom. In the third 
Place, ae noun “talmud” has the meaning which 

T.—1 


alone can be genetically connected with the name 
“Talmud”; in tannaitic phraseology the verb “lim- 
med” denotes the exegetic deduction of a halakic 
principle from the Biblical text (for examples see 
RR. H. ii. 9; Sifre, Num. 118); and in harmony with 
this meaning of the word “talmud” denotes that 
exposition of a halakic saying which receives an 
exegetic confirmation from the Biblical text. Of 
the terms, therefore, denoting the three branches 
into which the study of the traditional exegesis of 
the Bible was from earliest times divided by the 
Tannaim (see JEw. Encyc. iil. 168, s.o. Brishe& EXeE- 
GEsIs), “ midrash” was the one identical in content 
with “talmud” in its original sense, except that 
the Midrash, which includes any kind of Biblical 
hermeneutics, but more especially the halakic, deals 
with the Bible text itself, while the Talmud is based 
on the Halakah. The Midrash is devoted to Biblical 
exposition, the result being the Halakah (comp. the 
phrase “mi-kan ameru” [= “beginning here the 
sages have said” ], which occurs frequently in the 
tannaitic Midrash and which serves to introduce 
halakic deductions from the exegesis). In the Tal- 
mud, on the other hand, the halakic passage is the 
subject of an exeyesis based on the Biblical text. 

In consequence of the original identity of “Tal- 
mud” and “ Midrash,” noted above, the former term 
is sometimes used instead of the latter in tannaitic 

sentences which enumerate the three 

Relation branches of traditional science, Mid- 

to rash, Halakah, and Haggadah (see 

Midrash. Ber. 22a (comp. M. K. 15a and Yer. 

Ber. 6c, 39]; Kid. 80a; Suk. 28a; B. 
B. 184a; Ab. R. N. xiv. [comp. Masseket Soferim, 
xvi. 8]; Yer. B. K. 4b, 81 [comp. Sifre, Deut. 33]; 
Tosef., Sotah, vii. 20 [comp. Yer. Sotah 44a]), while 
sometimes both “Talmud” and “ Midrash” are used 
(M. K. 21a; Ta‘an. 30a); it must be noted, how- 
ever, that in the editions of the Babli, “Gemara ” is 
usually substituted for “Talmud,” even in the pas- 
sages here cited. The word “Talmud” in all these 
places did not denote the study subsequently pur- 
sued by the Amoraim, but was used instead of the 
word “ Midrash,” although this did not preclude the 
later introduction of the term “Talmud” into tan- 
naitic sayings, where it either entirely displaced 
“Midrash” or was used side by side with it. 

After the term “Talmud” had come to denote the 
exegetic confirmation of the Halakah, it was applied 
also to the explanation and exposition of halakic 
passages in general. As early as the end of the 
tannaitic period, when the halakot were finally re- 


Talmud 


dacted by the patriarch Judah J. and were desig- 
nated as “Mishnah,” a term originally applied 
to the entire system of traditional learning, the 
Talmud was developed as a new division of this 
same science; and it was destined to absorb all oth- 
ers. In a baraita dating, according to the amora 
Johanan, from the days of Judah I. (B. M. 33a; 
comp. Yer. Shab. 15c, 22 et seg.), the Mishnah and 
the Talmud are defined as subjects of study side by 
side with the “ Mikra” (Bible), the study of the Tal- 
mud being mentioned first. To this baraita there 
is an addition, however, to the effeet that more 
attention should be given to the Mishnah than to 
the Talmud. Johanan explains this passage by the 
fact that the members of Judah’s academy, in their 
eagerness to investigate the Talmud, neglected the 
Mishnah; hence the patriarch laid stress upon the 
duty of studying the Mishnah primarily. In these 
passages the word “Talmud ” is used notin its more 
restricted sense of the establishment of halakot by 
Biblical exegesis, but in its wider signification, in 
which it designates study for the purpose of eluci- 
dating the Mishnah in general, as pursued after 
Judah’s death in the academies of Palestine and 
Babylon. This baraita is, furthermore, an authentic 
document on the origin of the Talmud. 

Three classes of members of the academy are men- 
tioned in an anecdote referring to Judah I. (B. B. 
8a): (1) those who devoted themselves chiefly to the 
Bible (“ba‘ale Mikra”); (2) those whose principal 
study was the Mishnah (“ba‘ale Mishnah”); and (8) 
those whose main interest lay in the Talmud (“ ba‘ale 
Talmud”). This is the original reading of the pas- 
sage, although the editions mention also the “ ba‘ale 
Halakah ” and the “ba‘ale Haggadah” (see below). 
These three branches of knowledge are, therefore, 
the same as those enumerated in B. M. 38a. Tanhum 
b. Hanilai, a Palestinian amora of the third century, 
declared, with reference to this threefold investiga- 
tion (‘Ab. Zarah 19b): “Let the time given to study 
be divided into three parts: one-third for the Bible, 
one-third for the Mishnah, and one-third for the 
Talmud.” In Kid, 38a this saying is quoted in the 
name of the tanna Joshua b. Hananiah, although 
this is probably a ccrruption of the name of Jose b. 
Hanina(amora). Yudan, a Palestinian amora of the 
fourth century, found in Eccl. xi. 9 an allusion to the 
pleasure taken in the three branches of study, Mikra, 
Mishnah, and Talmud. 

The old trichotomy of traditional literature was 
changed, however, by the acceptance of the Mish- 

nahof Judah [., and by the new study 

The Three of the Talmud designed to interpret it. 
Subjects of The division termed “ Halakot ” (singu- 
Study. lar, “ Halakah”) inthe old classification 
was then called “ Mishnah,” although 

in Palestine the Mishnah continued to be designated 
as “Halakot.” The Midrash became a component 
part of the Talmud; and a considerable portion of the 
halakic Bible hermeneutics of the Tannaim, which 
had been preserved in various special works, was in- 
corporated in the Babylonian Talmud. The Hagga- 
dah (plural, “Haggadot ”) lost its importance as an 
individual branch of study in the academies, al- 
though it naturally continued to be a subject of in- 
vestigation, and a portion of it also was included in 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 2 


the Talmud. Occasionally the Haggadab is even 
designated as a special branch, being added as a 
fourth division tothe three already mentioned. Ha- 
nina ben Pappa, an amora of the early part of the 
fourth century, in characterizing these four branches 
says: “The countenance should be serious and ear- 
nest in teaching the Scriptures, mild and calm for 
the Mishnah, bright and lively for the Talmud, 
and merry and smiling for the Haggadah ” (Pesik. 
110a; Pes. R. 101b; Tan., Yitro, ed. Buber, p. 17; 
Massek. Soferim, xvi. 2). As early as the third 
century Joshua ben Levi interpreted Deut. ix. 10 to 
mean that the entire Law, including Mikra, Mishnah, 
Talmud, and Haggadah, had been revealed to Moses 
on Sinai (Yer. Pes. 1%a, line 59; Meg. 74d, 25), while 
in Gen. R. Ixvi. 3 the blessings invoked in Gen. 
XXvii. 28 are explained as “Mikra, Mishnah, Tal- 
mud, and Haggadah.” The Palestinian haggadist 
Isaac divided these four branches into two groups: 
(1) the Mikra and the Haggadah, dealing with sub- 
jects of general interest ; and (2) the Mishnah and the 
Talmud, “which can not hold the attention of those 
who hear them” (Pesik. 101b; see Bacher, “ Ag. Pal. 
Amor.” ii. 211). 

According toa note of Tanhuma ben Abba (of the 
latter part of the 4th cent.) on Cant. v. 14 (Cant. R. 
ad loc.), a student must be familiar with all four 
branches of knowledge, Mikra, Mishnah, Halakah 
(the last-named term used here instead of “Tal- 
mud”), and Haggadah; while Samuel b. Judah b. 
Abun, a Palestinian amora of the same century, in- 
terpreted Prov. xxviii. 11 as an allusion to the hala- 
kist (“man of the Talmud”) and to the haggadist 
(“man of the Haggadah”; Yer. Hor. 48c; see also 
Pesik. 17%6a; Lev. R. xxi., Talmud and Haggadah). 
Here may be mentioned also the concluding passage 
of the mishnaie treatise Abot (v., end): “At the age 
of five to the Bible; at the age of ten to the Mish- 
nah; at the age of fifteen to the Talmud.” This is 
ascribed by many to the ancient tanna Samuel ha- 
Katon (see Bacher, “Ag. Tan.” i. 378), although 
the sequence of study which it mentions is evi- 
dently that which was customary during the 
amoraic period (comp. also the saying of Abaye 
in Ket. 50a). 

The following passages from the Babylonian Tal- 
mud may likewise serve to illustrate the special 
usage which finally made the word “ Talmud” 
current as the name of the work. Samuel, one 
of the earliest Babylonian amoraim, interpreted the 
words of Zech. viii. 10, “neither was there any 
peace to him that went out or came in,” as applying 
to the restlessness of one who turns from the Tal- 
mud and confines himself to the study of the Mish- 
nah (Hag. 10a). Johanan, the younger Palestinian 
contemporary of Samuel, extends the allusion to 
“him also who turns from one Talmud to study 
another,” referring here to Babli and to Yeru- 
shalmi. It is very possible that he had noticed that. 
in the case of his numerous Babylonian pupils the 
transition from the mishnaic exegesis which they 
had acquired at home to that of the Palestinian 
schools was not made without disturbing +heir peace 
of mind. Allusions to the “Talmud of Babylon” 
by two prominent Babylonians who settled in Pal- 
estine (Ze‘era and Jeremiah) have likewise been pre- 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


3 


served (B. M. 85¢; Sanh. 24a); and they confirm 
Johanan’s conception of the meaning of the term. 

In Babylonia the Aramaic noun “ gemar ” (emphat- 
“ gemara ”) Was formed from the verb "193 
(which does not occur In Palestinian texts), having 
the meaning of “learn.” This substantive accord- 
ingly designates that which has been 
learned, and the learning transmitted 
to scholars by tradition, although it is 
used also in a more restricted sense to 
connote the traditional exposition of the Mishnah; 
and it therefore gained currency as a designation of 
the Talmud. In the modern editions of the Baby- 
jonian Talmud the term “ Gemara ” occurs very fre- 
quently in this sense; but in nearly every case it 
was substituted at a later time for the objectionable 
word “Talmud,” which was interdicted by the cen- 
sor. The only passage in which “Gemara” occurs 
with the meaning of “Talmud” in the strict sense 
of that term and from which it was not removed by 
the censor is ‘Er. 32b, where it is used by Nahman 
bar Jacob, a Babylonian amora of the second half of 
the third century. For further details see Bacher, 
“Gemara,” in “Hebrew Union College Annual,” pp. 
96-36, Cincinnati, 1904, where the word is shown 
to have been used for “Talmud” from the geonic 
period (see also idem, “Die Terminologie der Amo- 
rier,” pp. 31 et seg., Leipsic, 1905). The later editions 
of the Talmud frequently substitute for the word 
“Gemara ” the abbreviation p’w (Aramaic, 33D RNY 
—“the six orders of the Mishnah”), which has 
come to be, with the pronunciation “Shas,” a 
popular designation for the Babylonian Talmud. 

Here may be mentioned the term “Shem‘ata” 
(NnyDow), which was used in Babylonia to designate 
the halakic portion of the Talmud, and which was 
thus contrasted with “Haggadah” (see Hag. 26a; 
Sotah 20a; Sanh. 38b; comp. also M. K. 23a, where 
“Shemu‘ah,” the Hebrew form, occurs in a baraita). 
In the tenth century this word was used in Moham- 
medan circles to designate Jewish tradition as well 
as its chief source, the Talmud; so that Mas‘udi refers 
to Saadia Gaon as an “ashma‘ti ”(7.e., a believer 
in the tradition), using this term in contrast to “ Ka- 
raite” (see Pinsker, “ Likkute Kadmoniyyot,” i. 5). 
A “Kitab al-Ashma‘ah” (7.e., “Talmud”) is also 
mentioned (“Z, D. M. G.” lviii. 659). 

The theorem that the Talmud was the latest devel- 
opment of traditional science has been demon- 
strated by this discussion of the meaning and the 
use of the word itself. The Talmud accordingly 
dates from the time following the final redaction of 
the Mishnah; and it was taught in the academy of 
Judah I. as the commentary on the tannaitic Hala- 
kah. The editorial activity which, from the mass of 
halakic material that had accumulated since Akiba’s 
Mishnah, crystallized the Talmud in accordance with 
the systematic order introduced by that teacher, im- 
plied the interpretation and critical examination of 
the Halakah, and was, therefore, analogous to Tal- 
mudic methodology. 

a ae were, likewise, many elements of tannaitic 
ible ion, especially the midrashic exegesis of the 
sia as well as humerous halakic interpretations, 
- piso sc and material, which were ready 
Corporation into the Talmud in its more re- 


ic state, 


The 
Gemara. 


Talmud 


stricted meaning of the interpretation of the Mishnah 
of Judah I. When this Mishnah became the stand- 
ard halakic work, both as a source for decisions of 
questions of religious law, and, even more espe- 
cially, as a subject of study in the academies, the 
Talmud interpretation of the mishnaic text, both in 
theory and in practise, naturally became the most 
important branch of study, and included the other 
branches of traditional science, being derived from 
the Halakah and the Midrash (halakic exegesis), 
and also including haggadic material, though to 
a minor degree. The Talmud, however, was not 
an independent work; and it was this characteristic 
which constituted the chief difference between it and 
the earlier subjects of study of the tannaitic period. 
it had no form of its own, since it served as a run- 
ning commentary on the mishnaic text; and this 
fact determined the character which the work ulti- 
mately assumed. 

The Talmud is practically a mere amplification of 
the Mishnah by manifold comments and additions; 
so that even those portions of the Mishnah which 

have no Talmud are regarded as com- 


Relation ponent parts of it and are accordingly 
to included in the editions of Babli. The 
Mishnah. history of the origin of the Talmud is 


the same as that of the Mishnah—a 
tradition, transmitted orally for centuries, was finally 
cast into definite literary form, although from the 
moment in which the Talmud became the chief 
subject of study in the academies it had a double 
existence, and was accordingly, in its final stage, 
redacted in two different forms. The Mishnah of 
Judah I. was adopted simultaneously in Babylon 
and Palestine as the halakic collection par excel- 
lence; and at the same time the development of the 
Talmud was begun both at Sepphoris, where the 
Mishnah was redacted, and at Nehardea and Sura, 
where Judah’s pupils Samuel and Rab engaged in 
their epoch-making work. The academies of Baby- 
jon and of Palestine alike regarded the study of the 
Mishnah and its interpretation as their chief task. 
The Amoraim, as the directors and members of these 
academies were called (sce AMORA), became the 
originators of the Talmud; and its final redaction 
marked the end of the amoraic times in the same way 
that the period of the Tannaim was concluded by 
the compilation of the Mishnah of Judah I. Like 
the Mishnah, the Talmud was not the work of one 
author or of several authors, but was the result of 
the collective labors of many successive generations, 
whose toil finally resulted in a book unique in its 
mode of development. 

Before entering into any discussion of the origin 
and peculiar form of the Talmud, the two recensions 
of the work itself may be briefly described. The 
general designation of the Palestinian Talmud as 
“Talmud Yerushalmi,” or simply as “ Yerushalmi,” 
is precisely analogous to that of the Palestinian 
Targum. The term originated in the geonic period, 
when, however, the work received also the more 
precise designations of “Talmud of Palestine,” 
“Talmud of the Land of Israel,” “Talmud of the 
West,” and “ Talmud of the Western Lands.” Yeru- 
shalmi has not been preserved in its entirety; large 
portions of it were entirely lost at an early date, 


Talmud 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 4 


while other partsexist only in fragments. The editio 
princeps (ed. Bomberg, Venice, 1523 e¢ seg.), on Which 
all later editions are based, terminates with the fol- 
lowing remark: “Thus far we have found what is 
contained in this Talmud; and we have endeavored 
in vain to obtain the missing portions.” Of the four 
manuscripts used for this first edition (comp. the 
note at the conclusion of Shab. xx. 17d and the 
passage just cited), only one is now in existence; it 
is preserved in the library of the University of 
Leyden (see below). Of the six orders of the Mish- 
nah, the fifth, Kodashim, is missing entirely from the 
Palestinian Talhnud, while of the sixth, Tohorot, it 
contains only the first three chapters 
The of the treatise Niddah (iv. 48d-51b). 
Palestinian The treatises of the orders of the 
Talmud. Mishnah are arranged in the fol- 
lowing sequence in this Talmud; the 
pagination also is given licre, in parentheses, to 
indicate the length of the several treatises: 


the treatise Niddah ends abruptly after the first lines 
of ch. iv. 

Maimonides expressly states in the introduction to 
his commentary on the Mishnah that in his time 
Yerushalmi was extant for the entire first five orders 
(comp. Abraham ibn Daud, ed. Neubauer, “M. J. 
C.” i. 57); therefore he must have seen the Yeru- 
shalmi of the order Kodashim, although he himself 
does not quote it in his commentary on this order 
(see Frankel, “Mebo,” p. 45b). Except for the 
treatise Niddah, on the other hand, there was, ac- 
cording to Maimonides (/.c.), no Yerushalmi for the 
sixth order. A South-Arabian work of the fifteenth 
century, however, quotes the Gemara “on ‘Ukzin in 
the Gemara of the people of Jerusalem,” which is 
said to contain a passage on the zodiac (see Stein- 
schneider, “Catalog der Hebritischen Handschriften 
der Kéniglichen Bibliothek zu Berlin,” p. 65, Berlin, 
1878). Theauthor of this quotation, therefore, knew 
Yerushalmi for the last treatise of the sixth order, 


PAGES FROM A MANUSCRIPT OF THE JERUSALEM TALMUD. 
(From the Caire Genizah.) 


I. Zera‘im: Berakot (2a-14d); Pe’ah (15a-21b); Demai (21¢- 
26c); Kivlayiin(26d-32d); Shebi‘it (88a-39d); Terumot (40a-48b) ; 
Ma‘aserot (48c-52a); Ma‘aser Sheni (52b-56d); Hallah (57a-60b); 
‘Orlah (60c-63b); BikEurim (63c-65d). 

II. Mo‘ed: Shabbat (2a~18a); ‘Erubin (18a-26d); Pesahim 
(27a-371d); Yoma (38a~-45c); Shekalim (45c-51b); Sukkah (Sle~ 
50d); Rosh ha-Shanah (56a-59d); Bezah (59d-63b); Ta‘anit (63¢- 
69¢); Megillah (69d-75d); Hagigah (15d-79d); Mo‘ed Katan 
(80a~83d). 

WI. Nashim: Yebamot (2a-l5a); Sotah (15a-24c); Ketubot 
(24c-36b); Nedarim (36c-42d); Gittin (48a-50d); Nazir (5la—58a); 
Kiddushin (58a-66d) . 

IV. Nezikin: Baba Kamma (2a-7c); Baba Mezi‘a (7c-12¢): 
Baba Batra (12d-17d); Sanhedrin (17d-30c); Makkot (30d-32b): 
Shebu‘ot (82c-38d); ‘Abodah Zarah (89a-~45b); Horayot (45c-48¢), 

VI. Tohorot; Niddah (48d-51b). 


Jn order ii. the last four chapters of Shabbat are 
missing from the Palestinian Talmud, while the trea- 
tise Shekalim has been incorporated into the editions 
of the Babylonian Talmud from Yerushalmi, and is 
found also in a Munich manuscript of Babli. In 
order iv. the treatises Abot and ‘Eduyot are missing 
in both Talmudim, and the concluding chapter of 
Makkot is wanting in Yerushalmi. In order vi. 


although it is possible that the passage quoted may 
have been in the lost portion of the treatise Niddah, 
and that the name “‘Ukzin” may have been used 
instead of “Tohorot.” For further details on the 
missing sections of Yerushalmi see Frankel, ¢.c. pp. 
45a et seg.; Weiss, “Dor,” iii. 282; Buber, in Ber- 
liner’s “ Magazin,” v. 100-105; and Strack, “ Einlei- 
tung in den Talmud,” pp. 63-65. The mishnaic text 
on which the Palestinian Talmud is based has been 
preserved in its entirety in a manuscript belonging 
to the library of the University of Cambridge, and 
has been edited by W. H. Lowe (“The Mishnah on 
Which the Palestinian Talmud Rests,” Cambridge, 
1883). 

The Palestinian Talmud is so arranged in the edi- 
tions that each chapter is preceded by its entire 
mishnaic text with the paragraphs numbered, this 
being followed by the Talmud on the several para- 
graphs. In the first seven chapters of Berakot the 
paragraphs are designated as “First Mishnah” 
C(& “3nv), “Second Mishnah,” etc. ; while in the re- 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


5 


‘ning chapters and all the other treatises the 
paragraphs termed “halakot” (s nbn). In the 
early chapters the mishnaic text of each paragraph 
ig repeated entire in the Talmud at the beginning of 
the paragraph; but later only the first words are 
prefaced to the Talmudic text. Even in cases 
where there is no Talmud the designation of the 
paragraph and the beginning of the mishnaic text 
are given. The editio princeps seems to have bor- 
rowed this arrangement from the manuscripts, al- 
though the system is much more simple in the frag- 
ment of Yerushalmi edited by Paul von Kokowzoff 
in the “Mémoires de la Societe Archéologique de 
st. Petersbourg ” (xi. 195-205), which contains some 
paragraphs of the sixth and eighth chapters of Baba 
Kamma. This fragment begins with the concluding 
lines of the Talmudic text of ch. v.; but between 
them and the beginning of ch. vi. the Mishnah is 
lacking, so that the superscription, “Chapter vi.,” 
is followed immediately by the Talmudic text. 
There is no reference to the beginning of the para- 
graph, either in the first or in the succeeding para- 
graphs; nor is there any explanation of the fact that 
paragraphs 4 and 7 of ch. viii. have no Talmud. It 
is clear, therefore, that the manuscript to which this 
fragment belonged contained only the Talmudic 
text, thus presupposing the use of a special copy 
of the Mishnah. It is likewise noteworthy that in 
the first two chapters of Berakot the sections of the 
Talmudic text on some of the paragraphs are desig- 
nated in the editions by the word “ piska” (section), 

a term found occasionally also in other 
The Style portions of the text of Yerushalmi. 
of the Ye- The style of Yerushalmi may be 
rushalmi. indicated by a brief analysis of a few 
sections, such as Ber. i. 1; R. H. i. 1, 
2; Git. ti. 1; and B. B. i. 6. 

Ber. i. 1: The text of this paragraph, which 

begins the Mishnah, is as follows: 


“ During what time in the evening is the reading of the ‘She- 
ma’’ begun? From the time when the priests go in to eat their 
leaven [see Lev. xxii. 7] until the end of the first watch of the 
night, such being the words of R. Eliezer. The sages, however, 
say until midnight, though R. Gamaliel says until the coming 
of the dawn.”’ 


The Talmud on this paragraph (2a, line 34-8a, line 
3) contains three sections, which correspond to the 
three opinions and the contents of which are as fol- 
lows: (1) A citation, from a baraita, of another 
tannaitic regulation defining the Mishnah that 
governs the reading of the “Shema‘” in the eve- 
ning; two sayings of Jose (a Palestinian amora of 
the 4th cent.), serving to elucidate the baraita (2a, 
34-45). Remarks on the position of one who is in 
doubt whether he has read the “Shema‘,” with 
analogous cases, according to Jeremiah, whose views 
were transmitted by Ze‘era II. (4th cent.), the first 
case being decided according to the baraita already 
mentioned (2a, 45-2b, 4). Another passage from the 
baraita, designating the appearance of the stars as 
an Indication of the time in question; explanation 
of this baraita by Abba bar Pappai (transmitter, 
Phinehas; both of the 4th cent.); other passages 
on the appearance of the stars as bearing on the rit- 
ual, together with a dialectic explanation by Jose b. 
Abin (second half of the 4th cent.) and a saying by 


Talmud 


Judah b. Pazzi (2b, 5-31). A baraita on the division 
between day and night, and other passages bearing 
on the same subject (23. lines 31-41). The meaning 
of “ben ha-shemashot” (twilight), and an answer 
by Tanhuma b. Abba (latter part of the 4th cent.), 
together with another solution given by a baraita 
(2b. lines 41-46). Discussion of this baraita by Aha 
and Jose (4th cent.); reference by Mani to a question 
dealing with this subject which he addressed to Hez- 
ekiah of Ceesarea (4th cent.) from Mishnah Zab. 1. 6, 
and the answer of the latter (2b, 46-2c, 9). Amoraic 
sayings and a baraita on the beginning of the day (2d. 
lines 9-20), A sentence of tannaitic origin in no 
way related to the preceding matters: “One who 
prays standing must hold his feet straight,” and the 
controversy on this subject between Levi and Simon 
(8d cent.), the one adding, “like the angels,” and 
the other, “like the priests”; comments on these 
two comparisons (2c, 20-81). Further discussion 
regarding the beginning of the day, introduced by 
a saying of Hanina’s (8d cent.); haggadic statements 
concerning the dawn; a conversation between Hiyya 
the Elder and Simeon b. Halafta (latter part of the 
tannaitic period); cosmological comments: dimen- 
sions of the firmament, and the cosmic distances ex- 
pressed in units of 50 and 500 years, together with 
similar haggadic material, chiefly tannaitic in ori- 
gin; Haggadic sayings on Gen. i. 6, introduced by 
a saying of Abin’s (4th cent.), and including sayings 

by Rab, Judah b. Pazzi, and Hanina; 
Examples. Haggadic material on Isa. x]. 22, in- 

troduced by a controversy between 
Johanan and Simeon b. Lakish (8d cent.), and on 
Gen. ii. 4(2c, 81-2d, 11). On the second part of the 
first mishnaic sentence; the views of Judah I. and 
Nathan on the number of the night-watches, and an 
exegetic discussion of them, with an allusion to Ps. 
exix. 62 (“at midnight”), as well as haggadic mate- 
rial concerning David and his harp, with especial 
reference to Ps. lvii. 9 (2d, 11-44). 

(2) Assiin the name of Johanan: “The ruling of 
the sages [“ until midnight” ] is the valid one, and 
forms the basis for the counsel given by Jose [4th 
cent.| to the members of the academy” (2d. lines 
45-48). Baraita on the reading of the “Shema‘” in 
the synagogue; a question bearing on this matter, 
and Huna’s answer in the name of the Babylonian 
amora Joseph (2b. lines 48-52), an illustration being 
given in an anecdote regarding Samuel b. Nahman, 
together witb a haggadic saying by him (2d. lines 
52-58). A. contradictory view by Joshua b. Levi, 
together with pertinent haggadic sayings to the 
effect that the “Shemoneh ‘Esreh ” must follow im- 
mediately the after-benediction of the “Shema‘” 
(7b. lines 59-73). 

(3) R. Gamaliel’s view compared with an anal- 
ogous opinion of Simeon b. Yohai, together with a 
question which remains unanswered (2d, '74-8a, 3). 

R. H. i. 1, 2: These two paragraphs, which are 
combined into one in Babli, deal with the commence- 
ment of the four seasons (new years): Nisani, Elul 
1, Tishri 1, and Shebat 1 (or 15). The Talmud on 
par. 1 is found in 56a, 44-56d, 52, and that on par. 
2in 56d, 52-d7a, 30. | 

Talmud on par. 1: (a) The “ new year of the kings.” 
Exegetic deductions and elucidations, beginning 


Talmud 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


6 


with the interpretation of Ex. xii. 1; Johanan’s ex- 
planation of II Chron. iii. 2; a controversy between 
Hananiah and Mani regarding the same verse; an 
explanation by Aha of Ex. xii. 1; a baraita by 
Samuel on the same verse; and similar material 
(56a, 44~56b, 10). Hanina’s saying that even the 
years of Gentile kings were dated from Nisan, and 
the confirmation thereof by Biblical passages from 
Haggai and Zechariah, together with the contradict- 
ory view of the Babylonian amora ‘Efa or Hefa; 
remarks and objections by Jonah and Isaac (56b, 
10-29). Jonah on the practical importance of the 
new year for dating business documents (2d. lines 
29-33). On the new year in the chronology of the 
kings of Israel and Judah, together with an inter- 
pretation of I Kings fi. 11, and several haggadie 
passages referring to David (2. lines 33-52). 

(0) The “new year of the feasts.” Statement that 
according to Simeon b. Yohai Nisan 1 marks the be- 
ginning of the year for the sequence of the feasts; 
a tannaitic midrash of considerable length on Lev. 
xxiii. 88, and a reply by Ela (4th cent.) to a ques- 
tion bearing on this matter; additional remarks and 
objections by amoraim of the fourth century, to- 
gether with the citation of a saying by the scholars 
“of that place” (¢.e., Babylonia; 56b, 52-56c, 15); 
various discussions on kindred subjects, especially 
those whose content involved halakic exegesis (56c, 
15-56d, 14). 

(c) The “new year for tithes of cattle,” declared 
by Meir to be Elui 1. Proof by the Babylonian 
amora Huna, who deduced an opposing view from 
Ps. Ixv. 14; the relation between Ben ‘Azzai, who 
is mentioned in a baraita belonging to this passage, 
and Akiba (2d. lines 14-33); interpretation of Mish- 
nah Bek. vii. 7 as being analogous in content; a 
citation by Mani of a halakic exegesis by his father, 
Jonah (2b. lines 33-52). 

Talmud on par. 2: (a) Tishri 1, the “new year 
for the counting of the years.” Deductions from 
Biblical passages; discussion on the subject be- 
tween Jonah and the members of the college; Jo- 
nah’s quotation of Hanina’s saying on the names of 
the months, and a saying of Simeon b. Lakish on 
the names of the angels (56d, 52-77). (6) The “new 
year for the Sabbatical years and the years of jubi- 
lee.” Biblical inference (56d, 77-57a, 2). (¢c) The 
“new year for the planting of trees.” Explana- 
tion and exegetical deduction (zd. lines 3-14). 
(qd) The “new year for vegetables.” Elucidation 
and discussion (76. lines 14-23). (e) The “new year 
for trees,” this section being supplemented by an 
example from a tannaitic account of Akiba’s prac- 
tise, with explanations (7). lines 23-80). 

Git. 11. 1: Inadequate attestation of the prepara- 
tion of a bill of divorce. The Talmud on the pas- 
sage (44a, 34-71); a specia. case in the Mishnah 
shown to contain the opinion of Judah b. Tai (zd. 
lines 84-40); two casuistic questions by Jose and 

the Babylonian amora Hisda, and the 

Further answersfurnished by the Mishnah (2d. 
Examples. lines 40-50); a more detailed discus- 

sion of another question of similar 
content, with reference to a controversy between 
Johanan and Simeon b. Lakish, together with 
notes thereon by Ammi and Ze‘era, and a discus- 


sion concluding with a comment by Mani (2d. lines 
50-71). 

B. B.i. 6: (4) Ashort exegetic proof by Ela, based 
on Prov. xviii. 11 (12d, 71 e¢ seg.). (6) A baraita 
dealing with analogous matter, together with a re- 
mark by Jose b. Abin (¢. lines 72-75). 

Although this analysis of the contents of four 
parts of Yerushalmi gives no adequate idea of the 
structure of the entire work, it will serve to show 
the difference between its several parts in regard 
both to their length and to their amplifica- 
tions of the simple explanations of the Mishnah. 
A comparison of the portions of the Palestinian 
Talmud here summarized with the corresponding 
sections of Babli, as given below, is especially in- 
structive. 

Yerushalmi, when regarded as a work of litera- 
ture, is noteworthy for a textual peculiarity which 
is characteristic of it, though found also in Babli, 
namely, the large number of literal repetitions. 
Entire passages, sometimes whole columns, of the 
Talmud are found in two, occasionally in three, 
separate treatises, in which they differ from each 
other by mere variauts, most of them due to cor- 
ruptions of the text. These repetitions throw some 
light on the redaction of the Talmudic text, since 
they prove that before the editing of the treatises was 
undertaken a uniform mass of material was already at 
hand in a definitely revised form; they likewise show 
that in the compilation of the Talmud one portion 
was explained by another, as was natural in view 
of the character of the contents. The opportunity 
was gladly seized, moreover, to repeat didactic ma- 

terial in passages where it did not 
Passages strictly belong. These repetitions are 
Repeated. obviously of great value in the textual 
criticism of the Talmud. Since suffi- 
cient attention has never yet been paid to this phe- 
nomenon of Yerushalmi, a list is here given of those 
passages of the first order, Zera‘im, which are re- 
peated in other orders. It must be noted, however, 
that this list includes neither citations based on pas- 
sages of another treatise nor parallel passages con- 
sisting of a single sentence. 

(¢) Passages from the order i. repeated in the 
order ii.: 

Ber. 3b, lines 10-55 = Shab. 3a, 69-3b, 20. Ber. 4a, 30-56 = 
Shek. 47a, 18-59 = M. K. 83c, 40-83d, 8. Ber. 5a, 33-62 = M. K. 
&2b, 14-47. Ber. 5d, 14-20 = Shab. 3a, 55-61. Ber. 5d, 65-6a, 9 = 
M. K. 83a, 5-27. Ber. 6e, 4-17 = Yoma 44d, 58-68. Ber. 6d, 60- 
67 = Meg. 73d, 15-22. Ber. Tb, 70-7d, 25 = Ta‘an. 67¢, 12-67d, 47. 
Ber. 7d, 75~8a, 59 = Ta‘an. 65c, 2-69. Ber. 8c, 60-69 = R. H.59d, 
16-25. Ber. 9a, 70-9b, 47 = Ta‘an. 63¢, 66-68d, 44. Ber. 9c, 20-31 
= Meg. 75e, 8-19. Ber. 9c, 49-54 = Meg. T5b, 31-36. Ber. 10a, 
32-43 = Pes. 29c, 16-27. Ber. lle, 14-21 = Pes. 3ic, 54-71. Ber. 
12c, 16-25 = “Er. 22b, 29-37. Ber. 12c, 44-62 = Suk. 24a, 6-21 = 
Meg. 72a, 15-31. Ber. 13d, 72-l4a, 30=Ta'‘an. 64a, 75-64b, 35. 
Pe’ah 15a, 67-15b, 21 = Hag. 76h, 24-53. Pe’ah 17a, 39-72 = Hag. 
76b, 138-47. Pe’ah 18d, 16-33 = Shek. 46a, 48-67. Pe’an 18d, 66- 
19a, 5 = Shek. 48c, 75 48d, 13. Pe’ah 21a, 25-29 = Shek. 480, 55- 
58. Dem. 22a, 31-40 = Shek. 48d, 40-49. Kil. 29b, 27-61 = ‘Er. 
19¢, 15-49 = Suk. 52a, 40-73. Kil. 29b, 62-76 = Suk. 52a, 73-52b, 11. 
Sheb. 34c, 27-49 = M. K. 80b, 26-52. Sheb. 38a, 50-60 = Shab. 3c, 
53-65, Ter. 44a, 32-38 = Shab. 44d, 4-10. Ter. 45d, 42-51 = Shab. 
3a, 2-15 (comp. ‘Ab. Zarah 41d, 13-28). Ter. 46a, 41-46b, 35 = 
Pes. 28a, 34-28b, 37. Ma'‘as. 49a, 22-28 = Suk. 53d, 43-53. Ma‘as. 
49b, 14-32 = Shab. 6b, 17-36. Ma‘as. 49b, 39-48 = Bezah 62b, 72- 
62c, 6. Ma‘as. Sh. 53b, 6-44 = Yoma 45c, 2-386 (comp. Shebu. 32b. 
56-34c, 3). Ma‘as. Sh. 54b, 48-53 = Shek. 51b, 15-25. Ma‘as. Sh. 
55a, 23-55 = ‘Er. 24c, 33-66. Ma‘as. Sh. 55d, 62-67 = M. K. 80b, 
+2-80e, 10. Hal. S57¢, 16-20 = R. H. 57b, 60-63. 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


(b) Passages from the order i. repeated in the 


order iii. : 
. at 17 = Naz. 56a, 12-68. Ber. 6b, 51-56 = Kid. 6le, 
an ranean Git. 47b, 49-63. Ber. Llb, 42-68 = Naz. 
ih. an Ber. 14b. 44-70 = Sotah 20c, 40-64. Pe’ah 15b, 4}_40 
ee oe 10-16. Pe’ah 15, 7-16 = Kid. 6la, 75~61c. 10. Dem. 
x G)-25e, T= Kid. 63a, 75-68b, 21. Kil. Ba, 64-824, 7 = Ket. 
3d, "4-850, 56. Sheb. 36b, 25-68 = Kid. 61e, 56-61d, 17. Ter. 
ie go-49a, 6 = Yeb. 1c, 70-18d, 82. Ter. 42b, 44-53 = Naz. 53d, 
16-27 _ Ter. 44c, 9-444, 44 = Ket. 27b, 5-270, 39. Ma‘as. Sh. 53a, 
g9-ndb, 13 = Git. 47d, 55-70. “Orlah b1b, 8-33 = Naz. 55c, 32-63. 
Bik. 64a. 32-44 = Yeb. 9b, 71-9e, 8. 

(c) Passages from the order i. repeated in the 
order iv. : 

Ber, 3a, 52-69 = Sanh. 30a, 65-30b, 8 = ‘Ab. Zarah 41¢, 46-63. 
Ber. 6b, 20-41 = Sanh. 20a, 43-60. Pe'ah 16b, 22-25, 43-60 = Sanh. 
ore, 38-60. Sheb, 35b, 20-40 = ‘Ab. Zarah 44b, 27-41. Sheb. 39b, 
14-38 — Mak. 3la, 38-50. Ter. 45c, 24-45d, 11 =‘Ab. Zarah 4la, 
ie41b, 3. Ter. 47¢, 66-470, 4= ‘AD. Zarah 41c, 13-23. Ma‘as. 
Sh. 54d, 71-55a, 8 = Sanh. 19a, 63-76. Ma‘as. Sh. 56c, 9-18 = 
Sanh. 18d, 18-22. ‘Orlah 62b, 49-62c, 10= "Ab. Zarah 45a, 32- 


45b, 10. 

The following parallel passages from the second and 
fourth orders may also be mentioned on account of 
their length: Shab. 9c, 62-9d, 59 = Sanh. 24c, 19- 
94d, 14; Shab. 14d, 10-15a, 1=‘Ab. Zarah 40d, 
12-41a, 4. 

Despite these parallel passages in the four orders 
of Yerushalmi, which might be regarded as a proof 
of the uniform redaction of the entire work, there 
is proof to the contrary, which shows that the first 
two orders differ in origin from the third and 
fourth. While the first and second contain a large 
number of baraitot with the introductory formula 
* Samuel transmits (Sys ‘3m ],” there is not asingle 
baraita by Samuel in the third and fourth orders. 
These latter two include, on the other hand, many 
controversies between Mani and Abin, two amoraim 
of the second half of the fourth century, while Ze- 
ra‘im and Mo‘ed contain very few (see Bacher, “ Ag. 
Pal. Amor.” iii. 398). The redaction of Yerushalmi 
is discussed in further detail below. 

The haggadic portions of Yerushalmi are also 
characteristic of its style. As in Babli, they fre- 
quently have only a slight bearing, sometimes none 
at all, on the subject of the mishnaic section and its 
Talmudic interpretation, being added to the pas- 
sages in which they are found either because they 
were mentioned in the academy on account of some 
subject under discussion, or because, in the process 
of the redaction of the treatise, this haggadic mate- 

rial, which was valued for some spe- 


The Hag- cial reason, seemed to fit into the Tal- 
gadet of mudic text at the passage in question. 
the Ye- Many haggadic portions of Yerushal- 

rushalmi. mi are likewise found almost word for 


- word in the earlier works of Pales- 
tinjan midrashic literature, especially in Genesis 
Rabbah, Leviticus Rabbah, Pesikta di-Rab Kahana, 
Ekah (Lamentations) Rabbati, and Midrash She- 
uel. These parallel passages do not always prove 
uctual borrowing; for the same earlier source may 
have been used in the redaction both of Yerushalmi 
and of the midrashic works. The haggadot of the 
Palestinian Talmud were collected and annotated by 
Samuel ben Isaac Jaffe Ashkenazi in his “Yefeh 
Mar’eh” (Venice, 1589), and they were translated 
into German by Wiinsche (“ Der Jerusalemische Tal- 


Talmud 


mud in Seinen Haggadischen Bestandtheilen,” Zu- 
rich, 1880). 

Linguistically, the Palestinian Talmud is Aramaic, 
in so far as its framework (like the elucidations of 
the mishnaic text by the members of the academies 
and the amoraic discussions connected with them) 
is redacted in that language; the greater portion of 
the terminology is in like manner Aramaic. The 
same dialect is employed in general for the nar- 
rative sections, including both the haggadot and 
the accounts of the lives of the sages and their 
pupils. The Aramaic portion consequently com- 
prises all that is popular in origin or content. The 
Hebrew sections, on the other hand, include the 
halakic sayings of the Tannaim, the citations from 
the collections of baraitot, and many of the amoraic 
discussions based on the tannaitic tradition, together 
with other sayings of the Amoraim. This linguistic 
usage is due tothe fact that both in Palestine and in 
Babylon the Halakah was for the most part elucida- 
ted and expanded by the Amoraim themselves in the 
language in which it had been transmitted by the 
Tannaim. Inthe academy the Hebrew of the Mish- 
nah held its place side by side with the Aramaic, thus 
giving to the latter a certain coloring, especially 
from a lexicographic point of view. Hebrew was 
retained in great measure also in the amoraic Hag- 
gadah. The Aramaic, which assumed a fixed liter- 
ary form in Yerushaimi, is almost the same as that 
of the earlier Palestinian midrashic works, differing 
from them only in a few peculiarities, mostly ortho- 
graphic. This idiom, together with that of the 
Palestinian Targum on the Pentateuch, has been 
analyzed in G. Dalman’s “Grammatik des Jtidisch- 
Palistinischen Aramiisch” (Leipsic, 1894; 2 ed. 
1905). 

The first complete edition of the Babylonian Tal- 
mud 0553 sybn) was printed at Venice, 1520-23, 
by Daniel Boinberg, and has become the basis, down 

to the present day, of a very large 
Editions of number of editions, including that of 
the Babli. Basel, 1578-81, which, with the changes 

and omissions made by the censor, ex- 
erted a powerful influence on later texts until the 
edition of Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1720-22, with 
its additions, became the model of all subsequent 
editions of the Talmud (see below). The external 
form of Babli was determined by the editio princeps. 
While the first edition of Yerushalmi, in its two 
columns on each folio page, contains only the text, 
the editio princeps of Babli adds the commentary 
of Rashi on one margin and the tosafot on the other, 
together with kindred matter. Especially note- 
worthy is the fact that the first edition of Babli has 
a pagination which has been retained in all subse- 
quent editions, thus rendering it possible to quote 
passages with exactness, and to find citations readily. 
The mishnaic treatises which have no Babylonian 
Talmud are included in the editions of the Tal- 
mud, together with commentaries, and these same 
tractates are likewise found in the only complete 
manuscript of Babli (that at Munich), where they 
form an appendix, although they precede the post- 
Talmudic treatises, which are likewise contained in 
the editions. It has been noted above that the edi- 
tions of Babli contain the Yerushalmi for the treatise 


Talmud 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 8 


Shekalim; and this is also the case in the Munich 
manuscript. 

The following list gives the names of the treatises 
of Babli which have been preserved, together with 
the sequence generally followed in the editions, and 
the number of folios in each tractate, the pagination 
always beginning with fol. 2. Of the 570 leaves of 
the Munich codex, containing about eighty lines to 
a page, 490 belong to Babli; this gives an approx- 
imate idea of the size of this Talmud. The amount 
of text on each page of the editions, however, varies 
greatly on account of the varying length of the com- 
mentary of Rashi and the tosafot which accompany 
it; but the number of leaves shows the comparative 
lengths of the several treatises. 

I. Zera‘im: Berakot (64). 

II. Mo‘ed: Shabbat (157); ‘Erubin (105); Pesahim (121); Be- 
zah (40); Hagigah (27); Mo‘ed Katan (29); Rosh ha-Shanah (35); 
Yoma (88); Sukkah (56); Ta‘anit (31); Megillah (32). 

Ul. Nashim: Yebamot (122): Ketubot (112); Kiddushin 
(82); Gittin (90); Nedarim (91); Nazir (66); Sotah (49). 

IV. Nezikin; Baba Kamma (119); Baba Mezi‘a (119); Baba 
Batra (176); ‘Abodah Zarah (76); Sanhedrin (113); Shebu‘ot 
(49); Makkot (24); Horayot (14). 

V. Bodashim: Zebahim (120); Menahot (110); Bekorot 
(161); Hullin (142); ‘Arakin (84); Temurah (84); Keritot (28); 
Me‘ilah (22); Tamid (9), 

VI. Tohorot: Niddah (73). 

Babli thus contains but one treatise each of the 
first and sixth orders; of the second, Shekalim (see 
above) is lacking; and there is no Talmud on ‘Eduyot 
or Abot either in Babli or Yerushalmi. The fifth 
order of Babli contains neither Middot 
nor Kinnim, nor the third, fifth, sixth, 
and seventh chapters of Tamid. It is 
incorrect, however, to speak of miss- 
ing portions of the Babylonian Talmud, since in all 
probability the sections which it omits were en- 
tirely disregarded in the final redaction of the work, 
and were consequently never committed to writing 
(for a divergent opinion see Weiss, “ Dor,” iii. 271). 
It will be shown further on that the mishnaic trea- 
tises lacking in Babli were subjects of study in the 
Babylonian academies. 

In the editions the Babylonian Talmud is so ar- 
ranged that each paragraph of the Mishnah is fol- 
lowed by the portion of the Talmud which forms 
the commentary on it; the portions are frequently 
divided into sections, rubricked by the successive 
sentences of the mishnaic paragraph on which they 
are based, although an entire paragraph occasionally 
serves as a sipgle text. Thus Babli on Ket. ii. 1 
(16a-18b) is divided into six sections; but there is no 
division into sections for ii, 2 (18b-20b), ii. 3 (20b- 
22a), li. 5 (28b), and i. 9 (27b-28a). There are three 
sections for ii. 4 (28a); two for ii. 6 (28b-26a), ii. 7 
(26b-27%a), and ii. 8 (27a, b); and eight for ii. 10 
(28a, b). In the Munich codex, which is based on a 
manuscript of the middle of the ninth century (see 
Lewy in “ Breslauer Jahresbericht,” 1905, p. 28), the 
text of the entire chapter of the Mishnah is written 
in large characters on the inner portion of the page, 
separated from the Talmudic text, which is in a 
different script. In the fragments in the Bodleian 
Library, Oxford, written in 1128 and containing a 
portion of the treatise Keritot (see “ J. Q. R.” ix. 145), 
each chapter is headed by the entire mishnaic text on 
which it is based. Then follow the sections of the 


Missing 
Gemaras. 


Talmud, each beginning with the word “3n19 and 
the first part of the mishnaic paragraph in question, 
although some sections are marked by the super- 
scription 'D°) (= Xpp’p). Thesuperscription N93, 
which in the editions marks the beginning of the 
Talmud on each paragraph of the Mishnah, is found 
neither in the Munich codex nor in the Bodleian 
fragments. Mostof the manuscripts containing one 
or more treatises of Babli, and described by R. N. 
Rabbinovicz in the introductions to vols. i., iv., Viii., 
ix., and xi. of his “Dikduke Soferim,” are so ar- 
ranged that the entire mishnaic text is placed at the 
beginning of the chapter; and this is also occasion- 
ally the case in the editions, as in the first chapter 
of the treatise Sanhedrin. In a St. Petersburg man- 
uscript said to date from 1112 the paragraphs are 
repeated in their proper places (2d. viii. 3). A number 
of codices in the Vatican Library are arranged partly 
in the one way and partly in the other (xi. 13, 15, 
17, 18), while the system adopted in the printed 
texts occurs in manuscripts also (see 75. iv. 6, 8; xi. 
20). It may be mentioned asa curious circumstance 
that in one manuscript of the Vatican (7). xi. 19), 
containing the treatise Pesahim, many passages are 
vocalized and accented, as is also the case in a Bod- 
leian fragment of Yerushalmion Berakot (“J. Q. R.” 
ix. 150). A fragment of considerable length in the 
Cambridge Library, and possibly the earliest extant 
manuscript of Babli, also contains the treatise 
Pesahim; it has been edited by Lowe (“ The Frag- 
ment of Talmud Babli of the Ninth or Tenth Cen- 

tury,” Cambridge, 1879); and in its 

Earliest four folios it includes the text of fols. 
Manuscript 7a, below —9a, middle, and 18a, below 

of —16a, above, of the editions. The 

the Babli. pages are divided into two columns; 

and the entire mishnaic text precedes 

the chapter; the several sections, even those begin- 

ning with a new paragraph of the Mishnah, have 

an introduction only in the case of the first word of 

the mishnaic passage in question, with the word 
‘s9mo as superscription. 

The character of Babli and its divergencies from 
Yerushalmi may best be illustrated by a citation of 
its commentary on the same passages of the Mish- 
nah as those contained in the sections of the 
Palestinian Talmud already analyzed. 

Ber. i. 1 (divided in Yerushalmi into four para- 
graphs, but in Babli forms one only, the explanations 
of which are given in 2a-9a; for the purposes of 
the present comparison, only those discussions in 
Babli which refer to that part of the Mishnah which 
in Yerushalmi forms the first paragraph are here sum- 
marized): (@) The initial question of the Mishnah and 
its basis; two divergent answers, together with an 
objection and its refutation (2a; all anonymous). 
The initial statement of the Mishnah, and an inter- 
pretation of Lev. xxii. 7 based on a baraita on this 
verse and concluding with a note of Rabbah b. Shela 
(2b), and the method of teaching this interpretation 
in Palestine. The contradictions between the state- 
ment of the Mishnah and three baraitot which are 
successively stated and dialectically refuted (all 
anonymous). A discussion of the third baraita (8a). 
The opinion of R. Eliezer (“until the end of the 
first watch of the night”), and the problem whether 


PAGE FROM THE MUNICH MANUSCRIPT OF THE BABYLONIAN TALMUD. 


Talmud 


three or four night-watches were implied; a hag- 
gadic baraita with a saying of R. Eliezer on the 
three watches of the night, together with a discus- 
sion of it. A haggadic excursus of some length, 
beginning with Rab’s saying regarding the three 
watches of the night, and containing a baraita (a 
poem by Jose b. Halafta) and a disquisition on it (8b). 
Further details of the night-watches, beginning 
with a controversy between Judah I. and Nathan 
(in a baraita); a haggadic saying of Joshua b. Levi 
transmitted by Zerika and Ammi, this section con- 
cluding with a saying of Ashi. Another saying of 
Joshua b. Levi, transmitted in like manner, together 
with two versions of a comment by Abba b. Ka- 
hana. Discussion of the first saying of Joshua b. 
Levi, beginning with the rising of David “at mid- 
night” (Ps. cxix. 62), and devoted in the main to 
the connotation of the word “ neshef ” (7d. cxix. 147), 
together with sayings of Babylonianamoraim. The 
way in which David knew when midnight had ar- 
rived, and concerning his harp (4a). Further de- 
tails regarding David, Ps. !vii. 9, and Ex. xi. 4, with 
an exegesis by Ashi, which concludes the entire dis- 
cussion. Additional haggadic material concerning 
David, and a controversy between the Palestinian 
haggadists Levi and Isaac on Ps. Ixxxvi. 2 with ref- 
erence to Ps. cxix. 62, together with comments and 
citations of a kindred nature, 

(6) Dialectic exposition of the relation of the view 
of the scholars to the opinions of R. Eliezer and R. 
Gamaliel, together with the citation of a baraita (4b). 
A controversy between Johanan and Joshua b. Levi 
on the sequence of the “Shema‘” and prayer, based 
on a sentence in this baraita (“the ‘Shema‘’ is read: 
prayer is offered”), together with a discussion 
devoted chiefly to exegetic inferences. An objec- 
tion alleged by Marb. Rabina and based ona passage 
in the Mishnah, and a haggadic saying of Eleazarb. 
Abina to the effect that he who recites Ps. cxlv. 

thrice daily is assuredly a son of the 

Examples world to come, the citation being 
from made in this place on account of an 
the Babli. aphorism of similar content given by 
Johanan in the course of the same 

debate. <A discussion of these matters, and a saying 
of Johanan on Ps. cxlv., together with another hag- 
gadic aphorism by Eleazar b. Abina on the angels 
Michael and Raphael, andits elucidation. The view 
of Joshua b. Levi on the evening “Shema‘,” which 
should be recited in bed (5a), and amoraic sayings 
on the same subject, together with a confirmation, 
by a citation of Ps. iv. 6, of the ruling of Joshua b. 
Levi: a haggadic saying of Simeon b. Lakish trans- 
mitted by Levi b. Lahma, as well as another apho- 
rism of this scholar transmitted by the same author- 
ity. A haggadic saying by Isaac on reading the 
“Shema‘” in bed, and a comment by Ashi, followed 
by another haggadic aphorism by Isaac based on 
Job v. 7; interpretation of this verse as denoting 
afflictions sent by God (“yissurim ”), against which 
the study of the Torah gives protection; haggadic 
sentences on the Law. A long series of haggadic 
savings by Palestinian and Babylonian amoraim, and 
especially by Jobanan, regarding affliction (5b), with 
anecdotes from Palestine and Babylon. A baraita 
with a saying of Abba Benjamin regarding prayer 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 10 


before retiring, and its elucidation, together with 
three other baraitot and haggadic sayings of Abba 
Benjamin regarding prayer (6a), regarding demons 
(with various sayings of Babylonian authors), and 
praying in the synagogue. A haggadic saying by 
Isaac on the last subject transmitted by Rabin b. 
Adda, together with a saying of Ashi and additional 
elucidations, followed by another aphorism trans- 
mitted by Rabin in the name of Isaac regarding the 
“phylacteries of God,” and by a discussion of the 
subject by Babylonian amoraim, the view of Ashi 
standing last. <A third haggadic saying of Isaac, of 
similar transmission, concerning prayer in the syna- 
gogue (6b), and aseries of aphorisms of a like nature, 
the first being by Johanan, and the second by Huna 
transmitted by Helbo. These, interspersed with 
other sayings, are followed by five more aphorisms 
transmitted by Helbo in the name of Huna and re- 
garding departure from the synagogue, the Minhah 
prayer, participation in marriage festivities, the fear 
of God, and the refusal to return a salutation. A 
series (7a) of five haggadic sayings transmitted by 
Johanan in the name of Jose ben Halafta: the prayer 
offered by God, pacification of an angry neighbor, 
discipline of one’s own conscience, three requests of 
Moses, and the teaching that a threat or promise by 
God is not recalled, even though given only con- 
ditionally, and that neither, therefore, is ever unful- 
filed. After a number of sayings, partly tannaitic 
and partly amoraic in origin, come six haggadic 
aphorisms (7b) transmitted by Johanan in the name 
of the tanna Simeon ben Yohai, the second treating 
of the same subject as the corrresponding one in the 
previous series. To these sayings are appended 
various aphorisms and elucidations, followed by a 
conversation between Nahman b. Jacob and Isaac, 
in which the latter cites a sixth saying, concerning 
prayer in the synagogue, transmitted by Johanan in 
the name of Simeon ben Yohai. Additional hag- 
gadic aphorisms (8a) on this subject as well as on the 
importance of the synagogue, followed by three say- 
ings of ‘Ulla transmitted by Hiyya b. Ammi, and by 
various aphorisms on the reading of the Torah in 
the synagogue (8b) and other kindred matters. This 
portion is concluded by the instructions which 
Joshua b. Levi gave to his sons, and by the analogous 
instructions which Raba gave to his children, as well 
as by elucidations of details of these teachings and 
by sayings of a similar import. 

(c) In the naine of Samuel, Judah declares that the 
opinion of R. Gamaliel is authoritative. A baraita 
giving a similar view by Simeon ben Yohai, followed 
by an interpretation of it with a final decision by 
Joshua ben Levi, and by another version of the rela- 
tion toit of the ruling of Joshua ben Levi, The section 
(9a) terminates with an opinion on this baraita by 
a scholar who had come from Palestine to Babylon. 

R. H. i. 1 § 1-2 in Yerushalmi; the Talmud on 
these scctions is contained in 2a-15b): (a) Hisda’s 
answer to the question as to the practical importance 
of the “new year of the kings,” with a citation of 
the mishnaic passage (Sheb. x. 5) regarding 
antedated and postdated promissory notes. A 
baraita on the reckoning of regnal years, and its 
elucidation (2b), together with hermeneutic deduc- 
tions from the Bible regarding Nisan as the begia 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


11 


regnal year, introduced by an inference 
of Johanan pased on I Kings vi. 1 as compared with 
Sum. xxxili. 38, Deut. i. 3, 4, Num. xxi. 1 (8a), and 
“ilar passages, preference being finally given to 
Eleazar’s deduction founded on II 
Further Chron. iii, 2. A baraita giving the 
Examples. deduction of Johanan. The assertion 
of Hisda that the regnal years of non- 
[sraelitish kings were reckoned from Tishri, together 
with Biblical passages in confirmation of this view, 
beginning with Neh. i. 1 and its hermeneutic ex posi- 
tion (3b), the conclusion being formed by a variety 
of haggadic material on the Persian kings mentioned 
in the Bible (4a). : 

(b) Hisda’s answer to the query why Nisan 15, 
the first day of the Feast of Passover, was not made 
the “new year of the feasts,” while a baraita shows 
that this view was promulgated by Simeon ben 
Yohai himself. Another baraita (4b) on the ritual 
order of the festivals, together with exegetic deduc- 
tions from the views contained therein and addi- 
tional discussions, concluding with an elucidation 
(5a) of other halakic and exegetic sayings on festi- 
vals and sacritices. Baraita (5b) on Deut. xxiii. 22 
et seg., and a detailed discussion, followed by a simi- 
lar section (6a, b) on Deut. xxiii. 24. Baraita (7a) on 
Nisan 1 and its four meanings, the first being deduced 
from Ex. xii. 2and Deut. xvi. 1, although an ob- 
jection caused Lev. xxiii. 39 to be regarded by Hisda 
as the basic passage, while Zech. i. 7 was cited 
to refute an allegation made by Rabina, additional 
Biblical passages being quoted by the Babylonian 
amoraim ‘Ulla, Kahana, and Ashi; the section is 
concluded by a deduction of the three other mean- 
ings of Nisan 1(7b) mentioned in the baraita. 

(c) The signification of Elul 1 as the “new year 
for tithes of cattle,” as taught by R. Meir. The 
various origins of the sentences collected in R. H. i. 
1, together with a saying by Joseph, followed by 
a series of aphorisms of later Babylonian amoraim, 
and one by Ashi (8a). Johanan’s deduction, from 
Ps. lxv. 14, of the double view concerning the new 
year for tithes of cattle, and its dialectic elucidation. 

Second half of the mishnaic paragraph: (a) The 
question regarding the practical utility of the new 
year for the counting of the years, answered by 
Pappa in exactly the same way as Hisda had solved 
the question concerning the new year of the kings; 
solution of the discrepancy and further clucidations 
of the principle that Tishri 1 was the new year for 
the counting of the years. Two baraitot on Ps. 
Ixxxi. 4 et seg. (8b). 

(4) An inference regarding the year of jubilee, 
based on Lev. xxv. 4; and the obviation of the diffi- 
culty presented by Lev. xxv. 9 (with reference to 
the Sabbatical year) by means of a baraita on the 
following verse, together with two other baraitot 
Ou the same subject (9a) and an elucidation of 
Tishri 10, concluded by a baraita on Lev. xxv. 11 
and its interpretation (9b), 
ao oe deduction regarding the planting of 
for ra oF estas thereon, with an inference drawn 
a cane ible by J ohanan (10a), and an elucidation 
‘shana oe biter cited in explanation of the first. 
nae ns eduction from Gen. viii. 18 regarding 

Pposing views of R. Meir and R. Eleazar (10b) 


Talmud 


as to whether a day may be reckoned like a year, thus 
introducing a baraita containing the controversy be- 
tween R. Eliezer and R. Joshua on the month of 
Creation, the former arguing for Tishri and the latter 
for Nisan; exegetic haggadot of considerable length 
(11a-12a) on this section. 

(d) A baraita stating that “tithes” and “vows” 
as well as “vegetables” belong to Tishri 1, together 
with interpretations by hermeneutics and other 
methods (12b), and with discussions of the sub- 
ject by the Palestinian and Babylonian schools, 
and halakic exegeses (18a-14a). 

(e) An argument by Hoshaiah transmitted by 
Eleazar (14a), and a baraita recording the practise 
of R. Akiba (14b-15b), as well as elucidations of it. 
Another baraita on Shebat 15, with a controversy 
between Johanan and Simeon ben Lakish, and a dis- 
cussion of it. 

Git. ii. 1 (the Talmud on this section is contained 
in 15a~1%a): (a) The purpose of the entire paragraph, 
although its content is immediately apparent from 
the opening sentence of the mishnaic treatise. 

(6) The problem of the connotation of “the half” 
of the bill of divorce, and Ashi’s answer. 

(c) The law regarding a case in which only “the 
half” of a bill of divorce is signed by witness in the 
presence of the bearer; the more rigorous interpre- 
tation of it by Hisda and subsequent modifications 
by Raba and (15b) Ashi, as well as a dialectic dis- 
cussion of these three sayings. Analogous cases 
from other branches of the Halakah and casuistic 
questions bearing on them (16a), concluding with 
one by Pappa which remains unanswered. 

(d) Case in which one of the bearers of a bill of 
divorce witnesses the engrossing of the document 
and the other the signature; exact definition given by 
Johanan and transmitted by Samuel b. Judah (16b); 
the answer of the latter to the objection of Abaye, 
although another version of the entire affair makes 
Ashi the author of the objection; controversy on the 
subject between Hoshaiah and ‘Ulla. Anecdote of 
a visit made by Judah b. Ezekiel to Rabbah bar bar 
Hana during an illness of the latter, and their con- 
versation on a problem connected with Git. i. 1. 

(e) The case in which the engrossing of a bill of di- 
vorce is witnessed by one and the signature by two - 
persons (17a), and the exact definition of such an 
event, given by Johanan and transmitted by Ammi, 
the section being concluded by a discussion between 
Ammi and Assi. 

B. B. i. 6 (the Talmud on this section is contained 
in 7b-11a): (a) “One who is part owner of a court- 
yard is obliged to contribute to the 
cost of the gateway as well as of the 
door itself”; the citation of a legend 
concerning Elijah to prove that a gate- 
way is not necessarily a subject for praise, con- 
cluded by a casuistic definition of the case presup- 
posed by the Mishnah. 

(5) According to R. Simeon b. Gamaliel, “ Every 
courtyard is not adapted to a gateway”; a ba- 
raita containing the complete version of this saying. 

(c) According to R. Simeon b. Gamaliel, “One 
who dwells in a city is obliged to contribute to- 
ward the building of the walls and the doors,” 
etc.: a baraita containing the complete version of 


Legal 
Example. 


Talmud 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 12 


a 


this saying. Johanan's answer to the query ad- 
vanced by Eleazar concerning the method of levy- 
ing contributions, followed by a second version of 
the same account. The patriarch Judah II. and the 
scholars contributed toward building the wall, al- 
though the legality of this action was questioned by 
Simeon b. Lakish on the basis of a haggadic deduc- 
tion from Ps. exxxix. 18, while Johanan proposed 
another verse, Cant. viii. 10, to aid in the solution 
of the problem (8a); Rabbah’s interpretation of this 
passage of Canticles. An instance of contributions 
on the part of the scholars of Babylonia, and the 
proof of their illegality furnished by the exegesis of 
three Biblical passages, taken respectively from the 
Pentateuch, the Prophets, and the Hagiographa. 
Pappa’s proof that a certain tax was imposed on 
orphans, and a discussion of it, followed by a tan- 
naitic account (half Aramaic) by Judah I. of the 
support of scholars during a time of famine. 

(d) “How long must one dwell in a city to have 
equal rights with its citizens? Twelve months ” ; 
a conflicting baraita which speaks of thirty days; 
Rabbah’s solution of this contradiction, while 
Johanan reconciles the discrepancy between the 
period of twelve months and that given in another 
baraita. The saying of Johanan as to the liability 
of scholars to taxation, and various statements re- 
garding the practise of the Babylonian sages. The 
way in which Joseph (4th cent.) expended a sum of 
money sent him by the mother of King Sapor, to- 
gether (8b) with an interpretation of Jer. xv. 2. 
Baraita on the mode of levying taxes for the poor, 
and the right of assessment of municipal taxes. 
The rule of the Mishnah (Shek. v. 2) that the small- 
est number of persons who may be entrusted with 
raising taxes is two, and its Biblical basis according 
to Nahman b. Jacob, together with sayings and ex- 
amples bearing on this matter. An interpretation of 
Dan. xii. 8 as referring to the collectors and trustees 
of the tax for the poor,followed by two baraitot on 
these collectorsand Abaye’s statements regarding the 
practise of Rabbah b. Nahmani, as well as (9a) by a 
note of Ashi and an opinion of Rabbah. Baraita on 
the auditing of the accounts of the trustees of the 
tax for the poor, and elucidations of it. Notes and 
anecdotes illustrating Mishnah Pe’ah viii. 7 (on the 
amount to be given to the poor), followed by hag- 
gadic passages on the importance of almsgiving, 
among these aphorisms being one cited by Rabbah 
as transmitted to Eleazar by a certain ‘Ulla witha 
curious surname, which forms the basis of an anec- 
dote. Further haggadic passages on the charity of 
Eleazar, Isaac, and others. A baraita giving R. 
Meir’s answer (10a) to the question why God Him- 
self does not nurture the poor, followed by an ac- 
count of the conversation on this subject between 
R. Akiba and Tineius Rufus. Sermon by Judah b. 
Shalom (Palestinian amora of the 4th cent.) on Jer. 
Ivii. 17, and anecdotes from the lives of Johanan 
b. Zakkaiand Pappa. Haggadic sayings by tannaim 
and amoraim on alms. The vision of Joseph b. 
Joshua b. Levi (10b) of the future life, together with 
baraitot on the interpretation of Prov. xiv. 34 by 
Johanan b. Zakkai and his scholars as well as by 
Gamaliel If. and the other sages of Jabneh. The 
charity of the mother of Sapor, and two baraitot: 


one (11a) the story of the beneficence of Benjamin 
ha-Zaddik; the other an account of the generosity 
of King Monobaz. 

(e) “If one obtains a dwelling-place in the city, he 
immediately receives equal rights with the citizens”; 
an opposing vicw by Simeon b. Gamaliel trans. 
mitted in two versions. 

This analysis of four different passages of the 
Babylonian Talmud shows, in the first place, that 

the framework, as in the Palestinian 
Framework Talmud, is formed by @ running 
of Com- interpretation of the Mishnah, despite 
mentary. the heterogeneity of the material 
which is interwoven with it. The 
Talmud, however, is not a mere commentary on the 
Mishnah, since, in addition to its haggadic portions, 
it contains a varied mass of halakic material, con- 
nected only loosely, if at all, with the contents of 
the mishnaic paragraphs in question; and while 
the Talmud sometimes adheres closely to the text 
of such a paragraph, its commentary on a single 
section of the Mishnah is often expanded into the 
compass of a small book. Jn this respect Babli is 
much more free than Ycrushalmi, which is more 
concise in other regards as well; the wider interests 
of the former and its greater variety and length are 
due at least in large part to the fact that the Baby- 
lonian academies enjoyed a longer existence and 
hence its redaction extended over a more protracted 
period. 

The fact that the Haggadah is much more promi- 
nent in Babli, of which it forms, according to Weiss 
(“Dor,” iii. 19), more than one-third, while it 
constitutes only one-sixth of Yerushalmi, was due, 
in a sense, to the course of the development of He- 
brew literature. No independent mass of haggadot 
developed in Babylon, as was the case in Palestine; 
and the haggadic writings were accordingly col- 
lected in the Talmud. The most curious example 
of this is a midrash on the Book of Esther, found at 
the end of the first chapter of the treatise Megillah 
(pp. 10b-17a). Except for the fact that the text of 
this section naturally alludes to the Book of Esther, 
the midrash has no connecting-link with the prece- 
ding portion of the Talmud. It is a true midrashic 
compilation in the style of the Palestinian mid- 
rashim, introduced by sixteen proems (mostly by 
Palestinian authors), and followed by exegeses and 
comments on individual verses of Esther in the 
order of the text, each preceded by a catchword (for 
further details on this midrash see Bacher, “ Ag. 
Bab. Amor.” p. 119). Afragment of a similar com 
pilation on Lamentations, treating of a few verses 
of the first two chapters, is found in the last chapter 
of Sanhedrin (104, 4 et seg.), this fragment being ir 
serted there on account of the preceding casual all 
sion to the Babylonian exile (2d. p. 120). The trea 
tise Gittin (55a-58a) containsa haggadic compilation 
on the destruction of Jerusalem, its elements being 
found partly in the Palestinian literature, partly i 
Ekah Rabbati, and partly in the treatise Ta‘anit of 
the Jerusalem Talmud. This haggadah, which be 
gins with a saying by Johanan, is appended to the 
brief halakic elucidation of the first sentence of thé 
mishnaic paragraph on the law of the Sicarii (Git 
v. 6), mentioning those who fell in the war againé 


PAGE : 
FROM AN UNKNOWN EDITION OF TRACTATE BaBa MEZI’'A OF THE BABYLONIAN 


SONCINO BEFORE 1500. 
(By courtesy of Prof, Solomon Schechter.) 


TALMUD, PRINTED PROBABLY BY 


9 
3 
3 
: 
4 
; 


Talmud 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 1q 


i a aT aa ae 


the Romans. In Babli such haggadic interpola- 
tions, often of considerable length, are extremely 
frequent, while the very content of the mishnaic 
paragraphs often affords a basis for lengthy haggadic 
excursuses. Thus the last (in Yerushalmi, next to 
the last) chapter of Sanhedrin is made the founda- 
tion foramass of haggadic comments, 
Haggadah most of them only loosely connected 
of by an association of ideas with the text 
the Babli. of the passages of the Mishnah to 
which they are assigned. In this ex- 
ceptionally long chapter of Babli (pp. 90a-113b) 
only that portion (111b-112b) which refers to the 
Law in Deut. xiii. 12 e¢ seg. is halakic in nature. 
The haggadic conclusion of the first chapter of Sotah 
furnishes the basis for further Talmudic comments 
in the style of the Haggadah (8b, 14a); so that, for 
example, the interpretation of Ex. ii. 4, cited in the 
Mishnah (11a), is followed (1la-13b) by an inde- 
pendent section which forms a running midrash 
on Ex. i. 8-ii. 4. Additional examples may be 
found in nearly every treatise of the Babylonian 
Talmud. The haggadic sections of this Talmud, 
which form an important part of the entire work, 
have been collected in the very popular “‘En Ya‘a- 
kob” of Jacob ibn Habib (1st ed. 1516), as well as in 
the rarer “Haggadot ha-Talmud” (Constantinople, 
1511; comp. Rabbinovicz, “ Dikduke Soferim,” viii. 
181); and they have been translated into German by 
A. Winsche (“Der Babylonische Talmud in Seinen 
Haggadischen Bestandtheilen,” 3 vols., Leipsic, 
1886-89). 

An important factor in the composition of the 
Talmud, and consequently one it is necessary to con- 
sider in a discussion of its literary form, is the fre- 
quent juxtaposition of several sayings ascribed to 
one and the same author. These sayings, which 
are frequently linked together by the name of their 
common transmitter as well as by that of their au- 
thor, were evidently taught in this connected form 
in the academies, thus finding their way into the 
appropriate passages of the Talmudic text. Such 
groups of aphorisms are extremely frequent in 
Babli; and several of them are found in the pas- 
sage from Ber. 2a-9a which has been analyzed 
above (regarding Yerushalmi see Frankel, “ Mebo,” 
p. 39a). Other circumstances which must be con- 
sidered in discussing the composition of the text of 
the Talmud are set forth in the account of its origin 
and redaction given below. 

The remarks already made concerning the relation 
of the Hebrew and the Aramaic elements in the 
vocabulary of Yerushalmi apply with little modifi- 
cation to Babli, although the Aramaic of the latter 
is more nearly akin to the Syriac (the eastern Ara- 
maic dialect then current in Babylonia) and Is even 
more closely related to Mandan (see Ndldeke, 
“Mandiische Grammatik,” -:p. xxvi., Halle, 1875; 

on the Persian elements in the vocab- 
Style and uilary of Babli see Jew. Encyc. vil. 
Language. 313b, s.c. Jup4o-PeRsIAN). In re- 

gard to Greek and Latin terms Levy 
makes the incomprehensible statement (“ Neuhebr. 
Worterb.” iv. 274a) that “no Greek or Latin words 
are found in the Babylonian Talmud.” This is, 
however, incorrect; for a large number of words 


from the Latin and Greek (see Krauss, “ Lehp. 
worter,” i. p. xxiii.) are employed in the Talmuq 
both in the tannaitic passages found in Babli, ang 
in the sayings of Palestinian as well as of Babylo. 
nian amoraim, such as Rab (see Bacher, ¢.¢. p. 39} 
On the exegetic terminology as applied in Biblicg 
and traditional hermencutics, see Bacher, * Term). 
nologie der Amoriier,” Leipsic, 1905. An interestin 
linguistic peculiarity of Babli is the fact that tay, 
naitic traditions, especially stories, are occasionally 
given entirely in Aramaic, or an anecdote, begun jy 
Hebrew, is continued in Aramaic (such as the story, 
designated by 7339 33M as a baraita, concernin 
Joshua b. Perahyah and his pupil Jesus [Sanh, 
107b}). 

The contents of the Talmud—this term being re. 
stricted to Babli, although much which applies to jj 
holds true of Yerushalmi as well—fall into the two 
main divisions of Halakah and Haggadah. Al. 
though, as stated above, the Mishnah itself fre. 
quently furnishes the ground for the inclusion of 
haggadic elements in the Talmud, and although the 

subjects discussed in the Halakah fre. 


The quently lead of themsel ves to hag gadic 
Halakahin treatment, the Haggadah occupies 
Babli. only a secondary position in the Tal. 


mud, since this is, both in origin and in 
purpose, a halakic work, and was intended to serve 
as a commentary on the chief authoritative work of 
the tannaitic Halakah, the Mishnah of Judah I. 
Those portions, therefore, which treat of the in- 
terpretation of the Mishnah are the substance of the 
Talmud. This interpretation, however, was not 
merely theoretical, but was primarily devoted toa 
determination of the rules applying to the practise 
of the ceremonial law; on the other hand, the de 
velopment of the Halakah had not ceased in the 
academies of the Amoraim, despite the acceptance 
of the Mishnah, so that the opinions and the decisions 
of the Amoraim themselves, even when they were 
not based merely on an interpretation of the Mishnah 
and other tannaitic halakot, became the subject of 
tradition and comment. In addition to the Mish- 
nah, furthermore, the Midrash (the halakic exegesis 
of the Bible) and the Halakah in the more re 
stricted sense became the subject of tradition and of 
study, and were preserved in different collections 
as being the other results of the tannaitic period. 
In this way the Talmud, in its strict connatation of 
the interpretation of the Mishnah, was increased by 
an inexhaustible mass of material, which afforded 
the amoraic academies a basis both for the interpre 
tation and for the criticism of the Mishnah; for since 
the Talmud deals with the criticism of the Mishnabh, 
not only in text and meaning, but also in its relation 
to the baraitot, these baraitot themselves were fre: 
quently interpreted in the same way as were mish 
naic passages (¢.g., R. H. 10a, 12b, 29a), and were 
supplied with their Talmud. Moreover, the Talmud 
was further augmented by the inclusion within !! 
of the views which the scholars expressed in tht 
course of their public, judicial, and other activities 
as well as by the data regarding their private live 
and their religious practises which were discussé 
and memorized in the academies. If this brie 
sketch of the Talmud as regards its halakic col 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


15 

wate be supplemented by the statement that the 
ane of the several amoraim as well as the op- 
ae of their contemporaries and the mem- 


osing views 
pers of the academies, whether teachers or pupils, are 
ers 


frequently recorded in een with ve Ae 

of the discussions of the academies, 2 more complete 

view of the nature of the Talmud and a better con- 
‘on of its form may be gained. 

cea eal framework of the Talmud, howev 

The real framew ork of the Ta mud, however, on 
the entire structure was built, was, as noted 
ahove, provided by the questions, comments, and 
discussions which are based on individual para- 
craphs of the Mishnah, and which are anonymous, 
sr not ascribed to any author. Appended to these 
passages and interspersed among them are sayings 
whose authors are named; and this class frequently 
preponderates greatly. The anonymous framework 

of the Talmud may be regarded as the 
The warp resulting from the united activ- 
Framework ity of the members of the academy, 
Anony- and upon which the woof of the Tal- 
mous. mud was interwoven and developed 
during three centuries, until its final 
redaction gave it definitive form. The Talmud is 
really the work of the body of scholars in the acad- 
emies, who devoted themselves to it generation after 
generation, and kept its traditions alive. Although 
many members of the academies—the great as well 
as the small, teachers as well as pupils—are men- 
tioned as the authors of various sayings and de- 
cisions, and as taking part in the discussions and 
controversies, some of them being deemed scholars 
worthy of record on account of a single remark, the 
background of the Talmud, or rather the back ground 
for those elements regarding whose authorship state- 
ments are made, was formed by the united efforts of 
those who labored to produce that work. The mani- 
fold objections and refutations introduced by the 
word “metibi” (= “they object ”), and the questions 
(generally casuistic in nature) preceded by the for- 
mula “ibba‘ya lehu” (= “they have asked ”) refer 
to this body of scholars, regardless of the date at 
which they lived, 

This allusion to the anonymous framework of the 
Tahnud suggests the problem of its redaction, which 
is partially answered by the allusion itself; for the 
work began with the inception of the collection, 
and the first amoraim laid the foundation for the 
task, which was carried on by succeeding genera- 
Hons, the final result being the Talmud in its pres- 
ent form. The system of mishnaic hermeneutics, 
which was ina sense official, and was at all events 
“unctioned by the lectures delivered in the academy, 
Was determined as early as the first generation, and 
remained valid thenceforth. It is interesting to 
ane that the only certain occurrence of the word 
fa in the sense of “Talmud ” (‘Er, 32b) is 
aor ee with an account which throws 
Hea ie upon the first stages of the Yedac- 
inerrea almud. This account begins with the 

ivya b Nee Er. iii. 4, and is as follows: “ R. 
Babe lon] : He R. Assi [Palestinian amoraim in 
lien eae ae Sea b. Nathan sat; and beside 
[here follows a dintsete a Sea 
the place of the t lc discussion on the nature of 

ree mentioned in the paragraph of 


which 


Talmud 


the Mishnah]. Then R. Nahman said: ‘Itiscorrect: 
and Samuel also has approved of this explanation.’ 
Then the first three asked: ‘ Hast thou established 
this explanation in the Gemara?’ {7.e., “Hast thou 
included it as a fixed element in the Talmud? Nah- 
man answers in the affirmative, whereupon a con- 
firmatory amoraic tradition is added; and, in the 
name of Samuel, Rab Nahman interprets the mish- 
naic passage under consideration in the light of that 
exegesis].” The term “kaba‘” (“establish”) was 
used in a later age by Sherira Gaon to designate the 
incorporation of portions that were used to make up 
the Talmud into its text (see Lewy, “Interpretation 
des Ersten Abschnitts des Palastinischen Talmud. 
Traktates Nesikin,” p.4; Bacher, in “ Hebrew Union 
College Annual,” 1904, p. 34), while in the Talmud 
itself the word was applied to the redaction of tan- 
naitic traditions (see R. H. 32a, above; Kid. 25a: 
Sanh. 21b; Zeb. 114b). This account, which dates 
from the beginning of the amoraic period in the 
Academy of Nehardea, is, curiously enough, an iso- 
lated instance; for among the many dates and ac- 

counts which the Talmud con‘ains in 
Redaction. reference to the academy and its mem- 

bers, there is no direct statement con- 
cerning the redaction of the text, either in its earlier 
stages or at its conclusion, although certain state- 
ments on divergent traditions of amoraic sayings and 
discussions afford an idea of the way in which the 
Talmudic text emerged from the various versions 
given by the scholars and schools that transmitted 
it. These statements, which have been collected by 
Lewy (/.¢c. pp. 4-14), use the verb “tanni” (“ pa‘el ” 
from '3M) in referring to lectures on the Talmudic 
text as well as amoraic sayings or discussions on 
them (Bacher, “ Terminologie der Amoriier,” p. 239). 
Thus it is stated (Shab. 48b; B. B. 86a) that at Sura 
a certain interpretation was given in the name of 
Hisda and at Pumbedita in that of Kahana. There 
are a number of other similar statements concerning 
traditions, in regard to differences, as between Sura 
and Pumbedita, and between Sura and Nehardea, 
in the wording of the amoraic sayings and in their 
ascribed authorship (Git. 85a). Especially frequent 
is the mention of amoraim of the fourth and fifth 
centuries as transmitters of these divergent state- 
ments, either two amoraim being named as author- 
ities for two different versions, or an amora being 
cited as opposing another version to an anonymous 
tradition. As examples of the former may be men- 
tioned Rabba and Joseph (Zeb. 25b), Pappa and Ze- 
bid (Shab. 66b), Kahana and Tabyomi (Ned. 16b), 
Ashi and Mar Zutra (Shab. 119a), and Rabina and 
Aha (Ket. 31b); while many other instances are 
cited by Lewy (/.c.). 

Particularly interesting are the cases in which a 
divergent account is presented before Ashi, and thus 
before the one who projected the definitive redac- 
tion of the Talmud, Ashi appearing in all these cases 
as representing the version first given. Thus the 
amora Mordecai said to Ashi: “ Thou teachest thus; 
but we teach differently ” (Men. 42b; Ber. 5a). In 
addition to such statements, which are ascribed to 
members of the Babylonian academies, and which 
indicate divergencies in amoraic tradition, the extant 
text of the Talmud contains also a number of other 


Talmud 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 1g 


a 


variants, which are included without such state- 
ments. These are introduced by such formulas as 
“ And if you will say ” (NDO"N ‘N)), referring to other 
authorities, or “ There are those who say,” or “ There 
are those who teach,” and similar phrases. The ex- 
pression “another version” (NINN sewers) fre- 
quently appears in the text as a superscription to 
a divergent account (Naz. 9b; B. K. 59a; Hul. 119b; 
Tem. 5a, 6a, 9b, 11b, 30b [comp. Frankel in “ Mo- 
natsschrift,” 1861, x. 262]; Niddah 29a, 38a). All 
these instances afford an idea, even though but an 
imperfect one, of the gradual development of the 
Talmudic text. To comprehend why only practi- 
cally a single Talmud was produced, despite the 
various academies, the great number of authorita- 
tive transmitters of the mass of material, and the 
number of generations that collaborated on the 
work, it must be borne in mind that there was a 
continual interchange of ideas between the acade- 
mies, and that the numerous pupils of the successive 
generations who memorized the Talmud, and per- 
haps committed at least a part of it to writing, drew 
from a single source, namely, the lectures of their 
masters and the discussions in the academies; fur- 
ther, that, since the work on the Talmud was con- 
tinued without interruption along the lines laid 
down by the first generation of amo- 
Technical raim, all succeeding generations may 
Terms for be regarded as one body of scholars 
Tradition. who produced a work which was, to 
all intents and purposes, uniform. 
This unity finds its expression in the phraseology 
adopted in the anonymous framework of the Tal- 
mud, which terms the authors “we,” exactly as a 
writer speaks of himself as “I” in an individual 
work. Examples of this phraseology occur in the 
following formulas: 72 31m (“ We then raised the 
question”; see Shab. 6b, 71a, 99b; Yoma 74a, 79b; 
Suk. 88a; Meg. 22a; Yeb. 29b; Kid. 49a; Git. 60b; 
Shebu. 22b; ‘Ab. Zarah 35a, 52b; Niddah 6b); 
wD (“ We have opposed [another teaching to the 
one which has been quoted]”); ym (“We have 
learned,” or, in other words, “have received by tra- 
dition ”), the conventional formula which introduces 
mishnaic passages; and, finally, 5 xp (“ Whence 
have we it?”), the regular preface to an inquiry re- 
garding the Biblical basis of a saying. In all these 
formulas the “we” denotes the authors of the 
Talmud regarded asa collective unity, and as the 
totality of the members of the academies whose 
labors, covering three centuries of collaboration, re- 
sulted in the Talmud. It was in the Babylonian 
Academy of Sura, moreover, that the final redaction 
of the Talmud took place, the very academy that 
took the lead in the first century of the amoraic 
period; and the uniformity of the Talmud was thus 
assured, even to the place of its origin. 

The statements already made concerning the con- 
tinuous redaction of the Babylonian Talmud apply 
with equal force to the Yerushalmi, this fact being 
expressed by Lewy (i.c. pp. 14-15) in the following 
words: “In Palestine, as in Babylon, there may 
have been different Talmudim in the various schools 
at different periods. . . . Similarly in the Palestin- 
ian Talmud different versions of amoraic sayings are 
quoted in the names of different authors, from which 


it may be inferred that these authors learned ang 
taught different Talmudim.” Lewy speaksalso (i, 
p. 20) of several redactions which preceded the fing 
casting of the Palestinian Talmud into its presey 
form. The actual condition of affairs can scarce] 
be formulated in these terms, however, since the dj 
vergencies consist, for the most part, of mere var, 
ants in certain sentences, or in the fact that the; 
were different authors and transmitters of them ; an 
although many of these deviations are cited by R 
Jonah and R. Jose, who lived and taught conten 
poraneously at Tiberias, this fact scarcely justifie 
the assumption that there were two different Tal 
mudim, one taught by Jonah and the other } 
Jose; it will nevertheless be evident, from th 
statements cited above, that the Talmud existed j 
some definite form throughout the amoraic periog 
and that, furthermore, its final redaction was pr 
ceded by other revisions. It may likewise be as 
sumed that the contemporaneous schools of Tiberiay 
Sepphoris, and Cesarea in Palestine taught the Ta) 
mud in different redactions in the fourth century 
Lewy assumes, probably with correctness, that 
the case of Yerushalmi the treatise Nezikin (th 
three treatises Baba Kamma, Baba Mezi‘a, an 
Baba Batra) was taken from a redaction differiy 
from that of the other treatises. (Allusion hs 
already been made to a difference of content he 
tween the first two and the last two orders of th 
Yerushalmi.) With regard to Babli, Frankel ha 
shown (“Monatsschrift,” x. 194) that the treatis 
Tamid, in which only three chapters out of seve 
are accompanied by a Talmud, belongs to a dil 
ferent redaction from that of the other treatises 
and he endeavors to show, in like manner (2d, 7 
259), both “that the redactor of the treatise Kid 
dushin is not identical with that of Baba Batra an 
Nedarim,” and “that the redactor of the treatis 

Gittin is not the same as that of Ken 

Date of tot and Baba Batra.” However, i 

Redaction. these remarks refer to the final redat 

tion of the Talmud, they do not toud 
upon the abstract unity of the work as emphasize 
above. It is sufficient to assume, therefore, that th 
final redaction of the several treatises was bast 
on the versions used in the different academies. | 
inay be postulated, on the whole, that the Pale 
tinjan Talmud received its present form at Tiberit 
and the Babylonian Talmud at Sura (comp. the pé# 
sages in Yerushalmi in which xan [= “here”]* 
fers to Tiberias, and those in Babli in which # 
same word denotes Sura [Lewy, é.¢. p. 4]). 

The chief data regarding the academies of Pale 
tine and Babylon, whose activity resulted in # 
Talmud, have been set forth elsewhere (see JEN 
Encye. i. 145-148, 8.0. ACADEMIES), so that lé 
stress need be laid only on those events in the! 
tory of the two schools and of their teachers wht 
are especially noteworthy in connection with © 
origin and the final redaction of the two Talmudis 
It may be said, by way of preface, that the act” 
mies of Palestine and Babylon were in constant’ 
tercommunication, notwithstanding their geogr4? 
ical position. Many prominent Babylonian sch0 
settled permanently in Palestine, and many emid’ 
Palestinians sojourned in Babylon for some tit 


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PAGE FROM THE FIRST COMPLETE EDITION OF THE BABYLONIAN TALMUD, PRINTED BY BOMBERG, VENICE, 1520-23. 
(From the Sulzberger collection in the Jewish Theological Seminary of America, New York.) 
XII. — 


Talmud 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA ig 


le ey 


or even for a considerable portion of their lives. In 
the second half of the third century Babylonian stu- 
dents sought the Palestinian schools with especial 
frequency, while many pupils of Johanan went dur- 
ing the same period to Babylon; and in the troub- 
lous days of the fourth century many Palestinian 
scholars sought refuge in the more quiet regions 
along the Euphrates. This uninterrupted associa- 
tion of scholars resulted in an active interchange of 
ideas between the schools, especially as the activity 
of both was devoted in the main to the study of the 
Mishnah. The Jerusalem Talmud accordingly con- 
tains a large number of sayings by Babylonian au- 
thorities, and Babli quotes a still larger number of 
sayings by Palestinian scholars in addition to the 
proceedings of the Palestinian academies, while it 
likewise devotes a very considerable space to the 
halakic and haggadic teachings of such Palestinian 
masters as Jobanan, Simeon b. Lakish, and Abbahu. 
Anonymous Palestinian sentences are quoted in 
Babli with the statement, “They say in the West”; 
and similar maxims of Babylonian origin are quoted 
in Yerushalmiin the name of “the scholars there.” 
Both the Talmudim thus acquired more traits in 
common than they had formerly possessed despite 
their common foundation, while owing to the mass 
of material which Babli received from the schools of 
the Holy Land it was destined in a measure to sup- 
plant the Palestinian Talmud even in Palestine. 
The history of the origin of Yerushalmi covers a 
period of twocenturies. Its projector was Johanan, 
the great teacher of Tiberias, who, together with 
his pupils and contemporaries, some of them of con- 
siderable prominence, laid the foundations for the 
work which was continued by succeeding genera- 
tions. The extreme importance of Johanan in the 
genesis of the Palestinian Taimud seems to have 
been the basis of the belief, which first found ex- 
pression in the twelfth century, although it is cer- 
tainly older in origin, that he was the author of 
Yerushalmi (see Frankel, “Mebo,” p. 47b). As a 
matter of fact, however, almost a century and a half 
elapsed after the death of Johanan (279) before this 
Talmud received its present form, but it was ap- 
proximated to this form, toward the end of the 
fourth century, by Jonah and Jose, the two directors 
of the Academy of Tiberias. Their joint halakic 
sentences, controversies, and divergent opinions on 
the utterances of their predecessors are 
Activity of scattered throughout Yerushalmi; but 
Jonah the conclusion that Jose redacted it 
and Jose. twice, which has been drawn from 
certain statements in this Talmud, 
ig incorrect (Frankel, f.c. p. 101la; Weiss, “ Dor,” 
iii, 113 e¢ seg., 211; see Lewy, dc. pp. 10, 17; 
Halevy, “Dorot ha-Rishonim,” ii. 322). Jonahi’s 
son Mani, one of the scholars most frequently 
named in Yerushalmi, seems, after studying at 
Cresarea, where noteworthy scholars were living in 
the fourth century, to have raised the school of 
Sepphoris to its highest plane; and a large number 
of the sayings of the “scholars of Cesarea” was 
included in Yerushaimi (see “ Monatsschrift,” 1901, 
pp. 298-310). The only other halakist of impor- 
tance among the Palestinian amoraim is Jose b. 
Abin (or Abun). According to Frankel (/.¢. p. 


102a), he occupied about the same position in 
regard to the redaction of Yerushalmi as was held 
by Ashi in regard to that of Babli (see also Weiss, 
l.c. iii. 117). The final redaction of the Talmud wag 
reserved for the succeeding generation, probably 
because the activity of the Academy of Tiberias 
ceased with the discontinuance of the patriarchate 
(c. 425). This was the time during which Tanhuma 
b. Abba (see Bacher, “Ag. Pal. Amor.” iii. 502) 
made his collection and definite literary arrange. 
ment of the haggadic exegesis of the amoraic 
period. 

The beginnings of the Babylonian Talmud are 
associated both with Nehardea, where the study of 
the tradition had flourished even before the close of 
the tannaitic period, and with Sura, where Rab 
founded a new academy which soon surpassed Ne- 
hardea in importance. Rab and Samuel, who re- 
spectively presided with equal distinction over the 
two schools, laid the foundation of the Babylonian 
Talmud through their comments on the Mishnah 
and their other teachings. Their views are fre- 
quently contrasted in the form of controversies; but 
on the other hand they are often mentioned as the 
common authors of sentences which were probably 
transmitted by certain pupils who had heard them 
from both masters. One of these pupils, Judah b. 
Ezekiel, when asked to explain some of the more 
obscure portions of the Mishnah, subsequently al- 
luded plaintively to the “hawayyot” of Rab and 
Samuel, meaning thereby the questions and com- 
ments of the two masters on the entire Mishnali 
(Ber. 20a and parallels). In like manner, scholars 
of the fourth century spoke of the hawayot of 
Abaye and Raba, which formed, as it were, the 
quintessence of the Talmud, and which, according 
to an anachronistic addition to an old baraita, were 
even said to have been included in the branches of 
knowledge familiar to Johanan b. Zakkai (Suk. 28a; 
B. B. 184a). 

The pupils of Rab and Samuel, the leading amo- 
raim of the second half of the third century—Huna, 
Hisda, Nahman b. Jacob, Sheshet, and the Judah 
mentioned above, who is especially prominent asa 
transmitter of the sayings of his two teachers— 
added a mass of material to the Talmud; and the 
last-named founded the Academy of Pumbedita, 
where, as at Sura, the development of the Talmud 
was continued. Pumbedita was likewise the birth- 
place of that casuistic and hair-splitting method of 
interpreting and criticizing halakic passages which 
forms the special characteristic of the Babylonian 
Talmud, although the scholars of this academy de- 
voted themselves also to the study of the collections 
of tannaitic traditions; and at the beginning of the 
fourth century the representatives of the two move 
ments, “Sinai” Joseph and Rabbah, the “uprootet 
of mountains,” succeeded their master Judah and 
becaine the directors of the school. Their sayings 
and controversies, together with the still more im- 
portant dicta and debates of their pupils Abaye and 
Raba, form a considerable part of the material of 
the Talmud, which was greatly increased at the 
same time by the halakic and haggadie sentences 
brought from Palestine to Babylon. All the si% 
orders of the Mishnah were then studied as is stated 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


19 


t Rabba; see Rabbinovicz, “ Dikduke 
Ta‘anit, p. 144), although in Judah’s 
time the lectures had been confined 
«os the fourth order, or, according to 
caoud§ ' Ge view of Weiss (“ Dor,” iii. 187), 
which is probably correct, to the first 
four orders (comp. Meg. 28b; Ta‘an. 24a, b; Sanh. 
106d; Raba’s pupil Pappa expresses a similar view 
ee activity marks the culmination of the work 
on the Talmud. The time had now come when the 
reservation and arrangement of the material al- 
ready collected were more important than further 
accretions. Nahman b. Isaac, pupil and successor 
of Raba (d. 852), whom he survived but four years, 
expressed the task of the epigoni in the following 
words (Pes. 105b): “ I am neither a sage Or a seer, 
nor even a scholar as contrasted with the majority. 
I am a transmitter [“ gamrana "| and an arranger 
“sadrana”].” The combination of the former term 
with the latter, which occurs only here, very con- 
cisely summarizes the activity of the redactor. It 
is clear that Nahman b. Isaac actually engaged in 
this task from the fact that he is mentioned as the 
Babylonian amora who introduced MNEMONICS 
(“simanim ”), designed to facilitate the memorizing 
and grouping of Talmudic passages and the names 
of their authors. The mnemonics ascribed to him 
in the Talmud (see J. Brill, “Die Mnemonotechnik 
des Talmuds,” p. 21; Bacher, “Ag. Bab. Amor.” p., 
134), however, constitute only a very small part of 
the simanim included in the text of that work. 
These again form but a remnant of the entire mass 
of what N. Bri!) (“ Jahrb.” ii. 60) terms the “ mne- 
motechnic apparatus,” of which only a portion was 
included in the printed text of the Talmud, although 
many others may be traced both in the manu- 
scripts of the Talmud and in ancient citations 
(sce N. Briill, 2.c. pp. 62 ef seg., 118 et seg.). The 
material, to which the epigoni of the second half of 
the fourth century had added little, was now ready 
for its final redaction; and it was definitively edited 
by Asai (d. 427), who during his long period of 
activity infused fresh life into the Academy of Sura. 
In view of his recognized authority, little was left 
for the two succeeding generations, except to round 
out the work, since another redaction was no 
longer possible. The work begun by Ashi was com- 
pleted by Rabina(Abina), whose death in 499 marks, 
according to an ancient tradition, the end of the 
amoraic period and the completion of the redaction 
of the Talmud. 

The date at which the Talmud was committed to 
writing is purely conjectural. The work itself con- 
tains neither statements nor allusions to show that 
any complete or partial copy of the work redacted 
and completed by Ashi and Rabina had been made 
a bee days ; and the same lack of information 
‘oe Rhea: both ¥ erushalmi and the Mishnah (the 
Scien) ee the Taimudim), as well as the other 
lteon ‘ tannaitic period. There are, however, 
siiow a. . cues they are only sporadic, which 
comiitend the Halakah and the Haggadah were 
} ed to writing; for copies were described as 

of individual scholars, who 


by Raba (no 
Soferim,” on 


hea in the possession 
e e . e ° . 
Occasionally criticized for owning them. 


Talmud 


This censure was based on an interdiction issued in 
the third century, which forbade any one to com- 
mit the teachings of tradition to writing or to use a 
manuscript of sucha character in lecturing (see Git. 
60a; Tem. 14b). Replying to the scholars of Kair- 
wan, Sherira Gaon in his letter (ed. 

Committed Neubauer, “M. J. C.” i. 26) alludes to 
to this prohibition as follows: “In an- 

Writing. swer to your question asking when 

the Mishnah and the Talmud were re- 
spectively committed to writing, it should be said 
that neither of them was thus transmitted, but both 
were arranged [redacted] orally; and the scholars 
believe it to be their duty to recite them from mem- 
ory, and not from written copies.” From the sec- 
ond part of this statement it is evident that even in 
Sherira’s time the “scholars,” a term here restricted 
to the members of the Babylonian academies, re- 
frained from using written copies of the Talmud in 
their lectures, although they were sufficiently famil- 
iar with it to be able to recite it from memory. The 
statement that the exilarch Natronai (8th cent.), who 
emigrated toSpain, wrotea copy of the Talmud from 
memory (sce Brill, “ Jahrb.” ii. 51), would show that 
the scholars of the geonic period actually knew the 
work by heart. Although this statement is not al- 
together free from suspicion, it at least proves that 
it was believed to be within the powers of this 
exilarch to make a copy of the Talmud without hav- 
ing an original at hand. This passage also throws 
light upon the period of the development and redac 
tion of the Talmud, during which the ability to 
memorize the mass of material taught in the schools 
was developed to an extent which now transcends 
conception. 

On the other hand, Sherira’s statement shows that 
his denial of the existence of the Talmud and the 
Mishnah in written form was limited to an officially 
recognized redaction; for manuscripts of the kind 
mentioned by him were then current, as they had been 
in the geonic period, despite the interdiction ; for they 
were used at least as aids to study, and without them 
the Talmud could not possibly have been memo- 
rized. In like manner, this prohibition, in the light 
of Sherira’s words, does not preclude the existence 
of private copies of portions of the traditional liter- 
ature, even in earlier times. The concealed rolls 
(“megillot setarim ”) with halakic comments which 
Rab found in the house of his uncle Hiyya (Shab. 
Gb; B. M. 92a), as well as the note-books (zivaxec) 
mentioned at the beginning of the amoraic period 
and in which such scholars as Levi b. Sisi, Joshua b. 
Levi, Ze‘iri, and Hilfai or Ifa (Shab. 156a; Yer. 
Ma‘as. 49d, 60b; Men. 70a) entered sentences, some 
of them halakic in character, indicate that such per- 
sonal copies were frequently used, while the written 
Haggadah is repeatedly mentioned. It may there- 
fore be assumed that the Mishnah and other tan. 
naitic traditional works were committed to writing 
as early as the time of the Amoraim. In like man- 
ner, there may have been copies of the amoraic com- 
ments on the Mishnah, as aids to the memory and 
to private study. In the early part of the fourth 
century Ze‘era disputed the accuracy of the halakic 
tradition taught by the Babylonian amora Sheshet; 
and as he based his suspicions on Sheshet’s blind- 


Talmud 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 20 


I 


ness, he evidently believed that it was impossible 
for the Babylonian scholar to contirm and verify his 
knowledge by the use of written notes (see Bacher, 
“Ag, Pal, Amor.” iii. 4). When Ashi undertook 
the final redaction of the Talmud he evidently had 
at his disposal notes of this kind, although Brtll 
(l.c. p. 18) is probably correct in ascribing to Rabiua 
the first complete written copy of the Talmud; Ra- 
bina had as collaborators many of the SABORAIM, to 
whom an ancient and incontrovertible tradition as- 
signs numerous additions to the Talmudic text. 

When Rabina died a written text of the Talmud 
was already in existence, the material contributed 
by the Saboraim being merely additions; although 
in thus extending the text they simply continued 
what had been done since the first redaction of the 
Talmud by Ashi. The Saboraim, however, confined 
themselves to additions of a certain form which 
made no change whatsoever in the text as deter- 
mined by them under the direction of Rabina (on 
these saboraic additions as well as on other accre- 

tions in Babli, see the statements by 
No Formal Brill, /.c. pp. 69-86). Yet there is no 
Rati- allusion whatever toa formal sanction 
fication. of the written text of the Talmud; for 
neither did such a ratification take 
place nor was a formal one at all necessary. The 
Babylonian academies, which produced the text in 
the course of 300 years, remained its guardians when 
it was reduced to writing; and it became authorita- 
tive in virtue of its acceptance by the successors of 
the Amoraim, as the Mishnah had been sanctioned 
by the latter and was made the chief subject of 
study, thus becoming a basis for halakic decisions. 
The traditions, however, underwent no further de- 
velopment; for the “horayot,” or the independent 
exegesis of the Mishnah and the halakic decisions 
based on this exegesis, ceased with Ashi and Rabina, 
and thus with the completion of the Talmud, as is 
stated in the canon incorporated in the Talmud 
itself (B. M. 86a). The Mishnah, the basal work of 
balakic tradition, thenceforth shared its authority 
with the Talmud. 

Among the Jews who came under the influence of 
western Arabic culture the belief that the Talmud 
(and the Mishnah) had been redacted orally was su- 
perseded by the view that the initial redaction itself 
had been in writing. This theory was first ex- 
pressed by R. Nissim of Kairwan (“Mafteah,” p. 
8b), although even before his time the question ad- 
dressed, as already noted, to Sherira Gaon by the 
Jews of Kairwan had shown that they favored this 
view, and the gaon’s response had received an in- 
terpolation postulating the written redaction of the 
Talmud. 

The definitive redaction of the Babylonian Tal- 
mud marks a new epoch in the history of the Jew- 
ish people, in which the Talmud itself becomes the 
most important factor, both as the pivotal point of 
the development and the manifestation of the spirit 
of Judaism, and as a work of literature deeply in- 
fluenced by the fortunes of those who cherished it 
as their palladium. On the internal history of Juda- 
ism the Talmud exerted a decisive influence as the 
recognized source for a knowledge of tradition and 
as the authoritative collection of the traditional re- 


ligious doctrines which supplemented the Bible; in. 
deed, this influence and the efforts which were made 
to escape from it, or to restrict it within certain 
limits, constitute the substance of the inner history 
of Judaism. The Babylonian academies, which had 
gradually become the central authority for the en. 
tire Jewish Diaspora, found their chief task in teach. 
ing the Talmud, on which they based the answers 
to the questions addressed to them. Thus wag 
evolved a new science, the interpretation of the 
Talmud, which produced a literature of wide ramifi. 
cations, and whose beginnings were the work of the 
Geonim themselves, 

The Talmud and its study spread from Babylon 
to Egypt, northern Africa, Italy, Spain, France, and 
Germany, regions destined to become the abodes of 

the Jewish spirit; and in all these 
Influence countries intellectual interest centered 
of the in the Talmud. The first great reac. 

Talmud. tion against its supremacy was Ka. 

raism, which arose in the very strong. 
hold of the Geonim within two centuries after the 
completion of the Talmud, The movement thus 
initiated and the influence of Arabic culture were 
the two chief factors which aroused the dormant 
forces of Judaism and gave inspiration to the scien. 
tific pursuits to which the Jewish spirit owed many 
centuries of marvelous and fruitful activity. This 
activity, however, did not infringe in the least 
on the authority of the Talmud; for although it 
combined other ideals and intellectual aims with 
Talmudic study, which it enriched and perfected, 
the importance of that study was in no wise decried 
py those who devoted themselves to other fields of 
learning. Nor did the speculative treatment of the 
fundamental teachings of Judaism lower the posi. 
tion of the Talmud; for Maimonides, the greatest 
philosopher of religion of his time, was likewise 
the greatest student of the Talmud, on which work 
he endeavored to base his philosophic views. 4 
dangerous internal enemy of the Talmud, however, 
arose in the Cabala during the thirteenth century: 
put it also had to share with the Talmud th 
supremacy to which it aspired. 

During the decline of intellectual life among th 
Jews which began in the sixteenth century, tht 
Talmud was regarded almost as the supreme author 
ity by the majority of them; and in the same ce? 
tury eastern Europe, especially Poland, became thé 
seat of its study. Even the Bible was relegated to! 
secondary place, and the Jewish schools devote 
themselves almost exclusively to the Talmud; § 
that “study” became synonymous with “study ¢ 
the Talmud.” A reaction against the supremacy ¢ 
the Talmud came with the appearance of Moses Me 
delssohn and the intellectual regeneration of Jud 
ism through its contact with the Gentile culture? 
the eighteenth century, the results of this str 
gle being a closer assimilation to European cultur 
the creation of a new science of Judaism, 4" 
the movements for religious reform. Despite # 
Karaite inclinations which frequently appeared * 
these movements, the great majority of the follo* 
ers of Judaism clung to the principle, author” 
tively maintained by the Talmud, that tradit 
supplements the Bible; and the Talmud itself it 


Sy 


A ea ‘ 
act any “hed 


oe 


myrduten ke) BIOHT 


gare ep nb 3 eS 
wast dis pat. ‘bp noe plows a: 
Sab : 5 “oo 


NON ENE 


2 ae fi i 


raGE FROM TRACTATE KIDDUSHIN OF THE BABYLONIAN TALMUD, SABBIONETTA, 1500. 
(From the Sulzberger collection in the Jewish Theological Seminary of America, New York.) 


Talmud 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 29 


tained its authority as the work embodying the tra- 
ditions of the earliest post-Biblical period, when 
Judaism was molded. Modern culture, however, 
has gradually alienated from the study of the Tal- 
muda number of Jews in the countries of progres- 
sive civilization, and it is now regarded by the most 
of them merely as one of the branches of Jewish 
theology, to which only a limited amount of time 
can be devoted, although it occupies a prominent 
place in the curricula of the rabbinical seminaries. 
On the whole Jewish learning has done full justice 
to the Talmud, many scholars of the nineteenth cen- 
tury having made noteworthy contributions to its 
history and textual criticism, and having constituted 
it the basis of historical and archeological researches. 
The study of the Talmud has even attracted the at- 
tention of non-Jewish scholars; and it has been in- 
cluded in the curricula of universities. 

The external history of the Talmud reflects in 
part the history of Judaism persisting in a world 
of hostility and persecution. Almost at the very 
time that the Babylonian saboraim put the finishing 
touches to the redaction of the Talmud, the em- 
peror Justinian issued his edict against the abolition 


of the Greek translation of the Bible in the service: 


of the Synagogue, and also forbade the use of the 
devrépwotc, or traditional exposition of Scripture. 
This edict, dictated by Christian zeal 

Edict and anti-Jewish feeling, was the pre- 

of lude to attacks on the Talmud, con- 
Justinian. ceived in the same spirit, and be- 
ginning in the thirteenth century in 

France, where Talmudic study was then flourishing. 
The charge against the Talmud brought by the con- 
vert Nicholas Donin Ied to the first public disputa- 
tion between Jews and Christians and to the first 
burning of copies of the work (Paris, 1244). The 
Talmud was likewise the subject of a disputation at 
Barcelona in 1268 between Moses ben Nahman and 
Pablo Christiani. In this controversy Nahmanides 
asserted that the haggadic portions of the Talmud 
were merely “sermones,” apd therefore devoid of 
binding force; so that proofs deduced from them in 
support of Christian dogmas were invalid, even in 
case they were correct. This same Pablo Christiani 
made an attack on the Talmud which resulted ina 
papal bull against it and in the first censorship, 
which was undertaken at Barcelona by a commis- 
sion of Dominicans, who ordered the cancelation of 
passages reprehensible from a Christian point of 
view (1264). At the disputation of Tortosa in 1418, 
Geronimo de Santa Fé brought forward a number 
of accusations, including the fateful assertion that 
the condemnations of pagans and apostates found 
in the Talmud referred in reality to Christians. 
Two years later, Pope Martin V., who had con- 
vened this disputation, issued a bull (which was 
destined, however, to remain inoperative) forbidding 
the Jews to read the Talmud, and ordering the de- 
struction of all copies of it. Far more important 
were the charges made in the early part of the six- 
teenth century by the convert Johann Pfefferkorn, 
the agent of the Dominicans. The result of these 
accusations was a struggle in which the emperor and 
the pope acted as judges, the advocate of the Jews 
being Johann Renchlin, who was opposed by the 


obscurantists and the humanists; and this contro. 
versy, which was carried on for the most part b 
means of pamphlets, became the precursor of the 
Reformation. An unexpected result of this affai; 
was the complete printed edition of the Babyloniay 
Talmud issued in 1520 by Daniel Bomberg at Ven. 
ice, under the protection of a papal privilege. 
Three years later, in 1523, Bomberg published the 
first edition of the Palestinian Talmud. After, 
thirty years the Vatican, which had first permitted 
the Talmud to appear in print, undertook a cam. 
paign of destruction against it. On New-Year’s 
Day (Sept. 9), 1558, the copies of the Talmud which 
had been confiscated in compliance with a decree of 
the Inquisition were burned at Rome; and similar 
burnings took place in other Italian cities, as at 
Cremona in 1559. The Censorsuir of the Talmud 
and other Hebrew works was introduced by a papal 
bull issued in 1554; five years later the Talmud 
was included in the first Index Expurgatorius; and 
Pope Pius IV. commanded, in 1565, that the Tal. 
mud bedeprived of its very name. The first edition 
of the expurgated Talmud, on which most subse. 
quent editions were based, appeared at Basel (1578- 
1581) with the omission of the entire treatise of 
‘Abodah Zarah and of passages considered inimical to 
Christianity, together with modifications of certain 
phrases. A fresh attack on the Talmud was de. 
creed by Pope Gregory XIII. (1575-85), and in 
1593 Clement VIII. renewed the old interdiction 
against reading or owning it. The increasing 
study of the Talmud in Poland led to the issue ofa 
complete edition (Cracow, 1602-5), with a restora. 
tion of the original text; an edition containing, 
so far as known, only two treatises had previously 
been published at Lublin (1559-76). 

Attacks on In 1707 some copies of the Talmud 
the were confiscated in the province of 

Talmud. Brandenburg, but were restored 

their owners by command of Freder 
ick, the first king of Prussia. The last attack on 
the Talmud took place in Poland in 1757, when 
Bishop Dembowski, at the instance of the Frankists, 
convened a public disputation at Kamenetz-Podolsk. 
and ordered all copies of the work found in his 
bishopric to be confiscated and burned by the hang: 
man. 

The external history of the Talmud includes also 
the literary attacks made upon it by Christiat 
theologians after the Reformation, since these om 
slaughts on Judaism were directed primarily agains 
that work, even though it was made a subject d 
study by the Christian theologians of the sevel 
teenth and eighteenth centuries. In 1830, during 
a debate in the French Chamber of Peers regard 
ing state recognition of the Jewish faith, Admir# 
Verhuell declared himself unable to forgive th 
Jews whom he had met during his travels throug! 
out the world either for their refusal to recognit 
Jesus as the Messiah or for their possession of tl 
Talmud. In the same year the Abbé Carri 
published at Paris a voluminous work entitle 
“Théorie du Judaisme,” in which he announced! 
translation of the Talmud, advocating for the fit 
time a version which should make the work gen 
ally accessible, and thus serve for attacks on J uds 


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THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


23 


jm. Ina like spirit modern anti-Semitic agitators 
have urged that a translation be made; and this de- 
mand has even been brought before legislative 
podies, aS in Vienna. The Talmud and the “Tal- 
mud Jew” thus became objects of anti-Semitic at- 
tacks, although, on the other hand, they were de- 
fended by many Christian students of the Talmud. 

In consequence of the checkered fortunes of the 
Talmud, manuscripts of it are extremely rare; and 
the Babylonian Talmud is found entire only in a 
Munich codex (Hebrew MS. No. 95), completed in 
1369, while a Florentine manuscript containing sev- 
eral treatises of the fourth and fifth orders dates 
from the year 1176. Anumber of Talmudic codices 
containing one or more tractates are extant in 
Rome, Oxford, Paris, Hamburg, and New York, 
while the treatise Sanhedrin, from Reuchlin’s library, 
is in the grand-ducal library at Carlsruhe. In the 
introduction to vols. i., iv., vili., ix., and xi. of his 
“ Dikduke Soferim, Varie Lectiones in Mischnam et 
in Talmud Babylonicum,” which contains a mass 
of critical material bearing on the text of Babli, N. 
Rabbinovicz has described all the manuscripts of 
this Talmud known to him, and has collated the 
Munich manuscript with the printed editions, besides 
giving in his running notes a great number of read- 
ings collected with much skill and learning from 
other manuscripts and various ancient sources. Of 
this work, which is indispensable for the study of 
the Talmud, Rabbinovicz himself published fifteen 
volumes (Munich, 1868-86), containing the treatises 
of the first, second, and fourth orders, as well as 
two treatises (Zebahim and Menahot) of the fifth 
order. The sixteenth volume (Hullin) was pub- 
lished posthumously (completed by Ehrentreu, 
Przemysl, 1897). Of the Palestinian Talmud only 
one codex, now at Leyden, has been preserved, this 
being one of the manuscripts used for the editio 
princeps. Excepting this codex, only fragments 
and single treatises are extant. Recently (1904) 
Luncz discovered a portion of Yerushalmi in the 
Vatican Library, and Ratner has made valuable 
contributions tothe history of the text in his scholia 
on Yerushalmi (“Sefer Ahabat Ziyyon we-Yeru- 
Shalayim ”), of which three volumes have thus far 
appeared, comprising Berakot, Shabbat, Terumot, 
and Hallah (Wilna, 1901, 1902, 1904). 

The first edition of Babli (1520) was preceded by 
a series of editions, some of them no longer extant, 
of single treatises published at Soncino and Pesaro 
by the Soncinos. The first to appear was Berakot 
(1488); this was followed by the twenty-three 
other tractates which, according to 
Gershon Soncino, were regularly stud- 
ied in the yeshibot. The first edition 
by Bomberg was followed by two 
More (1581, 1548), while another was published at 
Venice by Giustiniani (1546-51), who added to Bom- 
berg’s supplements (such as Rashi and the Tosafot, 
Which later were invariably appended to the text) 
other useful marginal glosses, including references 
'o Biblical quotations and to parallel passages of 
the Talmud as well as to the ritual codices. At Sab- 
bionetta in 1558, Joshua Boaz (d. 1357), the author 
. these marginalia, which subsequently were added 
© all editions of the Talmud, undertook a new and 


Early 
Editions. 


Talmud 


magnificent edition of the Talmud. Only a few 
treatises were completed, however; for the papal 
bull issued against the Talmud in the same year 
interrupted the work. As a result of the burning 
of thousands of copies of the Talmud in Italy, Jo- 
seph Jabez published a large number of treatises 
at Salonica (1563 e¢ seg.) and Constantinople (1583 
et seqg.). The mutilated Basel edition (1578-81) and 
the two editions which first appeared in Poland have 
been mentioned above. The first Cracow edition 
(1602-5) was followed by a second (1616-20); while 
the first Lublin edition (1559 et seg.), which was in- 
complete, was followed by one giving the entire 
text (1617-39); this was adopted for the Amster- 
dam edition (1644-48), the partial basis of the edi- 
tion of Frankfort-on-the-Oder (1697-99). Many 
useful addenda were made to the second Amsterdam 
edition (1714-19), which was the subject of an in- 
teresting lawsuit, and which was completed by the 
edition of Frankfort-on-the-Main (1720-22). This 
latter text has served as the basis of almost all the 
subsequent editions. Of these the most important 
are: Prague, 1728-39; Berlin and Frankfort-on-the- 
Oder, 1784-39 (earlier ed. 1715-22); Amsterdam, 
1752-65; Sulzbach, 1755-63, 1766-70; Vienna, 1791- 
1797, 1806-11, 1830-83, 1840-49, 1860-73; Dyhern- 
furth, 1800-4, 1816-21; Slawita, Russia, 1801-6, 
1608-13, 1817-22; Prague, 1880-85, 1839-46; Wilna 
and Grodno, 1885-54; Czernowitz, 1840-49; Jitomir, 
1858-64; Warsaw, 1859-64, 1863-67 e¢ seg.; Wilna, 
1859-66; Lemberg, 1860-65 e¢ seg.; Berlin, 1862-68; 
Stettin, 1862 e¢ seg. (incomplete). The edition of the 
Widow and Brothers Romm at Wilna (1886) is the 
largest as regards old and new commentaries, glosses, 
other addenda, and aids to study. 

Two other editions of Yerushalmi have appeared 
in addition to the editio princeps (Venice, 15283 et 
seqg.), which they closely follow in columniation— 
those of Cracow, 1609, and Krotoschin, 1866. A 
complete edition with commentary appeared at 
Jitomir in 1860-67. The latest edition is that of 
Piotrkow (1898-1900). There are also editions of 
single orders or treatises and their commentaries, 
especially noteworthy being Z. Frankel’s edition of 
Berakot, Pe’ah, and Demai (Breslau, 1874-75). 

A critical edition of Babli has been proposed 
repeatedly, and a number of valuable contribu- 
tions have been made, especially in the huge col- 

lections of variants by Rabbinovicz; 

‘¢ Variee but so far this work has not even been 
Lectiones”’ begun, although mention should be 
and Trans- made of theinteresting attempt by M. 

lations. Friedmann, “ Kritische Edition des 

Traktates Makkoth,” in the“ Verhand- 
lungen des Siebenten Internationalen Orientalisten- 
Congresses, Semitische Section,” pp. 1-78 (Vienna, 
1888). Here the structure of the text is indicated 
by such external means as different type, sections, 
and punctuation. The edition of Yerushalmi an- 
nounced by Luncz at Jerusalem promises a text of 
critical purity. 

The earliest allusion toa translation of the Tal- 
mud is made by Abraham ibn Daud in his histor- 
ical “Sefer ha-Kabbalah ” (see Neubauer, “ M. J. C.” 
i. 69), who, referring to Joseph ibn Abitur (second 
half of 10th cent.), says: “He is the one who trans- 


Talmud 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 24 


lated the entire Talmud into Arabic for the calif 
Al-Hakim.” The tradition was therefore current 
among the Jews of Spain in the twelfth century 
that Ibn Abitur had translated the Talmud for this 
ruler of Cordova, who was especially noted for his 
large library, this tradition being analogous to the 
one current in Alexandria in antiquity with regard 
to the first Greek translation of the Bible. No trace, 
however, remains of Joseph Abitur’s translation ; 
and in all probability he translated merely detached 
portions for the calif, this work giving rise to the leg- 
end of his complete version. The nced of atranslation 
to render the contents of the Talmud more generally 
accessible, began to be felt by Christian theologians 
after the sixteenth century, and by Jewish circles in 
the nineteenth century. This gave rise to the trans- 
lations of the Mishnah which have been noted else- 
where (see JEW. Encyc. viii. 618, ¢.¢7. Mrsmnau). 
In addition to the complete translations mentioned 
there, single treatises of the Mishnah have been ren- 
dered into Latin and into modern languages, a sur- 
vey being given by Bischoff in his “ Kritische Ge- 
schichte der Thalmud-UVebersetzungen,” pp. 28-56 
(Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1899). Twenty treatises of 
Yerushalmi were translated into Latin by Blasio 
Ugolino in his “ Thesaurus Antiquitatum Sacrarum ,” 
xvii. (1755), xxx. (1765); and the entire text of this 
Talmud was rendered into French by Moise Schwab 
(“Le Talmud de Jérusalem,” 11 vols., Paris, 1871- 
1889), The translation by Wiinsche of the hag- 
gadic portions of Yerushalmi has already been men- 
tioned; and an account of the translations of single 
portionsis given by Bischoff (/.c. pp. 59 ed seg.). In 
1896 L. Goldschmidt began the translation of a Ger- 
man version of Babli, together with the text of 
Bomberg’s first edition; anda number of volumes 
have already appeared (Berlin, 1898 e¢ seg.). The 
insufficiency of this work apparently corresponds to 
the rapidity with which it is issued. In the same 
year M, L. Rodkinson undertook an abridged transla- 
tion of the Babylonian Talmud into English, of which 
seven volumes appeared before the translator’s death 
(1904); Rodkinson’s point of view was quite un- 
scholarly. Of translations of single treatises the 
folowing may be mentioned (see Bischoff, U.c. pp. 
68-76): Earlier Latin translations: Ugolino, Ze- 
bahim, Menahot (in “Thesaurus Antiquitatum 
Sacrarum,” xix.), Sanhedrin (7. xxv.); G. E. 
Edzard, Berakot (Hamburg, 1718); F. B. Dachs, 
Sukkah (Utrecht, 1726). Noteworthy among the 
Jewish translators of the Talmud are M. Rawicz 
(Megillah, 1863; Rosh ha-Shanah, 1886; Sanhedrin, 
1892; Ketubot, 1897); E. M. Pinner (Berakot, 1842, 
designed as the first volume of a translation of the 
entire Talmud); D. O. Straschun (Ta‘anit, 1883); 
and Sammter (Baba Mezi‘a, 1876). Their trausla- 
tions are entirely in German. Translations pub- 
lished by Christian scholars in the nineteenth 
century: F. C. Ewald (a baptized Jew), ‘Abodah 
Zarah (Nuremberg, 1856); in 1831 the Abbé Chiarini, 
mentioned above, published a French translation of 
Berakot; and in 1891 A. W. Streane prepared an 
English translation of Hagigah. A French version 
of several treatises is included in J. M. Rabbino- 
vicz’s works “Législation Civile du Talmud” (3 
vols., Paris, 1873-79) and “ Législation Criminelle 


du Talmud ” (2d. 1876), while Wiinsche’s translation 
of the haggadic portions of Babli (1886-89) has been 
mentioned above. 

To gain a comprehensive view of the Talmud ijt 
must be considered as a historical factor in Judaism 
as well asa literary production. Inthe latter aspect 
it is unique among the great masterpieces of the 
literatures of the world. In form a commentary, it 
became an encyclopedia of Jewish faith and scholar. 
ship, comprising whatsoever the greatest represent. 
atives of Judaism in Palestine and in Babylon haq 
regarded as objects of study and investigation and 
of teaching aud learning, during the three centurieg 
which elapsed from the conclusion of the Mish- 
nah to the completion of the Talmud itself. When 
the Mishnah, with the many ancient traditions to 
which it had given rise since the latter centuries of 
the Second Temple, was incorporated into the Tal.- 
mud as its text-book, the Talmud became a record 
of the entire epoch which was represented by the 
Jewish schools of Palestine and Babylon, and which 
served as a stage of transition from the Biblical 
period to the later aspect of Judaism. Although 
the Talmud is an academic product and may be 

characterized in the main as a report 

Function (frequently with the accuracy of min- 

in utes) of the discussions of the schools, 

Judaism. it also sheds a flood of light on the 

culture of the people outside the acad. 
emies. The interrelation between the schools and 
daily life, and the fact that neither teachers nor 
pupils stood aloof from that life, but took part in it 
as judges, instructors, and expounders of the Law, 
caused the Talmud to represent even non-scholastic 
affairs with an abundance of minute details, and 
made it an important source for the history of civil- 
ization. Since, moreover, the religious law of the 
Jews dealt with all the circumstances of life, the 
Talmud discusses the most varied branches of hn- 
man knowledge—astronomy and medicine, mathe- 
matics and law, anatomy and botany—thus furnish- 
ing valuable data for the history of science also. 

The Talmud, furthermore, is unique from the 
point of view of literary history as being a product 
of literature based on oral tradition and yet sum- 
marizing the literature of an entire epoch. Aside 
from it, those to whose united efforts it may be 
ascribed have left no trace of intellectual activity. 
Though anonymous itself, the Talmud, like other 
products of tannaitic and amoraic literature, cites 
the names of many authors of sayings because it 
was a universal practise to memorize the name of 
the author together with the saying. Many of these 
scholars are credited with only a few sentences of 
with even but one, while to others are ascribed 
many hundreds of aphorisms, teachings, questions, 
and answers; and the representatives of Jewish 
tradition of those centuries, the Tannaim and the 
Amoraim, received an abundant compensation fot 
their renunciation of the fame of authorship when 
tradition preserved their names together with theif 
various expositions, and thus rescued even the least 
of them from oblivion. The peculiar form of the 
Talmud is due to the fact that it iscomposed almost 
entirely of individual sayings and discussions 02 
them, this circumstance being a result of its origil' 


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P 
AGE FROM THE LaTEST EDITION O¥ THE JERUSALEM TALMUD, PRINTED AT PIOTRKOW, 1899-1903. 
(In the possession of J. D. Hisenstein, New York.) 


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noe 
oes 


9 "PP 


7D nYeot 


Talmud 
Talmud Commentaries 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


28 


Oe a ae aS SS — 


the fact that it sought especially to preserve the 
oral tradition and the transactions of the academies 
allowed the introduction only of the single sentences 
which represented the contributions of the teachers 
and scholars to the discussions. The preservation 
of the names of the authors of these apothegms, 
and of those who took part in the discussions, trans- 
actions, and disputations renders the Talmud the 
most important, and in many respects the only, 
source for the period of whichit isthe product. The 
sequence of generations which constitute the frame- 
work of the history of the Tannaim and Amoraim 
may be determined from the allusions contained in 
the Talmud, from the anecdotes and stories of the 
academies, and from other valuable literary material, 
which exhibit the historical conditions, events, and 
personages of the time, not excepting cases in which 
the facts have been clothed in the garb of legend or 
myth. Although it was undertaken with no dis- 
tinctly literary purpose, it contains, especially in its 
haggadic portions, many passages which are note- 
worthy as literature, and which for many centuries 
were the sole repositories of Jewish poetry. 
After the completion of the Talmud as a work 
of literature, it exercised a twofold influence as a 
historical factor in the history of Ju- 
Its daism and its followers, not only in 
Authority. regard to the guidance and formula- 
tion of religious life and thought, but 
also with respect to theawakening and development 
of intellectual activity. Asa document of religion 
the Talmud acquired that authority which was due 
to it as the written embodiment of the ancient tradi- 
tion, and it fulfilled the task which the men of the 
Great Assembly set for the representatives of the 
tradition when they said, “Make a hedge for the 
Torah” (Ab. i. 2). Those who professed Judaisin 
felt no doubt that the Talmud was equal to the 
Bible as a source of instruction and decision in 
problems of religion, and every effort to set forth 
religious teachings and duties was based on it; so 
that even the great systematic treatise of Maimon- 
ides, which was intended to supersede the Talmud, 
only led to a more thorough study of it. In like 
manner, the Shulhan ‘Aruk of Joseph Caro, which 
achieved greater practical results than the Mishneh 
Torah, of Maimonides, owed its authority to the fact 
that it was recognized as the most convenient codi- 
fication of the teachings of the Talmud; while the 
treatises on the philosophy of religion which strove 
as early as the time of Saadia to harmonize the 
truths of Judaism with the results of independent 
thinking referred in all possible cases to the author- 
ity of the Talmud, upon which they could easily 
draw for a confirmation of their theses and argu- 
ments. The wealth of moral instruction contained 
in the Talmud exercised a profound influence upon 
the ethics and ideals of Judaism. Despite all this, 
however, the authority enjoyed by it did not lessen 
the authority of the Bible, which continued to ex- 
ercise its influence as the primal source of religious 
and ethical instruction and edification even while 
the Talmud ruled supreme over religious practise. 
preserving and fostering in the Diaspora, for many 
centuries and under most unfavorable external con- 
ditions, the spirit of deep religion and strict morality. 


The history of Jewish literature since the comple. 
tion of the Talmud has been a witness to its im. 
portance in awakening and stimulating intellectual] 
activity among the Jews. The Talmud has been 
made the subject or the starting-point of a large 
portion of this widely ramified literature, which 
has been the product of the intellectual activity ip. 
duced by its study, and to which both scholars jp 
the technical sense of the word and also a large 
number of the studious Jewish laity have contrib. 
uted. The same faculties which had been exercised 
in the composition of the Talmud were requisite 
also for the study of it; the Talmud therefore hag 
an exceedingly stimulating influence upon the in. 
tellectual powers of the Jewish people, which were 
then directed toward other departments of knowl. 
edge. It isa noteworthy fact that the study of the 
Talmud gradually became a religious duty, and thus 
developed into an intellectual activity having no 
ulterior object in view. Consequently it formed a 
model of study for the sake of study. 

The Talmud has not yet entirely lost its twofold 
importance as a historical factor within Judaism, 
despite the changes which have taken place during 
thelast century. For the majority of Jews it is stil] 
the supreme authority iu religion; and, as noted 
above, although it is rarely an object of study on 
the part of those who have assimilated modern cul- 
ture, it is still a subject of investigation for Jewish 
learning, as a product of Judaism which yet exerts 
an influence second in importance only to the Bible. 

The following works of traditional literature not 
belonging to the Talmud have been included in 
the editions of Babli: Avot pE-Rapsr Navan; De 
REK Erez Rappan; DEREK Erez ZUTA; KALLag; 
SEMAHOT; SOFERIM. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: The manuscripts, editions, and translations 
bave been discussed in the article. Foran introduction to the 
Talmud the following works may be mentioned in addition 
to the general ones on Jewish history: Weiss, Dor, iii.; Ha- 
levy, Dorot ha-Rishonim, ii., Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1901: 
H. L. Strack, Einleitung in den Talmud, 2d ed., Leipsic, 18 
(covers the Mishnah also and contains an extensive bibliogra- 
phy of the Talmud); M. Mielziner, Introduction to the Tal: 
mud, Cincinnati (also gives good bibliography of the Talmud; 
the second part of this work contains a clear discussion of the 
hermeneuties and the methodology of the Talmud). On the 
Palestinian Talmud: Z. Frankel, Mebo, Breslau, 1870; J 
Wiener, Gib‘at Yerushalayim, Vienna, 1872 (reprinted from 
Ha-Shahar); A. Geiger, Die Jerusalemische Gemara, iu 
his Jiid. Zeit. 1870, pp. 278-306 (comp. Monatsschrift, 187]. 
pp. 120-137); 1. Lewy, Interpretation des Ersten A bsehnitt 
des Paldstinischen Talmud-Traktates Nesikin, in Bree 
lauer Jahresbericht, 1895, pp. 1-19. On the Babylonian Tal: 
mud: Z. Frankel, Beitridge zur Hinleitung in den Talmud 
in Monatsschrift, 1861, pp. 168~194, 205-212, 258-272; N. Brill! 
Die Entstehungsyeschichte des Babylonischen Ta Imuds al 
Sehriftwerkes, in his Jahrb. 1876, il. 1-125. On_ the earliel 
works introductory to the Talmud: J. H. Weiss, in Bet Tut 
mud, i., ii., Vienna, 1881, 1882; Samuel b. Hophni, Madkhe 
ila ‘a-Talmud (= “Introduction to the Talmud”; this 5 
the earliest work bearing the title and is known only through 
a quotation in the lexicon of ton Janah, 3.v. wr); Samue 
ha-Nagid, Mebo ha-Talmud (forming an appendix to the 
first volume of modern editions of the Talmud); Joseph ibs 
‘Aknin, an introduction to the Talmud (Hebr, transl. from the 
Arabic), edited in the Jubelschrift des Breslawer Semr 
nars zum Siebzigen Geburtstage Frankels, 1871. For 
other works on the subject see TALMUD HERMENEUTICS}! 
list is given in Jellinek. Kuntres ha-Kelalim, Vienna, 1° 
Generai articles on the Talmud in reviews and encyclopedias: 
Emil Deutsch, in Quarterly Review, 1867, frequently 
printed and translated ; J. Derenbourg, in Lichtenberg’s ut 
eyclopédie des Sciences Religieuses, 1882, xii. 1007-1000; Ar 
sene Darmesteter, in R. FE. J. xviii. (Actes et Conferentt 
pp. ceclxxxi.-dexlii.); 8. Schechter, in Hastings, Dict. Bi)” 
extra vol., 1904, pp. 57-66: FE. Bischoff, Talmud-Katechism 
Leipsic, 1904. On the literature of the Talmud commentan” 
gee TALMUD COMMENTARIES. On grammatical and lexi 
graphical aids to the study of the Talmud see Jew. ENCYC:! 


27 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Talmud 
Talmud Commentaries 


I 


ms EBREW, and ib. iv. 580-585, 8.0. DICTION- 
anon ener On the terminology of the Talmud see, 
ARIES sition to the works on Taimudic methodology: A. 
in add imudische Terminvlogie, Alphabetisch Geordnet, 
ote Pano: Ww. Bacher, Die Exegetische Terminologie der 
ae oh Traditionslitteratur: part_i., Die Bibelexege- 
J tide erminologie der Tannaiten, Leipsic, 1899 (original 
tische | Aelteste Terminologie der Jiidischen Schriftaus- 
title, oye part ii, Die Bibel- und Traditionseregetische 
legung io gie der Amorder, ib. 1905. WB 


Termine 

TALMUD COMMENTARIES : The commen- 
taries on the Talmud constitute only a small part of 
halakic literature in comparison with the Tesponsa 
literature and the commentaries on the codices. At 
the time when the Talmud was concluded the tra- 
ditional literature was still so fresh in the memory 
of scholars that there was no need of writing Tal- 
mudic commentaries, nor were such works under- 
taken in the first period of the gaonate. Paltoi Gaon 
(¢, 840) was the first who.in his responsa offered verbal 
and textual comments on the Talmud. Zemah b. 
Paltoi (¢. 872) paraphrased and explained the passages 
which he quoted; and he composed, asanaid to the 
study of the Talmud, a lexicon which Abraham 
Zacuto consulted in the fifteenth century. Saadia 
Gaon is said to have composed commentaries on the 

Talmud, aside from his Arabic com- 

Earliest mentaries on the Mishuah (Benjacob, 

Attempts. “Ozar ha-Sefarim,” p. 181, No. 480). 

According to the Karaite Solomon b, 
Jeroham, a commentary on Yerushalmi by Ephraim 
b. Jacob existed as early as the time of Saadia, al- 
though this is highly improbable (Pinsker, “ Lik- 
kute Kadmoniyyot,” Supplement, p. 4; Poznanski, 
in “Kaufmann Gedenkbuch,” p. 182). 

The last three great geonim, Sherira, Hai, and 
Samuel b. Hofni, did much in this field. Most of 
Sherira’s comments were explanations of difficult 
terms. Many of these are quoted by Abu al-Walid 
(Bacher, “Leben und Werke des Abulwalid Mer- 
wan ibn Ganah, ” etc., p. 85). It appears from the 
quotations in the “‘Aruk” that Hai Gaon wrote 
commentarics on at least eleven treatises (Kohut, 
“Aruch Completum,” xiii. e¢ seg.). Abu al- Walid 
quotes Hai’s commentary on Shabbat (Bacher, Jc. 
p. 87). In the eleventh century commentaries on 
the Talmud were composed not only in Babylon but 
also in Africa, Spain, and Germany. In the first 
half of that century Nissim b. Jacob, of Kairwan in 
northern Africa, composed his “Kitab Miftah Ma- 
ghalik al-Talmud ” (Hebr. title, “Sefer Mafteah Man- 
‘ule ha-Talmud” = “Key to the Locks of the Tal- 
mud”), acommentary in which he explains difficult 
passages by references to parallel ones and occa- 
sionally to Yerushalmialso. The work of Hananeel 
b, Hushiel corresponds more to a commentary in the 
€xact sense of the term. He sums up the Talmudic 
discussions, perhaps in order to facilitate the halakic 
decision, devoting his attention principally to deter- 
mMiniog the correct text of the Talmud. The first 
teachers in Spain, Enoch ben Moses, Joseph ibn 
fae a ibn Ghayyat, and Tsaac Albargeloni, 
ve a ‘nown to have composed commentaries on 
aan; almud (Weiss, “Dor,” iv. 276 et seqg.). Nah- 
Sa Talmudic comments from a work by 
ing a ha Nagid (Ben jacob, le. No. 481). Accord- 

a) @ not entirely authenticated statement (2d. 

- *47), the famous exegcte Abraham ton Ezra 


composed a commentary on the treatise Kiddu- 
shin. In Germany, Gershom b. Judah engaged in 
similar labors, though his commentaries have come 
to light only in the last century: they appear to 
have been the chief sources used by Rashi (1040- 
1105), the greatest commentator of the Talmud. 
Although Rashi drew upon all his predecessors, yet 
his originality in using the material offered by them 
has always been admired. His commentaries, in 
turn, became the basis of the work 
of his pupils and successors, who com- 
posed a large number of supplemen- 
tary works that were partly in emendation and 
partly in explanation of Rashi’s, and are known 
under the title “tosafot.” These works were printed 
together with Rashi’s commentaries in the first edi- 
tions of single Talmud treatises, and then in the 
collective editions. The tosafot included in the 
present editions are taken from various collections. 
There are tosafot of Sens, tosafot of Evreux, tosa- 
fot of Touques, etc. (Winter and Wiinsche, “ Die 
Jiidische Litteratur,” ii. 465). Instead of the simple, 
strictly logical method of exegesis a dialectic method 
showing great acumen is frequently employed 
in the tosafot. Originating in the German and 
French schools, and thence adopted by the Spanish 
and Arabic, it found in the following centuries (13th 
to 15th) brilliant representatives in Moses b. Nahman, 
Solomon ben Adret, and others in Spain, as well as 
in various scholars in Turkey, although the Oriental 
Jews generally followed the simple method of Tal- 
mud study. The commentators are called “risho- 
nim” (elders) down to the sixteenth century, and 
subsequently “aharonim ” (juniors). 

In the sixteenth century the hair-splitting dialec- 
tic study of the Talmud known as the PILPUL came 
tothefore. The method called “hilluk,” originating 
in Augsburg and Nuremberg, claimed chief atten- 
tion, especially through the influence of Jacob PoLLAK 
of Poland, that country becoming in the course of 
the century the principal center of the study of the 
Talmud. Special rules were formulated for com- 
posing the hillukim (Jellinek, in Keller’s “ Bik- 

kurim,” i. 3). It is frequently inti- 

Method mated insubsequent pilpulistic works 

of that the author himself regards his 
Hillukim. expositions as artificial, though he 
believes them to contain a grain of 
truth. This method still dominates to some extent 
the study of the Talmud in the eastern countries of 
Europe. But Jewish science demands a scientific 
treatment of the Talmud —an examination of its 
sources and parallel passages from a historical, 
archeological, and philological point of view, a 
methodical analysis of its text, and a comparative 
study of it by the side of other monuments of 
antiquity. 

The Palestinian Talmud was studied much less 
than the Babylonian, although occasional comments 
on Yerushalmi are found in Alfasi and other earlier 
authorities, especially in the commentary of Samson 
of Sens on the mishnaic order Zera‘im. The first 
connected commentary on many treatises of Yeru- 
shalmi was composed in the seventeenth century by 
R. Joshua Benveniste, who had at hand R. Solomon 
Sirillo’s commentary on certain treatises. Elijah 


Rashi. 


Talmud Commentaries 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA | 28 


Fulda commentated in 1710 the order Zera‘im and 

part of the order Nezikin, The greater part of 

Yerushalmi was edited about the mid- 

Palestinian dle of the eighteenth century by Men- 

Talmud. delssohn’s teacher David Frénkel; and 

a complete commentary was writ- 

ten by Moses Margolioth. Noteworthy as com- 

mentators in the nineteenth century are Nahum 
Trebitsch and Zacharias Frankel. 

The commentaries on Babli may be divided into: 
(1) “ perushim,” running commentaries accompany- 
ing the text; (2) “tosafot” (additions), glosses on 
Rashi’s commentary; (8) “hiddushim” (novelle), 
explicit comments on certain passages of the Talmud 
text; and (4) “haggahot,” or marginal glosses. As 
appears from the following chronological Hist, the 
treatises Seder Mo‘ed, Nashim, and Hullin, which 
deal particularly with the religious life and which 
were therefore made special subjects of study and 
instruction, were most frequently commentated, 
while the Seder Kodashim is less often made the 
subject of comment. In the subjoined list only the 
edited commentaries are enumerated, no note being 
taken of treatises on which there are no commen- 
taries. The letter “ W ” indicates the Wilna (Widow 
& Brothers Romm) Talmud edition of 1886. 


CHRONOLOGICAL List oF COMMENTATORS ON Boti 
TALMUDIM., 
ELEVENTH CENTURY. 


Nissim b. Jacob (d. 1040), Sefer Mafteah (see above; Ber., Shab., 
‘Er.), ed. I. Goldenthal, Vienna, 1847 ; m W. 

Gershom b. Judah (d. 1040), perush (Ber., Ta‘an., B. B., entire 
Seder Kodashim excepting Zeh.); in W. 

Hananeel b. Husniel (da. 1050), perush (Seder Mo‘ed, Seder Ne- 
zikin excepting B. B.); in W. 

Solomon b. Isaac (Rashi), commentary on thirty treatises; In 
all editions. 

TWELFTH TO FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 

Samuel b. Meir, commentary on Baba Batra from the third sec- 
tion and on the last section of Pesahim; in all editions. 

Isaac b. Nathan, commentary on Makkot: in all editions, be- 
ginning with 19b. 

Eliezer b. Nathan, commentary on Nazir; in W. 

Jacob Tam (d. 1171), "w°9n “bd, on thirty-one treatises, Vienna, 
1811. 

Isaac b. Samuel of Dampierre, tosafot to Kiddushin ; in W. 

Joseph ibn Migash, hiddushim (Sheb., Salonica, 1759; B. B., 
Amsterdam, 1702). 

Moses b. Maimon, perush (R. H.), Paris, 1865. 

Judah Sir Leon (d. 1224), tosafot (Ber., in nebwr mo12), War- 
saw, 1868. 

Samson of Sens, tosafot (Shab., ‘Er., Men., in all editions; 
Sotah in W.). 

Perez, tosafot (Bezah, Ned., Naz., Sanh., Mek., Me‘i., in all edi- 
tions; B. K., Leghorn, 1819). 

Moses of Evreux, tosafot (Ber.); in all editions. 

Samuel of Evreux, tosafot to Sotah, ib. 

Samuel of Falaise, tosafot to ‘Abodah Zarah, ib. 

Baruch, tosafot to Zebahim, tb. 

Meir Abulafila (d. 1244), no7 4 (B. B., Salonica, 1803; Sanh., ib. 
1798). 

Judah b. Benjamin ha-Rofe, perush (Shek.); in W. 

Perahyah b. Nissim (c. 1250), hiddushim, in nprn Awyr. Venice, 
1752. 

Isaiah di Trani (c. 1250), tosafot {i., B. K., B. M., B. B., ‘Ab. Za- 
rah, Niddah, Shab., Hag.; ii., ‘Er., R. H., Yoma, Suk., 
Meg., M. K., Pes., Bezah, Ned., Naz., Lemberg, 1862; 
Ket., Git., in W.). 

Jonah Gerondi (d. 1263), hiddushim (Sanh., in on oD), Leg- 
horn, 1801. 

Moses b. Nahman (d. ce. 1270), hiddushim (Ber., “Er., Pes., M. K., 
Hag., R. H., Suk., Ta‘an., Meg., in "ann miwp, Sa- 
lonica, 1791; Shab., in sv9m3 WN, Presburg, 1837; Yeb., 
Homburg, 1700; Ket., Metz, 1765; Git., Niddah, in 
nywow awon, Sulzbach, 1762; B. B., Venice, 1728). 


Todros ha-Levi (d. 1288), 71359 .¥y18 ‘on the haggadot), No- 
vidvor, 1808; hiddushim (Meg., Yoma, in O°°m 2D), Leg. 
horn, 1801. 

Aaron ba-Levi (d. 1293), hiddushim (Ket., Prague, 1742; Bezah, 
in D*2DINA ASA, Leghorn, 1810). 

Meir of Rothenburg (d. 1293), tosafot to Yoma: in all editions, 

Solomon b. Adret(d. 1310), hiddushim (Shab., R. H., Meg., Yeb.,, 
Ned., B. K., Hul., Constantinople, 1720; Sheb., Salonica, 
129; Niddah, Altona, 1737; Men., Warsaw, 1861; ‘Er,, 
ih, 1895). 

Yom-Tob b. Abraham, hiddushim (Sheb., Salonica, 1805; *Er., 
Ta‘an., M. K., Ket., B. M., Amsterdam, 1729; R. H., 
KGnigsberg, 1898; Yoma, Constantinople, 1754; Meg., 
Warsaw, 1880; Yeb., Leghorn, 1787; Kid., Sabbionetta, 
1553; Gif., Salonica, 1158; ‘Ab, Zarah, in oxmbn PTR, 
ib. 1759; Sanh., in Dtan pw, Leghorn, 1781; Sheb., in 
Dprwa Awyn, tb. 1780; Mak., Sulzbach, 1762; Hul., 
Prague, 1735; Niddah, Vienna, 1868). 

Menahem Me’iri(e. 1800), m~n3aNn m2 (Sbab., Leghorn, 1794 3 Yo- 
ma, ib. 1760; Meg., Hag., Ta‘an., Prague, 1810; Ned., 
Naz., Sotah, Bezah, Berlin, 1859; Yeb., Salonica, 1794), 

Asher b. Jehiel (d. 1327), perush (Ned., Naz.), in W.; tosafot 
(Ber., in nwdwn 4273, Warsaw, 1862; Suk., Jerusalem, 
19038; R. H., ib. 1871; Meg., tb, 1884; “Ab. Zarah, th, 
1888; Git., Constantinople, 1711; B. M., Dyhernfurth, 
1823; Sanh., Hul., in mw Awnn, Sulzbach, 1762 ; Sheb., 
Venice, 1608; Niddah, under the title ono man, Ven- 
ice, 1741); Aaron ha-Levi, 9°N97 swipn, Kid., Husiatyn, 
1902; myxdn a’ swown (Pes.), Jerusalem, 1873. 

Isaae Aboab (d. 1498), hiddushim (in the responsa of Moses Ga- 
lante), Venice, 1608. 


SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 


Jacob be-Rab (d. 1546), hiddushim (Ket., Kid.), in his responsa, 
Venice, 1663. 
1549, Joshua Boaz Baruch, the indexes 3D 3 MDW PP, WIN, 
“aN, Venice. 
1552. Mattathias Delacrut, hiddushim (‘Er.), Lublin. 
1561, Joseph ibn Leb, hiddushim (Ket., B. K., Sheb., Constanti- 
nople, 1561; Git., ib. 1573). 
Solomon Luria (4. 1573), andy Sy o> (Bezah, Lublin, 1636; 
Yeb., Altona, 1740; Kid., Berlin, 1766; Ket., Lemberg, 
1862: Git., Berlin, 1761: Hul., Cracow, 1615); anSe moon 
on nineteen treatises, Cracow, 1581. 
1573. Judah b. Moses, s2owyy sy2on mn yd, Constantinople. 
1577. Jacob w"p sar, apy ptdin (Bezab), Jerusalem, 1865. 
1587, Samuel Jaffe Ashkenazi, AN WD M5, on the haggadot of 
Yerushalmi, Venice, 1590. 
Abraham Burjil, o-2x om (Yeb., Ket., B. K., Bik.), &. 
1605, 
1591. Joseph ibn Ezra, ,DW minsy (Kid.), Salonica. 
Bezaleel Ashkenazi, Msa\po mow (Ber., Warsaw, 1868; 
Bezah, Constantinople, 1731; Ket., ib. 1738; Naz., Leg- 
horn, 1774; Sotah, ib. 1800; B. K., Venice, 1762; B. M., 
Amsterdam, 1726: B. B., Lemberg, 1809; Seder Koda- 
shim, excepting Hul., in W.). 


SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 


Samuel b. Eleazer, hiddushim (Ket., Git.), Prossnitz. 
Jedidiah Galante, hiddushim (Bezah, Yeb., Git., B. K., °Ab- 
Zarah), Venice. 
1608. Abraham Hayyim Shor, om min (Er., Pes., B. K., B. M. 
B. B. Sanh., Sheb., ‘Ab. Zarah, Hul.), Lublin; [X3 
ows (Seder Kodashim), Wandsbeck, 1729. 
Mordecai Jaffe (d. 1611), MwA Nyon (glosses); in W. 
Moses b. Isaiah, hiddushim (Zeb.), Berlin, 1701. 
1612. Samuel Edels, hiddushim (x"w7177 on all treatises), Lublin. 
1614. Issachar Bar, yaw 2 (Hor., Ker., Sotah, Hul.), Venice. 
1619. Meir Lublin, oxM9n 13*y “NO (on most of the treatises), ib. 
Isaac ha-Levi, hiddushim (Sheb., Bezah, Yeb., Kid., Ket 
‘Ab. Zarah, Hul.), Neuwied, 1736. 
Abraham di Boton (d. 1625), hiddushim (B. K., in :17172 
D703), Venice, 1599. 
Joseph di Trani (d. 1639), hiddushim (Kid.), ib. 1645. 
Joel Sirkes (dG. 1640), haggahot; in W. 
Joshua b. Solomon (d. 1648), naSv %320 (Shab., Pes., B& 
zah, Yeb., Ket., Kid., B. K., Hul.), Amsterdam, 1715. 
Lipmann Heller (d. 1654), 31 oO NoxXbn (notes); in W: 
1652. Hiyya Rofe, xn ‘wyn (on nineteen treatises), Venice. 
1660. Mordecai Kremsier, naron n=wp (on the haggadot of 
Ber.), Amsterdam, 
1662. Joshua Benveniste, ywiny aw (Yer. Zera‘im, Constant 
nople, 1662; Mo‘ed, Nashim, Nezikin, ib. 1754). 


1602. 
1608 


29 


1664. 


1669. 


1670. 
16/1. 


1682. 
1686. 


1693. 
1698. 


1698. 
1699. 


17338, 
4733. 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


i “pb. Jacob, hiddushe halakot (i. ii., Sheb., Be- 

a Se Ae B. k., B. M.. B. B., Sanh., Zeb., Hul.), 
ee reiev, 1826. and in the editions, 

Joshua Hdschel (d. 1663), hiddushim (B. K., B. M., B. B.), 
Frank fort-on-the-Main, 1725. 

solomon Algazi, 3°70 on> (‘Ab. Zarah, Ber., Hul., Ven- 
ice, 1664; DVO MND, Salonica, 1655; and AIw 371, 
Constantinople, 1683; on haggadot). 

Aaron Samuel Kaidanover, nan 7353 (Zeb., Men., “Er., 

Ker., Tem., Me‘i.), Amsterdam, 1669; serinw noanan 
(Pes., Bezah, Yeb., Ket., Git., B. K., B. M., Hul.), Frank- 
fort-on-the-Main, 1696, 

Jonah Teomim (d. 1699), TV FNP (on thirteen trea- 
tises), Amsterdam. 

Moses Benveniste of Segovia, 3°)w) snpw 3315 (Ber., Se- 
der Mo‘ed), Sinyrna. 

Hayyim ben Israe] Benveniste (d. 1673),°"n) RIDA (Sanh.), 

“ Leghorn, 1802. 

Samuel Eliezer b. Judah, hiddushe aggadot, Frankfort. 

Isaac Benjamin Wolf, hiddushim (B. M.), tb. 

Moses ibn Habib (d. 1696), pnxa nocw (R. H., Yoma, 
suk.), Constantinople, 1727. 

Moses b. Simeon, miwaDN dub (Ber., Seder Mo‘ed), 
Prague. 

Judah b. Nissan, 7717» m2 (Yeb., Ket., Kid., Git., B. K., 
B. M., B. B., Hul.), with hiddushim of David Oppenheim, 
Dessau. 

Naphtali Cohen, M17) no73 (Ber.), Frankfort. 

Samuel Zarfati, >xiu2w 1735 (Ber., “Er., Bezah, R. H., B. 

K., Hor.), Amsterdam. 

Meir Schiff b. Soloman, 0° a$3 may 717 (Ber., Sheb., Be- 
zab, Pes., Men.), Firth, 1798, 

Baruch Angel, hiddushim (Ket., Git., B. K., B. M., Sheb., 
‘ab. Zarali, Hul.), Salonica, 1727. 

Nehemiah b. Abraham Feiwel Duschnitz, 8°33 9737 (on 
twelve treatises), Amsterdam, 1694. 

Judah Liva b. Bezaleel 7°79 “2a (Shab., ‘Er., Pes.), Lem- 
berg, 1861. 


EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 


. Joseph b. Jacob, ADDY wx (on the haggadah), Amsterdam, 


Elijah Spira (d. 1712), t3a3 ibs (Kid., Ket., Git., B. K., 
B. M., Hul.), Firth, 1768. 

Abraham Broda (d. 1717), O9738 bon (Pes., Git., B. M., 
B. B.), Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1747; onnax nbn 
(Kid., Ket.), Fiirth, 1769; hiddushim (B. K., B. M., 
Sanh, in 9°99N37 ows), Offenbach, 1723. 

Elijah b. Judah, perush on Yer. Zera‘im and Sbek., Am- 
sterdam, 1710; B. K., B. M., B. B., Frankfort, 1742, 
Abraham Naphtali Spitz, ps7 nbn (on most of the trea- 

tises), Frankfort-on-the-Main. 

Samuel Shotten, miyiwn 01> (Seder Nezikin, excepting 
Hor.), tb. 

Akiba b. Judah Lob, adyy Saxn (Ket.), tb. 

Meir Eisenstadt (d. 1744), mivwo 3°3p (parti., Zeb., Shab., 
Hul., Amsterdam, 1715; part ii., Git., Sulzbach, 1733; 
part iii., Kid., Bezah, ib. 1738; also B. K., Sudilkov, 1882). 

Joseph ha-Kohen Tanuji (d. 1720), yb» +22 (B. K., B.M., 
‘Ab. Zarah), Leghorn, 1793. 

Solomon Kohen, hiddushim (on eleven treatises), Wil- 
mersdorf. 


- Samuel di Avila, m-yn “n> (Naz.), Amsterdam. 


Menahem Nahum b. Jacob, jn» yy13" (on fourteen trea- 
tises), Dyhernfurth, 1726. 
Johanan Kremnitzer, vw» nsx (Naz.), Berlin. 
Elijah b. Jacob, 5x no123 (Pes., Kid., Ket., Git., B. K.)s 
Wandsbeck. 
Elijah ha-Kohen (d. 1729), ywox naan (Yer. Zera‘im), 
Smyrna, 1755. 
Judah of Gross-Glogau, 717+ 51> (on most of the trea- 
. ae pelea 
. Joseph Rei ab il- 
eae ph Reischer, apy. yyy (on haggadot), Wil 
Menahem Manuele, 
Wandsbeck, 
Isaac b. David, Pry 1b (Ber., Seder Mo‘ed), Amsterdam. 
Jacob b. Joseph Kremer, bang: pvt (R. H., Amsterdam, 
1731; Meg., Altona, 1735). 
Aryeh Léb b. Asher, *4"8 [19031 (Ta‘an.), Wilna, 1862; 
: yas ss" (R. H., Hag., Meg.), Metz, 1781. 
elig b. Phoebus, pinx ndwy (on haggadot), Offenbach. 


Ephraim b. Samue ee 
Altona, 1, 3n n> (on most of the treatises}, 


T72 pv (on most of the treatises), 


Talmud Commentaries 


1V87, Zebi Hirsch b. Joshua, %2¥ yiNa (Yeb., Ket., Kid., B. K., 


1739, 


B. M., Hul.), Prague. 

Jacob Joshua Falk (d. 1756), porn sap (Ket., Git., Kid., 
Amsterdam, 1739; Ber., Shab., Pes., R. H., Suk., Frank- 
fort-on-the-Main, 1752; B. K.. B. M., ib. 1736; Hul., 

fak., Sheb., Firth, 1780). 


. Shabbethai b. Moses, }73 Mnm3> (on most of the treatises), 


Furth. 
Israel b. Moses, 5x ny) (on the mathematical pas- 
sages), Frankfort-on-the-Oder. 

David Frankel, y yanp and yaapoww (Yer. 
Mo‘ed, Dessau, 1748: Seder Nashim, ib. 1757). 
Moses Margolioth, “v2 *°2:p (Yer. Nashim, Amsterdam, 

1750; Nezikin, Leghorn, 1770). 
Jacob Samosc, apy* Nin (Ber., Suk., Bezah, Kid., B. K., 
B. M., Sheb.), Rédelheim. 


Seder 


. Aaron b. Nathan, 7179N ow (on most of the treatises), 


Zolkiev. 


. Hayyim Joseph David Azulai, ADY ayy (Hor.), Leghorn. 


Akiba Eger (d. 1758), sa°\pyp sant mown (Ber., Shab., ‘Er., 
Pes., Bezgah, Suk., Yeb., Ket., Kid., Git., Seder Nezikin, 
Seder Kodashim, Niddah), Furth, 1781. 

Joseph b. Meir Teomim (d. 1798), ADw map (Yeb., Ket.), 
Zolkiev, 1757; DY wen (Hul., Frankfort-on-the-Oder, 
1794; Sheb., Meg., Lemberg, 1863). 

Isaiah Berlin, 3wyD Mwp and AADwA ADIs (notes on all 
the treatises: hiddushim on Naz.), n.p.; haggahot in W. 


. Joseph Darmstadt, D1 yy (Ber., Bezah, Meg.), Carlsruhe. 


Jonathan Eybeschiitz (d. 1764), ram s4DM (on most of the 
treatises), Piotrkow, 1897. 
Isaac Ashkenazi, a7 5)3: (Git., Ket., B. K.), Salonica. 


. Isaac Nufiez-Vaez, pny mow (Yoma, Leghorn, 1766; Hag., 


ib. 1794), 
Jacob Emden (d. 1776), glosses; in W. 


. Elijah Sidlov, wbx navy (Zeb., Men., Tem.), Firth, 1776. 


Eleazar Kallir (d. 1801), wan 71s (Pes., Frankfort-on-the- 
Oder, 1776; Kid., Vienna, 1799). 

Judah Lissa, 7A AN 7D (Zeb.), Frankfort-on-the-Main, 
1776; }nD NmIO (Men.), Prague, 1788. 

Itzig b. Samson, OWN yaap (Yoma, Bezah, Sheb., Hul., 
‘Ar., Tem., Me‘i., Ker.), Sulzbach. 

Saul b. Aryeh (d. 1790), s»55n ma (on fourteen treatises), 
Amsterdam. 

Raphael Peiser, oon 7x (Pes., Shab., Bezah, Ket., R. 
H., Hul.), Dyhernfurth, 1778; mynnn mdi (Kid., Git.), 
ib. 1805. 

Eliezer de Avila, 5°03. 720 (i., B. M., Hor.; ii., Ket., Kid.. 
Leghorn, 1781-85). 

Nathan Maas, mn5w 323 (Sanh., Offenbach, 1784; ‘Ab. 
Zarah, ib. 1796). 

Ezekiel Landau "n"5*y = ayn way yrs (Pes., Prague, 
1784; Ber., ib. 1791; Bezah, th. 1799; Sheb., *Er., War- 
saw, 1879; R. H., Yoma, Suk., Ta‘an., Hag., Meg., ib. 
1890; Hul., Zeb., Men., ib. 1891); glosses; in W. 

Elijah Wilna (dad. 1797), giosses and elucidations of both 
Talmudim in various editions. 

Moses Katz, 377 91395 (Shek.), Firth. 

Phinehas Horwitz, axS5n (part i., Ket., Offenbach, 1786; 
part ii., Kid., iD. 1801; part iii., Ber., Munkaes, 1895). 


. Meir Barby, hiddushe halakot (i., Bezah, Pes., Kid., Ket., 


Dyhernfurth, 1786; iji., Yoma, Suk., Git., Hul., Sheb., 
Prague, 1793). 

Uziel Meisels, 31 Nyjzn yy (Sheb.), Lemberg, 1886. 

Wolf Laseh, Sx-ws nwiip i, ii., Ket., Kid., Git., Briinn, 
1788; Vienna, 1829). 

Joseph David Sinzheim, 314 1» (Ber., entire Seder Mo‘ed), 
Offenbach. 

David Schiff (d.1792), anrn p> (on most of the treatises), 
ib. 1822. 

Levi Pollak, 15 maS owe stizy (B. K., B.M., B. B., 
Sheb., ‘Ab. Zarah), Prague. 

Isaac b. Zebi, wapnA nyind (Zeb.), Lemberg. 


1792. Meir Spitz, sixnd mena (R. H., Yoma, Suk., Meg., 
Ta‘an.), Vienna. 
1794. Judah Najar, 7719) °5°R (Sheb.), Leghorn, 1794; nnow 


msi (Ker.), Pisa, 1816. 

Baruch b. Samuel Zanwil, bainw yur (Ket.), Vienna, 
1796. 

Joseph b. Moses, 241n mwyno (B. K.), Lemberg. 

Elijah Ventura, 0°3wW75 83D (on twenty-one treatises), 
Salonica. 

Aryeh Judah Lob Teomim, p»2"~N nd» (Ber., Shab., Pes., 
Bezah, Hul., Kid., Sheb.), Zolkiev, 1802. 


Talmud Commentaries 
Talmud Hermeneutics 


Hayyim Sbabbethai Lago, abi nncw (Ber.. Pes., Kid., 
Sanh., Hul.), Salonica, 1801. 

Abrabam b. Jacob Mutal, 9°33 m7 (Naz.), n.p., 1821. 

Hayyim Abraham b. Samuel, hiddushim (Shab., R. H.., 
Suk., Hul.), Salonica, 1804. 


NINETEENTH AND TWENTIETH CENTURIES. 


1801. Zebi Hirsch Horwitz, > nomn (14 treatises), Offenbach. 
1801. Eleazar Karpeles, 3.927 *35ND (Hor.), Prague; »>y cap 
(Hul., *Ar.), ib. 1815. 

1802. Bezaleel Rovsburg, 721 7719 (Hor.), Prague; a" owyr, 
notes, in W. 

Eleazar Low, mp1 pow (Ber., Pes., Bezah), Prague. 

Abraham Aryeh Kahana, 39795 “38 (on most of the trea- 
tises), Ostrog. 

1810, Meir Schlesinger, “"N7 ‘37 (Shab., R. H., Git., B. M.), 

Prague. 
1811. Jacob Simeon Shabbethai, DAN mom (Meg., Ta‘an.), 
Pisa, 1821; spy was (Ker.), tb. 1811. 

1814. Jacob Ginzburg, 3py. por (Ber., Shab.), Prague. 

1815, Benedetto Frizzi, °)sy mop (on haggadot), Leghorn. 

1821, Nahum Trebitsch, pbwyv aby (Yer. Seder Mo‘ed), Vi- 

enna. 

1822. David Deutsch, 7)" bax (on most of the treatises), Vienna, 

1822, 1825; Presburg, 18386; Ungvar, 1867, 

Moses Sofer, 151D On wan (Bezah, Piotrkow, 1898; B. 
B., ib. 1896; Shab., Vienna, 1889; Hul., Git., ib. 1898; 
Pes., Jerusalem, 1894}; haggahotin W. 

1822, Gabriel Coben, Sx iv» °3:y (B. B., Sheb.), Vienna. 

. Jacob Lissa, spy? ma (Ket.), Hrubisov. 

Marcus Hirsch, Jonn y5 (Seder Mo‘ed excepting Shab., 
‘Er., Hag.), Prague. 

Shalom Ullmann (d. 1825), wv") a5 (on most of the trea- 
tises), Vienna, 1828. 

Akiba Eger (d. 1837), wrimi wis (Ber., Seder Mo‘ed, 
Yeb., Ket.), Warsaw, 1892; sax No py “9 wisn (B. M., 
Git.), Berlin, 1858; notes in W. 

. Zebi Hirsch Leipnik, yawn aw> 3) ap (Ber., Shab., ‘Er., 

Pes., Bezah, Ket.. Kid., Git., B. M., Ker., Zeb.), Ofen. 
Isaac Ardit, Jaya 7p» CAr.), Salonica, 1828. 

1829. Jacob Weiler, apy) m2 CEr.), Zolkiev. 

Aaron Kuttner (d. 1829), ;:n4N Nnwn (Nid.), Paks, 1901. 

Cosman Wodianer (d. 1831), pwr mn: (2 parts, on most 
of the treatises), ed. Bacher, Vienna, 1890. 

Zebi Hirsch Heller, pa 31 win (Git.), ZolKiev, 1844. 

Solomon Kluger, 473 17 (Niddah), Zolkiev, 1834; ay °792 
31 (Bezah), Lemberg, 1891. 

Ezekiel Binet (d. 1836), Sxpiny main (Shab., Pes., Bezah, 
Kid., Git., Mek., Hul.), Paks, 1899. 

Wolf Bar Schiff (d. 1842), pst Onic CEr.), Cracow, 1894. 

Koppel Reich, pin Sy pap wren, Presburg, 1887. 

Benjamin Rapoport, bxrw>> my (Mak.), Vienna, 1839. 

1840. Hirsch Chajes, baggahot; in W. 

Aryeh Judah b. Akiba, meas 35 (Hul.), Lemberg, 1861. 
1850. Samuel Freund, 732m ry (Seder Mo‘ed), Prague. 
1850. Jacob Ettlinger (d. 1869), mab yy (Ker., Altona, 1850; 
Yeb., ib. 1854; R.H., Sanh., Warsaw, 1873); oD voy 
(Suk.), Altona, 1858. 

1851. David b. Samuel, 7 wp (Seder Kodashim), Leghorn, 
18513 314°) (Naz.), Algiers, 1853. 

1851. Isaac Kamarun, 7p? »35 (Shek.), Lemberg. 

1854. Nathan Coronel, >) M3 (Ber.), Vienna. 

1857. issachar Bar ben Sinai, 37 [mI (on most of the trea- 

tises), Vienna, 1857. 

1859. Wiesner, scholia on Babli (part i., Ber., Prague, 1859; part 
ii., Shab., 1b. 1862; part iii., ‘Er., Pes., ib. 1867), 

Zeeb Ettinger and Joseph Nathansohn, Dpe'n yyy, ANY 72, 
orSwiney py, Dd’ p52 (glosses, etc.,on Yer.), Jitomir. 

1861. Ezekiel b. Moses, Sxpims 3232 (Ket., Ned.), Warsaw. 

Mordecai Miller, ss 73 (Shab.), Vienna. 

1862. Weissman Chajes, Solomon Brann, Jude) Slabatki, notes 
on Yer., Krotoschin. 

Mordecai Herzka, 3:95 +7375 (Ber.), Vienna. 

Issachar Prager, xn Ssy (Git.), Lemberg. 

1867. A. Krochmal, 7932" as>w 17 (notes on Yer.), Lemberg. 

1867-97, Rabbinovicz, d°75'D ypIIps, i-xvi. (variant readings 
on the entire Talmud), Munich and Przernysi. 

Aryeh Lob Zunz, Dw wo (Git). Warsaw. 

Joshua Eizik, ss5wiwr oy (Yer. Seder Nezikin), Wilna. 

1874, Zacharias Frankel, ys 739N (i., Yer. Ber., Bezah; ii., 

Dem.), Breslau, 1874-75. 
1876, Asher Cohen, wx7 7553 (Naz.), Warsaw. 


1802 
1804. 


1834 


1860. 


1864. 


1369. 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 30 


1877, Raphael Schlesinger, xp wien (Sank., Sheb.), Berlin. 

1878, Naphtali Zebi ha-Levi, 5 m3 (Git.), Przemysi. 

1880. I. Hayyim Deiches, ssSwi miasns (Yer. B. K.), Wilna. 

1883, Benjamin Heshin, y»2°23 AnMoN (Seder Nezikin, Ko- 
dashim), Warsaw. 

1888. Meir Friedmann, notes on his edition of Mak., Vienna. 

1888. A. Schmid], 73" wy Sy (Kid.), in “ Ozar ha-Sifrut,” ii.-iii, 

1888, Simon Sidon, pynw vay (Bezah), Vienna. 

1895. I. Lewy, interpretation of the first three sections of Yer. 
Nezikin, Breslau, 1893-1902. 

1897. 8. L. Brill, ‘* Aus den Talmudischen Randnoten des ... 
von Ludwig Blau,” in ‘* Monatsschrift.’’ 1807. 

1899, Isaac Chajes, pny* mw (Mak.), Podgorze. 

1897-1968. Joseph Dinner, haggahot (i., ‘Er., Bezah, Suk.; ii., 
Ket., Kid., Git.: ili., Sanh., Mak., Sheb., Hor.), Frankfort. 

1901. Dob Baer Ratner, a*5w171 yyy MaAN (on Yer. Ber., Shab., 
Ter., Hal.), Wilna, 1901-4. 

1905. Sal. Friedlander, wis°p and pd) (Con Yer. Yeb.), Szi- 
nervareya. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Weiss, Dor, iv., v., Vienna, 1887, 1891; Zunz, 
Z. G. pp. 29-59, Berlin, 1845; Jellinek, Korot Seder ha-Lim. 
mud, in Keller’s Bikkurim (Vienna), t. 1-26. ii. 1-19: idem, 
Kontres ha-Mefaresh, Vienna, 1877 ; Frankel, Introductio in 
Talmud Hierosolymitanum, pp. 138-141, Breslau, 1870: 
Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. passim; Zedner, Cat. Hebr. Books 
Brit. Mus. passim; Furst, Bibi. Jud. passim. 

Ww. B. M. Rr. 


TALMUD HERMENEUTICS: The science 
which defines the rules and methods for the investi- 
gation and exact determination of the meaning of 
the Scriptures, both legal and historical. Since the 
Halakah, however, is regarded simply as an ex- 
position and explanation of the Torah, Talmud 
hermeneutics includes also the rules by which the 
requirements of the oral law are derived from and 
established by the written law. These rules relate 
to: (a) grammar and exegesis; (0) the interpretation 

of certain words and Jetters and super- 
Classes of fluous words, prefixes, and suffixes 
Rules. in general; (¢) the interpretation of 
those letters which, in certain words, 
are provided with points; (d) the interpretation of 
the letters in a word according to their numerical 
value (see GEMATRIA); (e) the interpretation of a 
word by dividing it into two or more words (see 
NotTaRikon); (f) the interpretation of a word ac- 
cording to its consonantal form or according to its 
vocalization; (g) the interpretation of a word by 
transposing its letters or by changing its vowels; 
and (/) the logical deduction of a halakah from a 
Scriptural text or from another law. 

Compilations of such hermeneutic rules were 
made in the earliest times. The tanuaitic tradition 
recognizes three such collections, namely: (1) the 
seven RuLEs oF HILLEL (baraita at the beginning of 
Sifra; Ab. R. N. xxxvii.); (2) the thirteen Ru Es oF 
R. Isom Ak. (baraita at the beginning of Sifra; this 
collection is merely an amplification of that of Hil- 
Jel); and (8) the thirty-two RuveEs or R. Evrezer 
B. JOSE WA-GELILI. The last-mentioned rules are 
contained in an independent baraita which has been 
incorporated and preserved only in later works. 
They are intended for haggadic interpretation; but 
many of them are valid for the Halakah as well, 
coinciding with the rules of Hillel and Ishmael. 

It must be borne in mind, however, that neither 
Hillel, Ishmacl, nor Eliezer ben Jose ha-Gelili sought 
to give a complete enumeration of the rules of in- 
terpretation current in his day, but that they 
omitted from their collections many rules which 
were then followed. For some reason or other they 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


$1 


restricted themselves toa compilation of the princi- 

al methods of logical deduction, which they called 
dniadot ” (measures), although the other rules also 
were known by that term (comp. Sifre, Num. 2 [ed. 
Friedmann, p. 2a]). — 

All the hermeneutic rules scattered through the 
Talmudim and Midrashim have been collected by 
Malbim in “Ayyelet ha-Shahar, ” the introduction to 
his commentary on the Sifra, and have been arbi- 
trarily reckoned at 618, to correspond with the 6138 
commandments. The antiquity of the rules can be 
determined only by the dates of the authorities who 

quote them; in general, they can not 

Dates of safely be declared older than the tanna 
the Rules. to whom they are first ascribed. It is 

certain, however, that the seven middot 
of Hillel and the thirteen of Ishmael are earlier than 
the time of Hillel himself, who was the first to trans- 
mit them. At all events, he did not invent them, 
but merely collected them as current in his day, 
though he possibly amplified them. 

The Talmud itself gives no information concern- 
ing the origin of the middot, although the Geonim 
regarded them as Sinaitic ("DD sens nada; comp. 
R. Samson of Chinon in his “Sefer ha-Keritot ”). 
This can be correct only if the expression A397 
py mv means nothing more than “very old,” 
as is the case in many Talmudic passages. It is de- 
cidedly erroneous, however, to take this expression 
literally and to consider the middot as traditional 
from the time of Moses on Sinai. 

The middot seem to have been first laid down as 
abstract rules by the teachers of Hillel, though they 
were not immediately recognized by all as valid and 
binding. Different schools interpreted and modified 
them, restricted or expanded them, in various ways. 
Akiba and Ishmael and their scholars especially 
contributed to the development or establishment of 
theserules, Akiba devoted his attentiou particularly 
to the grammatical and exegetical rules, while Ish- 
mael developed the logical. The rules laid down 
by one school were frequently rejected by another 
because the principles which guided them in their 
respective formulations were essentially different. 
According to Akiba, the divine language of the Torah 
is distinguished from the speech of men by the fact 
that in the former no word or sound is superfluous. 
He established two principles broadening the scope 
of the rule of his teacher Nanum or Giuzo, who 
had declared that certain particles, like nx, D3, and 
IN, Were inclusive and certain others, such as 48, Pa, 
aud 1, were exclusive. These two principles are: 
(1) oy xd yan any Na PN (=“one inclusion 
added to another is equivalent to an exclusion”; 
nite. Zaw, Perek, 11 [ed. Weiss, p. 34d]); and (2) 
PII myaws (= “words areamplifications”; Yer. 
eat XIx, 1%a). Hence he interprets the following 
bree of expression as amplifications: an infinitive 
the : : finite verb, é.9., NIBN AN (Sanh. 64b) ; 
an foubling of a word, ¢.g., WX We (Yeb. Tha): 
sae a repetition of a term by a synonym, ¢.g., 

Hy I) (Yer. Sotah viii. 22b). 
ple mael, on the contrary, lays down the princi- 
ae OW 72 pws myn ma (= “the Torah 
‘Sin the language of men”; Sifre, Num. 112). 


Talmud Commentaries 
Talmud Hermeneutics 


The Bible may, therefore, have employed superflu- 
ous words and sounds: and forced values should not 
be assigned to them for the purpose of deducing 
new rules therefrom. The same statement holds 
with regard to the repetition of an entire section. 
Ishmael is of the opinion that “the Torah at times 
repeats a whole section of the Law in order to give 
a new application to it” (DIPHA Mew Awa b> 
Sowa xdx meow xb one Dip. ANIY WI IAN 
m3 wnnsw 124; Sifre, Num. 2, according to the 
reading of Elijah Wilna). It is not necessary, there- 
fore, to draw a new inference from every repetition. 
Thus, for instance, in Num, v. 5-8 the Torah re- 
peats the section on nibrs ows in Lev. v. 20-26 (vi. 
1-7, A. V.) for the purpose of teaching the new 
ruling that in certain cases recompense for sin shall 
be made directly to the priests. Akiba asserts, on 
the other hand (in Sifre, /.c., according to the reading 
of Elijah Wilna), that “Everything that is said ina 
section so repeated must be interpreted ” (= nD bs 
paind JOY 73 WwRxsy), and that new deductions 
may be drawn from it. According to this view, in 
Num. v. 5-8, for example, a new meaning must be 
sought in the repetition of the Law. 
According to Akiba, the traditional | 
vocalization in the Bible of a word 
which may be read in various ways is 
well founded (xpd ON vw"); and he deduces many 
rules from the meanings which such words have ac- 
cording to traditional pointing. This rule had been 
formulated before Akiba by a tanna named R. 
Judah ben Ro‘ez, who is not mentioned elsewhere, 
and of whom, consequently, nothing more is known 
(comp. Sanh. 4a). 

Ishmael, in opposition to Akiba, follows the prin- 
ciple non ON vw, z.¢., that the tradition regard- 
ing only the consonantal text is authoritative. and 
that rules may be deduced only from that text. 
A single example will serve to illustrate the differ- 
ence between the methods of the two schools. In 
Lev. xxi. 11, in the law which forbids a priest to 
defile himself by touching a corpse, the word Mwb3 
is written defectively. Since the traditional reading 
indicates the plural, “nafshot,” Akiba draws the 
conclusion that a quarter-log of blood, the minimum 
quantity by which a priest may be rendered unclean 
through contact with a single corpse, also defiles 
him when it issues from two bodies. According to 
Ishmael, however, this minimum quantity defiles a 
priest only when it issues froma single corpse: for 
the word, according to the consonantal text, is to be 
read in the singular “natshat” (comp. Sanh. 4a, b, 
Hul. 72a, and Tosafot to both passages). 

According to Akiba, laws may be deduced from 
the juxtaposition of two legal sections, since “every 
passage Which stands close to another must be ex- 
plained and interpreted with reference to Its neigh- 
bor” (mann AIDS anand nswp saw mene So: 
Sifre, Num. 181). According to Ishmael, on the 
contrary, nothing may be inferred from the position 
of the individual sections, since it is not at all cer- 
tain that every single portion now stands in its proper 
place. Many a paragraph which forms, strictly 


Akiba’s 
Rules. 


. Speaking, the beginning of a book and should stand 


in that position, has been transposed to the middle. 


Talmud Hermeneutics 
Talmudic Law 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 32 


Ishmael explains the occurrence of a section in a 
place where it does not properly belong (3n23 a5) 
qND) by declaring that “there is no first or last in 
the Scriptures ” (Aq1N3 TINNY) DIP) pay wa NSN), 
not as due to any special reason (Mek., ed. Weiss, p. 
48a; Eccl. R. i.; comp. Pes. 6b, where R. Pappa de- 
fines this principle in such a manner that it does not 
contradict Ishmael’s rules concerning “Kelal u- 
ferat”). Eliezer b. Jose ha-Gelili ex panded this rule 
in his baraita and divided it into two parts (Nos. 31 
and 82). The opposition between the schools of 
Ishmael and Akiba lessened gradually, and finally 
vanished altogether, so that the later tannaim apply 
the axioms of both indiscriminately, although the 
hermeneutics of Akiba predominated. In this way 
all the principles cited above obtained general rec- 
ognition. 

A more detailed discussion of the seven rules of 
Hillel and of the thirteen of Ishmael may now be 
given, together with certain other important canons 
of Talmud hermeneutics. 

1. Kal (kol) wa-homer: The first rule of Hillel 
and of Ishmael, called also “din” (conclusion). This 
is the argument “a minori ad majus” or “a majori ad 
minus.” Jn the Baraita of Eliezer b. Jose ha-Gelili 
this rule is divided into two (Nos. 5 and 6), since a 
distinction is made between a course of reasoning 
carried to its logical conclusion in the Holy Scrip- 
tures themselves (“kal wa-homer meforash”) and 
one merely suggested there (“ kal wa-homer satum ”). 
The completed argument is illustrated in ten exam- 
ples given in Gen. R. xcii. The full name of this 
rule should be “kal wa-homer, homer we-kal ” (sim- 
ple and complex, complex and simple), since by it 
deductions are made from the simple to the complex 
or vice versa, according to the nature of the conclu- 
sion required. The.major premise on which the 
argument is based is called “nadon,” or, at a later 
period, “melammed ” (that which teaches); the con- 
clusion resulting from the argument is termed 
PI 7 NI, or, later, “lamed” (that which learns). 
The process of deduction in the kal wa-homer is 
limited by the rule that the conclusion may contain 
nothing more than is found in the premise. This 
is the so-called “dayyo” law, which many teachers, 
however, ignored. It is formulated thus: xb "s 
IIS nynd p37 yo (“ The conclusion of an argument 
is satisfied when it is like the major premise”). The 
discovery of a fallacy in the process of deduction is 
called “teshubah ” (objection), or, in the terminology 
of the Amoraim, “pirka.” The possibility of such 
an objection is never wholly excluded, hence the 
deduction of the kal wa-homer has no absolute cer- 
tainty. The consequences of this are: (a) that the 
conclusions have, according to many teachers, no 
real value in criminal procedure, a view expressed 
in the axiom that the conclusion is insufficient to 
punish the violator of an inferred prohibition (js 
PI pO pwoy; Sifre, Num. 1); (5) that very often a 
passage is interpreted to mean something which 
may be inferred by means of.a kal wa-homer (send 


sap m5 ansi mp 1"p2 xnNT; Pes. 18b; Yoma 48a). 

2. Gezerah shawah (“Similar Jaws, similar 
verdicts”): The second rule of Hillel and of Ishmael, 
and the seventh of Eliezer b. Jose ha-Gelili. This 


may be described as argument by analogy, which 
infers from the similarity of two cases that the legal 
decision given for the one holds good for the other 
also, The term “gezerah shawah” originally in- 
cluded arguments based on analogies cither in word 
or in fact. Before long, however, the latter class 
was designated as “hekkesh,” while the phrase 
“ gezerah shawah ” was limited to analogy in the case 
of two different Biblical laws containing a word 
common to both. The gezerah shawah was origi- 
nally restricted to a di¢ zeyouevoy, t.e., & word occur- 
ring only in the two passages offering the analogy, 
Since such a word is found nowhere clse, there is no 
reason to assume that it bears different meanings in 
the two passages. The gezerah shawah conse- 
quently attaches to the word in the one passage the 
entire sequence of ideas which it bears in the other, 
Such a gezerah shawah is purely lexicographical, 
as seeking to determine the exact signification of a 
word by comparison with another passage in which 
the full meaning of such word isclear. Therule thus 
demonstrates itself. An example will illustrate this 
moreclearly. The phrase {wx i nN pbp (“to wring 
off the head”) occurs only twice in the Pentateuch, 
namely, in Lev. i. 15 and 7. v. 8. Inthe latter pas- 
sage, however, the meaning of the phrase is more 
closely detined by 1DuYp Syn (“from the neck ”). The 
Sifra (ed. Weiss, p. 9a) concludes, therefore, that the 
nearer definition, “from the neck,” in the second 
passage, is part of the concept of the word by, 
and, consequently, that in the former passage, also, 
361 means “to wring the head from the neck.” At 
a later period, however, the gezerah shawah emerged 
from these narrow bounds and inferred the identity 
of legal requirements from the identity of their ter- 
minology, even when such terminology occurred in 
many passages besides the two which formed the 
analogy. Thereby the gezerah shawah lost its in- 
herent power of demonstration; for it is wholly un- 
reasonable to attribute to a word a meaning which 
happens to be associated with it in a single passage, 
when various other passages connect ideas entirely 
different with the same word. Since, moreover, 
each individual teacher might choose which two ex- 
pressions he would select for a gezerah shawah, 
contradictory conclusions might be drawn, which 
would each have the same claim to validity, since 
both were obtained by a gezerah shawah. Conse- 
quently, in order to be binding, a gezerah shawah 
was obliged to conform to two requirements which, 
on the one hand, greatly restricted its application, 
and, on the other, gave legal decisions thus obtained 
the value of those deduced from asuperfluous word 
in the Holy Scriptures. These conditions are: (a) 


yp Aw AI TT IW pN (“ No one may draw a 
conclusion from analogy upon his own authority ”; 
Pes. 66a; Niddah 19b). This rule, however, is not 
to be regarded as implying that every gezerah 
shawah must have been handed down from Sinai, 
as Rashi (on the various passages) and many exposi- 
tors who followed him explained it, but that the nse 
of this method of hermeneutics is to be permitted 
only to an entire board or council, and is to be em- 
ployed only when its results agree with the traditional 
halakah, which thereby acquires the importance of & 


33 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Talmud Hermeneutics 
Talmudic Law 


a 


law implied in the Scriptures. In Yerushalmi this 


mule reads: DIN PRIN DMP? my AW PT ON 
meen bab ead CS From a gezerah shawah con- 
clusions may be deduced which support tradition, 
put not such as are opposed to tradition”; comp. 
Maimonides in the introduction to his “ Mishneh 
Torah"). (4) The words of the text which form the 
pasis of the deduction from analogy must be free, 
,¢., they must be superfluous and non-essential, or 


they may not be used Gryry 330% pb) espn aaa 
ayy). This limitation of the gezerah shawah, how- 
ever, to superfluous words is not generally recog- 
nized. Akiba considers the gezerah shawah valid 
when neither of the two words is superfluous ((3°8 
bb =sp\). According to Ishmael, it is sufficient 
if the analogy is free on one side (JAN WWD MIB), 
¢.e.,if one of the two words forming the basis of the 
analogy is pleonastic. Eliezer alone requires both 
words to be superfluous (O38 "3w M3IBW; comp. 
Hoffmann, “Zur Einleitung in die Halachischen Mid- 
rashchim,” p. 6). 

3. Binyan ab mi-katub ehad (“A standard 
from a passage of Scripture”): A certain passage 
serves as a basis for the interpretation of many 
others, so that the decision given in the case of one 
is valid for all the rest. 

4. Binyan ab mi-shene ketubim (“A stand- 
ard from two passages of Scripture”): By this rule 
a decision in two laws having a characteristic in 
common (17 TWh) is applied to many other laws 
which have this same characteristic. Ishmael unites 
rules 2 and 4 in his third rule, while the same com- 
bination forms the eighth rule of Eliezer b. Jose 
ha-Gelili. 

5. Kelal u-ferat and ferat u-kelal (“General 
and particular, particular and general,” 7.e., limita- 
tion of the general by the particular and vice versa): 
According to Ishmael, this principle has eight spe- 
cial applications, and thus includes eight separate 
ries in his scheme (Nos. 4-11). This method of 
limitation is one of the main points of difference be- 
tween Ishmael and Akiba. According to the former, 
who follows his teacher R. Nehunya b. ha-Kanah, 
the particular is only an elucidation of the preceding 
general expression, so that the latter includes only 
What is contained in the particular (PR prDi bs 
prpaw np xby $553). Butif still another general 
follows the particular, the two general expressions 
are defined by the intermediate particular, so that 
the law applies only to what is like the particular 


(onan pyo Ss map mins ty 555) may 55). 

kiba, on the contrary, applies the rule of increase 
and decrease (My) YI) which had been taught 
him by his teacher Nahum of Gimzo. According to 
this principle, the general followed: by a particular 
subsumes everything which is like the particular 
(Sanh. 45b, 46a). If, however, another general 
term follows the particular, the former subsumes 
also what is not similar to the latter. The two geu- 
eral terms are decreased in only one respect by the 
intermediate particular ($99 AI YIN Diy) 37 
IRAN 4 Dy ‘xm; Shebu. 26a; comp. also Rashi 
on Sanh. 2.¢.), 

6. Ka-yoze bo mi-makom sher (“Like that 

XII.—8 


in another place”): The explanation of a Biblical 
passage according to another of similar content. 

7. Dabar ha-lamed me-‘inyano (“Something 
proved by the context”): Definition from the con- 
text. Ishmael omits rule 6 entirely, and has another 
(No. 18) instead which is not found in Hillel, and 
which reads thus: AP AN AP Owens DANS joy 
omya ysn essen sina gw ty (“If two pas- 
sages contradict each other, this contradiction must 
be reconciled by comparison with a third passage ”). 
The method of solution of such opposing statements 
by the help of a third passage is a point of diver- 
gency between Ishmael and Akiba. According to 
the latter, the third sentence decides in favor of one 
of the two contradictory statements (Mek., ed. Weiss, 
6a); according to the former, it modifies the inter- 
pretation of both. With regard to the meaning of 
words which are pointed in the text, Simeon b. 
Eleazar laid down the rule that if the pointed part 
of the word (A)p3) is equal to the unpointed part 
(3n5D) in length, the word must not be interpreted 
at all; but if one part is longer than the other, such 
part must be interpreted (Gen. R. 1xxvilii.). Con- 
cerning the interpretation of words by a change of 
letters or vowels the rule is: S9pn bx (“Do not 
read so, but so”). Under this rule the integrity of 
the text itself is not assailed, the changes made 
being only for the purpose of explanation. 

To support a halakic decision, and more espe- 
cially to find a point of departure in the Haggadah, 
the traditional reading of a word is altered by trans- 
position of its consonants or by substitution of others 
which are related to them, or the consonant-group 
is retained with alteration of its vowels, the last 
method being the most frequent. A halakic exam- 
ple of this form of hermeneutics is the interpretation 
of the word “Kapot” (bough; Lev. xxiii. 40) as 
though it were “kaput” (bound; Sifra, ed. Weiss, 
p. 102d; Suk. 32a). It is noteworthy, moreover, 
that only the Tannaim derived new halakot with 
the aid of these rules, while the Amoraim employed 
them only in advancing haggadic explanations or 
in establishing the old halakot of the Tannaim. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Saadia Gaon, Commentary on the thirteen 

middot of R. Ishmael, published by Schechter in Bet Talmua, 

iv. 237 et seqg., and in the Guvres Completes, ix. 73-83; Rashi, 

Commentary on the thirteen rules, in Kobak’s Jeschuritn, vi., 

Hebrew part, pp. 38-44, 201-204; the remaining commentaries 

on the thirteen rules are enumerated by Jellinek in HKontres 

ha-Kelalim, Nos. 163-175; R. Samson of Chinon, Sefer Keri- 
tut, Warsaw, 1854; Malachi Kohen, Yad Mal’aki, Berlin, 

1852; Aaron ibn Hayyim, Middot Aharon; R. Solomon 

Algazi, Yabin Shemu‘ah; Jacob Hirsch Jolles, Melo ha- 

Rotim, part ii; Hirsch Chajes, Mebo ha-Tatnud, Zolkiev, 

1815; Malbim, Ayyelet ha-Shakar, Frankel, Hedegetica 

in Mischnam, pp. 19 and 108-109, Leipsic, 1859; [. H. Weiss, 

Dor, i, 164-168, ii. 105; Mordecai Plungian, Sefer Talptyyot, 

Wilna, 1849; H. 8. Hirschfeld, Halachische Haregese, Berlin, 

1840; idem, Hagadische E.regese, ib. 1847; Gratz, Hillel und 

Seine Sieben Interpretationsregeln, in Monatsschrift, 1; 

M. Mielziner, The Zalmudie Syllogism or the Inference 

of Kal Vechomer, in Hebrew Review, i., Cincinnati, 1850; 

Hoffmann, Zur Hinleitung in die Halachischen Midra- 

schim, pp. 4-1], Berlin, 1887; idem, Hin Midrasch tiber die 

Dreizehn Middot, in Berliner Festschrift, pp. 55-71; S. Lan- 

dau, Ansichten des Talmud und der Geonim ther den 

Werth der Midraschischen Schriftauslegung, Hanover, 

1888; Dohsehiitz, Die Hinfache Bibeleregese der Tannain, 


Halle, 1893; A. Schwartz, Die Hermeneutisehe Analogie, 
Vienna, 1897; idem, Der Hermeneutische Syllogismus, ib. 


W. B. J. Z. LL. 


TALMUDIC LAW: The development of thou- 
sands of years is represented by the Jewish law as 


Talmudic Law 


it is found in the Shulhan ‘Aruk, Hoshen Mishpat, 
of Joseph Caro (16th cent.), as well as tn numer- 
ous other works which claborate or elucidate indi- 
vidual passages in various ways. The history of 
the Hebrew code falls into three chief epochs: (1) 
the Pentateuch, (2) the Talmud, and (8) post- 
Talmudic literature. The Pentateuch forms the 
basis of the Talmud, while the latter serves in its 
turn as a foundation for post-Talmudic law, which 
has tenaciously maintained its validity 
in less cultured countries to the pres- 
ent day. Although these three peri- 
ods are closely related in so far as the 
later epochs were developed from the 
earlier, they must be regarded as mu- 
tually independent, since they repre- 
sent different phases of evolution. As controverting 
the theory which formerly prevailed, especial stress 
must be laid upon the fact that in the course of time 
the changes both in material and in spiritual life 
profoundly modified Jewish law, the stages of whose 
evolution are linked together only by the legal 
fictions common to all history of law. It may ac- 
cordingly be said that there were three judiciary 
systems: the Mosaic, the Talmudic, and the rab- 
binic. The Talmudic code is generally termed the 
“ Mosaic-Talmudic,” since the authorities of the Tal- 
mud took the Mosaic law as their basis. From the 
point of view of judicial history, however, the Tal- 
mud must be regarded as an independent structure; 
and it is therefore more correct to use the simple 
term “Talnudic law.” The present article excludes 
all reference to rabbinic law, and discusses only 
those aspects of the Mosaic system which facili- 
tate an intelligent comprehension of the Talmudic 
code, 

The Torah, revealed by God, was the basis of the 
code; and God Himself was consequently the Su- 
preme Source of law, The Talmud, like the Torah, 
drew no distinction between religious and secular 
law, thus conforming to the general custom of an- 

client peoples, especially in the East. 

Religious One result of this peculiarity was the 
and Secular wide range and close articulation of 
Law. the Talmudic system, since the com- 
mandments of religion influenced secu- 

lar Jaw, and modified civil relations in so far as any 
infraction of them was punishable, It is impossi- 
ble, therefore, to differentiate sharply between relig- 
ious and secular Jaw. Everything pertaining to the 
former is discussed more properly under HALAKAH, 
and is, therefore, omitted here so as to render possi- 
ble a brief outline of secular jurisprudence and a 
citation of parallels with other systems. While the 
application of modern legal categories to Talmudic 
law is foreign to its nature, it can not be avoided; 
a careful check, however, must be kept upon this 
method. In like manner a careful distinction must 
be drawn between the civil and the penal codes of 
Talmudic law. While the civil code was actually 
enforced, the penal code was a dead letter; for the 
Romans, about 30 c.z., had withdrawn all criminal] 
jurisdiction from the Jews (Sanh. 41a; Yer. Sanh. i. 
1, vii. 2; Mommsen, “ ROmische Geschichte.” v. 512). 
After the destruction of the Temple, in the yeur 70, 
jurisdiction in civil cases as well seems to have been 


Three 
Historical 
Periods 
of Jewish 
Law. 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


34 


given to the Roman courts (Mommsen, @.¢. p. 548; 
Frankel, “ Der Gerichtliche Beweis nach Mosaisch- 
Talmudischem Rechte,” pp. 45, 142; 


Civil adem, “Zeitschrift ftir die Religidésen 
and Penal Interessen,” i. 158, 189), although this 
Codes. = can have been oniy a temporary meas- 


ure, and, in view of the power pos- 
sessed by the parties involved to refuse to submit 
to sucha court, can never have been rigidly enforced. 
Civil jurisdiction may be regarded, therefore, as a 
right which really existed, while criminal law was 
for the most part, merely theoretical from the very 
beginning. Survivals from the period of independ- 
ence, Pentateuchal laws, and the peual codes of 
foreign rulers are the component elements of the 
criminal law of the Talmud. Very frequent, more- 
over, are the instances in which exegeses of Biblical 
passages served as sources, often elucidating laws 
which were never actually enforced. The origin of 
the Talmudic penal code explains the majority of its 
peculiarities as wellas its weaknesses and its merits. 
The merits consist chiefly in leniency. Thus, for 
example, while the code recognized capital punish- 
ment and the frequency of its infliction as ordered by 
the Pentateuch, it rendered the death-sentence prac- 
tically impossible, since this penalty was so condi- 
tioned by requirements of proof of malice afore- 
thought that finally guilt could no longer be proved. 
Capital punishment, even for murder, was so abhor- 
rent to the authorities of tradition that its infliction 
was to be prevented by all legal means (Mak. i. 10 
et passim). In view of these circumstances aud prin- 
ciples, the penal law in general and its theoretical 
development in particular aimed at strengthening 
moral consciousness and at rousing a sense of guilt. 
In like manner, the punishments inflicted were mild. 
Thus, a thief was obliged to return twice the value 
of the stolen goods, while early Roman law visited 
a thicf caught in the act with a terrible penalty, 
which was extended under the empire to other forms 
of theft aswell. The Germans frequently punished 
theft with death or at least with amputation of a 
hand or a foot. 

The impetus to the development of the Talmudic 
code was given by the study of the divine law, the 
precepts of which had to be expounded and eluci- 
dated even to the least dot on the smallest letter. 
No other people ever honored its national literature 
so highly or guarded it so carefully as the Jews 
did the teachings of Moses. Numerous scholars 
of the Law consequently arose, who may be re- 
garded as jurists both individually and collectively. 
Every place of any size had its bet ha-midrash, 
where men of all vocations gathered daily for dis- 
cussions. The result of five centuries of this activ- 
ity was the Talmudic code. The civil law was in- 
telligible even to laymen, and it was, moreover, 
interpreted by scholars; consequently its develop- 
ment was essentially practical, not merely theoretical 
as was that of the criminal code. These scholars, 
all working without compensation, evolved a legal 
system which in scope and excellence stands far 
above the period of civilization for which and in 
which it was created. The wealth of Talmudic 
law and its comparative freedom from defects are 
best seen when it is compared with a compendium 


35 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Talmudic Law 


ee ie ee ae eee ee 
of modern law, such as Josef Kohler’s “ Einftthrung 
in die Rechtswissenschaft ” (2d ed., Berlin, 1905). 
The history of the Jews explains the fulness of 
development in the code of civil law, its deficiencies 
as regards public law, and the entire absence there- 
from of international law. In civil law the most 
noteworthy features are the provisions relating to 
persons, property, claims, family es- 
Absence of tates, and inheritance. <A distinct 


Commer- branch of commercial law, such as 
cial Law. has been highly developed among 


modern nations, does not exist in the 
Talmudic code, although regulations concerning 
commerce are not lacking; for in Talmudic times 
the Jews were not as distinctly a commercial nation 
as they became in the post-Talmudic and medieval 
periods. Indeed, the highly developed system of 
damages, as, for instance, in the case of injuries 
by animals (Kohler, U.¢. p. 96), characterizes them 
as an agricultural people. The following is a 
list of the various legal articles in THE JEWIsI 
ENCYCLOPEDIA: 


Abetment Captives 

Abrogation of Laws Caution 

Acceptance Charity and Charitable Insti- 
Accessories tutions 

Accident Chattels 


Accommodation of the Law 

Accusatory and Inquisitorial 
Procedure 

Acquittal in Talmudic Law 

Admissions in Evidence 

Adoption 

Adultery 

Agency, Law of 

Agnates 

Agrarian Laws 

‘Agunah 

Alibi 

Alienation and Acquisition 

Aliens 

Alimony 

Anathema 

Anointing 

Asmnakta 

Assault and Battery 

Assignment 

Asylum 

Attestation of Documents 

Attorney 

Attorney, Power of 

Authentication of Documents 

Authority, Rabbinical 

Avenger of Blood 

Azharot 

Baba Batra 

Baba Kamma 

Baba Mezi'a 

Bai) 

Bailments 

Bar Mizwah 

Barter 

Bastard 

Bequest 

Bererah 

Betrothal 

Bigamy 

Birthright 

Blood-Money 

Borrower 

Boundaries 

Breach of Promise of Marriage 
ribery 

Burglary 

cancelation of Documents 
apital Punishment 


Circumstantial Evidence 
Clerical Errors 
Commercial] Law 
Conditions 

Confiscation and Forfeiture 
Conflict of Laws 
Consent 

Contempt of Court 
Contract 

Corporal Punisbment 
Corporation 

Costs 

Crime 

Criminal Procedure 
Crucifixion 

Damage 

Daughter in Jewish Law 
Deaf and Dumbin Jewish Law 
Debtor and Creditor 
Debts of Decedents 
Deed 

Demands 

Derelicts 

Desertion 

Devotion 

Din 

Divorce 

Domain, Public 
Domicil 

Dowry 

Drunkenness in Law 
Duress 

Earnest-Money 
Easement 
Embezzlement 

Embryo 

Evidence 
Excommunication 
Execution 

Family and Family Life 
Family Vault 

Fault 

Fee 

Finder of Property 
Fines and Forfeiture 
Fixtures 

Foreign Attachment 
Fraud and Mistake 
Gambling- 

Gentile 


Get Navigation 
Gezerah Neighboring Landowners 
Gifts New Moon, Blessing of the 
Gleaning of the Fields Niddah 
Government Qath 
Guardian and Ward Oral Law 
Halizah Orphan 
Hallah Palestine. Laws and Customs 
Hammurabi Reiating to 
Hatra’ab Partnership 
Hawkers and Pedlers Paternity 
- Hazakah Pedigree 
Health Laws Perjury 
Hefker Pledges 
Heresy and Heretics Police Laws 
Hiring and Letting Pol)-Tax 
Holy Days Polygamy 
Homicide Precedence 
Husband and Wife Primogeniture 
Identity, Proof of Priority 
Ignorance of the Law Procedure in Civil Causes 
iegitimacy Prosbul 
Imprisonment | Proselyte 
Ineest Real Estate 
Indemnity Remainders and Reversions 
Infancy, Legal Aspects of Restraints on Alienation 
Inheritance Rigbt of Way 
Insanity Riparian Owners 
Intention Robbery ; 
Intermarriage Sabbatical Year and Jubilee 
Joint Owners Sale 
Judge Sanctuary 
Judgment Sanhedrin 
Jurisdiction Seduction 
Ketubah Set-Off 
Ketubot Signature 
kiddushin Slander 


Slaves and Slavery 
Specific Performance 


Lamp, Perpetual 
Landlord and Tenant 


Law, Civil Subpoena 

Law, Codification of Suicide 

Laws, Noachian Summons 

Levirate Marriage Sumptuary Laws 
Loans Suretyship 

Majority Synagogue, Legal Aspect 
Makkot Taxation 

Marriage 1 Tort 

Marriage Laws | Treason 

Martyrdom, Restriction of | Trees 

Master and Servant | Trespass 

Master and Workmen : ‘Frusts and Trustees 
Maxims (Legal) | Usury 

Medicine in Bible and Talmud | Vows 

Mezuzah Weights and Measures 
Miggo | Widow 

Minyan Will 

Mi’un Witchcraft 

Monogamy Woman 


Mortgage or Hypothec 


While the foregoing list will give an idea of the 
extent of the Talmudic code, an estimate of its value 
compared with other systems may be gained by a 
perusal of the following list of rubrics which do not 
occur in the Talmud. The pages cited in paren- 
theses are those of Kohler’s above-mentioned work: 


Associations (p. 81; societies der theft, and does not con- 
only) stitute a specific crime; p. 

Bankruptcy (p. 145) 175) 

Bills of Exchange and Kin- Insurance (pp. 66 et seq.) 
dred Matters (p. 88; prom- { Joint-Stock Companies (p. 68) 
issory notes only) Lawful Duels (as ordeals, 

Commercial Firms (p. 79) which ceased in Italy in the 

Counterfeiting (p. 155) thirteenth century; p. 170) 

Defamation of Character, Lex Talionis (p. 161) 

Slander, Calumny, etc. (p. Limited Liability Companies 
174; no specific penalty and Financial Trusts (p. 82) 
was Oixed for these crimes; Maritime Law (p. 87; river 
they were branded as most law, however, existed) 
immoral; and the severest | Ordeals (p. 183) 

divine punishment was in- Pardon (p. 166) 

voked upon the offender) Secrets of Manufacture and 

Embezzlement (included un- Commerce (p. 172) 


Talmudic Law 
Talmud Torah 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 36 


The penal code made no provision for a public 
prosecutor or for torture, although the latter was em- 
ployed in Europe until the last quarter of the eight- 
eenth century. A few examples will serve fo show 
the lofty standard of the civil and marriage codes of 
the Talmud. According to Talmudic law, the agent 
was equal in all respects to the party 
he represented; and the Jews even 
velopment allowed betrothal, itself a contract, to 

of Tal- take place by proxy (2%. p. 32). On 
mudic Law. this subject Kohler says (@.¢. p. 27): 

“Representation is an institution of 
elaborate development, introduced at a compara- 
tively recent period by legal regulation. It is a 
creation of the highest type, rendering it possible 
for one to own a fortune of millions without having 
to administer it in person.” Among other ancient 
peoples the debtor was held responsible for his debt 
with liberty, life, and limb, the law relating to 
debt being based on the value of the debtor; Tal- 
mudic law, however, agrees with modern codes, 
which permit the debtor neither to be sold as a slave 
nor to be deprived of his liberty in any other way. 
The payment of a debt was a moral, not a legal, ob- 
ligation (B. B. 174a and parallel passages; comp. 
Kohler, @:¢. p. 58). 

The Jewish laws relating to family life did not 
recognize the unlimited authority of the head of the 
household as did Roman law, but, on the contrary, 
a sou who had attained his majority (18 years) might 
hold property in his own name. In the Christian 
world this was not the case until after the reign of 
Justinian (73. p. 93). The law of inheritance, as in 
modern codes, recognized the system based on kin- 
ship. Jewish law restricted the prohibitions against 
consanguineous marriages, and permitted divorce. 
With regard to these cardinal points of marriage 
legislation, modern codes, in opposition to canon 
law, adopt the same point of view as Judaism, prob- 
ably because derived from the Roman law. There 
are numerous legal questions and even judicial 
principles in which modern views coincide with 
those of the Talmud, and to which a general allusion 
may be made. 

The Talmud has been completed for 1,400 years; 
and the greater part of the legal material which it 
contains is more than 2,000 years old. ‘It is there- 
fore self-evident that foreign elements from the 

great civilized nations of the ancient 

Assyro- world must have exercised an influ- 
Babylonian ence on it. Following the chronolog- 

Influence. ical order, mention should first be 

made of the Assyro-Babylonian ele- 
ments. With regard to the relation of the Mosaic 
law to the code of Hammurabi, see HAwWMURABI 
and the literature there cited, as well as numerous 
later works. There can be no doubt that the 
Assyro-Babylonian laws outlived the state by cen- 
turies, while their influence was felt even in the 
Christian period, and may still be traced in Tal- 
mudic law. The most common terms for written 
contracts, “shetar” and “ get,” are Babylonian; and 
clay tablets were still used in Talmudic times for 
promissory notes (Blau, “ Althebriisches Buch- 
wesen,” p. 18). A receipt was called “zober,” 7.e., 
“zebiru” in Assyrian contracts. Git. 86a gives 


High De- 


the text of a contract regarding the sale of slaves, 
the first part of which is apparently Assyrian in 
origin. Even in post-Talmudical literature, as in 
the “Sefer ha-Shetarot” of Judah b. Barzillai (ed, 
Halberstam, Berlin, 1898), there are distinct reminis- 
cences of Babylonian formulas. The contracts in- 
cluded in this work number more than seventy, and 
in them the phrase “the contracting party has 
made all stipulations ‘in accordance with his pleas- 
ure’” recurs in all varieties of terminology (e.g., pp. 
9 et seqg.). The same formula appears in Babylonian 
contracts, this example, like others, being furnished 
by Pick (“ Assyrisches und Talmudisches Kultur- 
geschichte und Lexicalische Notizen,” pp. 22, 80), 

Incomparably greater was the influence exerted 
by Greco-Roman jurisprudence in later days. The 
lingua Franca of the East, even during the period 
of Roman sovereignty, was the coc; so that about 
seventy of the seventy-seven foreign legal terms that 
are found in the Talmud (Low, in Krauss, “ Lehn- 
worter,” ii. 630), are Greek, only the remaining few 
being Latin. Asa rule the Jews learned Roman law 
from the actual practise of the courts and not from 
legal writings only. Greek terms are used for docu- 
ment, will, protocol, guardian, contract, hypothec, 
purchase, accusation, accuser, attorney, and the like; 
and Latin words for legacy, bill of indictment, di- 
vorce, ete. Roman law, with its high development, 
exercised a much greater influence on the Talmudic 
system than has hitherto been shown, thorough in- 
vestigations having as yet been made only sporad- 
ically. Frankel (“ Gerichtlicher Beweis,” pp. 58 e¢ 
seq.) thinks that the majority of the legal cases in 

Talmudic law have parallels in the 

Influence Roman code. “The same subjects 

of Roman are often treated in both, and form a 
Law. basis for the application of the legal 
principles, This resemblance was due 
to the conditions and requirements of the time; and 
for the same reason many legal provisions are com- 
mon to both codes.” The difference between the 
two lies, in his view, “in the divergent mental proc- 
esses of Orientals and Occidentals, so that Talmudic 
law formulated anew the very parts it borrowed 
from the Roman code. The Oriental in his method 
of investigation is characterized by acuteness and 
facility of comprehension; so that he is guided in 
his legal enactments by the vivacity of his mind 
rather than by a principle. . . . The Occidental is 
marked by thoughtfulness: he desires a universal 
concept, not a schematized nexus ora reduction to 
some principle. Hetherefore combines the law into 
a harmonious whole, while the code of the Oriental 
consists of disconnected parts.” 

Although this characterization is in the main cor- 
rect, it must be borne in mind that Frankel under- 
estimates the influence of the Roman code on the 
Talmud. Several Talmudists of the early part of 
the second century were so deeply versed in the 
Roman civil law that they decided cases according 
to it if they were so requested. Constantin ]’Em- 
pereur of Oppyck, in his “De Legibus Ebreorum 
Forensibus” (1687; reprinted by Surenhuis in his 
“Mischna,” iv.), was the first tocompare the Roman 
and Talmudic systems, although he did not postu- 
late any adaptation from the one code by. the other. 


37 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
a 


Subsequently Zunz (*Etwas tiber die Rabbinische 
Litteratur,” 1818), Jost (“Gesch.” iv. 144, and ap- 
pendix), Frankel (/.¢c.), Krochmal (* Morel Nebuke 
ha-Zeman, ” 1845), and others (comp. Blau, “Con- 
cursus Vitiorum” [in Hungarian], pp. 8, 11, 18) 
made similar comparisons. 
The Jews lived for a time both under the ancient 
Persian régime of the Achemenide (550-330 B.c.) 
and under the neo-Persian dynasty of 
Influence the Sassanids (250-500 c.E.). Persian 
of Persian law has, therefore, also been a factor, 
Law. although the present knowledge both 
of the Achemenian and the Sassanid 
codes is insufficient for an estimate of the extent of 
their influence on the Jews. The Talmud, on the 
other hand, characterizes the legal system of the 
Sassanids as a superficial one, and quotes some ex- 
tracts in support of its assertions, e.g., the creditor 
may seize the security (B. B. 173, borrowed from 
Turkish law). See further Frankel, l.c. p. 56, where 
the theory is advanced that Sassanid law influenced 
the code of the Babylonian Talmud. 
Among the compilations of Talmudic law, the 
“Mishneh Torah,” or religious code, of Maimonides 
took a foremost place. Superior in 


Compila- system and arrangement to its prede- 
tions of cessors and successors alike, even 
Talmudic though its author did not codify the 

Law. law of the Talmud in the strict sense 


of the term, but only the rabbinico- 
legal system as formulated at the time, it served as 
an authority for subsequent centuries. The Chris- 
tian literature on the subject in the sixteenth and 
seventeenth centuries, and, to a great extent, even 
the modern literature of the nineteenth century, are 
dependent upon this work, even in cases where the 
treatises are termed “ Mosaic-Talmudic.” The au- 
thors who combined Talmudic and legal knowledge 
were, generally speaking, rare; for the majority 
were either Talmudists or jurists, but not both. 

In recent times Rapoport has begun a systematic 
compilation of Talmudic law (the laws of inheritance, 
endowments, obligations, etc.); and his work has 
been favorably received by the eminent historian of 
jurisprudence, Josef Kohler of Berlin. Rapoport, 
however, has not drawn a sharp distinction between 
the three chief epochs, the Mosaic, the Talmudic, 
and the rabbinic, nor has he paid sufficient heed 
to the historical criticism contained in traditional 
literature. Much work still remains to be done in 
this field. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY : Ludovicus de Compiégne de Veille, Hebreorum 
de Conmuhiis Tus Civile et Pontificium seu ex R. Mosis Maje- 
monidae Secundae Legis sive Manus Fortis Eo Libro, Qui 
Est de Re Uxoria, Tractatus Primus, Paris, 1673 ; Surenhuis, 
Dissertatio de Natura Pandectarum Hebraicarum, Am- 
sterdam, 1704: Spencer, De Legibus Hebreorum Ritualibus, 
three books, Leipsic, 1705; four books, Tiibingen, 1732; Fran- 
Kel, Die Fidesleitung der Juden, Dresden, 1840; idem, Der 


Gerichtliche Beweis nach Mosaisch-Tatmurnischem Rechte, 
Berlin, 1846; Hirsch Bir Fassel, Zedek u-Mishpat, Vienna, 
1848; idem, Wishpete Kl: Das Mosaisch-Rabbinische Civil- 
recht, ete., Nagy-Kanizsa, 1852-54; idem, “Asot Mishpat: Das 
Mosaiseh-Rabhbinische Gerichtsverfahren in Civilrecht- 
lichen Sachen, ete., ib. 1859; idem, We-Shafetu we-Hizgzilu: 
Das Mosaisch-Rabbinische Strafrecht, ete., ib. 1870; Saal- 
Schiitz, Das Mosaische Recent, 2 vols., 2a ed., Berlin, 1852-53; 
M. Duschak, Das Mosaiseh-Talmudische Ehereeht, mit Be- 
sonderer Rticksicht auf die Bttrgerlichen Gesetze, Vienna, 

: idem, Josephus Flavius und die Tradition, ib, 1864; 
i Wiesner, Der Bann in Seiner Gesehichtlichen Entwicke- 
ung auf dem Boden des Judenthunis, Leipsic, 1864; Bruns- 
Sachau, Syrisch-ROmisches Rechtsbuch (comp. Perles in 


Talmudic Law 
Talmud Torah 


Z. D. M. G. Xxxv.); Samuel Mayer, Die Reehte der Israeli- 
ten, Athener und Romer, 3 vols., Leipsic and Treves, 1866- 
1876; Leopold Auerbach, Das Jtidische Obligationsrecht 
nach den Quellen und mit Besonderer Berticksichtigung 
des Romischen und Deutschen Rechts Systematisch Dar- 
gestellt, vol. i., Umrisse der Entwickelurgsgeschichte des 
Jiidischen Rechts; Die Natur der Obligation, Berlin, 1870; 
J. Flirst, Das Peinliche Reehtsverfahren im Jiidischen 
A lterthume, Heidelberg, 1870; M.Sechmiedl, Die Lehre vom 
Kampf ums Recht, Vienna, 1875; S. Spitzer, Das Heer- und 
Wehrgesetz der Alten Israeliten, Griechen und Robmer, 2d 
ed., Vinkovee, 1879; M. Bloch, Das Mosaisch-Talmudische 
Polizeirecht, Budapest, 1879 (English transl., Cincinnati, 
1880); idem, Die Civilprozess-Ordnung nach Mosaisch- 
Rabbinischem Rechte, Budapest, 1882; idem, Das Moscisch- 
Talmudische Erbrecht, Budapest, 1889; idem, Der Vertrag 
nach Mosaiseh-Talmucdischem Rechte, ib. 1893; idem, Dag 
Mosaisch-Talmudische Besitzrecht, ib. 1897; idem, Das 
Mosaisch-Talmudische Strafgeriehtsverfahren, ib. 1901: 
idem, Die Vormundschaft nach Mosaiseh-Talmudisehem 
Rechte, ib. 1904; Israel Michel Rabbinoviez, Législation Civile 
du Thaltmud, Paris, 1880; O. Bahr, Das Gesetz tiber Falsche 
Zeugen nach Bibel und Talmud, Berlin, 1882; M. Mieiziner, 
The Jewish Law of Marriage and Divorce, Cincinnati, 
1884; Elijah Benamozegh, [sraél et Humanité: Demonstra- 
tion du Cosmopolitisme dans les Dogmes, les Lois, ete., 
Leghorn, 1885; I. Klein, Das Gesetz tiber das Gerichtliche 
Beweisverfahren nach Mosaisch-Thalmudischem Rechte, 
Halle-on-the-Saale, 1885; L. Blau, .4 Biinhalmazat Elmélete 
a Héeberekneél Szentirdsuk és Hagyomdnyuk Szerint, Buda- 
pest, 1887; D. Fink, Miggo als Rechtsbeweis im Babyloni- 
schen Talmud: Hin Beitrag zur Kenntniss der Talmudi- 
schen Methodologie, Leipsic, 1891; D. Farbstein, Das Recht 
der Unfreien und der Freien Arbeiter nach Jtidisch-Tal- 
mudischem Recht, Verglichen mit dem Antiken, Speciell 
mit dem Romischen Recht, Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1896; 
F. Kanter, Beitrdge zur Kenntniss des Rechtssystems und 
der Ethik Mar Samuels Rectors der Hochschule zu Ne- 
hardea und Babylonien, Bern, 1895; S. Mandl, Der Ban: 
Bin Beitrag zum Mosaisch-Rabbinischen Strafrechte 
Dargestellt nach der Bibel und der Rabbinischen Littera- 
tur, Brtinn, 1898; I. Ziegler, Die Konigsgleichnisse des 
Midrasech Beleuchtet Dureh die Rémische Kaiserzeit (Die 
Jurisdiction der Kaiser), pp. 101-132, Breslau, 1903; H. 
Pick, Assyrisches und Talmudisches Kulturgeschichte und 
Lexicalische Notizen, Berlin, 1908; Rapoport, Der Talmud 
und Sein Recht, in Zeitschrift ftir die Vergleichende 
Rechtswissenschaft, xiv.-xvi.; C. H. W. Johns, Babylonian 
and Assyrian Laws, Contracts, and Letters, Edinburgh, 
1905; I. Telski, Die Innere Hinrichtung des Grossen 
Synedrions zu Jerusalem und Thre Fortsetzung im 
Spiteren Paltistinensischen Lehrhause bis zur Zeit des 
R. Jehuda ha-Nasi: Hin Beitrag zum Verstiinadrnisse und 
F readng der Aeltesten Talmudischen Quellen, Breslau, 
n.d. 


W. B. L. B. 


TALMUD TORAH: Public free school for 
poor and orphaned boys, who are there given an 
elementary education in Hebrew, the Scriptures 
(ecpecially the Pentateuch), and the Talmud (Hala- 
kah), and are thus prepared for the YEsH1nan. The 
Talmud Torah school is known simply as the Tal- 
mud Torah, and has the essential elements of the 
HEDER, the latter being a private self-supporting 
school. 

In the remotest time of Jewish history the father 
was the sole teacher of his children (Deut. xi, 19). 
The institution known as the “be rab” or “bet 
rabban ” (house of the teacher), or as the “ be safra ” 
or “bet sefer” (house of the book), is supposed 
to have been originated by Ezra and his Great As- 
sembly, who provided a public school in Jerusalem 
to secure the education of fatherless boys of the age 
of sixteen years and upward. But the school sys- 

~ tem did not develop till Josnua BEN 


Origin Gama the high priest caused public 


of Schools. schools to be opened in every town 


and hamlet for all children above six 
or seven years of age (B. B. 21a). Strict discipline 
was observed. Rab, however, ordered Samuel b. 
Shilat to deal tenderly with the pupils, to refrain 
from corporal punishment, or at most to use a shoe- 
strap in correcting pupils for inattention. A stupid 
pupil was made monitor until able to grasp the art 


Talmud Torah 
Tam 


of learning. Raba fixed the number of pupils at 
twenty-five for one teacher; if the number was be- 
tween twenty-five and forty an assistant teacher 
(“resh dukana ”) was necessary; and for over forty, 
two teachers were required. The expense was borne 
by the community. There is a difference of opinion 
regarding the qualification of the “melammed ” 
(teacher). Raba preferred one who taught his pupils 
much, even though somewhat carclessly, while R. 
Dimi of Nehardea preferred one who taught his pu- 
pils little, but that correctly, as an error in reading 
once adopted is hard to correet (z).). It is, of course, 
assumed that both qualifications were rarely to be 
found in one person. Only married men were en- 
gaged as teachers. 

Girls were invariably excluded from the Talmud 
Torah, first because teaching them is not obligatory, 
and second because they are “light-minded.” R. 

Eliezer said: “ Whosoever teaches his 


Girls daughter the Torah is as one who 
Excluded. teaches her frivolity” (Sotah 21b). 


Maimonides, however, held that the 
prohibition refers to the Talmud, and not to the 
Bible (“ Yad,” Talmud Torah, i. 13). Girls were 
mostly taught privately, and received a fair edu- 
cation. The teaching in the Talmud Torah con- 
sumed the whole day, and in the winter months a 
few hours of the night besides. Teaching was sus- 
pended in the afternoon of Friday, and in the after- 
noon of the day preceding a holy day. On Sabbaths 
and holy days no new lessons were assigned; but 
the work of the previous week was reviewed on 
Sabbath afternoons by the child’s parent or guardian 
(Shulhan ‘Aruk, Yoreh De‘ah, 245). 

The Talmud Torah did little for the religious 
teaching and training of the pupils; this was left 
to parents or guardians. The main object of the 
early schools was to instruct the pupil in the laws 
of Moses and in the knowledge of the rabbinical 
writings, more from a literary than from a practical 
standpoint. In later times, influenced in a measure 
by the Christian parochial schools of the thirteenth 
century, the reading of the prayers and benedictions 
and the teaching of the principles of the Jewish 
faith were included. In almost every community 
an organization called “Hebra Talmud Torah” was 
formed, whose duty was to create a fund and pro- 
vide means for the support of public schools, and to 
control all teachers and pupils. 

R. Asher b. Jehiel (1250-1328) decided to allow 
withdrawals from the funds of the Talmud Torah 
for the purpose of meeting the annual tax collected 
by the local governor, since otherwise great hard- 
ships would fall upon the poor, who were liable 
to be stripped of all their belongings if they failed 
in the prompt payment of their taxes (Responsa, 
rule vi., § 2). On the other hand, money from the 
general charity fund was at times employed to sup- 
port the Talmud Torah, and donations for a syna- 
gogue or cemetery were similarly used (2. rule 
xii, 88 5,14). 

Samuel di Medina (1505-89) ruled that in case of 
a legacy left by will toa Talmud Torah and guar- 
anteed by the testator’s brother, the latter was not 
held liable if the property had been consumed owing 
to the prolonged illness of the deceased (Responsa, 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


| 
| 


! 


38 


Hoshen Mishpat, No, 357). A legacy for the sup- 
port of a yeshibah and Talmud Torah in a certain 
town, if accompanied by a provision that it may 
be managed “as the son of the testa- 
In the tor may see fit,” may be transferred, 
Responsa. it was declared, to a yeshibah else- 
where (¢b. Orah Hayyim, i., No. 60; 

sce also “ Pahad Yizhak,” s.c. wopnm, p. 48a). 
Solomon b. Abraham ha-Kohen (16th cent.) de- 
cided that it requires the unanimous consent of the 
eight trustees of a Talmud Torah to engage teach- 
ers where @ resolution has been passed that “no 
trustee or trustees shall engage the service of a 
melammed without the consent of the whole” (Re- 


_sponsa, ii., No. 89, ed. Venice, 1592). 


As a specimen of the medieval organization of 
these schools that of the Cracow schools nay be 
selected. From the congregational record (pinkes) 
of Cracow in 1551 it appears that the Talmud Torah 
society controled both private and public schools, 
It passed the following takkanot: (1) The members 
shall have general supervision over the teachers and 
shall visit the Talmud Torah every week to see that 
the pupils are properly taught. (2) No melammed 

may teach the Pentateuch except with 
The Pinkes the translation “Be’er Mosheh” (Ju- 
Record. «seo-German transl. by Moses b. Issa- 
char, Prague, 1605), “ which is in our 
vernacular”; for the advanced pupils he shall use 
no other than the Rashi commentary. (8) A melam- 
med in the primary class shall teach not more than 
twenty-five pupils and shall have two assistants. 
(4) One melammed shall not compete with another 
during the term of his engagement, and shall not 
seek to obtain a pupil in charge of another teacher, 
even at the expiration of the term, unless the father 
or the guardian of the pupil desires to make a 
change. (5) The members of the Hebra Talmud 
Torah shall hire a competent and God-fearing me- 
lammed, with an assistant, for poor and orphaned 
boys at the bet ha-midrash. (6) The melamined 
and assistant shall teach pupils the alphabet (with 
the vowels), the Siddur, the Pentateuch (with the 
“Be’er Mosheh” translation), the Rashi commen- 
tary, the order of the prayers, etiquette, and good 
behavior—every boy according to his grade and 
intelligence; also reading and writing in the vernac- 
ular. The more advanced shall be taught Hebrew 
grammar and arithmetic: those of the highest grade 
shall study Talmud with Rashi and Tosafot. (7%) 
Boys near the age of thirteen shall learn the regu- 
Jations regarding tefillin. (8) At the age of fourteen 
a boy who is incapable of learning Talmud shall be 
taught a trade or become a servant in a household. 

The income of the society was derived from sev- 
eral sources: (@) one-sixth of the Monday and Thurs- 

day contributions in the synagogues 

Sources of and other places of worship; (0) dona- 
Income. tions at circumcisions from guests in- 
vited to the feast; (c) donations at 

weddings from the groom and the bride and from 
invited guests; (d@) one-tenth of the collections in 
the charity-box known as the “mattan ba-setar.” 
The election of ofticers was made by ballot—three 
gabba’im, three vice-gabba’im, and a_ treasurer. 
Only learned and honorable men over thirty-six 


THE JEWISH 


39 


ST 


ENCYCLOPEDIA 


years of age were eligible for election. The takka- | 


not regulating these sources of the Talnud Toraii’s 
mcome were in existence in the time of R. Moses 
Isserles. R. Joel Sirkes, rabbi of Cracow in 1688, 
indorsed these regulations and added many others. 
all of which were confirmed at a general assembly of 
seventy representatives of the congregations on the 
95th of Tebet, 5898 (1638; F. H. Wetstein, “Kad- 
moniyyot,” docuinent No. 1, Cracow, 1892). 

The Talmud Torah organization in Rome included 
eight societies in 1554, and was reconstituted Aug. 
13. 1617 (Rieger, “Gesch, der Juden in Rom,” p. 
316, Berlin, 1895). Later, certain synagogues as- 
sumed the name “Talmud Torah,” as in the case of 
one at Fez in 1603 (Ankava, “ Kerem Hemed,” ii. 78, 
Leghorn, 1869) and one at Cairo. This was prob- 
ably because the school was held in or adjoined the 
synagogue. 

The Sephardim conducted their schools more 
methodically. The one in Amsterdain was highly 
praised by R. Sheftel b. Isaiah Horowitz (“ Wawe 
ha-‘Ammudim,” p. 9b, appended to “Shelah,” Am- 
sterdam, 1698). Shabbethai Bass, in the introduction 
to his “Sifte Yeshanim” (p. 8a, 2b. 1680), describes 
this Talmud Torah and wishes it might serve as a 
model for other schools. He says: “It is built near 
the synagogue, and has six rooms, each accommo- 
dating a separate class under a me- 
lammed. The first class is for small 
boys who are learning to read their 
prayers. In the second class they 
learn the Pentateuch from beginning to end, with 
the musical accents. In the third, they translate 
the Pentateuch into the vernacular and use the 
Rashi commentary, divided into the regular weekly 
sidrot. In the fourth, they learn the Prophets and 
the Hagiographa, with the proper accents and trans- 
lation. In the fifth, they learn grammar and begin 
upon a series of halakic excerpts from the Talmud, 
the text being in Hebrew and the explanations in 
the vernacular. Before the approach of a holy day 
they memorize the laws in the Shulhan ‘Aruk per- 
taining to that holy day. The sixth class is prepara- 
tory to the yeshibah in the bet ha-midrash and is con- 
ducted by the hakam-rabbi. In this classevery day 
one halakah, with the commentaries of Rashi and 
the Tosafot, is studied, and compared with the con- 
clusions in the codes of Maimonides, Asheri, and 
Caro. The hours of study are from 8 to 11 in the 
morning, and from 2 to 5 in the afternoon; in win- 
ter, till the Minhah prayer. The expense of main- 
taining this school is defrayed from a fund contrib- 
uted by the members of the Hebra Talmud Torah. 
This Sephardic school made an exception to the rule 
of keeping the pupils in Talmud Torah all day, and 
a few hours of the night in the short winter days.” 

The Talmud Torah at Nikolsburg, Moravia, from 
1724 to 1744, gave poor boys an education equal to 
that which was offered their more fortunate com- 
Panions. The studies consisted of Siddur, Humesh 
(Pentateuch), and Talmud (Gtidemann, “ Quellen- 
Schriften zur Gesch. des Unterrichts und der Erzie- 
hung bei den Deutschen Juden,” p. 275). The 
Schools in eastern Europe retained the ancient type 
and methods of the Ashkenazic schools up to the 
Middle of the nineteenth century, when a movement 


Cur- 
riculum. 


Talmud Torah 
Tam 


for improvement and better management took place 
in the larger cities. Thus at Odessa, in 1857, the 
Talmud Torah, which had existed ever since the 
city was chartered, was reorganized into a model 
school by distinguished pedagogues. In 18818. J. 
Abramowitch was appointed principal over 400 

pupils. In 1904 two branches were 
The Mod- opened in the suburbs with an ad- 
ern Talmud ditional 400 pupils. The boys are 

Torah. furnished text-books and clothing 

free. The expenses are about 20,000 
rubles annually. There is a Talmud Torah in every 
city within the Pale in Russia. The income is de- 
rived from the Jewish tax on meat and from private 
contributions. 

In Jerusalem the Talmud Torah of the Sephardim, 
called “Tif’eret Yerushalayim,” was reorganized 
by the hakam bashi R. Raphael Meir Panejil in 
1891, with 800 pupils and 13 teachers; there the 
boys learn Arabic and arithmetic in addition to 
other subjects, which range from the alphabet to 
the Talmud. The time of study is from sunrise to 
sunset. The largest contributions for the support 
of the school come from the Sassoons in Bombay 
and Calcutta, through the meshullahim. The Ash- 
kenazic Talmud Torah and yeshibah ‘Ez Hayyim, 
with 85 teachers and over 1,000 pupils, succeeded 
the school established by R. Judah he-Hasid of 
Siedlce. It was started with a fund contributed by 
Hirsch Wolf Fischbein and David Janover in 1860. 
The annual expenditure is about $10,000, over half 
of whichis collected in the United States. At Jaffa 
the Talmud Torah and yeshibah Sha‘are Torah was 
organized in 1886 by N. H. Lewi, with 9 teachi- 
ers and 9 classes for 102 boys. Its expenses are 
about $2,000 yearly, mostly covered by donations 
from abroad. | 

In America the Machzikei Talmud Torah in New 
York was organized in 18838 by Israel (Isidor) Rosen- 


thal. It maintains schools on its own premises at 
225-227 East Broadway. It instructs 

In over 1,100 boys at a yearly expense of 
America. about $12,000. On Jan. 22, 1905, the 


society opened a branch at 67 East 7th 
street, to which Jacob H. Schiff donated $25,000. 
The society is managed by a board of directors and 
a committee of education. The studies comprise 
elementary Hebrew, the reading of the prayers, the 
translation of the Pentateuch into Yiddish and Eng- 
lish, and the principles of the Jewish faith and prac- 
tise. The time of study occupies only two hours 
per day, after public-school hours, as all pupils 
attend the city schools for secular education. There 
are several other Talmud Torahs in New York; 
and similar institutions exist in all cities of the 
United States and Canada that have a large Jewish 
population. See EpucatTion; HEDER; PEDAGOGICS; 
YESHIBAUI. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Judah Lob, ‘Omer mi-Yehudah, Brinn, 1790; 
Zederbaum, Die Geheimnisse von Berditchev, pp. 38-44, War- 
saw, 1870 (a sketch); Brandstidter, sketch in Ha-Eshkol, v. 


70-84, 
J. J. D. E. 
TAM, JACOB. See JAcoB BEN MEiR Tam. 


TAM, JACOB B. DAVID IBN YAHYA: 
Portuguese-Turkish rabbi and physician; born in 
Portugal in the second half of the fifteenth century ; 


py Tr ea 
Tae ae THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 40 
died in Constantinople between 1534and 1542, His | Theodosia bears the name of the “respected Joshua, 


father, David b. Solomon (d. Constantinople, 1504), 

one of the most prominent members of the great 

Yahya family, fled from Portugal to Naples in 1493, 

and thence went to Constantinople about 1497. 

Tam, who accompanied his father on both journeys, 

was recognized as a Talmudical authority, aud pre- 

sumably he succeeded Elijah Mizraut as rabbi of 
the Turkish capital. It is stated that he was the 
body-physician of Sultan Sulaiman and a renowned 
authority on Mohammedan Jaw, but there is reason 
to believe that his admirers exaggerated his impor- 
tance. Tam’s 213 responsa, which, under the name 

“Ohole Tam,” form a part of “Tummat Yesharim ” 

(edited by Benjamin b. Abraham Moran, Venice, 

1622), constitute all that has been preserved of his 

writings. The preface to “ Yosippon,” attributed 

to him and first published in the Constantinople 

edition of 1510, is really the work of Judah Leon b. 

Moses Mosconi (see JEW. Encyc. vii. 260, s.0. JOSEPH 

BEN GoORION). Tam had two sons, Joseph and 

Gedaliah, and a grandson, Tam b. Gedaliah, 

whose actual name, as in the case of his grand- 

father, was Jacob. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Benjacob, Ozar ha-Sefarim, p. 217; Carmoty, 
Dibre ha-Yamim li-Bene Yahya, pp. 23-25, Frankfort-on- 
the-Main, 1850; First, Bibl. Jud. iii. 4; Fuenn, Keneset Yis- 
oe p. 237, Warsaw, 1886; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. No. 
S. P. W1. 
TAMAN : Peninsula between the Black Sea and 

the Sea of Azof; now included in the Russian prov- 

ince of Kuban. It contains the Cossack settlement 

of Taman, which has (1897) a population of 4,291. 

The peninsula was the seat of prosperous Greek 

colonies at the beginning of the Christian era. That 

a large number of Jews lived there at that time and 

subsequently is testified to by the Byzantine his- 

torian Theophanes (dl. 817) in his “ Chronographia.” 

In 680 (or 679) Taman was captured by the Chazars, 

and was then known as Tame, from which orig- 

inated the Russian Tmutarakan. The peninsula 
and the settlement near the site of the present town 
of Taman were known also under other names, 

among them Matega (by the Venctians). In 965 

the Chazars were expelled from Taman by the Rus- 

sian prince Swyatoslaw, a Russian colony being 
established at Tmutarakan; and in 1016 they were 
driven from their remaining Crimean possessions. 

In 1475, at the time of the conquest of the 

Crimea by Mohammed II., Taman was under the 

tule of the Guizoltis, descendants of the Genoese 

Jew Simeon de Guizolfi (see GUIZOLFI, ZACHARIAS). 
In the excavations made on the Taman peninsula 

after the middle of the nineteenth century there 

were discovered about sixty tombstones which once 
marked Jewish graves. The inscriptions on two of 
these tombstones were partly deciphered; on the 
others only single Ilebrew letters could be made out. 

All of them bear Jewish symbols — candelabra, 

shofar, and lulab. Of the two partly deciphered 

inscriptions one belongs to the fourth or fifth cen- 
tury, and contains the name of Menahem, son of 

Amtz; the other dates back to the eighth or ninth 

century, and contains the words “in this grave lies 

the body of Mirfiam].” A marble slab which forms 

a part of the wall in the lodge of the synagogue in 


the son of Meir of Taman Ashkenazi,” who died on 
Wednesday, the 27th of Tebet, 5269 (Dec. 31, 1508), 
See CriMEA; Karra; KARAITES; KERTCH. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Regesty i Nadpisi, vol. i.; A. Fabr, Drevny 


Byt, ete., Odessa, 1861: L6we, Die Reste der Germanen 
am Schwarzen Meere, Halle, 1896. La. 


i. R. 

TAMAR: 1. City mentioned in the vision of 
Ezekicl (Hizek. xlvii, 19) as one terminus of the 
southern boundary-line of Canaan, which extended 
thence through Meriboth-kadesh to the Mediter- 
ranean. According to Ezek. x)viii. 28, moreover, 
this entire district was to belong to the tribe of 
Gad. A comparison of this boundary-line with that 
given in Num. xxxiv. 3-5 shows that Tamar was 
probably situated in the border-land of Moab, near 
the Dead Sea. 


2. Same as HAZAzZON-TAMAR. 
Ss. S. O. 


TAMAR: 1.—Biblical Data: Daughter-in-law 
of Judah. After the death of her husband, Er, she 
married his brother Onan; but when he also diced, 
Judah sent her back to her father’s house, fearing 
to let her marry his third son, Shelah. When 
Tamar saw that Shelah, having reached maturity, 


.did not marry her, she disguised herself and met 


Judah on his way to Timnath. Supposing her to 
be of questionable virtue, he approached her and 
entered into relations with her that resulted in her 
pregnancy. As a pledge of payment, he left with 
her his staff, seal, and belt. When her condition 
was discovered, aud she was about to be burned to . 
death in punishment for unchastity, she confronted 
her father-in-law with the tokens he had left with 
her, declaring that she was with child by the man 
to whom they belonged. She bore him the twins 
Zarah and Pharez (Gen. xxxviii.), 

-——In Rabbinical Literature: Tamar was the 
daughter of Shem, the son of Noah. Shem was 
a priest, and when Tamar was charged with for- 
nication (Gen. R. Ixxxv. 11) she was condemned 
to be burned to death in conformity with Lev. 
Xxi. 9. 

In the bouse of Judah, her father-in-law, she was 
extremely virtuous and timid, and used to keep her 
face constantly covered with a veil, so that Judah 
failed to recognize her when he saw her sitting by 
the roadside (Sotah 10b; Gen. R. Ixxxv. 9). Tamar 
prayed to God that she might not go barren from 
Judah’s house, and resolved upon the course which 
she subsequently pursued (Gen. R. 1xxxv. 8). In 
reply to Judah’s questions she declared that she was 
not a Gentile, and that she was unmarried (Gen. R. 
Ixxxv. 9; Sotah 10a). When she had become preg- 
nant she was not at all ashamed of her condition, 
but boasted to all that she would be the mother of 
kings and redeemers (Gen. R. Ixxxv. 11). When 
charged with unchastity. she was unwilling to 
assert directly that she was with child by her father- 
in-law, for she feared that such a_ disclosure 
might humiliate him, and she was ready to die 
rather than incriminate lim (Ber. 48a; Sotah 12b). 
She was willing, however, indirectly to cause him 
to confess, and therefore sent him the articles whick 
he had left her as a pledge, and which had beer 


41 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Taman 
Tammuz 


cee ee ee RE en eS SS 


taken from her by Samacl and restored by Gabriel. 
After her innocence had been proved, Judah 
continued to live with her in marital relations 
(Sotah 10b). 

2,—Biblical Data: Sister of Absalom, and the 
victim of the passion of her half-brother Amnon. 
At the suggestion of Jonadab, his confidant, Amnon 
feigned illness, and Tamar was sent by the king to 
hisapartment to prepare food forhim. Amnon took 
advantage of this opportunity to dishonor her forci- 
ply, after which he drove her away. Weeping and 
lamenting, she went to her brother Absalom, in 
whose house she remained. Absalom avenged 
his sister two years later by killing Amnon (II 
Sam. Xtii.). 
_—In Rabbinical Literature: Tamar was the 
natural daughter of David by a captive whom he 
married after she had abjured her Gentile religion, 
and who became the mother of Absalom. Because 
of her illegitimacy it would have been lawful for 
her to marry Amnon, the son of David, and she 
therefore besought him (II Sam. xiti. 18) not to dis- 
honor her, but to ask the king to bestow her on him 
as his wife, a request which would surely have been 
granted (Sanh. 21a). 

S J. Z. L, 


TAMARISK : Tree, several species of which are 
found in and around Palestine. The Hebrew term 
for the tamarisk is doubtful. The word Ser, which 
occurs three times in the Old Testament, is inter- 
preted by modern scholars as meaning “a tamarisk,” 
andissorendered in the Revised Version. Abraham 
planted a “ tamarisk-tree ” (R. V.) in Beer-sheba (Gen. 
xxi, 33; A. V. gives “a grove”). “Saul was sitting 
... under the tamarisk-tree in Ramah” (I Sam. 
xxii. 6, R. V.). Finally, the bones of Saul and his 
sons were buried “under the tamarisk-tree in Ja- 
besh” (I Sam. xxxi. 18, R. V.). The parallel pas- 
sage of I Chron. x. 12 has 79xN, which is rendered 
“oak-tree” by both the English versions (R. V., 
margin, “terebinth”), Therefore Opn in the last- 
mentioned passage is rendered “tree” in the Author- 


ized Version. 
S, M. SEu. 


TAMID (in full, ‘OLAT TAMID): Treatisein 
the Mishnah and the Babylonian Gemara; devoted 
chiefly to the regulations regarding the morning and 
evening burnt offerings (comp. Ex. xxix. 38-42; 
Num. xxviii. 8-8), but dealing also with other cere- 
monies in the ritual of the Temple which are binding 
on the priests and the Levites. In most editions this 
treatise stands ninth in the order Kodashim, and itis 
divided into seven chapters (six in Lowe’s edition 
of re Mishnah), containing thirty-four paragraphs 
In all, 

Ch. i.: The priests kept watch in three places in 
the Temple; where the young priests were on 
Suard, and where the older ones slept who held the 
Keys ($ 1); all who sought admission to remove the 
ashes from the altar were obliged to prepare them- 
selves by a ritual bath before the officer appeared ; 
When he appeared and when he called upon the 
Priests to draw lots (§ 2); the mutual greetings of 
the priests (§ 3); how the one chosen by lot to remove 
the ashes from the altar performed his duties (§ 4). 


Ch. ii.: How the other priests continued the task 
of cleansing the altar (§ 1); the piling of the ashes, 
in the center of the altar, into a hillock, which was 
considered an adornment (§ 2); the supply of fuel 
for the altar and the kind of wood used (§ 3); the 
arrangement of the wood and fire in layers ($§ 4-5). 

Ch. iti.: The drawing of lots for various official 
duties, such as slaying the tamid, sprinkling its 
blood, and cleansing the altar and the candlestick 
($1); the announcement of the time of slaying the 
morning sacrifice (§ 2); the bringing of the sacrifi- 
cial lamb, which was given to drink from a golden 
cup before it was killed; who was charged with 
taking it to the place of sacrifice ($$ 8-5); the mode 
of cleansing the inner altar and the candlesticks, to- 
gether with the statement, in conformity with Ezek. 
xliv. 2, that no man ever passed through the pos- 
tern on the southern side of the large door; how the 
opening of this great portal was heard as far as 
Jericho, as was the sound of the trumpets and other 
music of the Temple (§§ 6-9). 

Ch. iv.: The ritual for killing and dismembering 
the sacrificial lamb; how the parts of the sacrifice 
were brought to the altar. 

Ch. v.: The daily morning prayer in the Temple, 
Which was supplemented on the Sabbath by a bene- 
diction on the division of priests who then com- 
pleted their duties (81); the drawing of lots for 
offering incense; the question as to whether one 
might make this offering twice, and the mode of 
burning the incense ($§ 2-5); the “magrefab,” a 
musical instrument used in the Temple (see ORGAN), 
and the various priestly and Levitical meanings of 
the signals given on it (§ 6). 

Ch. vi.: Additional details in regard to offering 
incense, 

Ch. vii.: The ritual used in case the high priest 
himself performed the sacrifice; the mode in which 
he pronounced the benediction on the people; the 
divergency of this benediction from that bestowed 
by the priests outside the Temple, and the music 
which accompanied the high priest's performance 
of his functions (§§ 1-3); enumeration of the Psalms 
sung by the Levites in the Temple on the various 
days of the week (§ 4). 

Although the extant Babylonian Gemara covers 
only ch. i., ii, and iv. of Tamid, it contains several 
sayings and ethical maxims of importance, as well 
as stories and legends of much interest. The fol- 
lowing saying may be cited as a specimen (29a): 
“The Pentateuch and the writings of the Prophets 
and the mishnaic sages contain many exaggerated 
expressions which can not be taken literally, such 
as, ‘The cities are great and walled up to heaven’” 
(Deut. i. 28). On the legends contained in this trea- 
tise concerning Alexander the Great, his conversa- 
tion with the sages of the South, his journey to 
Africa, and his adventures among the Amazons and 
at the gate of paradise, see JEw. ENcyc, i. 342 et 
seq., 8.0. ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 

W. B. J. Z. L. 

TAMMUZ (Assyrian, “Dumuzi”): Babylonian 
deity supposed to be referred to in Ezek. viii, 14. 
He is regarded as the husband, or sometimes as the 
son, of the goddess Ishtar, who descended to Hades 
every year in the fourth month, named after him, 


Tammuz 
Tanhum ben Joseph 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


42 


and remained there till the following spring. He is 
accordingly supposed to represent the spirit of the 
spring vegetation; and there wasa period of mourn- 
ing in Babylonia to mark the discontinnance of 
vrowth, It has been suggested that the fast of the 
Seventeenth of Tammuz was a survival in Jewish 
folk-lore of the mourning for Tammuz; while the 
myth of Adonis in classical literature has also been 
associated with the legend. The reference in Eze- 
kiel to the women weeping for Tammuz certainly 
shows a trace of a cult in early Israel; but how far 
it extended it is difficult to say. W. Robertson 
Smith attempted to associate the Tammuz-worship 
with the sacrificial rites connected with “the king 
of the woods.” 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Frazer, Gelden Bough, 2d ed., i. 860 et seq.; 
Jastrow, Religion of the Bahylonians and Assyrians, p. 
549, Boston, 1898; W. Robertson Smith, Rel. of Sem, p. 411; 
Barton, Sketch of Semitic Origins, pp. 211 et seq. 


S. J. 


TAMMUZ (non): Fourth ecclesiastical and 
tenth civil month of the Hebrew calendar. Tt con- 
sists of twenty-nine days, and corresponds to part 
of June and part of July. During the last years 
of the Second Temple the 14th of Tammuz was 
declared a feast-day in commemoration of a vic- 
tory gained by the Pharisees over the Sadducecs 
in a dispute regarding the interpretation of the 
Law (Ta‘an. iv. 6). The 17th of Tammuz is the 
public fast-day called “Shib‘ah ‘Asar be-Tammuz,” 
in commemoration of the breaking down of the 
walls of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar. As stated 
in Jer. xxxix. 2, this catastrophe occurred on the 
9th day of the month; the 17th was selected be- 
cause, during the siege of Jerusalem by Titus, a 
similar catastrophe happened on that day (Ta‘an. 
26a; Shulhan ‘Aruk, Orah Hayyim, 549). 

According to the Megillat Ta‘anit (iv. 6), four 
other calamities had overtaken the people of Israel 
on the 17th: the breaking of the tables of the Law 
by Moses, the cessation of the perpetual offering, 
the burning of the Torah and the erection of an idol 
in the sanctuary by Apostomus (comp. Josephus, 
“Ant.” xx. 5,84; tdem, “B. J.” ii. 12, § 2), and the 
discontinuance of the sacrifices. With the 17th be- 
gin the three weeks of mourning over the destruc- 
tion of Jerusalem, which end with the 9th of Ab. 
During this period it is forbidden to celebrate mar- 
riages, to cut the hair, to bathe, ete. (Shulhan ‘Aruk, 
Orah Hayyim, 551). The pious fast every day dur- 
ing these three weeks (z).). The 27th of Tammuz 
is the anniversary of the burning of the tanna 
Hanina ben Teradion during the Hadrianic persecu- 
tions (additions to Megiliat Ta‘anit, ed. Neubauer, 
in “M. J. C.” ii. 24). 

J. I. Br. 


TANG, ABRAHAM: English author; flour- 
ished in London in the latter half of the eighteenth 
century. In 1773 he published a philosophic com- 
mentary on Ecclesiastes which gives evidence of 
some classical scholarship. The mythology of 
Greece and of Rome is presented in this commen- 
tary in a very clear and concise manner; and the 
“ Anthologia Greca,” Ovid, Vergil, and Seneca are 
frequently cited. Tang wrote also an exposition 
of the Talmudical passages in which the sayings 


of the “Ancients of Athens” are quoted (London, 


1772); this work was dedicated to R. Moses of 
Minsk. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jew. Chron. Dec. 19, 1884. 

J G. L. 


TANGIER. See Morocco. 


TANHUM B. ELIEZER: Lithuanian rabbi 
and merchant; born 1746; died in Grodno Jan. 12, 
1819. He was the son of R. Eliezer of Urle (Orle), 
in the government of Grodno, and succeeded his 
father in that rabbinate. Later he occupied the po- 
sition of “rosh bet din” at Grodno, where his father 
had been called as rabbi. Upon his failure to 
secure the rabbinate of Grodno after the death of his 
father (1791), Tanhum engaged in business, in which 
he was very successful. There is a tradition that he 
enjoyed the confidence of the last king of Poland 
and that he was well thought of by Emperor Alex- 
ander I. His signature is tirst under the resolutions 
adopted by the Jewish delegates who met. in Wilna 
in 1818 to select three deputies to reside permanently 
in St. Petersburg and represent Jewish affairs be- 
fore the government (see JEw. Encyc. i. 345, 8.2. 
ALEXANDER I.). Tanhum left several works in 
manuscript under the collective title “Nehamat 
Ziyyon”; these in 1860 were in possession of his 
grandson Elijah Perez of Wilna. His son was Issa- 
cHAR BAR GL. TANHUM. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY : Fuenn, Kiryah Ne’emanah, pp. 35, 286, Wilna, 
1860; Friedenstein, “Ir Gibborim, pp. 54, 69-70, Wilna, 1880. 
E. C. P. Wr, 


TANHUM BAR UHANILAI (or ILAI): 
Palestinian amora of the third century, although 
his father’s name suggests a Babylonian origin. He 
transmitted the sayings of Joshua ben Levi, Jo- 
hanan, and Bar Kappara. In the Babylonian Tal- 
mud he appears as the author of decisions which in 
the Jerusalem Talmud are attributed to older au- 
thorities. Thus, in Sanh, 98a he is said to be the 
author of a decision which in Pesik. xi. (ed. Buber, 
p. 99a) is ascribed to Eleazar b. Pedat. On the 
other hand, halakic sentences of his have been pre- 
served in the Jerusalem Talmud (Ma‘as. 48b; Hag. 
76a; Ter. 41c; Shab. 5d; Ta‘an. 65a). Among those 
who transmitted sayings of his were Abbahu (Cant. 
R. ii. 7) and Tanhuma (Pesik. R. 112). 

It appears from Yer. Ta‘an. 65a, b that Tanhum 
bar Hanilai was active as a preacher, and that he 
once preached with Abba bar Zabdai and Josefa. 
He died during a Hanukkah festival (Yer. M. K., 
end). His sayings were of a high ethical and moral 
character: “God speaks thus to Israel: ‘My daugh- 
ter [7.e., the Torah] is in thy hands; thy daughter 
[soul] isin My hands. [f thou protect Mine, then 
will I protect thine’” (Tan.. Ki Tissa, end). With 
regard to the prohibition against certain kinds of 
food, he said: “A physician once visited two sick 
people; the one who had no hope of recovery was 
permitted to eat everything, while the one who had 
every prospect of recovery was allowed only cer- 
tain foods. So God treats the Jews; because they 
have hope of a future life, He gives them certain 
dietary laws; while the heathen, who have no part 
in the life to come, are permitted to eat of all things” 
(Lev. R. xiii. 2). 


43 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


soe ed 
Tanhuimn bar Hanilai’s haggadah is especially 
characteristic because of his system of connecting the 
Jast words of one Bible paragraph with the open- 
jng words of the next, as Lev. i. 16 with ii. 1 
(Lev. R. iit. 4), Lev. xii. 2 ef seg, with xiii, 2 et seg. 
(Lev. R. xv. 5), Ps. xeiv. 1 with xciii. 5 (Midr. 
Teh. ad loc.), and Num. v. 12 e¢ seg. with v. 2 et seg. 
(Num. R, ix, 4), Haggadic sayings of his are 
uoted in the following places: Sanh, Ta, 100a; 
‘Ab. Zarah 18b, 19h; B. M. 86b; Shab. 22a; Hag. 
va; Ber. 8b, 18b; Meg. 15b; Mak. 10a; Yer. Ta‘an. 
68c; Gen. R. iv. 6, xei., beginning; Pesik. R. 21, 
end; Ex. R. xlii., end; and Lev. R. xxvi. The 
Midrash Mishte begins with a prowmium by Tan- 
hum bar Hanilai, although his name is not men- 
tioned in any other part of the book. He is men- 
tioned twice in the Pirke Rabbi Eli‘ezer (xxxix., 
xlix.) by the name of Tanhum. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Heilprin, Seder ha-Dorot, ji, 283a; Bacher, 
Ag. Pat. Amor, iii. 627-636 and Index: Frankel, Mebo, p. 181a. 
Ww. B. 8. O 
TANHUM B. HIYYA: Palestinian amora of 
the third century; a pupil of Simeon b. Pazzi, 
whose sayings he transmits. In the Babylonian Tal- 
mud he is constantly referred to as Rt. Tanhum b. 
Hiyya of Kefar ‘Akko (M. K. 20b; Yeb. 45a), of 
which place he was a native; he resided, however, 
in Tiberias, where on one occasion, with the aid 
of Aha, the lord of the castle, he ransomed some 
Jewish women who probably had been taken there 
by Roman troops (Yeb. 45a). He was a mem- 
ber of the commission which determined the in- 
tercalations of the calendar (Yer. Sanh. 6c). He 
was on terms of friendship with Assi, who visited 
him (Yer. Shab. 6c), and he maintained friendly re- 
lations with Hananiah b. Papa (Yer. M. K. 88c). 
Tanhum was wealthy and philanthropic. It is re- 
corded that when his mother purchased meat for the 
household a similar quantity was always purchased 
for distribution among the poor (Lev. R. xxxiv. 1). 
Only three halakic sayings by him have been pre- 
served (Bek. 57b; Yer. Meg. 75a, twice); but sev- 
eral of his hagegadic utterances are extant. The 
following may be mentioned: “When one who has 
learned, taught, and observed the Law fails to pre- 
vent the evil which it isin his power to prevent, or 
to confirm the good which it is in his power to con- 
firm, then shall smite him the curse pronounced 
[Deut. xxvii. 26] over those who fail to confirm ‘all 
the words of this law’” (Yer. Sotah 21d). He in- 
terpreted Prov. vi. 32 (“Whoso committcth adul- 
tery with a woman lacketh understanding ”) as re- 
ferring to those who scek office for the sake of gain 
(Pesik, R. 22 [ed. Friedmann, p. 111a]). Tanhum 
was the author also of a prayer to be read by any 
one who has had an ominous dream (Yer. Ber. 9a). 
It was told in Babylon that when Tanhum died all 
the statues in Tiberias moved from their places (M. 
K. 25b, according to the correct reading in Rab- 
binovicz’s “ Varise Lectiones,” ad loc.). 
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Frankel, Mebo, pp. 130b, 18la; Bacher, Ag. 
Pal, Amor. iii, 636-639, 
W. B. | J. Z. L. 
TANHUM BAR JEREMIAH: Palestinian 
‘mora of the fourth century: pupil of R. Manis the 
Ider, In the town of Hefer in Galilee he once ren- 


Tammuz 
Tanhum ben Joseph 


dered a legal decision on a religious question, where- 
upon his attention was called to the fact that his 
action was unwarranted, since his teacher resided 
within twelve miles of that place. Only one halakic 
decision of his—regarding the liturgy—is extant 
(Yer. Ber. 7b). He was the author of several hag- 
gadic sentences (Midr. Teh. to Ps. xxxi.; Gen. R. 
iv. 8; Lam. R. ii. 1; and Pesik. 168b). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bacher, Ag. Pal. Amor. iil. 751-752; Frankel, 

Meho, p. la; Heilprin, Seder ha-Dorot, li. 192b. 

F. ¢. 

TANHUM BEN JOSEPH YERUSHALMI: 
Oriental philologist and exegete of the thirteenth 
century. He wasascholar of great merit and was 
one of the last representatives of the rationalistic 
school of Biblical exegesis in the Orient; he is called 
by modern writers “the Ibn Ezra of the East.” 
He lived in Palestine, perhaps for a time in Egypt 
also, and had a son, Joseph, who maintained a corre- 
spondence with David, the grandson of Maimonides 
(comp. Brody in “Sammelband,” 1893, issued by 
the Meckize Nirdamim). Tanhunt’s very existence 
was unknown to European scholars until the eight- 
ecnth century, when fragments of his works were 
brought from the Orient by Pocock, who published 
some Of them in his “ Porta Mosis.” Tanhum skil- 
fully handled the Arabic language, in which he 
composed his works; he possessed some knowledge 
of Greek, and was well versed in philosophy and 
natural science. He was the author of “ Witab al- 
Ijaz wal-Bayan,” consisting of commentaries on the 
Biblical books, with an introduction entitled “ Kul- 
liyyat” giving a sketch of Hebrew grammar and 
an account of the philologists of the Middle Ages. 

With the exception of those on Ezra and Nehe- 
miah, the commentaries are found in manuscript, 
complete or in fragments, in the libraries of St. 
Petersburg, Oxford, and London; and they are 
known also through quotations made either by the 
author himself or by later writers. The commen- 
taries which have been published are: “Ad Libros 
V. T. Commentarii Arabici Specimen una cum An- 
nott. ad Aliquot Loca Libri Judicum” (ed. Ch. 
F. Schnurrer, Tibingen, 1791); “Commentarii in 
Prophetas Arabici Specimen,” etc. (ed. Theodor 
Haarbritcker, Halle, 1842); “Commentarii Arabici 
in Lamentat.” (ed. Cureton, London, 1848); “Com- 
mentaire sur Je Livre de Habakkouk, Publié en 
Arabe avec une Traduction Francaise par Salo- 
mon Munk” (in Cahen’s French Bible, vol. xvii.); 
“ Arab. ad LibrosSamuclis et Regum Locos Graviores, 
Edidit et Interpretationem Latinam Adjecit Th. 
Haarbrticker” (Leipsic, 1844); on Joshua, by the 
same editor (published with the “Blatter aus der 
Veitel-Heine-Epliraim Lehranstalt,” Berlin, 1862); 
extracts from the commentary on Judges, published 
by Goldziher in his “Studien,” 1870; on Kohelet (ed. 
Samuel Eppenstcin, Berlin, 1888); on Jonah (ed. 
Kokowzow, in the “ Rosen-Festschrift,” St. Peters- 
burg, 1897). In his commentaries, Tanhum, being 
a decided adversary of midrashic exegesis, endeav- 
ored to give a philological or a philosophical inter- 
pretation of the Scriptural text. He quotes the 
prominent exegetes from Saadia down to Abraham 
ibn Ezra. 

Tanhum wrote also “Al-Murshid al-Kafi,” a lexi- 


Tanhum of Nave 
Tanhuma, Midrash 


con giving in alphabetical order the etymologies 
and significations of all the vocables found in Mai- 
monides’ “ Mishneh Torah,” aud ofa great number of 
those found inthe Mishnah. The main sources used 
are the “‘Aruk” and Maimonides’ commentary on 
the Mishnah. The author quotes Saadia, Ibn Ja- 
nah, Dunash, Moses ibn Ezra, and other prom- 
inent philologists. Specimens of the “ Murshid,” 
still extant in manuscript (Bagdad, Jerusalem, and 
Oxford), have been published by Wilhelm Bacher 
under the title “Aus dem Wéorterbuche Tanchum 
Jerushalmi’s ” (Strasburg, 1908). 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 2666; idem, 
Die Arabische Literatur der Juden, p. 1743 Goldziher, Stu- 
dien tthher Tanchum, Leipsic, 1870; Poznanski, in R. &. J. 
X1., xi.; idem,in Zeitschrift flir Hebriiische Bibliographie, 
vy. 122, 184; idem, in Z. D. M. G. lv. 608; Harkavy, Studien, 
iii, 43; idem, Hadashim yam Feshanim, vi.2; Gratz, Gesch. 
vii. 144, note 2. 


WwW. B. I. Br. 
TANHUM OF NAVE. See Tanyuma B. 
ABBA. 


TANHUMA B. ABBA: Palestinian amora of 
the fifth generation; one ot the foremost haggadists 
of histime. He wasa pupil of Huna b. Abin (Num. 
R. iti.; Gen. R. xli.), from whom he transmits ha- 
lakic (Yer. Hal. 57d; Shab. 10c) as well as haggadic 
sayings (Yer. Pe’ah 15b; Shab. 11d; ‘Ab. Zarah 
43a). He received instruction also from Judah b. 
Shalom (Midr. Teh. to Ps. cxix. 2) and R. Phine- 
has (Yer. Shek. 49d). According to Bacher, he re- 
sided in Nave, a town in Perza (comp. Neubauer, 
“G. T.” p. 28). 

Of Tanhuma’s life the Babylonian Talmud relates 
the following incident, probably based on an actual 
occurrence. The emperor—a Christian ruler no 
doubt being meant—said to Tanhuma, “Let us all 
become one people.” To this the latter replied, 
“Yes; but since we are circumcised we can not be- 

come like you; whereas you, by hav- 


Retort to ing yourself circumcised, may become 
the like us.” The emperor thereupon said, 
Emperor. “You have answered me correctly ; 


bu: he who worsts the king must be 
thrown to wild beasts.” This was done, but the 
animals did Tanhumano harm. Anunbeliever who 
stood by remarked that perhaps they were not hun- 
gry, whereupon he himself was thrown after Tan- 
huma and was instantly torn to pieces (Sanh. 39a). 
With regard to Tanhuma’s public activity, the 
only fact known is that he ordered a fast on account 
of a drought. Two fasts were held, but no rain 
came, whereupon Tanhuma ordered a third fast, 
saying in his sermon: “My children, be charitable 
unto each other, and God will be merciful unto 
you.” On this occasion one man gave money to his 
divorced wife, who was in need; Tanhuma there- 
upon lifted his face toward the heavens and prayed: 
“Lord of the Universe, this hard-hearted man took 
pity on his wife when he saw that she was in need, 
and helped her, although not obliged to do so; how 
much more shouldest Thou, the Gracious and Mer- 
ciful, be filled with pity when Thou seest Thy be- 
loved children, the sons of Abraham, Isaac, and 
Jacob, in need.” As soon as he had ceased pray- 
ing, rain came, and the world was relieved of its 
distress (Gen. R. xxxiii.; Lev. R. xxxiv.), 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 44 


Tanhuma ts not often mentioned as a halakist: a 
few remarks on and explanations of halakic teach- 
ings are ascribed to him in the Palestin- 
His ian Talmud (Yer. ‘Er. 26c; Pes. 37b, d; 
Haggadot. Yoma 44d; Shek. 47c; Ta‘an. 67a), 
while the Babylonian Talmud men- 
tions an objection raised by him against a halakic 
thesis advanced by the Palestinian schools (Hul, 
dob). Asa haggadist, on the other hand, he is fre- 
quently mentioned, and the numerous haggadic sen- 
tences of his which are still preserved touch every 
province of the Haggadah. He often points out the 
Scriptural bases for the sayings of older authors, 
always using the characteristic formula of introduc- 
tion: “I give the reason”; that is, “I cite the Bibli- 
calauthority ” (Yer. Ber. 2c; Gen. R. iv. 38; Lev. R. 
xxi.). He also explains and annotates older say- 
ings (Gen. R. xxiv.), adjusts differing traditions 
(Lev. R. xxiv. 5), and varies the text of old hag- 
gadic sentences (Gen. R. xiii. 3). His own haggadic 
teachings differ but little from those of his contem- 
poraries, although some of his interpretations ap- 
proach the simple exegetic method, An example 
of this is furnished by his interpretation of Eccl. iii. 
11, where he explains the word “ha-kol” as mean- 
ing “the universe” (Gen. R. ix. 2). 

Tanhuma often made use of symbolism to illustrate 
his thought. Some of his haggadic utterances may 
be quoted: “Just as the spice-box contains all kinds 
of fragrant spices, so must the wise youth be filled 
with all kinds of Biblical, mishnaic, halakic, and 
haggadic knowledge” (Cant. R. v. 18). On Isa. xlv. 
3 Tanhuma said: “ Nebuchadnezzar grudged his son 
and successor Evil-merodach his treasures, wherefore 
he filled iron ships with gold and sunk them in the 
Euphrates. When Cyrus conquered Babylonia and 
decided to rebuild the Temple in Jerusalem, he di- 
verted the river into another channel, and ‘ the treas- 
ures of darkness, and hidden riches of secret places’ 
were given to him” (Esth. R. iti. 1). 

Tanhuma often held religious disputations with 
non-Jewish, especially Christian, scholars; and he 
himself tells of one which took place in Antioch 
(Gen. R. xix. 4). He was asked con- 
cerning Gen. tii. 5, where the word 
“Ke-Elohim [yode‘e tob wa-ra‘]” 
seems to point to a plurality of gods. Tanhuma 
replied that such a construction was refuted by the 
immediately preceding words, “yodea‘ [singular] 
Elohim.” His frequent intercourse with non-Jews 
led him to formulate the following rule: “ When 
a non-Jew greets you with a blessing, answer him 
with an ‘Amen’” (Yer. Ber. 12c; Suk. 54a). The 
Pesikta Rabbati contains about eighty proems said 
to have originated with Tanhuma, and beginning 
with the phrase “Thus said R. Tanhuma.” A great 
number of proems bearing his name are found also 
in the Midrash Tanhuma. In addition to these 
proems several lengthy sections of the Pesikta Rab- 
bati as well as of the Midrash Tanhumaare followed 
by the note “Thus explained [or “preached”] R. 
Tanhuma.” See TANHUMA, MIDRASH. 


Polemics. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Weiss, Dor, iii. 142-144; Frankel, Meho, P. 
13la,b; Buber, Hinleitung zum Midrash Tanhuma, pp. 8% 
4a; Bacher, Ag. Pal. Amor. iii. 465-514. 

J. ZL. 


W. Bz. 


45 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


es 


TANHUMA, MIDRASH: Name given to 
three different collections of Pentateuch haggadot ; 
two are extant, while the third is known only 

through citations. These midrashim, 
Three Mid- although bearing the name of R. Tan- 
rashim. huma, must not be regarded as having 
been written or edited by him. They 
were so named merely because they consist partly of 
homilies originating with him (this being indicated 
by the introductory formula “Thus began R. Tan- 
huma ” or “ Thus preached R, Tanhuma”) and partly 
of homilies by haggadic teachers who followed the 
style of R. Tanhuma. It is possible that R. Tan- 
huma himself preserved his homilies, and that his 
collection was used by the editors of the midrash. 
The three collections were edited at different times; 
they will, therefore, be treated in chronological 
order. 

Tanhuma A: The collection published by Buber 
(Wilna, 1885), who gathered the material from sev- 
eral manuscripts. This collection, consisting of 
homilies on and haggadic interpretations of the 
weekly sections of the Pentateuch, is the oldest of 
the three, as well as perhaps the oldest compilation 
of its kind arranged as a running commentary on 
the Pentateuch. Itis even older than Bereshit Rab- 
bab, which quotes several of its decisions. This 
midrash (Tanhuma) was edited in the fifth century, 
before the completion of the Babylonian Talmud, 
to which work it nowhere refers. On the contrary, 
a passage in the Babylonian Talmud seems with 
probability to indicate that the redactor of that work 
had referred to the Midrash Tanhuma. This passage 
(Kid. 83b) says that two amoraim differed in their 
interpretations of the words “and [they] looked 
after Moses, until he was gone into the tabernacle” 
(Ex. xxxiii. 8). One amora interpreted the words 
in a complimentary sense, while the other held that 
the people looked after Moses and made unfavorable 
remarks about him. The favorable interpretation 
only is given in the Talmud, while the adverse 
opinion is referred to with the words “ ki de-ita ” (as 
itis said). Inasmuch as the adverse view is given 
in the Tanhuma Pekude (ed. Buber, p. 65a), it is 
extremely probable that the words “ki de-ita” in 
the Talmud have reference to the former work, or 
that the reference originally read “ki de-ita be- 
Tanhuma ” (as it is said in the Tanhuma), the words 
“be-Tanhuma ” having been eliminated later. 

The homilies contained in Midrash Tanhuma A 
begin with the words “As the Scriptures say” or 
sometimes “As it is written.” Then follow a verse 
(in most cases taken from the Hagiographa), its 
explanation, and a homily on the particular pas- 
Sage of the Pentateuch referred to. Several of 
the homilies on the first, third, and fourth books 
of the Pentateuch begin with brief halakic 
dissertations bearing on the passages to which the 
homilies refer. The halakic treatises consist of a 
question introduced with the words “ Yelammedenu 
tabbenu” (May our teacher instruct us), and of a 
teply beginning with the phrase “Kak shanu rab- 
boteny ” (Thus have our teachers instructed us); 
the replies are always taken from either a mishnah 
Ora baraita. Many of the homilies close with words 
of hope and encouragement regarding the future of 


Tanhum of Nave 
Tanhuma, Midrash 


the Jews; but several of them are abbreviated and 
not entirely completed, this curtailment being apol- 
ogized for in the words “Much more might be 
said on this subject, but we shall not tire you” 
(Noah xxvi. 27b), or “This passage has been eluci- 
dated by several other interpretations and exposi- 
tions, but in order not to tire you we quote only 
that which is necessary for to-day’s theme” (Huk- 
kat xvi. 57a). 

Although essentially a haggadic midrash, Tan- 
huma A contains many halakic sayings. In addi- 
tion to its sixty-one introductions to 
homilies, which contain halakic ques- 
tions and answers, there are several 
halakic rules and decisions quoted throughout the 
work, These halakic passages were taken from the 
Mishnah or the Baraita, and not from the Babylonian 
Talmud; indeed, many of the decisions given are 
in opposition to those of the latter work (comp. 
Buber, Introduction, pp. 15 e¢ seg.). The haggadic 
contents of the midrash are also very extensive and 
varied; it contains, too, simple explanations of 
Scriptural passages; several refutations of heretics; 
explanations of the differences between “kere” and 
“ketib” and between words written “ plene” (male) 
and defectively (“haser”); interpretations according 
to notarikon and gematria; several narratives and 
parables; and numerous aphorisms, moral sayings, 
and popular proverbs, 

Some of the aphorisms and proverbs may be cited 
here: “One may not give an honest man an oppor- 
tunity to steal, much less a thief” (Wayishlah xii. 
85b). “The office seeks those that would escape it” 
(Wayikraiv. 2b). “If you yield not to wickedness 
it will not follow you nordwell by you” (Tazria‘ xi. 
20b). “Do the wicked no good in order that thou 
reap not that which is evil” (Hukkat i. 50a). 

This Tanhuma midrash has been referred to in 
many other midrashim, as, for example, all the Rab- 
bot, Pesikta de-Rab Kahana, Pesikta Rabbati, and 
in the midrashim to Samuel, Proverbs, and Psalms, 
which all quote passages from it. The Geonim also 
and the older rabbinical authorities made use of it, 
and cited halakic as well as haggadic sentences from 
it (comp. Buber, @.c. pp. 37 e¢ seg.). The first to re- 
fer to this midrash by the name of Tanhuma, how- 
ever, was Rashi, who mentions it in several passages 
of his commentary, and quotes from it. Most of 
Rashi’s quotations are taken from Tanhuma A. (see 
Buber, J.¢. pp. 44 e¢ seq.). 

Tanhuma B, or Yelammedenu: This second 
midrash with which the name of Tanhuma is associ- 
ated is known as the “Yelammedenu” from the 
opening words of the halakic introductions to the 
homilies — “ Yelammedenu rabbenu” (May our 
teacher instruct us). It is referred to also under the 
name of Tanhuma, though by only a few authorities, 
as Hai Gaon and Zedekiah ben Abraham (Buber, 
l.c. pp. 44a, 50a). The reason for this confusion of 
names may be found in the fact that a later collec- 
tion of midrashim (Tanhuma C) included a great 
part of the material contained in the Yelammedenu, 
especially that referring to the second book of the 
Pentateuch. The Yelammedenu, which contains 
several passages from Tanhuma A, is often cited in 
the “‘Aruk,” and has been extensively referred to 


Contents. 


Tanhuma, Midrash 
Tanna debe Eliyahu 


by the redactor of the Yalkut. Other old rabbinical 

authorities refer to the Yelammedenu by that name, 

and quote passages from it; but otherwise the work 
has been completely lost. 

Tanhuma C: The third haggadic midrash to the 
Pentateuch bearing the name of Tanhuma contains 
many passages taken from A and B. It is, in fact, 
an amended edition of the two earlier works, with 
various additions by later authors. Its homilies 
on Genesis are original, although they contain 
several revised passages from Tanhuma A as well 
as from the Yelammedennu, the Babylonian Talmud 
being largely drawn upon for additional interpreta- 
tions and expositions. The part referring to Exo- 
dus is borrowed almost entirely from the Yelamme- 
denu, with the exception of the Wayakhel and 
Pekude sections, which contain homilies not em- 
bodied in the lost work. For the portions to the books 
of Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy the redac- 
tor of this midrash has made extensive use of the 
material that he found in Tanhuma A, which he 
has revised and supplied with numerous additions. 
The first authority to cite this midrash was Rashi, 
who in some passages of his commentary refers to 

Tanhuma C and not to the A collec- 

Literary tion (comp. Buber, /.¢. pp. 44 et seg.). 
History. Because of the fact that the third 
midrash contains much of the material 

of the lost Yelammedenu, the two works were often 
confounded. Some authorities believed that it was 
the Tanhuma C and not the Yelammedenu which 
had been lost (Menahem de Lonzano, in “ Ma‘arik,” 
sc. “Tanhuma”; comp. Azulai, “Shem ha-Gedo- 

lim,” ii.). Others erroneously considered this mid- 

rash identical with the Yelammedenu, thinking the 

work had a double title; and the first editions of 

Tanhuma C appeared, therefore, under the title 

“ Midrash Tanhuma, Called Also the Yelammedenu.” 
Tanhuma C was first published at Constantinople 

in 1522, and was reprinted without emendation 

at Venice in 15435. The third edition, which 
served as a basis for all the later editions, was pub- 
lished at Mantua in 1563 by Meir b. Abraham of 

Padua and Ezra of Fano. This edition contains 

several additions, consisting of single sentences as 

well as of entire paragraphs, which Ezra of Fano 
selected from two of the original mauuscripts and 
also from the Yalkut. Ezra indicated the added 
matter by marking it with open hands, but in the 
following editions these marks were omitted, so 
that it is no longer possible to distinguish between 
original contents and material added by revisers. 

Ezra of Fano further added to his edition an index 

of all halakic decisions, as well as of the legends 

and parables contained in this midrash; this index 
has been retained in all later editions. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zunz, G. V. pp. 226-238 ; Soloraon Buber’s In- 
troduction (Mebo) to his edition of the Midrash Tanhuma, 
Wilna, 1885; Theodor, in Monatsschrift, 1885-86; Bacher, 
Ag. Pal. Amor. iii. 500-514; Weiss, Dor, iii. 268-278; <A. 
Epstein, Kadmut ha-Tanhuma, in Bet Talmud, v. 7-23; L. 
Griinhut, Sefer ha-Likkutim, iv.-vi., Jerusalem, 1900 


WwW. RB. J. Z. LL. 
TANHUMA B. SKOLASTIKAI: Palestinian 
teacher of the Law. His period is not known, but 


according to a conjecture (see “‘Aruk,” s.v. “ Asko- 
lastika ”) he was the son of that Joshua b. Hana- 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 46 


niah who in Gen. R. lxiv. 10 is called “ Askolas- 
tikus.” Tanhuma is mentioned but once in the 
Palestinian ‘Talmud, namely, in Ber. 7d, where it 
is said that he read the following prayer: “May it 
be Thy will, O Lord my God, and the God of my 
fathers, that the evil desire which dwells within our 
hearts shall be destroyed. Thou hast created us to 
do Thy bidding, and we are constrained to follow 
Thy will. Thou desirest it, and we also desire it, 
but the yeast in our dough [7.e., the tendency to- 
ward evil] hinders us. Thou knowest that we do 
not. possess strength enough to withstand it; let it 
therefore be Thy will to destroy and suppress it, so 
that we may do according to Thy will with all our 
hearts.” According to Frankel (“ Mebo,” 1381), 
Tanhuma b. Skolastikai is identical with Tanhuma 
b. Abba (comp. Bacher, “Ag. Pal. Amor.” iii. 470), 
BIBLIOGRAPITY: Heilprin, Seder ha-Dorot, ji., Warsaw, 188°. 

Ww. Bz J. Z. L. 

TANHUMA B. YUDAN: Palestinian amora of 
the fourth century, some of whose haggadic utter- 
ances have been preserved. The words 7135 AMX} 
in Ps. lxxili. 24 are interpreted by him as implying 
that on account of the honor in which Esau held his 
father, Isaac, the recognition of Jacob’s merit in this 
world was delayed (Pesik. R. xxili. 124a). On ac- 
count of the different meanings of the two names of 
God he declared (Yer. Ber. 14b), with reference to 
Ps. Ivi, 2, that he praised the name of God regard- 
less of whether it indicated severe justice (“ middat 
ha-din”) or mild grace (“middat ha-rahamim ”). 
From the fact that in Judges vi. 24 (see margin) God 
is given the name of “Peace” he deduces that it is 
forbidden to use the word “peace” as a term of 
greeting in an unclean place (Lev. R.ix.,end). Two 
other sayings of Tanhuma b. Yudan are really trans- 
mitted baraita sentences (Yer. Ber. 11d [comp. Fran- 
kel, “ Mebo,” p. 24b]; Yer. Yoma 38b; in the latter 
passage it is noted that the saying is contained ina 
baraita). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Frankel, Mebo, p. 13la: Bacher, Ag. Pat. 
Amor. iii. 752-758 ; Heilprin, Seder ha-Dorot, ii. 1922. 


Ww. B. J. G Li. 
TANNA. See TANNAIM AND AMORAIM. 


TANNA DEBE ELIYAHU: Composite name 
of a midrash, consisting of two parts, whose final 
redaction took place at the end of the tenth century 
of the common era. The first part is called “Seder 
Eliyahu Rabbah ” (thirty-one chapters); the second, 
“Seder Eliyahu Zuta” (fifteen chapters). A dis- 
tinct reference to this midrash occurs in the Tal- 
mud in Ket. 106a: “Elijah used to come to R. 
Anan, upon which occasions the prophet recited the 

Seder Eliyahu to him. When, how- 

Origin of ever, R. Anan had given this decision 

the Name. [one previously narrated in the Tal- 

mud] the prophet came no more. R. 
Anan fasted in consequence, and begged forgive- 
ness, whereupon the prophet came again; but R. 
Anan had such great fear of Elijah that, in order to 
avoid seeing him, he madea box and sat in it until the 
recitation was over” (but see Jew. Encyc, i. 552, 
8.0. ANAN). Hence, according to Rashi, the mid- 
rash has the two names, “Rabbah” for the earlier, 
and “Zuta” for the later lectures. Anan was & 


47 


Babylonian amora of the third century. The col- 
jection of baraitot concerning him, referred to in 
this midrash, is cited in the Babylonian Talmud 
usder the title “ Tanna debe Eliyahu” (see below), 
and the utterances in question are found in the mid- 
rash itself. The tosafot to Ketubot (106a, s.o. 43°)) 
say that the midrash consists of a large book and a 
smal! one. R. Nathan in his “‘Aruk ” (s.2, 19D, ii.) 
says: “The midrash contains baraitot which the 
prophet taught to Anan, and consists of two parts, 
a large seder with thirty chapters, aud a small seder 
with twelve chapters; and all of the Tanna debe 
Eliyahu cited in the Talmud is to be found in these 
paraitot.” The inner connection between these two 
midrashint is a loose one, and it is only in sections 5 
to 10 that the second refers to the first. 

The underlying theme of the Tanna debe Eli- 
yahu, which, with many interruptions, runs through 
the whole work, is the evolution of the world- 
system. The midrash calls the single periods of 
the history of man “shittot” (series). The first 
series, Which deals with the beginning of the world 
and, extends to the moment when man was driven 
out of Eden, consists of two subsections, (@) “ Ma‘a- 
seh Merkabah” and (&) “ Ma‘aseh Bereshit.” The six 
seriesof the world-system, however, were created 

in the divine mind even before 
The any being, with the exception of 
Underlying Israel, existed. They were: (1) the di- 
Principle vine law (AN); (2) hell (Dan%3) and 
of (3) paradise (Ty 13), or punishment and 
the Book. reward in the future world; (4) the 
throne (3{33"% NDS), or the divine 
government of the world; (5) the name of the Mes- 
siah (M’wnN pty), or the restoration of the universe 
when about to be destroyed; and (6) the Temple 
(wpm ma), or the dependence of man upon God. 
Even before these six foundations, however, Israel 
was, as stated above, already in being in the divine 
mind, because without Israel there could have been 
no Torah (Friedmann, “Seder Eliyahu,” p. 161). 

The second series embraces the period from the 
expulsion of man from Eden to the Flood. In the 
ten generations from Adam to Noah man did not 
adhere to “meekness,” did not do what was right 
(2b. p. 80), but fell lower and lower until he practised 
violence, theft, immorality, and murder. For this 
reason his destruction became a necessity (270. p. 
190). 

The third series extends from the Flood to King 
Manasseh of Judah. It treats of the time of the 
study of the Law, of the priestly office, of the king- 
dom, and of the end of Israel’s prosperity through 
the evil administration of Manasseh. In the days of 
Abraham the period of “tohu wa-bohu ” (confusion) 
ceases and the 2,000 years of law begin. This time 

is divided into the following periods: 

The (1) the sojourn of the children of Israel 

Periods of in Kgypt, the Exodus, to Joshua; (2) 

J ewish the kingdom of love extending to Sam- 

History. ucl; (3) the kingdom of fear, to the 

time of Elijah; (4) the kingdom of 

truth, to the time of Jeroboam II.; (5) the time of 

Israel’s salvation from oppression under Hezekiah ; 

Net the time of Hezekiah to the reign of Ma- 
(see Friedmann, “ Mebo,” v. 108). 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Tanhuma, Midrash 
Tanna debeEliyahu 


The fourth serics is filed with “meckness ” (cb. p. 
163). Whoever studies the Torah receives “ meek- 
ness” as areward. In addition there is a second 
recompense, Which is the Mishnah. In this intro- 
duction of the Mishnal there is a trace of apology 
intended for those who believe that only the Torah 
was delivered on Sinai. The fifth series extends 
from King Manasseh to the building of the Second 
Temple (. p. 168). The last series treats of the 
future. God, surrounded by all the saints, sits in 
His bet ha-midrash and counts up the generations 
of the different periods of time, what they have 
learned, and what reward they shall receive therefor 
(26, p. 4). The future of these saints will be like 
the beginning of the life of man (¢. p. 164). 

These six series are again divided into three main 
periods: (1) the present world; (2) the Messianic 

period; and (8) the future world. 

The Three These are subdivided into: (a) 2,000 

Periods. years of confusion (“tohu ”); (4) 2,000 

years of the Torah; (¢) 2,000 years 

of the Messiah; (@) inauguration of a general peace; 
(ec) the future world (2. p. 115). 

Besides this fundamental idea both parts of the 
midrash emphasize the importance of virtue, of a 
religious life, and of the study of the Law, and ex- 
hort to repentance and almsgiving, greater tolerance 
toward both Jews and non-Jews, diligent study and 
respect for scholars, modesty and humility, and the 
avoidance of non-Jewish manners and customs. 
The midrash, further, attempts to prove that all 
human life is based on the two extremes, toil in the 
sweat of the brow, and the regaining of the freedom 
of the soul. Hence it begins with the expulsion of 
Adam from Eden (Gen. iii. 24), and closes with the 
same theme. The cherubim in Eden are identified 
with nan, and are the symbol of the reward of well- 
doing; the flaming sword is hell, the punishment 
for evil-doing. The way to the tree of life is said to be 
“derek erez” (good behavior); while the guarding of 
the tree of life is like the guarding of the word of 
God. By derek erez the midrash understands that 
which is fitting, useful, and honest; and these three 
qualities are the fundamental principles upon which 
the human world-system and society rest. An ex- 
ample of derek erez in this midrash is the following: 
The princes of the Philistines possessed derek erez, 
because when the Philistines wished to convey the 
Ark to the Israelites they would not send it back 
without sacrifices (I Sam. vi. 3; Friedmann, J.c. p. 
58). On the other hand, the inhabitants of Beth- 
shemesh did not possess it, inasmuch as instead of 
bowing before the Ark they rejoiced and danced 
before it boldly, so that misfortune came upon 
them and 50,000 of them fell (¢d.). 

The opposite of derek erez is “to walk in the 
crooked way,” ¢.e., to do unworthy deeds and to 
give oneself up to immorality. Yet no nation of the 
world, with the exception of Egypt, has sunk so 

low as this. In ordinary life, how- 

Qual- ever, the transgression of a command 
ity of or prohibition, indecency, or even 
Derek Erez. theft is a most pronounced opposite 
of derek erez; and every father of a 

family should strive to preserve those depending on 
him from these vices, because they belong to those 


Tanna debe Eliyahu | 
Tannaim and Amoraim 


evils which might bring about the destruction of the 
world. 

The twelve chapters of the second part of the 
midrash are characterized by the fact that the nar- 
ratives showing why in this world things often go 
amiss with the good and well with the wicked, are 
commonly introduced by the words “It happened ” 
(Mwy) or “Once on a time” (MAS OYA). The mid- 
rash is sometimes interspersed with very beautiful 
prayers (see, for example, Friedmann, l.c. pp. 6, 18, 
19, 28). 

The Tanna debe Eliyahu is the only haggadic work 
which contains a rabbinic-karaitic polemic. In the 
second chapter of the second part is an account of a 
meeting of the author with a Karaite, who possesses 
a knowledge of Scripture, but not of the Mishnah; 
the differences discussed, however, are not im- 
portant. The polemical attitude is much more 
noticeable in ch. xv. of the first part. There the 
following points are treated in detail: (1) washing 
the hands (comp. Hul. 106a; Shab. 62b; Sotah 4b); 
(2) slaughtering (comp. Hul. 27a); (8) partaking 
of human blood (comp. Ker. 20b); (4) prohibition 
against eating fat (comp. Lev. vii. 23; Ker. 4b; 
Pinsker, “ Likkute Kadmoniyyot,” p. 20); (5) rob- 
bery from a Jew and from a non-Jew (comp. B. K. 
113b); (6) degrees of relationship as bearing on 
marriage (comp. “Eshkol ha-Kofer,” p. 117%b); (7%) 
grades of purity (comp. 7). p. 111b; Shab. 13a). Un- 
like other polemics, this one is not couched in acrimo- 
nious terms; but it adopts a mild, conciliatory tone. 

As to the time of the composition of the work, all 
scholars agree in assigning it to the end of the tenth 

century; but as to the place where it 

Composed was written, authorities differ, Where- 
in as certain scholars (e.g., Zunz, Rapo- 
the Tenth port, Bacher, Oppenheim, and Hoch- 

Century. muth)suppose Babylonia or Palestine, 

Giidemaun is of the opinion that the 
work was Written in Italy, or at least that its author 
must have been an Italian who had traveled a great 
deal and had been as far as Babylon, who learned 
there of the polemic between the Rabbinites and 
Karaites, but who abstained from mentioning Eu- 
rope or Italy because he considered he would be 
likely tocreatea greater impression among his fellow 
countrymen by relating observations which he had 
made abroad. Furthermore, the fact that he knew 
nothing of Babylonia beyond its name shows that he 
could not have beena native of thatregion. Deren- 
bourg also places the origin of the work in Rome. 
Gritz goes farthest of all, by simply identifying the 
Babylon of the midrash with Rome, and the fights 
of Gog and Magog described in the work with the 
devastating invasion of the Hungarians into Italy 
from 889 to 955. The most radical opponent of 
this view is Friedmann. For him all arguments 
concerning the age of the Tanna debe Eliyahu and 
against its identification with the Seder Eliyahu 
mentioned in Ket. 10b, are only superficial and 
only apparently sound; and he accordingly assigns 
the origin of the work “eo ipso” to Babylonia. 

The age of the midrash is approximately ascertain- 
able by three data contained in the book itself. (1) In 
ch. ii. the author speaks of the seventh century of 
the 2,000 years of the Messianic period as having 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 48 


passed; this period began in 242 c.E., hence the 
time of writing must have been the tenth century, 
(2) The second datum relates to the temporal reckon- 
ing of the jubilees, and is treated by Rapoport in 
“Toledot de-R. Natan,” p. 144. (8) The third 
datum (ch, xxx.) indicates that nine centuries had 
passed since the destruction of the Temple; hence 
the last redaction of the midrash falls in the interval] 
between 968 and 984. 

Of especially original midrashim contained in the 
work a few may be noticed here. On the passage 
“and set me down in the midst of the valley which 
was full of bones” (Ezek. xxxvii. 1~11) it is said, 
“Instead of ‘ bones’ [miyy]j should be read ‘ tree of 
death’ [mi py]; for it was the same tree which, 
through Adam’s disobedience, brought death to 

him and to all his descendants ” (v. 24). 
Examples “‘And this man went up out of his 
of city yearly ’ (ISam. i. 8]: from these 
Exegesis. words it appears that Elkanah went 
to Shiloh four times a year, three times 
in accordance with the legal prescription, and once 
in addition, which last journey he had assumed vol- 
untarily ” (Friedmann, J.c, p. 47). “On the day of 
Adam’s death his descendants made a feast, because 
on account of his age he had long been a burden 
to himself and to them” (2. p. 81). “‘I will not 
execute the fierceness of mine anger’ [Hos. xi. 9]: 
God has sworn to His people that He will not give 
them in exchange for another people, nor change 
them for another nation” (Friedmann, l.e. p. 127). 
“*'The fool hath said in his heart, there is no God’ 
[Ps. xiv. 2]: a man may not say in his heart, ‘ This 
world is a tohu wa-bohu; I will give myself up to 
sensual pleasures and will retire from the world’” 
(xxiii, 127-128). “From the words ‘Israel was 
holiness unto the Lord’ (Jer. ti. 3] it follows that 
the holiness of God, of the Sabbath, and of Israel is 
the same” (Friedmann, J.c. p. 188). 

The passages in the Talmud cited in Tanna debe 
Bliyahu are: Shab. 18a; Pes. 94a, 112a; Meg. 28b; 
Kid. 80b; ‘Ab. Zarah 5b, 9a; Sanh. 92a; Tamid 82a. 
Those cited in the Talmud under “ Tanu Rabbanan” 
and found alsoin this midrash are: Shab. 88b and 
Git. 86b = Tanna debe Eliyahu (ed. Friedmann), p. 
78; Pes. 49a = 70. p. 30; Pes. 49a = 2d. p. 68; Suk. 
Oza = 26. p. 20; R. H. 18a = 722. p. 58; Meg. t4a = 20. 
p. 82; Kid. 82a = 7. p. 101; B. K. 97b = 2d. p. 21; 
B. B. 90b = 70. p. 77; B. B. 147%a = 7b. p. 157; Sanh. 
19a = 7b. p. 147; Sanh. 48b = 7d. p. 102; Sanh. 109a 
= 75, p. 168; Sheb. 39a = 72d. p. 182; Yeb. 62b = 2d. 
p. 78. Furthermore, in the midrash are found sen- 
tences of the following amoraim: Johanan, Joshua 
b. Levi, R. Abbahu, and Eleazar. 

The first edition of the midrash appeared at Ven- 
ice in the year 1598, prepared from a copy dated 
1186. In 1677 an edition by Samuel 
b. Moses Haida, with changes in the 
text and with a commentary (p13 
NVIT PPP? NWN), appeared in Prague. The text 
itself was presented in a “ nusha hadasha ” (new text) 
and ina “nusha yeshana” (old text), being wholly 
distorted from its original form by Talmudic and 
cabalistic interpolations. This edition consists of 
three parts, the first two of which contain the text 
of the Rabbah and the Zuta (thirty-one and twenty- 


Editions. 


49 


pine chapters respectively). These two parts are 
receded by prefaces bearing the titles “ Mar Kash- 

shisha” or “Sod Malbush ha-Neshamah” (Mystery 

of the Clothing of the Soul) and “Mar Yanuka” or 

«Sod Haluka de-Rabbanan” (Mystery of the Cloth- 

ing of the Rabbis). Then follows an introduction 

(common to part ii. and part iii), with the title 

«Sha‘ar Shemuel” (Gate of Samuel), and a third 
art consisting mainly of an exegesis of ch. xx. 
The following editions are specially to be recom- 

mended, namely: that by Jacob -b. Naphtali Herz 

of Brody, with a commentary, “ Yeshu‘at Ya‘akob” 

(Zolkiev, 1798); that by Abraham b. Judah Loéb 

Schick, with the commentary “Me’ore Esh” (Sidl- 

kov, 1885); that by Isaac Elijah b. Samuel Landau, 

with a commentary, “Ma‘aneh Eliyahu” (Wilna, 

1840). Among the best editions is the Warsaw one 

of 1880 containing both texts. The latest edition 

appeared in Vienna in 1900 and 1903, under the titles 

“ Seder Eliyahu Rabbah” and “Seder Eliyahu Zuta,” 

after a Vatican manuscript of the year 1078, critic- 

ally revised, and with a commentary entitled “ Me’ir 

‘Ayin,” and a voluminous introduction by M. Fried- 

mann. In this edition Seder Eliyahu Zuta is divided 

into fifteen chapters. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bacher, in Monatsschrift, xxiii. 267 et seq.; 
idem. in R. HB. J., xx. 144-146; T. Derenbourg, in R. EB. J. 
ii. 134 et seq., iii. 121-122, Friedmann, introduction (Mebo) 
to his ed. of Seder Hliyahu: Gritz, Gesch. 3d ed., v. 294- 
295; Giidemann, Gesch. ii. 50, 52 et seq., 300-303; Hochmuth, 
in Neuzeit, 1868, Nos. 23 et seqg.; Oppenheim, Bet Talmud, i. 
304 et seq.; Rapoport, Toledot de-Rabbi Natan, in Bikkure 


ha-‘Ittim, x. 48; J. Theodor, in Monatsschrift, xtiv. 380-384, 
550-561: Zunz, G. V. ii. 119-124, Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1892. 


W. B. S. O. 


TANNAIM AND AMORAIM: The name 
“tanna” is derived from the Aramaic “teni” or 
“tena” (= “to teach”), and designates in general 
ateacher of the oral law, and in particular one of 
the sages of the Mishnah, those teachers of the 
oral law whose teachings are contained in the 
Mishnah and in the Baraita. The term was tirst 
used in the Gemara to indicate a teacher mentioned 
in the Mishnah or in a baraita, in contradistinction 
to the later authorities, the Amoraim. Not all the 
teachers of the oral law who are mentioned in 

the Mishnah are called tannaim, how- 
The Name. ever, but only those belonging to the 

period beginning with the disciples of 
Shammai and Hillel and ending with the contempo- 
raries of Judah ha-NasiI. The authorities prece- 
ding that period are called “zekenim ha-rishonim ” 
(the former elders). In the time of the Amoraim 
the name “tanna” was given also to one well versed 
in the Mishnah and the other tannaitic traditions. 

The period of the Tannaim, which lasted about 
210 years (10-220 c.x.), is generally divided by Jew- 
Ish scholars into five or six sections or generations, 
the purpose of such division being to show which 
teachers developed their principal activity contem- 
poraneously. Some of the tannaim, however, were 
active in more than one generation. The following 
18 an enumeration of the six generations and of the 
rs prominent tannaim respectively belonging to 

em: 

First Generation (10-80 ©.E.): Principal 
tannaim: the Shammaites (Bet Shammai) and the 

XIT.—4 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Tanna debe Eliyahu 
Tannaim and Amoraim 


Hillelites (Bet Hillel), ‘Akabya b. Mahalaleel, Rabban 
Gamaliel the Elder, Hanina, chief of the priests 
(“segan ha-kohanim”), Simeon b, Gamaliel, and 
Johanan b. Zakkai. 

Second Generation (80-120): Principal tan- 
naim: Rabban Gamaliel Il. (of Jabneh), Zadok, 
Dosa b. Harkinas, Eliezer b. Jacob, Eliezer b. Hyr- 
canus, Joshua b. Hananiah, Eleazar b. Azariah, Ju- 
dah b. Bathyra. 

Third Generation (120-140): Principal tan- 
naim: Tarfon, Ishmael, Akiba, Johanan b. Nuri, 
Jose ha-Gelili, Simeon b. Nanos, Judah b. Baba, and 
Johanan b. Baroka. Several of these flourished in 
the preceding period. 

Fourth Generation: This generation extended 
from the death of Akiba (¢. 140) to that of the pa- 
triarch Simeon b. Gamaliel (¢. 165). The teachers 
belonging to this generation were: Meir, Judah b. 
lai, Jose b. [lalafta, Simeon b. Yohai, Eleazar b. 
Shammua, Johanan ha-Sandalar, Eleazar b. Jacob, 
Nehemiah, Joshua b. Karha, and the above-men- 
tioned Simeon b. Gamaliel. 

Fifth Generation (165-200): Principal tan- 
naim: Nathan ha-Babli, Symmachus, Judah _ ha- 
Nasi I., Jose b. Judah, Eleazar b. Simeon, Simeon 
b. Eleazar. 

Sixth Generation (200-220): To this gener- 
ation belong the contemporaries and disciples of 
Judah ha-Nasi. They are mentioned in the Tosefta 
and the Baraita but not in the Mishnah. Their 
names are: Polemo, Issi b. Judah, Eleazar b. Jose, 
Ishmael b. Jose, Judah b. Lakish, Hiyya, Aha, 
Abba (Arika). These teachers are termed “semi- 
tannaim”; and therefore some scholars count only 
five generations of tannaim. Christian scholars, 
moreover, count only four generations, reckoning 
the second and third as one (Strack, “ Einleitung in 
den Talmud,” pp. 77 et seq.). 

For the term “amora” and a listof the generations 
of amoraim, see AMORA. 


Ww. B. dx: Ay Ts 


The following list enumerates all the zekenim ha- 
rishonim, tannaim, and amoraim mentioned in the 
Talmudic-Midrashic literature, those who are well 
known and frequently mentioned as well as those 
whose names occur once only in the Mishnah and 
Tosefta or in the Talmud and Midrash. To this 
pretannaitic period belong the so-called “ pairs” 
(“zugot”) of teachers: Simeon the Just and An- 
tigonus of Soko; Jose ben Joezer and Jose ben 
Johanan; Joshua ben Perahyah and Nittai of Ar- 
bela; Judah ben Tabbai and Simeon ben Shetah; 
Shemaiah and Abtalion; Hillel and Shammai. 

Stars indicate that separate articles appear under 
the names so marked, 


List of TANNAIM. 


Abba Kohen of Bardala 
*Abba Saul 
*Abba Saul b. Batnit 
Abba Yudan of Sidon 
*Absalom the Elder 


Abba Benjamin 
*Abba Doresh 
Abba Eleazar b. Dula‘i 
Abba Eleazar b. Gamaliel 
*Abba Gorion of Sidon 


*Abba Hanin ¥*A btalion 
*Abba Jose b. Dosetai Abtolemus 
*Abba Jose b. Hanin Abtolos 
*Abba Jose of Mahoza Admon 
Abba Jose Torti *Aha I, 


Abba Joseph the Horonite Abai b. Josiah 


Tannaim and Amoraim 


**Akabya b. Mahalaleel 
*Akiba b. Joseph 
*Antigonus of Soko 

Antoninus 

Azariah 
*Baba ben Buta 

Baitos b. Zonin 
*Bar Kappara 
*Ben Bag-Bag 

Ben Bukri 

Ben Paturi 

Benaiah 
*Benjamin (an Egyptian pros- 

elyte) 

Dosa 

Dosa b. Harkinas 
*Dosetai 
*Dosetai b. Judah 
*Dosetai of Kefar Yatm1 
*Dosetai b. Yannai 
+*Bleazar ben Ahwai 
*Eleazar ben ‘Arak 
*Eleazar b. Azariah 
*Eleazar ben Dama 

Eleazar ben Hananiah ben 

Hezekiah 

Eleazar b. Harsom 
*Eleazar b. Hisma 
*Eleazar b. Jacob 
*Eleazar b, Jose 
*Eleazar b. Judah of Bartota 

Eleazar b. Judah of Kefar 

Obelim 
*Eleazar ha-Kappar 
*Fleazar b. Mattai 
*Eleazar of Modi‘im 
*Eleazar ben Perata [. 
*Eleazar ben Perata IT. 

Eleazar b. Phinehas 

Eleazar b. Pilai (or Piabi) 
*Eleazar b. Shammua 
*Eleazar b. Simeon 

Eleazar b, Yannai 
*¥liezer ben Hyrcanus 
*Kliezer b. Isaac 
*Eliezer b. Jacob (1st cent.) 
*Eliezer b, Jose ha-Gelili 

Eliezer b. Judah (contempo- 

rary of Judah I.) 
*Eliezer b. Taddai 
*¥liezer b, Zadok, I. 
*Eliezer b. Zadok, IT. 
*Flisha ben Abuyah 
*Ephraim Maksha’ah 
*Eurydemus ben Jose 
*Gamaliel I. 

*Gamaliel II. (of Jabneh) 
*Gamaliel ITI. (b. Judah I.) 
*Halafta 

Halafta b. Hagra 

Halafta b. Jose 
*Halafta b. Karuya 
*Halafta of Kefar Hananiah 
*Hanan, Abba 
*Hanan the Egyptian 

Hanan b. Menahem 
*Hananiah (nephew of R. 

Joshua) 

Hananiah b. ‘Adai 
*Hananiah b. ‘Akabya 
*Hananiah b. ‘Akashyah 
*Hananiah b. Hakinai 

Hananiah b. Hezekiah b. Ga- 

ron 

Hananiah b. Jose ha-Gelili 
*Hananiah b. Judah 
*Hananiah of Ono 
*Hananiah (Hanina) b. Tera- 

dion 

Hananiah of Tibe‘im 
*Hanina 
*Hanina b. Adda 
*Hanina b, Antigonus 
*Hanina b. Dosa 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


eg 


*Hanina b. Gamaliet II. 
Hanina Segan ha-Kohanim 
Hezekiah Abi ‘Ikkesh 

*Hidka 

*Hillel 

*Hiyya bar Abba (Rabbah) 
Hiyya b. Eleazar ha-Kappar 
Hiyya b. Nahmani 
Huzpit the Meturgeman 
Iai 
Isaac 
Ishmael b. Eleazar b. Azariah 

*Ishmael b. Elisha 

*Ishmael b. Johanan b. Baroka 

*Ishmael b. Jose b. Halafta 

*Jacob of Kefar Hittaya 

*Jacob b. Korshai (R. Jacob) 
Jaddua (Babylonian pupil of 

* Jeremiah [R. Meir) 
Jeshebab 

*Johanan b. Baroka 
Johanan b. Dahabai 

*Johanan b. Gudgada 

*Johanan ben ha-Horanit 
Johanan b. Joseph 
Johanan ben Joshua 
Johanan b. Josiah 
Johanan b. Matthias 

*Johanan b. Nuri 

*Jobanan ha-Sandalar 

*Johanan b. Torta 

*Johanan ben Zakkai 
Jonathan b. Abtolemus 
Jonathan b. Bathyra 
Jonathan b. Joseph 
Jonathan b. Meshullam 

*Jonathan ben Uzziel 
Jose (son of the Damascene) 

*Jose b. ‘Akabya 
Jose b. ASsi 
Jose b. Eleazar 
Jose b. Eliakim 
Jose b. Elisha 

*Jose ha-Gelili 
Jose b. Gilai 
Jose b. Gurya 

*Jose b. Halafta 
Jose b. Hanina 
Jose ha-Horam 

*Jose ben Joezer 

*Jose ben Johanan 
Jose ben Josiah 

*Juse (Ise) ben Judah 
Jose b. Kazrata 
Jose b. Kippor 
Jose b. Kisma 

*Jose ha-Kohen 
Jose b. Menahem 
Jose b. Meshullam 
Jose of Modi‘im 
Jose b. Petros 
Jose b. Shammai 
Jose b. Yasyan 
Jose b. Zimra 
Joshua b. Akiba 
Joshua b. Bathyra 
Joshua ha-Garsi 

*Joshua b. Hananiah 
Joshua b. Hyrcanus 
Joshua b. Jonathan 
Joshua b. Kaposai 

*Joshua b. Karha 
Joshua b. Mamal 
Joshua b. Matthias 

*Joshua b. Perahyah 
Joshua b. Ziruz 

* Josiah 

*Judahb I. (ha-Nasi) 

Judah b. Agra 

*Judah b. Baba 

*Judah b. Bathyra 
Judah b. Dama 
Judah b. Doroteus 
Judah b. Gadish 


Judah b. Gamaliel 
Judah b. Gerim 
Judah b. Hananiah 
*Judah ben Ilai 
Judah b. Jair 
Judah b. Johanan b. ZakKai 
Judah b. Jose 
Judah ha-Kohen 
*Judah ben Lakish 
Judah b. Nakosa 
Judah b. Nehemiah 
Judah b. Ro‘ez 
Judah b. Shammua 
Judah b. Simeon 
Judah b. Tabbai 
Judah b. Temah 
Levi ha-Saddar 
*Levi h. Sisi 
Levitas of Jabneh 
*Mattithiah b. Heresh 
Mattithiah b. Samuel 
*Me’asha 
*Meir 
Menahem of Galya 
Menahem bh. Jose 
Menahem b. Nappaha 
Menahem b. Sagnai 
Mona 
MonobazZ 
*Nahum of Gimzo 
Nahum ha-Lablar 
*Nahum the Mede 
*Nathan 
Nehemiah 
Nehemiah of Bet Deli 
Nehorai 
Nehunya b. Elinathan 
Nehunya b. Gudgada 
*Nehunya ben ha-Kanah 
+Nittai of Arbela 
*Onias ha-Me‘aggel 
*Onkelos 
Pappias 
*Pappos b. Judah 
Perida 
*Phinehas ben Jair 
Polemo 
*Reuben ben Strobilus 


J. 


50 


Samuel the Younger 
Shammai 
Shela 
Shemaiah 
Simai 
Simeon 
riah) 
*Simeon b. ‘Akashyah 
Simeon b. Akiba 
Simeon b. Azzai 
Simeon b. Bathyra 
*Simeon b. Eleazar 
Simeon b. Gamaliel I. 
Simeon b. Gamaliel IT. 
Simeon b. Gudda 
Simeon b. Halafta 
*Simeon b. Hanina 
Simeon he-Hasid 
Simeon b. Hillel 
*Simeon b. Jenozadak 
*Simeon b. Jose b. Lekonya 
*Simeon b. Judah of Kefar 
‘TKos 
*Simeon b. Judah ha-Nasi I. 
Simeon the Just 
Simeon b. Kahana 
*Simeon of Kitron 
*Simeon b. Menasya 
*Simeon of Mizpah 
*Simeon ben Nanos 
*Simeon b. Nethaneel 
*Simeon ha-Pakoli 
*Simeon ben ha-Segan 
*Simeon ben Shetah 
*Simeon Shezuri 
*Simeon of Shikmona 
*Simeon b. Tarfon 
*Simeon of Teman 
*Simeon b. Yohai 
Simeon b. Zoma 
*Symmachus 
*Tarfon {Rome 
*Theodosius (Theudas) of 
*Yannai 
Zachariah b. AbkKulas 
Zachariah b. Kabutal 
Zachariah b. ha-Kazzab 
*Zakkai 
J. Z. L. 


(brother of AZa& 


List oF AMORAIM. 


{Babylonian and Palestinian amoraim are distinguished re- 
spectively by the initials B and P in parentheses: the figures 
indicate the centuries to whieh they belonged. For amoraim 
whose names are preceded by the dagger-sign, see also JEW. 


ENCYC, s.V. YIZHAK.] 


*Aaron (B) 
Aaron (B) [P) 
Abba (father of Abba Mari; 
Abba (father of Hiyya; B) 
*Abba bar Abba (B) 
Abba b, Abimai (B) 
*Abba b, Abina (P) 
*Abba of Acre (P) 
Abba b. Aha (P) 
Abba Arika (B) 
Abba of Bira (P) 
*Abba b. Bizna (P) 
Abba of Ceesarea (P) 
*Abba of Carthage (P) 
Abba b. Eliashib (P) 
Abba b. Hamnuna (P) 
Abba bar Hana (P and B) 
Abba Hanan (B) 
Abba b. Hanina 
Abba b.. Hilefai (P) 
*Abba b. Hiyya (P) 
Abba b. Huna (B) 
Abba b. Huna (P) 
Abba b. lai (P) 
Abba b. Isa (P) 
Abba b. Isaae (P) 
Abba b. Jacob (B) 
Abba b. Jacob (P) 


*Abba bar Jeremiah (B) 
Abba b. Jonah (P) 
Abba b. Joseph (B) 
Abba b. Judah (P) 
Abba b. Kahana (P) 
Abba b. Levi (B) 

Abba b. Lima 

Abba b. Mar Papa (B) 

Abba Mari (B) 

Abba Mari (P) 

Abba Mari (P) 

Abba Mari (brother of Jo 
se; P) 

Abba b. Mari (?) 

*Abba bar Memel (P) 
Abba b. Mina (P) 
Abba b. Nahman (B) 
Abba of Narsoh 
Abba b. Nathan (P) 
Abba bar Papa (P) 

*Abba b. Pappai (P) 
Abba b. Safra (P) 

Abba b. Samuel Rabbah 
Abba b. Shila 

Abba b. Tahlifa (P) 
Abba Umana (B) 

Abba b. Zabda (B) 

*Abba b. Zabdai (P) 


51 


Abba b. Ze‘era (P) 

Abba Zuti 

Abba b. Zutra (P) 

Abbahu (P) 

Abbahu (father of Samuel) 

Abbahu b. Aha (P) 

Abbabu b. Bebi (B) 

Abbahu b. Ehi (B) 

Abbahu b. Geniba (B) 

Abbabu b. Zutarti (B) 

Abbai (called Nahmani; B) 

Abbai b. Abbin (B) 

Abbai b. Benjamin (P) 

Abbai the Elder (B) 

Abdima b. Hama (B) 
*abdima b. Hamdure (P) 

Abdima b. Hisda (B) 

Abdima b. Nehunya (P) 
*Abdima of Sepphoris (P) 

Abdimi (brother of Jose) 

Abdimi (father of Isaac) 
*abdimi of Haifa 
*A biathar 
*abimi (B) 

*Abimi b. Abbahu (P) 

Abimi the Colleague 
*Abimi of Hagrunya 

Abimi the Nabatzean 

Abimi b. Papi (B) 

Abimi b. Tobi (P) 

Abin (the pupil of Johanan) 
*Abin (Rabin) b. Abba (P) 
*Abin ben Adda (B) 

Abin b. Bisna (P) 

Abin b. Hinana (B) 
*Abin b. Hiyya (P) 

Abin b. Huna (B) 

*Abin b. Kahana (P) 

Abin ha-Levi (P) 

Abin Naggara 

Abin b. Nahman (B) 

Abin of Nashikiya 

Abin the Old 
*Abin b. Rab Hisda (P) 

Abin b. Samuel 

Abin of Sepphoris 
#Abin b. Tanhum (P) 

Abina I. (P) 

Abina IT. (B) 

Abina III. (B) 

Abram cf Huza (B) 

Abudemi (grandson of To- 

bi; P) 

Abudemi b. Tanhum (P) 

Abudemi b. Tobi (P) 
*Adda b. Abimi (P) 

Adda b. Abin (B) 

Adda b. Aha (B) 

*Adda b. Ahabah (B) 

Adda of Be Zeiuhit 
*Adda of Ceesarea 

Adda b. Isaac (B) 

Adda of Jaffa 

Adda Karhina 
*Adda b. Matnah (B) 
*Adda b. Minyomi (B) 

Adda of Naresh 

Adda b. Papa (B) 

' Adda b. Simi (B)- 

*Adda b. Simeon (P) 

Adda of Sura 

Afes (Efes) (P; 1) 

Aggara or Agra (B) 

Aha (brother of R. Jose) 

Aha b, Abba (B) 

Aba b. R. Abba (B) 

Aha b. Abba b. Aha (B) 

Aha b. Abbai (B) 

Aha b. Abin (P) 

*aha b. Adda (B) 

Aha b. Aha (B) 

Aha b. Ahaba (P) 

Aha b. Ami (B) 

Aha b. Ashi (B) 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
a a 


Aha b. Awira (B) 
*Aha b. AWya (B) 

Aha b. Azza (B) 

*Aha Bardala 
Aha of Be Husa 
Aha b. Bebi (B) 

Aha b. Bizna (P) 

Aha of Carthage 

Aha of Carthage (P) 
*Aha of Difti 

Aha of Galilee 
*Aha b. Haniva (P) 

Aha b. Haya (B) 

Aha b. Hoshaiah (P) 
*Aha b. Huna (B) 

Aha of Huzal 
*Aha b. lka (B) 

*Aha b. Isaac (P) 

*Aha b. Jacob (B) 

Aha b. Jose (P) 

*Aha b. Joseph (B) 
Aha b. Kattina (B) 
Aha the Long (B) 

*Aha b. Minyomi (B) 
Aha b. Nahman (B) 
Aha b. Papa 
Aha b. Phinehas (B) 
Aha of Porsika 
Aha b. Rabbina (B) 
Aha Saba 
Aha Sar ha-Birah 

*Aha b. Shila (P) 

*Aha b. Tablifa (B) 

+aha b. ‘Ula (B) 

Aha b. Yeba 

Ahabah b. Ze‘era (P) 
*Ahadboi (B) 

*Ahadboi b. Ammi (B) 
Ahadboi b. Matnah 
Ahilai (B) 

Aibu (name of several Pal- 

estinian amoraim) — 

Alexa (P) 

Alexandra b. Haga (P) 
*Alexandri (P) 
*Alexandri (P) 
*Amemar I. 

*Amemar b. Mar Yanuka (B) 
Ammi (P) 

Ammi (father of Samuel) 

Ammi b. Abba (B) 

Ammi b. Abin (B) 

Ammi b. Ada (B) 

Ammi b. Aha (B) 

Ammi the Babylonian 

Ammi b. Karha (P) 

Ammi b. Matnah (B) 

Ammi b. Nathan (B) 

Ammi b, Tobi 

Ammi of Wadina (P3; 8) 
*Amram R. (B; 3) 
*Amram Hasida (B) 

Anan b. Hiyya (B) 

Anan b. Joseph (P) 

Anan b. Tahlifa (B; 2) 
*‘Anani b. Sason (P; 3) 

Armania (P; 1) 

*Ashi (B; 6) 

Ashi b. Abin (B; 4) 

Ashi of Awira? (6) 

Ashi of Huzal (B; 4) 

Ashi the Old (B; 1) 
*Ashyan bar Jakim (P3; 4) 
*Ashyan Nagrara 
*Ashyan b. Nidbak (P) 
* Assi I. (B) 

* Assi IT. (P) 

Assi of Nehor Bal (B) 
*Awia Saba 
*Awira (B; 3) 

Babahu (B) 

Bali (B; 4) 

Banna’ah or Bannayah (P; 

1) 


Banna’ah b. ‘Ula (B3 4) 
Baruka of Huza (B; 5) 
Baruna (B: 2) 

Batha (B and P; 3) 

Beba b. Abba (P; 3) 
*Bebai b. Abaye (B; 5) 
*Bebai b. Abba (P) 

Bebai b. Ashi (B; 6) 

Bebai b. Mesharshiya (P; 5) 
*Benjamin b. ‘Ashtor (P; 3) 
*Benjamin b. Giddel (P; 4) 

Benjamin Hiyya (B) 
*Benjamin b. Japhet (P; 3) 
*Benjamin b. Levi (P; 3) 

Beotes (P; 3) 

Berechiah (P ; 5) 
*Berechiah (P; 2) 

Berechiah ». Abba (P) 

Berechiah b. Hamma 

Berechiah ben Helbo (P; 4) 

Berechiah b. Judah (P) 

Berechiah Saba 

Berechiah b. Simeon (P3; 2) 

Berim (P; 2) 

Berna or Bera (B; 4) 

Bisa or Bisna (P; 1) 
*Bisna (P; 4) 

Bisna b. Zabda (P) 

Budia (B; 6) 

Burakai (P: 5) 

*Daniel, Hayyata (P) 
*Daniel b. Kattina (B) 

Dari b. Papa (B) 

*Dimi (brother of Rab Safra ; 
B; 4) 

Dimi b. Abba (B) 

Dimi b. Abui 
*Dimi b. Hinena (B; 5) 
*Dimi b. Huna of Damharia 

(B; 6) 
*Dimi b. Isaac (B; 4) 
*Dimi b. Joseph (B; 3) 
*Dimi b. Levai (B; 4) 

Dimi b. Nahman (B; 5) 
*Dimi of Nehardea (B) 

Dimi b. Sheshna 

Dosetai. (father of Aftoriki) 

Dosetai of Beri 

Dosetai b. Maton 

Elai b. Berechiah (P) 

Elai b. Eliezer (B; 2) 
*Eleazar b. Abina (P) 

Eleazar b. Antigonus (P; 2) 

Eleazar of Basra (P) 
*Eleazar of Hagrunya (B; 4) 

Eleazar b. Hagya 

Eleazar b. Hanina (P) 
*Eleazar b. Jose I. (P; 5). 
*Kleazar b. Malai (P; 3) 

Eleazar b. Maram (Miriam or 

Maron ?) (P; 4) 

Eleazar b. Marinus (P) 
*Fleazar b. Menahem (P;; 8). 

Eleazar the Nabatsean 

Eleazar of Nineveh (B; 3) 
*BFleazar b. Pedat (P; 3) 

Eleazar of the South (P; 5) 

Eleazar b. Yannai (P; 2) 

Eleazar Ze‘era (the little) 

Eliakim (B; 5) 

Eliehoenai (P) 

Ezekiel 

Gadda (B; 4) 

Gamaliel b. Elai (P; 4) 

Gamaliel b. Hanina (P ; 4) 

Gamaliel Zoga (P 3; 2) 

Gamda 
*Gebiha of Argizah (B; 5) 
*Gebiha of Be Katil (B3 5) 

Gedaliah 

Geniba (B; 1) 

Gershom (P; 5) 

Gidal or Giddul (B; 2) 

Gida] b. Minyomi 


Tannaim and Amoraim 


Gidal of Naresh 

Giddul b. Benjamin (P; 2) 

Giddul b. Menaschi (B; 5) 

Giora (proselyte) 

Gorion (P3; 2) 

Gorion of Asparak (B; 3) 

Gorion b. Astion (B) 

Habiba (B: 1) 

Habiba of Huza (B; 6) 

Habiba b. Joseph (B; 4) 

Habiba of Sora (B; 6) 

Habiba b. Surmaki (B and 
P; 4) 

Hagga (B; 4?), contempo- 

rary of R. Nahman 

Hagga (pupil of R. Huna; 

B; 4) 

Hagga of Sepphoris (P; 2) 
Haggai (P; 3) 

Haggai Kusmai (?) 
Haggai of the South (P3; ?) 
Hagra (Haggaria; P; 2) 
Halafta of Caesarea (P) 

*Halafta of Huna (P ; 1) 

*Halafta Karoya (the Bible 

reader) 

Halafta of Radfa (P; 2) 
Halfa b. Idi (P) 

Hama (grandfather of Raba) 
Hama b, Adda 
Hama b. Ashi (P) 

*Haina b. Bisa (P) 

Hama b. Buzi (B; 5) 
Hama b. Gurya (B; 3) 

*Hama b. Hanina (P; 2) 
Hama b. Joseph (P; 2) 
Hama b. Mari 
Hama of Nehardea (B; 5) 
Hama b. Osha‘ya (P; 2) 
Hama b, Papa (P; 5) 
Hama b. Rabbah (P; 4) 
Hama b. Tobia (B; 6) 
Hama b. ‘UKba (P; 3) 
Hamnuna (B; 2) 

*Hamnuna I. (B; 3) 

*Hamnuna II. (B; 3, 4) 
Hamnuna b. Ada b. Ahabah 

(B; 6) 
Hamuuna of Babylonia 
Hamnuna b. Joseph (B; 4) 
Hamnuna b. Rabbah of Pash- 
ronia (B) 

*Hampuna Zuta 
Hana b. Adda 
Hana b. Aha 
Hana of Bagdad 

*Hana b. Bizna 
Hana of Carthage 

*Hana b. Hanilai 
Hana b. Hinena 
Hana b. Judah 
Hana b. Kattina 
Hana of Kefar Tehumim 
Hana b. Lewai 
Hana .Sha’onah 
Hanan b. Abba (B; 2) 
Hanan b. Ammi 
Hanan of Be Zelubit 
Hanan Hayvata 
Hanan b. Hisda (B; 4) 
Hanan of Nehardea (B; 2) 
Hanan b. Rabbah (B; 2) 
Hanan b. Tahlifa (B 3; 4) 
Hanan b. Zabdi (P; 1) 
Hanana (B; 3) 

*Hananeel (B: 2) 
Hananeel b. Papa (B) 
Hananiah (B) 

Hananiah (B; 4) 
Hananiah (B) 

*Hananiah (P; 3, 4) 
Hananiah b. Aibu (P) 
Hapilai of Huza 
Hanilai b. Idi 


Tannaim and Amoraim 


Hanina (B; 6) 
*Hanina b. Abbahu (P; 4) 
Hanina b. Abdimi (B) 
*Hanina b. ‘Agul (P; 3) 
Hanina of Akra 
Hanina of Anat 
Hanina b. Andrai (P) 
Hanina b. Atal 
Hanina b. Bebai (B; 5) 
*Hanina b. Hama (P; 1) 
Hanina b. Hillel (P) 
Hanina b. Hiyya (B; 3) 
Hanina of Huza 
*Hanina b. Ika 
Hanina b. Isi (P; 3) 
Hanina b. Joseph (P; 1) 
Hanina Kara (the Bible 
reader} 
*Hanina Katoba (the writer) 
*Hanina b. Papa (B) 
*Hanina b. Pazi (P) 
Hanina b. Samson (P) 
Hanina b. Samuel (P ; 2) 
Hanina Sholka (the cook) 
Hanina b. Sisi (P; 1) 
*Hanina of Sura 
Hanina of Sura near the Eu- 
phrates 
Hanina b. Tiba 
Hanina of Tirta or Tarna 
*Hanina b. Torta 
Hanina b. Uri 
*Hasa 
Henak 
Hezekiah (B) 
Hezekiah (P) 
Hezekiah Akkaya 
Hezekiah b. Hiyya 
Hezekiah of Hukuk 
Hilfa (P; 2) 
Hilfa (grandson of Abba- 
hu: 4) 
Hilkiah (father of Minja- 
min; B) 
Hilkiah b. Awia (B) 
Hilkiah of Hagrunya (B) 
Hilkiah b. Tobia (B; 3) 
Hilkiah of the South (B) 
Hillel (P; 3) 
Hillel (B; 6) 
Hillel (son-in-law of Jose; 
P; 6) 
*Hillel b. Berechiah (P) 
Hillel b. Helena (P) 
Hillel of Kifra (P; 5) 
Hillel b. Pazi (P; 4) 
Hillel b. Samuel b. Nahman 
(P; 4) 
Hillel b. Vales (Valens; P ; 3) 
Hinena (father of Yanta) 
Hinena b. Abin 
Hinena b. Assi 
Hinena b. Kahana (B; 8) 
Hinena b. Rabbah (B; 4) 
Hinena b. Shelamya (B; 2) 
Hinena b. Shila (B; 1) 
Hinena of Wardan 
*Hisda (B; 3) 
Hisda b. Abdami 
Hisda b. Joseph (B; 4) 
Hiyya 
Hiyya (P and B; 4) 
Hiyya b. Abba (B and P; 3) 
Hiyya b. Abbahu (B) 
Hiyya b, Abbui (B; 4) 
*Hiyya b. Adda (P) 
Hiyya b. Adda (P; 5) 
Hiyya b. Adda of Joppa (P) 
’ Hiyya b. Ammi (B; 4) 
Hiyya b. Amram (B) 
Hiyya Arika (the tal] one) 
Hiyya b. Ashi (B; 2) 
Hiyya b. Assi (B) 
Hiyya b. Awia (B; 3) 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Hiyya of Ctesiphon (B; 3) 

Hiyya of Difta (B; 3) 
*Hiyya b. Gammada (P) 

Hiyya b. Garya (B) 

Hiyya of Hagra (B;: 3) 

Hiyya b. Hanina (B) 

Hiyya b. Huna (B; 5) 

Hiyya of Hurmis (B; 4) 

Hiyya b. Isaac (P) 

Hiyya b. Isaac (P3 5) 

Hiyya b. Jacob (P) 

Hiyya b. Joseph (B and P; 2) 

Hiyya b. Joshua? (B; 4) 

Hiyya b. Judah 

Hiyya b. Judah (B; 3) 
*Hiyya Kara (the Bible reader) 

Hiyya of Kefar Tebumin 

(P; 4) 

Hiyya b. Lulianos (P; 5) 

Hiyya b. Luliba (P: 4) 

Hiyya b. Matnah (B; 3) 
*Hiyya b. Moria (P 3; 5) 

Hiyya b. Nahman (P ; 3) 

Hiyya b. Nathan (B; 4) 

Hiyya b. Papa (P; 3) 

Hiyya of Parwada (B; 3) 

Hiyya b. Rab (B; 2) 

Hiyya b. Rabbah (B; 4) 

Hiyya b. Shabbethai (P; 4) 
Hiyya b. Tanhum (P; 4) 

Hiyya b. Tiba 

Hiyya b. Titus (P; 4) 

Hiyya b. ‘Ukba (P) 

Hiyya b. Yannai (P) 

Hiyya b. Zarnaki (P; 2) 
*Huna (B) 

Huna b. Abin (B; 5) 

Huna b. Aha 

Huna b. Ashi (B; 2) 

Huna b. Berechiah 

Huna of Damharia 

Huna of Diskarta 

Huna b. Geniba 

Huna b. Halob (B3 4) 
*Huna b. Hanina (B; 4) 

Huna of Hauran 

Huna b. Hillel (P) 

Huna b. Hiwan (B; 6) 

Huna b. Hiyya (B) 

Huna b. Ida (B; 8) 

Huna b. Ika (B; 6) 

Huna b. Tai 

Huna b. Jeremiah (B:; 5) 
*Huna b. Joshua (B; 5) 
Huna b. Judah (B; 4) 
Huna b. Kattina (B; 38) 

Huna b. Lewai (B) 

Huna b. Manoah (B; 5) 

Huna Mar b. Awia (B; 5) 

Huna b. Maremor (B; 6) 

Huna b. Matnah (B; 4) 

Huna b. Minyomi (B; 3) 
Huna b. Moses (B; 4) 

Huna b. Nahman (B; 4) 
*Huna b. Nathan (B: 7) 

Huna b. Nehemiah (B; 8) 

Huna b. Papi 

Huna b. Phinehas (B) 

Huna of Porsica 

Huna b. Rabbah (B; 6) 

Huna b. Sahhora (B; 4) 

Huna of Sepphoris 

Huna of Sura 

Huna b. Tahlifa (B; 5) 

Huna b. Torta 

Huna b. Zuti (B; 6) 

Hunya Jacob of Apretaim 

Ishmael (father of Judah; 

P; 3) 

Ishmael b. Abba (P; 2) 

Ishmael b. Jacob (P) 

Ishmael b. Kathriel (P; 1) 

Ishmael of Kefar Yama (P; 3) 

Isaac (B; 6) 


Isaac (father of Samuel) 
Isaac b. Abba (B; 2 
Isaac b. Abba (B;: 4) 
Isaac b. Abdimi I. (P; 1) 
Isaac b. Abdimi IT. (B; 3) 
Isaac b. Abin 
+Isaac b. Adda (B) 
Isaac b, Aha (B) 
Isaac b. Ammi (P) 
Isaac b. Ainmi (B; 4) 
Isaac b. Ashi (B, 2) 
Isaac b. Ashya (B; 5) 
tIsaac ha-Babli 
Isaac Berrabi 
Isaac b. Bisna (B; 2) 
+Isaac of Carthage 
Isaac Dibaha 
Isaac b. Elai 
Isaac b. Eliashib (P3; 4) 
+Isaac b. Eleuzar (P3 4) 
Isaac of Gufta 
tIsaac b. Hakola 
Isaac b. Halub (B; 3) 
Isaac b. Hanina (B; 3) 
tIsaac b. Hiyya (P; 2) 
Isaac b. Jacob 
Isaac b. Jonathan (P; 4) 
Isaac b. Joseph (P; 2 and 3) 
Isaac b. Judah (B; 3) 
Isaac b. Kappara (P) 
Isaac Kaskasa 
Isaac of Kefar ‘Itos 
Isaac Krispa 
Isaac b. Levi 
tisaac of Magdala 
+Isaac b. Marion (P3; 3) 
Isaac b. Menahem (P) 
Isaac b. Mesharshiya (B, P; 6) 
Isaac b. Nahmani (P; 3) 
Isaac b. Naphtali (B: 6) 
¢Isaac Nappaha (the smith) 
Isaac b. Ostiya (P) 
+Isaac b. Parnak 
Isaac Paska 
tIsaac b. Phinehas (B and P; 8) 
Isaac b. Rabbah b. bar Hana 
(B; 4) 
tisaac b. Redifa (P: 4) 
Isaac b. Samuel (B; 2) 
Isaac b. Shila (B) 
Isaac b. Simeon (P) 
+Isaac b. Tabla (P; 4) 
Isaac b. Teradion 
+Isaac b. Ze‘era or Sita (P; 4) 
Jabez (Jacob) 
Jacob (grandson of Aha b. 
Jacob (grandson of Samuel) 
*Jacob b. Abba I. 
*Jacob b. Abha II. 
*Jacob b. Abbuha 
*Jacod b. Abina 
Jacob b. Adda 
Jacob b. Adda b. Athaliah 
Jacob of Adiabene 
*Jacobd b. Aha (B; 3) 
Jacob b. Aha (P) 
*Jacob b. Aba (P; 4) 
Jacob b. Aha b. Idi 
Jacob b. Ammi 
Jacob of Armenia 
Jacob b. Dosai 
Jacob of Emaus 
Jacob of Gebula 
Jacob b. Hama {tus) 
Jacob b. Hapiliti (Hippoly- 
Jacob b. Hisda 
Jacob b. Idi 
Jacob b. Idi b. Oshaya 
Jacob b. Ise (Jose) 
*Jacob of Kefar Hanin 
Jacob of Neboria 
Jacob of Nehar-Pekod 
Jacob of Rumania 
Jacob b. Sisai 


52 


Jacob of the South 
Jacob b. Tahlifa 
Jacob b. Yannai 
Jacob b. Yohai 
* Jacob b. Zabdai 
Jehiel 
Jeremiah (B; 6) 
Jeremiah (B and P; 2) 
*Jeremiah b. Abba (B; 3) 
Jeremiah b. Aha (B) 
*Jeremiah of Difte 
Jeremiah of Gufta 
Jeremiah Rabba (the great} 
Jeremiah Safra (the scribe) 
Jeremiah of Shebshab 
Jeremiah of the South 
Jeremiah b. Tahlifa (B) 
Jobanan (son of the smith) 
Jobanan (brother of Safra; B) 
Jobanan Antonarta 
Johanan b. Kassarta 
Johanan of Mahuka (P; 1) 
*Johanan b. Meriya (P; 3) 
*Johanan b. Nappaha 
Johanan b. Rabbina (B; 5) 
Johanan Safra of Gufta 
Johanan b. Shila (P) 
Johani (B; 1) 
*Jonah (P; 4) 
Jonah of Bosra (P; 5) 
Jonah b. Tahlifa (B; 4) 
Jonathan (P; 1) 
Jonathan b. ‘Akmai (P; 3) 
Jonathan b. Amram (P; 1) 
*Jonathan of Bet Gubrin (P) 
Jonathan b. Eliezer 
Jonathan b. Haggai (P) 
Jonathan b. Hila (P) 
Jonathan b. Isaac b. Ahor (P) 
Jonathan Kefa (P; 4) 
Jose b. Abba or Abai 
*Jose b. Abin 
dose b, Ashyan 
Jose b. Bebai 
Jose of Ceesarea 
Jose b. Elai 
Jose b, Eliakim 
Jose the Galilean (amora) 
Jose b. Gezira 
Jose b. Hananiah 
Jose b. Hanina 
Jose of Kefar Dan 
Jose of Kefar Gufta 
Jose Kuzira 
*Jose b. Jacob 
Jose b. Jason 
Jose b. Jose 
Jose b, Joshua 
*Jose b. Kazrata 
*Jose of Malahaya 
Jose the Mede 
Jose b. Menashya 
Jose of Nahar Bul 
Jose b. Nathan 
*Jose b. Nehorai 
Jose of Oni 
Jose b. Pazi 
Jose b, Petros 
Jose Resha 
Jose b. Saul 
Jose of the South 
Jose b. Tanhum 
Jose of Yodkarat 
Jose of Zaitur 
Jose b. Zebida 
Jose b. Zemina 
Jose b. Zimra 
Joseph b. Abba 
Joseph b. Ammi 
Joseph b. Habu 
Joseph b. Hama 
Joseph b. Hanin 
Joseph b. Hiyya 
*Joseph b. Joshua b. Levi 


53 


— i 
*Raba b. Joseph b. Hama 


Joseph b. Menasya of Dewil 
Joseph b. Minyom! 
Joseph b. Nehunya 
Joseph b. Ravba 

Joseph b. Salla 

Joseph b. Samuel 
Joseph b. Shemaiah 
Joseph of Sidon 

Joshua (brother of Dorai: P) 
Joshua b. Abba 
#}oshua b. Abin (P) 
Joshua b. Benjamin 
Joshua b. Beri (P) 
Joshua b. Boethus 
Joshua of Gizora (P; 4) 
Joshua b. Idi 
*Joshua (ha-Kohen) b. Nehe- 

miah (P) 

*Joshua b. Levi 

Joshua b. Levi b. Shalum 
Joshua b. Marta (B; 1) 
Joshua b. Nahman 
*Joshua b, Nehemiah 
Joshua of Ona (P) 
Joshua b. Pedaya 
*Joshua of Shiknin 
Joshua of the South 
Joshua b. Tanhum 
Joshua b. Timi (P) 
Joshua of “Uzza 

Joshua b. Zidal (P; 1) 
Josiah 

Josiah of Huzal 

Josiah of Usha [sida) 
Judah (brother of Sola Ha- 
Judah b. Ahitai 

Judah b. Aibu 

+Judah b. AMmi 

Judah b. Ashi 

Judah b. Ashtita 

Judah b. Astira 

Judah b. Bisna 

Judah b. Buni 

Judah of Difte 

Judah of Diskarta 
*Judah b. Ezekiel 

Judah of Gallia 

Judah b. Gamda 

Judah b. Habiba 

Judah of Hagrunya 
Judah b. Hama 

Judah b. Hanina 

Judah b. Hiyya 

Judab b. Huna 

Judah b, Idi 

Judah b. Isaac 

Judah b. Ishmael 

Judah b. Joshua 

Judah Klaustra 

Judah b. Levi 

Judah b. Menashya, 
Judah b. Meremar 
Judah Mosparta 

Judah b. Nahmani 
Judah b, Oshaya 

Judah b. Pazi 

Judah b. Pedafah 

Judah b. Samuel 

Judah b. Shalum 

Judah b. Shila 

*Judah b. Simeon 

Judah b. Simeon b. Pazi 
Judah of Soporta 

Judah b. Titos 

Judah b. Zabda 

Judah b. Zebina 

Judah b. Zeruya 

ee Habra (the Colleague: 


Justa b, Judab ( P) 


Justa of Shunem (P ; 5and 6) 


Justa b. Simeon (P; 4) 
Justina (P; 3) 
Kadi 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Kahana (B) 

Kahana (B and P) 

Kahana (brother of Judah) 

Kahana (father-in-law of Me- 
sharshiya) 

Kahana b. Hanina 

Kahana b. Jeremiah 

Kahana b. Malkai 

Kahana b. Malkiya 

kahana b. Nathan 

Kahana b. Nehemiah 


*Kahana b. Tahlifa 


Karna 


*Kattina 


Kiris of Urmia 
Krispa 
Kruspedai 
Levanti 

Levi b. Berechiah 
Levi of Biri 
Levi b. Buta 
Levi b. Haita 
Levi b. Hama 
Levi b. Hini 
Levi b. Hiyya 
Levi b. Huna 


Levi b. Isaac 
*Levi b. Lahma 
Levi b. Panti 
Levi b. Parta 
Levi b. Pitam 
Levi b. Rabbi 


Levi Saba 


Levi b. Samuel 
Levi b. Samuel b. Nahman 
Levi of Sandaria 
Levi b. Seira 

*Levi b. Sisi 
Levi of Suki 
Luda 
Lulianos of the South 
Lulianos of Tiberias 
Malkio 
Malnk of Arabia 
Mana of Sepphoris 
Mana of Shab 
Mana b. Tanhum 
Manasseh 
Manasseh b. Zebid 
Mani b. Jonah 
Mani b. Patish 
Mar b. Ashi 
Mar Johanya (B; 4) 


Mar b. Joseph 

Mar Kashshisha 

Mar b. Rabina 

Mar Yanka {Isar) 
Mari (son of the proselyte 
Mari b. Abbuh 

Mari b. Bisnaa 

Mari b. Hisda 

Mari b. Huna 

Mari b. Kahana 

Mari b. Mar 

Mari b. Phinebas 

Mari b. ‘Ukba 

Marino 

Marinus 

Marinus b. Oshaya 
Marion 

Matnah 

Mattatya b. Judah 
Matun 

Menahem of Gallia 
Menahem b, Nopah 
Menahem b. Simai 
Menahem Tolomia 
Menashya 

Menashya of Dewil 
Menashya b. Gada 
Menashya b. Jacob 
Menashya b. Jeremiah 
Menashya b. Judah 
Menashya b. Menahem 


Menashya b, Raba 
Menashya b. Tahlifa 
Meremar 
Meremar b. Hanina 
Mesharshiya b. Ammi 
Mesharshiya b. Idi 
Mesharshiya b. Dimi 
Mesharshiya b. Nathan 
Mesharshiya b. Pakod 
Mesharshiya b, Raba 
Mesharshiya of Tosnia 
Minyomi 
Mona 
Mordecai 
Nahman b. Ada 
Nahman b. Baruk 
Nabman b. Gurya 
Nahman b. Hisdai 
Nabman b. Isaac 
*Nabman b. Jacob 
Nahman b. Kohen 
Napman b. Minyomi 
Nahman b, Papa 
Nahiman b. Parta 
Nabman b. Rabbah 
Nahinan b. Samuel 
Nahman hb. Zabda 
Nahum (brother of Ila) 


Nabum (servant of Abbahu) 


Nabumi 
Nahumi b. Zechariah 
Naphtali 
Nasah 
Nathan (father of Huna) 
Nathan (brother of Hiyya) 
Nathan b. Abba 
Nathan b. Abbai 
Nathan b. Abin 
Nathan b. Ammi 
Nathan b. Asya 
Nathan b. Berechiah 
Nathan of Bira 
Nathan b. Mar ‘Ukba 
Nathan b. Mar Zutra 
Nathan b. Minyomi 
Nathan b. Oshaya 
Nathan b. Tobia 
*Nathan de Zuzita (exilarch) 
Nehemiah 
Nehemiah b. Hiyya 
Nehemiah b. Huna 
Nehemiah b. Joseph 
Nehemiah b. Joshua 
Nebilai 
Nehorai 
Nehorai b. Shemaiah 
Niba b. Saba 
Nikomeki 
Osha‘ya (Hoshaiah) 
Paddat 
Paddaya 
Panda 
*Papa 
Papa b. Abba 
Papa b. Aha 


Papa b. Hanan of Be Zeluhbit 


Papa b. Joseph 
Papa b. Nahman 
Papa Saba 
Papa b. Samue] 
Parnak 
Pazi 
*Pereda 
Philippi 
Phinehas 
Phinehas b. Ammi 
*Phinehas b. Hama 
Phinehas b. Hananiah 
Phinehbas b. Hisda 
Phinehas of Joppa 
Phinehas ha-Kohen 
Phinehas b. Mari 
Phinehas b. Zakkai 
*Raba b. Ada 


Tannaim and Amoraim 


Raba b. ‘Ula 


Rabbah b. 


Abba 


*Rabbah b. Abuha 
Rabbah b. Aha 
Rabbah b. Abilai 
Rabbah b. Abini 
Rabbah b. Ammi 


Rabbah b. 
Rabbah b. 


Ashi 
Bar Hanah 


Rabbah of Barnash 
Rabbah b. Baruna 


Rabbah b. 
*Rabbah b. 
Rabbah b. 
*Rabbah b. 
* Rabbah b. 
Rabbah b. 


Haklai 
Hanan 
Hanina 
Hiyya 
Huna 

Idi b. Abin 


Rabbah b. Thi or Iti 
Rabbah b. Iai 


Rabbah b. 
Rabbah b. 
Rabbah b. 


Tsaac 
Ishmael 
Isi 


Rabbah b. Jeremiah 


Rabbab b. 
Rabhah b. 
Rabbah b. 
Rabbah of 
Rabbah b. 
Rabbah b. 
Rabbah b. 
*Rabbah b. 
Rabbab b. 


Jonathan 
Kahana 
Kisma 
Kubaya 
Lema 
Lewai 
Marion 
Matnah 
Mehasya 


Rabbah b. Mesharshiya 


Rabbah b. Minyoui 
Rabbah b. Papa 
*Rabbah of Parziki 
Rabbah b. Raba 
Rabbah b. Saba 
Rabbah b. Safra 
¥* Rabbah b. Samuel 
*Rabbah b. Shela 
Rabbah b. Shumni 
Rabbah b. Simi 
Rabbah b. Tahlifa 
Rabbanai 
Rabbanai of Huza 
*Rabina I. 
*Rabina IT. 
Rabina III. 
Rafram 
*Rafram I. (b. Papa) 
*Rafram II. 
Rahbah or Rehabah 


Rabmai 
Rakish b. 
Rammi b. 
Rami b. 
Rammi b. 
Rarmnni b. 
Rammi b. 
Rammni b. 
Rammi b. 
Rammi b. 
Rammi b. 
Ramnni b. 
Redifa 
Reuben 
Romanus 
Safra 


Papa 
Abba 
Berechiah 
Ezekiel 
Hama 
Judah 
Papa 
Rab 
Samuel 
Tamre 
Yeba 


Safra b. Se’oram 
Safra b. Tobia 
Safra b. Yeba 


Sahhorah 


Salla Hasida (the pious) 


Samlai 


Samlai of Bira 
Samlai of Csesarea 


SamJai of 
Samma b. 
Samma b. 
Samma b. 
Samia b. 
Samma b. 


Lydda 
Aibu 

ASi 
Halkai 
Jeremiah 
Judah 


Tannaim and Amoraim 
Tarascon 


Samma b. Mari 
Samma b. Mesharshiya 
Samma b. Rabbab 
Samma b. Rakta 
Samuel (brother of Bere- 
chiah) 
Samuel (brother of Osha‘ya) 
Samuel (brother of Phinehas 
b. Hama) 
Samuel b. Abba 
Samuel (Mar) b. Abba b. 
Abba 
Samuel b, Abba of Hagrunya 
*Samuel b. Abbahu 
Samuel b. Abdimi 
Samuel b. Abin 
Samuel b. Ada 
Samuel b. Aha 
Samuel b. Ahitai 
Samuel b. Ahuuai 
*Samuel b. AMmi 
*Samuel b, Anaya 
Samuel b. Bisna 
Samuel of Cappadocia 
Samuel of Difte 
Samuel b. Gedaliah 
Samuel b. Halafta 
Samuel b. Hananiah 
Samuel b. Hanina 
*Samuel b. Hiyya 
Samuel b. Ika 
Samuel b. Isaac 
Samuel b. Jacob 
*Samuel b. Jose b. Bun 
Samuel b. Judah of India 
Samuel b. Kattina 
Samuel b. Marta 
Samuel b. Nadab 
*Samuel b. Nahmani 
*Samuel b. Nathan 
Samuel b. Papa 
Samuel Podagrita 
Samuel b. Raba 
Samuel b. Rabbi 
Samuel Saba 
Samuel b. Shaba 
Samuel b, Shilot 
Samuel b. Simi 
Samuel of Sofafta 3 
Samuel b. Sustra or Susreta 
Samuel b. Sutar 
Samuel b. Yeba 
Samuel b. Zadok 
Samuel of Zarkonya 
Samuel b. Ze‘era 
Samuel b. Zutra 
Saul of Nawab 
Se‘oram 
Shaba 
Shabbethai 
Shabbethai b. Marinus 
Shabbethai of Saduki 
Shalemya 
Shalman of Be Zeluhit 
Shalman b. Levi 
Shappir 
Shayin 
Shazbi 
Shela 
Shela b. Abina 
Shela b. Isaac 
*Shela of Kefar Tamarta 
Shela Mari 
Shela of Shalomya 
Shemaiah 
Shemaiah b. Zera 
Shephatiah 
Sherebiah 
‘Shesha b. Idi b. Abin 
*Sheshet 
Sheshet b. Joshua 
Sheshet of Kartiza 
Sheshna b. Samuel 
Sidor 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


54 


Simeon b. Abba 
Simeon b. Abishalom 
Simeon b. Aibu 
Simeon b, Bisna 
Simeon b. Hillel b. Pazi 
Simeon b. Hiyya 
Simeon b. Hiyya of Huza 
Simeon b. Jacob of Tyrus 
*Simeon b. Jakim 
Simeon b. Jasina 
*Simeon b. Jehozadak 
Simeon b. Jonah 
Simeon b. Joshua 
Simeon the Judge 
Simeon b. Kana or Sana 
Simeon b. Karsena 
Simeon b. Kisma 
*Simeon b. Lakish 
Simeon b. Levi 
Simeon b. Me’asha 
Simeon b. Narshiyah 
Simeon b. Nezira 
*Simeon b. Pazi 
Simeon the Pious 
Simeon the Scribe 
Simeon of Shiloh 
Simeon b. Simeon 
Simeon b. Tahlifa 
Simeon of Tospata 
*Simeon b. Yannai 
Simeon b. Zachariah 
Simeon b. Zebid 
Simeon b. Zirud 
Simi b. Abba 
Simi b. Ada 
Simi b. Ashi 
Simi of Birtadeshore 
Simi b. Hezekiah 
Simi b. Hiyya 
Simi of Mahaza 
Simi of Nehardea 
Simi b. ‘Ukba 
Simi Ze‘era 
Sisai 
Surhab b. Papa 
Tabala 
¥Tabi 
Tabi (grandson of Mar Tabi) 
Tabi, Mar 
Tabut 
Tabut Rishba 
*Tabyome (B) 
Tabyome (P) 
Tabyome II, (B) 
Taddai 
Tahlifa 
Tahlifa (father-in-law of Ab- 
bahu) 
Tahlifa (father-in-law of Aha) 
Tahlifa (father of Huna) 
Tahlifa b. Abdimi 
Tahlifa b. Abimi 
Tahlifa b. Abina 
Tahlifa b. Bar Hana 
Tahlifa of Czesarea 
Tahlifa b. Gazza 
Tahlifa b. Hisda 
Tahlifa b. Imo 
Tahlifa Ma‘araba (the Pales- 
tinian) 
Tahlifa b. Samuel 
Tanhum b. Ammi 
Tanhum of Bosra 
*Tanhum b. Hanilai 
Tanhum b, Hanina 
*Tanhum b. Hiyya 
Tanhum bd. Hiyya b. Abba 
Tanhum b. Hiyya of Kefar 
Agin 
Tanhum b. Hiyya of Kefar 
Ako 
*Tanhum b. Jeremiah 
*Tanhuma b. Abba 
*Tanhuma b. Judah 


Tanhum of Parwad 

Tanhum b. Skolastikai 

Tanhuma 

Tarayya 

Tayyefa Simmuka 

Tobi b. Isaac 

Tobi b. Kattina 

Tobi b. Kisna 

Tobi b. Mattanah 

Tobi b. Nehemiah 

Totai 

‘Ukba b. Abba 

‘Ukba b. Hama 

‘Ukba b. Hiyya 

‘Ukba, Mar 

‘Ukba of Meshan 

‘Ukba of Pashronya 

‘Ukba, Rabbana 

Ulla b. Abba 

Ulla b. Ashi 

Ulia of Biri 

UHa of Caesarea 

Ulla Hazzana 

Ula b. Hinena 

Ulla b. Idi 

Ulla b. Nai 

Una b. Ishmael 

Ulla b. Menasya 

Ulla b. Rab 

Ulla Rabbah 

Uzziel (grandson of Uzziel 

Rabbah) 

Uzziel b. Nehunya 
*Yannai 
*Yannai (grandson of Yannai 

the Elder) 

Yannai b. Ammi 

Yannai of Cappadocia 
*Yannai b. Ishmael 

Yannai b. Nahmani 


Yannai Ze‘era (the little 
one) 

Yeba (father-in-law of Ash- 
yan) 


Yeba Saba (the old one) 

Yemar 

Yemar of Difte 

Yemar b. Hashwai 

Yemar Saba (the old one) 
a 


Yemar b. Shazbi 
Yemar b. Shelmia 
*Yudan (father of Mattaniah) 
Yudan b. Aibu 
Yudan of Cappadocia 
*Yudan of Magdala 
*Yudan b, Phila 
Yudan of Saknin 
Yudan b, Shakti 
Zabda 
Zabda (father of Abba) 
*Zabda b. Levi 
*Zakkai 
Zakkai of Alexandria 
*Zakkai the Butcher (Tab- 
baha) 
Zakkai the Great (Rabbah) 
Zakkai of Kabul 
*Zakkai of Shab 
*Zebid 
Zebid of Nehardea 
Zebid b. Osha‘ya 
Zebulun b. Don. (B) 
Zechariah 
Zechariah (son-in-law of 
Joshua b. Levi) 
*Ze‘era (P) 
Ze‘era b. Abbahu (P) 
Ze‘era b. Hama (P) 
Ze‘era b. Hanina (P) 
Ze‘era or Zera (B and P) 
Zemina (P) 
*Zerika 
Zerika (brother-in-law of Ze- 
rikan) 
Zerikan 
Zuga 
Zuga or Zawwa of Adiabene 
Z2uti 
Zutra b. Huna { Ashi) 
Zutra, Mar (the colleague of 
Zutra, Mar (the great) 
Zutra. Mar (the pious) 
Zutra b. Mari 
Zutra b. Nahman 
Zutra b, Rishba 
Zutra b. Samuel 
Zutra b. Tobia 
Zutra b. Ze‘era 


L. G. 


TANNENBAUM, ABNER: Yiddish and He- 
brew journalist; born at Schirwind, East Prussia, 
March 1, 1848. He studied in Kamenetz-Podolsk 
and in the Kishinef Lyceum, and was awarded a 
diploma by the Imperial University of Odessa for 
his historical and geographical studies. He chose a 
commercial career, and, after having held various 
positions, became manager of a wholesale drug busi- 
ness. In 1887 he emigrated to New York, where he 
devoted himself to journalism. 

Tannenbaum has translated into Yiddish several 
of the works of Jules Verne, among which may be 
mentioned “Kalt und Warm,” London, 1895, and 
“Gesucht und Gefunden,” New York, 1896. He is 
especially known as a popularizer, among Russian 
immigrants, of the secular sciences, having written 
extensive treatises on historical topics, natural 
science, etc., in almost al] Yiddish periodicals of the 
United States. He is the author of a “History of 
the Jews in America” (2 parts, New York, 1905) 
and of a “Commercial, Industrial, and Agricultural | 
Geography of the United States” (2b. 1905). 

5p L. La. 


TANUJI, ISHMAEL HA-KOHEN: Egyp- 
tian rabbi and author of the sixteenth century. He 
was a descendant of the Tanuji (from “Tanjah” = 


55 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Tannaim and Amoraim 
Tarascon 


pe cee iia eer a a  __ 


“Tangiers ”) family of Tunis, to which belonged R. 
Samuel ha-Kohen and his son R. Judah, both rabbis 
of Jerusalem. In 15438 he wrote a book, popular in 
style, entitled “Sefer ha-Zikkaron” and containing 
halakic decisions on current topics (Ferrara, 1555). 
Asthe chief of the Egyptian rabbis he appended his 
name to an approbation of the responsa of R. Eli- 
jah ben Hayyim (Ranah). There still exists in 
Egypt a synagogue in which Ishmael ha-Kohen 
Tanuji had been wont to pray, and which is there- 
fore called by his name (see JEw. Encyc, v. 72a, 
line 1). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Azulai, Shem ha-Gedolim, i. 111; Fuenn, 
Keneset Yisrael, p. 674. 


G. N. T. L. 
TANYA: Collection of ritual laws and customs, 
published first at Mantua, 1514, then at Cremona, 

1565, and later in two other editions. The epigraph 

of the Mantua edition reads as follows: “‘ Minhag 

Abot Sefer Tanya” was terminated in the month of 

Siwan, 5074 of Creation” (=1814). This is in- 

terpreted by Dukes (“ Orient, Lit.” v. 219), to mean 

that the work was originally called “ Minhag Abot” 
and that it was composed in 1314. Buber (intro- 
duction to his edition of “Shibbole ha-Leket ”), 

however, proves that 1814 is a misprint for 1514, 

which is the date of the first edition. Steinschnei- 

der supposes that the “ Minhag Abot ” mentioned by 

Abraham ha-Levi in his treatise “ Ha-Hora’ah ” (see 

“Ozar Nehmad,” ii. 152) is the same as “Tanya.” 

This book is arranged in the same way as the “ Shib- 

bole ha-Leket,” which, as well as its author, Zede- 

kiah ben Abraham, is often quoted. The author of 
the “Tanya,” besides, frequently cites as his teach- 
ers Benjamin b. Abraham (Zedekiah’s brother) and 

Judah b. Benjamin; and in certain places the ex- 

pression “J, Jehiel the scribe,” is found. These 

details gave rise to a discussion among different 
authorities as to the authorship of the book, which 

is variously ascribed to Judah b. Benjamin, to a 

pupil of his, and to Jehiel b. Asher b. Jekuthiel. 
Among the opinions of modern scholars that of 

Osias Schorr may be mentioned, namely, that the 

“Tanya” is simply a copy of the “Shibbole ha- 

Leket,” called “Tanya” after its initial word, but 

written in such a way as to make it appear the 

copyist’s own composition; ¢g., in many places 

Schorr declares the copyist ascribes this or that to 

the “Shibbole ha-Leket” to make it appear that he 

took only so much from that work. Where the 
author of the “Shibbole” refers to “my brother 

Benjamin ” the copyist of the “Tanya” omits the 

words “my brother.” The copyist for the most part 

confined his attention to the Law, neglecting the 
customs. He also added extracts from Maimonides’ 

“Yad.” 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Azulai, Shem ha-Gedolim: Benjacob, Ozar 
ha-Sefarim, p. 657, No. 660; Conforte, Kore ha-Dorot, p. 
2la; Schorr, in Ziyyon, i. 147-148 ; idem, in He-Haluz, i. 108- 
105; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col, 2771, 

W. B. M. SEL. 
TANZER, AARON: Austrian rabbi; born at 

Presburg, Hungary, Jan. 30, 1871; studied at the 

Presburg Rabbinerschule, and Oriental philology 

and history at the University of Berlin (Ph.D. 1895). 

In 1896 he was called to Hohenems as chief rabbi of 

Tyrol and Vorarlberg; and since 1904 he has been 


rabbi of Meran (Tyrol). Heis the author of “Die 
Religionsphilosophie Josef Albo’s,” Frankfort-on- 
the-Main, 1896; “Der Israelitische Friedhof in 
Hohenems,” Vienna, 1901; “.Judenthum und Ent- 
wickelungslehre,” Berlin, 1908; and “Geschichte der 
Juden in Tirol und Vorarlberg,” vol. i., 2b. 1903-4. 
S. 
TAPPUAH: 1. City in the Shefelah, described 
as lying between the towns of En-gannim and Enam; 
probably situated north of the Wadi al-Sunt, and 
identical with the modern ‘Artuf (Josh. xv. 34). 
2. City in Ephraim, marking the western boundary 
of the tribe (Josh. xvi. 8). 3. The land of Tap- 
puah, which belonged, with the exception of the 
city of the same name, to the tribe of Manasseh 
(Josh. xvii, 8). It was one of the thirty-one districts 
whose kings were vanquished by the Jews when 
they first invaded Palestine (Josh. xii. 17). 4 (En- 
tappuah). Southern boundary of the tribe of Manas- 
seh (Josh. xvii. 7). 5. Son of Hebron (I Chron. ii. 48). 
Ns aaa Schwarz, Palestine, pp. 89, 102, Philadelphia, 


J. Ss. O. 


TARASCON (Hebrew, pwnd, |jPwNIND): City 
in the department of Bouches-du-Rhéne, France. 
In 1276 King Charles I. intervened in behalf of its 
Jews against the inquisitors, who had obliged them 
to enlarge the wheel-shaped badge worn by them, 
and had extorted large sums from them in the guise 
of a fine. Several Jews who were expelled from 
Languedoc in 1806 went to Tarascon, where they 
were cordially received; but in 1808 Charles II., on 
the complaint of Christians, forbade Jews to hold 
public office. Queen Jeanne, however, took the 
Tarascon Jews under her protection (1848 and 1378); 
and her daughter, Marie de Blois, treated them still 
more favorably, making no distinction whatever be- 
tween her Jewish and her Christian subjects (13890). 
Louis IT. of Anjou exempted them (1400) from all 
new taxes, and granted them a special letter of pro- 
tection (“sauvegarde ”), by the terms of which the 
other inhabitants of Tarascon were enjoined to pro- 
vide for their defense and for the preservation of 
their property. Louis III. appointed conservators 
of these privileges in order to remove the Jews from 
the arbitrary jurisdiction of the courts. 

In 1454 King René issued a decree mitigating the 
severity of the edict of Charles I. relative to the 
wearing of the badge; but in 1460, at the request 
of the syndics, he ordered that no Jew should thence- 
forth hold public office, on pain of a fine of fifty 
marks in silver. In 1475 he obliged the Jews of the 
city to pay him a subsidy of 8,000 florins. Owing 
to their letter of protection of 1400, the Jews of 
Tarascon did not suffer during the bloody excesses 
committed in Provence in 1484 by a band of reapers; 
and in 1489 the municipal council, in conformity 
with the “sauvegarde,” took steps which enabled 
the Jewish inhabitants to escape from the populace, 
which had attacked their quarter. 

This quarter was commonly called the “ Carriére 
des Juifs,” or simply the “Carriére,” though the 
names “Juzataria” and “Juateria” also occur oc- 
casionally. It included, on the one side, the portion 
of the Rue du Chateau between the royal court 
and the chateau of King René, and, on the other 


Tarfon 
Targum 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 56 


side, the portion which separated the traverse, now 
the Rue des Juifs, from the monastery of the Benedic- 
tines of St. Honorat. When some Jews settled out- 
side of the Carriére a royal decree of 1377 ordered 
them to return to their former domicil, on pain of a 
fine of 100 livres. In case of necessity, however, 
the Jews were permitted to go outside as far as the 
Rue des Baptémes, but the condition was made that 
they should construct no gate or other opening to 
this street near the Church of St. Marthe. 

The exact site of the synagogue is unknown. In 
1368 the community paid to the public treasury a 
tax of 10 oboles for the possession of this building. 
In the Middle Ages the community had two ceme- 
teries, one of them situated on the island of Tar- 
négue near the old commandery of St. Antoine, and 
the other outside of the Condamine gate between 
the road to Maillane and that to St. Georges. In 
1526 the latter became the property of the city, 
which erected a pest-house on the plot. 

The following scholars of Tarascon are known: 
R. Eliezer and his brother Joshua, Solomon of Salon, 
Israel of Valabrégue, Immanuel ben Jacob (Bon- 
fils), Joseph Caspi, Don Bonafous, Samuel b. Judah 
and his brother En Bondavi of Marseilles; also the 
following physicians: Comprat Asser, Bonjuhas 
Guassin, Rossel, Ferrier, Bellant, Nathan, Jacob of 
Lunel, Orgier, Maystre Aron, Mosse Meyr, and Jo- 
seph b. Joseph. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Arnaud Camille, Essai sur la Condition des 
Juifs en Provence, pp. 24, 36, 37, 39, 52; Bardinet, Revie 
Historique, 1880; Blancard, Lnventaire Sommaire des Ar- 
chives Déepartementales des Bouches-du-Rhone, B. 142; Bé- 
darride, Les Juifs en France, pp. 317, 320; Bondurand, Les 
Coutumes de Tarascon, pp. 53, 64, 65, 80, 84, Nimes, 1892; 
Bouche Hon, Histoire de Provence, I1., book ix., section iv.: 
Depping, Les Juifs dans le Moyen Age, pp. 198, 206, 207 ; 
Gross, Gallia Judaica, pp. 249-250; S. Kahn, Les Juifs de 
Tarascon, pp. 3-37 (reprinted from R. E. J. 1889); Nostra- 
damus, Histoire de Provence, part 6; Renan-Neubauer, Les 
Rabbins Frangais, pp. 477, 561, 688; idem, Les Ecrivains 
Juifs Francais, pp. 692 et seg.; Revue des Langues Ro- 
manes, 1897, pp. 224-226. 

8. S. K. 

TARFON (Greek, Tptdéwyv; Yer. Bik. 64c): Tanna 
of the third generation, living in the period between 
the destruction of the Templeand the fall of Bethar. 

He was of priestly lineage, and he expressly states 

that he officiated in the Temple with the priests (Yer. 

Yoma iii. 7); in the pride of his rank be used to de- 

mand the heave-offering even after the Temple had 

fallen (Tosef., Hag. iii., end). His devotion to his 
mother was such that he used to place his hands be- 
neath her feet when she was obliged to cross the 
courtyard barefoot (Kid. 61b), while his generosity 
made him return to the father the redemption-money 
for the first-born, although it was his priestly per- 
quisite (Tosef., Bek. vi. 14). Once, in a time of 
famine, he took 800 wives so that they might, as 
wives of a priest, exercise the right of sharing in the 
tithes (Tosef., Ket. v. 1). On one occasion, when 
from his window he saw a bridal procession evi- 
dently of the poorer classes, he requested his mother 
and sister to anoint the bride that the groom might 
find more joy in her (Ab. R.N. xli., end). Although 
he was blessed with riches, he possessed extraordi- 
nary modesty; in one instance he deeply regretted 
having mentioned his name in a time of peril, since 
he feared that in using his position as teacher to 
escape from danger he had seemingly violated the 


rule against utilizing knowledge of the Torah for 
practical ends (Ned. 62b). 

Although as a halakist R. Tarfon was an adherent 
of the school of Shammai, only two passages de- 
scribe him as following its teachings (Yeb. 15b; 
Yer. Sheb. iv. 20), and he always inclined toward 
leniency in the interpretation of those halakot of 
Shammai which had not actually been put into 
practise (Kil. v. 6; Yeb. xv.6; Ket. v. 2); often he 
decided in direct opposition to the Bet Shammai 
when it imposed restrictions of excessive severity 

(Yeb. xv. 47; Naz. v. 5). R. Tarfon 
As was also the author of independent 
Halakist. halakot, one being on the form of ben- 
ediction when quenching thirst with 
water (Ber. vi. 8), and another on the benediction for 
the eve of the Passover (Pes, x. 6). The majority 
of his rulings, however, deal with subjects discussed 
in the orders Nashim, Kodashim, Tohorot, and 
Nezikin. In those found in Tohorot his tendency 
is always toward severity, while in Nezikin are 
found his sayings on lost objects and usufruct (B. 
M. iv. 3, v. 7), the payment of debts, the money due 
a woman when she receives a bill of divorce (Ket. 
ix. 2, 8), and damage caused by cattle (B. K. ii, 
5, and the baraitot connected with this passage, p. 
26). If he had belonged to the Sanhedrin, the 
death-penalty would have been abolished (Mak. i. 
10; comp. Frankel, “Der Gerichtliche Beweis,” p. 
48, Berlin, 1846). R. Tarfon engaged in halakic 
controversies with R. Akiba (Ket. 84a; Pes. 117, 
118), but the two agreed with regard to a tosefta 
(Mik. i.; Kid. 66; Yer. Yomai.i; Ter. iv.5; Mak. 
i. 10; Ker. v. 3), with R. Simeon (Men. xii. 5; pos- 
sibly, however, an error for R. Akiba), and R. Elea- 
zar ben Azariah (Yad. iv. 8). Other sayings of his 
have been preserved which were accepted without 
controversy (Pes. 117a, 118a; Git. 88a); and two of 
his apothegms are especially noteworthy as indica- 
ting his intense earnestness: “The day is short, the 
labor vast, the toilers idle, the reward great, and the 
Master urgent” (Ab. i. 15); “It isnot thy task to com- 
plete the work, neither art thoua free man that thou 
canst withdraw thyself; if thou hast learned much, 
great shall be thy reward, for He that doth hire thee 
will surely repay thee for thy toil; yet the requital 
of the pious is in the future” (Ab. i. 17), In 
the discussion as to the relative importance of 
theory and practise, Tarfon decided in favor of the 
latter. 

When Eliezer ben Hyrcanus was sick, and a dep- 
utation was sent to him, R. Tarfon acted as the 
spokesman, addressing him as follows: “ Master, 
thou art of more worth to Israel than the sun, for 

that gives light only on earth, while 

Incidents thou dost shed thy rays both in this 

of world and in the world to come” (Sanh. 

His Life. 101a; Mek., Bahodesh, xi. [ed. Weiss, 

p. 80a]). In like manner he led anum- 
ber of scholars in a visit to R. Ishmael ben Elisha, 
upon the death of the sons of the latter (M. K. 28b); 
and when Jose the Galilean, R. Tarfon, R. Eliezer ben 
Azariah, and R. Akiba assembled to decide on the dis- 
puted sayings of Eliezer ben Hyrcanus, Tarfon was 
the first speaker (Tosef., Git. vii.; Git. 88a). He was 
one of those whose names occurred in the deposition 


57 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Tarfon 
Targum 


Ee RE an ge ep Se ee ee i eS 


of Gamaliel IT., and it is expressly stated that he was 
addressed as “brother” by the other scholars. He 
ig said to have dwelt at Jabneh, although it is 
evident that he lived also in Lydda (Ta‘an. iii. 9; 
B. M. iv. 8; Hag. 18a). 

R. Tarfon was accustomed to open his haggadic 
discourses With a halakic question (‘Tosef., Ber. iv. 
16). In his own upper chamber at Jabneh it was 
decided that benevolence should be practised ac- 
cording to the injunction of Ps. cvi. 3 (Esth. R. vi. 
9 5). Tarfon held that God did not allow His 
glory to overshadow Israel until the people had 


fulfilled a task (Ab, R. N. ii.), and that death can — 


overtake one only when he is idle (comp. Gen. 
xlix. 38). 

On festivals and holy days R. Tarfon was accus- 
tomed to delight his wife and children by preparing 
for them the finest fruits and dainties (Yer. Pes, 


37b). When he wished to express ap- 
Domestic proval of any one, he would say, “‘A 
Life. knop and a flower’ [Ex. xxv. 38]; 


thou hast spoken as beautifully as the 
adornments of the candlestick in the Temple”; but 
when it was necessary to upbraid another, he would 
say, “‘ My son shall not go down with you’ ” (Gen. 
R. xci.), repeating the words of Jacob to his sons 
in Gen. xlii, 88. When he perceived that his two 
nephews, whom he was instructing personally, were 
becoming careless, he interrupted his lecture and 
regained their attention by saying, “Then again 
Abraham took a wife, and her name was Johanna” 
(instead of Keturah; Gen. xxv. 1), whereupon his 
pupils interrupted him by exclaiming, “No, Ketu- 
rah!” (Zeb. 26b). Hischief scholars were R. Judah 
(Er. 45b; Yeb. 101b), Simeon Shezari (Men. 31b), 
and Judah ben Isaiah ha-Bosem (Hul. 55b). 

R. Tarfon was extremely bitter against those 
Jews who had been converted to the new faith; and 
he swore that he would burn every book of theirs 
which should fall into his hands (Shab. 116a), his 
feeling being so intense that he had no scruples 
against destroying the Gospels, altbough the name of 
God occurred frequently in them. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Frankel, Hodegetica in Mischnam, pp. 101- 
105, Leipsic, 1859: Brill, Hinlettung in die Mischna, i. 100- 
103, Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1876; Bacher, Ag. Tan. pp. 342- 
302; Hamburger, R. B. T. ii. 1196 :. Derenbourg, Hist. pp. 379 
ét seq. A list of the mishnayot which mention R. Tarfon is 
given by Schtirer, Gesch. ii. 378, note 187; of the Tosefta pas- 
sages in which his name occurs, by Zuckermandel in his edition 
of the Tosefta ; of similar sections in the Mekilta, Sifra, and 
Sifre, by Hoffmann, Zur Hinleitung in die Halachischen 
Midraschim, p. 85, Berlin, 1887. 

WwW. B. Ss. O. 


TARGUM: The Aramaic translation of the Bible. 
It forms a part of the Jewish traditional literature, 
and in its inception is as early as the time of the 
Second Temple. The verb oyn, from which the 
noun yan is formed, is used in Ezra iv. 7 in refer- 
ence to a document written in Aramaic, although 
“Aramit” (A. V. “in the Syrian tongue ”) is added. 
In mishnaic phraseology the verb denotes a transla- 
‘ion from Hebrew into any other language, as into 
Greek (see Yer. Kid. 59a, line 10, and Yer. Meg. 71c, 
line 11; both statements referring to the Greek ver- 
Sion of Aquila); and the noun likewise may refer to 
the translation of the Biblical text into any.lan guage 
(See Meg. ii. 1; Shab. 115a). The use of the term 


“Targum” by itself was restricted to the Aramaic 
version of the Bible (see Bacher, “ Die Terminologie 
der Tannaiten,” pp. 205 e¢ seq.). In 
like manner, the Aramaic passages in 
Genesis, Jeremiah, Daniel, and Ezra 
were briefly called “Targum,” while the Hebrew 
text was called “Mikra” (see Yad. iv. 5; Shab. 
115b). 

As an interpretation of the Hebrew text of the 
Bible the Targum had its place both in the syna- 
gogal liturgy and in Biblical instruction, while the 
reading of the Bible text combined with the Targum 
in the presence of the congregation assembled for 
public worship was an ancient institution which 
dated from the time of the Second Temple, and was 
traced back to Ezra by Rab when he interpreted 
the word “meforash” (Neh. viil. 8) as referring to 
the Targum (Meg, 8a; Ned. 87b; comp. Yer. Meg. 
74d, line 48; Gen. Kt. xxxvi., end). The rules for 
reading the Targum are formulated in the Halakah 
(see Meg. iii. and the Talmud ad loc.; Tosef., Meg. 
iv.). The Targum was to be read after every verse 
of the parashiyyot of the Pentateuch, and after 
every third verse of the lesson from the Prophets. 
Excepting the Scroll of Esther, which might be 
read by two persons in turn, only one person might 
read the Targum, as the Pentateuch or prophetic 
section also was read by a single person. Even a 
minor might read the Targum, although it was not 
fitting for him to do so when an adult had read the 
text. Certain portions of the Bible, although read, 
were not translated (as Gen. xxxv. 22), while others 
were neither read nor translated (as Num. vi. 24-26; 
II Sam. xi.-xiii.). The reader was forbidden to 
prompt the translator, lest any one should say that 
the Targum was included in the text of the Bible 
(Ula in Meg. 82a). With regard to the translation 
of Biblical passages, Judah ben Iai, the pupil of 
Akiba, declared that whosoever rendered a verse of 
the Bible in its original form was a liar, while he 
who made additions was a blasphemer (Tosef., Meg., 
end; Kid. 49a; comp. the geonic responsum in Har- 
kavy, “Responsen der Geonim,” pp. 124 et seg., and 
the quotation from Midr. ha-Gadol in “J. Q. R.” 
vi. 425). <A passage in Ab. R. N. (Recension B, 
xii. [ed. Schechter, p. 24]) referring to R. Akiba’s 
early training says that he studied the Bible and the 
Targum; but allusions to the Targum as a special 
subject of study in connection with the Bible are 
excessively rare. It must be assumed, however, 
that the Targum was an integral part of the Bib- 
lical course of study designated as “ Mikra”; and 
Judah b. [lai declared that only he who could read 
and translate the Bible might be regarded as a 
“karyana,” or one thoroughly versed in the Bible 
(Kid. 49a). In Sifre, Deut. 161 the Targum is men- 
tioned as a branch of study intermediate between 
the Mikra and the Mishnah. 

The professional translator of the text of the 
Bible in the synagogue was called “targeman” 
(“torgeman,” “metorgeman ”; the common pronun- 
ciation being MrTurcGEMAN; see Meg. iv. 4). His 
duties naturally formed part of the functions of the 
communal official (“sofer”) who had charge of Bib- 
lical instruction (see Yer, Meg. 74d). Early in the 
fourth century Samuel ben Isaac, upon entering a 


Name. 


Targum 


syhagogue, once saw a teacher (“sofer”) read the 
Targum froma book, and bade him desist. Thisanec- 
dote shows that there was a written 
Liturgical Targum which was used for public 
Use. worship in that century in Palestine, 
although there was no definitely deter- 
mined and generally recognized Targum, such as 
existed in Babylonia. The story is told (Yer. Ber. 
9c) that Jose b. Abin, an amora of the second half 
of the fourth century, reprehended those who read 
a Targum to Lev. xxii, 28 which laid a biased em- 
phasis on the view that the command contained in 
that verse was based on God’s mercy (this same para- 
phrase is still found in the Palestinian Targum); see 
also the statements on the erroneous translation of 
Ex. xii, 8, Lev. vi. 7, and Deut. xxvi. 4in Yer. Bik. 
65d; as well as Yer. Kil. viii., end, on Deut. xiv. 5; 
and Meg. iii. 10 on Lev. xviii. 21. In addition to the 
anecdotes mentioned above, there are earlier indica- 
tions that the Targum was committed to writing, 
although for private reading only. Thus, the Mish- 
nah states (Yad. iv. 5) that portions of the text of 
the Bible were “ written as a Targum,” these doubt- 
less being Biblical passages in an Aramaic transla- 
tion; and a tannaitic tradition (Shab. 115a; Tosef., 
Shab. xiv.; Yer. Shab. 15c; Massek. Soferim v, 15) 
refers to an Aramaic translation of the Book of Job 
which existed in written form at the time of Gama- 
liel I., and which, after being withdrawn from use, 
reappeared in the lifetime of his grandson Gamaliel 
II. The Pentateuchal Targum, which was made 
the official Targum of the Babylonian schools, was 
at all events committed to writing and redacted as 
early as the third century, since its Masorah dates 
from the first half of thatcentury. Two Palestinian 
amoraim of the same century urged the individual 
members of the congregation to read the Hebrew 
text of the weekly parashah twice in private and 
the Targum once, exactly as was done in public 
worship: Joshua ben Levi recommended _ this 
practise to his sons (Ber, 8b), while Ammi, a pupil 
of Johanan, made it a rule binding on every 
one (7d. 8a). These two dicta were especially in- 
strumental in authorizing the custom of reciting 
the Targum; and it was considered a religious duty 
even in later centuries, when Aramaic, the language 
of the Targum, was no longer the vernacular of the 
Jews. Owing to the obsolescence of the dialect, 
however, the strict observance of the custom ceased 
in the days of the first geonim. About the middle 
of the ninth century the gaon Natronai 
ben Hilai reproached those who de- 
clared that they could dispense with 
the “Targum of the scholars” because the transla- 
tion in their mother tongue (Arabic) was sufficient 
for them (see Miller, “ Kinleitung in die Responsen 
der Geonen,” p. 196). 

At the end of the ninth or in the beginning of the 
tenth century Judah ibn Kuraish sent a letter to 
the community of Fez, in which he reproved the 
members for neglecting the Targum, saying that he 
was surprised to hear that some of them did not 
read the Targum to the Pentateuch and the Proph- 
eis, although the custom of such a perusal had 
always been observed in Babylonia, Egypt, Africa, 
and Spain, and had never been abrogated. Hai 


Disuse. 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


58 


Gaon (d. 1088) was likewise much astonished to 
hear that the reading of the Targum had been 
entirely abandoned in Spain, a fact which he had 
not known before (Miller, dc. p. 211); and Samuel 
ha-Nagid (d. 1056) also sharply criticized the 
scholars who openly advocated the omission of the 
reading of it, although according to him the Tar- 
gun was thus neglected only in the northern prov- 
inces of that country (see the responsum in Ber- 
liner, “ Onkeios,” ii. 169), As a matter of fact, how- 
ever, the custom did entirely cease in Spain; and 
only in southern Arabia has it been observed until 
the present time (sce Jacob Saphir, “ Eben Sappir,” 
i.58b; Berliner, Zc. p. 172), although the Targum to 
the haftarot, together with introductions and poems 
in Aramaic, long continued to be read in some rituals 
(see Zunz, “G. V.” pp. 410, 412; ¢dem, “ Literatur- 
gesch.” pp. 21 et seg.; idem, “ Ritus,” pp. 53, 60 et 
seg., 81; Bacher, in “ Monatsschrift,” xxii. 220-2238), 
In the synagogues of Bokhara the Persian Jews 
read the Targum, together with the Persian para- 
phrase of it, to the haftarah for the last day of Pass- 
over (Isa. x. 82-xii.; see “Zeit. fiir Hebr. Bibl.” 
iv, 181). 

The Aramaic translations of the Bible which have 
survived include all the books excepting Daniel 
and Ezra (together with Nehemiah), which, being 
written in great part in Aramaic, have no Targum, 
although one may have existed in ancient times. 

Targumim to the Pentateuch: 1. Targum 
Onkelos or Babylonian Targum: The official Targum 
to the Pentateuch, which subsequently gained cur- 
rency and general acceptance throughout the Baby- 
lonian schools, and was therefore called the “ Baby- 
lonian Targum” (on the tosafistic name “Targum 
Babli” see Berliner, 2.c. p. 180; “ Mordekai” on Git. 
ix., end, mentions an old “Targum Babli” which 
was brought from Rome). ‘The title “Targum On- 
kelos” is derived from the well-known passage in 
the Babylonian Talmud (Meg. 3a) which discusses 
the origin of the Targumim: “Rt. Jeremiah [or, ac- 
cording to another version, R. Hiyya bar Abba] 
said: * The Targum to the Pentateuch was composed 
by the proselyte Onkelos at the dictation of R. Elie- 
zerand R. Joshua.’” This statement is undoubtedly 
due to error or ignorance on the part of the scholars 
of Babylonia, who applied to the Aramaic transla- 
tion of the Pentateuch the tradition current in Pal- 
estine regarding the Greek version of Aquila. Ac- 
cording to Yer. Meg. 71c, “Aquila the proselyte 
translated the Pentateuch in the presence of R. Elie- 
zer and R. Joshua, who praised him in the words of 
Ps. xlv. 8.” In this passage, moreover, R. Jeremiah 
is described as transmitting the tradition on the au- 
thority of R. Hiyya bar Abba. There is no doubt 
that these accounts coincide: and the identity 
of 340 pidpax and 735 D>"py is also clear, so that 
Onkelos and Akylas (Aquila) are one and the same 
person (but see ONKELOs). In the Babylonian Tal- 
mud only the first form of the name occurs; the 
second alone is found in the Palestinian Talmud; 
while even the Babylonian Talmud mentions Onke- 
los as the author of the Targum only in the passage 
cited. The statements referring to Onkelos as the 
author of the Aramaic translation of the Pentateuch 
originated in the post-Talmudic period, although 


59 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Targum 


——— ae ee ee ee 


they are based entirely on Meg. 3a. The first cita- 
tion of a targumic passage (on Gen. xlv. 27) with 
the direct statement “Onkelos has translated” oc- 
curs in Pirke R. El. xxxviii. The gaon Sar Sha- 
lom, writing in the ninth century, expressed him- 
self as follows on the Targum Onkelos: “The 
Targum of which the sages spoke is the one which 
we now have in our hands; no sanctity attaches 
to the other Targumim. Wehave heard it reported 
as the tradition of ancient sages that God wrought 
a great thing [miracle] for Onkelos when He per- 
mitted him to compose the Targum.” In a similar 
fashion Maimonides speaks of Onkelos as the bearer 
of ancient exegetic traditions and as a thorough 
master of Hebrew and Aramaic (see Bacher, “ Die 
Bibelexegese Moses Maimunis,” pp. 38-42). The 
designation “Targum Onkelos” was accordingly es- 
tablished in the early portion of the geonic period, 
and can no longer be effaced from the terminology 
of Jewish learning. 

The accepted Targum to the Pentatcuch has a 
better claim to the title “Targum Babli” (Babylo- 
nian Targum), as has already been explained. It is 
noteworthy, moreover, that the Jews of Yemen re- 
ecived this Targum, like that to the Prophets, with 
the Babylonian punctuation (see Merx, “Chresto- 
mathia Targumica”); and the colophon of a De 
Rossi codex states that a Targum with Babylonian 
punctuation was brought to Europe (Italy) from 
Babylon in the twelfth century, a copy with the 

Tiberian punctuation being made from 


Babylo- it (see Berliner, /.c. ii. 184). In the 
nian Babylonian Talmud the accepted Tar- 
Influence. gum is called “our Targum,” thus 


connoting the Targum of Babylonia 
or of the Babylonian academies (Kid. 49a, “ Targum 
didan,” for which Maimonides, in his “ Yad,” Ishut, 
viii. 4, substitutes “Targum Onkelos”). Passages 
from the Targum are cited with great frequency in 
the Babylonian Talmud with the introductory re- 
mark “As we translate” (Berliner J.c. p. 112), and 
the Babylonian geonim also speak of “our Targum ” 
as contrasted with the Palestinian Targum (see Hai 
Gaon in Harkavy, J.c. Nos. 15, 248). 

The Targum Onkelos, moreover, shows traces of 
Babylonian influence in its language, since its vocab- 
wlary contains: (1) Aramaic words which occur else- 
where in the Babylonian vernacular, ¢. g., the Hebrew 
MAX (“to see”) is always translated by Tn, and not 
by the Palestinian "om, while the Hebrew 3°35 
(“ronnd about”) is rendered by yn AY and not 
by nD TMD; (2) Aramaic words used to render 
Greek words found in the Palestinian Targum; 
(3) a few Persian words, including “nahshirkan ” 
(hunter; Gen. xxv. 27); and “enderun” (26. xliif. 
30) instead of the Greek «xocrév found in the Pal- 
estinian Targum. These peculiarities, however, 
Justify only the assumption that the final redaction 
of the Targum Onkelos was made in Babylonia; 
for its diction does not resemble in any other re- 
8pects the Aramaic diction found in the Baby- 
lonian Talmud; indeed, as Néldeke has shown 
(“Mandaische Grammatik,” p. xxvii.), “the official 

argum, although redacted in Babylonia, is com- 
Posed ina dialect fundamentally Palestinian.” This 
Statement is confirmed by the text of the Targum 


Onkelos, by the results of historical investigations 
of its origin, and by a comparison of it with the 
Palestinian Targum. These researches into its his- 
tory show that the Targum which was made the 
official one was received by the Babylonian authori- 
ties from Palestine, whence they had taken the Mish- 
nah, the Tosefta, and the halakic midrashim on the 
Pentateuch. The content of the Targum shows, 
moreover, that it was composed in Palestine in the 
second century; for both in its halakic and in its 
haggadic portions it may be traced in great part to 
the school of Akiba, and especially to the tannaim 
of that period (see F. Rosenthal in “ Bet Talmud,” 
vols. ii.—iil.; Berliner, ¢@.¢. p. 107). The Targum 
Onkelos can not becompared unqualifiedly with the 
Palestinian Targum, however, since the latter has 
been preserved only in a much later form; moreover 
the majority of those fragments which are carliest 
seem to be later than the redaction of the Targum 
Onkelos. Yet even in this form the Palestinian Tar- 
gum to the Pentateuch furnishes sufticient evidence 
that the two Targuinim were originally identical, 
as is evident from many verses in which they 
agree word for word, such as Lev. vi. 3, 4, 6-7, 9, 11, 
18-20, 22-238. Thedifference between the twois due 
to two facts: (1) the Pentateuchal Targum of the 
tannaitic period was subjected to a thorough and 
systematic revision, which may have taken place in 
Palestine, this revision of subject-matter being fol- 
lowed by a textual revision to make it conform 
with the vernacular of the Babylonian Jews; and 
(2) the version of the Targum resulting from this 
double revision was accepted and committed to 
writing by the Babylonian academies. 

Despite the fact that the Targum was thus re- 
duced to a fixed form in Babylonia, the Palestinian 
meturgemanim had full license to revise and am- 
plify it, so that the final redaction as it now exists 
in the so-called “Targum pseudo-Jonathan” (and 
this is true in even a greater degree of the “ Frag- 
menten-Targum ” mentioned below), though it was 
made as late as the seventh century, approximates 
the original Targum much more closely both in 
diction and in content, and includes many elements 

earlier than the Targum bearing the 

Peculiari- name of Onkelos and belonging in 
ties. its final form to the third century. 
The Masorah on the Targum Onkelos 

is first mentioned in the “ Patshegen,” a commentary 
on this same Targum, written in the thirteenth 
century ; it was edited by Berliner (1877), and reedited 
in alphabetical order by Landauer (“ Letterbode,” 
viii., ix.). This Masorah contains statements con- 
cerning the divergencies between the schools of 
Sura and Nehardea, exactly as the Talmud (Zeb. 
54a; Sanh. 99b) alludes to controversies between 
Rab and Levi over individual words in the Targum. 
The system followed in the revision of the subject- 
matter which resulted in the Targum Onkelos be- 
comes clear when the latter is compared with the 
Palestinian Targum. The principal object being 
to conform the Targum as closely as possible to the 
original text both in diction and in content, explana- 
tory notes were omitted, and the Hebrew words 


-were translated according to their etymological 


meaning, although the geographical names were re- 


Targum 


tained in their Hebrew form almost without excep- 
tion, and the grammatical structure of the Hebrew 
was closely followed. The paraphrastic style of 
translation affected by the Targumim generally, in 
order to obviate all anthropomorphisms in reference 
to God, is observed with special care in the Targum 
Onkelos, which employs paraphrases also in the 
poetic sections of the Pentateuch and in many other 
cases. In some instances the original paraphrase is 
abbreviated in order that the translation may not 
exceed the length of the text too greatly; conse- 
quently this Targum occasionally fails to represent 
the original, as is evident from paraphrases preserved 
in their entirety in the Palestinian Targum, as in 
the case of Gen. iv. 7, 10; xlix. 38, 22; Ex. xiv. 15; 
Num. xxiv. 4; and Deut. xxix. 17. An example 
of an abbreviated paraphrase is found also in the 
Targum Onkelos to Deut. i. 44, as compared with 
the paraphrase in Sotah 48b made by a Babylonian 
amora of the third century. 

2. The Palestinian Targum (Targum Yerushalmi): 
A responsum of Hai Gaon, already cited with refer- 
ence to the Targumim, answers the question cop- 
cerning the “Targum of the Land of Israel] [Pales- 
tine]” in the following words: “We do not know 
who composed it, nor do we even know this Tar- 
gum, of which we have heard only a few passages. 
If there is a tradition among them [the Palestinians] 
that it has been made the subject of public discourse 
since the days of the ancient sages [here follow the 
names of Palestinian amoraim of the third and fourth 
centuries], it must be held in the same esteem as 
our Targum; for otherwise they would not have 
allowed it. But if it is less ancient, it is not author- 
itative. It is very improbable, however, in our 
opinion, that it is of later origin” (comp. “R. E. J.” 
xlii, 235). The following statement is quoted (“ Kol 
Bo,” § 87) in the name of R. Meir of Rothenburg 
(18th cent.) with reference tothe Targum: “Strictly 
speaking, we should recite the weekly section with 
the Targum Yerushalmi, since it explains the He- 
brew text in fuller detail than does our Targum; but 
we do not possess it, and we follow, moreover, the 
custom of the Babylonians,” Both these statements 
indicate that the Palestinian Targum was rarely 

found in the Middle Ages, although it 


Supposed was frequently quoted after the elev- 
Author- enth century (see Zunz, “G. V.” pp. 
ship. 66 et seg.), especially in the “‘Aruk” of 


Nathan b. Jehiel, which explains 
many words found in it. Another Italian, Menahem 
b. Solomon, took the term “ Yerushalmi” (which 
must be interpreted as in the title “Talmud Yeru- 
shalmi”) literally, and quoted the Palestinian Tar- 
gum with the prefatory remark, “ The Jerusalemites 
translated,” or “ The Targum of the People of the Holy 
City.” After the fourteenth century Jonathan b. 
Uzzicl, author of the Targum to the Prophets, was 
believed to have been the author of the Palestinian 
Targum to the Pentateuch also, the first to ascribe 
this work to him being Menahem Recanati in his 
commentary on the Pentateuch. This error was 
probably due to an incorrect analysis of the abbre- 
viation *"R (= “Targum Yerushalmi”), which was 
‘supposed to denote “ Targum Jonathan.” The state- 
ment in the Zohar (i. 89a, on Gen. xv. 1) that 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 60 


Onkelos translated the Torah, and Jonathan the 
Mikra, does not mean, as Ginsburger thinks 
(“ Pseudo-Jonathan,” p. vill.), that according to 
the Zohar Jonathan translated the entire Bible, 
and thus the Pentateuch; but the word “Mikra” 
here refers to the Prophets (see “R. E. J.” xxii. 46), 
It is possible, however, that the view, first advanced 
by Recanati, that Jonathan composed also a Tar- 
gum on the Pentateuch, was due to a misinterpreta- 
tion of the passage in the Zohar. Azariah dei 
Rossi, who lived in the sixteenth century, states 
(“Me’or ‘Enayim,” ed. Wilna, p. 127) that he saw 
two manuscripts of the Palestinian Targum which 
agreed in every detail, one of which was entitled 
“Targum Yerushalmi” and the other “Targum 
Jonathan b. Uzziel.” The editio princeps of the 
complete Palestinian Targum was printed from the 
latter (Venice, 1591), thus giving currency to the 
erroneous title. 

In addition to the complete Palestinian Targum 
(pseudo-Jonathan) there exist fragments of the Pal- 
estinian Targum termed “Targum Yerushalmi”; 
but of these fragments, comprised under the generic 
term “Fragment-Targum,” only those were until 
recently known which were first published in Bom- 
berg’s “ Biblia Rabbinica” in 1518 on the basis of 
Codex Vaticanus No. 440. A few years ago, how- 
ever, Ginsburger edited under the title “ Das Frag- 
mententhargum” (Berlin, 1899) a number of other 
fragments from manuscript sources, especially from 
Codex Parisiensis No. 110, as well as the quotations 
from the Targum Yerushalmi found in ancient au- 
thors. This work rendered a large amount of ad- 
ditional material available for the criticism of the 
Palestinian Targum, even though a considerable ad- 
vance had already been made by Bassfreund in his 
“Fragmenten-Targum zum Pentateuch” (see “ Mo- 
natsschrift,” 1896, xl.). The general views concern- 
ing the Palestinian Targum and its relation to On- 
kelos have been modified but slightly by these new 
publications. Although the relation of the Targum 
Yerushalmi to Onkelos hasalready been discussed, it 
may be added here that the complete Palestinian Tar- 
gum, as itis found in the pseudo-Jonathan, is not 
earlier than the seventh century; for it mentions 
Ayeshah (‘A’ishah) (or, according to another reading, 
Khadija [Hadijah]) and Fatima, the wife and daughter 
of Mohammed, as wives of [shmaecl, who was regard- 
ed as Mohammed’s ancestor. It originated, nioreover, 
ata period when the Targum Onkelos was exercising 
its influence on the Occident; for the redactor of the 
Palestinian Targum in this form combined many 
passages of the two translations as they now exist 
in the Targum Yerushalmi and the Targum Onke- 
los (see “Z. D. M. G.” xxviii. 69 e¢ seg.), besides re- 
vealing his dependence on the Onkelos in other re- 
spects as well. The fragments of the Targum 
Yerushalmi are not all contemporaneous; and many 
passages contain several versions of the same verses, 
while certain sections are designated as additions 

(“tosefta”). The text of the majority 

Relation to of the fragments is older than the 
Onkelos. pseudo-Jonathan; and these remnants, 
which frequently consist of a single 

word only or of a portion of a verse, have been fused 
according to a principle which can no longer be 


61 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


pecan ae 
recognized; but they may have consisted in part 
of glosses written by some copyist on the margin 
of the Onkelos, although without system and 
thus without completeness. Many of these frag- 
ments, especially the haggadic paraphrases, agree 
with the pseudo-Jonathan, which may, on the 
other hand, be older than some of them. In like 
manner, haggadic additions were made in later cen- 
turies to the text of the Targum, so that an African 
manuscript of the year 1487 alludes to the capture 
of Constantinople by the Turks in 1458. Early in 
the twelfth century Judah ben Barzillai wrote as 
follows with regard to these additions: “The Pales- 
tinian Targum contains haggadic sayings added by 
those who led in prayer and who also read the Tar- 
gum, insisting that these sayings be recited in the 
synagogue as interpretations of the text of the 
Bible.” Despite the numerous additions to the 
Palestinian Targum, and notwithstanding the fact 
that the majority of the fragments are of later date 
than Onkelos, both pseudo-Jonathan and the frag- 
ments contain much that has survived from a very 
early period; indeed, the nucleus of the Palestinian 
Targum is older than the Babylonian, which was 
redacted from it. 

Targum to the Prophets: 1. The Official Tar- 
gum to the Prophets: Like the Targum Onkelos to 
the Pentateuch the Targum to the Books of the 
Prophets gained general recognition in Babylonia in 
the third century; and from the Babylonian acade- 
mies it was carried throughout the Diaspora. It 

originated, however, in Palestine, and 

Targum was then adapted to the vernacular of 
Jonathan. Babylonia; so that it contains the same 

linguistic pecuiiarities as the Targum 

Onkelos, including sporadic instances of Persian 
words (e.g., “enderun,” Judges xv. 1, xvi. 12; Joel 
ii. 16; “dastaka” = “dastah,” Judges iii. 22). In 
cases where the Palestinian and Babylonian texts 
differ, this Targum follows the latter (“ madinha’e ” ; 
see Pinsker, “ Einleitung in die Babylonische Punk- 
tuation,” p. 124). It originated, like the Targum to 
the Pentateuch, in the reading, during the service, 
of a translation from the Prophets, together with 
the weekly lesson. It is expressly stated in the 
Babylonian Talmud that the Targum accepted in 
Babylonia was Palestinian in origin; and a tannaitic 
tradition is quoted in the passage already cited from 
Megillah (3a), which declares that the Targum to the 
Prophets was composed by Jonathan b. Uzziel 
“from the mouths of Haggai, Zechariah, and Mala- 
chi,” thus implying that it was based on traditions 
derived from the last prophets. The additional 
Statements that on this account the entire land of 
Israel was shaken and that a voice from heaven 
cried: “Who hath revealed my secrets to the chil- 
dren of men?” are simply legendary reflections of 
the novelty of Jonathan’s undertaking, and of the 
disapprobation which it evoked. The story adds 
that Jonathan wished to translate the Hagiographa 
also, but that a heavenly voice bade him desist. 
he Targum to Job, which, as already noted, was 
Withdrawn from circulation by Gamaliel I., may 
have represented the result of his attempts to trans- 
late the Hagiographa (see Bacher, “Ag. Tan.” i. 23 
e& seg.; 2d ed., pp. 20 ef seg.). JONATHAN B. Uz- 


Targum 


ZIEL is named as Hillel’s most prominent pupil 
(comp. JEw. Encoyc. vi. 899, s.o. HILLEL); and the 
reference to his Targum is at all events of historical 
value, so that there is nothing to controvert the 
assumption that it served as the foundation for the 
present Targum tothe Prophets. It was thoroughly 
revised, however, before it was redacted in Baby- 
lonia. In the Babylonian Talmud it is quoted with 
especial frequency by Joseph, bead of the Academy 
of Pumbedita (see Bacher, “Ag- Bab. Amor.” p. 
103), who says, with reference to two Biblical pas- 
sages (Isa. viii. 6and Zech, xii. 11): “If there were no 
Targum to it we should not know the meaning of 
these verses ” (Sanh. 94b; M. K. 28b; Meg. 3a). This 
shows that as early as the beginning of the fourth 
century the Targum to the Prophets was recog- 
nized asof ancient authority. Hai Gaonapparently 
regarded Joseph as its author, since he cited passages 
from it with the words “Rab Joseph has trans- 
lated” (commentary on Tohorot, quoted in the 
““Aruk”; see Kohut, “ Aruch Completum,” ii. 298a, 
808a). Asa whole, this Targum resembles that of 
Onkelos, although it does not follow the Hebrew 
text so closely, and paraphrases more freely, in har- 
mony with the text of the prophetic books. The 
Targum to the Prophets is undoubtedly the result 
of a single redaction. 

2. A Palestinian Targum (Targum Yerushalmi): 
This Targum to the prophetic books of the Bible 
is frequently cited by early authors, especially by 
Rashiand David Kimhi. The Codex Reuchlinianus, 
written in 1105 (ed. Lagarde, “ Prophets Chaldaice,” 

1872), contains eighty extracts from 


Targum the Targum Yerushalmi, in addition 
Yeru- to many variants given in the margin 
shalmi. under different designations, many of 


them with the note that they were 
taken from “another copy” of the Targum. Lin- 
guistically they are Palestinian in origin. Most of 
the quotations given in the Targum Yerushalmi are 
haggadic additions, frequently traceable to the 
Babylonian Talmud, so that this Palestinian Targum 
to the Prophets belongs to a later period, when the 
Babylonian Talmud had begun to exert an influence 
upon Palestinian literature. The relation of the - 
variants of this Targum to the Babylonian Targum 
to the Prophets is, on the whole, the same as that 
of the fragments of the Palestinian Targum to the 
Onkelos; and they show the changes to which the 
targumic text was subjected in the course of centu- 
ries, and which are shown also both by the earliest 
editions of the Targum to the Prophets and by their 
relation to the text of the Codex Reuchlinianus. 
This question is discussed in detail by Bacher, 
“ Kritische Untersuchungen zum Prophetentargum ” 
(“Z. D. M. G.” xxviii. 1-58). Additions (“ tosefta ”) 
to the Targum to the Prophets, similar in most 
cases to those in the Targum Yerushalmi, are also 
cited, especially by David Kimhi. The chief extant 
portion of this Palestinian Targum is the translation 
of the haftarot (see Zunz, “G. V.” pp. 79, 412). 
Targum to the Hagiographa: The Babylo- 
nian Targumim to the Pentateuch and that to the 
Prophets were the only ones which enjoyed official 
recognition; so that even in Babylonia there was no 
authorized Targum to the Hagiographa, since this 


‘Largum 
Tarnopol 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 62 


portion of the Bible furnished no sidrot for public 
worship. This fact is mentioned in the legend, al- 
ready noted, that Jonathan ben Uzziel was forbidden 
to translate the Hagiographa. Nevertheless, there 
are extant Targumim on the hagiographic books; 
they are, for the most part, Palestinian in origin, 
although the Babylonian Talmud and its language 
influenced the Targumim on the Five Megillot. 

1. To the Psalms and to Job: These Targumim 
form a separate group, and, in view of their entire 
agreement in diction, hermeneutics, and use of 
the Haggadah, may have a common origin. In 
no other Targum, excepting the Targum Sheni to 
Esther, does ayyedoc, the Greek word for “angel,” 
occur. In rendering Ps. xviii., the Targum to 

Psalms avails itself of the Targum to 
A. Separate II Sam. xxii., although it does not 


Group. reproduce the linguistic peculiarities 
found in the Babylonian recension of 
the latter. The Targum to Psalms contains an in- 


teresting dramatization of Ps. xci., cxviii, and 
exxxvil., while both in it and in the Targum to Job 
the two constant themes are the law of God and its 
study, and the future life and its retribution. In 
Ps. eviii. 12 the parallel construction in the two sec- 
tions of the verse is interpreted in such a way as to 
mention Rome and Constantinople as the two capi- 
tals of the Roman empire, thus indicating that the 
work was composed before the fall of Rome in 476. 
The Targum to Job iv. 10 (where ‘3¥) is read instead 


of %3¥/) also seems to allude to the division of the 


empire; and this hypothesis is confirmed by the 
presence of a Greek and a Latin word in the Tar- 
gum to Job, which in all cases renders “nagid” or 
“nadib” by apxuv (on this word as an official title in 
the Jewish communities, see Schitirer, “ Gesch.” ii. 
518), and translates “hanef” by “delator,” a term 
which was applied in the Roman empire to the 
vilest class of informers. Characteristic of both 
these Targumim is the fact that they contain more 
variants from the Masoretic text in vowel-points and 
even in consonants than any other Targum, about 
fifty of them occurring in the Targum to Psalms, and 
almost as many being found in the Targum to Job, 
despite its relative brevity. A number of these 
variants occur also m the Septuagint and in the 
Peshitta, thus affording a confirmation of the early 
date of composition assigned to the two Targumim. 
Both of these contain, moreover, a number of vari- 
ants, fifty verses of Job having two, and sometimes 
three, translations, of which the second is the orig- 
inal, while the later reading is put first (for a con- 
firmation of the statements in “ Monatsschrift,” xx. 
218, sec Perles, 7. vii. 147, and “R. E. J.” xxi. 122). 
The Targum to. Psalms, like that to Job, is quoted 
by Nahmanides under the title “Targum Yeru- 
shalmi” (Zunz, “G. V.” p. 80). 

2. To Proverbs: This Targum differs from all 
other Judéeo-Aramaic translations of the Bible in 
that it shows Syriac characteristics, and also agrees 
in other respects with the Peshitta, to which, ac- 
cording to Geiger (“Nachgelassene Schriften,” iv. 
112), one-half of it corresponds word for word. 
This Targum contains scarcely any haggadic para- 
phrases. It may be assumed either that its author 


used or, rather, revised the Peshitta, or, with a 
greater degree of probability, that the Targum 
to Proverbs was derived from the same source as 
the Peshitta of that book, the Syriac version itself 
being based on a translation originally intended for 
Jews who spoke the Syriac dialect. This Targum 
also is quoted in the *‘Aruk” and by Nahmanideg 
as “Targum Yerushalmi” (Zunz, .¢.). 

3. To the Five Megillot: These Targumim are alike 
in so far as all of them are essentially detailed hag- 
gadic paraphrases. This is especially the case in 
the Targum to Canticles, in which the book is in- 
terpreted as an allegory of the relation between God 
and Israel and of the history of Israel. In the 
“*Aruk,” the first work to cite these Targumim, the 
Targum to Canticles is once (8.2. ngs) called 
“Targum Yerushalmi”; and Rashiapplies the same 
name (Targ. Yer. to Deut. iii. 4) to the second Tar- 
gum on Esther, the so-called “Targum Sheuni,” 
which may be termed, in view of its length, and 
of the fact that it betrays castern Aramaic influences 
in its diction, an Aramaic midrash on Esther. This 
last-named work, which is quoted as early as the Mas- 
sek, Soferim (xiii. 6), has proved extremely popular, 
The Book of Esther is the only one of the hagio- 
graphic books which has a Targum noticed by the 
Halakah, rules for its reading having been formu- 
lated as early as the tannaitic period. The other 
“scroHs,” however, were also used to a certain extent 
in the liturgy, being read on festivals and on the 
Ninth of Ab, which fact explains the discursiveness 
of their Targumim. 

4. To Chronicles: This Targum follows the Pales- 
tinian Targumim both in language and in its hag- 
gadic paraphrases, although it shows the influence 
of the Babylonian Talmudalso. It remained almost 
wholly unknown, however, not being cited even 
in the “‘Aruk,” nor included in the first editions 
of the Targumim. It was first published in 1680 
(and 1688) by M. F. Beck from an Erfurt codex of 
1348; and it was again edited, by D. Wilkins in 
1715, on the basis of a Cambridge manuscript of 
1347, this edition containing a later revision of the 
targumic text. 

Among the apocryphal additions to Esther the 
“Halom Mordekai” (Dream of Mordecai) has been 
preserved in a Targum which is designated in a 
manuscript as an integral portion of the Targum 
to the Hagiographa. This passage, divided into 

fifty-one verses in Biblical fashion, has 
Apocryphal been printed in Lagarde’s edition of 
Additions the Targumim (“ Hagiographa Chal- 
to Esther. daice,” pp. 352-365) and in Merx’s 
“Chrestomathia Targumica,” pp. 154- 
164 (see Bacher in “ Monatsschrift,” 1869, xviii. 
O43 ef seg.) On the Targum to the Book of Tobit, 
known to Jerome, and preserved in a recension 
published by A. Neubauer (“The Book of Tobit,” 
Oxford, 1878), see Dalman, “Grammatik des Jii- 
disch-Palistinensischen Aramiisch,” pp. 27-29). It 
is probable, moreover, that a complete Aramaic 
transJation of Ben Sira once existed (2d. p. 29). 

The view prevailed at an early time that the 
amora Joseph b. Hama, who had the reputation of 
being thoroughly versed in the Targumim to the 
Prophets, was the author of the Targumim to the 


63 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Targum 
Tarnopol 


jpn nO 


Hagiographa. In the Masscket Soferim (/.c.)a quo- 
tation from the Targum Sheni to Esth. iii. 1 is in- 
troduced by the words “Tirgem Rab Yosef” (Rab 
Joseph has translated); and a manuscript of 1238, 
in the municipal library of Breslau, appends to the 
“Dream of Mordecai” the statement: “ This is the 
endof the book of the Targum on the Hagiographa, 
translated by Rab Joseph.” The manuscript from 
which the copyist of the Breslau codex took the 
“Dream of Mordecai,” together with this colophon, 
included therefore all the Targumim to the Hagi- 
ographa, excepting that to Chronicles, the one to 
Esther standing last (see “ Monatsschrift.” x viii. 348). 
In his commentary on Ex. xv. 2 and Lev. xx. 1%, 
moreover, Samuel ben Meir, writing in the twelfth 
century, quoted targumic passages on Job and 
Proverbs in the name of R. Joseph. The belief 
that Joseph was the translator of the Hagiographa 


was due to the fact that the phrase frequently found ~ 


in the Talmud, “as Rab Joseph has translated,” 
was referred to the Targum to the Hagiographa, al- 
though it occurred only in passages from the Proph- 
ets and, according to one reading (Sotah 48b), ina 
single passage of the Pentateuch. The Palestinian 
characteristics of the hagiographic Targumim, and 
the fact that the translations of the several books 
are differentiated according to the grouping noted 
above, prove that the view is historically baseless. 
The Tosafot (to Shab. 115a, below), since they as- 
cribed a tannaitic origin to the Targum to the 
Hagiographa (comp. Tos. to Meg. 21b), naturally 
cefused to accept the theory of Joseph’s authorship. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY : Editions—Targum to the Pentateuch : Onkelvus, 
editio prineeps, Bologna, 1482; Sabbionetta, 1557 (reprinted 
by Berliner, Targum Onkelos, Berlin, 1884); pseudo-Jonathan, 
Venice, 1591; Fragment-Targum, in bthlia Rabhinica, 
Appendix, ib. 1518. Targum to the Prophets: editio princeps, 
Leiria, 1494; Venice, 1518; Lagarde, Prophet Chaldaice, 
Leipsic, 1872. Praetorius has edited Joshua and Judges on 
the basis of manuscripts from Yemen with superlinear punctu- 
ation (1900, 1901; see Theologische Literaturzeitung, xxv. 
164, xxvi. 131); Alfr. Levy, AKohetet, Breslau, 1905. Targum 
to the Hagiographa: Venice, 1517; Lagarde. Hagiographa 
Chaldaice, Leipsic, 1873. On the editions of the Targum to 
Chronicles see above. Targum Shent, ed. L. Munk, Berlin, 
1876. The polyglot and rabbinical Bibles (see Berliner, Z.c. 
ii. 187-190), as well as numerous other editions. The three 
Targumim to the Pentateuch were translated into English 
by J. W. Etheridge (London, 1862, 1865); and German trans- 
lations of considerable length are given by Winter and 
Winsche, Die Jiidische Litteratur, i. 63-79, 

On the Targum in general: the various introductions to tie 
Bible; Zunz, G. V. pp. 61-83; Z. Frankel, Einiges zw den 
Targumim, in Zeitschrift ftir die Religibsen Interessen 
des Judenthuma, 1846, iii. 110-111; Geiger, Ursehrift, pp. 
162-167 ; idem, Nachgelassene Schriften, iv. 98-116; G. Dal- 
man, Grammatik des Jiidisch-Pallstinensischen Aramil- 
isch, pp. 21-27; Hamburger, R. B. T. ii. 1167-1195 ; E. Nestle, 
in Bibeltext und Biheltibertragungen, pp. 163-170, Leipsic, 
1897 ; Buhl, Kanon und Text des Alten Testaments, 1891, 
pp. 168-184, 

On the Targumim to the Pentateuch: Luzzatto, Oheb Ger, 
Vienna, 1830 (see Cracow ed. 1895); Levy. Ueller Onkelns, 
etc. in Geiger’s Wiss. Zeit. Jit. Theol. 1844, vol. v.: Fiirst, 
in Orient, Lit. 1845; A. Geiger, Das Nach Onkelos Be- 
nannte Babylonische Targum, in his Jttd. Zeit. ix. 85-194; 
A. Berliner, Das Targum Onkelos, ii., Berlin, 1884; Anger, De 
Onkelo Chatdaico, Leipsic, 1846; M. Friedmann, Onkelosund 
Akylas, Vienna, 1896 ; Schénfelder, Onkelos und Peschitta, 
Munich, 1864; Maybaum, Die Anthropomorphien und An- 
hropopathien bei Onkelos, ete., Breslau, 1870; 8. Singer, 
Onkelos und das Verhiiltniss Seines Targum zur Halacha, 
Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1881; H. Barnstein, The Targum of 
Onkelos to Geucsis, London, 1896: E. Kautzsch, Mitthei- 
lungen tiher cine Alte Handschrift des Targum Onkelos, 
Halle, 1803: A. Merx, Anmerkungyen ther die Vocalisa- 
tion der Targume, in Verhandlungen des Fiinften Orien- 
tdlistenconyresses, ii. 1, 145-188; G. B. Winer, De Jona- 

anis in Pentateuchim Paraphrast Chaldaica, Erlangen, 

> H. Petermann, De Indole Paraphrascos Quem Jona- 
thanis Esse Dicitur, Berlin, 1831; 8. Baer, Gicist des Yeru- 
shalmi, in Monatsschrift, 1851-32, i, 235-242; Seligsohn and 


Traub, Ueber den Geist der Uebersetzung des Jonathan b. 
Usiel zum Pentateuch, ib. 1857, vi. 69-114; Seligsohn, De 
Duabus Hierosolymitamis Pentateuchi Paraphrasibus, 
Brestau, 1858; S. Gronemann, Die Jonathan’sche Penta- 
teuchtibersetzung in Ihrem Verhdiltnisse zur Halacha, 
Leipsic, 1879; W. Bacher, Ueber das Geyenseitige Verhdlt- 
niss der Pentateuch-Targumim, in Z. D. M. G. 1874, xxviii. 
59-72; J. Bassfreund, Das Fragmenten-Targum zum Pen- 
tateuch, in Monatssehrift, 1896, xl. 1-14, 49, 67, 97-109, 145- 
168, 241-252, 352-365, iH-409; M. Neumark, Lezikatische 
Untersuchungen zur Sprache des Jerusalemischen Penta- 
teuch-Targum, Berlin, 1905. 

On the Targum to the Prophets: Z. Frankel, Zu dem Tar- 
gum der Propheten, Breslau, 1872; H. S. Levy, Zargum to 
Isaiah 1., with Commentary, London, 1889; Cornill, Das 
Targum zu den Propheten, i., inStade’s Zeitschrift, vii. 731- 
767; idem, Das Buch des Propheten Ezechiel, 1886, pp. 110- 
136; H. Weiss, Die Peschitha zu Deutero-Jesaja und Ihr 
Verhiiltniss zum... Targum, Halle, 18938: M. Sebék 
(Schénberger), Die Syrische Uebersetzung der Zwolf Klei- 
nen Propheten und Ihr Verhdliniss zum... Targum, 
Breslau, 1887. 

On the Targum to the Hagiographa: W. Bacher, Das Tar- 
gum zu den Psalmen, in Monatsschrift, 1872, xxi. 408-416, 
462-673; idem, Das Targum zu Hiob, ib. 1871, xx. 208-223, 
283 et seq.; S. Maybaum, Ueber die Sprache des Targum 
zu den Spritchen und Dessen Verhiiliniss zum Syrer, in 
Merx’s Archiv, ii. 66-93; T. Néldeke, Das Targum zu den 
Spriichen, ib. pp. 246-249; H. Pinkusz, Die Syrische Ueber- 
setzung der Proverbien ... undihr Verhdltniss zum Tar- 
gum, in Stade’s Zeitschrift, 1894, xiv. 65-141, 161-162; A. 
Abelesz, Die Syrische Uebersetzung der Klagelieder und 
Thr Verhiiltnriss zum Targum, Giessen, 1896: A. Weiss, De 
Libri Job Paraphrasi Chaldaica, Breslau, 1873; A. Posner, 
Das Targum Rischon zu dem Biblischen Buche Esther, 
ib. 1896 ; 8S. Gelbhaus, Das Targum Shent zum Buche Esther, 
Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1898; J. Reis, Das Targum Sheni zu 
dem Buche Esther, in Monatsschrift, 1876, xxv.; 1881, xxx.; 
P. Cassel, Zweites Targum zum Buche Esther, Leipsic, 1885; 
M. Rosenberg and K. Kohler, Das Targum zur Chronik, in 
Geiger’s Jild. Zeit. 1870, viii. 72-80, 185-163, 263-278. 

Hebrew works on the Targum: the commentaries Patshe- 
gen of the thirteenth century, printed in the Wilna edition of 
the Pentatench,. 1874; N. Adler, Netinah la-Ger, in the same 
edition; 8. B. Scheftel, BV ure Onkelos, ed. I. Perles, Munich, 
1888; Abraham ben Elijah of Wilna, Targum Abraham, Je- 
rusalem, 1896. Other Hebrew works: Isaiah Berlin, Mine 
Targima, Breslau, 18381; Wilna, 1886; H. Chajes, Imre Bi- 
nah, Zolkiev, 1849; B. Berkowitz, “Oteh Or, Wilna, 1843; 
idem, Lehem we-Simiah, ib. 1850; idem, Halifot u-Semalot, 
tb. 1874; idem, Abne Ziyyon. ib. 1877; J. Reifmann, Sedeh 
Aram, Berlin, 1875; idem, Ma’amar Darke ha-Targumim, 
St. Petersburg, 1891. 

W. B. 


TARNOPOL: Town of eastern Galicia, Aus- 
tria; situated on the Sereth. It was founded in 1540 
by the Polish hetman Johann Tarnowski. Polish 
Jews were at once admitted, and soon formed a ma- 
jority of the population; during the sixteenth and 
seventeenth centuries there were 300 Jewish families 
in the city. Among the towns destroyed by 
CHMIELNICKI during his march of devastation from 
Zloczow through Galicia was Tarnopol, the large 
Jewish population of which carried on an extensive 
trade. Shortly afterward, however, when the Cos- 
sacks had been subdued by John Casimir II., of 
Poland, the town began to prosper anew, and its 
Jewish population exceeded all previous figures. 
It may be noted that Hasidism at this time domi- 
nated the community, which opposed any introduc- 
tion of Western culture, During the troublous times 
in the Jatter part of the eighteenth century the city 
was stormed (1770) by the adherents of the Confed- 
eracy of Bar, who massacred many of its inhab- 
itants, especially the Jews. 

After the second partition of Poland, Tarnopol 
came under Austrian domination; and Joseph PERL 
was able to continue his efforts to improve the con- 
dition of the Jews there, which he had begun under 
Russian rule. In 1813 he established a Jewish 
school which had for its chief object the instruction 
of Jewish youth in German as well as in Hebrew 
and various other branches. The controversy be- 
tween the Hasidim and the Maskilim which this 


Tarnow 
Tarsus 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 64 


—— ee Se Ss Fae a = Bees Tot Se Sa = ie esos ee Se ee or 


school caused resulted four years later in a victory 
for the latter, whereupon the institution received 
official recognition and was placed under communal 
control, Since 1868 the school policy has gradually 
been modified by Polish influences, and very little 
attention has been given to instruction in German. 

The Tempel fiir Geregelten Gottesdienst, opened 

by Perl in 1819, also caused dissensions within the 

community, and its rabbi, S. J. Rapoport, was forced 
to withdraw. This dispute also was eventually 

settled in favor of the Maskilim. The present (1905) 

rabbi of the Tempel is Dr. Taubeles, who officiates 

also as a teacher of religion in the local gymnasium. 

The Jewish community is still growing, and at 

present numbers 14,000 in a total population of 

80,415. The Jews are engaged principally in an 

active import and export trade with Russia through 

the border city of Podwoloczyska. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Alig. Zeit. des Jud. 1839, iii. 606; A. Bresler, 
Joseph Perl, Warsaw, 1879, passim ; Orgelbrandt, in Eney- 
klopedja Powszechna, xiv. 409; J. H. Gurland, Le-Korot 
ha-Gezerot, p. 22, Odessa, 1892; Meyers Konversations- 
Lexikon. 

J. 8. O, 

TARNOW: Town of Austrian Galicia. An 
organized community existed there in the middle 
of the sixteenth century. The Jews were, for the 
most part, under the jurisdiction of the lords of 
Tarnow, the city being the hereditary possession of 
the latter. In 1687 Ladislaus Dominik granted the 
Jews a privilege placing them under the jurisdiction 
of the castle, assuring them of protection, and per- 
mitting them to engage in commerce on the same 
footing as other citizens. In 1654, however, popular 
jealousy, combined with the intrigues of the magis- 
tracy, secured the abrogation of this privilege; but 
when the town was brought to the verge of ruin 
in 1670 by the plague, conflagrations, and attacks 
of the Swedes, Alexander Janusz, its overlord, was 
forced to restore the privilege to the Jews in the 
interest of the town. This privilege was confirmed 
by Michael Radziwill in the same year, by Stanislaus 
Koniecepolski in 1676, and by Katarina Radziwill in 
1681 and 1684. 

In 1670 Janusz succeeded in effecting the follow- 
ing agreement between the Jewish inhabitants and 
the magistrate and the gilds: (1) the Jews should pay 
30 per cent of all municipal taxes; (2) they should 
purchase goods only from the gilds within the 
town, except at the annual and weekly fairs; (8) 
they should surrender tothe gilds a certain percent- 
age of all goods purchased in the markets for retail 
purposes. 

When misfortune on misfortune had reduced Tar- 
now to ruins early in the eighteenth century, its re- 
vival was due to the Jews, who paid, in accordance 
with a decree of Paul, Prince Sanguszko, then the 
lord of Tarnow, about three-fourths of all the taxes of 
the municipality (1780), receiving in return certain 
commercial privileges. Scarcely had the town been 
reestablished by these measures when the citizens, 
and even more eagerly the Christian gilds, resumed 
their attacks upon the Jews and the Jewish gilds, 
which had been organized about that time. This 
crusade was headed by the clergy, who insisted on 
Jewish isolation, although they maintained profita- 
ble business relations with the synagogue of Tarnow. 


In 1765 the community of Tarnow numbered 2,325 
persons, but it ceased to exist after the first partition 
of Poland (1772). 

s I. Se, 


TARRAGONA (749390, 721U90): Capital of 
the province of Tarragona, Spain; the ancient Tar. 
raco. It was called the “City of the Jews” by 
Edrisi (ed. Conde, p. 64). and contained a commu. 
nity at an early date, as is shown by Jewish Coins 
discovered in the course of excavations there some 
decades ago (Helfferich, “Der Westgothische Ari- 
anismus,” p. 68, Berlin, 1860). TheJews’ quarter was 
in the street now known as Plaza de las Monjas de 
la Ensefianza; and their cemetery was near the Plaza 
del Milagro. When the Count of Barcelona won 
Catalonia from the Moors, he granted rights and 
privileges to the Jews of Tarragona, whose ghetto 
contained ninety-five houses in 1239. They clected 
their own administrators, and engaged in commerce, 
industry, and brokerage, their circumstances and 
their taxes being similar to those of their coreligion- 
ists at Barcelona and other Catalonian cities. In 
1822 the Archbishop of Tarragona confiscated the 
property of the Jews of the city, and in 1348 almost 
300 Jews were killed at Tarragona and the neigh- 
boring Solsona, while in 1391 the community suf- 
fered the same fate as that of Barcelona, many of its 
members being slain. Hven after this Tarragona 
was the residence of a number of Jews, who were 
noted for their piety. Isaac Arama officiated for 
some time as rabbithere; and a certain D. Benjamin 
was city physician. Two tombstones with Hebrew 
inscriptions, dating from the years 1300 and 1302, 
have recently been found at Tarragona: one (144 
meters wide and 43 centimeters high) marks the 
grave of Hayyim b. [saac, who died iu the month of 
Nisan, 13800; and the other commemorates Hananiah 
b. Simeon a55y, perhaps Alrabi. 

Tarragona must not be confounded with Tara- 
zona in Aragon, where the philosopher and apolo- 
gist Shem-Tob ben [saac ibn Shaprut lived for a 
time, and where there was a small but wealthy com- 
munity, which paid a poll-tax of 145 “sueldos 
jaqueses” in 1282, and one of 200 “sueldos” in the 
middle of the fourteenth century. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY : Solomon ben Adret, Responsa, Nos. 391. 452, 
1234; Isaac ben Sheshet, Responsa, Nos. 210, 226, 515; Rios, 
Hist. i. 245 et seq.; ti. 14, 297; iii. 229; Joseph ha-Kohen, 
‘Emek ha-Baka, p. 66 (where 73139 should be read instead 
of 7n\poxs ; see Wiener’s German translation, pp. 53, 185); 
R. E. J. xiii. 241; Boletin Acad. Hist. xliii. 460 et seq; 


Fidel Fita, La Espatia Hebrea, i. 175. 
a. M. K. 


TARRASCH, SIEGBERT: German physician 
and chess-master; born at Breslau March 5, 1862; 
studied medicine at the universities of Berlin, Halle, 
and Nuremberg, in which last-named city he en- 
gaged in practise asa physician. Tarrasch has been 
one of the most successful of modern chess-players, 
as the following list shows. In the tournaments at 
Manchester, Dresden, and Leipsic he lost but a sin- 
gle game. 


1889. Breslau, first prize. 
1890. Manchester, first prize. 


1884, Nuremberg, first prize. 
1885. Hamburg, tied for sec- 


ond prize. 189. Dresden, first prize. 
1887. Frankfort-on-the--Main, | 1894. Leipsic, first prize. 

divided fifth and sixth | 1895, Hastings, fourth prize. 

prizes. 18%. Nuremberg, fourth prize. 


65 

+ feo 

ysgs. Vienna, tirst prize. 
1902. Monte Carlo, sixth prize. 
1903. Moate Carlo, first prize. 

In 1893 be played a drawn match with Tchigorin, 
9 games all, 4 being drawn. In 1905, at Nuremberg, 
he played with Marshall a match of eight games 
up (draws not counted) in: which the American 

layer wou only one game. 

Tarrasch is an able writer on chess; and his anno- 
tations of games evince great analytical power, For 
some time he was joint editor with Gottschall of the 
«Schachzeitung.” He has published “ Dreihundert 
Schachpartieen Gespielt und Erliutert” (Leipsic, 
1894). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Meyers Konversations-Lexikon ; C.T. Blan- 
shard, Examples of Chess Master-Play, 2d series, London, 


abe A. P. 


TARREGA: City of Catalonia. Jews were 
among its inhabitants when the counts of Barcelona 
took Catalonia from the Moors. They enjoyed cer- 
tain privileges, which were confirmed in 1332 and 
later. At the special request of the king the com- 
munity was permitted in 1346 to build a new syna- 
gogue 80 feet long, 50 feet wide, and 60 feet high; 
also a school. On this occasion Pedro Montell, 
vicar of the Bishop of Vich, assured the Jews that, 
in conformity with canonical law, their cemeteries 
should not be desecrated, nor they themselves dis- 
turbed on their holy days; further that any one 
found guilty of acting contrary to this assurance 
would be strictly punished. Three years later, on 
the Ninth of Ab (July 26), the citizens of Tarrega 
attacked the Jews, killing more than 300, throwing 
their bodies into a pit, and plundering their houses. 
The survivors, robbed of all their possessions, fled, 
and remained hidden until the danger had passed. 

Many Jews of Tarrega were killed during the per- 
secutions of 1891; but a small community continued 
to dwell in the town, and it sent delegates to the 
- funeral services held for King James at CERVERA. 
In the civil war of 1462 some Jews of Tarrega and 
Cervera were killed and their possessions confiscated. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Rios, Hist. it. 162 et seg.; Jacobs, Sources, Nos. 
1001, 1189; Joseph ha-Kohen, ‘Emek ha-Baka, p. 66. 


J. M. K. 

TARSHISH : In the genealogical table of the 
Noachide, Tarshish is given as the second son of 
Javan and is followed by Kittim and Dodanim (Gen. 
x. 4; I Chron. i. 7). As with all these names, Tar- 
shish denotes a country ; in several instances, indeed, 
it is mentioned asa maritime country lying in the 
remotest region of the earth. Thus, Jonah flees to 
Tarshish from the presence of YHwu (Jonah i. 8, iv. 
2). With Pul, Tubal, and Javan, it is mentioned as 
One of the remote places that have not heard of 
Yuwu (Isa. Ixvi. 19, comp. 1x. 9; Ps. Ixxii. 10; Ezek. 
XXXvili, 13). Any large vessel capable of making a 
long sea-voyage was styled a “ship of Tarshish,” 
though this did not necessarily mean that the vessel 
sailed either to or from Tarshish (Ps. xlviii. 7; I 

Ings X. 22, xxii. 48; Isa. ii. 16; e¢ al.). It seems 
that in parallel passages referring to Solomon’s and 
Jehoshaphat’s ships (I Kings /.¢c.) the author of 

bronicles did not understand the meaning of “ships 
of Tarshish ” (II Chron. ix. 21, xx. 36). 

XII.—5 


1905. Ostend, divided second 
and third prizes with 
Janowski. 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Tarnow 
Tarsus 


Tarshish appears to have had a considerable 
trade in silver, iron, tin, and lead (Jer. x. 9; Ezek. 
AXxvil, 12). It gave its name, besides, to a precious 
stone which has not yet been satisfactorily identi- 
fied (see GEMs), The Targum of Jonathan renders 
the word “ Tarshish” in the prophetical books by 
“sea,” which rendering is followed by Saadia. 
Moreover, the term “ships of Tarshish ” is rendered 
by Jewish scholars “sea-ships” (comp. LXX., Isa. 
li, 16, wAolta Gasaconc). Jerome, too, renders “Tar- 
shish” by “sea” in many instances; andin his com- 
mentary on Isaiah (é.c.) he declares that he had been 
told by his Jewish teachers that the Hebrew word 
for “sea” was “tarshish.” In Isa. xxiii. 1 the Sep- 
tuagint, and in Ezek. xxvii. 12 both the Septuagint 
and the Vulgate, render “Tarshish” by “Carthage,” 
apparently suggested by Jewish tradition. Indeed, 
the Targum of Jonathan renders “Tarshish” in I 
Kings xxii. 48 and Jer. x. 9 by “Afriki,” that is, 
Carthage. 

Josephus (“ Ant.” i. 6, § 1), apparently reading 
“Tarshush,” identifies it with Tarsus in Cilicia. 
This identification was adopted by Bunsen and Sayce 
(“Expository Times,” 1902, p. 179); but it seems 
from Assyrian inscriptions that the original Hebrew 
name of Tarsus was not “Tarshush.” Bochart (in 
his “Phaleg”), followed by many later scholars, 
identifies Tarshish with Tartessus, mentioned by 
Herodotus and Strabo as a district of southern 
Spain; he thinks, moreover, that “Tartessus” is 
the Aramaic form of “Tarshish.” On the other 
hand, Le Page Renouf (“ Proc. Soc. Bibl. Arch.” 
Xvi. 104 et seg.) refutes this theory, declaring besides 
that Tartessus never really existed. Renouf’s opin- 
ion is that “Tarshish” means a coast, and, as the 
word occurs frequently in connection with Tyre, 
the Phenician coast is to be understood. Cheyne 
(in “ Orientalische Litteraturzeitung,” iii. 151) thinks 
that “ Tarshish ” of Gen. x. 4, and “Tiras” of Gen. 
x. 2, are really two names of one nation derived 
from two different sources, and might indicate the 
Tyrsenians or Etruscans. Thus the name may de- 
note Italy or the European coasts west of Greece. 

8. M. SEt. 


TARSUS: Turkish town in the vilayet of 
Adana, 12 miles from the Mediterranean, on the 
River Cydnous. During the Roman period it was 
the capital of Cilicia. It was important on account 
of its commerce and its textile products, and was 
famed for its schools of rhetoric. In Tarsus, as in 
Cilicia generally, the original population was Sem- 
itic, a fact reflected in the tradition that the city 
was a Phenician colony (Dio Chrysostom, “ Ora- 
tiones,” xxxiii. 40), while on Phenician coins it was 
often called “'Taraz” (thn). Josephus (“ Ant.” i. 6, 
8 1), in agreement with rabbinical literature (Gen. 
R, xxxvii. 1; Yer. Meg. 7ib; Targ. Yer. to Gen, x. 
4), identified the city with TarsuisnH (Gen. x. 4), and 
accordingly believed it was to Tarsus that Jonah 
wished to flee (“ Ant.” ix. 10, § 2). A monument 
to Jonah was discovered in Tarsus in 1876; but it 
doubtless dates from the Christian period. 

The Hellenization of the city began in the days of 
Alexander the Great; this influence was fully felt 
by the Jews, who had been colonized at Tarsus by 


Tartak 
Taussig 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 66 


a I a a A a EE a LT ET TI I I TS ZR SAE TE 2 Ea a 


the Seleucids about 1708.c. During the reign of An- 
tiochus Epiphanes a revolt. of these colonists proved 
a factor in Jewish history (II Macc. iv. 80-388). 
Nothing further is known regarding the Jews of 
this city, although it Jater became famous as the 
birthplace of Saunt or Tarsus, who lived there for 
a time (Acts ix. 11, xi. 25, xxi. 39, xxii. 8) and 
claimed Roman citizenship in virtue thereof. Ram- 
say, followed by Schiirer, has proved (see Hastings, 
“Dict. Bible,” ii. 105, s.e. “ Diaspora”) that a Jew 
could not have been a citizen ina Greek town unless 
the sovereign had ordered that the Jews of the city 
in question form a separate gens, an event which 
must have happened in Tarsus, probably, as Ram- 
say thinks, at the instance of Antiochus Epiphanes 
(“Expository Times,” xvi. 18 e seq.). 

The city of Tarsus is frequently mentioned by 
the Rabbis. There R. Jose ben Jasian boarded 
a vesse] (Eccl. R. vii. 11), and R. Nahum ben Si- 
mai lectured (Pesik. R. 15 [ed. Friedmann, p. 
%8a]). The Rabbis allude to the inhabitants and the 
language of Tarsus in connection with Bigthan and 
Teresh (Esth. ii. 21), although the exact meaning of 
this passage is not clear. The presence of Jews in 
Tarsus is further evidenced by inscriptions: one in 
Rome names a certain Asaphat of Tarsus (Levy, in 
“Jahrbuch fiir die Gesch. der Juden,” ii. 287), and 
an epitaph found at Jaffa was inscribed to the mem- 
ory of one Judah ben Joseph of the same city 
(Schtirer, “ Gesch.” 8d ed., iii. 17). Mention is like- 
wise made of one Isaac, elder of the synagogue of 
the Cappadocians at Tarsus, who was a dealer in 
linen (“ Pal. Explor. Fund, Quarterly Statement,” 
No. 110, p. 18), proving not only the existence of a 
Jewish community at Tarsus but also Jewish partici- 
pation in mercantile pursuits. In the Middle Ages the 
town came under the dominion of the Isaurians and 
other barbarians, later falling into the hands of the 
Arabs and Turks, who deprived it of its importance. 
Its present (1905) permanent population is about 
7,000. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY : Ritter, Erdkunde, ii. 197-220; Winer, B. R.; 


Boettger, Lexicon zu Flavius Josephus; 8S. Krauss, in Mo- 
natsschrift, xxxix. 53; Hastings, Dict. Bible. 


J. S. Kr. 


TARTAE: Deity mentioned but once in the 
Bible (II Kings xvii. 31). His name occurs together 
with that of Nipnaz or Nibhan, who was a divinity 
of the Avites, a tribe colonized by Sargon on Israel- 
itish soil, In the Babylonian Talmud (Sanh. 68a; 
comp. Yalkut Shim‘oni, 234) R. Judah, transmit- 
ting a saying in the nameof Abba Arika, states that 
Tartak was worshiped in the form of anass. All 
attempts to identify this god have thus far proved 
unsuccessful, Nosimilar divinity is found among 
the Babylonians or Assyrians; and an Egyptian 
parallel exists only in so far as the ass was sacred to 
the god Typhbon and was sacrificed to him. 

E. C. 8. O. 


TARTAN (Assyrian, “tartanu,” “turtanu”): 
Title of an Assyrian official; twice mentioned in the 
Bible. A tartan, accompanied by a “rabsaris” and 
a “rab-shakeh,” was sent to Jerusalem by Sennache- 
rib to command Hezekiah to surrender the city (II 
Kings xviii. 17); and another is mentioned as Sar- 


gon’s envoy to Ashdod in the year of a prophecy of 
Isaiah (Isa. xx.1). The title was borne only by the 
two generals next to the king; thus there were g 
“tartanu rabu” (great tartan) and a “tartany 
shanu” (second tartan). It isno longer possible to 
identify the tartans mentioned in the Bible, although 
the names of three of these officials are known. 
Ashur-isku (?)-udannim in 720 (the first year of 
Sargon’s reign), Jlu-ittea in 694 (the beginning of 
the reign of Sennacherib), and Bel-emuranni in 686, 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Delitzsch, Assyrioloyisches Handworterhbuch, 


Ss. Ss. 0. 


TARTAS, DAVID. 
DAVID B. ABRAHAM, 


TARTAS, ISAAC DE CASTRO. 
TRO TartTAs, ISAAC. 


TARYAG MIZWOT. 
THE 6138. 


TASHLIK : Propitiatory rite, the name of which 
is derived from the passage (Micah vii. 18-20) re- 
cited at the ceremony. In illustration of the sen- 
tence “ Thou wilt cast all their sins into the depths 
of the sea,” it is customary to congregate near 4 
running stream on the afternoon of New-Year’s 
Day, when Micah vii. 18-20 is recited and penitential 
prayers are offered. The prayers and hymns used 
are given in Emden’s Siddur (“Bet Ya‘akob,” ii, 
54b, 55a, Warsaw, 1881). 

When and where the custom was first introduced 
is problematical. Kalman Schulman (in “ Ha- 
Meliz,” 1868, viii., No. 14) is of the opinion that it 
is referred to in Josephus (“ Ant.” xiv. 10, § 23), in 
the decree of the Halicarnassians permitting Jews to 
“perform their holy rites according to the Jewish 
laws and to have their places of prayer by the sea, 
according to the customs of their forefathers.” The 
Zohar, perhaps, refers to the custom when it says 
that “whatever falls into the deep is lost forever; 

. it acts like the scapegoat for the ablution of 
sins” (Zohar, Leviticus, p. 101a, b). But the fact 
that the Talmud, the geonic literature, and the early 
casuistic authorities are silent on this custom gives 
the impression that it originated not earlier than the 
fourteenth century, with the German Jews. Th’ 
first direct reference to itis by R. Jacob Molin (d 
1425) in “Sefer Maharil” (p. 38a, Warsaw, 1874), 
where, by the midrashic haggadah of the “ Sefer ha- 
Yashar,” he explains the minhag as a reminder of 
the “‘Akedah” incident; ¢.¢., Satan, by throwing 
himself across Abraham’s path in the form of a deep 
stream, endeavored to prevent him from sacrificing 
Isaac on Mount Moriah; Abraham and Isaac never: 
theless plunged into the river up to their necks and 
prayed for divine aid, whereupon the river disap- 
peared (comp. Tan., Wayera, 22). Mdlln, however, 
forbids the practise of throwing pieces of bread to 
the fish in the river during the ceremony, especially 
on the Sabbath, being opposed to carrying the bread 
without an ‘Erus. This shows that io his time 
tashlik was duly performed, even when the first 
day of New-Year fell on the Sabbath, though in 
later times the ceremony was on such occasions de- 
ferred till the second day. The significance of the 
fish is thus explained by R. Isaiah Horowit2 


See Castro TArtTas, 
See Cas. 


See COMMANDMENTS, 


VIOITVS NI ANOWSYS90 YWINTHSVL 


‘LEX ‘TOA “OT ‘¢ ‘yixuid 1yeMosig 


Hosted by Google 


67 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Tartak 
Taussig 


NS 


( Shelah,” p. 214b); (1) they illustrate man’s plight, 
gud also arouse him to repentance: “As the fishes 
that are taken in an evil net” (Eccl. ix. 12}; (2) as 
fishes have no eyebrows and their eyes are always 
wide open, they symbolize the guardian of Israel, 
who slumbereth not. Moses Isserles gives this ex- 
planation : “The deeps of the sea saw the genesis of 
Greation; therefore to throw bread into the sea on 
New-Year’s Day, the anniversary of Creation, is an 
appropriate tribute to the Creator” (“Torat ha- 
‘Olab,” iii. 56). 

The cabalistic practise of shaking the ends of 
one’s garments at the ceremony, as though casting 
off the “kelippot” (lit. “shells”; ¢.¢., the clinging 
demons of sin}, has caused many who are not caba- 
lists to denounce the whole custom, as it created the 
impression among the common people that by liter- 
ally throwing their sins into the river to be swept 
away by the stream, they might escape them with- 
out repenting and making amends. The Maskilim 
in particular have ridiculed the custom and charac- 
terized it as heathenish. The best satire on this 
subject is by Isaac Erter, in his “Ha-Zofeh le-Bet 
Yisrael” (pp. 64-80, Vienna, 1864), in which Samael 
watches the sins of the hypocrites dropping into the 
river. The Orthodox Jews of New York perform 
the ceremony in large numbers from the Brooklyn 
and Manhattan bridges. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Shuthan ‘Aruk, Orah Hayyim, 583, 2, Is- 
serles’ note; Baer’s Siddur, “Abodat Yisrael, p. 407; Moses 


Briick, Rabbinische Ceremonialgebrtiuche, § 4, Breslau, 
1837; J. Abrahams, in Jew. Chron. Sept. 27, — DE 
8, F : . 


TATNAI (R. V. Tattenai): Governor of Cele- 
Syria under Darius Hystaspes (Ezra v. 3). He was 
one of those who tried to prevent Zerubbabel and 
Jeshua from continuing the building of the Temple, 
and who sent to Darius asking that search be made 
in the royal archives to ascertain whether there was 
any foundation for the claim put forward by the 
Jews that Cyrus had given them permission to re- 
build the sanctuary. 

According to Eduard Meyer (“ Entstehung des Ju- 
denthums,” p. 82, Halle, 1896; comp. also Justi, 
“Tranisches Namenbuch”), the Old Persian name 
was probably “ Thithinaya ” or “ Thathanaia.” Both 
the Septuagint and Josephus (“ Ant.” xi. 4, $§ 5, 6, 
?) transcribe the name by Zotvyc. 

S, S. O. 


TAUBE, DIE. See PERIODICALS. 


TAUBER-BISCHOFSHEIM. 
HEIM-ON-THE- TAUBER. 


TAUBES, AARON MOSES B. JACOB: 
Rumanian rabbi and author; born in Lemberg 1787; 
died in Jassy 1852. He became rabbi of Sniatyn 
and its districts in 1820, and in 1841 was appointed 
Tabbi of Jassy, where he remained until his death. 
His works are: (1) “To’afot Re’em,” responsa on 
the four parts of the Shulhan ‘Aruk, Among these 
are some written to his son R. Samuel and some to 
his grandson R. Shalom Taubes (Zolkiev, 1855). (2) 
_ Marne Re’em,” novelie on the Talmud, mentioned 
in“She’elat Shalom,” No. 254. (3) Novella on Alfasi 
(according to Walden in his “Shem ha-Gedolim 
he-Hadash,” Let. A, No. 129), which remained in 


See BIScHOFs- 


manuscript. He corresponded on halakic subjects 
with Rabbi Solomon Kluger and with Rabbi Jacob 
Ornstein, author of “ Yeshu‘ot Ya‘akob.” 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Buber, .inshe Shem, p. 27. 
E. Cc. N. T. L. 


TAURIDA, RUSSIA. See CriIMEa. 


TAUSIG, CARL: Polish pianist and composer; 
born at Warsaw Nov, 4, 1841; died at Leipsic July 
17, 1871. He received his early musical education 
from his father, Aloys T. Tausig (1820-85), who was 
a pupil of Thalberg and a composer of brilliant 
pianoforte music. When Carl was fourteen years 
of age his father took him to Weimar to study under 
Liszt, whose favorite pupil he soon became. In 
1858 he made his début in public at an orchestral 
concert conducted by Biilow at Berlin; and during 
the following two years he gave concerts in various 
German cities. After a sojourn at Dresden he went 
to Vienna (1862), where, however, his classicai pro- 
grams and his artistic views failed to find accept- 
ance. He married in 1865 and settled in Berlin, 
where he opened a Schule des Héheren Klavier- 
spiels, and occasionally gave pianoforte recitals. 
Shortly before his death he made several concert 
tours through Germany and Russia, and was every- 
where received with enthusiasm. 

Carl Tausig ranks with Liszt and Rubinstein as 
one of the three greatest pianists of the nineteenth 
century. He was one of the stanchest champions 
of the “music of the future,” and a close personal 
friend of Richard Wagner. Jt was he who formu- 
Jated a plan for raising 300,000 thaler for building 
the Bayreuth Theater, and who “with his excep- 
tional endowment and splendid energy seemed to 
regard the execution of this plan as his own particu- 
lar task” (Richard Wagner, “ Gesammelte Schriften,” 
ix. 385). An epitaph composed by Wagner (é.c. 
p. 386) was inscribed on Tausig’s tombstone. 

Of Tausig’s original compositions and numerous 
arrangements of classical works the following may be 
mentioned: “Deux Etudes de Concert,” replacing 
an earlier pianoforte transcription of his symphonic 
ballad “Das Geisterschiff”; “Ungarische Zigeuner- 
weisen,” a composition for pianoforte; “ Nouvelles 
Soirées de Vienne”; “ Tagliche Studien,” finger ex- 
ercises of high value; a selection of studies from 
Clementi’s “Gradus ad Parnassum ”; a transcription 
of Bach’s “Toccata und Fuge ftir die Orgel in D 
moll”; and adaptations of Weber’s “ Aufforderung 
zum Tanz,” of six Beethoven quartets, and of Wag- 
ner’s “ Die Meistersinger von Niirnberg.” 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Mustkalisches Wochenblatt, ii. 488-490, Leip- 
sic, 1871; Grove, Dietionary of Music and Musicians: 
Richard Wagner, Gesammeite Schriften, ix. 885, 386; Baker, 
Biographical Dictionary of Music; Kohut, Bertihmte Is- 
raelitische Mdinner und Frauen. 


S. Jd. So. 


TAUSSIG, EDWARD DAVID: American 
naval officer; born at St. Louis, Mo., Nov. 20, 1847. 
Educated at the public schools of his native city, 
he entered the United States Naval Academy at An- 
napolis in 1863, graduating in 1867, since which date 
he has been in active service. In 1868 he was ap- 
pointed ensign; 1870, master; 1872, lieutenant; 
1892, licutenant-commander ; and 1902, captain. He 
served on the Pacific and European stations and in 


Tauwitz 
Taxation 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 68 


the coast-survey until 1898, when he was made com- 
mander of the “Bennington.” He took possession 
of Wake Island for the United States, and was placed 
in charge of Guam when that island was ceded by 
Spain on Feb. 1, 1899. During the following year 
he served in the Philippines, and during the early 
part of 1900 in China, assuming command of the 
“Yorktown” in June of the latter year. From 
Nov., 1901, to May, 1902, he served in the navy- 
yard at Washington, D. C., and at Boston, and 
was then appointed commander of the “ Enterprise.” 
Since the beginning of 1903 he has been commander 
of the navy-yard at Pensacola, Fla. 

Although of Jewish descent, Taussig was brought 
up in the Unitarian Church. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Wo's Who in America, 1905. 


A. F. T. Ai. 


TAUWITZ, EDUARD: German composer; 
born Jan. 21, 1812, at Glatz; died July 26, 1894, 
at Prague. While studying law at the University 
of Breslau he devoted himself to music under the 
direction of Wolf and Mosovius. At the same time 
he took charge of the Akademische Gesangverein. 
Having decided not to follow a juridical career, he 
left Breslau in 1837 to accept a call to Wilna as di- 
rector of the orchestra of the theater there. In 1840 
he went in the same capacity to Riga, but in 1848 
returned to Breslau, and two years Jater accepted a 
similar position in Prague, where he also taught 
music. On the death of Leopold Zwonar he suc- 
ceeded hint as the director of the Sophienakademie. 

Tauwitz was a very prolific composer of songs; 
he wrote in addition two operettas, “Schmolke und 
Bakel” and “Bramante.” Of his songs the follow- 
ing are worthy of special mention: “ Zw6lf Soldaten- 
lieder fiir Vicr- und Fiinfstimmigen Minnergesang ” 
and “Zweiundzwanzig Banner- und Schwertlieder 
fiir Vierstimmigen Mannergesang.” 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Wurzbach, Bingraphisches Lexikon: Frem- 


denblatt (Vienna), 1863, No, 72: Lumir, Belletristicky Ty- 
dennik, 1851, p. 628. F 


TAW (n): The twenty-second letter of the He- 
brew alphabet. Its name is connected with “taw ” 
= “sign” (see ALPHABET). “Taw” has a twofold 
pronunciation: (1) asoft, lisping sound uttered with 
a gentle expiration, like the Greek “theta” and the 
English “th” in “thin,” and (2) a hard, attenuated 
sound without expiration, like the English “t”; the 
latter pronunciation is indicated by a “dagesh lene” 
in the letter. In the classification of letters (con- 
sonants) as it is found for the first time in “Sefer 
Yezirah ” (iv. 3), the “taw ” is included in the group 
of linguals nx$w5, which are formed at the upper 
edge of the tongue. According to modern phonetic 
terminology, “taw” is a surd mute dental, corre- 
sponding to which is the sonant dental “d.” “Taw” 
sometimes interchanges with the lingual “tet” and 
the dental “shin.” It occurs both as a radical and 
as a formative element. Asa numeral “taw” has 
(in the jater period) the value 400. 

qT, | I. Br. 
TAWUS, JACOB B. JOSEPH: Persian trans- 
lator of the Bible; flourished In the sixteenth cen- 
tury, The polyglot Pentateuch printed at Constan- 
tinople in 1546 included a Persian translation in 


Hebrew characters, in addition to the Targum of 
Onkelos and the Arabic rendering by Saadia Gaon. 
In his preface the editor of the polyglot referred to 
this version as “a Persian translation which a wise 
and learned man, R. Jacob b. Joseph Tawus. 
has made for us”; this is followed by a statement 
indicating that the translator or the translation had 
been brought to Constantinople by Moses Hamon, 
the physician of Sulaiman I. Of the two interpre. 
tations, the view which makes the word “hebi’o” 
refer to the translator, thus implying that Jacob 
Tawus went to Constantinople at the request of 
Moses Hamon, is probably correct, as the editor ex- 
pressly says “us”; the version accordingly seems to 
have been made by Tawus at Constantinople specif. 
ically for this polygot. Except for these data, noth- 
ing is known concerning the translator, whose name 
denotes “ peacock.” About 1570, however, a certain 
Jacob ben Issachar Tawus is described in a respon- 
sum of It. Moses Alshech (No. 103) as a thorough 
Talmudist. According to Zunz (in Geiger’s * Wigs, 
Zeit. Jiid. Theol.” iv. 891), this Jacob ben Issachar 
was a nephew of the translator, a view which is far 
more plausible than that of Kohut, who seeks to 
identify him with the translator himself by sub- 
stituting the name Issachar for Joseph (“ Kritische . 
Beleuchtung,” etc., p. 10). When Moses Hamon ac- 
companied Sulaiman on his first Persian campaign 
(1534-35), he may have induced the scholarly Persian 
Jew toreturn with him to Constantinople (see Gritz, 
“Gesch.” ix. 34). Jacob Tawus based his work on 
the old traditions of the Judeeo-Persian Bible trans- 
lations (see JEW. Encyc. vii. 317), although he was 
influenced in many passages by the Targum of 
Onkelos and Saadia’s Arabic version, as well as by 
the commentaries of Rashiand Ibn Ezra. His ver. 
sion, transcribed in Persian characters, was reprinted 
in 1657 in the fourth volume of the London Poly- 
glot, with a Latin translation by Thomas Hyde; but 
it remained almost unnoticed until Munk recog- 
nized its true character, and determined its date in 
his “ Noticesur R. Saadia Gaon ” (Paris, 1838). The 
work is apparently known toacertain extent among 
the Jews of Persia, inasmuch as Simeon Hakan, 
the latest Judzxo-Persian translator of the Penta- 
teuch, states in the preface to his “ Mikra Meforash” 
(Jerusalem, 1901, vol. i.) that he remembered seeing 
asa youth a copy of the Constantinople Polyglot of 
the Pentateuch in his native place, Bokhara, although 
he became acquainted with the translation by Tawus 
only when he found it in the London Polyglot at 
Jerusalem. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Kohut, Kritische Beleuchtung der Persischen 
Pentateuch-Uebersetzung des Jacob hb. Joseph Tawus, Leip- 
sic, 1871; A. Geiger’s review of the same in Jitd. Zeit. xX. 
103-113. 

W. B. 


TAWWAH, ABRAHAM BEN JACOB 
IBN: Algerian Talmudist; flourished at Algiers in 
the sixteenth century. On his mother’s side he was 
a grandson of Solomon b, Simeon Duran, and there 
fore a descendant of Nahmanides and a great grand- 
son of Simeon b. Zemah Duran ., toallof whom ashis 
ancestors he refers frequently in his responsa. Taw- 
wah was the contemporary of Solomon b. Zemah 
Duran and of his brother Simeon b. Zemah Durad 
IL., the latter’s son Zemah having been Tawwab’s 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


69 
_——aa ee 
upil. Of Tawwah’s responsa thirty-five were in- 


serted in the fourth part of Simeon b, Zemah Duran’s 
responsa entitled “ Hut ha-Meshullash”; others are 
quoted in part and also copied by various authori- 
ties. Judah ‘Ayyash quotes a part of Tawwah’s 
responsa, eutitled “ Nofek,” in his “Bet Yehudah ” 
(p. 118a) and his “Matteh Yehudah” (p. 20b), and 
Solomon Zeror, in his “ Peri Zaddik,” No. 10, quotes 
that part of his responsa entitled “Sappir.” It 
may be concluded that Abraham ibn Tawwah di- 
vided his responsa into twelve parts, calling them 
after the precious stones in the high priest’s breast- 


late. 
Sete Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, p. 35; Michael, Or 
ha-Hayyim, No. 100. 
E. ¢. M. Set. 
TAX-GATHERERS (p31): During the 
Egyptian government of Palestine the taxes of each 
city were annually leased to the highest bidder 
(Josephus, “ Ant.” xii. 4, $3). The lessee paid into 
the royal treasury a fixed annual sum; and whatever 
the revenne yielded in excess was his gain, whereas 
if the sum was not realized he had to bear the loss. 
Under Ptolemy IV., Philopator, all the royal revenues 
from Cwle-Syria, Phenicia, and Judea were leased 
by Joseph ben Tobiah, nephew of the high priest 
Onias II. He held the office of tax-collector for 
twenty-two years, and was succeeded by his son 
Hyrcanus. How exacting the tax-collectors must 
have been may be judged from the fact that in spite 
of the increase of the annual rental from 8,000 to 
16,000 talents, Joseph and Hyrcanus 
In Pales- were still able to accumulate immense 
tine Under riches. The former, according to Jose- 
Egyptian phus (7b. § 4), beheaded twenty dis- 
Rule. tinguished citizens of Ascalon and 
Scythopolis for refusing to pay their 
taxes, and then confiscated their possessions. How- 
ever, both father and son showed great leniency to- 
ward their coreligionists; and their accumulated 
wealth raised the material condition of Judea. 
Under the government of Palestine by the Syrian 
kings all the taxes were collected by state officials. 
The Romans left to the governors or procurators 
the collection of the regular taxes, such as the land- 
tax and poll-tax, but leased the customs duties, the 
market tolls, and similar special imposts. The lessees 
were generally Roman knights; but there were 
among them Jews also. Mention is made of a Jew- 
ish tax-gatherer named John, who headed a deputa- 
tion sent to Florus by the inhabitants of Csesarea 
(Josephus, “B. J.” ii. 14, § 5). The fact that they 
were helping the Romans in the exaction of the heavy 
taxes imposed upon the Jews, combined with the 
Tapacity of some tax-collectors who, taking advan- 
tage of the indefiniteness of the tariffs, overcharged 
the taxpayer, rendered this class of officials hateful 
to the people. Hence the stringent Jewish legisla- 
ion which classified the tax-collectors with robbers. 
Thus, for instance, it was forbidden to take payment 
in coin from the treasury of the tax- 
gatherer or to receive alms from it, 
because the money had been gained by 
robbery (B. K. x. 1; “ Yad,” Gezelah, 
§ 5; Shulhan ‘Arak, Hoshen Mishpat, 370, 389). 
he tax-gatherer was ineligible to serve as judge or 


In the 
Talmud. 


Tauwitz 
Taxation 


even as a witness (Sanh. 25b). If one member of a 
family was a tax-gatherer, all its members were 
liable to be considered as such for the purposes of 
testimony, because they would be likely to shield him 
(Sheb. 39a). 

During the Middle Ages the position of tax-col- 
lector was often filled by Jews. Mention is made of 
Jewish tax-collectors in France as early as the sixth 
century (Gregory of Tours, “ Historia Francorum,” 
vii. 23). In 587 the Council of Macon issued among 
other prohibitions one against farming the taxes to 
Jews. That this prohibition was disregarded is seen 
from the fact that the Council of Meaux (849) deemed 
it necessary to renew it. The collection of Jewish 
taxes was always entrusted to Jews; during the 
reign of Charles V. (1364-80) Menassier of Vesoul 
was receiver-general of the Jewish taxes for the 
north of France, and Denis Quinan for Languedoc. 
The kings likewise often entrusted to Jews the 
position of receiver-gencral of taxes. Among the 

renowned reccivers mention may be 

In made of Joseph Pichon, Joseph of 

the Middle Ecija, and Samuel ibn Wakar, all of 

Ages. whom paid with their lives for the 

riches they had accumulated in office. 

Until the regency of John I. of Castile (1385) Jews 
held the position of tax-receivers in Portugal also. 

In Germany the Jews were very early excluded 
from all public offices; and it can not be ascertained 
whether they ever filled there the position of tax- 
receiver. It seems, however, that such Jewish offi- 
cials existed in Austria in the thirteenth century ; for 
in a document dated 1257 two Jews are mentioned 
as the king’s financiers, In Hungary the Jews were 
excluded from the office in 1279 by the Council of 
Buda. The higher Polish nobility, however, de- 
pended largely on the Jews for tax-collectors; 
until lately the Russian government also made use of 
Jewish tax-gatherers (“sborschiki”) for the collec- 
tion of taxes from the Jews; and it still leases to 
the highest bidder the special Jewish taxes, such as 
that on kasher-meat (“ korobka ”), and on the candles 
used for Sabbath and for other religious purposes. 
Until the middle of the seventeenth century the cus- 
toms duties were generally leased by the Turkish 
government to Jews. According to Manasseh ben 
Israel (1656), “the viceroy of Egypt has always at 
his side a Jew who bears the title ‘sarraf bashi,’ or 
‘ treasurer,’ and who gathers the taxes of the land. 
At present Abraham Alkula holds the position.” 
Alkula was succeeded by Raphael Joseph Halabi, 
the rich friend and protector of Shabbethai Zebi 
(Gritz, “Gesch.” x. 84). See PuUBLICAN. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: For the tax-gatherers in Judea: Wiinsche, 

Neue Beitrdige zur Erlduterung der Evangelien, 1878, 

p. 71; Hamburger, R. B. 7. ii., s.v. Zoll: Schiirer, Gesch. i. 

478 et seq.; Herzfeld, Handelsgeschichte der Juden, pp. 

161 et seq. 

le I. Br. 

TAXATION.—Biblical Data: The Bible gives 
scant information concerning the secular or political 
taxes of the Jews. Practically all that can be gath- 
ered is the following: Just as Abraham (Gen. xiv. 
20) voluntarily gave a tenth “of all” (7.e., according 
to the context, of the whole spoil taken in war), so 


-the Israelitish and foreign subjects of the kings of 


Israel voluntarily brought presents to their rulers. 


Taxation 
Taylor 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 70 


These gifts were withheld by churlish people only 
(comp. I Sam. x. 27), but were given by all others 
(2b. xvi. 20; II Sam. viii. 2, 11 et seg.; xii. 80; I 
Kings x. 10, 25; II Kings iii. 4; IT Chron. ix. 24; 
Isa. xvi. 1; Ps. Ixxii. 10). A chief source of the 
king’s income consisted in his landed possessions (I 
Chron. xxvii. 25 et seg.; If Chron. xxvi. 10); but 
a money- or poll-tax is not mentioned among the 
royal prerogatives, even in the detailed description of 
them with which Samuel tried to deter the people 
from choosing a king (Sam. viii. 11-17). The census 
of the people which was ordered by David (II Sam. 
xxiv. 1 ef seg.) was intended perhaps to furnish a 
basis for a methodical distribution of the military 
burdens and taxes; but Solomon was the first mon- 
arch to systematize the furnishing of foodstuffs 
([ Kings iv. 7-28 ), and to demand toll from the 
merchants (2). x. 15), and he, moreover, made the 
lot of the people an inordinately heavy one (xii. 4), 
probably imposing an additional money-tax. The 
later kings again received only voluntary gifts from 
their subjects, as is recorded of the time of Je- 
hoshaphat and Hezekiah (II Chron, xvii. 5, xxxii. 
23), @ money-tax being levied in time of war only, 
when the demands of victorious enemies had to be 
satisfied (If Kings xv. 20, xxiii. 35). 

The repugnance of tle free Israclites to the pay- 
ment of a money-tax was overcome by the post- 
exilic foreign rulers. Although the Persian kings 
exempted the priests and Levites (Ezra vii. 24), 
they demanded toll (357) and other imposts which 
likewise had to be paid in money (Ezra iv. 13; 
Neh. v. 4: “ We have borrowed money for the king’s 
tribute”). The taxes often grew to be an especially 
heavy burden under the Ptolemaic and Seleucidan 
kings. These rulersemployed tax-farmers, who, of 
course, endeavored not only to collect the taxes, but 
also to derive a large personal profit in addition (I 
Macc. xi, 28, xiii. 15; Josephus, “Ant.” xii, 4, §§ 1, 
4 et seq.). Josephus (in the passage just cited) nar- 
rates that Joseph, the son of Tobias, accumulated 
great wealth as a tax-farmer, although he had to 
pay to the Egyptian king Euergetes the enormous 
sum of 16,000 talents. The Seleucidan kings likewise 
demanded a poll-tax (I Macc. x. 29: ¢épove, accord- 
ing to * Ant.” xii. 3, § 8, denoting what is paid per 
head). 

This tax was imposed by the Roman rulers also. 
Julius Cesar, it is true, showed himself very lenient 
toward the Jews, and even was considerate with 
regard to the Sabbatical year (“ Ant.” xiv. 8, § 3); 
but under Augustus conditions changed. During 
the latter’s reign a “ descriptio orbis” was completed, 
in which the property of the inhabitants of the 
whole Roman empire was set down. He chose 
twenty of the most eminent men, and sent them into 
all the countries of the subjugated peoples, to make 
a list of persons and property; moreover he wrote 
with his own hand a “breviarium totius imperii,” 
which contained a list of the number of citizens 
carrying arms and of the allies, of the tributes or 
taxes, etc. This census was introduced into Judea 
when Herod’s soa Archelaus was removed, in the 
year 760 of the foundation of Rome, and was exiled 
to Vienna in Gaul; it is mentioned in Matt. xxii. 17. 
The precise amount of this tax is not known, nor can 


it be estimated with certainty from the fact that the 
denarius is called the “coin of the census” (A. VY. 
“tribute money ”) in Matt. xxii. 19; for these words 
may mean also “a sample of the Roman coins with 
which the tribute is paid.” In any case the tax im. 
posed by the Romans was high and oppressive. 
Refusal to pay taxes involved rebellion against 
the suzerainty of the Romans, as in the case of 
Judas the Gaulonite in the year 760 of the founda- 
tion of Rome (“ Ant.” xviii. 1, § 1). 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: I. Benzinger, Arch. 1894, pp. 174, 221, 308 e¢ 


seqg.; Franz Walter, Die Propheten in Ihrem Socialen Be. 
rufe, 1900, p. 26. 
E. K. 


E. G. H., 


——Middle Ages: A direct result of the perse. 
cutions of the Jews in the eleventh and twelfth 
centuries was that they came under the immediate 
protection of the rulers; this, in turn, led to their 
becoming KAMMERKNECHTE. The imperial rights 
were often transferred to minor rulers, 

Trans- Thus, the widow of Duke Roger of 
ferred to Apulia bequeathed to the church of 
Nobles and Salerno the revenues derived from 


Church the Jews; and in like manner the Jews 
Dig- of Bohemia, in the twelfth century, 
nitaries. came under the immediate protection 


of the Bohemian princes, In the thir- 
teenth century the Jews became at times the wards 
of the ecclesiastical potentates also, to whom they 
were then obliged to pay their taxes. For example, | 
in 1209 the taxes paid by the Jews of the arch- 
bishopric of Mayence fell into the coffers of Arch- 
bishop Siegfried; in 1212 the Jewish taxes for 
Provence were paid to the church of Arles. 

The assessment of taxes to be paid by individual 
members of the communities was the duty of the 
elders, who took into consideration both the property 
owned by each member and his yearly income. 
Particularly wealthy Jews, by placing themselves 
under the personal protection of the ruler, sometimes 
escaped communal taxes; this aroused the anger of 
the communities and caused them to complain to 
the emperor. Asa rule only Jewish 
physicians and such Jews as had ren- 
dered the state special services were 
exempt from taxation. The follow- 
ing twelve taxes, which may almost be termed “ offi- 
cial,” were generally levied upon German Jews of 
medieval times: 

(1) The Coronation Tax: When this tax was in- 
troduced is not known; but the Jews of the entire 
German empire were compelled to pay acertain sum 
whenever a new ruler ascended the throne. At the 
coronation of Philip the Fair the Jews of Cham- 
pagne paid a tax of 25,000 florins French money: 
while the Jews of Italy, upon the accession of 4 
pope, paid a tribute consisting of one pound of pepper 
and two pounds of cinnamon. 

(2) Taxation on Dress: In 1405 the Jews of several 
German and French cities were allowed to purchase 
exemption from wearing the Jewish badge by pay- 
ment of a higher annual tax (Weizsicker, “ Reichs- 
tagsacten,” v. 637). 

(3) The Golden Opferpfennig: Introduced by 
Ludwig the Bavarian (1342). The income derived 
from this tax amounted in the fourteenth century 


Special 
Taxes. 


71 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


to 30.000 gulden, Beginning with the seventeenth 
century it was gradually abolished (see OPFER- 
pFENNIG. GOLDENER). 

(4) Judengeleitsgeld: For each safe-conduct a 
payment of 1 turnose was exacted, and evena Chris- 
tian. if traveling with a Jew, had to pay this fee. 

(3) Landfrieden Protection Tax: Tbis was one of 
the heaviest taxes imposed upon the Jews, and was 
paid only when the latter had been publicly assured 
that protection had been granted them, as, for ex- 
ample, by Henry IV. (1103) and Henry of Hohen- 
staufen (1254), by the citiesof Worms, Mayence, and 
Oppenheim (1260), and by Archbishop Werner of 
May ence (1265). 

(6) The Leibzoll (see JEw. ENcyc. vii. 669). 

(7) The Real Estate and Building Tax: Levied as 
early asthe ninth century. WhenaJew purchased a 
house ora lot he placed himse]f under the protection 
of the local church or monastery, to which he paid 
a certain tribute: for a house, one-tenth of the in- 
come derived from it; fora lot, a certain quantity 
of barley, wheat, and wine. The custom of acquir- 
jng real property under the protection of the Church 
was rendered more difficult during the thirteenth 
century, Measures against it being taken in Nor- 
mandy, 1222, in northern Germany, 1240, in Gas- 
cony, 1288, and by Charles of Valois, 13824. Toward 
the middle of the fifteenth century it fell entirely 
into disuse. 

(8) The Reichssteuer: Imposed by the emperor 
Wenceslaus (1383). The right to levy taxes upon 
the Jews was granted to cities only on condition 
that one-half of the income thus derived should be 
paid into the treasury of the state. A similar Jew- 
ish tax existed in France from the middle of the 
fourteenth century. 

(9) Royal and Papal Protection Tax: From the 
twelfth century the popes granted letters protecting 
the Jews against the severity of their overlords. 
The amounts paid for these privileges varied from 
1,000 to 8,000 marks for each letter. Such taxes 
were received by popes Alexander IIE., Clement 
II., Innocent IIT. (1199), Honorius III. (1217), Greg- 
ory LX. (1235), Innocent IV. (1246), and Innocent 
V. The same class of tax was imposed in England 
for the renewal of charters; ¢g., 4,000 marks were 
paid to John in 1200. 

(10) The Servitium: Sum paid in lieu of personal 
services. It was first paid in Spain and in France 
in the middle of the thirteenth century, especially 
under Charles the Wise, when exemption from stat- 
ute labor might be purchased with money. It was 
collected also in Germany, especially in Cologne. 

(11) The Tenth Pfennig: Levied upon all German 
Jews within the jurisdiction of the archbishops of 
Mayence. The fact that the archbishops had this 
prerogative caused a rupture between John II. and 
Emperor Rupert (1403-4); eventually an agreement 
Was reached by which the emperor acquired the 
tight to levy the tax. 

(12) The Third Pfennig: Imposed by the Nurem- 
berg Reichstag (Aug. 9, 1422) to defray the ex- 
penses of the Hussite war. It was levied on all 
Jews of the German empire, which, for that pur- 
Pose, was divided into four districts presided over 


by Margrave Bernhard of Baden, Palsgrave John of © 


Taxation 
Taylor 


Neumarkt, Landgrave John of Lupfen, and Freiherr 
della Scala of Bavaria. 

Besides these regular taxes, however, the Jews 
were often forced to pay extratributes. Noteworthy 
instances of such extra taxation occurred under 
Conrad [V. and Ludwig the Bavarian, but especially 
under Emperor Sigismund (1416, 1418, 1423). The 
specifically Jewish taxes, in various forms, contin- 
ued to be levied until the nineteenth century, and 
were not abolished until the Jews had been gener- 
ally accorded full civic rights. It should be added 
that, while more onerous, taxes on Jews were, asa 
rule, not more numerous than those levied on all 
citizens possessing means. See SPAIN; TALLAGE. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Stobbe, Die Juden in Deutschlund, passim ; 

Nibling, Die Judengemeinden des Mittelalters, passim; 

Aronius, Regesten, passim; Depping, Die Juden im Mittel- 

alter, passim, Stuttgart, 1884; Wiener, Regesten, passim. 

J. 5. O 

TAXO: The mysterious name of “the man of 
the tribe of Levi” who, under a Roman governor in 
the time of Herod, according to the Assumptio 
Mosis, ix. 1-7, underwent martyrdom with his seven 
sons amidst the cruel persecution of the Zealots 
(vi.-viii.), He exhorted his sons thus: “Let us die 
rather than transgress the commands of the Lord of 
Lords, the God of our Fathers, for if we do this and 
die our blood will be avenged before the Lord.” 
Here the story breaks off abruptly. It appears, 
however, that Josephus (“ Ant.” xiv. 15, § 5) refers 
to this martyrdom of Taxo during Herod’s crue] on- 
slaught against the Zealots, when he states that 
“one old man was caught within one of these caves 
with seven children and a wife, and rather than per- 
mit any of these to surrender he killed them all and 
finally himself, preferring, as he said, death to sla- 
very, and reproaching Herod with the meanness of 
his family although he was king.” Charles, in the 
“Assumptio Mosis” (1897), thinks that “Taxo” 
(NDIN) is a corruption of the word N3pm (“the 
Zealot”), and that the Samaritan legend of Moses 
in Heidenheim’s “ Vierteljahrschrift ” (1871, iv. 210), 
in speaking of a “ Levite ” who would be a zealous bat- 
tler for the congregation “and die and after three 
days rise again,” refers to the same Taxo mentioned 
in the “ Assumptio Mosis.” According to Gen. R. 
lvii. end, “ Tahash” (“ Tahshon ”) signifies a rebel. 

K 


TAYLOR, CHARLES: English Christian He- 
braist; born in London 1840; educated at King’s 
College, London, and St. John’s College, Cam- 
bridge, of which he is now master. In 1874 he pub- 
lished an edition of “Coheleth”; in 1877 “Sayings 
of the Jewish Fathers,” an elaborate edition of the 
Pirke Abot (2 ed., 1897); and in 1899 a valuable ap- 
pendix giving a list of manuscripts. This is prob- 
ably the most important contribution to rabbinic 
learning of any living Christian Hebraist. Taylor 
discovered the Jewish source of the “ Didache” in 
his “Teaching of the Twelve Apostles,” 1886, and 
has published also “Essay on the Theology of the 


- Didache,” 1889. 


Taylor took great interest in Professor Schechter’s 
work in Cairo, and the genizah fragments presented 
to the University of Cambridge are known as the 
Taylor-Schechter Collection. He was joint editor 


Lat he eae 
eheran 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 72 


with Schechter of “The Wisdom of Ben Sira,” 1899. | normally beginning with the month of Heshwan 


He has published separately “ Cairo Genizah Palimp- 
sests,” 1900. 
He has published also several works on geoetry. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Who's Who in England. 


J. 

TAYYIB: Tunisian family, first known in the 
second half of the seventeenth century. The more 
prominent members are the following: 

Abraham Tayyib: Grandson of Abraham b. 
Tsaac Tayyib (see below); lived at theend of theeight- 
eenth century. He was the author of “ Hayye Abra- 
ham” (Leghorn, 1826), a commentary on the treatises 
Shabbat, Pesahim, Megillah, Ta‘anit, Mo‘ed Katan, 
Yebamot, Ketubot, Kiddushin, Baba Kamma, Sanhe- 
drin, Makkot, Shebu‘ot, ‘Abodah Zarah, and ‘Arakin. 
Appended to it are notes on Maimonides’ “ Yad,” 
on Alfasi, and on Rashi to the Pentateuch. 

Abraham ben Isaac Tayyib (surnamed Baba 
Sidi): Rabbi of Tunis, where he died in 1741. He 
was a companion of Zemah Zarfati and one of the 
teachers of Isaac Lombroso, chief rabbi of Tunis. 
He was the author of novelle on the treatises of the 
order Kodashim, printed in Jacob Faitusi’s “ Miz- 
bah Kapparah ” (Leghorn, 1810). Other novelle of 
his are to be found in Joseph Tanuji’s “Bene Yo- 
sef” (Salonica, 1726). 

Hayyim ben Abraham Tayyib: Rabbi of 
Tunis, and author of “Derek Hayyim” (printed 
with his father’s Hayye Abraham ”), a commentary 
on Pesahim, Ketubot, Kiddushin, Baba Mezi‘a, and 
Hullin. 

Isaac ben Benjamin Tayyib: Rabbi and 
cabalist of Tunis; died in 1880. He was the author 
of: (1) “‘Erek ha-Shulhan,” novellee on the four di- 
visions of the Shuthan ‘Aruk, Orah Hayyim (Leg- 
horn, 1791; preface by Joseph Sarko, who scems to 
have been Isaac’s teacher), Yoreh De‘ah (7d. 1798), 
Hoshen Mishpat (2d. 1815; Tunis, 1890-92), and 
Eben ha-‘Ezer (Leghorn, 1844); (2) “Wawe ha- 
‘Ammudim ” (2), 1887), a commentary on Eliezer of 
Metz’s “Sefer Yere’im,” cabalistic in spirit and con- 
taining quotations from cabalistic works; (8) “ Huk- 
kot ha-Pesah ” (2. 1858), novell on the part of the 
Shulhan ‘Aruk containing the laws regarding the 
Passover feast; (4) “Sefer ha-Zikkaron” (Tunis, 
1892), in two parts, the first being a collection of 
Isaac’s divers notes, and the second a cabalistic com- 
mentary on Abot and on the Pesah Haggadah. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: D. Cazés, Notes Bibliographiques, pp. 307 et 
seq., Tunis, 1893; First, Bibl. Jud. iii. 406. 


J. M. SEL. 


TEBET: Tenth ecclesiastical and fourth civil 
month; it invariably has twenty-nine days. The 
name, like those of the other months, appears to be 
taken from the Assyro-Babylonians, who called their 
tenth month, described as the month of violent rains, 
“Tebetu ” (Delitzsch, “ Woérterbuch,” p. 298). This 
month fell near the close of the rainy season in Pal- 
estine, to which fact the gloss in Ta‘an. 6b alludes, 
holding that the year will be fertile if Tebet be 
“ugly” (¢.e¢., rainy). The observation that that 
year will bea good one in which Tebet is “ widowed ” 
(7.e., rainless) presupposes that a sufficient precipi- 
tation bad preceded the month, the rainy season 


(the 8th month). 

Of notable events and dates connected with this 
month, the following are among the more important; 

Tebct land2: Seventh and cighth days of Hanuk- 
kah. Tebet 5: See Ezek. xxxiti. 21; R. H. 1&b, 
Tebet 8: Day on which the translation of the Septu- 
agint was completed, when the earth was shrouded 
in darkness for three days (“ Megillat Ta‘anit,” end), 
Tebet 9: Fast-day, but for reasons not known (2. ; 
Shulhan ‘Aruk, Orah Hayyim, 580); it is said to 
have been the day on which Ezra died (:4.), and Abu 
Husain Joseph ibn Nagdela was killed on this day 
(1066). Tebet 10: Fast-day, commemorating the 
beginning of the siege of Jerusalem uader Nebu- 
chadnezzar (see Jer. lii. 4; If Kings xxv. 1; Ezek. 
xxiv. 1; R. H. 18b); when this fast-day falls on 
the Sabbath, it is observed on the day following. 
Tebet 12: Ezekiel received a revelation (Ezek. xxix. 
1). Tebet 20: Death of Moses Maimonides (1204), 
Tebet 24: The discomfiture of the Sadducean party 
(B. B. 115b) by Johanan ben Zakkai (according to 
“ Megillat Ta‘anit,” this occurred on the 24th of Ab). 
Tebet 25: Said to have been the day of Alexander 
the Great’s appearance before the walls of Jerusalem 
(Yoma 60a). Tebet 28: Another anti-Sadducean 
feast-day (“ Megillat Ta‘anit,” x.); on this day the 
majority of the Sanhedrin passed over to the Phari- 
sees, E. G. H. 


TEBUL YOM: Name of a treatise in the Mish- 
nah and inthe Tosefta; in most editions of the Mish- 
nah it is tenth in the order Tohorot. According to 
Lev. xv. 5 et seg., one who takes the prescribed bath 
still remains unclean until sunset. The degree of un- 
cleanness in such a case is slight, and according to rab- 
binicalinterpretation neither the “ hallah ” nor sancti- 
fied flesh isrendered unclean by being touched by such 
a person, even before sunset; if is merely rendered 
unfit (“ pasu]”). Profane or unsanctified things may 
be touched by him without fear. The treatise Tebul 
Yom more closely defines the degree of uncleanness 
attaching to such a person, and stipulates also how 
far the purity of anything is affected by his touch. 
The treatise comprises four chapters, containing 
twenty-six paragraphs in all. 

Ch. i.: Regulations concerning bread and other 
things which are of such a form that if a tebul yom 
or any otber uncleanness touches part of them the 
whole is rendered unclean. 

Ch. ii.: Concerning liquids touched by a tebul 
yom; when such contact renders the whole unfit, 
and when it affects only the part touched. 

Ch. iii.: Continuation of ch. ii.: regulations con- 
cerning liquids easily rendered unclean. 

Ch. iv.: Regulations concerning utensils touched 
by atebul yom; enumeration of halakic rules which 
have undergone changes in the course of time; of the 
halakic regulations which R. Joshua declared were 
introduced by the sages (“soferim”), and which he 
was unable to explain. 

In the Tosefta the treatise is divided into two 
chapters. 

W. B. J. 4. UL. 


TEDESCHI, MAROO: Italian rabbi and poet; 
born at Piova, Piedmont, in 1817; died at Triest in 


293 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Tayyib 
Teheran 


__ OO 


1870. He removed to Vercelli with his father (d. 
1836), who had been appointed rabbi there; and in 
1888 he went to Turin to study under R. Hillel 
Cantoni. He was successively elected rabbi of 
Nizza-Monferrato, Saluzzo, Asti, and Triest. His 
principal poems were published by Vittorio Casti- 
glione in the “ Yelid Kinnor ” (Drohobycz, 1886). He 
translated from the French “ Les Priéres d’un Coeur 


Israélite.” Marco Tedeschi was celebrated as a 
preacher. 
S Ve. 


TEDESCHI, MOSES ISAAC: Italian trans- 
lator, Biblical commentator, and teacher; born at 
Triest June 6, 1821; died there June 17, 1898. Tie 
lectured on Bib- 
lical exegesis in 
the Tamud To- 
rah of his native 
city, and occa- 
sionally deliv- 
ered sermons on 
holy days. He 
was the author 
of the following 
works: “Ho’il 
Mosheh,” com- 
prising commen- 
taries on the 
Earlier Prophets 
(Goritz, 1870), 
the Book of Job 
(Padua, 1877), 
the Psalms (Leg- 
horn, 1880), the 
Five Megillot 
and the Book 
of Proverbs (20. 
1880), the Penta- 
teuch (2b. 1881), 
the Minor Proph- 
ets(Triest, 1887), 
the books of 
Daniel, Ezra, 
and Nehemiah, 
and Chroni- 
cles (Przemys, 
1889); “Musar 
Melakim,” a collection of ethical homilies based 
on the Pirke Abot (Triest, 1878); “Zeker Rab,” 
an Italian translation ot the didactical prose-poem 
of Mussafia (Padua, 1878); “Ozar Nirdefe Leshon 
‘Ibri,” on Hebrew synonyms (2d. 1879); “Simhat 
ha-Regel,” homilies and glosses on the Targum to 
Proverbs. The author’s autobiography is appended 
to the last-named work. He published also, in “ Ha- 
Asif” (1886), an introduction to the Minor Prophets. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zeitlin, Bibl. Post-Mendels. p. 394. 

8. M. B. 
TEDESCO, IGNAZ AMADEUS: Austrian 
planist; born at Prague 1817; died at Odessa Nov. 
18, 1882; a pupil of Triebensee and Tomaschek at 
Prague. He made numerous successful concert 
tours, especially in southern Russia, and settled at 
Odessa, although he lived for a short time at Ham- 
burg (1848) and London (1856). 

As a pianist Tedesco was distinguished for his 


Interior of the Great Synagogue at Teheran. 
(From a photograph by E, N. Adler.) 


_ dation. 


fine technique; he was called the “Hannibal of oc- 
taves.” In recognition of his ability he was ap- 
pointed pianist to the Grand Duke of Oldenburg. 
He wrote brilhant salon music, comprising a piano- 
forte concerto, caprices de concerts, mazurkas, noc- 
turnes, rhapsodies, waltzes, and transcriptions. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Champlin, Cyc. of Music and Musicians; Il- 

lustrirte Zeitung, 1850, 1. 346; Baker, Dict. of Musie and 

Musicians, 

S. J. So, 


TEFILLIN. Sec PHYLACTERIES. 


TEHERAN: Capital and commercial center of 

Persia, situated about seventy miles south of the 
vasplan Sea. The chief development of the city 
took place with- 
in the last half 
of the nineteenth 
century, under 
Shah Nasir al- 
Din, whose 
court physician. 
J. E. Pouak, 
was a Jew. The 
antiquity of Te- 
heran is not 
great, since its 
existence car 
hardly be traced 
beyond the 
twelfth century. 
It appears grad- 
ually to have 
taken the place 
of the ancient 
Rai, which sank 
slowly into ob- 
livion and is now 
a mass of ruins 
in the suburbs 
of Teheran. Rai 
itself had a long 
history, being 
the ancient me- 
tropolis of Me- 
dia mentioned in 
the Apocrypha 
as Rages (Tobit 
i. 14 et seq.) or Ragau (Judith i. 15), in the Avesta 
aud Old Persian inscriptions as Ragha or Raga 
(Vendidad, i. 15; Yasna, xix. 18; Behistun, ii. 70- 
74, iii. 1-10), and in the classics as Rhage (Strabo, 
&$ 1, 3, 19, ete.). It is mentioned as an emporium 
of Jewish trade by Ibn Khordadhbeh, 817 (see Jew. 
Enceyc. iv. 189, s.c. COMMERCE). 

Teheran covers a considerable area, as the wall 
which surrounds it is eleven miles in circuit and is 
pierced by twelve gates. The Europeans reside in 
the northern section of the city, where the foreign 
legations are located. The Jews live in a quarter 
of their own. In their daily life they are subject 
to much the same restrictions and disabilities as the 
Gabars and the Armenians; and they were formerly 
liable to acts of persecution which resulted in redu- 
cing them toa state of misery, ignorance, and degra- 
A riot against them occurred in Teheran 
as late as May 16, 1897. The Alliance Israélite 


Tehina 
Teixeira 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


74 


Tniverselle has accomplished a great deal toward 

removing this condition of affairs by bettering the 

position of the Jews in the community and by estab- 
lishing schools for the education of the children. 

The Alliance report for 1904 shows a combined at- 

tendance of nearly 400 pupils at the two schools, 

established six years previously for boys and for 
girls. The occupations of the Jews in Teheran, as 
elsewhere in Persia, are largely those of traders, 
silversmiths, wine-merchants, and petty dealers. 

Teheran has a total population of 250,000, including 

about 5,000 Jews. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Curzon, Persia and the Persian Question, i. 
300-358, London, 1892; Benjamin, Persia and the Persians, 
Boston, 1886; Basset, Land of the Imams, New York, 1887 ; 
Wilson, Persian Life and Customs, New York, 1895; Brugsch, 


Im Lande der Sonne, Berlin, 1886; Univers Israélite, Aug. 
12, 1904; Bulletin de 0 Alliance Israélite, 1897, p. 76. 


J A. V. W. J. 


TEHINA, ABBA (called also Tehina ben 
Perisha [“the Pharisee ”] or Hasida [“the pious 
one”]): A leader of the Zealots. Together with 
ELEAZAR BEN Drnat, he is mentioned in the remark- 
able dictum of Johanan ben Zakkai concerning the 
Zealots: “Since 
the murderers 
have increased, 
the expiation 
ceremony of the 
‘eglah ‘arufah 
[the heifer 
whose neck is 
broken for a 
murder the per- 
petrator of 
which is un- 
known; Deut. 
xxi. 1-9] has 
come into abey- 
ance because of 
the many mur- 
ders by these 
only too well- 
known Zealots. 
Such murderers 
are Eleazar ben 
Dinai and Te- 
hina, who was 
formerly called 
‘the Pharisee’ 
and later on received the name of ‘the Murderer’ ” 
(Sotah ix. 9; Sifre, Deut. 205). 

This Tehina has aptly been identified by Deren- 
bourg (‘Essai sur I’Histoire et la Géographie de la 
Palestine d’Aprés les Thalmuds et les Autres 
Sources Rabbiniques,” i. 279-280, Paris, 1867) with 
the Abba Tehina Hasida of Eccl. R. ix. 7. Deren- 
bourg, however, takes the epithet “Hasid” to be 
ironical; but he ignores the very nature of the pas- 
sage to which he refers and which is as follows: 
~Tehina the Essene [Hasid] with the title Abba 
[see Kohler, “Abba, Father,” in “J. Q. R.” xiii. 
567-575], returning to his native town on Friday 
afternoon shortly before the beginning of the Sab- 
bath, and carrying upon his shoulder a bundle con- 
taining the provisions for his household for the 
Sabbath, met a disease-stricken man unable to move, 


Synagogue of Asher the Physician at Teheran. 
(From a photograph by E, N. Adler.) 


who asked him to have pity on him and bring him 
into the town, where bis wants might receive the nec- 
essary attention. This placed Tehina ina quandary ; 
he was afraid if he left his bundle he might lose al} 
his Sabbath provisions; and if he did not aid the sick 
man, he (Tehina) would be accounted as guilty of 
death. His better impulses proving victorious, he 
carried the sick man to a safe place, and then went 
back for his bundle. Meanwhile it had grown dark ; 
and the people, seeing him carry a bundle on Sabbath 
eve, wondered, saying, ‘Is this Abba Tehina the 
Pious?’ Tehina himself wasin doubtas to whether 
he had really violated the Sabbath, when a miracle 
happened: God caused the sun again to shine forth 
to show that the Sabbath had not yet begun, as it is 
written (Mal. iii. 20 [A. V. iv. 2]): ‘But unto you 
that fear my name shall the sun of righteousness arise 
with healing in his wings.’” Later the punctilious 
Essene became a fierce Zealot (see ZEALOTS). 
Eleazar ben Dinai is mentioned by Josephus sev- 
eral’ times, while Tehina is not. He has been 
identified with the Alexander mentioned together 
with Eleazar b. Dinai by that author (Josephus, 
“B. J.” ii. 12, § 
4; see ELEAZAR 
BEN Dinar); but 
Alexander ap- 
pears to be iden- 
tical with Am- 
ram, cited as 
companion of 
Ben Dinai in 
“Ant.” xx.1, $1 
(comp. Cant. R. 
ii. 5: “In the 
days of Amram 
[?] and in the 
days of Ben 
Dinai they at- 
tempted to bring 
about the Mes- 
slanic time by 
violence”; see 
Gritz, “Gesch.” 
8d ed., iti. 431), 
whereas it is 
quite possible 
that Tehina is 
identical with 
"AvyiBag who was executed by order of Fadus 
(Josephus, “Ant.” U.c.; Gratz, Ze. p. 278). K. 


TEHINNAH. See DEVoTIONAL LITERATURE. 


TEITELBAUM, MOSES: Austrian Hasid; 
died July 17, 1841. According to Liw, he signed 
his name Tamar, this being the equivalent of 


| Teitelbaum, which is the Yiddish for Dattel- 


baum = “palm-tree.” He officiated as rabbi, first 
in Przemys), and later in Satoralja-Ujhely, to 
which latter place he was called in 1809. In 
Ujhely he founded a Hasidic congregation which 
was independent of the Galician leaders. In 1822 
Teitelbaum was suspected of having supplied 
amulets to certain Jewish culprits who had 
been cast into prison for libel, in order to assist 
them in escaping. When called upon to vindicate 


75 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Tehina 
Teixeira 


himself he declared that the amulets in question 
served only as substitutes for the mezuzah and 
that their only purpose was to protect their bearers 
against demons. 

Teitelbaum enjoyed an enviable reputation, even 
R. Moses Sofer paying him homage. He was the 
author of: “Yismah Mosheh” (1849; 2d ed. 1898), 
homilies on the Torah; “Tefillah le-Mosheh,” com- 
mentaries on the Psalms; and “ Heshib Mosheh,” a 
collection of responsa. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Walden, Shem ha-Gedolim he-Hadash, p. 101; 

Léw, Gesammelite Schriften, ti. 76, 84, 91. 

S. L. ¥. 

TEIXEIRA, TEIXEYRA, TEXEIRA, or 
TEIXARA: Noble Portuguese Marano family, 
originally bearing the surname of Sampayo. In 
accordance with a decree of King Philip IV. of 
Spain, its coat of arms—azure, a cross potencée or— 
was included in the Spanish roll of arms. In the 
patent, dated 1643, conferring nobility on Diego 
Teixeira his armorial bearings are blazoned as fol- 
lows: Quarterly, 1 and 4, or, an eagle displayed pur- 
ple; 2 and 38, € 
checky or and (im 3 eae 
sable (sixteen 
fields); bordure 
gules, charged 
by eight “S’s” 
argent. This 
coat of arms was 
exchanged by 
the family, with 
the exception of 
a few members, 
for another, 
probably that of 
the De Mattos, 
with whom they 
intermarried, 
the new  bear- 
ings being: 
Gules, a fir-tree 
sinople, rooted 
argent between 
two lions ram- 
pant, affronte, 
or, armed azure, 

The family 
was known also 
as Teixeira de Mattos, and members of it, dis- 
tinguished for their riches, philanthropy, commer- 
cial activity, and influence, have resided until very 
recently in Hamburg, Holland, London, Vienna, 
and Venice. 

Diego Teixeira Sampayo (Abraham Senior 
Teixeira): Portuguese Marano; left Portugal for 
Autwerp in 1648: died at Hamburg Jan. 6, 1666. 
After a brief residence at Antwerp he settled in 
Hamburg, professing Catholicism until Good Friday 
in 1647 or 1648, when he and his wife openly ac- 
knowledged Judaism, while Diego, who was ap- 
proaching seventy, together with his two sons, one 
of whom was born out of wedlock, was circumcised 
by a rabbi. The imperial government thereupon 
demanded the surrender of Diego’s person and the 
confiscation of his estate, but the senate of Hamburg 


SER 


| 
i 
| 
| 
| 
| 


Jewish School at Teberan. 
(From a photograph by FE, N. Adler.) 


energetically opposed this demand (M. Grunwald, 
“ Portugiesengriber,” p. 124). Diego Teixeira, who 
never added “de Mattos” to his name, was known 
in Hamburg only as the “rich Jew.” He rode in an 
ornate carriage upholstered with velvet, had liveried 
servants, and kept a princely house, which, in 1654, 
was for some time the residence of Queen Christina 
of Sweden, to whom Diego had been recommended 
by the Spanish ambassador D. Antonio Pimentel, 
and by whom he was held in high esteem. He al- 
ways took a keen interest in the affairs of his core- 
ligionists; and at his intercession in 1657 King Fred- 
erick IH. of Denmark granted them privileges, which 
were later confirmed by Christian V. For several 
years he was the head of the Spanish-Portuguese 
community in Hamburg, and at his son’s wedding 
he presented the congregation with a ewer and a 
basin of silver plated with gold, while in 1659 he 
contributed 15,000 marks for the erection of a syna- 
gogue. Jt was he who supplied the copper roofing 
for the great Church of St. Michael in Hamburg, 
and when the elders asked for his bill he requested 
them to accept it 
receipted with- 
out payment. 
There still exist 
two benevolent 
institutions 
founded by Di- 
ego Teixeira and 
his wife, Sara 
d’Andrade  (d. 
Dec. 5, 1698): 
Zur Ausstattung 
Durftiger Jung- 
frauen and Zur 
Auslésung von 
Gefangenen. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Ar- 
chenholtz, Mé- 
moire de Chris- 
tine de Suede, i. 
450,iii.228, A mster- 
cam, 1651; Gratz, 
Gesch. x. 233 D. 
H. de Castro, 
Keur van Graf- 
steenen, pp. 104 et 
seq.; Grunwald, 
Portugiesengr i- 
her, pp. 123 et seq. 
(the epitaphs be- 
ing given on p. 
86). 

Manuel Teixeira (Isaac Hayyim Senior 
Teixeira): Only son of Diego Teixeira and Sara 
d’Andrade; born in Lisbon about 1625; died at 
Amsterdam June 5, 1705. He was twice married, 
his second wife being Esther Gomez de Mesquita, 
whom he wedded at Hamburg April 7, 1654. 
Like his father, he was the financial agent and resi- 
dent minister of Queen Christina of Sweden, re- 
taining this position until 1687, as is proved by the 
patent of dismissal given him by her (Archenholtz, 
“Mémoire de Christine de Suéde,” iv.), Christina 
esteemed her ambassador so highly for his integrity 
and discretion that when the magistracy of Ham- 
burg attempted to prevent him from leaving the 
city the queen regarded their action as a personal 
affront. She considered Teixeira’s opinions and ad- 


vice of such value that she recommended her am- 


Teixeira 
Telcs 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 76 


bassador Rosenbach to follow his counsels, “for 
they are wise and clever, and I approve of them,” 
while in one of her letters to Count \Wassenau the 
queen said: “Teixeira has written you a letter so 
clever and sagacious that King Solomon himself 
could not have improved upon it. [ean only add 
that you must do all things as he bids you, and un- 
dertake nothing in opposition to his views. . . . Be 
careful not to do anything without his sanction ” 
(Archenholtz, 2.¢. iii, 399, 465). 

During her repeated visits to Hamburg, Queen 
Christina always took up her residencein Teixeira’s 
house, which was situated in the most beautiful 
portion of the town, on the Jungfernstieg; she re- 
mained there for an entire year in 1661. When she 
revisited. Hamburg in July, 1666, and instead of ac- 
cepting the hospitality of the municipal council be- 
came the guest of Teixeira, the rabble, instigated by 
the clergy, endeavored to storm the house. For 
more than a quarter of a century Teixeira served the 
queen faithfully, and, even when, in 1685, he re- 
fused to advance further sumson her appanage, her 
governor-general, Olivekraus, did not succeed in 
disgracing him; on the contrary, she maintained a 
correspondence with him until her death. 

Although Manuel Teixcira, like his father, kept 
a princely house and moved in the highest cir- 
cles, he was a faithful adherent of Judaism, and 
supported a Talmud Torah in which Jacob Sas- 
portas was employed as teacher. Like many other 
Jews of Spanish-Portuguese extraction, he was a 
follower of Shabbethai Zebi. In 1670, when the 
Jews were threatened with expulsion from Vienna 
and from the Austrian domains, Teixeira, in response 
to the appeal of the Vienna community, advocated 
their cause with great devotion. He accordingly 
wrote to several of his friends among the grandees 
of Spain and invoked the aid of Cardinal Azzolino 
at Rome, the contidential friend of Queen Christina, 
while at his request the queen herself wrote to the 
papal nuncio in Vienna and sent Teixeira letters for 
the dowager empress and for the empress. Manuel 
must have removed to Amsterdam before 1699, since 
in that year he was head of the Spanish-Portuguese 
congregation in that city. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jahrbuch fiir Israeliten, vii. 1-13, Vienna, 
+ Gritz, Gesch. x. 227, 263; xxii. et seq.; J. Sasportas, 
Ohel Ya'‘akob, responsum No. 77; Zeitschrift des Ham- 
burger Geschichtsvereins, ii. 409 ef seq.; D. H. de Castro, 
Keur van Grafsteenen, pp. 104 et seg. ; Jew. Chron. Aug. 11, 
Me Diamant, in Magyar Zsid6 Szemie, vi. 269 et seq., 323 

et seq. 


8, M. K. 

TEIXEIRA, PEDRO: Portuguese traveler; 
born at Lisbon of Marano parents; died about the 
middle of the seventeenth century either at Verona 
(according to De Barrios, who is followed by Wolf, 
Zunz, and others) or at Antwerp (according to Bar- 
bosa Machado), whither he had removed from Ven- 
ice. A man of education and aclose observer, he 
traveled for eighteen months through the Philip- 
pines, China, and parts of America, and, after spend- 
ing two years at Lisbon, undertook a scientific jour- 
_ ney to India, Persia, and other countries. As a re- 

sult he published “ Relaciones de Pedro Teixeira d’el 
Origen, Descendencia, y Sucesion de los Reyes de 
Persia, y de Hormuz, y de un Viage Hecho por el 
Mismo Autor Dende la India Oriental Hasta Italia 


por Tierra” (Antwerp, 1610), containing a history 

of the kings of Persia according to Persian sources, 

as well as a fund of information on the Jews of 

Aleppo, Bagdad, and other cities, with notes on 

Jewish monuments. It served as a guide for 

Thomas de Pinedo and others, and has been trans- 

lated into English by W. J. Sinclair, and edited by 

D. Fergeson; the latter also supplied the edition 

with an introduction. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY : Barrios, Relacion de los Poetas Espatioies, p. 
08; Wolf, Bibl. Hebr. tii. 922: Zunz, G. S, i. 188: Barbosa 
Machado, Biblioteca Lusitana, iii. 622: Kayserling, Pedro 
Teireira: Kine Reiseskizze als Einleitung zu J. J. Benia- 
min, Acht Jahre in Asien und Africa, Hanover, 1858 (Eng- 
lish transl. ib. 1859); idem, Bibl. Esp.-Port.-Jud. p. 108. 

8. M. K. 


TEKI‘AH. See SHorar. 


TEKOA: City of southern Judea, frequently 
mentioned in the Old Testament. The “ wise wom- 
an” who brought about the recall of Absalom was a 
resident of the city (II Sam. xiv. 2 e¢ seg.), and it 
was also the home of the prophet Amos (i. 1), the 
herdsman and the gatherer of sycamore fruit. The 
fortification of Tekoa by Rehoboam (II Chron. xi. 
6) gave it strategic importance. In the post-exilic 
period its inhabitants were CALEBITES (I Chron. ii. 
24); and they aided Nehemiah in rebuilding the 
wall (iii. 5, 27). 

The site of Tekoa is fixed by Biblical data. It 
was in the south (Jer. vi. 1), and in the vicinity of 
the valley of Berachah (“blessing ”), near the desert 
to which it gave its name (II Chron. xx. 20, 26: I 
Mace. ix. 38). The place is still more accurately 
localized in Josh. xv. 60, where the Greek text of 
a passage lost in the Hebrew places it, together with 
Beth-lehem and other towns of the hill-country of 
Judah, south of Jerusalem. According to the 
“OQnomasticon” of Eusebius and Jerome, it lay 
twelve Roman miles (eighteen kilometers) south of 
that city and to the east of Beth-lehem on the edge 
of the desert. The site of the city is represented by 
the modern Khirbat Taku‘ah, a mass of scantily in- 
habited ruins, with ancient cisterns and tombs and 
the remains of a church, lying on a biil which 
commands a wide landscape. Since the days of 
Jerome the grave of Amos has been shown 
there. The Mishnah speaks in high praise of the 
oil of Tekoa; and medieval Arabic authors mention 
its honey. 

E. C. I. Be, 


TEKUFAH (lit. “turn,” “cycle”): Season of 
the year. The fourtekufotare: (1) Tekufat Nisan, 
the vernal equinox (March 21), when the sun enters 
Aries; this is the beginning of spring, or “ ‘et ha- 
zera‘” (seed-time), when day and night are equal; 
(2) Tekufat Tammuz, the summer solstice (June 21), 
when thesun enters Cancer; this is the summer sea- 
son, or “‘et ha-kazir” (harvest-time), when the day 
is the longest in the year; (8) Tekufat Tishri, the 
autumnal equinox (Sept. 23), when the sun enters 
Libra, and autumn, or “ ‘et ha-bazir” 
(vintage-time), begins, and when the 
day again equals the night; (4) Te- 
kufat Tebet, the winter solstice (Dec. 22), when the 
sun enters Capricornus; this is the beginning of 


Seasons. 


Teixeira 


vA THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA T 
elcs 


that has been boiled or used in salting or pickling. 
The danger in unused water may be avoided by put- 
ting in it a piece of iron or an iron vessel (“ Ret 
Yosef” on the “Tur.” and Isserles’ note to Shulhan 


winter, or “‘et ha-horef” (stripping-time), when the 
night is the longest during the year. Each tekufah, 
according to Samuel Yarhinai, marks the beginning 
of a period of 91 days and 74 hours. 


TABLE OF THE TEKUFOT DtriInG 1905-14. 


—— ee $n 


i ' 
ce Fr Bg ES Pt. 
=| Tekufat Tebet. acd Tekufat Nisan. =%|  Tekufat Tammuz. ze Tekufat Tishri. | ay 
a ft Az A 3] ea 
| | Bi 
1 Pecks SEE St fre : ai Gs | ee ee ele 
1905 10.00 a.in. Fri., Jan. 6... -| 29 || 6 p.m. Fri., April ee | 3 |! 1.30a.m. Sat., July &..../ 5 | a.m, Sati, Oct. F svi cies | § 
1906 | $30 p.m. Sat., Jan. 6. sail ei 12 p.m. Sat., April’ ..... | 13 | 7.80 a.m. Sun,, July 8....} 14 (| 3p.m. Sun., Oct. 7....... 18 
1907 | 10.30 p.m. Sun., Jan. 6, .. 21 6 a.m. Mon., April 8....) 24 | 1.30 p.m. Mon., July 8...{ 26 |; 9 p.m. Mon., Oct. 7...... | 80 
1908 | 4.30 a.m. Tues., Jan. 7..) 4 | 12 a.m. Tues., April 7..../ 6 || 7.30 p.m. Tues., July7...] 9 |} 38a.m. Wed., Oct. 7...... 12 
1909 | 10.3I)a.m. Wed., Jan. 6..) 13 6 p.m. Wed., April ....] 17 || 1.30 a.m. Thur., July 8.../ 19 |! 9 a.m. Thur., Oct.7......| 22 
1910! 4.30 p.m. Thur., Jan. 6..) 25 ||) 12 p.m. Thur., April 7...! 28*)] 7.30 a.m, Fri., July $..... Lo Sipems Prin Otte Taciaee | 4 
1911 10.30 p.m. Fri., Jan.6....| 7 |) 6 a.m. Sat., April 8..... 10 || 1.80 p.m. Sat., July 8..... 12 || 9 p.m. Sat., Oct. 7....c06: | 16 
1912; 4.80 a.m. S8un., Jan.7...) 17 || 12 a.m. Sun., April 7 ....] 20 | 7.30 p.m. Sun., July 7....| 23 [| 3a.m. Mon., Oct. 7......% 26 
1913 | 10.30 a.m. Mon., Jan. 6..| 27 || 6 p.m. Mon., April7....| 1 || 1.30a.m. Tues., July 8...) 3 |] 9a.m. Tues., Oct. 7...... 6 
1914 4.380 p.m. Tues., Jan.6..} 8 | 12 p.m. Tues., April7....| 12 |) 7.80a.m. Wed., July 8...| 14 || 3 p.m. Wed., Oct. 7......| 17% 
| { { 
*Adar II. 


It will be noticed that the tekufot fall from four- 
teen to eighteen days later than the true solar 
equinox or solstice; this, however, does not inter- 
fere with the calendar, which follows the figures of 
R. Ada. 

An ancient and widely believed superstition is 
connected with the teknufot. All water that may be 
in the house or stored away in vessels in the first 
hour of the tekufah is thrown away in 
the belief that the water is then poi- 
soned, and if drunk would cause swell- 
ing of the body, sickness, and sometimes 
death. Several reasons areadvanced for this. Some 
say it is because the angels who protect the water 
change guard at the tekufah and leave it unwatched 
for a short time. Others say that Cancer fights 
with Libra and drops blood into the water. Another 
authority accounts for the drops of blood in the 
water at Tekufat Nisan by pointing out that the 
waters in Egypt turned to blood at that particular 
moment, At Tekufat Tammuz, Moses smote the 
rock and caused drops of blood to flow from it. At 
Tekufat Tishri the knife which Abraham held to 
slay Isaac dropped blood. At Tekufat Tebet, 
Jephthah sacrificed his daughter (Abudarham, 
“Sha‘ar ha-Tekufot,” p. 122a, Venice, 1566). 

The origin of the superstition can not be traced. 
Hai Gaon, in the tenth century, in reply to a ques- 
tion as to the prevalence of this custom in the 
“West ” (¢.e., west of Babylon), said it was followed 
only in order that the new season might be begun 
with a supply of fresh, sweet water. Ibn Ezra ridi- 
cules the fear that the tekufah water will cause 
Swelling, and ascribes the belief to the “ gossip 
of old women” (zd.). Hezekiah da Silva, however, 
warns his coreligionists to pay no attention to Ibn 
Ezra’s remarks, asserting that in his own times 
Many persons who drank water when the tekufah 
occurred fell illand died in consequence. Da Silva 
Says the principal danger lies in the first tekufah 
(Nisan); and a special announcement of its occur- 
rence was made by the beadle of the congregation 
(“Peri Hadash,” on Orah Hayyim, 428, end). The 
danger lurks only in unused water, not in water 


Supersti- 
tion. 


‘Aruk, Orah Hayyim, 455, 1; “Be’er Heteb,” to 
Yoreh De‘ah, 116, 5). R. Jacob MéNn required 
that a new iron nail should be lowered by means of 
a string into the water used for baking mazzot dur- 
ing the Nisan tekufah (“Sefer Maharil,” p. 6b, ed. 


Warsaw). 
See CALENDAR; Monti; Stn, BLESSING OF. 
J. J. D. E. 


TELASSAR Cawedn) : City, along with Gozan, 
Haran, and Reseph, which Rabshakeh mentions as 
having been conquered by Sennacherib’s predeces- 
sors (II Kings xix. 12; Isa. xxxvii. 12). This city 
was inhabited by the Bene ‘Eden. The cuneiform 
inscriptions mention a Bit-Adini, located in the up- 
per Mesopotamian country, which may be identical 
with the Biblical place. “Telassar” is probably, as 
Schrader holds, the same name as “ Til-Ashshuri ” 
(the hill of Ashur), and may have been given to any 
place on which a temple was built. One such place 
is found east of the Tigris, as shown by Schrader; 
and another, mentioned by Tiglath-pileser III., was 
probably in Babylonia. Esarhaddon, too, mentions 
one near the land of the Mitanni. Telassar, then, 
being a possible general name, is located in at least 
three sections of the great Mesopotamian valley by 
as many separate cuneiform documents, 

E. C. I. M. P. 


TELCS, EDUARD: Hungarian sculptor; born 
at Baja May 12, 1872. At the age of twelve he 
went to Budapest and studied decorative art, but he 
soon left that city for Vienna, where he was edu- 
cated for four years in the Allgemeine Bildhauer- 
schule, winning the Figer gold medal with his 
“St. Boniface Striking Down the Banner of Wotan.” 
He next entered Professor Zumbusch’s school, where 
he studied for three years, gaining the school’s first 
prize with his “Two Drinkers,” which later won a 
medal of the second class at the World’s Fair in 
Antwerp. Telcs attracted particular attention in 
1900 by being awarded, for his monument in honor 
of Empress Elizabeth of Austria, first prize among 
many competitors, He is now (1905) at work on 
a statue of the poet Vérésmarty to be erected in 


Telesinus 
Temesvar 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 78 


Budapest, and another of Kossuth in Kecskemet, 
having been awarded both these commissions as a 


result of competition. 
3, L. VY. 


TELESINUS: Jew of Telesia, who lived at 
Rome about 480. Not oply did Pope Gelasius refer 
to him, ina letter to Bishop Quingesius, as a “ vir 
clarissimus” and his most deserving friend, but he 
recommended Telesinus’ relative Antonius (Antius) 
to the bishop. Telesinus, moreover, is mentioned in 
papal documents as the physician of Pope Gelasius. 
Of late it has been denied that Telesinus was phy- 
sician in ordinary to Gelasius or even a physician 
at all. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Berliner, Gesch. der Juden in Rom, ii. 4; 


Vogelstein and Rieger, Gesch. der Juden in Rom, i, 128, and 
note. 


S. A. M. F. 

TELL EL-AMARNA: Name derived from the 
Beni ‘Amran or E]-Amarna Bedouins, and now given 
to the extensive ruins and rock-cut tombs which are 
the last relics of the ancient royal city of Khut Aten. 


These ruins are in middle Egypt, on the east bank 


of the Nile, near the villages of Hagg Kandil on the 
south and Et-Tell on the north. They are the ruins 
of a city built by Amenophis IV., of the eighteenth 
Egyptian dynasty. Shortly after the beginning of 
his reign, Amenophis broke away from the worship 
of all gods except Aten, the god of the solar disk. 
He accordingly removed from Thebes, which for cen- 

turies had been the Egyptian capital, 

Of the and built a new city, in which ancient 
Eighteenth traditions and invested religious inter- 

Dynasty. ests should not be able to oppose his 
reforms. He selected the site now 
known as El-Amarna, in the Hermopolitan nome 
in central Egypt, in which a royal palace and 
a temple of Aten were soon surrounded by resi- 
dences of nobles and of others who would naturally 
follow in the train of royalty. After the death of 
Amenophis the old religion reasserted itself, the 
royal residence was soon moved back to Thebes, and 
the city which he had been at so much pains to 
build fell into decay. As the reign of Amenophis 
was less than twenty years, the occupation of his 
new capital can not have been long. Its site was 
never reoccupied, so that the course of the streets 
of Khut Aten and the plans of the ancient palaces 
and houses may still be traced in the mound. 

The position of the palace of Amenophis was dis- 
covered by Petrie during his excavation at El- 
Amarna in 1891-92. It is indicated on the mound 
to-day by a building erected to preserve some painted 
stucco pavements which once formed a part of the 
palace. These paintings, as well as those in the 
neighboring tombs, prove that the artists of the 
time of Amenophis had emancipated themselves 
from ordinary Egyptian conventions, and repre- 
sented objects much more naturally than had hith- 
erto been the case. 

The attention of the modern world was first called 
to El-Amarna by the discovery, accidentally made 
by @ peasant woman late in 1887, of more than 300 
cuneiform tablets, which turned out to be letters 
written to Amenophis III. and Amenophis IV. by 
kings of various Asiatic countries and by Egyptian 


officials or vassals in Phenicia, Syria, and Palestine. 
This correspondence opened vistas of Oriental his- 
tory that had been entirely unsuspected. Kadash- 
man-Bel and Burnaburiash, kings of 
The Babylon; Ashuruballit, a king of As- 
El-Amarna syria; Dushratta, a king of Mittani; 
Tablets. anda king of Alashia (supposed to be 
Cyprus)—ali had friendly correspond- 
ence with the Egyptian kings. An entirely new 
conception of international relations at this period 
was thus acquired; and the remarkable fact was es- 
tablished that the language of diplomatic intercourse 
was then the cuneiform Babylonian. The majority 
of the letters were from vassals or ofticials in places 
like Gebal, Tyre, Sidon, Lachish, Jerusalem. etc. 
—letters which proved that even in writing to Egyp- 
tians the natives of this region used Babylonian 
cuneiform. Thus a long domination of these coun- 
tries by Babylonian influence, before the Egyptian 
conquest by Thothmes III., was evident. The con- 
tents of the letters afford a vivid picture of the way 
in which the Asiatic empire of Egypt was disinte- 
grating under the weak administration of Ameno- 
phis IV. 

Amenophis IV. had an Asiatic mother. He was 
accordingly more interested in preserving these let- 
ters than most Egyptian kings would have been; 
those which had been written to his father he took to 
his new capital, while those which were written to 
himself were stored in the same archive, where they 
remained until 1887. After their discovery the Brit- 
ish Museum purchased 87 of them, the Berlin Mu- 
seum 160 (a considerable number being fragments), 
the Gizeh Museum at Cairo obtained 60, while about 
20 were purchased by private persons. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY : Baedeker, Egypt, 203 et seqg., Leipsic, 
; Budge, History of Egypt, iv. Phi7-141, 184-241, London, 

1902: Bezold, The Tell-El-Amarna Tablets in the British 

Museum, London, 1891; Oriental Di plomacy, London, 1893 ; 


Winckler, Der Thontafelfund von EC Amarnd, Berlin, 1889 ; 
Die Thontafein von Tell-El-Amarna (vol. v. of Schrader, 


E. C. G. A. B. 


TELLER, LEOPOLD: Hungarian actor; born 
at Budapest April 8, 1844. For a time he studied 
medicine at the University of Vienna, but in 1862 
he went to Laibach, where he joined a theatrical 
company. During the foliowing ten years he played 
at small theaters in Iglau, Klagenfurt, Troppau, 
Budapest, Leipsic, and Liebenstein; and from 1874 
to 1890 he was a member of the “ Meininger,” and 
appeared in such rdéles as Shylock, Iago, Gessler, 
Franz Moor, and Marinelli. On leaving the “ Mein- 
inger” he secured an engagement at the Stadttheater 
in Hamburg, where his principal réles were Graf 
Trast, Doctor Crusius, and Graf Menges. In 1899 he 
retired from the stage, and settled as teacher of 
elocution in Hainburg. He has written a play 
entitled “ Wintersonnenwende,” which has met with 
considerable. success. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Eisenberg, Biog. Lex. 


S. F. T. H. 
TELLER, PROBST. See FRIEDLANDER, 
DAVID. 


TELLHEIM, CAROLINE. See Berre:.xem, 
CAROLINE VON, 


79 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Telesinus 
Temesvar 


TEMAN : Originally, the name of a tribe and then 
of a district of the Edomites. In Biblical genealogy 
it is the name of the eldest son of Eliphaz, the 
first-born of Esau, and one of the “dukes” of Edom 
(Gen. xxxvi. 11, 15, 42; I Chron. i. 36, 58). The 
genealogy here noted proves that Teman was one of 
the most important of the Edomite tribes, and this 
is contirmed by the fact that “Teman” is used as a 
synonym for Edom itself (Amos i. 12; Obad. 9; 
comp. Jer. xlix. 20, 22; Hab. ii 3). The Teman- 
ites were famed for their wisdom (Jer. xlix. 7; 
Baruch iii. 22); Eliphaz, the oldest and wisest of 
the friends of Job, is described as a member of this 
tribe (Job ii. 11 et passem). 

Teman is referred to in Obad. 9 asa part of the 
mount of Esau, while Amos i. 12 mentions it in con- 
nection with the Edomitic “palaces of Bozrah”; 
Ezek. xxv. 13 speaks of it in contrast to the southern 
boundary Dedan. The “Onomasticon ” of Eusebius 
(260, 155) mentions a region called Thaiman, in Geba- 
lene (the GERAL of Ps. Ixxxiii. 8 [A. V. 7]), and thus 
in the district of Petra, noting also an East Teman, 
a town with a Roman garrison fifteen (according to 
Jerome, five) miles from Petra. 

E. C. I. BE. 


TEMERLS, JACOB BEN ELIEZER (known 
also as Jacob Ashkenazi): German Talmudist 
and cabalist; born at Worms at the end of the six- 
teenth century; died at Vienna about 1667. At an 
early age Temerls went to Poland, and for some 
years directed a Talmudical school at Lublin. 
Thence he removed to Kremenetz, where he passed 
the greater part of his life. In his old age he 
settled at Vienna, where he remained until his death. 
He enjoyed a high reputation both as a Talmudist 
and as a cabalist, and was lauded by his contem- 
poraries for his great piety. He is said to have 
fasted forty years, during which period he never 
left the bet ha-midrash. 

Temerls was the author of “Sifra di-Zeni‘uta de- 
Ya‘akob,” containing a cabalistic commentary on 
the Pentateuch and rules for the study of the Cab- 
ala (Amsterdam, 1669). He left in manuscript: 
“She’elot u-Teshubot,” a collection of responsa, 
quoted in “ Emunat Shemuel ” (§ 53); a comprehen- 
sive commentary on the Pentateuch and the Megillot, 
quoted by himself in his “Sifra di-Zeni‘uta de- 
Ya‘akob”; a commentary on the “Idrot”; a com- 
mentary on difficult passages in the Babylonian 
and Palestinian Talmuds; explanations of some 
passages of the Zohar, the books of the Prophets, 
and the Hagiographa; and a dissertation on Luria’s 


cabalistic writings. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Nepi-Ghirondi, Toledot Gedole Yisrael, pp. 
210, 350 (where Jacob is confounded with the brother of Shab- 


bethai Bass); Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 1258; Fuenn, 
Keneset Yisrael, p. 581; Dembitz, Kelilat Yori, ii. 117. 


s. I. Br. 


TEMESVAR: Hungarian city. The oldest 
gravestone in the Jewish cemetery is dated 1636, and 
was erected in memory of Azriel Assach of Salonica. 
Between 1552 and 1716 large numbers of Spanish 
Jews settled in Temesvar, where the Turkish gov- 
ernment received them with favor; but after the 
capture of the city in 1716 by Prince Eugene their 
treatment became less favorable, for Temesvar and 


its district were annexed to Hungary and adminis- 
tered as an Austrian province. In 1718 the pro- 
vincial government ordered the expulsion of the 
Jews from the city on the charge of being Turkish 
spies. The order was not strictly enforced, how- 
ever, on account of the influence of Moses Lopez 
Pereira Diego d’AGTILAR, the founder of the Se- 
phardic community; Maria Theresa even permitted 
five other Spanish Jewish families to settle in the 
city. D’Aguilar presented to the Sephardic com- 
munity mantles of the Law and silver crowns for 
the scrolls of the Torah. At that time the Span- 
ish Jews had a society for the promotion of the 
study of the Bible, while another association re- 
ceived official recognition from the Count of Wallis. 
the commander-in-chief of the citadel. 

Asin Bohemiaand Moravia, the Jews of Temesvar 
were oppressed by the restrictions formulated by 
Maria Theresa in 1776. Only forty-nine were per- 
mitted to reside inthe city. They were restricted to 
a single community, headed by a dayyan and a 

rabbi; nor might they contract mar- 
Residence riages or leave the city without the 
Limited. permission of the authorities. Only 
eight were allowed to engage in com- 
merce; and the distinction between Ashkenazim and 
Sephardim was abolished, the whole Jewry being 
comprised under the term “protected Jews of the 
cities and counties of the Banat.” Jews from other 
places were forbidden to enter the city except for 
commercial purposes, when they were required to 
pay a daily tax of five groschen for protection, and 
were obliged to leave the city at night. Jews were 
forbidden either to have Christian servants or to live 
in the houses of Christians, and were compelled to 
reside in a ghetto in the citadel, their quarter being 
bounded by the streets now called Varoshaz, Szerb, 
Erzsibet, and Jené. Marriages might be performed 
only by the rabbi of Temesvar, and all Jews who 
died in the province were to be buried in the ceme- 
tery of the city. It was not until the reign of Jo- 
seph II. (1780-90) that the condition of the Jews of 
Temesvar began to improve. 

The community’s most important society, next to 
the charitable organization, is the Jewish Women’s 
Club of the citadel, one of the oldest societies of 
Hungary, founded by Sarolta Fischel in 1846. This 
is the famous Jewish society which gave Louis Kos- 
suth 800 crowns for patriotic purposes on the out- 
break of the Hungarian revolution. During the oc- 
cupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina this society 
rendered valuable aid by sending food to the 
wounded; and at the time of the flood at Szegedin, 
in 1879, it materially assisted the poor, especially 
by maintaining a soup-kitchen. The commu- 
nity supports two other women’s clubs, founded in 
1847 and 1869 respectively, as well as the Talmud 
Torah (a charitable organization), the Maskil el Dal, 
and a hebra kaddisha, the last-named established in 
1748, although its hospital in the citadel has since 
been demolished. 

Temesvar has had the following rabbis: Jacob 
Moses of Belgrade (Sephardi; 1739); Eliezer Lip- 
mann, author of the commentary “ Migdal Dawid ” 
(1748); Jonathan Trebitsch, chief rabbi of Transy]- 
vania (1752); Johanan b. Isaiah (1775); Zebi Hirsch 


Temesvar ; 
Temple, Administration of 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 80 


b, Israel (Hershele Harif; 1782); and David b. Zebi 
Oppenheim (1801), and hisson David Hirsch Op pen- 
heim, author of “ ‘Ene ha-Da‘at” (Budapest, 1829). 
The rabbinate of Temesvar has always included 
the entire district composed of Lugos, Versecz, 
Karansebes, Pancsova, and Nagy Becskerek. In 


2 PEE AN De FS Se ree ner tte mam ne te Ai ements Foe 


city possesses a synagogue in the Moorish style, built 
in 1865. There is a small Sephardic synagogue in 
the citadel, but the Spanish Jews in Temesvar are 
now very few, and their old place of worship, the 
Judenhof, founded in 1760, has been demolished to 
make room for the new Reform synagogue. 


WS 


SYNAGOGUE AT TEMESVAR, HUNGARY. 
(From a photograph.) 


1863 Moritz Hirschfeld was elected rabbi, and was 
succeeded by Moritz Liwy. Since 1860, however, 
internal dissensions have divided the community 
into factions, with the Reform rabbi, Moritz Lowy, 
at the head of the one in the city, and the Orthodox 
rabbi, Jakob Singer, leading that in the citadel. 
The latter contains a synagogue in the Renaissance 
Gothic style, designed by Leopokl Baumhorn; the 


The earliest Jewish census at Temesvar was taken 
in 1739, when there were 139 Ashkenazim and 81 
Sephardim (46 families altogether). In 1755 there 
were 23 Jewish families in the city ; 538 in 1772; 76 
in 1776; and 72 in 1781. In 1840 the Jewish popu- 
lation of the city was about 1,200, of whom 750 lived 
in the citadel, 340 in the city, and about 50 in the 
suburbs. In 1858 the number was 2,202; in 1890, 


31 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Temesvar 
Temple, Administration of 


ee er a eS ee a ee ne ee eS a Se ee ee ee 


4,870; and in 1901, 5,788 (including Jewish sol- 
diers, 5,916). The total population of Temesvar is 
53,033. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: M, Lowy, Skizzen zur Geschichte der Juden 
in Temesvar ; Jakob Singer, Adata a Banati Zsidok Térten, 


Budapest, 1905. 
S. J. Sr. 


TEMPLE, ADMINISTRATION AND 
SERVICE OF: The affairs of the Second Temple 
were managed by a board of fifteen ap pointed officers 
(*“memunnim ”). The Mishnah records the following 
names of officers of the Temple without stating their 
respective periods of activity ; butitis presumed they 
were those appointed in the time of Agrippa: (1) Jo- 
hanan b, Phinehas, in charge of the seals given 
in exchange for money to purchase sacrifices; (2) 
Ahijah, of libations; (8) Mattithiah b. Samuel, of 
allotments (z.e., the selection of priests for the day); 
(4) Pethahiah, of the nests of fowls (for sacrifices) ; 
(5) Ben Ahijah, of the health department (treat- 
ing especially a disease of the bowels caused by 
the bare feet touching the cold marble pavement); 
(6) Nehunya, of the digging of wells (for the 
pilgrims on the highways leading to Jerusalem); 
(7) Gebini (Gabinimus), of announcements (the Tem- 
ple crier); (8) Ben Geber, of the gates (opening and 
closing them); (9) Ben Babi, of the wicks for the 
candlestick (“ menorah”); (10) Beu Arza, of the cym- 
bals (leading the music of the Levites); (11) Hugras 
(Hugdas) b. Levi, of the musical in- 
struments; (12) the Garmu family, of 
the preparation of the showbread; 
(13) the Abtinas family, of the incense; (14) Elea- 
zar, of the curtains; and (15) Phinehas, of the vest- 
ments (Shek. v. 1; comp. Maimonides, “ Yad,” Kele 
ha-Mikdash, vii. 1). c 

Seven trustees (“amarkelim”) and three cashiers 
(“gizbarim”) had charge of the Temple treasury. 
In the courts were thirteen contribution-boxes in 
the shape of shofarim, with narrow necks and broad 
bases (Shek. vi.). The half-shekel contribution for 
public sacrifices, etc., was demanded on the first 
of Adar and was payable by the twenty-fifth of 
the same month (2). i. 1, 8). There was a special 
room, called “ Lishkat Hashsha’im ” (Secret Cham- 
ber), for anonymous donations, out of which fund 
the worthy poor were supported. Into the Vessel 
Chamber the people threw donations of silver and 
gold vessels. Every thirty days this chamber was 
opened by the cashiers, who selected such vessels as 
could be utilized in the Temple, the rest being sold 
and the proceeds applied to a fund for repairing 
the Temple building (“bedek ha-bayit”; 2b. v. 4). 

The priestly officials were: the high priest, his 
deputy (“segan”), and his two attendants (“katoli- 
kin” = “ catholicus ”). 

A strict watch over the Temple was maintained, 
the guard being composed of three priests and 
twenty-one Levites. The priests were stationed one 
at the Chamber of the Flame (“Bet ha-Nizoz ”), one 
at the Chamber of the Hearth (“Bet ha-Moked”), 
and one at the Chamber (attic) of Abtinas (see dia- 
gram, page 95). The Levites kept guard as fol- 
lows: one at each of the five gates of the mount 
€ntrances: one at each of the four corners within 
the mount enclosure; one at each of the five im por- 

X1TI.—6 


Officers. 


tant gates of the courts; one at each of the four cor- 
ners Within the court; one at the Chamber of Sacri- 
fice; one at the Chamber of Curtains: 
and one behind the “ Kapporet ” (Holy 
of Holies) The captain of the 
guard saw that every man was alert, 
chastising a priest if found asleep at his post, and 
sometimes even punishing him by burning his shirt 
upon him, as a warning to others (Mid. i. 1). 

The priests were divided into twenty-four patrols 
(“mishmarot ”), which were changed every week. 
The patrol was quartered partly in the Chamber of 
the Flame and principally in the Chamber of the 
Hearth, both of which were on the north side of the 
inner court (“‘azarah”), The latter chamber was a 
capacious one, surmounted by adome. Half of the 
chamber extended outside the court to the “hel,” a 
kind of platform surrounding the courts, which was 
considered as secular, in contrast to the sacred prem- 
ises within, where the priests were not allowed to sit 
down, much less to sleep. A fire was always kept 
burning in the outer extension, at which the priests 
might warm their hands and bare feet. Here also they 
might sit down and rest fora while. At night the 
elder priests slept here on divans placed on rows 
of stone steps one above another. The younger 
priests slept on cushions on the floor, putting their 
sacred garments under their heads and covering 
themselves with their secular clothing (Tamid i. 1). 
The elder priests kept the keys of the Temple, put- 
ting them at night under a marble slab in the floor; 
to this slab a ring was attached for lifting it. A 
priest watched over or slept on the slab until the 
keys were demanded by the officer in the morning. 

The king when visiting the Temple had no rights 
beyond those of the ordinary Israelite; only the 
kings of the house of David were privileged to sit 
down in the ‘azarah (Sotah 41b; Tamid 27a). 

The major Sanhedrin, composed of 71 members, 
sat in the Chamber of Hewn Stone (“ Lishkat ha- 
Gazit”) on the extreme north of the priests’ hall. 
Two tribunals of minor Sanhedrin, each composed 

of twenty-three members, sat one by 

The the south gate of the mount and one 

Judiciary. in front of the hall on the north side. 

The sessions were held from the morn- 

ing sacrifice till that of the afternoon. On Sabbaths 

and holy days, to facilitate increased business the 

major Sanhedrin sat outside on the hel (Sanh. 88b), 

and the minor Sanhedrin assembled in the bet ha- 
midrash situated on the mount (Tosef., Hag. ii.). 

Entrance within the enclosure of the mount was 
permitted to any one who was decently attired and 
who carried no burden, Israelites when ritually 
unclean and Gentiles were not allowed to pass be- 
yond the “soreg,” a fence which surrounded the 
courts at a distance of ten cubits. The outer court, 
called “‘Ezrat Nashim ” (Women’s Hall), was for the 

use of ordinary Israclites. The priests’ 

Local hall was reserved for the priests and 
Divisions Levites; occasionally, however, men 
and Water- and women presenting sin-offerings, 


Priestly 
Guard. 


Supply. sacrifices on which they were required 
to place the hands (“semikah ”), made 
use of it. At the festivals, to accommodate the 


large crowds, all Israelites were permitted to enter 


“€ 


Temple, Administration of THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 82 


the priests’ hall, on which occasion the curtain of | rah, being unfit for service till sunset of the same 
the vestibule was raised to show the people the in- | day. 

terior of the “Hekal” (see PILGRIMAGE). The The order of the priests’ daily service in the 
people, though tightly packed, were able to find Temple was as follows: One of the priests arose 
sufficient space in which to prostrate themselves, | early and bathed before the arrival of the officer, 
this being one of the miracles associated with the | who usually came about cockcrow. The officer 
Temple. The people crowded to within eleven | knocked at the door of the Chamber of the Hearth, 


cubits behind the Holy of Holies (Yoma 21a). and the priests opened it. He called for the priest 

Another phenomenon was the water-supply. A who had bathed, and ordered hiin to 
spring rising below the Holy of Holies from an | Order of decide by lot which of the priests should 
opening as narrow as the antenne of a locust in- Service. serve that day. The officer then took 
creased when it reached the entrance to the Hekal to the keys and entered through the 


the size of a warp-thread; at the entrance to the ; wicket (“pishpush ”) of the door to the ‘azarah, fol- 
vestibule it assumed the size of a woof-thread; and | lowed by the priests who formed the patrol, each 


pia beet 
=’ 


U - 
HUA eee E y 
Oona Mie ri all. aa US BR 
— ry ‘he inl SNE 4 
a = at: oat - : i | Fee Sos 


“he Bs 


abd etd ih Thad 


y y . 
PS hia rh 
ay SG 
Wess =. 
eee aes : 
= > B\ 
vty ai 
ate ae 


UTI Tenens 


WER HT 


A TTT 


Mh Up : MM 


——————— 


7 wa 
orp MY 
yy Yo 


THE TEMPLE AT JERUSALEM. 
(From s Passover Haggadah, printed at Amsterdam, 1695.) 


at the house of David it became an overflowing | holding two torches. The patrol was divided into 
brook (Yoma 77b, 78a). This spring is referred to | two sections; one going through the colonnade on the 
in the passage “ And behold, waters issued out from | east, and one on the west, the sections meeting on 
under the threshold of the house . . . at the south | the south side ai the chamber where they prepared 
side of the altar ” (Ezek. xlvii. 1, 2); it was the mys- | the “habittin” (the baked cake for the meal-offer- 
terious spring that filled the bath of Ishmael the | ing). The priests now asked one another “Is all 
high priest, situated by the attic of Abtinas on the | well?” and received the answer “ All is well.” The 
south of the court, at the water-gate. There was | officer assigned by lot the making of the habittin. 
another bath, in a passage under the Chamber of | Similarly he selected a priest to clean the altar of 
the Hearth, for the use of any ordinary priest who « ashes, his comrades uttering the warning: “Be 
might become ritually unclean. This was reached | careful not to touch the sacred vessels before thou 
by a winding staircase. The priest, having bathed, | sanctifiest [by washing] thy hands and feet at the 
dried himself by the fire; he then dressed and re- | laver; and see that the coal-shovel [“ mahtah ”] is in 
turned to his comrades above, with whom he waited | its place [near the “kebesh,” the inclined plank or 
until the gates were opened, when he left the ‘aza- | bridge leading to the altar].” Proceeding without 


(syavg ‘ayeaoyenN anhaqjoraqig aq) us Aangaao yyey ayy Jo ydjzdsnayw Maaqaq] payeaimmnyy) Ue W024) 
“ATIAGL, HHL 40 STISNHLO 


TLemple, Administration of 
Temple of Hero 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 84 


any light save that of the pyre (“ ma‘arakah ”) on the 
altar, he disappeared below, and was next heard op- 
erating the machinery for raising the laver from the 
well. This consisted of a wooden wheel and shaft 
and a chain, a device designed by the high priest Ben 
Kattin. The noise caused by this operation fixed 
the time for washing hands and feet. The priest took 
the silver “mahtah” and ascended the altar; pnsh- 
ing the large coals aside, he took a shovelful of ashes 
and charred wood, and, descending, turned north- 
ward and deposited the ashes in a heap on the floor 
three handbreadths from the “ kebesh,” where also the 
ashes from the golden altar and the candlestick were 
placed. The authorities disagree as to the disposi- 
tion of the ashes: some say they fell through a grate 
in the floor; others, that they were removed later. 
Observing his act, the priest’s comrades hurried to 
wash their hands and feet at the laver. They then 
took large shovels (“ magrefot”) and made a heap 
(“tappuah ”) of the ashes of the altar in the center, 
other priests meanwhile using flesh-hooks to place 
aside the portions of the sacrifices that had not been 
consumed during the night. When the heap of 
ashes was sufficiently large it was removed outside 
the city. The priests now brought pieces of all 
kinds of wood except olive and vine, and built a 
new pyre, on which they replaced the unconsumed 
portions of the sacrifices. For a second pyre, in- 
tended for the burning of incense, they selected the 
best fig-wood. Having lit thetwo pyres, they de- 
scended from the altars. 

The officer then ordered the priests to decide by lot 
who should slaughter the sacrificial victim, who 
should sprinkle the blood, who should clean the 
ashes from the golden altar and from the golden 
candlestick, and who should attend to the sacrifices 
in detail. This being done, the officer commanded: 
“Go ye and see if it is time to commence the sacrifi- 
cial service!” Mounting to an eminence of the 
Temple, they looked toward the east, till at length 
one shouted, “ Barkai!” (the morning light has ap- 

peared). Mattithiah b. Samuel said 

The Tamid they asked him, “Has the light in the 
Sacrifice. east reached Hebron?” and he an- 
swered, “Yes.” The mention of He- 

bron was made to honor the memory of the patriarchs 
buried there. The officer then said: “Go and fetch 
a lamb from the Chamber of the Lambs” (situated 
at the northeast corner of the ‘azarah). The priests 
entered also the Vessel Chamber and took therefrom 
ninety-three vessels of silver and gold. The lamb 
was now examined by the light of torches to see 
whether it was free from blemishes; and water from 
a golden cup was given it to drink. The priest 
selected by lot then dragged the animal to the abat- 
toir, north of the altar. Meanwhile other priests 
advanced with the “teni,” a gold dish in the shape 
of a basket of a “tarkab” measure; the “kuz,” a 
gold pitcher ; and two keys wherewith to open the 
Hekal, one from the outside and one from within 
through the wicket or lattice of a cell on the north 
side of the vestibule. The bolt was thrown back 
and the doors unlocked, causing a noise which was 
heard a long distance and which was the signal for 
the shohet to slaughter the perpetual morning sac- 
rifice (“tamid shel shaharit ”) at the abattoir, while 


the priest in the Hekal carefully gathered up all the 
ashes of the golden altar into the teni, put this on 
the floor, and went out. The priest with the kuz 
cleared the candlestick of ashes, leaving the two 
lights nearest to the east to burn till the evening. 
If he found them extinguished he renewed and re- 
lighted them, after which he trimmed the other lamps. 
In front of the candlestick were three marble steps, 
on the top one of which the priest stood to trim and 
light the lamps. When he had finished he put the 
kuz on the second step and went out. On the first 
step the tongsand snuff-dishes were placed (Maimon- 
ides, “ Yad,” Bet ha-Behirah, iii. 11). The teni was 
removed by the priest chosen to remove the ashes of 
the altar after the incense had been offered; the kuz, 
by the priest who in the afternoon attended to the 
two lights of the candlestick that had been burning 
all day. 

The slaughter of the lamb was effected as follows: 
The front legs were bound to the hind legs, the head 
pointing south with its face toward the west. The 
shohet stood facing the west. The 
morning tamid was slaughtered at the 
northwest corner, that of the after- 
noon at the northeast corner, of the 
altar at the second ring. There were twenty-four 
rings, in four rows, fixed to the floor on hinges; in 
these the heads of the animals were held in position. 
The priest who received the blood in a basin stood 
facing the south. He sprinkled the blood on both 
sides of the northeast and southwest corners of the 
altar. The removal of the hide and the dissection 
of the carcass were shared by the priests, and 
were followed by the meal-offering (Lev. vi. 18). 
This accomplished, the priests went to the Chamber 
of Hewn Stone. There the officer directed them to 
recite one benediction (“ Ahabah Rabbah”) and to 
read the Ten Commandments and the “Shema‘,” 
after which they blessed the people. On Sabbaths 
they blessed also with “love, brotherhood, peace, 
and friendship ” the patrol that was about to go off 
duty. 

Finally, the priests drew lots for the incense serv- 
ice, and the various assignments were made, only 
those who had not been previously selected being 

admitted to the ballot. The priests 


The 
Abattoir. 


The that were not to share in the service 
Incense of the day now removed their priestly 
Service. garments and then, having delivered 


them to an attendant who placed them 
in the proper lockers, dressed themselves in their 
secular clothes and retired from the ‘azarah till their 
next turn. 

During the sacrifice the Levites were at their sta- 
tions on the steps leading to the priests’ hall, and in 
front of the dukan; but they did not commence 
their music until] the libation at the conclusion of 
the service. The musical instrument called the 
“magrefah,” somewhat similar to the organ, stood 
between the altar and the vestibule. Its tones, 
Which could be heard a long distance, were the 
signal for the priests to prostrate themselves: this 
took place after the incense-offering. 

Special honor was paid to the high priest. He 
was attended by three priests: one on his right, one 
on his left, and one holding up the breastplate 


85 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


adorned with precious stones. The high priest 
entered the Hekal alone, and after the curtain was 
lowered, he prostrated himself and retired. The 
officer who waited in the vestibule, on hearing the 
sound of the bells on the hem of the high priest’s 
garment, raised the curtain. After 
the high priest had left, the officer 
who acted as sagan entered the Hekal 
and prostrated himself; and on his 
retirement the other priests entered 
and followed his example. In case the high priest 
desired to offer the incense he was assisted by the 
officer and two attendants. 

At the conclusion the priests bearing the five 
empty vessels—the basket, pitcher, ladle, spoon, and 
cover—used in the service of the altar, and those 
carrying the candlestick and incense, stood in line 
on the staircase 
of the vestibule, 
and, raising their 
hands as high as 
their shoulders, 
recited the 
priestly benedic- 
tion. 

The high 
priest then of- 
fered the liba- 
tion of wine 
(“nesakim”). 
The officer stood 
in the corner 
with kerchief 
(flag) in hand, 
and two priests 
with silver 
trumpets by the 
table, the cym- 
bals meanwhile 


Honor to 
the High 
Priest. 


Temple, Administration of 
Temple of Herod 


down, fearing lest it might not be rebuilt. To de- 
monstrate his good faith, Herod acccumulated the 
materials for the new building before the old one 
was taken down. The new Temple was rebuilt 
as rapidly as possible, being finished ina year and 
a half, although work was in progress on the out- 
buildings and courts for eighty years. As it was 
unlawful for any but priests to enter the Temple, 
Herod employed 1,000 of them as masons and car- 
penters. 

The Temple proper as reconstructed by Herod was 
of the same dimensions as that of Solo- 
mon, viz.: 60 cubits long, 20 cubits 
wide, and 40 cubits high. This space 
was divided into the Holy of Holies 
and the “ Hekal.” The former measured 20 x 20 cu- 
bits; the latter, 20 x 40(“B. J.” v. 5, 85). At the en- 
trance to the 
outer Temple 
hung a veil em- 
broidered in 
blue, white (bys- 
sus), scarlet, and 
purple; the 
outer Temple 
was separated 
from the Holy of 
Holies by a sim- 
ilar curtain, 
The outer cur- 
tain was folded 
back on the 
south side, and 
the inner one on 
the north side, 
so that a priest 
in entering the 
Holy of Holies 
traversed the 


Dimen- 
sions. 


playing between : outer Temple di- 
them. The Greek Inscription, Found on Site of Temple Area, Forbidding Gentiles to Enter agonally. The 
trumpeters Within the Inner Temple Walls. Holy of Holies 
sounded “teki- (In the museum at Constantinople.) was quite emp- 


‘ah, teru‘ah, te- 
ki‘ah”; the high priest commenced the ceremony 
of the libation; the officer nnfurled the kerchief; 
the cymbals clashed; and the Levites sang hymns 
accompanied by music. During the pauses the 
trumpet sounded “teki‘ah,” and the people in the 
‘azarah prostrated themselves; at every pause a 
teki‘ah and a prostration. The order of the daily 
Psalms from Sunday to Saturday was as follows: 
Ps. xxiv., x]viii., xxxii., xciv., ]xxxi., xcili., xciv. 
J. J. D. E. 
TEMPLE OF HEROD: In theeighteenth year 
(20-19 B.c.) of his reign Herod rebuilt the Temple 
on amore magnificent scale. There are many evi- 
dences that he shared the passion for building by 
which many powerful men of that time were moved. 
He had adorned many cities and had erected many 
heathen temples; and it was not fitting that the 
temple of his capital should fall beneath these in 
magnificence. Probably, also, one of his motives 


was to placate the more pious of his subjects, whose 


Sentiments he had often outraged. 
The Jews were loth to have their Temple pulled 


ty. In the Holy 

Place stood the altar of incense, near the entrance to 
the Holy of Holies the seven-branched golden Can- 
DLESTICK to the south, and the table of showbread to 
the north. Above the gate of the Temple were golden 
vines and grape-clusters as large as a man (“ Ant.” 
xv. 11,83; “B.J.”v. 5,84). The Temple buiiding 
had an upper story similar in size to the lower (“B. 
J.” v.56, $ 5). Side-structures, as in Solomon’s Tem- 
ple, afforded space for three stories of chambers on 
the north, south, and west sides of the Temple. 
These chambers were connected by doors; and trap- 
doors afforded communication from those of one 
story to those of the story immediately above or be- 
low. The whole breadth of the structure inclu- 
ding the side-buildings was 70 cubits (Mid. iv. 7). 
East of Herod’s Temple there was, as in Solo- 
mon’s, a porch, 100 cubits wide, 100 cubits high, 
and 20 cubits deep, thus extending 15 cubits on 
either side of the Temple (“B. J.” v. 5, § 4). Its 
gateway, which had no gates, was 20 cubits broad 
and 70 cubits high. Overthis gateway Herod erected 
a golden eagle, which was afterward pulled down 


Temple of Herod 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 86 


by the Jews (“ Ant.” xvii. 6, § 2). The front of the 
porch was covered with gold (“B. J.” v. 5, § 4); and 
it was most brilliant when the rays of the morning 
sun fell upon it. 

In front of the Temple, 22 cubits distant from 
the porch, stood the altar of burnt offering, con- 
structed of unhewn stones, Its length and breadth 
were each 50 cubits, and its height 15 cubits (“B. 
J.” v. 5,35). To the north of the altar twenty- 
four rings were fixed in the ground, to which the 
sacrificial animals were tied. Near by were eight 
pillars supporting cedar beams, on which the car- 
casses of the animals were hung. There were also 
eight marble tables for preparing sacrificial flesh 


J.” v. 5, § 2). If the first part of this account 
is true, only the length of the Temple area was 
enlarged, the width remaining thesame. It is more 
probable that Herod enlarged the area in both di- 
mensions, though it is possible that it had been en- 
larged to the size of a square stadium by one of the 
Hasmoneans. The size to which Herod increased 
the area was almost that of the present Haram en- 
closure, The sacred territory has been increased 
since the time of Herod only on the north. 

In order to obtain space for this area on the top of 
a hill the sides of which sloped so steeply, it was 
necessary to extend artificially the surface of the 
hill itself. This was done, especially to the south, 


La 


SUBSTRUCTURE OF TEMPLE OF HEROD, NOW CALLED **SOLOMON’S STABLES.” 
(From a photograph by the American Colony at Jerusalem.) 


(Mid. iii. 5, v. 2; Tamid iii. 5; Shek. vi. 4). On 
the south was a bronze laver for the priestly ablu- 

tions (Mid. iii. 6; Yoma iii. 10). 
If sacred tradition compelled Herod to conform 
closely to the ancient plan of the holy house, allow- 
ing him to vary little from precedents 


The Tem- save in its facade, his Grecized taste 
ple and his genius for building found ample 
Courts. scope in the Temple courts and clois- 


ters. First of all, he greatiy enlarged 
the Temple area. Josephus says that before the 
time of Herod the Temple area was square, each side 
being a stadium (“ Ant.” xv. 11, § 3—-conflicting 
with the statement of Hecatzeus, see JEw. ENcyc. 
xii. 97b), and that Herod so enlarged the courts 
that the perimeter was increased to six stadia (* B. 


where the massive masonry (called by the Arabs 
“Solomon’s Stables”) which Herod constructed to 
support a pavement ona level with the surface of 
the hill farther to the north may still be seen. The 
whole was surrounded by a battlemented wall (“ B. 
J.” iv. 9,$12). The number of gates which this 
wall contained is somewhat uncertain, as Josephus 
and the Mishnah differ. The former says (“ Ant.” 
xv. 11, § 5) that there were four gates in the west- 
ern wall. Probably one of these was at the south- 
west cornerand led to the upper city over the bridge 
where Robinson’s arch may still be seen. This 
bridge, broken down by Pompey, was reconstructed ; 
indeed, the remains of the arch in the modern wal! 
are evidence that it was rebuilt. Probably there 
was another gate some 600 feet farther to the north, 


VIEW OF THE TEMPLE OF SOLOMON. 


) 


vk 


i 


( Recoustructed by Sch 


T 1 f Herod 7 z 
Temple, Plan of Seeond THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 88 


where Wilson’s arch (comp. Warren and Conder, 
“Jerusalem,” pp. 195 e¢ seg.) supported a cause- 
way across the valley to the city. The gates in 
the south wall may be more easily traced. Jose- 
phus says (“ Ant.” xv. 11, § 5) that it had gates in 
the middle; these the Mishnah calls “ gates of Hul- 
dah,” and they may still be traced in the substruc- 
tures of the present wall. From them a double 
tunnel leads by an inclined plane under the modern 
mosque Al-Aksa to the level of the Temple courts. 
- About 250 feet farther to the east a triple gate 
may also be traced. Josephus does not mention 
this; but perhaps it was the second Huldah gate of 
the Mishnah. 

Around the entire interior of this wall were ranged 
porticoes or cloisters. The finest were those on the 

south. They consisted of four rows 

The of Corinthian columns of white mar- 

Cloisters. ble; and there were 162 columns in 

all. The ceilings were of carved 

wood (“ Ant.” xv. 11, § 5; “B. J.” v. 5, § 2). The 

eastern cloister was known as “Solomon’s Porch” 

(John x. 28; Acts iii. 11, v. 12); it must accord- 

ingly have been believed that there were here Sol- 
omonic substructures. 

The open space beyond the cloisters was paved 
with various kinds of stone, probably forming a 
mosaic. This outer court was, strictly speaking, not 
a part of the Temple. Its soil was not sacred, an” 
it might be entered by any one. Some distang 
within, one came to an interior court which wa 
raised 15 cubits above the other. Access to it was 
gained by means of fourteen steps. This was the 
beginning of the sanctuary. It probably coincided 
with the elevated court still to be seen in the central 
part of the Haram area, This raised court was sur- 
rounded by a terrace 10 cubits in breadth (“B. J.” 
v. 5, $2). A breastwork of stone ran around the 
whole at the level of the steps. Onit were placed 
at frequent intervals inscriptions in Greek and 
Latin forbidding a non-Jew to enter farther on 
pain of death. One of these has been recovered. 
It reads: “ No foreigner may pass within the lattice 
and wall around thesanctuary. Whoever iscaught, 
the guilt for the death which will follow will be his 
own” (comp. “Pal. Explor, Fund, Quarterly State- 
ment,” 1871, p. 182; Benzinger, “Arch.” p. 404; 
Nowack, “ Lehrbuch der Hebriischen Archiologie,” 
ii. 77). This enclosure was penetrated by nine 
gates. Fourof these were on the north, four on the 
south, and one on the east, the western side having 
none, The eastern part of this court was separated 
from the western, and formed the court of the women. 
Women might pass beyond the court of the Gentiles 
into this court alone. The Temple proper might be 

entered by men only. One of the four gates on the 

north and one on the south gave entrance to the 

women’s hall, as did likewise the sole gate which led 

on the east from the court of the Gentiles. The re- 

‘Maining six of the nine gates led into 

The Gates. the court of the men. A large gate 

led from the court of the women into 

the court of the men. The gates had double doors 

which were covered with silver and gold donated 

| by a certain Alexander of Alexandria. The gate 
on the east was especially magnificent, and was 


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89 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


ee emeneene soe 
covered with Corinthian bronze. The greatest of 
all the gates was, however, the “gate. of Nicanor,” 
which led from the court of the women into the 
court of the men. It was the “great gate,” its 
height being 50 cubits and its breadth 40 cubits 
(“B. J.” v. 5, § 3); fifteen steps led up to it from 
the women’s court. Whether this gate or the one 
directly east of it in the eastern wall of the women’s 
court was the gate “Beautiful” of Acts iii. 2 can 
not now be determined. Each gate was porch-like 
in form. 

Along the enclosing wall of the men’s court was 
a series of chambers for storing utensils, vestments, 
and other articles. Within this western court, or 
court of the men, was another raised platform, to 
which access was gained by twelve steps, and on 
which the Tem- 
ple, as already 
described, was 
situated, On 
the north the 
fortress which 
had existed from 
the time of Ne- 
hemiah was re- 
built and named 
“Antonia” in 
honor of Mark 
Antony. It was 
connected with 
the Temple by 
asecret passage 
(“Ant.” xv. 11, 
§ 7). 

The construc- 
tion of all this 
' work occupied, 
according to 
John ii. 20, for- 
ty-six years; in 
reality, how- 
ever, it was not 
completed until 
the procurator- 
ship of Albinus 
(62-64 c.E.), 
more than 
eighty years 
after its com- 
mencement. Less than a decade later (70) it was 
destroyed by fire during the siege of Jerusalem by 
Titus. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Josephus, Ant. especially xv. 11; idem, B. J. 
especially v. 5; idem, Contra Ap. i. 22; Nowack, Lehrbuch 
der Hebriaischen Archtiologie, 1894, ii. 71-88; Benzinger, 
Arch. 1894, pp. 399-404 ; Schick, Die Stiftshiitte, der Tempel 
in Jerusalem und der Tempelplatz der Jetztzeit, 1896; 
Sanday, Sacred Sites of the Gospels, 1908, pp. 58-63, 107-117. 


E. C. G. A. B. 

TEMPLE OF MOUNT GERIZIM. Sce 
GeRizim, Mount. 

TEMPLE OF ONIAS. Sce LEONTOPOLIs. 

TEMPLE, PLAN OF SECOND: The plan 
and description of the Second Temple according to 
Talmudic sources were as follows: 


Mount Moriah, known as the “Har ha-Bayit” - 


(Mount of the House), had an area of 500 x 500 


Column from the Temple of Herod. 
(From a photograph by the Palestine Exploration Fund.) 


Temple of Herod 
Temple, Plan of Second 


cubits or ells (1 cubit = 21.85 inches). It was low- 
est on the east side, rising gradually to its highest 
point on the west, and was walled onallsides. The 
main entrance was on the south, and consisted of two 
gates near the center, the one on the right for admis- 
sion, and the other for exit. The two gates were 
named “ Huldah,” after the prophetess who used to 
preach there to the people; the space on this side 
being the greatest, 265 cubits in width. The next 
largest space, 115 cubits, was on the east side. The 
eastern gate was called “Shushan ” because it bore a 
model of Susa, the capital of Persia, in recognition 
of the permission given by that government to re- 
build the Temple. The entrance on the north was 
through the “Tadi” gate, z.e., the gate of obscurity 
or privacy, it being used only by those who were 
ceremonially 
unclean and by 
mourners and 
those under the 
ban. Thespace 
on this side was 
100 cubits. The 
space on the 
west was the 
leastof all, 
measuring only 
63 cubits to the 
court wall. The 
gate on this side 
was called * Ki- 
ponus,” meaning 
“garden bow- 
er,” from the 
fact that Joshua 
planted on _ its 
site the herbs, 
etc., from which 
the ingredients 
for the incense 
were clerived. 
Each gate was 
10 cubits wide 
and 20 cubits 
high. The 
height of the 
walls above the 
gates is not re- 
corded; but it 
does not appear that they were raised much above 
the lintels. The Tadi gate had no lintel, but was 
triangular in shape, this distinguishing it as a pri- 
vate entrance. The walls were all 5 cubits thick 
and of a uniform height. From the eastern side of 
the mount, which, as stated above, was the lowest, 
a flight of steps, consisting of thirty-nine of a rise of 
4 cubit each and one of 1 cubit (total, 204 cubits), 
gave access to the floor of the Hekal, which was 
nearly Jevel with the top of the eastern wall, render- 
ing it easy for the priest to observe the inside of the 
Holy of Holies while standing on Mount Olivet op- 
posite the eastern gate, when he sprinkled the ashes 
of the red heifer in the direction of the Sanctuary. 
A reticulated fence of sticks, called “soreg,” 16 
handbreadths in height and ata distance of 10 cubits 
from the outer wall of the courts, surrounded the 


Temple, Plan of 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 90 


Temple. This fence was on the edge of the founda- 
tion of the platform called “hel,” which was between 

the fence and the courts. The soreg 
The Soreg. served as a barrier beyond which Gen- 

tiles and the ceremonially unclean 
might not pass (Kelim i. 8); and it was provi- 
ded with a guarded entrance opposite each gate of 
the courts. The exclusion of Gentiles angered the 
Greeks, who, when they gained control over the 
Jews, made thirteen openings in the soreg; but after 
the Maccabean victory these breaches were repaired. 


uy 


w nue PAPE 
a 


y} 
EG 


| ° y 
be ‘ a 5a 
ate, ais 

=. Me 7 


women (hence its name), especially during the cele. 
bration of the water libation at the close of the 
first day of Sukkot, when the women occupied the 
galleries above (see GALLERY). This court con. 
tained four unroofed chambers, one at each corner, 
each measuring 40 X 40 cubits. They 
were used as follows: (1) that on the 
southeast as the Chamber of the Naza- 
rites, where, after the expiration of 
their terms, the Nazarites cooked their peace-offer-. 
ings and burned their superfluous hair; (2) that on 


The 
Courts. 


ee 


- 
whe iv 
y 


itis 
/, 


4 


ith 


/ i, 
‘ : 
Mt gh s 
enol z m 
Ye} ¥y at, 4 
at a 
Y oe aN) Pua 


THE TEMPLE AREA. 
(Reconstructed by Chipiez.) 


Leading up from the hel to the courts were twelve 
marble steps, each of 4 cubit rise. These steps were 
protected from the sun and rain; and on them the 
people sat and rested (Pes. 18b). 

Within the soreg were the courts: the outer 
court, known as “‘ezrat nashim” (women’s hall), 
to the east, and the inner court, the Temple en- 
closure, to the west. The two together measured 
135 x 322 cubits, the dimensions of the outer court 
being 135 x185 cubits and those of the inner one 
185 « 187 cubits. The Temple service was con- 
ducted in the inner court, the outer one being used 
mainly for the gathering of the people, including 


the northeast as the Chamber of Wood, where fuel 
for the altar and the hearth was stwred; (3) that on 
the northwest as the Chamber of the Lepers, where, 
after they had been cured and had bathed on the 
eighth day of their purification, lepers remained 
prior to their admittance to the inner court for the 
anointing of their toes, etc.; (4) that on the south- 
west as the Chamber of Oils, in which oil for the 
candlestick and the meal-offering, as well as wine for 
the libation, was Kept. 

The inner court, with the Nicanor gate in the 
center, was 74 cubits higher than the outer one, and 
was connected with the latter by fifteen steps (each 


91 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Temple, Plan of 


ae ye ee ee eg a a ge a ee ee ee eS 


of 4 cubit rise). On these steps the Levites sang 
the “hymus of degrees,” fifteen in number (Ps. 
cxxX.-CXXXV.), Corresponding with the number of 
steps (Yoma 38a); these were recited at the festival of 
the rejoicing of the water (Suk. 51b). Several cham- 
bers built under the inner court opened on either side 
of the staircase into the outer court below; among 
these were two music chambers for the Levites. In 
the inner court above were two chambers, one on 
each side of the Nicanor gate. On the right was the 
Chamber of Phinehas, the vestment-keeper, who had 
charge of the priests’ lockers built in the wall and 
who arranged for the 24 patrols (“mishmarot”; 
Tamid v. 3). To the left was the Chamber of the 
Pancake-Makers (“‘ose habittim”), where twelve 
cakes were prepared daily, six for the morning and 
six for the afternoon sacrifice (26. i. 3). The high 
priest had a special chamber called “lishkat parhe- 
drin” (xdpedpoac = “assessors” ) = “the Counselors’ 
Chamber” (Yoma 16a). The inner court was divi- 
ded. On the east was the Israelites’ hall (‘ ‘ezrat 
Yisrael”), 1385 & 11 cubits; and on the 
west the priests’ hall (“‘ezrat koha- 
nim”). Slats or sticks, also a step of 
1 cubit rise, divided the priests’ hall 
from that of the Israelites. In front 
of the priests’ hall stood the dais (DuKAN), three 
stone steps, from the highest of which the priests 
blessed the people. This hall contained also several 
chambers (Mid. v. 16). 

The space between the priests’ hall and the vesti- 
bule of the Temple proper was d4 cubits. Thealtar 
occupied 32 cubits, leaving 22 cubits vacant. The 
space of 135 cubits along the width of the ‘azarah, 
from north to south, was made up as follows: 8 
cubits space from the wall; 124 cubits for the four 
rows of posts on which the slaughtered sacri- 
ficial victims were hung and flayed; 4 cubits for the 
eight marble tables, in two rows, on which the ani- 
mal sacrifices were washed (20. iii, 2); 4 cubits be- 
tween the tables and the rings; 24 cubits for the 
twenty-four rings, in four rows, to which the ani- 
mals were secured for slaughtering (7b. v. 2); 8 
cubits between the rings and the altar; 32 cubits 
for the altar; 30 cubits for the “kebesh” (plank 
or bridge) leading up to the altar; and 124 cubits 
to the southern wall. In front of the kebesh 
were two tables. The laver stood southwest of the 
altar. 

On the north of the ‘azarah was the Chamber of 
the Hearth (“ Bet ha-Moked ”), which extended to 
the hel, and part of which was used as a shelter for 
the patrol. This chamber was capacious and was 
Surmounted by a dome. Four small chambers 
Opened into it: (1) the one in which the sacrificial 
lambs were kept, on the southwest; (2) that in which 
the showbread was made, on the southeast; (3) a 
chamber in which the stones of the altar detiled by 
the Greeks were preserved (I Mace. ii. 25), on the 
northeast; (4) the bath-chamber, on the northwest. 
A row of slats or sticks divided the Bet ha-Moked, 
Separating the sacred part within the court from 
the secular part in the hel. In the bath-chamber 
Was a trap-door leading toa bath and lavatory be- 
low (ih. i. 6: Tamid iii. 3). 

The vestibule was 6 cubits higher than the ‘azarah, 


The Hall 
of the 
Priests. 


and was connected with it by twelve steps, each of 
+cubit rise. The front wall of the vestibule was 
100 cubits long from north to south; its thickness 
was 5 cubits; and its height up to the Hekal was 
100 cubits (¢. iv. 7). The entrance to the vesti- 
bule was 20 cubits wide and 40 cubits high. It had 
in place of doors a richly embroidered 
The curtain. The lintel of this entrance- 
Vestibule. way consisted of five superimposed 
oaken beams artistically carved. The 
lower one extended 1 cubit on each side over the en- 
trance, which was 20 cubits wide; the second beam 
extended 2 cubits, or 1 cubit beyond the first; and so 
on to the fifth, which extended 5 cubits on each side, 
bringing its total length to 80 cubits. A. row of 
stones separated each beam from the next (2d. ili. 4). 
Cross-beams of cedar stretched from the vestibule 
wall to that of the Hekal. From the ceiling of the 
vestibule were suspended golden chains, up which 
the young priests climbed to see the crowns in the 
windows of the Hekal, such as the crownsof Helem, 
Tobijah, Jedaiah, and Hen ben Zephaniah “for a 
memorial in the Temple of the Lord” (Zech. vi. 14; 
Mid. iii. 5). From the cedar cross-beams was sus- 
pended a golden vine on the branches of which vari- 
ous donors hung nuggets of gold and precious ves- 
sels. The vine wasa symbol of Israel. The dimen- 
sions of the vestibule were 11 cubits from east to west 
and 70 cubits along the Hekal (#). iv. 7). In it stood 
two tables: one of marb‘z. to the right, on which 
were laid the loaves of su..wwsread prior to their 
being taken into the Hekal; and one of gold, to the 
left, on which the old loaves were temporalily placed 
(Shek. vi. 4; Men. xi, 7). On each side, north and 
south of the vestibule, was a Chamber of Knives 
(“Bet Halifot”), each chamber being 11158 
cubits; evidently they were used for other pur- 
poses besides the storing of the sacrificial knives. A 
wicket on either side of the vestibule gave entrance 
to the closets or cells around the Hekal. The south- 
ern wicket, however, was always closed. 

The Temple proper, known as the Hekal, had an 
entrance 10 20 cubits, with a double door. The 
thickness of the walls was 6 cubits. The height of 
the Hekal was 100 cubits, made up as follows: 
foundation 6 cubits; inner height 40; paneling (entab- 
lature) 1; receptacle for water, which might drop 
through a leak in the roof, 2; beams 1; concrete of 
ceiling 1; attic 40; pancling 1; receptacle for drip- 
ping 2; beamsi; concrete of ceiling 1; balustrade 3; 
device to exclude the ravens 1 (2. vi. 5). It 
is thus seen that the Hekal was a 
two-story building, the upper story 
being of the same size as that 
below. The Hekal proper was 20 x 40 
< 40 cubits. Besides the golden table to the right, 
on which every Sabbath the showbread was placed, 
and the seven-branched candlestick to the left, 
were five tables along the north and five tables 
along the south, with five menorot on each side, 
which Solomon had added to the Temple. The 
golden altar stood between the showbread-table and 
the candlestick, a little nearer the vestibule. The 
Hekal had windows near the top. 

The dimensions of the Holy of Holies were 20 x 20 
< 40 cubits. It was divided from the Hekal by two 


The 
Hekal. 


Temple, Plan of [ture 
Temple in Rabbinical Litera- 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


92 


curtains. The outer one was folded back to the 
right; the inner, to the left. There was a space of 
1 cubit between the two, which was considered 
doubtful ground, it being uncertain whether it be- 
longed to the Hekal or to the Holy of Holies; hence 
the space was named “ammah teraksin ” (rapagie = 
“confusion ”). Nearly in the center of the Holy of 
Holies, somewhat toward the west, was the founda- 
tion-stone (“eben shetiyyah ”), on which was placed 
the Ark of the Covenant. Jn the Second Temple 
the Ark was missing, and the eben shetiyyah was 
there exposed to the extent of three thumb-breadths 
(about 6 inches) from the ground. 

Thirty-eight cells surrounded the Hekal. There 
were fifteen, in three rows of five cells each on the 


thick, which surrounded the cells; thisspace on the 
north and south sides was a “ mesibbah ” (winding 
passageway). A bridge reached from this pas. 
suge to the upper cells on the northwest. From 
the upper cells southwest the bridge 
stretched upward to the southeast 
corner of the Hekal, connecting 
with the attic, whencea trap-door and 
staircase Jed down to the roof of the Hekal (7b, 
iv.5). On the south side a leader carried off the 
rain fromthe roofs of the Hekal and of the upper 
cells (2d. ). 

The use of the attic above the Hekal and of the 
38 cells is not mentioned in the Talmud, but there ig 
no doubt that they were built for defense and for 


Cells and 
Attic. 


COURT OF PRIESTS. 
(Reconstructed by Chipiez.) 


north side, and the same number on thesouth. The 
bottom row was 5 cubits deep; the second, 6 cubits; 
and the third, 7cubits, Thelengthof the cells from 
east to west is not recorded; but it is presumed to 
have been about 8 cubits. On the west side of the 
Hekal were eight cells in three rows, namely, two 
of three cells each and one, the uppermost, of two. 
Their depth corresponded with that of those on the 
sides. Three doors in each cell connected it with 
the side and upper cells, except in the case of the two 
corner cells on the northeast and southeast, each of 
which had 1 (2 %) in addition, connecting with the 
Hekal and the vestibule. The doorof the southeast 
cell to the vestibule was, however, never used (20. iv. 
7). The cells had bay windows. The thickness of 
the walls was 5 cubits, and there was a space of 3 
cubits between the lower cells and the wall, 5 cubits 


the storage of weapons, etc., when necessary. The 
two chambers for knives in the vestibule are signitfi- 
cant in this connection, 

It appears that there was a colonnade or veranda 
inside the courts; the size of it is not recorded. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Middot, passim: Maimonides, Yad, Bet ha- 
Behirah, passim; Jacob de Leon, Tabnit Hekal, Amsterdam, 
1650; Israel Lipschtitz, Zurat Bet ha-Mikdash (annexed to 
his commentary on Middot); Menahem Hayvim Lewinsohn. 
Binyan Nezah, Warsaw, 1875; Israel Elijah Plotkin, Bivur 
Ben Shelomoh, St. Petersburg, 1875: Joshua J. Kolbo, Bin- 
yan Ariel, Vienna, 1883; idem, The Glorious Temple and 
City of Jerusalem, London, 1884; James Fergusson, The 
Temple of the Jews, London, 1878. 

J. J. D. E. 


TEMPLE IN RABBINICAL LITERA- 
TURE: Mount Moriah, on which the Temple was 
erected, is known by tradition as the spot where 
Adam was born and where he built an altar to God; 
where Cain and Abel offered their sacrifices; and 


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HOLY OF HOLIES OF THE TEMPLE AT JERUSALEM. 
(Reconstructed by Chipiez.) 


Temple in Rabbinical Litera- 
(ture 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 94 


rrr cp ee ea, 


where Noah built an altar after the Flood (Gen. viii. 
20). Abraham offered Isaac as a sacrifice on this 
“ mount of the Lord ” (#3. xxii. 14); David purchased 
the spot from Araunah “to build an altar unto the 
Lord ” (II Sam. xxiv. 21); and finally it was chosen 
as the site of the permanent altar in the Holy of Holies 
of Solomon’s Temple (Maimonides, “ Yad,” Bet ha- 


Tadi Gate 


Fiame Gate 
Sacrifice Gate 


Jeconiah Gate 


Cipunus Gate 


Gate ‘ 
| 100 Cubits 
| Gate 


of Judah and Benjamin. The area of the mount, 
the halls, and the chambers of the courts were as. 
signed to Judah; but the vestibule (“ulam”), the 
Hekal, and the Holy of Holies were built on the 
lot of Benjamin. However, a strip of land running 


into the Hekal, on which stood the altar, belonged 
According to another authority, Jerusa- 


to Judah. 


Music Gate 


r 


40 x £0 


Outer Court 
135 Cubits x 135 Cubits 


Lower Gate 


Susa Cate 


63 Cubits #15 Cubits 
| 40 x 40 40 x 40 
Upper Gate 8 2 2g 
af a ; Oo oo 
—— P ¢ E 2 i 
eS = SV C EE 2 2 
= = 3 = BE R 
rl i > 3 3) 
= 
MOUNT MORIAH 
500 Cubits x 500 Cubits 
IN 
2 
3 
2) 
2 i ia 
& 
Huldah Gate II Huldah Gate I 
SaaS, 


PLAN SHOWING POSITION OF THE TEMPLE ON MOUNT MORIAH ACCORDING TO THE TALMUD. 
(Designed by J. D. Eisenstein, New York.) 


Behirah, ii. 2). The stone on which rested the Ark of 
the Covenant was called “eben shetiyyah” = “the 
foundation-stone,” on which the world 
was based (Yoma 54b). The west side 
of the mount was selected for the Ten- 
ple site because the Shekinah rests in the west (B. 
B. 25a), and also in opposition to the rite of the 
heathen, who worship the sun in the east (Maimon- 
ides, “ Moreh,” iii. 45). 

Mount Moriah was allotted by Joshua to the tribes 


Site. 


lem was not divided among the tribes, and Mount 
Moriah became their common property. 

King David proposed to build the Temple; and 
he designed the plans and prepared the materials. 
God would not, however, allow him to build it be- 
cause he had been a man of war and had shed blood 
(I Chron. xxviii. 8); but its erection was entrusted 
to Solomon, who, being a man of peace, was well 
fitted to construct an edifice representing peace. 
The people, being aware of this fact. anxiously 


tad 
g Upper Gate Hel Jeconiah Gate 7 
we a9 
Holy of § 
Lighting Gate Flame Gate 


(Sha‘ar ha-Delek) 


Hel 


Hel 


PLAN OF THE TEMPLE 


ACCORDING TO THE 


. ‘Firstborn Gate 
TALMUD. ss 
(Sacrifice Gate) 


(Designed by J. D, Eisenstein.) 
NOTE. The smallness of the 
scale has rendered impos- 
sible the delineation of the 12 Steps 


Sacrifice Gate 


full number of steps in each 
INNER COURT 


staircase. The exact position 

of the Temple upon Mount 

Moriah is indicated in the il- OH rH 

lustration given on the pre-Water Gate Anna 

ceding page. Abattei Ky 
i Py aA 
Mot fh 3 


eae Se ae 


Brazen 


Nansin 
(o) = =1@) 
Tables 
el 5 =e) 


O= =O 


Altar 


(a Priests’ Dukan 


Israelites’. Hall 
Nicanor 


1 Eben Shetiyyan 


2 Candlestick 


3 Altar of Incense 


Tabie of Showbread 
4 Table o owbreac Women’s Gate Women’s Gate 


5,6 Chamber of Knives 


7 Atticof Abtinas 


Chamber Chamber 


§ Chamber of the Pancake 


| om] 
Makers a. of of c 
9 Chamber of Phinehas the Oils and Wines Lepers 
Vestment Keeper 
to Fifteen Semicircular Steps 
11 Chamber of Lambs tl 
General Entrance OUTER COURT Music Gate 
I2 Bath Chamber Gate 
(Women’s Hall) 
13 Chamber of Showbread 
14 Chamber of Stones of De- 
filed Altar 
Chamber Chamber 
of of 
Nazarites Wood 
Colonnade 
bo 
= 
Hel Hel B 


12 Steps ‘ 


Soreg 


Soreg 


Temple in Rabbinical Litera- 
Temple, The Second [ture 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 96 


awaited Solomon’s accession. A haggadah says 
David once overheard the people say: “How soon 
will the old man die, that his son may commeuce to 
build the Temple and we may visit the house of 
the Lord?” Their talk pleased David somewhat; 
and he chanted: “I was glad when they said unto 
me, Let us gointo the house of the Lord” (Ps. cxxii. 
1). The Almighty consoled David, assuring him 
that “ A day in thy courts is better than a thousand ” 
(tb. Ixxxiv. 10); that is, God prefers one day of 
David's study of the Law in the courts of learning 
to 1,000 offerings of sacrifice in the Temple by Sol- 
omon (Mak. 10a). In the same sense Raba said: 
“One who is engaged in the study of the Law need 
bring neither a burnt offering, a sin-offering, nor a 
meal-offering ” (Men. 110a), showing the tendency of 
the Talmudists to belittle the importance of sacrifices. 
David was apprehensive lest his enemies should 
assign his sin with Bath-sheba as the reason for 
God’s refusal to allow him to build 

Legends of the Temple: he therefore appealed for 
David and divine intervention, praying, “Show 
Solomon. mea token for good; that they which 
hate me may see it, and be ashamed ” 

(Ps. Ixxxvi. 17). God granted his wish when Solo- 
mon had finished the Temple and was about to 
bring in the Ark to the Holy of Holies. At this 
moment the doors slammed to and could not be 
opened. Solomon thereupon recited twenty-four 
hymns and cried: “Lift up your heads, O ye gates 
... ye everlasting doors; and the King of glory 
shall come in” (28. xxiv. 7). But no response came. 
Finally he prayed, “O Lord God, turn not away 
the face of thine anointed: remember the mercies of 
David thy servant” (II Chron. vi. 42); and imme- 
diately the doors opened of themselves. Then the 


enemies of David were cast down, and their faces 


turned black, the people being convinced that the 
sin of David had been forgiven (Shab. 30a). 

Everything connected with the Temple is distin- 
guished as “yedid” = “amiable,” “beloved.” A 
Talmudic epigram runs: “Solomon, who was named 
Jedidiah [= “ God’s beloved”; II Sam. xii. 25], had 
built the Temple [Tabernacle], referred to as ‘ amia- 
ble’ [Ps. lxxxiv. 1] and situated in the lot of Benja- 
min ‘the beloved’ [Deut. xxxiii. 12], in honor of 
God, who ts ‘ beloved’ [Isa. v. 1], in order that the 
sins of Isracl who is ‘dearly beloved’ [Jer. xii. 7] 
might be forgiven ” (Meu. 53a, b). 

Through the agency of Ashmedai, Solomon ac- 
quired the SHAMIR, either a worm or an exceedingly 
hard stone, which hewed or cut with perfect ease 
all kinds of granite, marble, and glass necessary in 
building the Temple (Git. 68b). Indeed, its mere 
touch cleft the hardest substance in existence (Sotah 
9a). In size the shamir was no larger than a grain; 
and it had been preserved since the Creation. RK. 
Oshaya (Hoshaiah) declared that Solomon planted in 
the Temple various kinds of aromatic trees of gold, 
bearing fruit which, when the heathen entered the 
Temple, withered away, but which the Almighty 
will restore in the future Temple: “It shall blos- 
som abundantly .. . the glory of Lebanon shall 
be given unto it” (Isa. xxxv. 2; Yoma 21b). 
“Lebanon” is the poetic name of the Temple, be- 
cause the latter was built of cedars of Lebanon. 


Solomon’s Temple was an artistic structure of the 
highest conception. In its commanding position 
on the mount, in the pleasing effect of its white 
stone ornamented with cedar-wood, and in its sym- 
metrical proportions it surpassed Herod’s Temple, 
though the latter exceeded the former in mere mag- 
nificence. “One who did not see Herod’s Temple 
missed seeing the most beautiful building in the 
world. It was constructed entirely of polished 
granite interspersed with dark-colored 
marble, with beveled edges, set in 
plaster. Herod even proposed to fill 
up the edges with gold; but the Rab- 
bis advised him to abstain from doing so, as the 
white plaster combined with the granite and marble 
gave the Temple the appearance of waves of the 
sea” (Suk. 57b). Thus it is evident that Herod was 
somewhat gaudy in his taste and that his Temple 
was less artistic in design and coloring than that of 
Solomon. Two views are expressed in commenting 
on the verse “The glory of this latter house shall be 
greater than that of the former” (Hag. ii. 8). One 
is that the Temple was more beautiful than its prede- 
cessor, While the other says it was only “ greater” 
in years, alluding to the fact that it stood 420 years, 
whereas that of Solomon existed for 410 years only 
(Mid. iv. 6; B. B. 8a). 

The sacredness of Solomon’s Temple was greater 
than that of Herod’s, as the latter lacked five impor- 
tant accessories: (1) the Ark and the “kapporet” 
(mercy-seat, cherubim), (2) the divine fire, (8) the 
Shekinah, (4) the Holy Spirit, and (5) Urim and 
Thummim (Yoma 21b). It lacked also the pot of 

manna and Aaron’s staff alongside the 

The Two Ark, the jar of holy oil, and the coffer 

Temples with jewels of gold presented by the 
Compared. Philistines asa trespass-offering on re- 

turning the Ark (I Sam. vi. 8), King 
Josiah, anticipating the fall of the Temple, con- 
cealed these sacred objects (Yer. Shek. vi. 1). Evi- 
dently they were hidden in the subterranean passage 
under the Temple, where, it is claimed, were buried 
also, as soon as the Temple was finisled, all the 
parts of the Tabernacle (Sotah 9a). A priest in the 
Temple once noticed that the flooring under his feet 
was uneven; and he showed it to a comrade, witha 
view to investigation. No sooner had he spoken 
about it, however, than a spark issued from a crev- 
ice in the floor and killed him. The priests then 
surmised that the Ark was buried in that place. R. 
Hoshaiah says that the priest pounded the floor with 
a hammer, whereupon a fire arose and consumed him 
(Yer. Shek. vi. 2; Yoma 54a). In the Second Tem- 
ple two curtains, instead of the cedar-wood parti- 
tion of the First Temple, separated the Hekal from 
the [oly of Holies. The First Temple was des- 
troyed on account of three sins, namely, bloodshed, 
immorality, and idolatry. In the Second Temple 
there were learning, obedience to the command- 
ments, and charity, but there were also enmity and 
malevolence among the people, which outweighed 
the three great sins for which the First Temple was 
destroyed (Yoma 9b). 

After the destruction of the Temple the Rabbis 
endeavored to enshrine its memory in the hearts of 
the Jews. As a reminiscence of its usage (“zeker 


Herod’s 
Temple. 


97 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


le-emikdash ”) R. Johanan b. Zakkai ordered that the 
celebration of the tulab be continued for seven days 
during the Sukkot festiva] as had been the custom 
in the Temple, although in Temple times the cele- 
pration was observed outside the sanctuary on one 
day only (Suk. iii. 12). Asa sign of mourning for 
the destruction of the Temple, one should not white- 
wash or paint his house entirely, but should leave a 
space about one cubit square above the door (B. B. 
60b). See SANCTUARY. 

J. J. D. E. 

TEMPLE, THE SECOND: The Temple of 
Solomon was destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar in 586 
p.c. (II Kings xxv. 9). It is usually supposed that 
its sacred site was desolate and unused for fifty 
years, until the accession of Cyrus made the re- 
pbuilding of the Temple possible. This view is 
shown by Jer. xli. 5 to be mistaken; for two months 
after the city was destroyed a company of men from 
Samaria, Shechem, and Shiloh came to keep the 
Feast of Ingathering at Jerusalem. It is true that 
Giesebrecht (ad loc.) argues that the men were bound 
for Mizpah and not for Jerusalem; but if that 
be so the whole narrative is meaningless. No reason 
is known why at this date men from a distance 
should go to Mizpah to worship. More probably 
they were on their way to Jerusalem, when the 
messenger from Mizpah enticed them into that 
town. It is probable, therefore, that, though the 
building was in ruins, the site of the Temple was 
use by the poor Hebrews resident in Palestine as a 
place of worship all through the Exile. 

With the accession of Cyrus in 588 it became pos- 
sible—that monarch replacing the old Assyro-Baby- 
lonian policy of transportation by a policy of toler- 
ation—for the Jews to resuscitate their religious 


institutions. The Chronicler, who wrote much of 
the Book of Ezra, represents Cyrus as 

The issuing a decree for the rebuilding of 
Decree of the Temple at Jerusalem; but this 
Cyrus. assertion is of doubtful authority. 


The Aramaic document in Ezra relates 
that the sacred vessels which Nebuchadnezzar had 
carried away were delivered to Sheshbazzar with 
authority to take them back and rebuild the Temple 
(Ezra v. 14, 15). It states also that Sheshbazzar 
“laid the foundations of the house,” but it is doubt- 
ful if any building was then done, as the house re- 
mained unbuilt in the time of Haggai, twenty years 
later. The Chronicler (Ezra iii. 1) declares that 
Zerubbabel (whom he puts in place of Sheshbazzar, 
thus placing him twenty years too early) “ builded 
the altar of the God of Israel, to offer burnt offerings 
thereon”; but as Haggai (ii. 14) declared that all 
which was offered here was unclean, it is altogether 
probable that the altar was the same that had been 
used throughout the Exile, and that the Chronicler’s 
Statement is a mistake. 

In the second year of the reign of Darius Hys- 

taspes (519) the real rebuilding began. The people 

were aroused to the effort by the preach- 

The Re- ing of Haggai and Zechariah; and in 

building. the course of three years the rebuild- 

ing was accomplished. It is now 

Senerally recognized that the representation in the 

k of Ezra, that the work was begun immediately 
XTI.—7 


Temple in Rabbinical Litera- 
Temple, The Second [ture 


upon the accession of Cyrus and was then inter- 
rupted by opposition from Israel’s neighbors, is un- 
historical. 

Of the dimensions of this Temple there are given 
but few data. Hecatzeus, a Greek writer contem- 
porary with Alexander the Great, is quoted by Jo- 
sephus (“Contra Ap.” i. 22) as saving that the Tem- 
ple area was enclosed by a wall a plethra, or 500 
Greek feet, in length and 100 Greek cubits in 
breadth, 7.e., 4853 x 1454 English feet. The altar 
was built of unhewn stones in conformity with the 
precepts of the Law (comp. I Macc. iv. 44 e¢ seq.). 
The dimensions of the building were probably the 
same as those of Solomon’s Temple, though the edi- 
fice was apparently at first lacking in ornament. It 
was probably because the building was less ornate 
that the old men who had seen the former Temple 
wept at the sight of its successor (Ezra iii. 12; Jose- 
phus, “Ant.” xi. 4, § 2). Nehemiah in rebuilding 
the city wall followed the lines of the former wall, 
and it is altogether likely that the old lines were fol- 
lowed in building the wallsof the Templealso. The 
Statement in Ezra vi. 8 that Cyrus gave permission 
to make the Temple 60 cubits high and 
60 cubits broad has probably no con- 
nection with its actual dimensions: 
how the statement arose can now be 
only conjectured. The authorities for this period 
make no mention of the palace of Solomon. If the 
wall of the Temple was at this period less than 500 
feet long, the whole Temple court occupied but 
about one-third the length of the present Haram 
area, and less than half its width (comp. Baedeker, 
“ Palestine and Syria,” ed. 1898, p. 39). It is prob- 
able that the site of Solomon’s palace either lay 
desolate or was covered by other dwellings. 

The Temple was surrounded by two courts (I 
Macc. i. 22, iv. 48); but until the time of Alexander 
Janneeus (104-79 B.c.) it would seem that these were 
separated by a difference of elevation only. That 
ruler surrounded the inner court with a wall of 
wood because the Pharisees, with whom he was un- 
popular, had pelted him with citrons while officiating 
at the altar at the Feast of Tabernacles (comp. 
“Ant.” xiii. 18, § 5). The inner court contained 
chambers for storing the garments of the priests (I 
Macc. iv. 38, 57). The stone altar of burnt offering 
probably occupied the site of the bronze altar in 
Solomon’s Temple. 

The Temple, or Holy Place, seems to have had 
two veils or curtains at its front (2). iv. 51). It had 

also one holy candlestick, a golden 
Furniture altar of incense, and a table of show- 


Di- 
mensions. 


of the bread (23. i. 21, 22). Separated from 
Temple. the Temple by another veil was the 
Holy of Holies (Josephus, “B. J.” v. 

5, § 5). According to Josephus, this contained 


nothing; but, according to the Mishnah (Mid. tii. 6), 
the “stone of foundation ” stood where the Ark used 
to be, and the high priest put his censer on it on the 
Day of Atonement. According to the Babylonian 
Talmud (Yoma 22b), the Second Temple lacked five 
things which had been in Solomon’s Temple, 
namely, the Ark, the sacred fire, the Shekinah, the 
Holy Spirit, and the Urim and Thummim. 

' In the time of Nehemiah there were two towers, 


Temple, The Second 
Temple of Solomon 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 98 


named respectively Hananeel and Meah, which 
probably formed parts of a fortress on the site after- 
ward occupied by the tower Antonia (comp. Neh. 
xii. 89, and Mitchell in “Jour. Bib. Lit.” xxii. 144). 
The small size of the Temple area at this period 
makes it improbable that this fortress adjoined the 
Temple court. The “ gate of the guard” (Neh. xii. 
39) was probably an entrance into the Temple 
court on the north side. From the time of Zerub- 
babel to the time of Antiochus Epiph- 
anes the history of this Temple was 
comparatively uneventful.  Sirach 
(Ecclus.) |. 1 ef seg. says that “Simon, son of Onias, 
the great priest,” repaired the Tempie and fortified 
it; but the text of the passage is corrupt. In the 
year 168 Antiochus, asa part of a policy to enforce 
Hellenistic practises on the Jews, robbed the Temple 
of its candlestick, golden altar, table of showbread, 
and veils (these being its distinctive furniture), and 
compelled the high priest to sacrifice swine upon its 
altar. This led to the Maccabean revolt (comp. I 
Macc. i.), asa result of which the Jews after three 
years regained possession of their Temple and reded- 
icated it. They carefully replaced the stone altar 
of burnt offering with stones which had not been 
defiled, and replaced the other characteristic articles 
of furniture (26. iv. 48-56). Judas Maccabeus at 
this time fortified the Temple with high walls and 
towers (2b. iv. 60, vi. 7); so that thenceforth the Tem- 
ple was the real citadel of Jerusalem. These walls 
were pulied down by Antiochus V. (25. vi. 62), but 
were restored by Jonathan Maccabeus (“ Ant.” xifi. 5, 
§ 11). The fortifications were afterward strength- 
ened by Simon (I Macc. xiii. 52). At the time of 
the rededication, in the year 165, the front of the 
Temple was decorated with gilded crowns and 
shields (¢). iv. 57). 

At some time during the ascendency of the Has- 
monean dynasty a bridge was built across the Tyro- 
pmon valley to connect the Temple with the western 
hill (““ Ant.” xiv. 4, § 2). This bridge was probably 
situated at the point where Robinson’s arch (so 
called because its nature and importance were first 
discovered by Prof. Edward Robinson; see his “ Bib- 
lical Researches,” ed. 1856, i. 287 et seg.) may still be 
seen. The nature and purpose of this bridge have 
been regarded as obscure problems; but there can 
be little doubt that the structure was intended to 
aftord easy access to the Temple from the royal 
palace which the Hasmoneans had built on the west- 
ern hill (“ Ant.” xx. 8,§ 11). From this palace the 
movements of people in the Temple courts could be 
seen, aS Josephus records; and as the Hasmoneans 
were high priests as well as monarchs, the purpose 
of the bridge is clear. 

In 68 n.c. Pompey, the Roman general, captured 
Jerasalem and had a hard struggle to take the Tem- 
ple (“ Ant.” xiv. 4). In the conflict the bridge was 
broken down. In exploring Jerusalem Sir Charles 
Warren found its remains, or the remains of its suc- 
cessor, lying in the ancient bed of the Tyropceon 
valley eighty feet below (comp. Warren and Conder, 
“Jerusalem,” p. 184, London, 1884). Pompey did 
not harm the Temple itself or its furniture; but 
nine years later Crassus plundered it of ali its gold 
(“Ant.” xiv. 7,§ 1). In 37 3.c Herod during his 


History. 


siege of Jerusalem burned some of the cloisterg 
about the courts, but did not otherwise harm the 
Temple (ib. 16, § 2). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: See TEMPLE OF HEROD, 

Be: G. A. B. 

TEMPLE OF SOLOMON.—Biblical Data; 
David, according to II Sam. vil. 2 e¢ seg., desired to 
build a temple for Yiwn, but was not permitted to 
do so, although, according to the Chronicler (I Chron, 
xxii. 14 e¢ seg.), he prepared for the building a large 
quantity of material, which he later gave tu his son 
Solomon, David also purchased a thrashing-floor 
from Araunah the Jebusite (II Sam. xxiv. 21 ef seq.), 
on which he offered sacrifice; and there Solomon 
afterward built his Temple (II Chron. iii. 1). In 
preparation for the building Solomon made an 
alliance with Hiram, King of Tyre, who furnished 
him with skilled workmen and, apparently, per- 
mitted him to cut timber in Lebanon. Solomon 
began to build the Temple in the fourth year of his 
reign; its erection occupied seven years (I Kings vi. 
37, 38). 

The structure was 60 cubits long, 20 cubits wide, 
and 30 cubits high (I Kings vi. 2). It faced the 
east (Ezek. xlvii. 1). Before the Temple stood a 
porch 20 cubits long (corresponding to the width of 
the Temple) and 10 cubits deep (I Kings vi. 8). II 
Chron. iii. 4 adds the curious statement (probably 
corrupted from the statement of the depth of the 
porch) that this porch was 120 cubits high, which 
would make ita regular tower. Thestone of which 
the Temple was built was dressed at the quarry, so 
that no work of that kind was necessary within the 
Temple precincts (I Kings vi. 7), The roof was of 
cedar, and the whole house was overlaid with gold 
(I Kings vi, 9, 22). 

The structure was three stories in height. The 
wall was not of equal thickness all the way up, 

but had ledges on which the floor- 
Structure. beams rested. Around the structure 

was a series of chambers, of varying 
size because of the differences in the thickness of 
the wall. Those of the lowest story were 5 cubits 
in depth; those of the second 6; and those of the 
third, 7. The Temple was also provided with win- 
dows of fixed latticework (I Kings vi. 4, 6, 8, 10). 
At the rear of this edifice was the Holy of Holies, 
which was in form a perfect cube, each of its dimen- 
sions being 20 cubits. The interior was lined with 
cedar and overlaid with pure gold. The Holy of 
Holies contained two cherubim of olive-wood, each 
10 cubits high (I Kings vi. 16, 20, 21, 23-28) and 
each having outspread wings 10 cubits from tip to 
tip, so that, since they stood side by side, the wings 
touched the wall on either side aud met in the center 
of the room (comp. CHERUB). According to II 
Chron. iii. 14, a veil of variegated linen separated 
the Holy of Holies from the rest of the Temple. 

The rest of the building, the Holy Place, was of 
the same width and height as the Holy of Hollies, 
but 40 cubits in length. Its walls were lined with 
cedar, on which were carved figures of cherubim, 
palm-trees, and open flowers, which were over- 
laid with gold. Chains of gold further marked it 
off from the Holy of Holices. The floor of the Tem- 
ple was of fir-wood overlaid with gold. The door- 


99 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Temple, The Second 
Temple of Solomon 


———SSS oy oe ee ee a 


posts. of olive-wood, supported folding-doors of fir. 
The doors of the Holy of Holies were of olive-wood. 
On both sets of doors were carved cherubim, palm- 
trees, and flowers, all being overlaid with gold (I 
Kings vi. 15 e¢ seq.). 

Before the Temple, Solomon erected two bronze 
pillars, called Jachin and Boaz. Each of these was 
18 cubits in height, and was surmounted by a capital 
of carved lilies, 5cubits high. Before 
the Temple, a little to the southeast 
(I Kings vii. 39), there stood the molten 
sea, a large laver 10 cubits in diame- 
ter, ornamented with knops. This laver rested on 
the backs of twelve oxen (2d. vii. 23-26). The Chroni- 
cler gives its capacity as “three thousand baths” (II 
Chron. iv. 5-6) and states that its purpose was to 
afford opportunity for the ablutions of the priests. 

Another article of Temple furniture is described as 
a “base.” It was a portable holder for a small la- 
ver, and was made of bronze, provided with whicels, 


The 
Pillars. 


90 m 


100 


PLAN OF THE ROYAL BUILDINGS ERECTED BY SOLOMON ON 
THE TEMPLE MOUND (ACCORDING TO STADE). 
1. Great court. 2. Middlecourt. 3. Temple court. 4. House 
of Lebanon. 65. Porch of pillars. 6. Throne porch. 7. Royal 
palace. §& Harem. 9. Temple. 10, Altar. 


and ornamented with figures of lions, cherubim, 
and palm-trees. These vessels especially excited 
the admiration of the Jews. The author of the 
books of the Kings describes their minute details 
with great interest (I Kings vii. 27-37). Each of 
these “ bases” supported a laver which held “forty 
baths” (I Kings vii. 88). From II Kings xvi. 14 it 
is learned that a brazen altar stood before the Tem- 
ple. II Chron. iv.1 says that this altar was 20 cu- 

bits square and 10 cubits high; ac- 


The cording to I Kings vii, 48 there stood 
Vessels. before the Holy of Holies a golden 
altar of incense and a table for show- 

bread. This table was of gold, as were also the five 


candlesticks on each side of it. The implements 


for the care of the candles—tongs, basins, snuffers, 
and fire-pans—were of gold; and so were the hinges 
of the doors. The Temple was surrounded by a 
court, which was separated from the space beyond 
by a wall of three courses of hewn stone, surmounted 
by cedar beams (I Kings vi. 36). The Chronicler 
calls this the court of the priests (II Chron. iv. 9). 

The Temple did not stand alone; it was part of a 
splendid pile of buildings which Solomon constructed 
in immediate connection with it. This pile included 
Solomon’s own residence, the palace of Pharaoh’s 
daughter, the throne-room, the “porch of pillars,” 
and “the house of the forest of Lebanon” (I Kings 
vil. 1-8). These were so arranged that in entering 
the palace enclosure one came first to the “house ot 
the forest of Lebanon,” with its splendid pillars, 
then to the inner “porch of pillars,” the hall of 
state, or throne-room, Solomon's private dwelling, 
and, lastly, to the palace of Pharaoh’s daughter. 
For the splendor of these buildings Solomon was in- 
debted to Phenician architects and workmen (I 
Kings vii. 40-47). 

E. C. G. A. B. 
——Critical View: When the Temple was con- 
structed it was, together with Solomon’s palace, by 
far the most splendid pile of buildings that the He- 
brews had everseen. Even to this day, asone comes 
from the surrounding country to Jerusalem, the city 
seems magnificent, although in comparison with a 
European capital it is far otherwise. Similarly the 
influence of environment may be scen in the descrip- 
tion of Solomon’s Temple. With the lapse of time 
Isracl’s fortunes declined, and the age of Solomon 

seemed even more glorious in compar- 
Exaggera- ison with later obviously decadent 
tions in periods; and this increased the tend- 
Account. ency to exaggerate the splendor of 
the Temple. Moreover, religious re- 
forms made some of the arrangements of the Tem- 
ple seem unorthodox, and various scribes seem to 
have amplified its description; as they did not al- 
ways have the same point of view, present ac- 
counts are confused to a degree (comp. Stade’s 
“ Zeitschrift,” 1883, pp. 129 ef seg.). One of the 
exaggerations of later times probably produced all 
those statements which declare that the inner parts 
of the Temple and all its implements were overlaid 
with gold (comp. Kittel, “Kénigsbiicher,” in No- 
wack, “Hand-Kommentar,” pp. 46-55). 

As a result of editorial reworking of the descrip- 
tion, the narrative in Kings contains no account of 
the great brazen altar which stood before the Tem- 
ple. Ex. xx. 24 et seg. provided that an altar might 
be made of earth or unhewn stone; and as it offended 
a later age to think that Solomon made an altar of 
bronze, its description was removed from I Kings 
vii. Nevertheless it is recorded elsewhere (70. viii. 
64; II Kings xvi. 14) that it was a part of the fur- 
niture of the original Temple. Later scribes, too, 
are responsible for those statements which repre- 
sent David as desiring to build the Temple, and as 
making preparation for it. Had he desired to build 
it he certainly could have done so. But in his reign 
the nomadic idea still prevailed, and a tent was 
thought to be Yuwn’s proper dwelling (comp. N 
Sam. vii. 6). Later generations, to whom the Tem- 


Temple of Solomon 
Templer 


ple seemed a necessity, could not understand why so 
venerated a man as David did not build it; hence 
these statements. 

There can be no doubt that the Temple of Solo- 
mon was situated upon the more easterly of the two 
hills which form the site of the present Haram area 
in Jerusalem, in the center of which area is the 
Mosque of Omar. Fergusson, Trupp, Lewin, and 
W. R. Smith held that the Temple was built in the 
southwest corner of the present Haram area; but 
the view is false. That site is a part of an artifi- 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


100 


| It was probably a sacrea place of the Jebusites be- 


fore David’s time, though II Sam. xxiv. connects its 
consecration with an incidentin David’sreign. Sol- 
omon’s palace probably lay to the south of the 
Temple. The most probable arrangement of the 
buildings is that suggested by Stade (“Gesch. des 
Volkes Israel,” i. 314, 315). 

The Biblical text makes it clear that Solomon re- 
ceived from Hiram, King of Tyre, much aid in con- 
structing his buildings. As the Hebrews were an 
agricultural people, this aid probably involved not 


INTERIOR OF THE “DOME OF THE ROCK” SHOWING TRADITIONAL SITE OF HOLY OF HOLIES. 
(From a photograph by the American Colony at Jerusalem.) 


cial extension of the level of the Temple area over 
the Tyropeon valley, and probably was not made 
before the time of Herod. The most 
probable site of the Temple is just 
west of the “Dome of the Rock ” in 
the center of the Mosque of Omar. The bronze 
altar was probably on this rock. The mosque was 
built overarock the traditions of which were sacred ; 
probably the site was the same as that of the temple 
which Hadrian erected to Jupiter. This in turn 
was on the site of Herod’s temple, which would 
naturally be on that of Solomon’s. The persistency 
of sacred sites in the East makes this most likely. 


The Site. 


only material (cedar-wood, etc.), but architectural 
direction and skilled craftsmen. The architectural 
features will be considered Jater. Among the details 
which were probably copied from Tyre were the 
two pillars Jachinand Boaz. Herodotus (ii. 44) says 
that the temple at Tyre contained two such, one of 
emerald and the other of fine gold. In the same 
way the ornamentation of palm-trees and cherubim 
were probably derived from Tyre, for Ezekiel 
(xxviii. 18, 14) represents the King of Tyre, who 
was high priest also, as being in the “garden of 
God.” Probably both at Tyre and at Jerusalem the 
cherubim and palm-tree ornaments were survivals 


101 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Temple of Solomon 
Templer 


of an earlier conception—that the abode of God was 
a” garden of Eden.” The Tyrians, therefore, in their 
temple imitated to some extent the primitive garden, 
and Solomon borrowed these features (comp, PaRa- 
pisk). Similarly, the bronze altar was a Phenician 
jpnovation; and probably the same is true of the 
bronze implements whick were ornamented with 
palm-treesand cherubim, The Orthodox Israelitish 
altar was of earthor unhewn stone. The Decalogue 
of Ex. xx. (Elohist) prohibited the making of graven 
images, while thatof Ex. xxxiv. (Jahvist) prohibited 
the making of molten gods; and the Deuteronomic 
expansions prohibited the making of any likeness 
whatever. AJ]l these are, to be sure, later than Sol- 
omon’s time; but there is no reason to believe that 
before that time the Hebrews had cither the skill or 
the wealth necessary to produce ornamentation of 
this kind. 

Several temples in Babylonia, many in Egypt, 
and some of the Phenicians are now known. In 
Babylonia the characteristic feature was a “ ziggu- 
rat,” or terraced tower, evidently intended to imitate 


amountain. The chamber for the di- 
Compari- vine dwelling was at its top. The 
son early Egyptian temples consisted of 


with Other buildings containing two or three 
Temples. rooms, the innermost of which was the 
abode of the deity. A good example 
is the granite temple near the sphinx at Gizeh. The 
Middle Empire (12th dynasty) added obelisks and 
pylons, and the New Empire (18th dynasty) hypo- 
style halls, The Phenician temples varied somewhat 
in form, and were surrounded by courts. Solomon’s 
Temple was not a copy of any of these, but em- 
bodied features derived fromall of them. It was on 
the summit of a hill, thus expressing the Babylo- 
nian idea of the divine abode; it: was surrounded by 
courts, like the Phenician temples and the splendid 
temple of Der al-Bakri at Thebes, while its general 
form reminds one of Egyptian sanctuaries. The 
two pillars Jachin and Boaz had their parallel not 
only at Tyre butat Byblus, Paphos, and Telloh (see, 
however, De Sarzec, “ Découvertes en Chaldée,” pp. 
62-64). In Egypt the obelisks expressed the same 
idea. All these were phallic emblems, being sur- 
vivals of the primitive Hamito-Semitic “ mazzebah ” 
(comp. W. R. Smith, “ Rel. of Sem.” 2d ed., p. 208; 
Schmidt, “Solomon’s Temple,” pp. 40 et seg.). 
Jachin and Boaz were really isolated columns, as 
Schick has shown (“ Die Stiftshiitte, der Tempel in 
Jerusalem,” etc., pp. 82 e¢ seg.), and not, assome have 
supposed, a part of the ornamentation of the build- 
ing. Their tops were crowned with ornamentation 
as if they were lamps; and W. R. Smith supposed 
(U.c. p. 488) that they may have been used as fire- 
altars. This assumes that they contained cressets 
for burning the fat. 

The chambers which surrounded the Holy Place in 
Solomon’s Temple are said in I Chron. xxviii. 12 to 
have been storehouses for the sacred treasure. These 
are paralleled in Babylonian and Egyptian tem- 
ples by similar chambers, which surrounded the 
naos, or hypostyle hall, and were used for similar 
purposes. The “molten sea” finds its parallel in 


Babylonian temples in a great basin called the . 


“apsu ’(deep). As the ziggurat typified a moun- 


tain. so the apsu typified the sea. The Temple thus 
became a miniature world. This apsu was used as 
early as the time of Gudea and contin- 
A ued in use till the end of Babylonian 
Miniature history; it was made of stone and was 
World. — elaborately decorated (comp. Jastrow, 
“Rel. of Bab. and Assyria.” p. 653). 
In Solomon's Temple there was nothing to corre- 
spond to the hypostyle hall of an Egyptian temple; 
but this feature was introduced into Solomon’s 
palace. The “house of the forest of Lebanon” and 
the “porch of pillars” remind one strongly of the 
outer and the inner hypostyle hall of an Egyptian 
temple. 

Solomon’s Temple was, then, a fine example of an 
Oriental temple. Although it had features in com- 
mon with the temples of all the races kindred to the 
Jews, it combined those features In a new and inde- 
pendent way, so that the Temple at Jerusalem was 
one of the most interesting architectural preducts of 
the Hamito-Semitic religious life, 

The Temple of Solomon was in reality an innova- 
tion in Israel. It was a partof a regal magnificence 

which was foreign to the national life, 

The Temple and which had to be introduced from 
Solomon’s outsideand patterned on foreign mod- 
Chapel. cls; and it was looked upon with little 
favor by many of hissubjects. More- 

over, the Temple was erected upon a site but re- 
cently conquered from the Jebusites, and which for 
the Israelites had no sacred associations. Other sites 
—those of Shechem, Beth-el, Hebron—were conse- 
crated by patriarchal tradition (Gen, xxii. 2 is the 
product of a later time), but Jerusalem was unhal- 
lowed by such associations, and its sanctuary was 
full of foreign innovations. When Jeroboam re- 
volted and erected Beth-el and Dan into royal sanc- 
tuaries he perpetuated aritual of asimpler and more 
national character (comp. I Kings xii. 28). The 
Temple at Jerusalem was in reality Solomon’s chapel 
—a part of that regal pile of buildings which he 
had constructed not so much for the use of his sub- 
jects as for his personal aggrandizement. It was 
later events, such as Sennacherib’s invasion, Isaiah’s 
conception that Jerusalem was inviolable, the Deu- 
teronomic reform (which made all sanctuaries except 
that at Jerusalem illegal), and, above all, the tragic 
events of the Exile, which made this Temple su- 
premely sacred in the thought of Jews of later times. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Stade, Gesch. des Volkes Israel, i. 311 et seq., 

Berlin, 1889; Nowack, Hebriiiseche Architiologie, ii. 38 et seq., 

Leipsic, 1894; Benzinger, Arch.; Schick, Die Stiftshtitte, der 

Tempel in Jerusalem und der Tempelplatz der Jetztzeit, 

Berlin, 1896; Emanuel Sehmidt, Solomon’s Temple in the 

Light of Other Oriental Temples, Chicago, 1902. 

E. ¢. G. A. B. 

TEMPLER, BERNHARD: Austrian theolo- 
gian; bornat Brzesko, Galicia, May 1, 1860; educated 
at the University and the Bet ha-Midrash of Vienna, 
and at the Hochschule fiir die Wissenschaft des 
Judentumsat Berlin. Atthe ageof fifteen he began 
contributing articles to various Hebrew periodicals, 
and two years later he published his “ Dober Tob” 
(Lemberg, 1882), novelle and commentaries on ob- 
scure Talmudic passages. Of other works from his 
pen may be mentioned: “Pekuddat ha-Zaddikim ” 
(Cracow, 1888), comments on Biblical passages; and 


Temurah 
Tenczer 


-_ 


“Die Unsterblichkeitslehre (Psychologie, Messia- 
nologie und Eschatologie) beiden Jiidischen Philoso- 
phen des Mittelalters” (Leipsic, 1895). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Deutseh-Oesterreichisches Kiinstler- und 
Schriftsteller-Lexikon, p. 488, Vienna, 1902; Drohkobyezer 
Zeitung, 1904, No. 15. g 


TEMURAH (“Exchange”): Treatise in the 
Mishnah, Tosefta, and Babylonian Talmud mainly 
concerned with the regulations in Lev. xxvii. 10, 33 
regarding the exchange of consecrated things. In 
most editions of the Mishnah this treatise is the sixth 
in the order Kodashim. It is divided into seven 
chapters, containing altogether thirty-four para- 
graphs. 

Ch. i.: Regarding those who are allowed to make 
an exchange; things that may be exchanged, and 
things that may not be exchanged ($$ 3-6). Regu- 
lations concerning drawn water which is unfit for 
the mikweh; concerning water for sprinkling, and 
a field in which there is a grave that can not be 
found ($$ 4-5). 

Ch. ii.: In what ways the sacrifices of the congre- 
gation are different from the sacrifices of individuals 
(S$ 1-2). Difficulties connected with consecrated ob- 
jects in general which do not affect objects conse- 
crated through temurah and vice versa (§ 3). 

Ch. iii.: Sacrifices in which the young of the sac- 
rificial animal is equivalent to the sacrificial animal 
itself; sacrifices in which this is not the case (§§ 1-2). 
What must be done when some one consecrates a 
female animal for a sacrifice for which only a male 
animal is appropriate ($§ 3-4). In what ways the 
first-born and the tenth are different from other sac- 
rificial animals (§ 5). 

Ch. iv.: The young of a sin-offering ; temurah in 
connection with a sin-offering; other regulations 
concerning sin-offerings. Casesin which the bringer 
of the sin-offering dies before the sacrifice is made; 
in which the sin-offering has been lost and found 
again; in which a sin-offering with a blemish is con- 
secrated, 

Ch. v.: How, ananimal being pregnant, its young 
may be consecrated while still unborn (8§ 1-3), The 
form of words with which a temurah is made. 

Ch. vi.; Things that may not be placed on the 
altar ($8 1-4). The young of animals which may not 
be placed on the altar may be sacrificed; sacrificial 
animals which have become unfit (“terefah”) 
through sickness may not be redeemed (§ 5). 

Ch. vii.: In what ways things which have been 
consecrated for the altar are different from things 
which are dedicated only for the maintenance of the 
Temple, and in what ways they are similar ($$ 1-8). 
What sacrificial objects must be burned and what 
buried; in this connection are enumerated other 
unconsecrated things which must be partly burned 
and partly buried ($§ 4-6). 

The Tosefta to this treatise is divided into four 
chapters, and contains various additions to and am- 
plifications of the Mishnah. The Gemara of the 
Babylonian Talmud contains, in addition to the dis- 
cussions and explanations of the Mishnah, many in- 
teresting haggadic utterances. Of these, two de- 
serve special notice: (1) the saying concerning the 
custom of not writing down sentences of oral teach- 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


102 


ing, and how this was abrogated because if it had 
been adhered to the oral teaching would have been 
forgotten (14b), and (2) that concerning the numer- 
ous halakic utterances which were forgotten in the 
days of mourning for the death of Moses (16a). 

WwW. B. J. Z. L. 


TEMURAH, MIDRASH (or MIDRASH 
TEMUROT): Ethical haggadic work consisting 
of three chapters. Its tendency is to prove that 
changes and differences are necessary to the world’s 
welfare, and that earthly contrasts—as wealth and 
poverty, beauty and ugliness—serve to harmonize 
the whole, thus giving evidence of the divine wis- 
dom. From this purpose the work has derived its 
name. 

In the third chapter of the Midrash Temurah, Ps. 
eXxxvi. is interpreted as referring to the changes in 
human life mentioned in Eccl. iii. 1-8. The first 
and second chapters introduce R. Ishmael and R. 
Akiba as lecturers; and for that reason this midrash 
was erroneously ascribed to those two tannaim. 
Certain passages in the work indicate that it was 
not written until the end of the twelfth or the be- 
ginning of the thirteenth century. According to 
Jellinek, the author of the Midrash Temurah made 
use of the works of Ibn Ezra as well as of Galen’s 
dialogue on the soul; this would show that he could 
not have lived before the latter part of the twelfth 
century. The literary style of the work, which 
contains in the initial chapter later Hebraisms as 
well as some medical terms, also points to the twelfth 
century. The first chapter includes anthropological, 
and the second cosmogonic, passages. The first 
author torefer to this work as the Midrash Temurah 
was Gedaliah ibn Yahya, in his “ Shalshelet ha-Kab- 
balah ” (ed. Amsterdam, p. 24b). The midrash was 
first printed by Azulai, after part ii. of his “Shem 
ha-Gedolim ” (Leghorn, 1786); later it was reprinted 
with the Agadat Bereshit (Zolkiev, 1804). The last- 
named edition is that included by A. Jellinek in his 
“Bet ha-Midrash ” (i. 106-114). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zunz, G. V. (ed. Briill, Frankfort-on-the-Main, 
1892), pp. 124-125; Jellinek, in B. H. i. 20-21 (German part). 


Ww. B. J. Z L. 


TEN: The art of counting was founded on the 
number of the fingers and toes, which constituted 
the basis for the quinary, decimal, and vigesimal 
systems, according to whether one hand was used 
or two, or whether the toes were included or not. 
Among the ancient Hebrews the decimal system pre- 
vailed, as is shown by the Hebrew names for the 
numbers from one to ten. In the later development 
likewise the number ten preserved its importance as 
a higher unity, although the number seven, which 
was, like three, a sacred bumber, predominated in 
religious usage. 

Ten forms a basal unit in the round numbers of 
the measurements of Noah’s ark, and is clearly pres- 
ent in the dimensions of the Tabernacle 
(Ex, Xxvi.-xxvii.) and of both Solo- 
mon’s and Ezekiel’s temples (I Kings 
vi., vii.; Ezek. xl.-xhi.), and in the number of the 
commandments (Ex. xx.; Deut. v.); and possibly it 
served to measure the week (Gen. xxiv. 53; comp. 
Dan. i. 14). It appeared also in the ritual for the 


Bible. 


103 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Temurah 
Tenczer 


Day of Atonement (Ley. xvi. 29), which was ob- 
served on the tenth day of the seventh month, and 
in the celebration of the Passover (Ex. xii. 3). The 
Egyptians were visited with ten plagues (Ex. viii.- 
xi.}; aS a punishment ten women were to bake 
pread in one oven (Lev. xx vi. 26), while of a hundred 
who went forth to war ten only would remain alive 
(Amos v. 8). Furthermore, “a new song” was 
played in the Temple on an instrument of ten strings 
(Ps. cxliv. 9), and Jacob promised to give God a 
tenth of all that He might give him (Gen. xxviii. 
92). Abraham bestowed a tenth of everything on 
the priest (Gen. xiv. 20), so that the Levites and the 

oor received a tithe (Num. xviii. 26; Lev. xxvii. 
30-32; et al.), while according to a very ancient cus- 
tom the king demanded a similar portion (I Sam. 
viii. 15, 17). 

Ten is used also asa round number (Gen. xxXi. 
7; Num. xiv. 22; Job xix. 3; I Sam. 1. 8; e¢ ad.), and 
it often occurs in the Bible, although a large portion 
of its symbolic interpretations are unwarranted. 
The multiples of ten likewise occur frequently ; but 
seventy (as in Num. xi. 16)is to be regarded as a 
multiple of seven. In general, ten is the number of 
completion, of perfection, of foundation, and the 
like. 

In the Talmud and Midrash the number ten is 
still more important; out of a single incomplete 

series of sayings beginning with a defi- 


Talmud nite number, twenty-six commence 
and with ten (“ Pirke de-Rabbenu ha-Ka- 
Midrash. dosh,” in Schénblum, “Sheloshah Se- 
farim Niftahim,” pp. 89-41, Lemberg, 

1877). It is found also both in the Halakah and in 


the Haggadah. 

In the regulations governing the day on which the 
scroll of Esther is to be read a “large” city is de- 
fined as one in which there are ten men who have 
no occupation, and hence are always free for divine 
service (Meg. i. 8; comp, BATLANIM); and in Meg. 
iv. 8 nine functions are enumerated at which ten men 
must be present, since they form a congregation in 
themselves (Abot iii. 6; Meg. 23b; see Jew. Encyc. 
viii. 603b). Ten classes of families were distin- 
guished in regard to racial purity (id. iv. 1), and 
just as many kinds of leprosy in houses (Neg. xiii. 
1), while ten verses of Scripture in which God’s attri- 
butes are mentioned were to be recited on New- Year’s 
Day (R. HH. iv. 6). Ezra instituted ten laws (B. 
K. 82a, top), and there were ten special legal regu- 
lations for Jerusalem (/). 82b). A large number of 
similar laws existed. Josephus, for example, states 
(“B. J.” vi. 9, § 8) that as a rule not less than ten 
men gathered around every Passover meal. 

The Haggadah is even more partial to the number 
ten, as a reference to a few selected passages will 
show. The world was created by ten utterances of 
God, while between Adam and Noah, as well as be- 
tween Noah and Abraham, there were ten genera- 
tions. Ten things were created in the evening twi- 

light of the first Friday, including the 
Hagegadah. rainbow, theartof writing, the stylus, 
and the two tables of. the Law (Abot 
v. 1-6). There are, moreover, ten things (the in- 
stances cited number twelve) which form a series in 
the order of their strength, so that one overcomes the 


other: rock, iron, fire, water, cloud, wind, the body 

(which inhales the wind), anxiety, wine, sleep, death, 

and aims (B. B. 11a). Ten measures of wisdom 

came down from heaven to earth, the land of Israel 
taking nine, and the rest of the world one. ‘The 

Same proportion is observed in the distribution of 

beauty between Jerusalem and the world; nine- 

tenths of the wealth in the world was Rome's; of 
poverty, Babylon’s; of pride, Elam’s; of bravery, 

Persia’s; of lice, Media’s; of magic, Egypt’s; of 

immorality, Arabia’s; of shamelessness (or bastards), 

Mesene’s; of gossip, women’s; of drunkenness, 

Ethiopia’s; of sleep, slaves’ (Kid. 49b; Ab. BR. N., 

Recension A, xxviii, beginning; Recension B, xli.; 

coinp. “ Monatsschrift,” xxii. 270-276). There are 

also midrashic works whose titles contain the num- 

ber ten: Ten Martyrs (Jellinek, “B. H.” ii. 66, vi. 

19-35); The Ten Signs of the Messiah (zd. ii. 58); 

and The Exile (7b. iv. 133, v. 118). 

Pythagorean speculation ascribed a peculiar crea- 
tive power to the number ten, which is impor- 
tant also in Jewish mysticism. According to the 
“Sefer Yezirah,” a work based on Pythagorean prin- 
cipies, beside the twenty-two letters of the alphabet 
stand “the ten digits, since they, as a complete dec- 
ade, form the higher principle of existence which is 
superior to that of the letters” (Bloch, “Gesch. der 
Entwickelung der Kabbala,” p. 28; transJation of the 
chief passages, p. 27; comp. Epstein, “ Recherches 
sur le Sepher Yecira,” p. 29; Lehmann, “ Aber- 
glaube und Zauberei,” p. 122; and Jew. Encyc. iii. 
A474 et seq., 8.v. CABALA [the Ten Sefirot]). 

The custom of pouring out ten glasses of wine for 
the mourners on the day of a funeral (Sem., end) and 
for abridegroom on the wedding-day belongs to the 
domain of folk-lore. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bahr, Symbolik des Mosaischen Cultus, Hei- 
delberg, 1887: Z. D. M. G. xxiv. 662 et seq.; Bloch, Geseh. 
der Entwickelung der Kabbala, Treves, 1894; Epstein, 
Recherches sur le Sepher Yecira, Versailles, 1894 ; Lehmann, 
Aberglaube und Zauherei, Stuttgart, 1898; Pick, Der Ein- 
fluss der Zehnzaht und der Siebenzaht auf das Judenthum, 
in Ally. Zeit. des Jud. lviii, 29-31. 

WwW. &B, L. B. 


TEN COMMANDMENTS. See DECALOGUE. 
TEN PLAGUES. Sce PLAGUE. 
TENANT. See LANDLORD AND TENANT. 


TENCZER, PAUL: Hungarian author; born at 
Nagy Bejom April 11, 1886; died at Budapest Feb. 
6, 1905. He was educated at Keszthely and in Buda- 
pest, where he studied law. In 1861 he was one of 
the founders of the society for the naturalization 
and emancipation of Hungarian Jews; and from 
1862 to 1867 he edited the “ Magyar Izraelita,” the 
organ of that socicty. In 1868 he was elected a 
member of the Diet, in which he was one of the lead- 
ers of the Radical party. 

Tenczer founded the periodicals “ Magyar Ujsag ” 
and “Neues Politisches Volksblatt,” the latter of 
which he edited for eighteen years. He was prom- 
inent both in Jewish and in communal affairs in 
Budapest, and it was due to his efforts that tuition 
was made free in the public schools of the Hun- 
garian capital. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Pallas Lex. 


S. L. V. 


Tennessee 
Te’omim 


TENNESSEE: One of the Southern States of 
the American Union: admitted in 1796—the third 
after the incorporation of the original thirteen; se- 
ceded June 18, 1861; readmitted in 1866. A few 
Jews were among a number of traders who set- 
tled near the Holston River, in the present Haw- 
kins county, in 1778; otherwise no traces of Jewish 
settlement during the eighteenth century are found. 
The first congregations organized were those of 
MeEMPHIS (sce JEW. Encyc. villi. 463) and Nashville 
(see below). 

Chattanooga: Jews scttled here in 1858; but for 
many years divine services were held only during 
the holy days. About 1890 the Mizpah congregation 
was organized and Reform worship introduced, the 
officiating rabbis being successively Judah Wechs- 
ler, L. Weiss, Moses Gries, L. Rubinstein, 8. H. 
Sonneschein, and Leo Mannheimer. The present 
(1905) incumbent is the Rev. Jonah Wise. An Or- 
thodox congregation, the B’nai Zion, has also been 
established. The societies organized for benevolent 
purposes are: the Hebrew Ladies’ Aid Association ; 
the Jewish Relief Society of Chattanooga; the Fed- 
eration of the Sons and Daughters of Zion; Chat- 
tanooga Lodge J. O. B. B. Two of the most prom- 
inent members of the community have becn Adolph 
Ochs and George W. Ochs, the former as editor of 
the “Chattanooga Times,” and the latter as mayor 
and president of the Chamber of Commerce, the 
Board of Education, and the Library Association. 
As publishers of the “New York Times” and the 
“Philadelphia Public Ledger,” both brothers now 
reside on the Atlantic coast. Chattanooga has a 
population of 80,154, including not more than 600 
Jews. 

Knoxville: The community of Knoxville is di- 
vided into two Orthodox congregations—Beth- 
El and Cheska Emunah. Recently (1904) a B’nai 
B’rith lodge has been organized; a Young Men’s 
Hebrew Association was formed in 1900. The 
Ladies’ Hebrew Benevolent Society and the Jewish 
Ladies’ Sewing Circle attend to the needs of the poor. 
The Rev. I. Winnick is the rabbi of the Cheska 
Emunah congregation. Knoxville has a population 
of 82,687, including about 700 Jews. 

Nashville: In 1845 several Jewish families set- 
tledin Nashville. Additions to these resulted in the 
establishment in 1854 of the Congregation Magen 
David, with Abraham Schwab as president. An- 
other congregation was formed at the same time 
under the name B’nai Jeshurun; and this in 1865 
was merged in the Reform congregation Ohavai 
Sholom, with the Rev. Judah Wechsler as rabbi. 
The latter congregation, whose pulpit has been oc- 
cupied in turn by H. Goldammer, L. Tintner, I, S. 
Moses, and I. Lewinthal (the present incumbent), is 
progressive and prosperous; it has a synagogue on 
Vine street and a cemetery with a mortuary chapel. 
Its membership is 225, and 150 pupils attend the 
Sabbath-school. A Ladies’ Auxiliary Society is at- 
tached to it. The Orthodox congregation Adath 
Israel is fully organized, and its membership has 
been augmented by an influx of Russian immigrants, 
The following benevolent societies have been estab- 
lished: Maimonides Lodge I. O. B. B.; Gal-Ed 
Lodge, Free Sons of Israel; the Hebrew Relief So- 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


104 


ciety (founded 1885); and the Standard Club (1880. 
a social organization). Nashville has a pepwation 
of 80,865, of whom about 2,400 are Jews. 

Brownsville (population 2,645) and Jackson 
(population 10,089) both have congregations, 
Though the Jewish population of Brownsville is 
only 100, its congregation, known as Adas Israel, 
was established and its burial-gronnd purchased as 
early as 1867. The present incumbent of the rab- 
binate is Einil Tamm. Itssynagogue was dedicated 
in 1882 by Dr. M. Samfield of Memphis. West 
Tennessee Lodge I. O. B. B. and a Ladies’ Hebrew 
Relief Association discharge the charitable obliga- 
tions of the community. Jackson, with a Jewish 
population of 150, has a congregation and a syna- 
gogue. <A B’nai B’rith lodge was formed there in 
1903. Columbia and Ciarksville have small Jew- 
ish communities; and Jewish settlers are found in 
Franklin, Ripley, Murfreesboro, Bristol, Pu- 
laski, and Dyersburg. 

A. M. Sa. 

TENT (Sax): The usual home of nomads, who 
are accordingly described as dwelling in tents (Gen. 
iv. 20). As distinguished from the hut of boughs 
(“sukkah”)itisa portable habitation of skin or cloth 
stretched over poles. Thetent of theancient [Israel- 
ites was in all probability very similar to that of the 
modern Bedouins of Syria and Arabia. The cover- 
ing of the tent (“yeri‘ah”) originally consisted of 
skins, later of the modern coarse tent-cloth spun of 
the hair of black goats (comp. Cant. i. 5); the Arabs 
accordingly speak of their “houses of hair ™ (“ bait 
wabar,” “bait sha‘r”), This cloth, which is spun in 
long narrow strips on primitive looms by the Bed- 
ouin women, felts quickly, and is proof against 
the heaviest rains. The strips are sewed together to 
form a covering of the required size, and are stretched 
over three rows of three tent-poles each (“ ‘ammu- 
dim”; Judges xvi. 26). The center poles are some- 
what higher than those in front and behind, and the 
covering of the tent consequently falls away slight- 
ly on either side, where the rows of poles, also, are 
frequently lower, so that the roof is somewhat 
arched; Isaiah accordingly compares the heavens 
to a tent which is spread out (Isa. x1. 22). 

The covering of the tent was held in place by 
strong cords (“metarim,” Ex. xxxv. 18, Isa. liv. 2, 
Jer, x. 20; “yeter,” Jobiv. 21), which were fastened 
to wooden pegs driven into the ground (“ yated ” ; see 
below), whence were derived such phrases as “na- 
sa‘,” with or without “ yated,” in the sense of break- 
ing camp (Gen. xxxv. 16 e¢ passim). A tent-cloth 
was hung from the top in sucha way as to give 
protection against wind and sun; anda curtain sus- 
pended on the three middle poles divided the tent 
into two sections, one for the men and the other for 
the women (“heder”; Judges xv. 2; Gen. xliii. 30), 
since only the wealthiest’ had special tents for the 
latter (Gen. xxiv. 67, xxxi, 33). The tents of a clan 
or a family were grouped as a camp, @ smal] num- 
ber being pitched in a circle (comp. “ tirah ” [= * en- 
closure”] used as a term for the camp of the Is- 
raelites), while larger encampments formed long 
YOwWS. 

The tents were furnished with extreme simplicity. 
A few coarse straw mats covered a portion of the 


105 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Tennessee 
Te‘omim 


floor and served for both chairs and beds, while a 
hole in the ground in the men’s division formed the 
bearth. Around picce of leather was spread on the 
floor as a table (“shulhan”), and bags of goatskin 
(“no’d,” “hemet ”) with the hair outward contained 
water, milk, or grain, the equipment being com- 

leted by a baking-pan, a few rough metal spoons, 
a band-mill for grinding grain, and saddles for the 
camels. 

After settling in the land of Canaan, and in pro- 
portion as they became agriculturists, the Hebrews 
ceased to dwell in tents, although, for religious rea- 
sons, the RECHABITES Jong observed the ancient 


into the ground at a certain distance from the teut. 
These pegs are of wood, about a foot long and an 
inch in diameter, pointed at one end, and with a 
hook at the other, to which the rope can be tied. 
The Hebrew equivalent for the expression * to pitch 
a tent,” is, therefore, “taka‘” (comp. Gen, xxxi, 25: 
Jer. vi. 3), which means “to drive in the tent-pins.~ 
In the same way “to pull out the tent-pins,” as noted 
above, means to strike tent for a journey. 

E. C. I. Be. 

TE’OMIM, HEZEKIAH (FEIWEL) BEN 
JONAH: Rabbi at Przemysl; lived in the seven- 
teenth and eighteenth centuries. He was the au- 


BEDOUIN TENT. 
(From a photograph by Bonfils.) 


mode of life; aud even to the latest period the ITc- 
brew language retained, even in cases where the 
primitive idea was po longer present, a number of 
terms originally derived from life in tents, as is shown 
by the phrase “ halak le-oholo” = “to return home” 
(comp. Josh. xxii. 4 et seg.; Judges vii. 8, xix. 9; I 
Kings xii. 16), and by the frequent mention of tents 
in symbolic language (e.g., in Isa. xxii. 23, xxxviii. 
12; Ezra ix. 8; Jer. iv. 20). 

The word “yated” (Ex. xxvii, 19, xxxv. 18, 
XXxviti, 31; Judges iv. 21, 22; Isa. xxxiii. 20, liv. 
2) designates a tent-pin. Among the Bedouins to- 
day the poles which form the framework of the tent, 
as well as part of the tent-cloth placed upon them, 
are held in place by ropes fastened to pegs driven 


thor of “ Teka‘ be-Shofar ” (Breslau, 1719), containing 
documents concerning the litigation between the 
author and the community of Przemysl, which, in 
spite of a formal contract, had nominated for rabbi 
Samuel of Lemberg, formerly rabbi of Slonim. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY : Steinschneider, Cat. Boal. col. 845. 
E. Cc. I. Br. 


TE’OMIM, JONAH BEN ISAIAH: Bohlie- 
mian rabbi at Prague; died at Metz April 16, 1669. 
After having exercised the function of rabbi at. 
Nikolsburg and in several other Bohemian commu- 
nities he was called in 1660 to the rabbinate of Metz. 
In 1666 he wasappointed rabbi of Posen, but he was. 


-prevailed upon by the community of Metz to remain 


in the latter city. Te’omim was the author of 


Te’omim 
Terah 


* Nimukim,” containing notes on David ben Sam- 
uel’s “Ture Zahab” (on Hoshen Mishpat; Cracow, 
1692), and “Kikayon de-Yonah,” novellz on three 
Talmudical treatises (Amsterdam, 1669-70). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zunz,in Liebermann’s Deutsches Volkska- 
lender, 1853, p. 68; Carmoly, in Jost’s Annalen, 11.88; idem, 
in Revue Orientatle, ii. 172; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 
uk Abraham Cohen, Les Rabbins de Metz, p. 34, Paris, 
1886. 


BE. C. I. Br. 


TE’OMIM, JONAH (HAY YIM) BEN 
JOSHUA FEIWEL: Rabbi successively at Przem- 
ysl, Ziilz, and Breslau; lived in the seventeenth and 
eighteenth centuries; son-in-law of David Oppen- 
heim, rabbi of Prague, and later of Hirsch ben Ben- 
jamin, rabbi of Berlin. He was the author of: 
“*Aleh de-Yonah,” novella on Shulhan ‘Aruk, Ho- 
shen Mishpat, and including some parts of his com- 
mentary on Maimonides’ “Perush ha-Mishnah” ; 
“Kontres R. Hayyim Yonah,” novellze on the laws 
called 73 (Jesnitz, 17238); and uovelle on She- 
bu‘ot (¢b. 1724), 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 1431. 
E. C. I. Br. 


TE’OMIM, JOSEPH BEN MEIR: Galician 
rabbi; born at Lemberg in 1727; died at Frank fort- 
on-the-Oder in 17938. While still young he suc- 
ceeded his father in the position of preacher and 
rabbinical instructor in the yeshibah of Lemberg. 
Later he went to Berlin, where he stayed several 
years in the bet ha-midrash of Daniel Jafe. Then 
he resumed his former position at Lemberg, and in 
1782 was appointed rabbi at Frankfort-on-the-Oder, 
where he remained until his death. 

Te’omim, who was one of the foremost rabbis of 
his time, was a thorough student of rabbinical liter- 
ature, and was not unlearned in the secular sciences. 
He wrote: “Peri Megadim,” a twofold commentary 
on the Orah Hayyim—one part being entitled 
“ Mishbezot Zahab,” containing a supercommentary 
on David ben Samuel’s “ Ture Zahab,” and the other 
“Eshel Abraham,” on Abraham Abele’s “ Magen 
Abraham” (Frankfort-on-the-Oder, 1753); “ Porat 
Yosef,” novelle on Yebamot and Ketubot, with 
rules for halakic decisions (Zolkiev, 1756); “ Ginnat 
Weradim,” seventy rules for the comprehension of 
the Talmud (Frankfort-on-the-Oder, 1767); “ Peri 
Megadim,” a twofold commentary on the Yoreh 
De‘ah—one part being entitled “ Mishbezot Zahab,” 
containing a supercommentary on David ben Sam- 
uel’s “Ture Zahab,” and the other “Sifte Da‘at,” 
on Shabbethai Kohen’s “Sifte Kohen” (4"w; Ber- 
lin, 1772); “Tebat Gome,” on the Sabbatical sections 
(Frank fort-on-the-Oder, 1782) ; “ Shoshanat ha-‘Ama- 
kim,” a methodology of the Talmud, published 
together with the preceding; “No‘am Megadim,” 
commentaries on the prayers, published with the 
prayer-book “ Hegyon Leb.” Te’omim left in manu- 
script “Sefer ha-Maggid” (a commentary on the Pen- 
tateuch and the Haftarot, sermons for Sabbaths 
and festivals, and a twofold commentary on Pirke 
Abot) and “ Em la-Binah” (a Hebrew, Aramaic, and 
Chaldaic lexicon; Neubauer, “Cat. Bodl. Hebr. 
MSS.” No. 1500). In the introduction to the last- 
named work Te’omim mentions a great nurhber of 
writings of his own, on halakot and ethics, which 
are no longer in existence 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


106 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: D. Cassel, in Ersch and Gruber, Eniecye. section 
ii., part 31, p. 97; Steinschneider, Cat. Boul. col. 1554; Neu- 
bauer, in Ha-Maggid, xiii. 285; Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, p. 
514; Buber, Anshe Shem, p. 95. 

E, C. I. Br. 


TE’OMIM, JOSHUA FEIWEL BEN JO. 
NAH: Rabbi at Przemysl in the seventeenth and 
eighteenth centuries. He was the author of “ Panim 
Masbirot,” a polemical work directed against Meir 
ben Isaac Eisenstadt (1715). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 1564. 
E. C. I. Br. 


TE’OMIM (ARYEH JUDAH), LOB BEN 
MOSES (called also Zunz or Zinz): Rabbi, and 
scholar of the seventeenth and cighteenth centuries; 
lived in Pinczow, and later in Plotzk. He was the 
author of the following works: “ Ya‘alat Hen ” (Zol- 
kiev, 1802), sermons on different parashiyyot; “Get 
Mekushshar” (Warsaw, 1812), compendium to that 
part of Maimonides’ “ Yad” which treats of divorce; 
“Magen ha-Elef,” called also “Shem Hadash” (20. 
1817), on the regulations of the ritual codex refer- 
ring to the Passover festival (to this work are ap- 
pended notes on the “ Mahazit ha-Shekel ” of Samuel 
ha-Levi Kolin); “She’elot u-Teshubot Gur Aryeh 
Yehudah” (Zolkiev, 1827), compendium of the four 
ritual codices; “ Hiddushim” (Warsaw, 1830), treat- 
ing of the shehitah and terefah; “Simhat Yom- 
Tob” (2b. 1841), complete commentary on the trea- 
tise Bezah; “She’elot u-Teshubot Meshibat Nefesh ” 
(20, 1849), responsa on the ritual codices; “ Hiddu- 
shim” (2b. 1859), compendium of the ritual codex 
Yoreh De‘ah; “ Birkat ha-Shir” (n.p., n.d.), a Pass- 
over Haggadah together with commentary; “ Melo 
ha-‘Omer,” commentary on the Pentateuch and the 
Five Megillot; and “Tib Halizah” and “ Tib Kid- 
dushin ” (n.p., n.d.), collections of responsa on the 
ceremony of Haizan as observed in modern times, 
and on marriage contracts. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY : Fiirst, Bibl. Jud. s.v. Zinz: Benjacob, Ozar 
ha-Sefarim, pp. 94, 96, 175, 208, 227, 296, 3876, 591, 592, 594, 636. 
Ss. S. 0. 


TE’OMIM, MEIR BEN SAMUEL: Polish 
Talmudist of the eighteenth century; died July, 
10, 1773. Meir was a grandson of Joseph Te’o- 
mim, and wasa preacher in Lemberg. He wrote: 
“Nofet Zufim” (included in his son Joseph Te’o- 
mim’s “Rab Peninim”; Frankfort-on-the-Oder, 
1782); “Birkat Yosef we-Eliyahu Rabba” (Zolkiev, 
1750). According to his son Joseph, he wrote a work 
entitled “‘Kmek Halakah,” comprising explanations 
of alarge part of the Talmud. His decisions are 
cited in the works of later Talmudists, 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Walden, Shem ha-Gedotim he-Hadash, i. 875 

Buber, Anshe Shem, p. 1386; Benjacob, Czar ha-Sefarim, p. 

88, No. 654; p. 542, No. 59; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 

1717; Zedner, Cat. Hebr, Books Brit. Mus. No, 256. 

E. C, A. PE. 


TE’OMIM-FRANKEL, BARUCH BEN 
DAVID: Rabbi at Wisnicz, Austrian Galicia, and 
at Leipnik, Moravia, during the first half of the 
nineteenth century; grandson of Aryeh Léb ben 
Joshua Feiwel Te’omim. He was famous as a Tal- 
mudist, and was the author of “Baruk Ta‘am” 
(Lemberg, 1841), Talmudic dissertations, and of 
notes to the Mishnah and the Talmud, included in 


107 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Te’omim 
Terah 


the Lemberg (1862) edition of the former and in the 
Warsaw (1859-64) edition of the latter. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zedner, Cat. Hebr. Books Brit. Mus, p. 736: 


First, Bibl. Jud. i. 290: Walden, Shem ha-Gedolim he-Ha- 
dash, p. 32; Dembitzer, Kelilat Yo, i, 82, note. 
A. PE. 


$s. 8. 


TEPLITZ: Town in northern Bohemia, about 
46 miles northwest of Prague. The earliest doc- 
umentary evidence of the presence of Jews there is 
dated 1414; but the earliest Jewish source referring 
to them belongs to the end of the sixteenth century. 
In 1480 the Jewish community obtained from the 
town a burial-ground and built a synagogue. In 
an agreement dated Aug. 1, 1588, the Jews bound 
themselves to pay the town a certain sum yearly, 
in return for which they were permitted the unre- 
stricted use of the baths. The Thirty Years’ war 
caused a decrease in the number of Jews in Teplitz; 
in 1621 there were only 24 Jewish families there, oc- 
cupying 11 houses; but in spite of this small num- 
ber the old synagogue was torn down and rebuilt 
on a larger scale. 

With the counter-reformation in Bohemia evil 
times came to the community in Teplitz. Those 
Jews who had no fixed business there were expelled 
(1667); this left only 8 families (84 persons); and 
though enough returned to bring the number up to 
262 before the year expired, in 1668 they were again 
forced to leave the town. The Jews were by this 
time restricted to the Judengasse, and as a distinct- 


ive badge they were required to wear a large ruff. 


around the neck. About this time, too, the old 
cemetery was closed and a new one opened. The 
wearing of the white ruff around the neck was 
abolished in 1781, in accordance with the decree 
of toleration issued by Emperor Joseph. Three 
years later, in accordance with a law relating to the 
Jews throughout the empire, the Teplitz Jews, 
whose disputes hitherto had been settled by their 
rabbi, were placed under the jurisdiction of the 
civil authorities. 

After 1848, when the walls of the ghetto disap- 
peared and the Jews obtained full liberty, the com- 
munity grew appreciably. The Jews were active 
not only in commerce, but in manufacture, the intro- 
duction and development of which must be largely 
attributed to them, for they were among the 
founders and first builders of factories in Teplitz. 
Hosiery and glassware are the chief manufacturing 
products. Jn 1862 the second cemetery was closed 
and a new one opened. In 1883, about 400 years 
after the building of the first place of worship, a 
new basilican synagogue was erected at a cost of 
150,000 kronen. 

Whether the Jews of Teplitz had a rabbi previous 
to 1548 is doubtful, as the following clause is found 
among the instructions given them in that year by 
the lord of the manor Radislau: “The Jews of 
Teplitz must in the future conform to the order 
issued to earlier Jews, forbidding them to submit 
their difficulties to the rabbi in Prague, and requiring 
them to lay them before the elder of the Jewry and 
the local authorities in Teplitz.” No mention is 
here made of a rabbi in the latter place. Probably 
the tirst rabbi was Nathan, son of Rabbi Joseph, 
Who died in 1599, and whose tombstone was dis- 


covered in the old cemetery. Other rabbis known 
to have officiated in Teplitz were: Jacob, son of 
Monasch (d. 1717); Simhah Kohen Poppers (d. 1744); 
Abraham Kohen Poppers (d. 1775); Isaac Kalisch (d. 
1783); Naphtali Herz Emden (d. 1796); Joseph b. 
Abraham (d. 1800); Solomon Strasser (d. 1820); 
Isaiah Levi Hidlitz (d. 1831); Zacharias Frankel 
(called to Dresden in 1886): David Pick (district 
rabbi; d. 1878); Adolf Rosenzweig (to 1887, when 
he was called to Berlin); Adolf Kurrein (the present 
[1905] incumbent). 

The communal institutions of Teplitz include a 
hebra kaddisha, a bikkur holim, an almshouse 
(founded 1884), a brides’ dowry society (founded 
1866), a women’s society (Nashim Zidkoniyyot), a 
society for the aid of sick and necessitous women, 
a Tempelverein (founded 1882 for the building and 
decoration ‘of the synagogue), Samel’s orphan 
foundation, Philipp Spitz’s Chanukkastiftung for 
clothing poor school-children at Hanukkah, Wil- 
helm Rindskopf’s institute for the blind, a society 
for the support of poor wayfarers passing through 
Teplitz, and a hospital for residents or visitors in 
need of treatment at the springs (founded in 1836 by 
Naphtali Katz). 

The following table shows the growth of the Jew- 
ish population of Teplitz: 


Number of Number of 
Year Jewish Year, Jewish 

Inhabitants. Inhabitants. 
gC. 5 0 ere oe ernere ar ee ie ar rere 290 : 1786......... (47 houses) 452 
1590s 23025 Stowe nec ae 1 TiN ins soso indiana cees 403 
VOD Usd a coses wee Baia o as eresaterelns O65) SUGOP icaeitae oe deste ls 425 
1GAO 2 ear ct ec oattes 211 1823 .....000. (50 houses) 496 
LODO ie ttot ative seen Hepeenters 231 1O80 2 pin ets bnaseeese ees Bad. 
TGBU et Goce GG ieee oe 237 SOs vee dee woud 1,290 
TOO Cbs.c adie outs see udekses BO! SRO. cas ced eae oat thet 1,720 
IGT e Rojo euteaieeaaan wie 154 TSO edd 2k bated eee 1,900 
P02 once (944 Christians) 187 OOO Ss iictnwon see Gsrenate eos 3,000 
i 22, Ce er ee eee 3821 


The total resident population of Teplitz is 30,000. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hallwich. Geseh. von Teplitz, Leipsic, 1886 ; 
Rosenzweig, Skizze zur Gesch. der Juden in Teptitz, in 
Allg. Zeit. des Jud. 1887, pp. 18 et seq. 

8. A. Ku. 


TERAH: Father of Abraham, Nahor, and Haran 
(Gen. xi. 26). His original home was Ur of the 
Chaldees; but later he emigrated with his sons to 
Haran, where he died (Gen. xi. 82). According to 
Joshua’s remarks at the assembly of the Israelites at 
Shechem, he was an idolater (Josh, xxiv. 2). Mod- 
ern exegetes do not agree as to the etymology of the 
name “ Terah,” some identifying it with the Assyrian 
“turahu” (wild goat), with which the name of the 
Mesopotamian town Til-sha-turakhi might be com- 
pared, while others suppose it to be identical with 
the Syriac “tarha.” Recently the name “Terah” 
has been 1egarded as a mutilation of “yerah” 
(moon); in this case it would refer to a mytho- 
logical person. 

According to the Midrash (Gen. R. xxxviii.), 
Terah, in addition to being an idolater himself, 
made and sold idols; and during his absence he 
compelled Abraham to act asa merchant for him. 
The “Sefer ha-Yashar” (ed. Leghorn, 1876, pp. 14b 
et seg.) regards him as a great general of Nimrod, 
whom he accompanied onall hiscampaigns. Angry 
at Abraham for the destruction of his idols, Terah 


Teraphim 
Terefah 


accused his son before Nimrod, who condemned him 
to be burned to death. Thereupon Abraham per- 
suaded his father to emigrate toCanaan. See ABRA- 
HAM IN APOCRYPHAL AND RABBINICAL LITERATURE. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hastings, Dict. Bible; Friedrich Delitzsch, 
Prolegomena zu cinem Neuen Hebr.-Aram, Worterbuche, 
p. 80, Leipsic, 1886; Néldeke, in Z. D. M. G. 1886, p. 167 ; 
Celok Gesch. des Volkes Israel, ti. 24, note 1, Leipsic, 


WwW. B. S. O. 


TERAPHIM (p'53n): Plural word of unknown 
derivation used in the Old Testament to denote the 
primitive Semitic house-gods whose cult had been 
handed down to historical times from the earlier 
period of nomadic wanderings. The translation of 
the term “teraphim” by the Greek versions, as well 
as its use in the Scriptures, gives an excellent idea 
of the nature of these symbols. Thus Aquila ren- 
ders the word by “figures”; the Septuagint in Gen- 
esis by “images,” in Ezekiel by “carved images,” 
in Zechariah by “ oracles,” and in Hosea by “ mani- 
fest objects” (07701), The Authorized Version often 
simply transcribes the word, as in Judges xvii. 5, 
xviii. 14 e¢ seg., and Hos, iii. 4, but frequently trans- 
lates it “images,” as in Gen. xxxi. 19 et passim. 
The rendering “images” occurs in I Sam. xix. 13 
also, “idols” in Zech. x. 2, and “idolatry” in I 
Sam. xv. 28. 

The form of the word in Hebrew must be regarded 
as a plural of excellence. Just as “Elohim” de- 
notes “gods” and “God,” the form “teraphim” is 
applicable to each single object as well as to the en- 
tire class (comp. I Sam. xix. 18 and Gen. xxxi. 19). 
Biblical Data: That teraphim were really 
images of human shape and of considerable size is 
plainly seen from I Sam. xix. 13, where Michal, the 
daughter of Saul, places one in David’s bed in order 
to conceal his escape from her enraged father. It 
is furthermore evident that they were not too large 
to be easily portable, inasmuch as Gen. xx xi. 19 men- 
tions that Rachel, without her husband’s knowl- 
edge, stole the teraphim which belonged to her 
father, Laban, and, when she wished to conceal 
them, placed them among the camel’s furniture and 
sat upon them (Gen. xxxi. 34). 

The nature of the teraphim cult and its gradual 
decay seem also perfectly clear. It may be noted 
that teraphim were regarded in early times as 
representatives of real gods endowed with divine 
attributes (comp. Gen. xxxi. 30, where Laban, rebu- 

king Jacob for Rachel’s theft of the 

Nature of teraphim, asks, “ Wherefore hast thou 
Cult. stolen my gods? ”), and that evidently 
the teraphim cult was practically on 

a plane with Yuwu worship. In Judges xvii. 5 
Micah has “an house of gods” (onde na) with a 
duly appointed priest; he makes an ephod (see be- 
low) and teraphim, which were used together with 
“a graven image” and “a molten image” made 
from silver dedicated to YHWH; the figures were 
evidently Yuwu images. The value of the teraphim 
to the family and the tribe is shown by the state- 
ments that Rachel stole them from her father (Gen. 
xxxi, 19), and that the Danites, when they went to 
spy out the land of Laish, took away by force from 
the house of Micah not only the YawH images just 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


mentioned, but also the ephod, the teraphim. ang 
the Levitical priest (see Judges xviii.). 

In early times teraphim-worship was undoubt- 
edly tolerated by the Yuw religion, as may be 
seen, for example, from I Sam. xix. 13 (the story 

of Michal, the daughter of Saul, where 

Acceptance it is tacitly implied that a teraphim 

and was a usual piece of furniture in the 

Rejection. household ofa loyal followerof Yinwy, 

In Hos. iii. 4and in Gen. xxxi. 19, also, 

teraphim are aJluded to without comment, although 

Prof. H. P. Smith (“Samuel,” p. xxxiv.) thinks he 

detects a touch of sarcasm in the latter passage. It 

is certain, however, that teraphim soon became an 
object of distinct condemnation in the YuHwu cult. 

In Gen. xxxv.2et seg. Jacob orders that the “ strange 
gods” (9337 soy), by which teraphim images were 
probably meant, be put away by his household and 
buried. The spot which was thus defiled was made 
a holy place by Joshua (Josh, xxiv. 20-26). Fur- 
thermore, in I Sam, xv. 23 Samuel in his rebuke to 
Saul is made to classify teraphim with iniquity 
(8) and rebellion (9). Jvusiah. the reforming 
king, did away with the magicians and wizards as 
well as with the teraphim and idols (0°53), all of 
which are grouped together as “abominations” (II 
Kings xxiii, 24). With these passages should also 
be compared Zech. x. 2(R. V.): “for the teraphim 
have spoken vanity, and the diviners have seen a 
lie; and they have told false dreams.” 

It will appear from the above quotations that the 
most important function of the teraphim, at any 
rate after the spread of the Yuwn cult over Israel, 
was that of divination. Evidently the images were 

used chiefly for oracular purposes, al- 
Function. though nothing is known of the meth- 
od of their consultation; it is proba- 
ble, however, that they were used in connection 
with casting the sacred lot (comp. Zech. x. 2; Ezek. 
xxi. 26 [A. V. 21]). The mention of an ephod in 
connection with teraphim (Judges xvii. 5, xviii. 20) 
is a peculiar use of that word, which in these pas- 
sages represents merely “a portable object employed 
or manipulated by the priest in consultation with 
the oracle” (comp. Moore, “ Judges,” p. 379, and see 
Judges viii. 27, which clearly describes an ephod as 
an object employed In divination). This use of the 
word seems to be quite distinct from that in the so- 
called P document (Ex. xxviii. 6 et seg.), where a 
high-priestly garment of the same name is referred 
to (see ErHop). 

Such oracles were probably consulted down toa 
quite late date (comp. Hos. iii. 4, Hebr.: “for the 
children of Israe] shall abide many days without a 
king, and without a prince, and without a sacrifice 
[mat], and without a pillar [RaYD), and without an 
cephod, and without teraphim”). The passage II 
Kings xxiii. 24, cited above, makes it evident that 
teraphim had survived in later Judah. The mention 
of teraphim in Zech, x. 2 may have been due to an 
archaizing tendency of the author of this section (see 
AECHARIAH), and would not in itself be suflicient 
evidence to prove that the teraphim cult had con- 
tinued into the Greek period; if, however. this 
passage is taken in conjunction with the statement 
of Josephus (“ Ant.” xviii. 9, § 5) that the custom 


109 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Teraphim 
Terefah 


— oe S C'VWVOlO- Oromo 


of carrying house-gods on journeys into strange 
countries prevailed in his time in the Mesopotamian 
regions, it appears highly likely that the use of tera- 
phim continued into the first Christian century and 
possibly even later. 

It would seem, then, as remarked above, that tera- 
phim, like the Roman Lares and Penates, originally 
represented house-gods, which were carried about 
by the primitive Semitic nomads as fetishes along 

with their family effects, and that 
As these deities were in all probability 
Household worshiped at first as the most impor- 
Gods. tant divine objects known to the fol- 
lowers of thiscult. Although nothing 
whatever is known about the origin of the teraphim 
cult, it may have been a survival of primitive ances- 
tor worship; z.e., the images may have originally 
represented the deified ancestors of the family which 
revered them, and may have become later a sort of 
Manes oracle. They were probably not astral per- 
sonifications. The cult could not have been regarded 
as indigenous among the Israelites, because the dei- 
ties are characterized as “ gods of the stranger” (A.V. 
“strange gods ”) in Gen, xxxv. 4. In Ezek. xxi. 26 
(A. V. 21) it is recorded that the King of Babylon 
consulted teraphim and “looked in the liver”; @.e., 
he made use of magical incantations as well as of 
the astrological rites common in Babylonia. It is 
not at all unlikely that the Israelites obtained the 
teraphim cult from their Aramean kinsmen. 

Bee: J. D. P. 
——In Rabbinical Literature: The word “ tera- 
phim” is explained by the Rabbis as meaning “ dis- 
graceful things” (Yer. ‘Ab. Zarah ii. 41b; Tan., 
Wayeze). It is rendered “zalmanaya” or “zilma- 
naya” (= “images”) by the Targumim of Onkelos 
and pseudo-Jonathan to Gen. xxxi. 19, 34,and by 
the Targum of Jonathan in the other parts of the 
Bible, except in connection with the image of Micah 
(Judges xvii. 5; xviii. 14, 18, 20), where it is ren- 
dered “dema’in” (= “likenesses”). The nature of 
the teraphim is much discussed by ancient commen- 
tators. According to Targ. pseudo-Jonathan to 
Gen, xxxi, 19, the teraphim were made of the head 
of a man, a first-born, which, after the mar had 
been slain, was shaved and then salted and spiced. 
After a golden plate on which magic words were 
engraved had been placed under the tongue, the 
mummified head was mounted on the wall, and it 
spoke to the people. This legend is more fully 
developed in Pirke R. El. xxxvi., where it is said 
that after the head had been displayed on the wall, 
lighted candles were placed round it; the people 
then prostrated themselves before it, and it talked 
to them. 

Ibn Ezra (on Gen. l.c.) records two definitions 
of “teraphim”; namely, (1) a copper dial by means 
of which one might ascertain the exact time, and (2) 
an image made by astrologers at a certain time and 
under the influence of certain stars, which caused it 
to speak. Ibn Ezra himself favored the latter in- 
terpretation, it appearing from I Sam. xix. 13, 16 
that the teraphim had the shape of aman. WNah- 
manides (on Gen. U.c.), however. thinks that while 
the teraphim of Laban might have been idols, those 
of I Sam. 7.¢. were not, inasmuch as there could have 


been no idols in David’s house. He thinks that in 
general teraphim were astrological tables by means 
of which one might learn future events (comp. 
Kimhi on I Sam. Z.c.). The “Sefer ha-Yashar ” (sec- 
tion “Wayeze,” pp. 46b-47a, Leghorn, 1870), after 
having repeated the description which Pirke R. Eli- 
ezer gives of the teraphim, declares that they were 
made of gold or silver, in the image of a man and 
at acertain moment, and that by the influence of the 
stars they revealed the future. It adds that the te- 
raphim of Laban were of the latter description. 
Ww. B. M. SEL. 


TEREBINTH. See Oak anp TEREBINTH. 


TEREFAH: Term signifying originally the 
flesh of a clean animal that had been torn or mortally 
wounded by beasts of prey, and had been rendered 
thereby unfit for food. In rabbinical literature 
the word came to be applied to the flesh of an ani- 
mal that had received a fatal injury, or suffered 
any one of certain diseases, or was marked by some 
physical abnormality, but which otherwise would 
be “kasher ” (fit and proper as food). “ Terefah "in 
a broader sense includes also a regularly but unskil- 
fully killed animal, in contradistinction to NEBE- 
LAH, which refers to the carcass of a clean animal 
that has died an unnatural death or been killed ir- 
regularly (comp. Hul. iv. 2). Both flesh that is 
vebelah and flesh that is terefah are forbidden as 
food by the Mosaic law (Lev. xxii. 8). 

The Talmudic rule is that when an animal is so 
injured that it can not live, its flesh is terefah; 
hence only such injury, disease, or abnormality is 
involved as must cause an untimely death and affect 
the health of the animalat the time it is slaughtered 
(Hul. iii. 1; 42a). 

According to ‘Ulla, the Mosaic law recognizes 
eight principal terefah signs, as follows: (1) “deru- 
sah” (violent attack by beast or bird of prey); (2) 
“nekubah ” (perforation of a vital organ); (3) “hasu- 
rah” (natural deficiency of an organ); (4) “netu- 

lah” (loss of an organ); (5) “keru‘ah” 
Symptoms (a rent in the body); (6) “nefulah” (a 
of fall that might cause internal in- 

Terefah. juries); (7) “pesukah” (severance or 

dislocation of a limb); (8) “sheburah ” 
(fracture of a rib or other bone). In each of these 
classes there are a number of cases. The Mishnah 
gives a list of eighteen principal ones: (1) when 
the gullet (“weshet”) is punctured or perforated, 
the hole penetrating to the interior; (2) when the 
windpipe (“gargeret”) is split or torn across its 
width; (3) when the membrane (“kerum”) near- 
est to the brain is perforated; (4) when the heart is 
pierced as far as one of its ventricles; (5) when the 
spine is broken and the spinal cord is severed; (6) 
when the liver is entirely wanting; (7) when there 
is a perforation through the two membranes cover- 
ing the lungs; (8) when the lungs lack any of their 
lobes; (9) when there is a holein the maw, or (10) in 
the gall-bladder, or (11)in the intestines; (12) when 
there is a hole in the interior, or lower, stomach, or 
when (18) the greater part of the flesh covering the 
stomach is torn; (14) when there is a perforation of 
the omasum (pppnm = “manyplies”), or (15) in the 
greater venter, or upper stomach, beyond the place 


Terefah 
Terumot 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


110 


where the two stomachs are joined; (16) when the 
animal has fallen off a roof; (17) when the majer- 
ity of the ribs are fractured; (18) when the animal 
has been seized by a wolf with its forepaws or 
claws. <A. small bird is terefah when a sparrow- 
hawk has struck its talons into it; and a larger 
bird, as afowl or goose, when it has been struck 

by a falcon, eagle, or other large bird of prey. 
Maimonides enumerates seventy indications of 
terefah (* Yad,” Shehitah, x. 9), and says: “Seventy 
terefot are the limit, and must not be increased or 
diminished, even though it should be found by 
scicntitic investigation that some of the injuries are 
not dangerous to the life of the animal, 


The or that some unenumerated conditions 
Seventy are dangerous to its life. Only those 
Terefot. indications of terefah may be followed 


which have been accepted by the 
Rabbis and handed down by tradition” (2. x. 12, 
13). Questions of Jewish law can not be decided by 
the evidence of philosophers (R. Sheshet, responsum 
No. 447). 

The Shulhan ‘Aruk arranges the symptoms accord- 
ing to the various parts of the animal, describing 
minutely every injury, disease, or abnormality, from 
the head to the hind legs, internally and externally, 
whether a perforation, fracture, amputation, or dis- 
coloration, which might make the flesh of the ani- 
mal terefah; stating also when such defects are 
harmless. The lungsare more lable to injury than 
any other organ: the number and position of the 
lobes, the bronchial tubes, the tubercles, and any 
adhesion to the flesh (“sirka”) must be considered. 
The lungs are inflated to discover any perforation. 
When the lungs are shrunk it is a sign of fright, 
and if the fright has been caused by human agency, 
as when an animal sees a man killing another ani- 
mal, the flesh is terefah. But if the fright was 
caused by anact of God, as by thunder or lightning, 
or if the animal has seen one animal kill another, 
the flesh is kasher. A. test is made by soaking the 
lungs in lukewarm water for twenty-four hours: in 
the first case the shrinkage remains; in the second 
case the shrinkage disappears. Double organs, such 
as two livers, in an animal or fowl render it terefah, 
as the rule is that “a superfluity is to be treated 
like a deficiency.” When the gall is wanting, the 
flesh is terefah; but when a part of it remains, it is 
kasher. A test is made by cutting the liver across 
and touching the incision with the tongue; if there 
is no bitier taste, it proves the entire absence of the 
gall. Two gall-bladders render the anima! terefah ; 
but when there is a connecting flow between them, 
though they appear double, it is kasher. Some 
species of fowl, as doves and pigeons, have no gall- 
bladders, and are kasher. 

A cow or an ox has twenty-two large ribs, eleven 
on each side; if twelve or more are fractured, it is 
terefah. The extraction of only one rib with its 
vertebra renders it terefah. Ifthe spine is broken, 
but the spinal cord is not severed, it is kasher. 

The signs of terefah in derusah are explained. 
The lion’s attack is fatal to any animal; the wolf’s 
is not fatal to large cattle, like oxen or calves, but it 
is fatal to small cattle, like sheep; that of a cat or 
marten (“nemiyyah”; Hult. 52b) and a fox is fatal 


only to kids, lambs, and fowls; that of a weasel ig 
fatal only to fowls. The lion and the wolf are the 
most ferocious animals of their size: 
the attacks of other beasts of prey 
are not fatal to animals. The attacks 
of birds of prey are not fatal to cattle, except in 
the case of the hawk, which is fatal to kids and 
lambs when it pierces their bodies with its beak, 
The attacks of ordinary birds of prey are fatal only 
to birds of their own size, or smaller; that of the 
eagle is fatal to all other birds. 

A fall of ten “tefahim” (handbreadths) renders 
the flesh of an animal terefah. A. shorter fall, if 
sudden, without a chance of adjustment on the part 
of the animal, might be fatal, as internal injuries 
are possible. Therefore special care must be taken 
when casting the animal for the shehitah. 

In later rabbinical speech the term “terefah” is 
applied to food rendered unfit by the mixture of 
meat and milk; or to things forbidden by the diet- 
ary laws; or to things to which the terms “ pasul” 
and “asur,” often interchanged, are applied. See 
BEDIKAILT; CARCASS; CLEAN AND UNCLEAN ANTI- 
MALS; DiETARY Laws; KasHER; NEBELAH; Pore- 
ING; SHEHITAH, 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Maimonides, Fad, Shehitah, v.-xi.; Joseph 
Caro, Shulhan ‘Aruk, Yoreh De‘ah, 29-00; Alexander Sen- 
der Schorr, Tebu‘ot Shor, Zolkiev, 1738; Benjamin Wolf Win- 
ternitz, Gebul Binyamin, Vienna, 1824; Isaac ha-Kohen, Zib- 
he Kohen (Hebrew and Italian), Leghorn, 1832; Rabbino- 
wicz, Principes Talmudiques de Schehitah et de Terepha, 
Paris, 1877; idem, Médecine des Thalmuds, pp. 258-262, Leip- 
sic, 1883; Krochmal, in He-Haluwz, i. 73, ii. 87, iii. 25; Wiener, 
Die Jtidischen Speisegesetze, pp. 220-248, Berlin, 1895. 

Ww. B. J. D. E. 


TERNI, DANIEL BEN MOSES DAVID: 
Italian rabbi, poet, and Biblical commentator of the 
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries; a native of 
Ancona. After having taught for some time at 
Lugo, he was called to the rabbinate of Florence. 
He was the author of the following works: “Se- 
‘uddat. Mizwah” (Venice 1791), consisting of ser- 
mons for holy days and some responsa; “Simhat 
Mizwah ” (Florence, 1798), a dramatic poem in two 
parts composed on the occasion of the inauguration 
of a new synagogue at Florence, and mentioned in 
his “‘Ikkere Dinim”; “ Mattenat Yad” (2). 1795), 
a treatise on charity in the form of sermons; “ ‘Ik- 
kere Dinim,” called also “‘Ikkere ha-Dat” = “ha- 
Rab Daniel Terni” (2., 1808), a compendium of 
the laws contained in the Shulhan ‘Arnk (Orah 
Hayyim and Yoreh De‘ah), arranged according to 
ancient and later responsa; “ Derek Siah,” casuistic 
sermons, and “En Kez,” a bibliographical work 
similar to Shabbethai Bass’ “Sifte Yeshenim ” (both 
of these works are still unpublished); and “Shem 
‘Olam,” a commentary on the Pentateuch (a manu- 
script of this work was in Osias Schorr’s library). 
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, p. 263: First, Bibl. 

Jucl. iii. 418; Nepi-Ghirondi, Toledot Gedole Yisrael, p. 79. 

E. C. M. SEL. 

TERNI, MATTATHIAH NISSIM BEN 
JACOB ISRAEL: Italian rabbi and poet; tlour- 
ished in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. 
He was rabbi at Florence, Urbino, Pesaro, and Sini- 
gaglia. He wrote: “Sefat Emet,” halakic decisions 
(Leghorn, 1797); “ Midbar ba-‘Arabah,” on the mar- 
riage laws (Florence, 1807 [?]); “ Midbar Mattanah,” 


Derusah. 


111 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Terefah 
Terumot 


responsa, in four parts (2b. 1810; the appendix, in 
[talian, Was published at Urbino). A volume of 
poems by him is entitled “No‘am we-Hobelim we- 
Derek Emunah” (Geiger, “Zeit. Jid. Theol.” iii. 
986, No. 44). 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Fiirst. Bibl. Jud. iii, 418; Mortara, Indice, p. 
64; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 1684. 
E. C. M. SEL. 
TERONGI, RAPHAEL BENITO: Martyr. 
He, his teacher Raphael Valls, and his sister Ca- 
talina Terongi were together publicly burned as 
“Judios impenitentes” at the auto da fé held in 
Palma, Majorca, May 6, 1691. As soon as the vic- 
tims beheld the flames they tried with all their 
power to escape the fetters, in which effort Raphael 
Terongi finally succeeded, immediately flinging him- 
self upon the pyre. Catalina implored pitifully to 
be saved from the flames, though she was not able 
to bring herself to utter the name of Jesus. <Ac- 
cording to a report of James Stanhope (who was 
an eye-witness of this and other autos da fé held in 
Palma) to his father in Madrid, the victims were, in 
most cases, wealthy and the owners of magnificent 
dwelling-houses. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Spain Under Charles II. pp. 12 et seq.; Garan, 
La Fe Triumfante,in A. de Castro, Judios en Expatia, p. 
215; Kayserling, Geschichte der Juden in Spanien, i. 187 ; 


idem, Lin Feiertag in Madrid, p. 45. 
S. M. K. 


TERQUEM, OLRY: French mathematician; 
born at Metz June 16, 1782; died at Paris May 6, 
1862. In 1801 he began his studies at the Ecole Poly- 
technique in Paris, where he became assistant pro- 
fessor in mathematicsin 1808. In the following year, 
after obtaining his degree as “docteur és sciences,” 
he reccived acall as professor of higher mathematics 
to the Lyceum of Mayence, then still a French city. 
In 1811 he became professor at the artillery school 
at Mayence, and went in the same capacity to Gre- 
noblein 1814. In 1815 he returned to Paris as libra- 
rian of the artillery central depot of St. Thomas 
d’Aquin, which position he retained until his death. 

In 1842 he, together with Gerono, founded the 
“Nouvelles Annales de Mathématiques ” (continued 
by Charles Brisse). He also edited, from 1855 to 
1861, the “ Bulletin de Bibliographie, d’Histoire et 
de Biographie de Mathématiques.” 

In 1852, when Napoleon III. visited the Musée 
d’Artillerie, Olry Terquem was created an officer of 
the Legion of Honor. His funeral, which was at- 
tended by General Lebceuf as representative of the 
emperor, and a dozen other generals, all his former 
pupils, was remarkable in that Terquem insisted on 
being buried according to the rites of Judaism, al- 
though no other member of his family remained true 
to his ancestral faith. Isidor, chief rabbi of France, 
officiated ; but General de Bressolles as representa- 
live of the minister of war delivered the funeral] 
oration. 

Besides several handbooks on elementary mathe- 
Matics and mechanics, a “Commentaire sur la Mé- 
Canique Céleste [of Laplace],” and a “Histoire 
d’Artillerie ” (the latter two works remaining unfin- 
ished), Terquem wrote “Lettres Tsarphatiques ” 
(nine pamphlets, Paris, 1881-37}, which were first 
published in the “Journal de la Moselle.” In these 


letters he pleaded for the introduction of reforms in 
Judaism, especially for a Sunday Sabbath. 
Terquem contributed also several treatises to the 
French Bible translation by S. Cahen, and a great 
number of articles to the * Archives Israélites.” 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: FE. Prouhet.in Bulletin de Bibliographie, 
@ Histoire et de Biogra piie cde Mathématiques, 1861, pp. &1- 
90; Archives [sraélites, 1862, pp. 313-320; La Grande En- 
cyclopédie ; Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, s.v. Olry Terquem. 


TERRACINO: Italian rabbinical family, of 
which the following members are known: 

David Mordecai Terracino: Rabbi at Asti in 
the nineteenth century, 

Hezekiah Terracino: Italian scholar of the 
seventeenth century; flourished in Lugo, where he 
probably held the position of ab bet din; a contem- 
porary of Nathanael Trabotti. In a responsum 
printed in Lampronti’s “Pahad Yizhak” (i. 112) 
Hezekiah pleads total blindness as an excuse for 
the incomplete answer given to a question addressed 
to him. 

Moses ben Menahem Terracino: Rabbi at 
Ferrara in the seventeenth century. He was the 
author of a responsum on the controversy at Lodi 
between Manasseh ha-Nohen and the Pavia brothers; 
also of a responsum (in the collection “Palge Ma- 
yim,” p. 86) in which he retracted a decision previ- 
ously given. 

Solomon Terracino: Mentioned in Shabbethai 
Bar's responsa collection (§ 51). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Mortara, Jidlice, p. 64; Nepi-Ghirondi, Tole- 
dot Gedole Yisrael, pp. 111, 237; First, Bibl. Jud. iii. 418 
and note 2. 

Ss. O. 


E. C. 
TERRITORIALISTS. See Zionism. 
TERU‘AH. Sce SHOFAR. 

TERUEL ($y9"): City of Aragon. Inthe Mid- 
dle Ages it possessed a prominent Jewish commu- 
nity, which enjoyed several privileges, and which 
paid in the fourteenth century a yearly tax of 300 
sueldos. Its members were engaged in commerce 
and industry, especially in wool-weaving. During 
the persecutions of 1891 many of them were killed, 
while others accepted Christianity in order to save 
their lives. The Jews of Teruel had a statute ac- 
cording to which a document was legal only if it 
had been drawn up by the communal secretary and 
bore his seal. Failure to comply with these regula- 
tions entailed a fine of 20 gold gulden (Isaac b. 
Sheshet, Responsa, No. 304). About 1385 a delator 
(“malsin”) appeared at Teruel; and the community 
asked Isaac b. Sheshet how, under existing circum- 
stances, he should be dealt with. Among the many 
wool-dealers of the city were Don Solomon ibn 
Yahya and Don Judah ibn Yahya. Other promi- 
nent Jews livingin Teruel were the scholarly Judah 
ben David, whom Isaac b. Sheshet commended to 
the community, and his contemporaries Rabbi Moses 
Gabbai and Isaac Lappa. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY : Jacobs, Sources, Nos. 789, 943, 988; Rios, Hist. 
ii. 297, 378, 402; Isaac b. Sheshet, Responsa, Nos. 222, 225, 234 
ét seg., 252, 847, 452. 


8, M. K. 

TERUMOT: Treatise in the Mishnah, Tosefta, 
and Palestinian Talmud, There were two kinds of 
heave-offerings or gifts to the priest: one was the 


Terumot 
Testaments 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


112 


regular heave-offering, known also as the “great 
heave-offering” (“terumah gedolah”), which the 
Israelites were required to give to the priest from 
the fruits of their fields (comp. Num. xviii. 8 ef seq. ; 
Deut. xviii. 4); the other was the so-called “tithe 
heave-offering ” (“terumat ma‘aser ”), ¢.¢., the tithe 
which the Levites put aside for the priests from the 
tithe due to them as Levites (comp. Num. xvili. 25 
et seg.). The treatise gives a more precise definition 
of the rules governing both these heave-offerings, 
but the great heave-offering forms the chief subject 
of discussion. Jn most editions of the Mishnah this 
treatise is sixth in the order Zera‘im. It is divided 
into eleven chapters, containing altogether one hun- 
dred and one paragraphs. 

Ch. i.: Enumeration of five classes of persons who 
may not make the heave-offering ($$ 1-3). From 
what sacrifices the heave-offering may not be taken 
($$ 4-5). Five other classes of persons who may 
not make the selection, though where they have 
done so in ignorance of the prohibition, their act is 
considered valid (§ 6). The selection is not to be made 
according to measure, weight, or number, but ac- 
cording to estimated value (§ 7). Different cases 
in which the heave-offering is considered valid. 
although the method by which it was selected is 
generally not permissible (8§ 8-10). 

Ch. ii.: Further enumeration of cases in which 
the heave-offering is valid, although the method of 
procedure followed in selecting it was not legitimate, 
such as in selecting clean grain for unclean as a 
heave-offering (§1). Cases in which the heave-offer- 
ing obtained by an unallowable method of procedure 
is valid only if the wrong method was used unwit- 
tingly. In this connection various methods are 
enumerated which, although properly not allowed, 
are considered valid if they have been 
used unwittingly (§§ 2-3). The 
heave-offering may not be made from 
one kind for another kind, nor from imperfect fruits 
for perfect ones of the same kind, although perfect 
fruits may be given asa heave-offering for imperfect 
fruits of the same kind (8§ 4-6). 

Ch. iii.; Circumstances under which the heave- 
offering must be given twice (§§ 1-2). <A case in 
which each of two joint owners sets apart the 
heave-offering from the fruits belonging to them 
in common (§8). The owner may empower his serv- 
ant to set apart the heave-offering (§ 4). How the 
heave-offering is determined (§ 5). In what order 
the different taxes, as the first-born tax, the heave- 
offering, and the tithe, are to be given (§§ 6~7). 
What shall be done when one makes a slip of the 
tongue while selecting the heave-offering, or during 
the consecration of the sacrifice or the taking of an 
oath (§ 8). Gifts and offerings of non-Jews (§ 9). 

Ch. iv.: Selecting and measuring the great heave- 
offering. The great heave-offering should be about 
one-fortieth, one-fiftieth, or one-sixtieth of the whole 
from which it is taken, according to the generosity 
of the giver (§§ 1-5). The tithe heave-offering, like 
the tithe, is taken according to number, measure, 
or weight (§ 6). Concerning the mixing of heave- 
offerings with other fruits and the proportions of the 
various ingredients in regard to the question of 
“meduma‘ ”($§ 7-18). 


Contents. 


Ch. v.: Further discussion concerning the mixing 
with other fruits of clean heave-offerings and of 
those which have become unclean. 

Ch. vi.: Concerning the compensation that must 
be made by one who has eaten, or otherwise derived 
benefit from, a heave-offering (comp. Lev. xxii. 14), 

Ch. vii.: Continuation of ch. vi.; cases in which 
only the value of what has been eaten need be 
paid, without the additional fifth part (“homesh”; 
§§ 1-4). Further regulations concerning the mixing 
of heave-offerings (§§ 5-7). 

Ch. viii.: The same theme continued ($§ 1-3), 
Regarding wine, set apart for the heave-offering, 
which has stood uncovered; the danger of poisoning 
(8S 4-7). Concerning the defilement of heave-offer- 
ings (§§ 8-11), Regarding women who are in dan- 
ger of being outraged by heathen (§ 12). 

Ch. ix.: What must be done in case, either wit- 
tingly or unwittingly, a heave-offering has been 
sown; regulations concerning the fruits from the 
sowing of a heave-offering. 

Ch. x.: Cases in which the taste which certain 
foods have acquired from a heave-offering makes 
them unlawful; regulations regarding other cases 
in which lawful foods become unlawful through the 
taste which they have derived from unlawful foods. 

Ch. xi.: Regulations concerning the use which 
may be made of clean heave-offerings, as well as of 
those which have become unclean. 

The Tosefta is divided into ten chapters, and, be- 
sides additions to and amplifications of the Mishnah, 
contains some interesting utterances, as, for instance, 

the definition of the boundaries of the 


Tosefta territory belonging to the land of Israel] 
and (ii. 12), The Palestinian Gemara to 
Gemara. this treatise explains and discusses the 


halakot of the Mishnah and contains 
almost no haggadic sayings. There are only a few 
narratives in it; from these the following has been 
selected: 

Diocletian, in his youth, was a swineherd in Ti- 
berias, where the young pupils from the school of 
Judah II. used to beat him and make fun of him. 
When he became emperor he determined to revenge 
himself on the Jews and especially on the scholars. 
He went to Paneas, a place at some distance from 
Tiberias, and from there sent a summons to Judah 
(ha-Nasi) II., ordering him, with the other scholars, 
to appear before the emperor on Sabbath evening. 
He directed his messenger to deliver the summons to 
Judah on Friday evening so that the scholars, who 
would not travel on the Sabbath, would have no 
time to make the journey, and would therefore ren- 
der themselves liable to punishment for disobedience. 
By a miracle, however, the scholars succeeded in 
appearing before the emperor on Sabbath evening; 
and they appeased his anger by saying that they 
scorned only the swineherd Diocletian, but obeyed 
and honored theemperor. Diocletian then remarked 
that they should be cautious, and never insult a 
Roman even of lowly condition, because he might 
mount in rank and take revenge (46b). The same 
story, with a few divergencies in detail, is found in 
Gen. R. Ixiil. 12. 

W. B. 

TESTAMENT. See WILLS. 


J. Z. L. 


113 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Terumot 
Testaments 


TESTAMENTS OF THE TWELVE PA- 
TRIARCHS: Title of twelve connected documents 
which purport to record the last words and exhor- 
tations of the twelve sons of Jacob. They also bear 
in several of the manuscripts subtitles indicating the 
virtues inculcated or the vices condemned by each of 
these patriarchs in turn. Thus Reuben discourses 
of evil motives and desires, especially as regards 
women; Simeon, of envy; Levi, of priesthood and 
pride; Judah, of courage, avarice, and fornication; 
Issachar, of simple-mindedness; Zebulun, of com- 
passion and pity; Dan, of anger and falsehood; 
Naphtali, of natural goodness; Gad, of hatred; 
Asher, of the two characters of vice and virtue; 
Joseph, of temperance and chastity; Benjamin, of 
purity of heart. 

In each testament the patriarch first narrates his 
own life, dwelling on his virtues or his sins. Next 
he exhorts his descendants to emulate the one and to 
avoid the other. Lastly, he launches 
out into prophetic visions of their fu- 
tures. In these apocalyptic passages 
the writings of Enoch are often appealed to and 
cited, though the citations are seldom found in the 
Ethiopic or Slavonic Enoch. In the biographies the 
writer follows the Old Testament, adding many 
details from Jewish tradition. 

Many prophetic passages are apparently of Chris- 
tian origin, and foretell the incarnation, the sanctifi- 
cation by water (7.e., baptism), and the crucifixion of 
the Highest. In them Jesus is often identified with 
God. It is easy to detect and detach these Christian 
passages; and the manuscripts and versions assist 
one in doing so. Notably a eulogy of Paul (in 
which, however, his name is not mentioned), found 
in the Greek text of the Testament of Benjamin, is 
absent from the old Armenian version, Tertullian 
(*“Adversus Marcionem,” v. 1) seems to allude to 
this passage. If so, it was interpolated at least as 
carly as the second century. However, Tertullian’s 
allusion is not certain. 

There is little external testimony regarding the 
Testaments. Besides the doubtful allusion of Ter- 
tullian (ce. 200), a mention of them by name occurs in 
Origen (“Homilia XV. in Josuam,” ch. vi.). There 
are doubtful references also in Jerome and Procopius, 
as well as specific mention in the “Synopsis Sacre 
Scripture ” wrongly ascribed to Athanasius, and in 
the “Stichometria ” of Nicephorus. The Testaments 
are not again heard of until Matthew Paris relates in 
his chronicle (ed. London, 1571, p. 801), under the year 
1242, that Robert Grosseteste, Bishop of Lincoln, 
translated them into Latin, acertain John of Basing- 
stoke having brought them from Athens. This 
translation was rendered into most modern lan- 
guages, aS a Weapon serviceable against the Jews. 
It was frequently printed before Grabe in 1698 
edited the Greek text in his “Spicilegium.” 

Apart from Christian interpolations, these Testa- 
ments are Jewish documents, originally written in 

Aramaic or Hebrew; and in the ge- 

Jewish  nizah of old Cairo, fragments of the 

Documents. original Semitic text have been discov- 

ered by M. Gaster, H. L. Pass, and A. 

Cowley. Dr. Gaster’s Hebrew fragment (“Proc. 

Soc. Bibl. Arch.” vol. xii.) answers to a part of 
XIT.—8 


Contents. 


Naphtali; but itis probably a late Jewish paraphrase 
of an older Aramaic text. The other fragments 
are Aramaic, and closer to the Greek text. They 
belong together and answer to parts of Levi. Pass, 
assisted by J. Arendzen, published his fragment in 
“J. Q. R.” (iii. 651-661). Cowley’s awaits publica- 
tion. An old Syriac fragment (noticed by Sinker) 
in Brit. Mus. Codex Add. 17,193 (of the year 
874) is nearly identical verbally with the Aramaic 
fragment. 

These discoveries confirm the previous conjectures 
of such scholars as Grabe, Kayser, Schiirer, and 
Schnapp, and explain the many Semitisms of the 
Greek text. They prove that the latter isa para- 
phrase of an old Aramaic midrash, interpolated by 
generations of Christians. 

The only critica’ edition is that of R. Sinker 
(Cambridge, 1869), who cakes a tenth-century Cam- 
bridge manuscript as the basis of his text, adding a 
collation of four more. A collation of 
a twelfth-century manuscript in the 
Vatican (No. 1238) has been published 
by the present writer (“J. Q. R.” v., viil.), as wellasa 
collation of the old Armenian. Anold Slavonic ver- 
sion also exists, and has been published by Tichon- 
rawow. An old Georgian version also exists. 

The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs are 
usually included in Armenian codices of the Bible; 
the Vatican codex mentioned above as containing 
them is a Septuagint, and entitles them “Lepté 
Genesis” or “ Parva Genesis.” A new critical edition, 
taking account of the recovered Semitic texts, of the 
Greek codices in Athos, Patmos, Paris, and Rome, 
and of the ancient Armenian and Slavonic versions, 
is being prepared by Professor R. H. Charles. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Besides the works mentioned above see the 
references given under APOCALYPSE and APOCRYPHA. 


T. F.C. C. 


Owing in part to its Christological interpolations, 
and in part to the similarity of many of its teachings 
and utterances to those of the New Testament, the 
Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs was regarded 
as a Christian work until by critical analysis Grabe, 
in his “Spicilegium Patrum ” (Oxford, 1714), arrived 
at the conclusion that the basis of the work is Jew- 
ish, though there are many Christological interpola- 
tions. Nevertheless, the old view prevailed, and the 
work was ascribed to a Judeo-Christian (see, ¢.9., 
Sinker, in his edition of the Testaments, Cambridge,’ 


Editions. 


1869). Schnapp, however, in his “Die Testamente 
der Zwolf Patriarchen Untersucht” 

The (Halle, 1884), revived Grabe’s view 
Hebrew and elaborated it, proving the spuri- 
Original ous character of the Christian passages 
and Its and also distinguishing two different 
Hagegadic Jewish sources in the main work. 
Character. Schnapp’s results were approved by 


Schirer (“Gesch.” 3d ed., iii, 252-262) 
as far as the Jewish origin of the book is concerned, 
while the Armenian version brought to light by 
Conybeare (“J. Q. R.” v. 375-878; viii. 260-268, 
471-485) shows the gradual growth of Christian in- 
terpolations. New light was thrown on the book 
by “The Pre-Talmudic Haggadah” of Kohler (2d. 
v.400-414), who found direct allusions to the Testa- 
ments in Sifre, Num. 12; Sotah 7b, and Yer. Sotah 


Testaments 


16d, where “ early writings” (“ ketubim rishonim ”) are 
mentioned containing haggadic matters concerning 
the relations of Reuben with Bilhah and of Judah 
and his relations with Tamar. In the same article it 
was shown that the king and priest with prophetic 
powers described in the Testament of Levi is none 
other than John Hyrcanus, and that the campaigns 
of the sons of Jacob recounted in the Testament of 
Judah correspond exactly with the Maccabean wars. 

The various spellings of the names in Test. Patr., 
Joseph, 1-9 and 10-18 led Sinker to postulate a 
double authorship for this section of the work, al- 
though two different tendenciesare distinctly visible 
throughout the book, especially in the Testaments 
of Levi and Joseph, thus indicating two different 
writers, one Hasidewan and the other Maccabean. 
The monition to respect the priestly tribe of Levi is 
shown by closer investigation to be a 
mere addition to the main part of the 
book, which is ethical in character and 
may have been used in the Temple 
like one of the Hagiographa. The apocalyptic por- 
tion in-Test. Patr., Levi, 14 seems to refer to the 
orgies of Alexander Janneus (Josephus, “B. J.” i. 
4,§ 6), but there are no allusions to Rome, thus 
disproving the hypothesis of Bousset, who dates 
the work in the time of Pompey. The original lan- 
guage of the Testaments of the Patriarchs was 
Hebrew, as is shown by the etymologies of the 
names (Test. Patr., Simeon, 2: Levi, 11; Judah, 1; 
et passim), by the Hebrew parallelism of poetry, 
ana especially by many mistranslations of Hebrew 
words, such as “King Zur” and “King Tapuah” 
for “ King of Hazor” and “ King of Tappuah.” 

Omitting the Christian interpolations altogether, 
the following summary may be given of the twelve 

sections in which each of the twelve 

Contents sons of Jacob delivers a farewell ad- 

of dress giving an account of such of 

the Book. his experiences as offer some lesson, 

either warning against sin that he had 

committed or exhorting to virtues that he had 
practised. 

Reuben: Unchastity. Reuben relates (ch. i. 
3-4) how. inflamed with passion at the sight of Bil- 
hah, he had committed an incestuous crime in Edar 
near Beth-lehem (Gen. xxxv. 21-22). Stricken with 
sorrow and shame, he had suffered for seven months 
from disease of the loins, owing his recovery only to 
his father’s prayer. He then became a life-long 
penitent, Seven months he fasted, abstaining from 
wine and meat and pleasant bread (comp. Dan. x. 
3; and for Reuben’s repentance see Pesik. 159b; 
Gen. R. Ixxxii, 12, Ixxxiv. 18). He accordingly 
warns his children against looking on women with 
lustful eyes (comp. Matt. v. 28; Sifre, Num. 115; 
Ber. 12b, 14a; Ned. 20b; B. B. 57b; ‘Ab. Zarah 20a, 
b), against being alone with a married woman (comp. 
Sanh. 21a) or meddling with the affairs of women 
(Kid. 70a, 80b; Ab. i. 5), and against every lustful 

thought (Ber. 12a; Yoma 29a), since 
Testament it is the imagination, when man is 
of Reuben. filled with the spiritof BELIAL, which 
works iniquity. Ch. iv., on the seven 
evil spirits, seems a later interpolation. The fall 
of the angels in the legend of Enoch, on the other 


Com- 
position. 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


114 


hand, is used (ch. v.-vi.a; comp. Enoch viil., xvi. 
8; Jubilees vii. 21; ‘Ab. Zarah 20b; Targ. Yer. to 
Gen. vi. 2; [ Cor. xi. 10) to warn women against 
captivating men by their adornments of head and 
face. Eventhe longing for licentiousness (“ zenut ”) 
is destructive (comp. Job xxxi. 1; Prov. vil. 26-27), 
to say nothing of licentious conduct. Joseph, how- 
ever, was protected against lustful thought in the 
hour of temptation by his singleness of heart in the 
fear of God. 

This section is followed, with no connecting-link 
except the word “ kin’ah ” (=“ jealousy ”) in ch. via, 
by a warning against any jealousy of the tribe of 
Levi, who was the priest that gave instruction in 
the Law, and the judge that offered up the sacri- 
fices for Israel, blessed the people whom he ruled 
with Judah, and gave his life for them in wars visi- 
ble and invisible, thus reestablishing the kingdom 
for all time (comp. Targ. Yer. to Deut. xxxiii. 11 
with reference to John Hyrcanus). 

Simeon: Envy. In the first four chapters of his 
Testament, Simeon dwells on the spirit of jealousy 
with which Satan, the “sar ha-mastemah” of the ubi- 
lees, had filled him so that he had hated his brother 
Joseph and had plotted his murder, being prevented 
only by Judah, who had sold Joseph asa slave while 
Simeon was absent. The lameness of his right hand 
for a week showed him God’s punitive justice in 
view of his own five months’ wrath, and for two 
years he had repented and fasted. In like manner, 
he looked upon his imprisonment in Egypt by Jo- 
seph as a punishment which he indeed deserved 
(comp. Targ. Yer. to Gen. xxxvii. 19, xlii. 24; Gen. 
R. xci. 6). He accordingly warns his children 
against jealousy, which destroys both him that is 
envied and him that envies, and he exhorts them 
(ch, iv.-v.) to emulate Joseph, who loved his broth- 
ers, though they had hated him; and who was good 
to look upon, since there was no wickedness in him, 
nor had the evileye any power over him (comp. Targ. 
Yer. to Gen. xlix. 22; Sotah 86b). “You also,” he 
says in conclusion (ch. vi.), “will flourish after all 
envy has been removed from your hearts, and your 
holy ones will multiply, and their branches will 

spread afar, and the seed of Canaan, 
Testament Amalek, Caphtor [Cappadocia], Kit- 
of tim [Macedonia], and Ham [= Egypt| 

Simeon. will be destroyed for the triumph of 

Shem and the establishment of the 
kingdom of the God of Israel, before whom all the 
spirits of deceit [idolatry] will vanish forever.” 

The Testament closes with a warning against a 
war of rebellion against the Maccabean dynasty 
represented by the priestly tribe of Levi and by the 
victorious royal leader from the midst of Judah. 
In the concluding words the bones of Simeon are 
described as placed ina coffin of incorruptible wood. 

Levi: The Priesthood and Pride. The Tes- 
tament of Levi, which is incomplete at the begin- 
ning and at the close, contains two different ac- 
counts of his election to the priesthood, the Hasidzean 
version being spiritual in character, and the Macca- 
bean political, According to the former (ch. i.-iv.), 
Levi, when a youth of twenty, was filled with sor- 
row for the iniquity and corruption of men, where- 
upon God answered his prayer for salvation by 


115 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Testaments 


scnding him anangel who showed him the throne of 
the Most High in the third heaven. He was also 
told that he should stand in the presence of the 
Lord, and serve Him, and be Hisson; that he should 
be a light of knowledge and a sun to Isracl; and 
that he should be given understanding 
and counsel to instruct his sons con- 
cerning God. In another vision (ch. 
viii.) the seven insignia of priesthood 
were conferred upon him by seven 
angels, who anointed him with pure oil and conse- 
crated him, since his seed was to be divided into the 
three kingdoms of the priests, the judges and scribes, 
and the guardians of the sanctuary. Thereupon, in 
accordance with a vision, Levi's father, Jacob, made 
him priest over his house, while his grandfather, 
Isaac (comp. Jubilees xxxi. 9-32), instructed him in 
all the laws concerning priesthood, sacrifice, and 
purification. Levi is particularly warned against 
(Samaritan) pollution of his seed by marrying a for- 
eign (Philistine) or Gentile (Amorite) wife; and he 
accordingly married his Kkinswoman Milkah, who 
bore him three sons, among whom Kehat, the ances- 
tor of Aaron and Moses, stood forth in his vision as 
“one amid the haughty of the assembly.” In ch. 
xiii. Levi admonishes his children to walk in the 
way of the Law in all simplicity of heart and in the 
fear of God, and warns them never to cease to study 
it, lest they should fail to give their children knowl- 
edge which should win them honor and friends. 
“Perform righteousness on earth that ye may find 
treasures in heaven [comp. Luke xii. 21]; sow good 
works in your souls that ye may reap them in life.” 
This exhortation is followed by a eulogy of wisdom, 
and the address closes with the words: “If a man 
teach these things and do them, he shall sit upon a 
throne with the king, as did our brother Joseph.” 
According to the other version (comp. Jubilees 
xxx. 17-23), Levi’s act of vengeance upon Shechem 
fitted him for the priesthood (ch. v.—vii. and part of 
ch. viii.), for Michael, “the angel who intercedeth 
for the race of Israel,” bestowed upon him a shield 
and a sword with which he should wreak vengeance 
on Shechem for Dinah; and though the Shechemites 
were circumcised, he acted in accordance with the 
will of God, despite his father’s curse (Gen. xlix. 
7), and exterminated the city of “the foolish” 
(comp. a63) — “folly,” Gen. xxxiv. 7; Ecclus. [Si- 
rach] |. 26), The “three kingdoms” that were to 
spring from Levi were, accordingly, 
Maccabean distinct from the three classes men- 
Testament tioned above, being Moses, who was 
of Levi. “faithful” (Num. xii. 7), Aaron, and 
John Hyrcanus, the royal priest who, 
like Melchizedek (Ps. ex. 4), was to manifest his 
prophetic power (comp. Josephus, “B. J.” i. 2, § 8; 
Tosef., Sotah, xi. 5). Ch. x. and xiv.-xvii., devoted 
to the fearful corruption and depravity of the priest- 
hood under Alexander Janneus, whichis mentioned 
also in the Psalms of Solomon, disclose the last ex- 
periences of the Maccabean writer. The Messianic 
prophecy in ch. xviii. seems to belong to the older 
Hasidan document, and its Messiah opens the gates 
of paradise to the saints while he overcomes Belial 
with his hosts. In theclosing chapter Levi bids his 
children, who are theniselves represented as speak- 


Hasidzwan 
Testament 
of Levi. 


ing, to choose between the Lord and Belial, where- 
upon they swear allegiance to God. 

Judah: Courage, Avarice, and Fornication. 
Judah narrates to his children (ch. i.-vii., ix.) the 
feats of strength which he, who was, like David, 
destined to be a king, had displayed in his youth. 
He also tells them of the swiftness, courage, and 
power which he had shown in his wondrous combats 
with all kinds of wild beasts that assailed his flock 
and with the Canaanitish kings of Hazor and Tap- 
puah and their men, besides describing how he sur- 
passed his brothers in the war with the Amorites 
and the sons of Esau (comp. Jubilees xxxiv. 1-9; 
Midr. Wayissa‘u, ed. Jellinek, “ B. H.” iii. 1-5 and 
Introduction; Kohler, é.c.). A boast of immaculate 
youth which he made to Reuben caused him, like 
David (Sanh. 107a), to be ensnared by a woman (ch. 


viii. 10-14). Ata feast given him by 
Testament Barsua‘, tlhe King of Adullam, he be- 
of Judah. came drunk, and in that state he fell 


in love with the princess Bat Sua‘, who 
was presented to him decked with gold and pearls. 
He married her, but the children of the union were 
wicked (Gen. xxxviii. 3-10). Bat Sua‘ hated Tamar 
because she was related to Abraham, being the 
daughter of Shem, according to Gen. R. lxxxv. 11; 
Targ. Yer. to Gen. xxxvil. 6, and refused to allow 
her sons to marry her. Even when Tamar contrived 
to be united with Judah in a levirate marriage, he 
was again deceived by drunkenness, due to the 
feast he celebrated at the waters of Kezib (ch. xiii.- 
xvil.). Judah accordingly warns his children 
against excessive pride, covetousness, and licentious- 
ness, but most of all against indulgence in wine, 
since it reveals all the secrets of God and leads to 
sin. Ch. xv. is an interpolated midrash on Gen. 
XxXxviii. 18 (comp. Gen. R. Ixxxv. 10). His moni- 
tion concludes with the statement (ch. xx.) that Sa- 
tan is the cause of sin, wherefore they must choose 
between the Lord, the Spirit of Truth, who sees each 
act of man written on his breast, and the Spirit of 
Error. The address closes (ch. xxii. 24-25) with a 
Messianic prophecy which emphasizes Judah's last- 
ing claim to the resurrection of the saints, the tri- 
umph of the poor and the martyrs, and the burn- 
ing of Belial and all his hosts. A denunciation of 
the royal custom of embalming, which was antago- 
nistic to the doctrine of the resurrection, ends the 
Testament. 

In sharp contrast to this Judaic or Davidic proph- 
ecy stand the accentuation of the Levitic or Mac- 
cabean royalty (ch. xxi.) and the references to its hero 
(ch. xxv.). These are obviously interpolations by 
the Maccabean reviser, and ch. xxiii. is a still later 
insertion. 

Issachar: Simplicity. Issachar, whose name 
is explained at length in accordance with Gen. xxx. 
14-18, represents himself to his children as one who 
walked all his life in simplicity (ch. iii.). Being a 
husbandman, he never failed to give the priest the 
first-fruits of his lands, sharing the residue with his 
father and with the poor and afflicted, so that he 
was greatly blessed. He spoke ill of no one, nor 
did he meddle in the affairs of others; he harbored 


-no lustful thoughts in his heart and was happy with 


his wife and his field. He accordingly admonishes 


Testaments 


his children (ch. iv.-vii.) to walk in simplicity, and 
to refrain from envy and all lustful thoughts, pry- 
ing into no secrets, but loving God 

Testament and man, and filled with compassion 
of for the poor and feeble. He urges 

Issachar. them, moreover, to find contentment 

in husbandry and to seek the divine 
blessing in the fruit of the soil, for abandonment of 
agricultural life would, in his view, lead them in the 
latter days to transgression and dispersion among 
the Gentiles. This denunciation of mercantile pur- 
suits, which were the chief occupations of the Jews 
in the Diaspora, indicates the period at which the 
original Testaments were written. With a glance 
at the Epicurean life of the Sadducees, Issachar con- 
cludes with the words: “I am 120 years old, and 
have known no mortal sin. Except my wife, I have 
known no woman, nor have I gone a-whoring with 
the lifting up of mine eyes; Ihave drunk no wine 
to lead me astray, nor have I desired the desire of 
my neighbor. Craft hath not been in my heart, nor 
hath falsehood come through my lips. I sighed 
with every one that was troubled, and I gave my 
bread tothe poor. [ate not alone; I broke no oath; 
I wrought piety and truth all my days. I have 
loved the Lord with all my might, and I have loved 
every maneven as my children. Do ye these things, 
my children, and every spirit of Belial will flee from 
you, and no deed of evil men will have power over 
you; and ye shall subdue every wild beast, having 
with you the God of heaven, that walketh with men 
in simplicity of heart.” In this picture of the idea} 
Hasid, who dies “at a good old age and with his 
strength unabated,” the passage in ch. v., which em- 
phasizes the supremacy of Levi and Judah as priest 
and ruler, contains no indication of late Maccabean 
influence (comp. Targ. Yer. to Gen. xlix. 14-15; Gen. 
R. xeix. 11). 

Zebulun: Compassion and Pity. Unlike the 
rabbinical conception of Zebulun, which is that of 
the merchant who supports Issachar while he de- 
votes his life to the study of the Torah (see Targ. 
Yer. to Deut. xxxiii. 18), Zebulun in the Testaments 
Hasidically typifies the fisherman who supplies the 
household with fish and gives of his store to the 

stranger, the sick, the aged, and the 
Testament needy that he may be blessed by God 
of for his compassion (ch. vi.). He tells 

Zebulun. his children, moreover, that it was his 

deep compassion for Joseph which re- 
strained Simeon and Gad from bloodshed, for he had 
joined his youngest brother in an appeal to their 
sympathy and had adjured them with tears not to 
commit the crime, thus anticipating even Reuben, 
who made the proposal to cast Joseph into the pit to 
save the young lad’s life. When the other brothers 
took the twenty pieces of silver for which they sold 
Joseph and used them to buy sandals (Pirke R. E}. 
xxxvili.; Targ, Yer. to Gen. xxxvii. 28, based on 
Amos ii. 6), Zebulun, like Reuben, refused to share 
in the money. Whenever he saw a person unclad 
he used to cover him with garments of his own, and 
he was accordingly blessed by God, nor did any 
sickness befall his house, for “as man showeth com- 
passion on his fellow beings, so doth God show 
compassion on him” (Sifre, Deut. 96; Shab. 151b). 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


116 


Zebulun therefore admonishes his children to show 
merey to every man, and to bear neither grudge nor 
malice toward any, but to love one another, taking 
Joseph for their model. The address closes (ch. ix.) 
with a warning against dissensions in Israel, since 
they would lead to a division of the kingdom and to 
dispersion among the Gentiles, and with an expres- 
sion of his longing for the Messianic period, when 
Belial and his hosts should be trodden under foot 
and God alone should reign in Jerusalem as the 
sun of righteousness with the healing of compassion 
on its wings. The closing chapter expresses the 
hope of resurrection as forming part of the final 
judgment in which Zebulun, one of the twelve 
judges, will appear as the ruler of his tribe. The 
name of Levi does not occur in this Testament. 

Dan: Anger and Falsehood. Dan, the black 
sheep among the tribes of Israel (see Dan), tells his 
children (ch. i.) that, under the influence of Belial, 
he had been filled with anger against Joseph and 
that, “eager to devour him as a leopard devours a 
kid,” he had planned to kill him that he might sup- 
plant him in the heart of his father. Dan accord- 
ingly warns his children (ch. ii.—v.a) against anger, 
since it heeds neither parent, nor brother, nor 
prophet, nor righteous man, nor friend. Ch. iii. and 
other interpolated passages add a warning against 

lying which is scarcely a genuine part 
Testament of the Testament. Anger may be 
of Dan. roused by words only, yet it leads to 
action. Therefore his children are 
exhorted to refrain from anger either at spoken 
words or at misfortunes, lest they should be over- 
come by Belial and the Lord should depart from 
them, the lesson of the Testament being that they 
should flee from wrath and love God and man in or- 
der that the Lord might dwell among them and Be- 
lial be driven from them. The last sentence of the 
Testament is obviously a Jewish interpolation. 

Naphtali: Natural Goodness. Naphtali, who 
died in perfect health at the age of 132, relates to his 
children that he resembled Joseph since he was born 
on Rachel’s knees. The explanation of the names 
of Naphtali (comp. Gen. R. Ixxxix. 22; Num. R. 
xiv. 28; Epstein, “Mi-Kadmoniyyot ha-Yehudim,” 
p. 74), Bilhah, and Zitpah are curious haggadic 
remnants. Swift of foot as a deer (Gen. xlix. 21; 
comp. Pirke R. El. xxxix.; Sotah 18a), Naphtali 
served his father, Jacob, as a messenger; and in the 
father’s grief at the loss of Joseph he was comforted 
by Naphtali, who told him of two dreams in which 
the future greatness of Levi, Judah, and Joseph had 

been revealed to him (ch. v.-vi.). The 

Testament text is extremely corrupt, and must 
of be corrected on the basis of the He- 
Naphtali. brew “Testament of Naphtali” discov- 
ered by Gaster in the “ Chronicles of 

Jerahmeel” and reproduced in a German translation 
by Sehnapp, in Kautzsch, “Apocryphen,” ii, 489- 
492. According to this document, which is deci- 
dedly better preserved than the Greek version, Naph- 
tali speaks of the pleasant land that fell to the lot 
of his tribe (Deut. xxxiii. 23) and then warns his 
children not to become overbearing in their prosper- 
ity. The monition to observe the law of God and 
to refrain from such corruptions as had been prac 


117 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Testaments 


tised by the men of Sodom, the idolatrous nations, 
and the fallen angels in the days of Enoch is prece- 
ded by the lesson that, in accordance with Deut. 
xxxii. 8-9 (comp. Targ. Yer. ad loc.), each of the 
seventy nations worships its own guardian angel as 
a deity, while Abraham chose on behalf of his de- 
scendants the only one God and Creator of the world 
as Guide and Protector, since Michael, the guardian 
angel of Israel, had taught him the Hebrew lan- 
guage, thus enabling him to learn the true order of 
things and the wisdom of creation, As sun, moon, 
and stars change not their order, so should the children 
of Naphtali not change the order of things. This sec- 
tion is followed by theapocaly ptic part, in which Mac- 
cabean elements referring to the supremacy of Levi 
seem again to be mingled with Hasidean tenets. 
Gad: Hatred. Gad tells his children that in his 
strength he had been accustomed to guard the flock 
at night, and to kill every wild beast that assailed 
it. Joseph, however, was too delicate to stay with 
the flock in the heat of the day and went home to his 
father, whom he informed that Gad and the other 
sons of the two concubines were eating lambs that had 
been torn by wild beasts and had not been slaugh- 
tered either by Judah or by Reuben according to 
the prescribed rule (comp. Targ. Yer. to Gen. xxxvii. 
2; Pirke R. El. xxxviii.; Gen. R. lxxxiv. 7). This 
so provoked Gad that he hated Joseph, and, like Sim- 
eon, wished to kill him, being eager 
Testament “to devour him as the calf devours the 
of Gad. grass.” His hatred finally brought 
upon him a disease of the heart which 
lasted for eleven months, the length of time that he 
entertained this feeling of enmity before he repented 
and his father’s prayers saved him from death (ch. 
j.-ii. 5). He therefore warns his children against 
the spirit of hatred which fills the heart with poison, 
and allies itself with Satan and with every evil, 
leading to all manner of impiety and death, while 
love effects the salvation of man. “Love ye one 
another in act, and word, and thought. . . . If one 
sin against thee, tell him in peace, removing the 
poison of hate, and foster not guile in thy soul 
[comp. Lev. xix. 17; Matt. xviii. 15]. And if he 
confess and repent, forgive him [Yoma 8%a; Luke 
xvii. 8]. . . and if he deny it, strive not with him 
lest he swear and thou sin doubly. ... But give 
the vengeance unto God” (Deut, xxxii. 35; Rom. 
xii. 19). “Envy not the prosperous, for the poor 
man who is free from envy is rich ” (ch. vi.-vii.). As 
its concluding words this Testament contains a to- 
tally irrelevant passage concerning Judah and Levi. 
Asher: The Two Characters of Vice and 
Virtue. Itis possible that the Testament of Asher 
is defective, since the only reference to his own per- 
sonal experience is found in ch. v., where he says 
that he observed life and sought out the command- 
ments of God, only to find that the two ways of light 
and darkness, of good and evil, and of 
Testament truth and error must ever be kept dis- 
of Asher. tinct, for doublefacedness serves not 
God but Belial (ch. iii). The allu- 
sions in ch. ii. to unclean animals, such as swine, 
which appear half clean but in reality are unclean, 
and the reference in ch. iv. to clean animals, such as 
Stags and hinds, which appear unclean in a wild 


state but are actually clean, are indicative of such 
concepts as are expressed in the Letter of Aristeas, 
S$ 153-169. The moral of the Testament may be 
summed up in the words: “Follow the truth with 
singleness of face and hate the spirits of error, . . 
distinguishing the angels of the Lord and of Satan” 
(ch. vi.; comp. IT Cor. xi. 14), and it closes with a 
brief apocalyptic passage predicting the exile and 
the restoration. 

Joseph: Chastity. The Testament of Joseph 
presents Joseph in two different aspects. In the first 
part (ch. i.-x.a) he speaks as the same type of chas- 
tity in which he is presented by the rabbinic Hag- 

gadah (Targ. Yer. to Gen, xlix. 22; So- 
Testament tah 86b; Pirke R. El. xxxix.). In the 
of Joseph. second part (ch. x.b-xvii.) he appears 

as the model of brotherly love. In 
the former, Potiphar’s wife is termed “the Egyp- 
tian”; in the latter “the Memphian.” The first 
portion of the Testament is written in forcible po- 
etic style; the latter, which chronologically is the 
earlier, is in simple prose, so that the whole is evi- 
dently the work of two different authors. 

Joseph begins by declaring that his trust in God 
brought him rescue and exaltation through all the 
time that he was envied and hated, sold and slan- 
dered. It is, accordingly, the picture of a Hasid, 
the persecuted saint, that is exhibited in the first 
two chapters. During his stay of seven years with 
“the shameless woman,” he proved another Daniel, 
even his fasting lending greater beauty to his face. 
He gave his food to the poor, and wept and prayed 
for the conversion of Potiphar’s wife, even after his 
prayer had obtained for her, in her childless state, a 
son. He wished to instruct her in the way of right- 
eousness, While she attempted to capture him by 
means of witchcraft (ch. tii.-vi.); and finally, when 
all her contrivances failed and he was cast into pris- 
on because of her slander, he sang songs of thanks- 
giving to God for his escape from the allurements of 
her shameless attitudes (ch. vii.-ix.; the last sen- 
tence is misplaced). “God loveth the chaste who en- 
dureth in his den of darkness. , . . If, therefore. ye 
follow after chastity and holiness in patience and 
humility of heart, the Lord will dwell among you, 

.. and exalt you, and bless you with all good 
things even as He blessed me ” (ch. ix.-x.). 

In the second part (ch. x.b-xvii.) Joseph dwells 
on the fact that, lest he should put bis brothers to 
shame, he never revealed his birthplace and his fam- 
ily either to the merchants, who had bought him as 
a slave, or to Potiphar, whose wife had fallen in 
love with the beautiful lad at sight of him, or to 
any of the eunuchs of Pharaoh, who stripped and 
beat him to wrest from him the confession that he 
was the son of a mighty man in Canaan (comp. Gen. 
xl. 15). “ Therefore,” said he to his children, “love 
one another, and with long-suffering hide each oth- 
er’s faults, for God delighteth in the unity of breth- 
ren” (ch. XVii.). 

The apocalyptic passage, preserved in longer 
form in the Armenian version, but obviously cur- 
tailed and interpolated by Christian hands, describes 
the captivity and downfall of the kingdom of Jo- 
seph and the permanence of the kingdom of Judah. 
The reference to Levi is a Maccabean insertion. 


Testaments 
Tetragrammaton 


Benjamin: Purity of Heart. Benjamin, who 
is represented both by the Testament which bears 
his name and by rabbinic literature as the one who 
clings lovingly to his brother Joseph (see Gen. R. 
xciv. 7), typifies affectionate regard for the right- 
eous. The hero himself, whose name is explained in 
ch. i. as “the child of old age,” dwells on the nobil- 
ity of Joseph, but since he would not impute an evil 
act to his brothers, he construed the story of the 

coat in their favor (ch. ii.), and be- 

Testament sought his father to pray to God that 

of He should not impute to them the evil 

Benjamin. they had devised against him (ch. iii.). 

Benjamin accordingly admonishes his 
children ever to direct their mind toward the good 
and pure, for the good man has no “evil eye,” but 
sympathy for all, and mercy to the poor (ch. tv.), 
thus having a good influence even on the evil (ch. 

v.). The spirit of Belial will have no power over 

him, nor will he look with lust upon woman. Cain, 

the evil brother, had to suffer for seven hundred 
years, but Joseph could be defiled by sin no more 
than is the sun by shining over dung and mire. 

The whole monition (ch. ii.-viii.), however, is in 

great disorder. The apocalyptic portion (ch. ix.- 

xi.), based partly upon Gen. xlix. 27 and partly 

upon Deut. xxxiii. 12, isso interpolated by Christian 

writers that any analysis of it is extremely difficult. 

Charles (/.c.) has already called attention to the 
frequent use of the Testaments of the Twelve Patri- 
archs by Paul and other writers of the New Testa- 

ment. I Thess. ii. 16 is a quotation 

In of Test. Patr., Levi, 6, 10; Rom. xii. 
the New 19 of Gad, 6,10; Rom. xii. 21 of Ben- 

Testament. jamin, 6, 3; II Cor. vii. 10 of Gad, 5, 

7; and Ephes. v. 6 of Naphtali, 3, 1. 

As has been indicated above, the New Testament 
teaching of forgiveness, of love even for enemies, of 
chastity in thought, and of similar matters is clearly 
presented in these far older Essene utterances of the 
patriarchs Gad, Issachar, Joseph, Benjamin, and 
others. The dualistic psychology and cosmology, 
as well as the eschatology, are the same in both, 
and the Testaments belong to the same class of liter- 
ature and age as the DipacnE and Drpascatia, be- 
ing Jewish works appropriated and remodeled by 
the Church. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Edition by Sinker, Cambridge, 1869; trans- 
lated by the same scholar on the basis of this text in the Anti- 
Nicene Library, Edinburgh, 1890. For the literature see 
Sehiirer, Gesch. 3d ed., iii. 252-262, and Boussetin Zeit. fiir 
Neutestamentliche Wissenschaft, 1900, pp. 141-209; Charles, 
in Hibbert Journal, 1905, pp. 558-578. 

T; K. 

TET (%): Ninth letter of the Hebrew alphabet. 
The signification of its name is uncertain. Its sound 
is that of an emphatic surd dental (palatal English 
“t”). It occurs only as a radical, seldom as a forma- 
tive element. It sometimes interchanges with the 
dentals 4% and pand with the sibilant ¥. <As a 
numeral, “tet” (in the later period) has the value 9. 

T. I. Br. 


TETRAGRAMMATON: The _ quadriliteral 
name of God, 1M, which is thus referred toin Jose- 
phus, in the Church Fathers, in the magic papyri, 
and in the Palestinian Talmud (Yoma 40a, below), 
whence it has passed into the modern languages. 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


| occur 5,989 times in the Bible. 


118 


Other designations for this name, such as “ Ha- 
Shem,” “Shem ha-Meforash,” and “Shem ha-Meyu- 
had,” have frequently been discussed by recent 
scholars (see bibliography in Blau, “ Altjiidisches 
Zauberwesen,” p. 128, note 1, and, on the terms, 
pp. 123-128). The term “ Tetragrammaton” appar- 
ently arose in contradistinction to the divine names 
containing respectively twelve and forty-two letters 
and formed likewise from the letters y, H, Ww, u (22. 
pp. 137-146); for only thus is the designation intel- 
ligible, since Aponat likewise has four letters in 
Hebrew. 

The Tetragrammaton is the ancient Israelitish 
name for God. According to actual count, it oc- 
curs 5,410 times in the Bible, being divided among 

the books as follows: Genesis 158 


Statistics times, Exodus 364, Leviticus 285, 
of Oc- Numbers 387, Deuteronomy 230 (total 
currences. in Torah 1,419); Joshua 170, Judges 


158, Samuel 428, Kings 467, Isaiah 
367, Jeremiah 555, Ezekiel 211, Minor Prophets 345 
(total in Prophets 2,696); Psalms 645, Proverbs 87, 
Job 31, Ruth 16, Lamentations 32, Daniel 7, Ezra- 
Nehemiah 31, Chronicles 446 (total in Hagiographa 
1,295). 

In connection with 934% the Tetragrammaton 
is pointed with the vowels of “Elohim” (which 
beyond doubt was not pronounced in this com- 
bination); it occurs 310 times after "398, and five 
times before it (Dalman, “ Der Gottesname,” ete., p. 
91), 227 of these occurrences being in Ezekiel alone. 
The designation “ Yuwu Zeba’ot,” translated “ Lord 
of Hosts,” occurs 260 times, and with the addition 
of “God” four times more. This designation is met 
with as follows: Isaiah 65 times, Jeremiah 77, Minor 
Prophets 108 (Zechariah 52; Malachi 24), Samuel 11, 
Kings 4; but it does not occur, on the other hand, 
in the Pentateuch, in Joshua, in Judges, or in the 
Hagiographa. Adding these 264 occurrences and the 
815 just noted to the 5,410 instances of the simple 
Tetragrammaton, the word “Yaw” is found to 
There is no instance 
of it, however, in Canticles, Ecclesiastes, or Esther; 
and in Daniel it occurs 7 times (in ch. ix.)—a 
fact which in itself shows the late date of these 
books, whose authors lived at a period when the use 
of the Tetragrammaton was already avoided, its ut- 
terance having become restricted both in the read- 
ing of the Bible and still more in colloquial speech. 
For it was substituted Aponal; and the fact that 
this name is found 315 times in combination with 
“YuwuH” and 184 times alone shows that the cus- 
tom of reading the Tetragrammaton as if written 
“ Adonai” began at a time when the text of the Bib- 
lical books was not yet scrupulously protected from 
minor additions. This assumption explains most of 
the occurrences of “ Adonai” before “ YuwH”; 2.e., 
the former word indicated the pronunciation of the 
latter. At the timeof the Chronicler this pronunci- 
ation was so generally accepted that he never wrote 
the name “ Adonai.” About 300 B.c., therefore, the 
word “YuwH” was not pronounced in its original 
form. For several reasons Jacob (“Im Namen 
Gottes,” p. 167) assigns the “disuse of the word 
‘YuwuH’ and the substitution of ‘Adonai’ to the 
later decades of the Babylonian exile.” 


119 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Testaments 
Tetragrammaton 


The avoidance of the original name of God both 
in speech and, to a certain extent, in the Bible was 
due, according to Geiger (“ Urschrift,” 

Reason for p. 262), to a reverence which shrank 
Disuse. from the utterance of the Sublime 
Name; and it may well be that such 

a reluctance first arose in a foreign, and hence in 
an “unclean” land, very possibly, therefore, in 
Babylonia. According to Dalman (/.c. pp. 66 eé seq.), 
the Rabbis forbade the utterance of the Tetragram- 
maton, to guard against desecration of the Sacred 
Name; but such an ordinance could not have been 
effectual unless it had met with popular approval. 
The reasons assigned by Lagarde (“Psalterium Hi- 
eronymi,” p. 155) and Halévy (“Recherches Bib- 
liques,” i. 65 et seg.) are untenable, and are refuted 
by Jacob (/.c. pp. 172, 174), who believes that the 
Divine Name was not pronounced lest it should be 
desecrated by the heathen. The true name of God 
was uttered only during worship in the Temple, 
in which the people were alone; and in the course 
of the services on the Day of Atonement the high 
priest pronounced the Sacred Name ten times (To- 
sef., Yoma, ii.2; Yoma 89b). This was done as late 
as the last years of the Temple (Yer. Yoma 40a, 67). 
If such was the purpose, the means were ineffectual, 
since the pronunciation of the Tetragrammaton was 
known not only in Jewish, but also in non-Jewish 
circles centuries after the destruction of the Temple, 
as is clear from the interdictions against uttering it 
(Sanh. x. 1; Tosef., Sanh. xii. 9; Sifre Zuta, in 
Yalk., Gen. 711; ‘Ab. Zarah 18a; Midr. Teh. to Ps. 
xci.,end). Raba,a Babylonian amora who flourished 
about 850, wished to make the pronunciation of the 


Tetragrammaton known publicly (Kid. 7ib); and a 


contemporary Palestinian scholar states that the 
Samaritans uttered it in taking oaths (Yer. Sanh. 
28b). The members of the Babylonian academy 
probably knew the pronunciation as late as 1000¢.r. 
(Blau, 2.c. pp. 182 ef seg., 188 et seg.). The physi- 
cians, who were half magicians, made special efforts 
to learn this name, which was believed to possess 
marvelous powers (of healing, etc.; Yer. Yoma 40a, 
below). The cures, or the exorcisms, of demons in 
the name of Jesus which are meutioned in the New 
Testament and the Talmud (see Exorcism) imply 
that Jesus was regarded as a god and that his name 
was considered as efficacious as the Tetragrammaton 
itself, for which it was even substituted. It was in 
connection with magic that the Tetragrammaton 
was introduced into the magic papyri 

Church = and, in all probability, into the wri- 
Fathers tings of the Church Fathers, these 
and Magic two sources containing the following 
Papyri. forms, written in Greek letters: (1) 
“Taoouee,” “Jaoue,” “Iabe”; (2) 

“Tao,” “Taho,” “Tae”; (8) “Aia”; (4) “Ta.” It is 
evident that (1) represents 7M, (2) 1, (8) FAN, and 
(4) 7°. The three forms quoted under (1) are merely 
three ways of writing the same word, though 
“Tabe” is designated as the Samaritan pronuncia- 
tion. There are external and internal grounds for 
this assumption; for the very agreement of the 
Jewish, Christian, heathen, and Gnostic statements 
proves that they undoubtedly give the actual pro- 
nunciation (Stade’s “ Zeitschrift,” iii, 298; Dalman, 


f.c. p. 41; Deissmann, “ Bibelstudien,” pp. 1-20; 
Blau, @.¢. p. 183). The “mystic quadriliteral name” 
(Clement, “Stromata,” ed. Dindorf, iii. 25, 27) was 
well known to the Gnostics, as is shown by the fact 
that the third of the eight eons of one of their sys- 
tems of creation was called “the unpronounced,” 
the fourth “the invisible,” and the seventh “the 
unnamed,” terms which are merely designations of 
the Tetragrammaton (Blau, é.c. p. 127). Even the 
Palestinian Jews had inscribed the letters of the 
Name on amulets (Shab. 115b; Blau, d.c. pp. 93-96); 
and, in view of the frequency with which the ap- 
pellations of foreign deities were employed in magic, 
it was but natural that heathen magicians should 
show an especial preference for this “ great and holy 
name,” knowing its pronunciation as they knew the 
names of their own deities. 

It thus becomes possible to determine with a fair 
degree of certainty the historical pronunciation of 
the Tetragrammaton, the results agreeing with the 
statement of Ex. iii. 14, in which Yuwu terms Him- 
self AYN, “I will be,” a phrase which is imme- 
diately preceded by the fuller term “I will be that I 
will be,” or, as in the English versions, “I am” and 

“Tam that Iam.” The name minis 


Meaning accordingly derived from the root 
and Ety- 17 (= 7's), and is regarded as an im- 
mology. perfect. This passage is decisive for 


the pronunciation “ Yahweh”; for the 
etymology was undoubtedly based on the known 
word. ‘The oldest exegetes, such as Onkelos, and 
the Targumim of Jerusalem and pseudo-Jonathan 
regard “Ehyeh” and “Ehyeh asher Ehyeh” as the 
name of the Divinity, and accept the etymology of 
“hayah” = “to be” (comp. Samuel b. Meir, com- 
mentary on Ex. iii. 14). Modern critics, some of 
whom, after the lapse of centuries, correct the Hebrew 
texts without regard to the entire change of point 
of view and mode of thought, are dissatisfied with 
this etymology; and their various hypotheses have 
resulted in offering the following definitions: (1) 
he who calls into being, or he who gives promises; 
(2) the creator of life; (3) he who makes events, or 
history; (4) the falling one, the feller, ¢.e., the storm- 
god who hurls the lightning ; (5) he who sends down 
the rain (W. R. Smith, “The Old Testament,” p. 123); 
(6) the hurler; (7) the destroyer; (8) the breather, the 
weather-god (Wellhausen). AJl these meanings are 
obtained by doing violence to the Hebrew text (Her- 
zog-Hauck, “ Real-Encyc.” viii. 536 ef seq.). 
Attempts have also been made to explain the Di- 
vine Name in’ as Hittite, Persian, Egyptian, and 
even as Greek; but these assumptions are now ab- 
solutely set aside, since the name is at all events 
Semitic. The question remains, however, whether 
it is Israelitish or was borrowed. Friedrich De- 
litzsch, in discussing this question, asserts that the 
Semitic tribes from whom the family. 
Assyro- of Hammurabi came, and who en- 
Babylonian tered Babylon 2500 s.c., knew and 
Cuneiform worshiped the god Ya’ve, Ya’u (i.e., 
Inscrip- YHwH, Yahu; “ Babel und Bibel,” 5th 
tions. ed., i. 78 et seg.); and Zimmern (in 
Schrader, “K. A. T.” 8d ed., pp. 465- 
468) reaches the conclusion that “Yahu” or 
“Yuwn” is found in Babylonian only as the name 


Tetragrammaton 
Texas 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


120 


of a foreign deity, a view with which Delitzsch 
agrees in his third and final lecture on “Babel und 
Bibel” (pp. 39, 60, Stuttgart, 1905). Assyriologists 
are still divided on this point, however; and no 
definite conclusions have as yet been reached (comp. 
the voluminous literature on “Babel und Bibel”). 

“Yah,” an abbreviated form of the Tetragramma- 
ton, occurs 23 times: 18 times in the Psalms, twice 
in Exodus, and three times in Isaiah. This form 
is identical with the final syllable in the word “ Hal- 
lelujah,” which occurs 24 times in the last book of 
the Psalms (comp. also “be-Yah,” Isa. xxvi. 4 and 
Ps. lxviii. 5). It is transcribed by the Greek “Ia,” as 
“Ehyeh ” is represented by “ Aia,” thus showing that 

“Yah” was the first syllable of AN". 

Abbrevi- The form corresponding to the Greek 
ated Tetra- “Iao” does not occur alone in He- 
gramma- brew, but only as an element in such 
ton. proper names as Jesaiah (“ Yesha‘ya- 
hu”), Zedekiah (“Zidkiyahu”), and 

Jehonathan. According to Delitzsch (“ Wo Lag das 
Paradies?” 1881), this form was the original one, and 
was expanded into AIM; but since names of divini- 
ties are slow in disappearing, it would be strange if 
the primitive form had not been retained once in the 
Bible. Franz Delitzsch thought that “ Yahu” 
was used Independently as a name of God (Herzog: 
Plitt, “Real-Encyc.” vi. 5038); but, according to 
Kittel, “This could have been the case only in the 
vernacular, since no trace of it is found in the literary 
language” (Herzog-Hauck, “ Real-Encyc.” viii. 26, 
533). All the critics have failed to perceive that the 
name “Yao” was derived from the same source as 
“Yaoue,” namely, from Gnosticism and magic, in 
which Jews, Christians, and heathen met. “ Yahu” 
was in fact used in magic, as is clear from the “ Sefer 
Yezirah,” which shows many traces of Gnosticism ; in 
the cosmology of this work the permutation of the 
letters 47° furnishes the instruments of the Creation. 

With the Tetragrammaton must be included the 
names of God formed of twelve, forty-two, and 
seventy-two letters respectively, which are impor- 
tant factors in Jewish mysticism (Kid. 7laet passim). 

They have, according to tradition, a 
Other magical effect; for mysticism and 
Names of magic are everywhere allied. These 
God. great names are closely akin to the 
long series of vowels in the magic 
papyri, and are obtained by anagrammatic combina- 
tions of the effective elements of the Tetragramma- 
ton. The simplest way of determining these three 
names is to forma magic triangle, whose base is a 
single Tetragrammaton, andits apex the Tetragram- 
maton repeated thrice. The four upper lines (12 + 
11+ 10-19) give the names with forty-two letters; 
and the entire figure represents the Divine Name of 
seventy-two letters (Blau, /.c. pp. 144 et seg.). Ac- 
‘cording tothe book of Bantr (ed. Amsterdam, 1651, 
fol. 7a), the Sacred Name of twelve letters was a 
triple min) (Dalman, Z.c. p. 39; Blau, @.c. p. 144), 

In the earliest manuscripts of the Septuagint the 
Tetragrammaton was given in Hebrew letters, which 
in Greek circles were supposed to be Greek and 
were read rene (Field, “ Origenis Hexaplorum Que 
Supersunt,” i, 90, Oxford, 1875; Herzog-Hauck, Z.c. 
viii. 530; Blau, Zc. p. 181). See also ADONAT; 


AQUILA; GNOSTICISM; JEHOVAH; NAMES OF Gop; 

SHEM HA-MEFORASII. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY : Hamburger, R. B, T. i. 48-56, 588; Hastings, 
Dict. Bible, ii. 199; Herzog-Hauck, Real-Eneye, viii. 529- 
541; Baudissin, Studien zur Seimitischen Religionsye- 
schichte, i. 181-254, Leipsic, 1876; S. R. Driver, Recent The- 
ories on the Origin and Nature of the Tetragrammaton, in 
Studia Biblica, i. 1-20, Oxford, 1885; Dalman, Der Gottesna- 
me Adonaj und Seine Geschichte, Berlin, 1889; Deissmann, 
Bibelstudien, Marburg, 1895; Blau, Das <Altjiidische Zar- 
berwesen, Strasburg, 1898; M. Jastrow, Jr., in Stade’s Zeit- 
schrift, 1896, pp. 1 et seq. (on the proper names combined 
with YHWH); Schrader, kK. A. 7. 3d ed., pp. 465-468, Berlin, 
1902-3 ; Jacob, Im Namen Gottes, Berlin, 19038. For further 
material, especially earlier works, see Herzog-Hauek, I.c. 

T. L. B 

TETRAROCH (Greek, tetpapyvyc): A governor of 
a quarter of a province; the title of several feudal 
lords of Palestine and neighboring countries who 
were subject to Roman suzerainty. This title, 
which evidently implies a rank somewhat lower 
than that of Eranarcn, was held by the following 
Jewish princes: Herod the Great before he became 
king, and his brother PuasaEL, both of whom re- 
ceived the office from Antony (Josephus, “ Ant.” 
xiv, 18, 8 1; ¢dem, “B. J.” i. 12, § 5): PHErRORAs, 
whom Augustus, at the request of Herod, appointed 
tetrarch of Perea (20 B.c.), a post which yielded 
him an income of 100 talents (“ Ant.” xv. 10, $3; 
“B. J.” i, 24, § 5); Herop AnNtTrpas, who was tet- 
rarch of Galilee (Luke iii. 1); Pamir, who governed 
Iturea and Trachonitis (20.); and Lysanias. who 
ruled Abilene (zd.). 

The district governed by a tetrarch was called a 
tetrarchy (“ Ant.” xx. 7,$ 1); and this term was first 
used by Euripides, who applied it to Thessaly, at- 
tributing to it its original connotation of a quarter 
province, since Thessaly was divided into four dis- 
tricts. “Tetrarch” was employed in a similar sense 
with reference to Galatia; but in other countries, as 
well asamong the Jews, it lost ifs primary meauing, 
and came to imply a ruler whose power was less 
than that of a king. Such tetrarchs were especially 
numerous in Syria (Pliny, “ Historia Naturalis,” v. 
74), and one Sohemus of Lebanon is mentioned by 
Josephus (“ Vita,” § 11). Kings and tetrarchs fur- 
nished auxiliary troops to the army of Varvcs 
(“Ant.” xvil. 10, § 9). The Herodian tetrarchs, 
either from error or from mere flattery, were ad- 
dressed also as kings (comp. Matt. ii. 22, xiv. 9): 
and it was with but little justification that AGRIPPA 
II. styled himself “king,” since, as a matter of fact, 
he was but a tetrarch. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Winer, B. R. 3d ed., 8.v.; Schiirer, Geseh, 3d 
ed., i. 423. 

E. C. . Kr, 


TETUAN. See Morocco. 


TEWELES, HEINRICH: Austrian drama- 
tist; born at Prague Nov. 13, 1856. He made his 
début in 1881 with a drama entitled “ Dic Schau- 
spielerin.” His other works arc: “Kampf um die 
Sprache,” 1884; “Die Armen,” novel, 1885; “ Presse 
und Staat,” 1886; “Eherecht,” a comedy, 1886; 
“Schule der Frauen,” comedy, 1887; “ Der Ring des 
Polykrates,” comedy, 1888; “Gesellschafterin,” 
comedy, 1889; “Der Hundertste Geburtstag,” play, 
1891; “Mein Papa,” farce, 1893; “Johann Strauss,” 
play, 1894; “Demetrius,” a rewritten version of 
Hebbel’s play, 1895; “ Volksfreund,” sketch, 1898; 


hi 


121 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Tetragrammaton 
Texas 


and “Beitrag zur Goethefeier in Prag,” 1899. He | New Orleans in 1837, and became an expert in real 


published also the “ Prager Dichterbuch,” 1893. 
Teweles is dramaturgist of the German Landes- 
theater in his native city. 
S. EK. Ms. 
TEXAS: Largest state in the American Union; 
admitted in 1845; seceded Feb. 1, 1861; and read- 
mitted in 1870. Previous to its admission to the 
Union, Texas was an independent republic (1836-45). 
Samuel Isaacs removed from the United States to 
Texas in 1821, with Austin’s first colonists. For 
serving in the army of the Republic of Texas he was 
given 320 acres of land. When Abraham Cohen 
Labatt visited Texas in 1831, he found 
Early at Velasco Jacob Henry and Jacob 
Settlement Lyons, of England and Charleston, 


and 8. C., respectively, engaged in mer- 
Mexican cantile pursuits. Jacob Henry's will 
War. provided for the building of a hospi- 


tal at Velasco. Nacogdoches seems to 
have been the center of immigration. Prominent 
settlers (1832-40) were Adolphus Sterne, who partici- 
pated in the Fredonian war, subsequently acting as 
alcalde and official interpreter; Dr. Joseph Hertz 
and his brother Hyman, Simon Schloss, Albert 
Emanuel, Sam. Maas (who married a sister of Offen- 
bach, the composer), and Simon Weiss. They were 
pioneers in mercantile enterprises, and served the 
government in civil and military capacities. Simon 
and Jacob Mussina settled in Galveston (1836), the 
former editing a paper and practising law. Edward 
J. Johnson, from Cincinnati, Ohio, was killed while 
fighting under Fannin at Goliad (1886), where three 
other Jews also fought—Benjamin H. Mordecai 
(killed by Indians in 1840), M. K. Moses, and Her- 
man Ehrenberg. Notable services were rendered to 
Texas by Levi Charles Harby (sometimes known as 
Levi Myers Harsy), Isadore DYER, and Leon Dyer. 
Michael Seeligson settled in Galveston in 1886; he 
was alderman of the city in 1840 and 1848, mayor 
in 1858, and worked untiringly for the annexation 
of the Republic of Texas to the United States. 
Henry Seeligson, his son, went to Galveston from 
Michigan in 1889, held several military appoint- 
ments, and fought in three wars, in one of which 
he was highly complimented by Gen. Zachary 
Taylor. Prominent in the early wars, from San 
Jacinto (1885) to the war with Mexico (1846), were: 
EugeneJoseph Chiméne, Kohn(Texasspy-company), 
Henry Wiener, Moses Albert Levy (surgeon-general 
in Sam. Houston’s army in the Texas-Mexican war; 
Was present at the storming of the Alamo, Dec. 5, 
1835), A. Wolf (killed in the Alamo, 1836; his name 
is inscribed on the Alamo monument at Austin), Dr. 
Isaac Lyons of Charleston (surgeon-general, 1836), 
and D. I, Kokernot. Michael de Young, a French 
Jew, settled in San Augustine in 1840, and furnished 
the necessary equipment to volunteers during the 
war with Mexico. Three years earlier Edward &. 
Solomon settled in the same town. Many acres of 
land in Texas, now under cultivation, were origi- 
nally allotted to David Moses and Michael de Young 
for services rendered to the republic. 
Jacob de Cordova (b. Spanish Town, Jamaica, 


1808; d. Texas, 1868) removed to Galveston from” 


estate; “De Cordova’s Land Agency” was known 
throughout the states. Upon a visit 
to Jamaica in 1883 he founded the 
“Daily Gleaner.” In 1836 he pub- 
lished at Austin “The Texas Emi- 
grant’s and Traveler’s Guide- Book,” and later 
“Texas, Her Resources and Her Public Men” (Phil- 
adelphia, 1858). De Cordova introduced the Order 
of Odd Fellows into Texas. Jn 1847 he represented 
Harris county in the Texas legislature, and in 1849 
he laid out the city of Waco. During 1856-58 he 
lectured on the resources of Texas in the large cities 
of the United States and in England. In 1848 his 
brother Phinehas (b. Philadelphia, 1819; d. 1903) 
joined him in the establishment of the “Texas 
Herald,” a fortnightly. Phinehas subsequently ed- 
ited in Austin the “South-Western American.” a 
weekly (1849-52), which successfully advocated the 
loaning of the school]-fund and the donating of a 
portion of the public lands to aid the building of 
railroads. 

Emigration to Texas found an active advocate in 
Henry Castro (b. France, 1786; d. Mexico, 1861), 
In 1842 Castro entered into a contract with Sam. 
Houston, President of the Republic of Texas, to set- 
tle a colony west of the Medina, and Houston ap- 
pointed him consul-general in France for Texas. 
Between 1843 and 1846 Castro sent to Texas 5,000 
emigrants from the Rhenish provinces—the first or- 
ganized emigration to Texas from a foreign country : 
considering the unsettled state of the country, it was 
a masterly undertaking. These emigrants setticd . 
in the towns of Castroville and Quihi (1845), Van- 
denburg (1846), and D’ Hanis (1847). Castro county, 
in northwest Texas, was named in honor of this in- 
trepid Jew, who sank $150,000 of his personal estate 
in the venture. Castro published pamphlets and 
mapsin French and German to facilitate his emigra- 
tion scheme. 

The Jewish settlers in each district began com- 
munal life by establishing first a cemetery and then 
asynagogue. Acemetery was established in Hous- 
ton in 1844, and a synagogue in 1854; in Galveston, 
1852 and 1868 respectively ; in San Antonio, 1854 and 
1872; in Austin, 1866 and 1876; in Waco, 1869 and 
1881; in Dallas, 1872 and 1874. 

German immigration from the fifties to the seven- 
ties was followed by Russian immigration from the 
eighties to the present time (1905); during the latter 
period Orthodox synagogues have been erected in all 
the foregoing cities. Synagogues, cemeteries, and 
communally active congregations exist in the follow- 
ing towns: Beaumont (synagogue erected 1895), 
Brenham (1895), Corsicana (1898), Ei Paso (1898), Fort 
Worth (Orthodox, 1892; Reform, 1904), Gainesville 


Jacob de 
Cordova. 


(1882), Hempstead (1897), Marshall 
Syna- (1886), Palestine (1900), Texarkana 
gogues. (1900), Tyler (1889), Victoria (1894). 


There are cemeteries in Bonham, 
Brownsville, Bryan, Calvert, Cleburne, Columbus, 
Corpus Christi, Denison, Ennis, Greenville, Halletts- 
ville, Henderson, Jefferson, Laredo, Lufkin, Luling, 
Marlin, Mexia, Mineola, Nacogdoches, Navasota, 
Orange, Wharton. In these towns services are held 
on Rosh ha-Shanah and Yom Kippur, and religious 


Texas 
Theft and Stolen Goods 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


122 


—_— 


schools have been organized in most of them, largely 
through the influence of Jeannette Miriam Goldberg. 
Hebrew benevolent associations, ladies’ auxiliary 
and general social societies, and branches of national 
and international Jewish organizations are wide- 
spread; a few Zionists are found in the larger 
cities. 

The following towns in addition to those which 
have been mentioned have from two to ten Jewish 
families each: Abilene, Alto, Alvarado, Amarillo, 
Aquilla, Beeville, Bellville, Bremond, Caldwell, 
Clarksville, Columbia, Crockett, Decatur, Del Rio, 
Denton, Eagle Lake, Eagle Pass, Elgin, Farmers- 
ville, Giddings, Gonzales, Groesbeck, Hearne, Hills- 
boro, Honey Grove, Jacksonville, Kaufman, Ken- 
nedy, Kyle, Lagrange, Llano, Lockhart, Longview, 
McDade, McKinney, Mount Pleasant, Mount Ver- 
non, Paris, Pittsburg, Richmond, Rio Grande City, 
Rockdale, Rusk, San Angelo, San Diego, Schulen- 
burg, Sealy, Seguin, Sherman, Skidmore, Sulphur 
Springs, Taylor, Temple, Terrell, Uvalde, Waelder, 
Waxahachie, Weatherford, Weimar, Wichita Falls, 
Willis, Wills’ Point, and Yoakum. 

In the early days, before there was any Jewish 
communal life, intermarriage between Jews and non- 
Jews was not uncommon; but to-day throughout 
the state, although Jew and Gentile mingle freely, 
intermarriage does not obtain to any appreciable 
degree. 

During the Civil war 103 Texas Jews served in 
the contending armies (Simon Wolf, “The Jew as 
Patriot, Soldier, and Citizen,” p. 424), and the de- 
fense of Galveston is inseparably connected with 
the name of Capt. L. C. Harby (2d. pp. 72 ef seg., 
116). The number of Texas Jews serving with the 
American forces in the Spanish-American war (1898) 
was: regular officers and enlisted men, 67 (state 
volunteers); non-commissioned officers and privates, 

25. Benjamin Frenkel was surgeon 
Texas Jews on the U.S.S8S. “Hornet,” and subse- 
in Army quently served at the naval station 
and Navy. at San Juan, Porto Rico. Adjutant- 
General Openheimer, Texas State 
Militia, served as colonel of the Second Volunteer 
Infantry and major-general of the Texas Volunteer 
Guard (“Am. Jewish Year Book,” 1900-1, pp. 585 
et seg.). Colonel Openheimer is a member of the 
National Board for the Promotion of Rifle Prac- 
tise, appointed by the secretary of war March 11, 
1893. 

Jews are found in both houses of the Texas legis- 
lature; Jewish physicians and lawyers are to be met 
with in all the larger towns; and the state’s second 
assistant attorney-general, Isaac Lovenberg, is a 
Jew, aS was Leo N. Levi (b. Victoria, Texas, 1856; 
d. New York city, 1904). 

In C. W. Raines’s “A Bibliography of Texas” 
(Austin, 1896) mention is made of the following 
publications of interest to Jews: George M. Walton, 
“The Jews, Their Origin, History, and Final Des- 
tiny ” (Austin, 1895); J. E. McAshen, “ The Jews,” in 
the “Texas Quarterly ”; Major B. Rush Plumley, 
“Poems for Rosh Hashono” (Galveston, 1876-78). 
Mrs, Leah Cohen Harsy is the author of the “ Flag- 
Song of Texas.” 

A considerable number of local and national 


Jewish and non-sectarian institutions have been the 
beneficiaries of Texas Jews; in this way the names 
of Rosanna Osterman, Isadore Dyer, Mrs. Tennie H. 
Northman, Moritz Kopperl, and Isabella Kopperl 
have become well known. 

Texas has a total population of 3,048,710, of 
whom about 17,500 are Jews. The Jewish popula- 
tion is increasing as a consequence of direct immi- 
gration from Europe through the port of Galveston. 
See AMERICA; DALLAS; GALVESTON; Houston; SAn 
ANTONIO. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Henry Cohen, Settlement of the Jews in 
Texas; idem, The Jews in Texas; Henry Castro, Pioneer 
and. Colonist, in Publ. Am. Jew. Hist. Soc. Nos. 2, 4,5; 
Simon Wolf, The Jew as Patriot, Soldier, and Citizen. 

A. ; 


TEXEIRA. See TEILXEIRA. 


THANKSGIVING. See BENEDICTIONS. 


THEBEN, KOPPEL (JACOB BEN ABRA- 
HAM MANDL): President of the Jewish com- 
munity in Presburg; died at Prague Aug. 26, 1799. 
As “shetadlan” of the Hungarian Jews he gained 
distinction; and under Joseph II., Leopold H., and 
Francis J. he labored indefatigably in behalf of his 
coreligionists, striving to protect them from harsh 
regulations. On March 31, 1783, Joseph II. issued 
the proclamation which was the foundation of the 
culture of the Hungarian Jews and the beginning 
of a happier era. One of its provisions, however, 
was that the Jews should not wear beards; but 
Theben obtained the revocation of this clause. 
When Joseph II. compelled the Hungarian Jews to 
perform military service, Theben sought, though 
unsuccessfully, to have this ordinance also revoked. 
In these undertakings his associate was Naphtali 
ben Isaac Judah Rosenthal, a wealthy citizen of 
Moor, and in his youth a friend of Moses Mendels- 
sohn. 

In 1791, when Leopold II, was crowned at Pres- 
burg, the Hungarian Jews, led by Theben, arranged 
an enthusiastic celebration, during which Theben 
urged the king not to require the Jews to serve any 
longer as soldiers. On this occasion the king pre- 
sented Theben with a gold medal. In the same 
year Theben strove to free certain Jews who had 
been imprisoned and tortured in Per on account of 
a blood accusation. Indeed, there was scarcely 
any important matter connected with the Jews 
in which the Theben community did not take an 
active part. 

“Theben” (Hungarian, “Dévény”) is the name 
of a place near Presburg, whence Theben’s ances- 
tors probably came. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Ignatz Reich, Beth-El, 2d ed., ii. 363-381: 
: oshue Levinsohn, Rabbi Ya‘akob Koppel Theben, Warsaw, 


E..€; A, Bt. 


THEBES: Ancient and famous city of Greece; 
capital of Beotia. Although there is no documen- 
tary evidence of the presence of Jews at Thebes in 
antiquity, it may be assumed that they resided 
there, since their coreligionists had lived from a 
very early period throughout Greece, including the 
neighboring cities of ATHENS and CoRInTH, while 
in the letter of Agrippa to the emperor Caius, Bao- 


123 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Texas 
Theft and Stolen Goods 


tia is described as inhabited by Jews (Philo, “ Lega- 
tio ad Caium,” § 36). At the time of the First Cru- 
sade a certain Tobias of Thebes is described as bring- 
ing Messianic prophecies from Salonica to Cairo 
“J. Q. R.” x. 148), and in Al-Harizi’s “Tahke- 
moni” (ed. Lagarde, p. 92) mention is made of one 
Michael ben Caleb of Thebes. Abraham Zutra (or 
Zuta) of Thebes, moreover, was the author of a 
commentary on the Sifra (Zunz, in Asher’s ed. of 
Benjamin of Tudela’s “Itinerary,” ii. 36; Michael, 
“Or ha-Hayyim,” No. 86); for the study of the Mid- 
rashim was cultivated in Thebes as well as elsewhere 
in the Byzantine empire. 

These scanty data are insufficient to determine the 
size of the Jewish community in Thebes, the earli- 
est specific information in relation to which is de- 
rived from Benjamin of Tudela (ed. Griinhug, i. 15), 
who describes the city as a large one with more than 
2,000 Jewish families, including the most skilful 
manufacturers of silk and purple in all Greece. 
Among them were many students of the Mishnah 
and of the Talmud; and they belonged to the fore- 
most scholars of theirage. At the head of the com- 
munity stood R. Aaron Kuti, his brother R. Moses, 
R. Elijah Tortono, and R. Joktan; and their equals 
were not to be found in any of the Greek dominions 
except Constantinople. Of the large and prominent 
community of Thebes no further data exist. 

E. C. S. Kr. 


THEFT (72393) AND STOLEN GOODS.— 
The Moral Aspect: To steal is to break one of 
the Teun Commandments, “Thou shalt not steal”; 
and it is immaterial whether one steals from an 
Israclite or from an idolatrous Gentile, from an 
adult or from a child. The value of a perutah was 
regarded as the minimum value the theft of which 
constituted a complete transgression. But it is for- 
bidden to steal anything, even as a joke, or with 
the intention of returning it or of paying for it; for 
by acting thus a person learns to steal in earnest (B. 
M. 61b; Sanh, 57a). 

It is forbidden to buy a stolen article; indeed, it 
is a great sin; for thereby the hand of transgressors 
is strengthened, and the thief is led to steal more. 
If there were none to buy, there would be none to 

steal; whence the Scripture, “ Whoso 

Receiver is partner with a thief hateth his own 
Worse than soul” (Prov. xxix. 24). 

Thief. And one should not buy from men 
whose employment indicates that the 

articles offered by them belong to theiremployers. In 
the Talmud this law is applied mainly to herdsmen. 
Wool or kids should not be bought from them; 
milk and cheese only in the wilderness, not in the 
settled country. However, one may buy four sheep 
or four fleeces from the shepherd of a small flock, 
and five from the shepherd of a large one, there 
being no presumption against these being his own. 
Nor should grain or fruits or wood be bought from 
those charged with watching such articles, unless the 
Sellers offer their wares in public, with the baskets 
and scales before them; and garden stuff should 
be purchased only at the front gate of the gar- 
den, not at the back gate. 


to buy produce from a tenant on shares. Goods 


It is, however, allowable . 


should not be bought from housewives, from serv- 
ants, or from children, except those articles which 
such persons are in the habit of selling with the 
knowledge of the owner. Nor should remnants be 
bought from an artisan working up for his custom- 
ers materials which by the custom of the country 
do not belong to him; and inall cases it is forbidden 
to buy from a person who says “ Hide it” (B. K. 
118b). 

Criminal and Civil Liability: There is this 
distinction between theft and robbery; the thief 
takes the property of another secretly and without 
his knowledge, while he who takes openly by force 
is not a thief, but a robber. One is not punished as 
a thief for stealing either slaves, or documents having 
no intrinsic value. On the principle that where the 
Torah prescribes another penalty for a forbidden 
act stripes are not inflicted, the only punishment for 
theft is double restoration, and for stealing an ox or 
sheep, and selling or slaughtering it, fourfold and 

fivefold compensation (Ex. xxi. 37, 


Punish- xxii. 3); and on the strength of the 
ment words (7b. xxii. 8) “he shall pay 
Double double tohis neighbor ” it is held that 
Restitu- hewho steals either from a Gentile or 
tion. from the Sanctuary is held only for 


single compensation: in other words, 
he is not punished at all. Nocompensation may be 
recovered from infants—not even simple restitution 
if the stolen article has been consumed — nor from 
a slave, as he has no property; but should the 
lutter be manumitted, he is then liable for double 
compensation. It is, however, the duty of the court, 
when a boy is caught stealing, to cause a moderate 
whipping to be administered to him, and to a slave 
a sound whipping, so as tocheck the stealing habit. 
The master is not liable for what his slave steals any 
more than for damage arising from tlie latter's negli- 
gence. 

The verse quoted above refers to the depositary 
who steals deposited goods. It orders double com- 
pensation only from him whom the judges con- 
demn. Hence this penalty can not be imposed 
where the thief confesses; and opinions in the Tal- 
mud go so far as to relieve him, if he confesses to 
the court, of all but simple restitution, even though 
witnesses appear against him immediately there- 
after. Nor can he in any case be sold for a Hebrew 
servant in satisfaction of more than simple restitution 
(Kid. 18a, expounding Ex. xxii. 2). He who steals 
a thing from a thief before the owner has given up 
the hope of recovery, and before the thing has been 
changed in substance, is not liable to the penalty, 
either to the first thief ortotheowner. ‘To make him 
liable for double compensation there must be such a 
taking of possession by the thief as would in a sale 
give “kinyan” (see ALIENATION AND ACQUISITION) ; 
hence pulling the article or beast as long as it is 
within the owner’s premises, even with delivery to 
a third person, is not sufficient; but lifting it, which 
always gives kinyan, completes the theft (B. K. 
vii. 6). 

The fourfold restitution for an ox which the thief 
has sold or slaughtered and the fivefold restitution 
for a sheep or goat so disposed of are thus treated in 
the Mishnah (7d. vii. 2): 


Theft and Stolen Goods 
Theodora 


‘** He who has stolen, as proved by two witnesses, and has slaugh- 
tered, as proved by these or by two others, must pay fourfold 
or fivefold; he who has stolen and sold on the 
Fourfold Sabbath, stolen and sold for idol-worship, stolen 
and Fivefold and slaughtered on the Day of Atonement, 
Restitution. stolen his father’s beast and slaughtered or sold 
and whose father then dies, or stolen and 
slaughtered and has then consecrated, pays fourfold and five- 
fold: he who has stolen and slaughtered for use as a medicine 
or as food for dogs, or has slaughtered and the carcass proves to 
be unsound [‘‘terefah”’], or has slaughtered common food 
within the Temple yard, pays fourfold or fivefold.” 


The validity of the last two provisions is disputed. 
After another section dealing with the liability of 
plotting witnesses (see ALini) who have testified 
against the supposed thief (2). vii. 4), the Mishnah 
proceeds: 


**He who, according to two witnesses, has stolen and, ac- 
cording to one witness or his own admission, has slaughtered 
or sold pays twofold restitution. but not fourfold or fivefold ; 
he who has stolen or slaughtered on the Sabbath, or for the pur- 
poses of idol-worship, or has stolen from his father and, his 
father having died, has sold and slaughtered thereafter, or 
has sold and consecrated and thereafter sold or slaughtered, 
pays double, but not fourfold or fivefold [with a disputed dis- 
tinction, ih. vii.5]. He who has sold all but a one-hundredth 
part thereof [which refers to other than horns or fleece] or has 
sold an article in which he himself has a joint interest, or has 
slaughtered in an unlawful manner, pays twofold, but not four- 
fold or fivefold. He who has stolen within the domain of the 
owner, but has sold or slaughtered outside thereof, pays fourfold 
or fivefold; but if he has stolen and sold or slaughtered all 
within the owner’s dominion he is free.” 


The depositary who, when he hasconverted goods 
to his own use, claims that they are lost, is deemed 
a thief (Ex. xxii. 8); and if the deposit is an ox or a 
lamb, which he has sold or slaughtered, he is liable 
to fourfold or fivefold restitution (B. K. 106a). 

In the baraita under these sections there are a 
number of other distinctions, especially as to the 
conditions and value of a stolen beast at the time of 
the theft and the time of the trial. The restitution, 
beyond the simple return of the stolen thing, is in 
all cases to be made in money, not in kind. 

It happens sometimes that, in order to avoid dis- 
grace, a thief voluntarily restoresa stolen article with- 
out acquainting the owner of the restitution. In 
such a case, if he puts it back in its place and it is 
lost or stolen before the owner who has missed it has 
knowledge of its return, the repentant thief is liable 
for the loss (2b. 118a, where some nice distinctions 
will be found), 

The Stolen Article; Title: Asa general prin- 
ciple, when the stolen thing is given, bartered, or sold 
toa third person, or when, upon the death of the thief, 
its possession passes to his sons, the title remains 
in the former owner; and his rights are more fully 
enforced as regards goods stolen than those taken 
by robbery and force. However, the Talmud speaks 

of an “institution of the market” (2d. 

Sale 115a), according to which, when the 
in Market seller of the stolen goods is not a no- 
Overt. _torious thief, the owner should repay 
to the buyer tlie price—generally 


much less than the value of the goods—which the ~ 


latter has paid the thief, should take the stolen thing, 
and should then go to law with the thief re- 
garding the sum paid. This institution calls to 
mind the sale in market overt under the common 
law of England. But, to bring the institution into 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


124 


play, the thief must have sold for money: it does 
not apply where he has paid a debt with the stolen 
thing; but it does apply where he has pawned the 
thing for an advance of money. 

It would seem that the circumstances mentioned 
above, under which it is forbidden to buy goods be- 
cause they are presumably stolen, would affect not 
only the conscience but also the title of the buyer; 
but the codes do not say so explicitly. referring 
only to purchase from a notorious thief. Certainly 
the words “ Hide it” are an indication of theft. 

If the stolen thing has been sold after the owner 
has lost all hope of recovery (see ROBBERY) or after 
it has lost its shape and name, the title passes to the 
buyer. It is remarked that where the stolen articles 
are (Hebrew) books, the presumption will hardly 
ever arise that the owner has lost all hope of recov- 
ery, inasmuch as the thief can not sell them te Gen- 
tiles, but only to Israelites. 

When implements, books, or other articles in a 
house are not kept for sale, and some are stolen. and 
the owner finds them and recognizes them as his; or 
when goods are kept for sale, but the owner, after a 
theft, recognizes articles that were kept to be hired 
out, then the owner should prove by witnesses that 
they are his, and the buyer should swear in sclemn 
form what he has paid for them. On repaying this 
amount the owner should recover his goods, but not 
otherwise; for, as the Mishnah (7b. x. 3) says, he 
might have sold them to a third person, from whom 
they were bought. This passage in the Mishnah is 
a basis for the “institution of the market” found, 
as above cited, in the Talmud. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. K. ch. vii., x.. and Talmud thereon : Vad, 
Genebah; Shulthan ‘Aruk, Hoshen Mish pat. 38 248-258. 
W. B. ~L. N. D. 
THEOCRACY (Greek, SQeoxparia): System of 

state organization and government in which God is 

recognized as the ruler in whose name authority is 
exercised by His chosen agents, the Priests or the 

Prophets. The word in its technical meaning seems 

to have been first used by Josephus, to describe the 

peculiar nature of the Jewish government as devised 
under divine direction by Moses: * Our 


Derived legislator... ordained cur gevern- 
from ment to be what, by a strained expres- 
Josephus. sion, may be termed a theocracy. by 


ascribing the authority and the power 
to God” (“Contra Ap.” ii., $ 17). 

The term expresses most succinctly the concen- 
tion of the Old Testament historiographers, and more 
especially that of the books which are written from 
a priestly-Levitical point of view (e.g.. Chronicles, 
the Levitical code P). Basic to the notion is the 
relation of Israel to God as His peculiar people 
(comp. Ex, xix. 5), which therefore is to constitute 
“a kingdom of priests and an holy nation ” (7), xix. 
6). By redeeming Israel from Egyptian bondage 
God has acquired this people for Himselt (74. xv. 
16). The wonderful manifestations of divine power 
at the Red Sea proclaim God the Ruler forever (da. 
xv. 18). Moses is only God’s man, bringing the 
people’s concerns before Yuwn (td, xviii. 1%). and 
communicating to the people God’s will. Gideon 
rejects the proffered crown on the plea that God 
alone should rule over Israel (Judges viii, 22 e? seg.). 


125 


The desire of the people for a king is regarded as 
equivalent to the rejection of Yuwa (I Sam. viii. 
c). Even after the kingdom is established God is 
said to go before the king (II Sam. v. 24). There- 
fore. down to their least details all legal, political, 
and social provisions are essentially religious, as the 
direct outflow of God’s regal and supreme will; and 
the Torah as God’s word is the ultimate revelation 
of the divine King’s commands, and the basic law 
of the nation. Even the retribution meted out to 
criminals and their detection are the immediate con- 
cern of God (Lev. xx. 3, 5-6, xxiv. 12; xx. 20; Num. 
v. 12 e¢ seg.; Josh. vii. 16). 

The visible king—originally not known and rec- 
ognized in Israel—is seated on God’s throne (I Chron. 
xxix. 28; comp. 7). xxviii. 5). His authority is 
derived from that of the real ruler, 


Relation God: hence the prophet’s preroga- 
Between tive to dethrone even the king (comp. 
Heavenly SamuE.; see I Sam. xv. 26, xvi. 1 e¢ 
and seg.; I Kings xi. 29, xiv. 10, xvi. 1 e¢ 
Earthly  seq., xxi. 21). The king represents be- 
Ruler. fore the people the retlected majesty of 


God (Ps. xlv. 7). The king’s enemies 

are God’s enemies (Ps. ii. 1 ef seg., xxi. 10): hence 
the Messianic visions are organically interwoven with 
the restoration of the kingdom in the dynasty of 
David (see Messtan). But the rerise of this theo- 
cratic kingdom in Israel will coincide with the 
acknowledgment of God as the ruler over the 
whole earth (see ‘ALENU; Rosa HA-SHANAH; SHo- 
FAR). 
_ It is certain that in antiquity every people felt 
itself to be under the direct tutelage and govern- 
ment of its ancestral god: all government in ancient 
days was theocratic; and the conception that Israel 
is bound to be loyal to YHWH is not exceptional. In 
the stories relating to the rise and fall of Saul’s fam- 
ily and the choice of David, later antipathies and 
sympathies of the prophetic party come to light 
(see SAMUEL; Satu). The theocratic idea, in the 
sense that it postulates the supreme authority of the 
Torah with the effect of making Israel a holy nation, 
is the final development of the Levitical-sacerdotal 
program culminating in P, and carried out under 
Ezra and Nehemiah, leading at the same time to the 
recasting of antecedent history along the lines of this 
sacerdotal program (See CHRONICLES). 

An original theocratic republicanism of Israel 
can not be admitted. The tribal organization of 
Israel was none other than that obtaining among its 
cognates. The restrictions placed upon royal au- 
thority (Deut. xvii. 14-20) by the Deuteronomist. 
reflect on the practises prevailing at court, as the 
strictures placed on the lips of Samuel (I Sam. viii. 
6 et seq.) describe actual conditions that prevailed in 
pre-Deuteronomic times aud that were, of course, 
condemned by the Prophets. The hereditary king- 
dom was probably an adopted foreign (Canaanitish) 
institution; the Israelitish tribes, jealous of their in- 
dependence, being ruled by elders (sheiks) or judges, 
possibly by elective monarchs. But even these 
Sheiks were only in so far agents of theocracy as the 
“oracles” of the tribal deity were consulted and 
Obeyed. The dominance of the Law is as clearly 
recognized in Islam as it ever was in post-exilic 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Theft and Stolen Goods 
Theodora 


-——- + ees 


Judaism. In fact, Islam is even to-day a theocracy 
(comp. Juynboll, “Handleiding der Mohamme- 
daansch Wetenschap,” Leyden, 1903). 

K, E. G. H. 


THEODOR, JULIUS (JUDAH): German 
rabbi; born Dec. 28, 1849, at Schmalleningken, 
East Prussia. He studied philosophy and Orientalia 
at the University of Breslau and rabbinica at the 
Jewish theological seminary in thesamecity. After 
receiving from Breslau his diploma as rabbi and his 
Ph.D. from the University of Kénigsberg (1876), he 
became second rabbi and teacher at the religious 
school at Bromberg. In 1885 he was called as rabbi 
to Berent; and since 1888 he has occupied the rab- 
binate of Bojanowo, Posen. In 1890 he visited 
London, Oxford, and Paris for the purpose of ex- 
amining the midrashic manuscripts in the libraries 
of those cities. 

Theodor is the author of: “Zur Composition der 
Agadischen Homilien,” in “ Monatsschrift,” 1879-80; 
“Die Midraschim zum Pentateuch und der Drei- 
jahrige Palistinische Cyclus,” 7. 1885-87; “Der 
Midrasch Bereschit Rabba,” 7. 1893-95; and “ Bere- 
schit Rabba mit Kritischem Apparate und Kom- 
mentare,” parts i. and ii., Berlin, 1903, 1904. 

s. F. T. H. 


THEODORA: Queen of Bulgaria from 1335 to 
1355; born at Tirnova la Grande, capital of the an- 
cient kingdom of Bulgaria, of a family of Byzantine 
Jews, from whom she received the Greek name of 
Theodora, although she was called also Sarah and 
was termed “the beautiful Jewess.” She was chosen 
on one occasion to present a petition to Ivan Alex- 
ander, Czar of Bulgaria, and that monarch, though 
he had had two wives and was the father of three 
children, became infatuated with her and married 
her after she had accepted Christianity of her 
own accord. He became by her the parent of three 
children: two sons, named Assen and Ivan Chich- 
man, and a daughter, called Tamar or Mara (but see 
JEW. Encyc. iii. 426a, s.c. BULGARIA). 

According to Christo J. Poppof, an ecclesiastical 
historian of Bulgaria, the Jews of Tirnova, taking 
advantage of the tact that one of their number 
sat on the throne, and presuming on the queen’s 
favor, set no limits to their insolence, profaning the 
icons, the churches, even the eucharist itself, and 
blaspheming all that is most sacred to Christianity ; 
so that their evil deeds encouraged heretics and 
fomented popular disturbances. 

By the advice of the patriarch Theodore, Ivan 
Alexander called a national council in 1352, which 
was attended by all the prelates of the country ; and 
in the presence of the czar himself and of Queen 
Theodora and her children a solemn anathema was 
pronounced against all heretics aod Jews, and their 
expulsion from the country was decrecd. Owing to 
the entreaties of Theodora, however, three Jews 
who had been condemned to death for blasphemy 
were reprieved, their sentences being commuted to 
other punishments; but in accordance with the de- 
cree of the council, the community of Tirnova, 
which had long inhabited a ghetto at the foot of the 
citadel of Trapesitza, was dispersed, and Jews never 
settled again in that city. According to another ac- 


Theodore of Mopsuestia 
Theodotion 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


126 


count (see JEW. ENcye. J.c. p. 426b), they emigrated 
to Nicopolis on the death of Ivan Chichman. 

Theodora brought her influence to bear on her 
husband and secured the throne for Ivan Chichman, 
her own son by him, leaving for her two stepsons 
only the provinces of Widdin and Dobrudja, and 
thus exposing herself to the charge of the Bulgarian 
historians that in her maternal blindness she weak- 
ened the kingdom. Ivan Chichman was defeated 
by Sultan Murad I. about 1860; and Theodora died 
some years later. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY : Poppof, £tvimii, Dernier Patriarche de Tir- 
nove et de Trapesitza, Philippopolis, 1901; Revue des Ecoles 
de V Alliance Israélite Universelle, July, 1901. A portrait 
of Theodora and her children appears in Svornik Narodni 
Umutvorenia, Sofia, 1892. 

8. M. Fr. 

THEODORE OF MOPSUESTIA: Christian 
bishop and Church father; born and educated at 
Antioch; died at Mopsuestia about 429; teacher of 
Nestorius and Theodoret, and the foremost exegete 
of the school of Antioch, which was represented 
also by Lucian, Diodorus, and several others. In 
that school the historical interpretation of the Old 
Testament, which was at variance with the allegor- 
ical hermeneutics of OrIGEN, had become the rule; 
and in this, the only rational and adequate exegesis, 
no one in antiquity was greater than Theodore, who, 
therefore, is in perfect harmony with modern meth- 
ods of interpretation. 

The early maturity of his friend Chrysostom im- 
pressed Theodore to such an extent that he, after a 
crisis in his life, early devoted himself to the study 
of the Bible, and at the age of twenty published his 

commentary on the Psalms, his most 
Commen- important work from a Jewish and an 
tary on the exegetical point of view. As a priest 

Psalms. in Antioch Theodore sided with Dio- 

dorus and with Flavian, likewise a 
famous exegete; and he waged an active warfare 
against Arians, Apollinarians, and other heretics 

(Theodoret, “Historia Ecclesiastica,” v. 389), al- 

though there is no mention of Jews in the long list 

of those whom he opposed. The fame which he 
acquired secured for him the bishopric of Mopsu- 
estia, Which he retained for the remainder of his life. 

After his death his works, like those of Diodorus, 

were declared heretical by the Fifth Ecumenical 

Council on the ground that he had interpreted the 

Psalms “in Jewish fashion.” 

None of the Church Fathers cqualed Theodore 
either In accurate grammatical] and historica] her- 
meneutics or in originality of view. His commen- 
taries are free from rhetoric and homiletics; but 
this very fact gives them value in the eyes of mod- 
ern exegetes. He is, moreover, rigid in his inter- 
pretations, since he systematically avoids symbol- 
isms and allegories. He is the chief authority, the 
“interpreter” par excellence, for the Syrian Nesto- 
rians. The boldness of his hermeneutics is astonish- 
ing; and in his criticism he is centuries ahead of 
his time. 

Theodore was the author of numerous works, the 
titles of forty-one volumes by him being mentioned 
by Assemani; and to these works must be added 
several written in Syriac (Assemani, “ Bibliotheca 
Orientalis Clementino-Vaticana,” ii. 478). His chief 


works of Jewish interest are his commentaries on 
the Psalms, on Job, on Canticles, and on the 
Twelve Minor Prophets, as well ag 
his five books against the allegorists; 
the latter work, now lost, probably 
contained his principles of exegesis. 

Although Theodore made the mistake, which 
JEROME alone avoided, of interpreting the Septua- 
gint instead of the Hebrew, he knew that the text 
of the former was sometimes corrupt; and he there- 
fore examined it critically, having recourse to the 
Syriac version, to Aquila, to Theodotion, and, above 
all, to Symmachus (Stade’s “Zeitschrift,” vi. 265), 
Diestel alleges that Theodore knew neither Syriac 
nor Hebrew, and consequently lacked the funda- 
mental knowledge necessary for exegesis, but 
Baethgen has proved that his commentaries show 
a certain knowledge of Hebrew, and that he wag 
familiar with the curt lapidary Hebrew style which 
becomes incomprehensible when imitated in Greek, 
It must be confessed, nevertheless, that his knowl- 
edge of Hebrew was faulty, and that he relied far 
too much on the text of theSeptuagint. His brother 
Polychronius, who was an adherent of the same 
school, was far superior to him in knowledge of 
Hebrew; but Theodore was the more important 
exegete. 

Theodore interpreted most of the Psalms histor- 
ically, holding, however, that David’s prophetic 
gifts enabled him to foretell future events and to 
identify himself with them. He carried the idea of 

prophecy too far, however; for in his 
Views on opinion it consisted merely in the 
Prophecy. ability to foretell events, embracing 
the immediate as weli as the far dis- 
tant future. But, though he refers much {in the 
Psalms) to the future, he confines his references to 
Jewish history, alluding but seldom to Jesus, which 
is the more remarkable since his was the period of 
the wildest allegorical and ty pological interpretation. 
He considers that Jesus is referred to in only three 
of the Psalms, namely, viii., xlv., and cx., to which 
may possibly be added, cn the basis of other indica- 
tions, Ixxxix. and exviij.; but not in xxii. nor in 
Ixxii., which at most, he thought, might be inter- 
preted typically in so far as Solomon, like Jesus, 
was a prince of peace. For seventeen psalms he 
offers no historical explanation, while he holds 
that references to David and his time occur in nine- 
teen, to Jeremiah in one, to the Assyrian in twenty- 
five, to the Chaldean in sixty-seven, and to the Mac- 
cabean period in seventeen. This feature of his 
commentary is of especial importance as showing 
the keenness and soundness of his criticism. Not 
less noteworthy is the courage with which he re- 
jects the authenticity of the superscriptions to the 
Psalms, which, he declares, were added by ignorant 
scribblers who could not be too severely censured. 

He absolutely denied, moreover, that the Old 
Testament contained any references to the Son of 
God or to the Trinity, while any interpretation of 
Zech. ix. 9, 10 as applicable to Jesus was, in his 
view, evidence of extreme ignorance, since this pas- 
sage, like Amosix. 10, 11 and Micah v. 2, referred 
rather to Zerubbabel. The Song of Solomon he 
regarded as a secular epithalamium; and the Book 


Works. 


127 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Theodore of Mopsuestia 
Theodotion 


of Job he considered a mixture of fact and fiction. 
It was a cardinal maxim of Theodore’s that the au- 
thors of the Old and New Testaments were equally 
endowed with the mysterious gift of the Holy Spirit 
(commentary on Neh. 1. 1). 

Three degrees of inspiration were recognized by 
Theodore, although he gave no clear definition of 
them, asserting, for example, that David had the 

gift of the spirit (on Ps. Ixxxi. 3, ry 


Views on sot rvetyarog yapirt), yet regarding him 
In- in all other respects as a prophet. Ac- 
spiration. cording to Theodore, Solomon had the 


gift of wisdom only, not that of 
prophecy ; this view shows the influence of Jewish 
tradition, which accepted a similar gradation as exist- 
ing in the three groups of the canonical Scriptures. 
Although Baethgen has advanced the hypothesis 
that Theodore’s works contain other traces of Tal- 
mudic tradition, such as the view advocated by him 
in his commentary on Ps. lv. that the son of Simon, 
and not the son of Onias III., built the temple at 
LEONTOPOLIS, no deductions can be drawn from 
such meager data. In his theories concerning the 
superscriptions in the Psalter and the Maccabean 
portions of that book, Theodore showed himself 
a decided opponent of tradition. The orthodox 
Church, however, could not endure the candor of 
his exegesis; and consequently only fragments of 
his commentaries have survived, namely, of that on 
the Psalms (part of which exists in a Syriac version), 
of that on the Twelve Minor Prophets, and of those 
on various books of the New Testament (sec Baeth- 
gen’s “Studies” in Stade’s “ Zeitschrift,” v.-vii.) 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Fabricius-Harles, Bibliotheca Groeca, x. 346- 
362 (list of the works of Theodore); Migne, Patrologia Grceca, 
Ixvi. 647-696 (incomplete collection of the fragments); Corde- 
rius, Expositio Patrum Greecorum in Psalmos, ii., Antwerp, 
1643-46 (the catena of Theodore on the Psalms); Sieffert, 
Theodorus Mopsuestenus Veteris Testamenti Sobrie Inter- 
pretandi Vindex, Konigsberg, 1827; Fritzsche, De Theodori 
Mopsuestent Commentariis in Psalmos, ete., Halle, 1886; 
idem, De Vita et Scriptis Theodort Mopsuesteni, 1886 ; 
Water, De Theodoro Prophetarum Interprete. Amsterdam, 
1837; Wegnern, Theodorit Antiochenit ... Que Supersunt 
Omnia, i, Commentarius in Duodecim Prophet. Minores, 
Berlin, 1834; L. Diestel, Gesch. des Alten Testaments in der 
Alten Kirche, pp. 129-133, Jena, 1869; E. Sachan, Theodori 
Mopsuestiani Fragmenta Syriaca, Leipsic, 1869; I. P. de 
Barjean. L’Ecole Exégétique d Antioche, pp. 36-89, Paris, 
1898; Harnack, Dogmengeschichte, 3d ed., ti. 78; Kihn, 
Theodorus von Mopsuestia und Junilius Africanus als 
Exegeten, 1880; Smith-Wace, Dictionary of Christian Bi- 


ography, iv. 934. 
T. S. Kr. 


THEODOSIA. Sec Karra. 


THEODOTION: One of the Greek translators 
of the Old Testament (see JEW. ENcyc. iii. 187, 3.2. 
BIBLE TRANSLATIONS). He is the supposed author 
of one of the two extant Greek versions of the Book 
of Daniel and the apocryphal additions thereto, to 
a discussion of which the present article is confined. 
The other version is that of the Septuagint. In 
Church use the latter has been replaced by the 
former so effectively that only one manuscript of 
the Greek Old Testament contains the Septuagint 

text, viz., the Codex Chisianus, known 

Used in as Codex 87(Holmes and Parsons MS. 
Daniel for 88), thougli the translation of the Sev- 
Septuagint. enty underlies the Syriac Hexaplar 

(see Swete, “The Old Testament in 
Greek,” iii., pp. vi., xif.; he publishes both texts). 


“The relation of the twoextant Greek versions of. 


Daniel is a perplexing problem ” (Swete, “ Introduc- 
tion to the Old Testament in Greek,” p. 46). The 
preference for Theodotion goes back to a very early 
period. Ovigen gave the Septuagint a place in his 
Hexapla, but an examination of his quotations 
proves that in his writings he almost invariably 
cites according to Theodotion. Jerome (in his pref- 
ace to Daniel) records the fact of the rejection of the 
Septuagint version in Church usage, assigning as the 
reason therefor that that translation is very faulty. 
Earlier Church fathers, Clement of Alexandria, for 
instance, had set the precedent; and in Hermas and 
in Justin clear indications are found of the extensive 
popularity of Theodotion’s version (Swete, “Intro- 
duction,” p. 47; Gwynn, in “Dictionary of Chris- 
tian Biography,” s.c. “Theodotion,” iv, 97 et seq.). 

Still it is plain that Theodotion did not translate 
Daniel directly from the Hebrew-Aramaic (Maso- 
retic). For the apocryphal additions no Aramaic 
(or Hebrew) original may be assumed. Gaster (in 
“Phe Unknown Aramaic Original of Theodotion’s 
Additions to Daniel,” in “Proc. Soc. Bibl. Arch.” 
1894, xvi.) proves that the Aramaic text is itself an 
adaptation from the Greek of Theodotion, not its 
original (see, also, Schiirer in Herzog-Hauck, “ Real- 
Encyc.” t. 639). Nor are other Aramaic-Hebrew 
accounts of the Dragon or of Susanna (Neubauer, 
“The Book of Tobit,” 1878, p. xci.; Jellinek, “B. 
H.” vi. 126-128) entitled to be considered as orig- 
inals. The original language of the additions was 
Greek. Theodotion’s version is an elaboration of 
this Greek original; and his translation of the text 
of Daniel also is manifestly & working over of a 
previous Greek rendering. 

But whether this Greek version which underlies 
Theodotion’s text is the Septuagint as contained in 
the Chigi manuscript or another, independent, trans- 

lation, is still in doubt. Schiirer (/.c.) 
Relation to inclines to the opinion that Theodo- 
Chigi tion used the Septuagint and corrected 
Manuscript it and supplied its deficiencies by com- 
of Sep- parison with the Masoretic text, while 
tuagint. in the additions he recast the Septua- 
gint witha freehand. Gwyun, whose 
treatise on Theodotion in the “ Dictionary of Christian 
Biography” presents an elaborate investigation of 
the matter, argues for the view that two pre-Christian 
versions of Daniel, both passing as Septuagint texts, 
were current, one of Which is that preserved in the 
Codex Chisianus, while the other furnished the basis 
for Theodotion’s revision, the reviser consulting 
where possible the standard Hebrew text. 

In order to illustrate the character of Theodotion’s 
work, a comparison of his version of the additions 
to Daniel with that of the Chigi manuscript is very 
helpful. In The Song of the Three Holy Children 
he and the Septuagint agree in the main. The 
prayer of Azarias is placed after Dan. iti, 23. In 
the Septuagint the text of the preceding Biblical 
passages is somewhat changed in order to establish 
a better connection for the insertion. Theodotion 
omits verse 22b, while in verse 28 the simple state- 
ment is made that Shadrach, Meshach, and Abed- 
nego (Septuagint has Azarias) had fallen bound 
into the heated furnace. Verse 24 in the Septua- 
gint reads: “In the following manner did Ananias, 


Theodotion 
Theology 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


128 


Azarias, and Mizael pray and praise the Lord when 
the king had commanded that they should be cast 
into the furnace.” Theodotion’s rendering is as fol- 
lows (verse 24): “ And they went about in the midst 
of the Hames, praising God and blessing the Lord. 
Then [verse 25] Azarias stepped forth and prayed ; he 
opened his mouth in the midst of the flames and 
spake.” Other variants consist in transpositions of 
verses (¢.g., verses 54 and 55 occur in 
Variants the reverse order in Theodotion), the 
from Sep- omission of conjunctions, the substi- 
tuagint. tution of the singular for the plural, 
and of the definite for the indefinite 
article, and the dropping of parts of verses. Analy- 
sis of these discrepancies confirms the view that 
Theodotion’s text presents a recast of ap anterior 
Greek version which, if not identical with, must have 
been similar to the one now extant in the Sep- 
tuagint. 

The history of Susanna presents wider divergen- 
cies, the Septuagint being briefer, and Theodotion's 
text exhibiting the character of anelaboration. The 
fact is clear that they are based on a common tradi- 
tional story, while it is perhaps doubtful whether 
Theodotion’s amplifications presuppose his use of 
the extant Septuagint text. The possibility that 
the two are parallel developments of an antecedent 
written account is, theoretically, certainly admissi- 


ble. A few passages may illustrate the foregoing 
observations. Verses 12 et seg. read in the Sep- 
tuagint: 


‘*But when the morning had dawned, they set out and hur- 
ried clandestinely, each hiding before the other, who should 
meet her and speak to her. And behold she was walking about 
as was her wont. But as soon as one of the elders had arrived, 
the other also made his appearance, and one asked the other: 
‘Why art thou gone forth so early without bidding me go 
along?’ And they confessed to each other their pains of love.” 


Theodotion’s version is as follows: 


‘** Yet they watched jealously from day to daytoseeher. And 
the one said to the other, ‘ Let us now go home; for it is dinner- 
time.’ So when they were gone out, they parted one from the 
other, and, turning back again, they came to the same place. 
After they had asked one another the cause, they acknowledged 
their lust, and then appointed a time both together when they 
might find her alone.”’ 


The account of how they met Susanna is very 
elaborate in Theodotion (verses 15-28), while the 
Septuagint sums up the proposal and answer in two 
terse sentences. It must be noted that the play on 
the names of the respective trees occurs in both ver- 
sions (verses 55 and 59). 

In Bel and the Dragon Theodotion affects greater 
historical accuracy, giving details concerning names 
and dates that are not found in the Septuagint, 
where general statements, such as the “King of 
Babylon,” predominate. Theodotion’s Daniel is 
more profuse in his profession of faith, e.g., verse 
25, “Thy Lord, my God, will I worship; for He is a 
living God,” which the Septuagint omits. These 
traits again suggest that Theodotion’s method was 


that of an elaborator. 
T. EK. G. H. 


THEOLOGY: The science that treats of God 
aud of His relation to the world in general and to 
man in particular: in a less restricted sense, the 
didactic representation of the contents and es- 


sence of a religion. Jewish theology, therefore, de- 
notes the doctrinal representation of the contents 
and essence of Jewish religion, the principles on 
which it rests, and the fundamental truths it en- 
deavors to express and to realize. 
Orthodox, or conservative, Judaism, from the 
standpoint of which this article is written, regards 
the Jewish religion asa revealed relig- 
Judaism ion, the teachings of which were made 
a Revealed known by God to man by supernatu- 
Religion. ral means, These supernatural, divine 
communications of religious truths 
and doctrines took place, however, only at certain 
times in the past; and they were made only to 
chosen people (the Prophets, among whom Moses 
was preeminent). With the cessation of proph- 
ecy they were discontinued altogether. Through 
these supernatural manifestations God revealed to 
human beings all the religious truths essential to 
their guidance through life and to their spiritual 
welfare. These religious truths it is not necessary 
for man to supplement with human doctrines; nor 
may any of them be annulled. They are mainly 
contained in the Holy Scriptures, written by men 
who were inspired by God; and in part they are 
among the teachings and manifestations revealed 
by God to Moses which were not written down, but 
were preserved to the nation by oral tradition. Al- 
though the source of all religious truths within Ju- 
daism is to be found in revelation, Jewish theology 
is not solely revealed theology: natural theology 
has received recognition also. It is considered a 
fundamental maxim among almost all Jewish theo- 
logians and religious philosophers that the teach- 
ingsand religious truths contained in the Scriptures 
as emanating from God can not be in direct con- 
tradiction to human intellect, which is itself of di- 
vine origin. The truths, understood and accepted 
by the human mind, which constitute the sum of nat- 
ural theology are therefore taken into consideration 
in the determination of revealed religious truths. 
And, besides, the human mind has been allotted a gen- 
eral right to judge of the value and importance of the 
divine teachings; thisit could do only 
Connection by using asa standard the fundamen- 
with tal truths recognized by itself. The 
Natural theological system binding on every 
Theology. Orthodox, conservative Jew, and con- 
taining his confession of faith, is there- 
fore a composition of natural and revealed theology. 
Revealed theology, however, is the preponderating 
element; for even such teachings and principles as 
might have been set up by human intelligence are 
considered, when embodied in the Holy Scriptures, 
as revealed by God. This theological system is 
not, however, simply a system of abstract truths 
and articles of faith in which the Jew is merely 
required to believe; for it contains the fundamental 
theological teachings and religious principles on 
which is based the Jewish conception of the world 
and of life; and it requires not only a belief in and 
approval of these principles, but also, as a necessary 
adjunct to such approval, the doing of deeds which 
are in keeping therewith. It imposes upon the be- 
lieving Jew duties by which his life must be regula- 
ted. It must be admitted that Judaism—that is, the 


129 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Theodotion 
Theology 


sum total of the rules and laws, ideas and sentiments, 
manners and customs, which regulate the actions, 
feelings, and thoughts of the Jews—is more than a 
mere theological system, inasmuch as many of its 
rules and customs are of national character. It is 
not easy, however, to differentiate strictly between 
the national and the theological ele- 
ments in Judaism. Several national 
customs are also divine precepts, 


Connection 
with 


Jewish whose observance is recommended in 
National the Scriptures. And, besides, there 
Customs. exists between the Jewish religion 


and its supporters, the Jewish nation, 
a connection so intimate that Jewish nationalism 
and Jewish theology also are closely allied. National 
customs have become formulas expressing certain 
theological ideas and doctrines, while, on the other 
hand, theological rules have come to be considered 
characteristics of the nation, because they have 
become habitual to the people. Thus, for example, 
the customs and habits observed in commemoration 
of the most important national event—the delivery 
from Egypt~—at the same time convey an idea of 
God’s providence and of His influence upon the 
history of the nation which found such glorious 
expression in the Exodus. On the other hand, the 
theological system, with its precepts and require- 
ments, has become a national bond which keeps the 
Jews together as one people. Without denying the 
partly national character of Judaism, it may there- 
fore be said that Judaism isa peculiar theological 
system Which, among other purely theological doc- 
trines and religious principles, also sets up as 
articles of faith the belief in the imperishability of 
the Jews as a nation and the hope of a revivification 
of their independence. It imposes also the duty of 
preserving the nationality of Israel by observing the 
prescribed customs. 

The present article gives a representation of this 
theological system: the individual religious truths 
and fundamental teachings—the dogmas of the 
Jewish faith—will be cited and explained; and 
their importance for the practical religious life, 
as well as the moral and religious duties deduced 
from them, will be referred to. This imposition of 
moral and religious duties is characteristic of the dog- 
mas of the Jewish religion, which, however, are not 
dogmas in the sense that belief in them alone in- 
sures the salvation of the soul; for mere belief in 
them, without action in accordance with such belief, 
is, according to the Jewish theological conception, 
ofno value. The dogmas of the Jewish faith must 
not only be believed and acknowledged, but they also 
demand that one act in accordance with their 
logical requirements. In this sense the dogmas of 
the Jewish religion are not only those truths and 
fundamental doctrines with the denial of which 
Judaism would cease to be a religion, but also such 
teachings and articles of faith as are obligatory 

upon each individual. With these 
The doctrines and articles of faith the most 
Dogmas of enlightened spirits and the most 

Judaism. prominent thinkers of the Jewish 

nation have at all times occupied 


themselves. This being the case, it is not to be 


wondered at that differences of opinion have arisen. 


XITI.—9 


with regard to details of individual points, one 
scholar having interpreted a particular sentence at 
varlauce with another. In all such cases where the 
most enlightened men of the nation have disagreed 
in the interpretation of a doctrine or an article of 
faith, the authoritative opinion of the majority is 
used as a basis in the following discussion (see 
AUTHORITY). Such views and teachings as were at 
all times considered obligatory on acherents of the 
Jewish religion are the fundamental doctrines of 
Judaism. Any interpretation of an article of faith 
which was at any time advocated by only one or a 
few persons is to be regarded merely as his or their 
individual opinion; it is not obligatory upon all 
followers of Judaism and will therefore not be con- 
sidered here. 

The fundamental dogma of the Jewish religion, 
without which such faith would be inconceivable. 
is the belief in the existence of God. This is also 
the fundamental principle of all other religions; 
but the conception of God taught by the Jewish 
faith is in essential points different from the con- 
ceptions voiced by other creeds. This peculiarly 
Jewish conception of God regards Him as the Crea- 
tor of the world and of all creatures; and it be- 
stows upon Him, therefore, the name “Ha-Bore 
yitbarak shemo” (The Creator whose name is glo- 
rified). 

The conception of God as the Creator of the uni- 
verse, Which is taught in the history of the Creation 
(Gen. i.), finds expression in the Decalogue also (Ex. 
xx. 11), and is often repeated in the 
prophetic books. “I have made the 
earth, and created man upon it: I, 
even my hands, have stretched out the 
heavens, and all their host have I commanded,” says 
God through the mouth of the prophet (Isa. xlv. 
12). Nehemiah says: “Thou, even thou, art Lord 
alone; thou hast made heaven, the heaven of heav- 
ens, With all their host, the earth, and all things that 
are therein, the seas, and all that is therein, and thou 
preservest them all” (Neh. ix. 6); and the Psalmist 
calls God the Creator “which made heaven, and 
earth, the sea, and all that therein is” (Ps. cxlvi. 6). 
The creation of the world by God, as the Jewish re- 
ligion teaches, was a “creatio ex nihilo,” since God, 
the Creator, merely through His will, or His word, 
called into existence the world out of absolute noth- 
ingness (Maimonides, “ Yad,” Teshubah, iti. ; “ Moreh 
Nebukim,” ii, 27; Albo, “‘Ikkarim,” i. 12). God, as 
the Creator of the world, is its preserver also; and 
the creation is not a completed act, but a continuous 
activity. The laws which, with great regularity, 
rule the world have been instituted by God, and 
remain valid only through the will of God, who in 
this way “repeats every day the work of creation 
through His goodness.” But “ whatsoever the Lord 
pleased, that did he in heaven, and in earth, in the 
seas, and all deep places” (Ps. cxxxv. 6); and He is 
able to abolish the laws which govern nature. At 
certain times in the world’s history, when it was 
necessary for higher purposes, He has done this, 
and caused events and phenomena to happen 
which were contrary to the. usual laws of nature 
(see MrRaAcLE). All the iniracles recorded by the 
Scriptures happened in this manner. The natural 


God as 
Creator. 


Theology 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


130 


laws are nevertheless to be regarded as valid for- 
ever; for they were introduced by God in His wis- 
dom as permanent rules for the order of nature, and 
He never has cause to change the plans once made by 
Him, nor to change the arrangements made accord- 
ing to these plans. Even the miracles, although 
taking place during a temporary suspension of nat- 
ural laws, were not due to changes in the divine 
plans; for they were embodied in the original plan. 
For from the very creation of the world and the es- 
tablishment of natural laws, God, in His prescience, 
realized that at certain times a deviation from 
this order would be necessary for the welfare of 
humanity, in order to show it that the laws of na- 
ture had no independent power, but were subject to 
a higher being, their Creator. It was therefore 
prearranged that these deviations should take place 
at the times decided upon. In the personificative 
language of the Midrash this teaching is expressed 
as follows: “ When God ordered Moses to cleave the 
sea, the latter wondered, and said, ‘Thou, O Lord, 
hast said it Thyself, and hast instituted it as a natu- 
rallaw, that the sea should never become dry.’ 
Whereupon the Lord said, ‘ From the beginning, at 
the time of creation, when I decided the laws for 
the sea, I have stipulated that it should divide itself 
before Israel, and leave adry path through its midst 
for that nation’ ” (Ex. R. xxi. 6). What has here 
been said concerning the phenomenal division of 
the water refers also to every other phenomenon 
which is a deviation from the natural order of 
things. 

Even as God is recognized as the Creator and 
Upholder of the world, so is He regarded as its 
Ruler. God’s rulership over the world is secured 
through His creatorship (Ps. xxiv. 1-2). The doc- 
trine of recognizing in God not only the Creator 
of the world, but also the Arbiter of its destiny, was 
revealed by God Himself upon Mt. 
Sinai when He declared to the Israel- 
ites that it was He who had freed 
them from Egyptian bondage and 
made them an independent nation (Ex. xx. 2). 
Nehemiah, after having recognized God as the 
Creator and Upholder of the world, enumerates His 
marvelous deeds, thereby acknowledging Him also 
as the Arbiter of its destiny (Neh. ix. 7-138), In Ps. 
cxxxvi. God is praised and acknowledged both as 
the Creator of the world and as the Author of all 
events. The direct result upon man of this be- 
sief in God as the Creator and Upholder of the 
world and as the Arbiter of its destiny, is to make 
him dependent upon and responsible to God who 
created him. According to Gen. i., God’s creation 
of the world culminated when He created man in 
His own image. This resemblance of man to God 
refers to his spiritual qualities, which raise bim 
above the animals, and enable him to rule the world. 
It also enables man to commune with God, to ac- 
knowledge Him, and to act according to His will. 
It therefore becomes the duty of man to exercise his 
God-given rulership of the world only in accordance 
with divine precepts. He may not follow his own 
inclination, but must in all things do according to 
the will of God. And in order to make it possible 
for man to do according to the divine will, God has, 


God in 
History. 


through a revelation, communicated His will to 
man (see REVELATION). 

The belief in God as the sole Creator of the world 
and of all living creatures necessitates also a be- 
lief in the eternity of God. He is the Cause 
which has called all things into existence. But He 
needed no outer cause for His own existence, He 
Himself being the cause thereof, From this it fol- 
lows that no limit can be placed upon His existence, 
that He has existed from all eternity, and that He 
will continue to exist forever. “Iam the first, and 
I am the last,” says the Lord through the mouth of 
the prophet (Isa. xliv. 6). He is called, therefore, 
“the eternal God ” (“ Elohe kedem ”; Deut. xxxiii.), 
and the Psalmist calls Him the God who “ from ever- 
lasting to everlasting is God ” (Ps. xc. 2). This God, 
teaches the Jewish religion, is no carnal being; no 
carnal attributes may be assigned to Him, nor do 
earthly conditions apply to Him; and 
there exists, moreover, no other being 
that resembles Him. This doctrine 
is especially emphasized by Jewish 
theologians, because several Biblical expressions ap- 
parently favor a conception of God asacarnal being, 
and many teachers take these expressions literally. 
It is the nature of a carnal body that it is limited 
and defined by space. God, asa non-corporeal being, 
is not limited by space; and Solomon says, therefore, 
“behold, the heaven and heaven of heavens can not 
contain thee” (I Kings viii. 27). The sages ex- 
pressed this conception thus: “God arranges the 
whole universe and sets its limits: but the universe 
has not sufficient room for Him; it can not contain 
Him” (Midr. Teh. to Ps. xc. 1 fed. Buber, 195b- 
196a]). God is thus omnipresent. When expres- 
sions occur in the Holy Scriptures mentioning God 
as dwelling at a certain place, or when a house of 
God is spoken of, it is not to be understood that 
God is subject to limitations of space. For the 
heavens and the entire universe can not contain 
Him; how much less can a temple built by human 
hands? All such expressions are only means to con- 
vey the idea that certain places are fitted to bring hu- 
man beings into sucha frame of mind that they may 
approach God and find Him. In like manner do the 
Holy Scriptures warn against the attribution to God 
of any definite shape, and the conception of Him in 
any given likeness. “Ye heard the voice of the 
words, but saw no similitude. . . . Take ye there- 
fore good heed unto yourselves; for ye saw no 
manner of similitude on the day that the Lord spake 
unto you in Horeb” (Deut. iv. 12, 15). All the Bib- 
lical expressions which mention God in anthropo- 
morphic terms are to be understood figuratively. 
God's “hand” signifies His power; His “cye” and 
His “ear,” His omniscience, through which He sees 
and hears everything. His “joy” signifies His sat- 
isfaction; His “anger,” His disapprobation of hu- 
man acts done against His will. All these expres- 
sions are merely metaphorical, and were selected in 
order to make the power of God comprehensible to 
human beings, who are accustomed to see every 
action done through a human agency. When 
the Bible wishes to explain anything that has 
taken place on earth through divine intervention, it 
uses the same expressions as are employed in the 


God In- 
corporeal. 


131 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Theology 


case of human acts. But in reality there is no 
comparison whatever possible between God, the 
absolute, spiritual being, and man, or between 
God’s acts and man’s. “To whom then will ye 
liken God? or what likeness will ye compare unto 
him? ... To whom then will ye liken me, or shall 
I be equal? saith the Holy One” (Isa. x1. 18, 25), 
“For my thoughts are not your thoughts, neither 
are your ways my ways, saith the Lord” (2d. lv. 8; 
comp. Maimonides, “ Moreh,” 1.48; Albo, ?.¢.ii. 14-17). 

A further article of faith teaches the acknowledg- 
ment of God as the only God, and the belief in no 
gods besides Him. “I am the Lord 
thy God, which have brought thee 
out of the land of Egypt, out of the 
house of bondage. Thou shalt have 
no other gods before me,” says God to Israel on Mt. 
Sinai (Ex. xx. 2-3). Even prior to the revelation 
on Sinai monotheism (the belief in one God) was an 
inheritance of the Jewish nation. The patriarch 
Jacob, in his dying hour, is filled with unrest because 
he doubts whether his children will preserve the 
faith which Abraham transmitted to him. His 
children, who are gathered about him, declare, how- 
ever, that even as he believes in one God only, so 
also will they believe in the only God; and they 
pronounce the monotheistic article of faith: “ Hear, 
O Israel: The Lord our God is one Lord” (Deut. 
vi. 4; Gen. R. xeviii. 4). This confession of faith the 
Jew pronounces thrice daily, and even in his dying 
hour he breathes it (see SHEMA‘), With this confes- 
sion on their lips, thousands of Jews have suffered 
martyrdom because they would not deny the unity 
of God. Many later religions have derived the mono- 
theistic belief from Judaism, without, however, 
preserving it in the same degree of strict purity. 
The Jewish religion not only teaches its adherents 
to believe in no other god besides the One, but it 
also forbids the ascription to God of any attributes 
which, directly or indirectly, conflict with the strict 
belief in His unity. To ascribe to God any positive 
attributes is forbidden because it might lead toa 
personification of the divine qualities, which would 
interfere with the purity of the monotheistic faith. 
Many of the attributes ascribed to God are explained 
as negative characteristics. Thus, when it is said 
that God has a will, it implies only that He is not 
constrained in His actions; it must never be under- 
stood in the sense that His will is anything apart 
from Himself. Nor may it be taken to mean that 
His will is a part of His essence, for the unity of 
God is absolute and indivisible. Most of the attri- 
butes ascribed to God in Holy Writ and in the 
prayers are to be understood not as inherent quali- 
ties, but as ways and means by which He rules the 
world (see Mrppot, SHELOsH-‘EsrEen). The em- 
phatic mention of these divine attributes occurs so 
often in the Bible and in the prayers, because they 
exercise a great influence upon the religious and 
moral life of man. And for the same reason, and 
that its adherents may realize that they can rely 
Only on God, does the Jewish religion impress upon 
them the fact that God is omnipotent. In their be- 
lief in God’s omnipotence they can say with the 
Psalmist: “The Lord is on my side; I will not fear: 
what can man do unto me?” (Ps. cxviii. 6). God, 


God 
Unique. 


in His omnipotence, can frustrate any plans made 
against them; and the fear of man need therefore 
never lead them astray from the path of their re- 
ligion. They can proudly refuse to commit any im- 
moral act, although demanded of them by the might- 
lest of the earth, even as Hananiah, Mishael, and 
Azariah refused the order of Nebuchadnezzar with 
the words: “If it be so, our God whom we serve, 
He is almighty, and He can deliver us and protect 
us” (Dan. iii. 17, Hebr.). To the many occasions 
on which this confidence in the omnipotence of God 
has protected the Jews from denying their faith, 
every page of their history bears witness. 

God is omniscient. This is the basis of the belief 
in the divine providence, of which the following 
is a circumstantial treatment. The belief in God’s 
omniscience exercises great influence 
also on the moral and_ religious 
thoughts and acts of human beings. 
“Can any hide himself in secret places 
that I shall not see him?” says the Lord through the 
mouth of His prophet (Jer. xxiii. 24). All human 
acts are seen by God; and though they may be hid- 
den from the eyes of human justice, they can not 
be hidden from Him. Therefore, no evil deed may 
be committed even in secret. Also the inmost 
emotions of the human mind are known to God, for 
He “knoweth the thoughts of man” (Ps. xciv. 11). 
Man may entertain no wicked feelings in his heart; 
for God “seest the reins and the heart” (Jer. xx. 12). 

God is omniscient and all-kind. This faith is the 
foundation of Jewish Optimism, The world is the 
best possible world that could be created (Gen. R. 
ix. 2), for “God saw everything that he had made, 
and, behold, it was very good” (Gen. i. 31). Also 
in His government of the world does God exercise 
His loving-kindness, and “all that God does is done 
for the good” (Ber. 60b), even when it does not so 
appear to human beings. This faith, together with 
the belief in God’s justice and never-ending love, 
gives man courage and strength to follow the straight 
path to his perfection unhindered by the adversi- 
ties of life, and to endure with equanimity and with 
faith in God all the hardships of life. “It must not 
be believed of God that He would pass an unjust 
judgment upon man” (Ber. 5b). When, therefore, 
man is visited by affliction, he should first submit 
his entire conduct and all his actions to a severe 
test, to see if he has not called down his sufferings 
upon himself through his own misconduct, But 
even if, after a strict examination of his life, he can 
find nothing which could have been the cause of his 
suffering, he should despair neither of himself nor 
of divine justice; he should regard his afflictions as 
the “sufferings of love” (“yissurin shel ahabah ”) 
which God, out of His loving-kindness, has visited 
upon him (Ber. 5a). “For whom the Lord loveth 
he correcteth ” (Prov. iii. 12), and He inflicts suffer- 
ings upon him in order to Jead him to his salvation. 

The Jewish faith in the absolute unity of God 
necessarily implies His immutability, 
the unchangeableness of His resolu- 
tions, and the constancy of His will. 
This doctrine of God’s immutability is 
often emphasized in the Scriptures: “For fam the 
Lord, I change not” (Mal. iii. 6); “God is not a 


God’s Om- 
niscience, 


God Im- 
mutable. 


Theology 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


132 


man, that he should lie; neither the son of man, that 
he should repent” (Num. xxii. 19); “And also the 
Strength of Israel will not lie nor repent: for he is 
not a man, that he should repent” (I Sam. xv. 29). 
It is also said with reference to His ordinances that 
they are everlasting and unchangeable: “He hath 
also stablished them for ever and ever: He hath 
made a decree which shall not pass” (Ps. cxivill. 
6; comp. Maimonides, “ Moreh,” iii. 20; Albo, 
Z.c. ii. 19). 

This doctrine of the immutability of God and the 
constancy of His will is in apparent conflict with 
two other important teachings of Judaism; namely, 
the doctrines of the power of repentance and the 
efficacy of prayer. These doctrines will therefore 
be briefly treated here; and it will be shown how 
Jewish theologians view this apparent contradiction. 
Almost all the prophets speak of the power of RE- 
PENTANCE to avert from man the evil which 
threatens him, and to procure for him the divine 
grace. “Let the wicked forsake his way, and 
the unrighteous man his thoughts: and let him 
return unto the Lord, and he will have mercy upon 
him; and to our God, for he will abundantly par- 
don,” says the prophet Isaiah (lv. 7); and in the 
same spirit speak Hosea (xiv. 2), Joel (ii. 12-14), 
Amos (iv. 6-11), Jonah (iii. 8-10), Zephaniah (il. 
1-3), Jeremiah (iii. 22, iv. 1-2), and Ezekiel (xviii. 
21-82). And in like manner speak the sages of the 
Mishnah and the Talmud, comparing repentance 
to a shield which protects man from the punish- 
ment decreed upon him (Ab. iv. 18), or to a media- 
tor who speaks to God in man’s defense and obtains 
for him divine grace (Shab. 82a), or to a medium 
which brings salvation to the world (Yoma 86a). 
The question arises: How can God, on account of 
man’s repentance, change His resolve, and avert the 
unfavorable judgment passed upon him; and does 
not such action conflict with the doctrine of the 
immutability of His plans? The answer to this 
question is that God never changes His will: and 
when man is able, through conversion, to escape 
the unhappy fate which would otherwise have 
been his, such escape is due to the fact that it was 
included in God’s original plan. “Have I any 
pleasure at all that the wicked shouid die? saith the 
Lord God: and not that he should return from his 
ways, and live?” (Ezek. xviii. 23, 32). Sufferings 
and misfortunes were preordained for man on 
account of his sins; but it was also preordained 
that they should afflict him only as 
long as he persisted in his ungodly life 
and evil ways—the cause of his suf- 
ferings. And it is preordained, also, 
that when man through repentance removes the 
original cause of his sufferings, these and _ his 
misfortunes shall leave him (comp. Albo, éZ.¢. Iv. 
18). ‘he sages of the Talmud expressed this as 
follows: “Even before the world was created re- 
pentauce [“teshubah”] was called into existence” 
(Pes. 54a); which means that before God created the 
world and human beings, before He decreed any fate 
for man, and before He made any resolutions, He 
had “teshubah” in mind; ordaining that through 
penance, which changes man’s attitude toward God, 
God’s attitude toward man should also become more 


Re- 
pentance. 


favorable. Man’s repentance, therefore, causes no 
change in God’s will or decisions. 

What has been said above in regard to the power 
of penance applies likewise to prayer. The belief 
in the power of prayer to obtain God’s help and 
grace finds expression in the Bible, where it is said 
of the Patriarchs and the Prophets that they prayed ; 
and the Biblical examples of prayers that have 
been answered are numerous (see PRAYER). The 
most conspicuous examples are the prayers of 
Hannah (I Sam. i. 10 e¢ seg.) and Jonah (Jonah ii. 2 
et seqg.). But the efficacy of prayer does not necessi- 
tate a change in the divine plans. The only way 
in which to pray so that the prayer may be heard 
and answered is for man to turn to God with all his 
heart and with all his soul (comp. J Kings viii. 48- 
50), to repent all his sins, and to resolve henceforth 
to live in such a way as will be pleasing to God, 
from whom he solicits aid and grace. <A prayer 
uttered in such a frame of mind and with such in- 
tention is not only a desire spoken to God, but it is 
an expression of the inner transformation which has 
taken place in the one who prays. His thoughts 
and his intentions have become entirely changed, 
and pleasing to God; and he deserves, therefore, 
the divine grace which has previously been withheld 
from him only because he lacked the sentiments to 
which his prayer has given expression (comp. Albo, 
le. iv. 18). The Talmudists express this teach- 
ing as follows: “How can a prayer help any one 
who is sick? If it be the divine intention that he 
die from his disease, no prayer can help him, since 
the divine resolution is unchangeable. But if it be 
the intention of God that he recover, why then 
should he pray?” The answer is: “ Prayer can 
help man, even if the divine decree be not in his 
favor” (R. H. 16a). The unfavorable decree has 
been rendered conditionally and is to be fulfilled 

only if the man remains in his original 

Power of frameofmind. Butif he repents, and 

Prayer. through prayer expresses the change 

that has taken place in him, then the de- 
cree ig annulled ; for thus was it preordained by God. 

Besides the belief in the efficacy of prayer, the 
Jewish religion teaches also another sentence re- 
garding prayer which distinguishes it from other 
creeds. This doctrine is that prayer may be di- 
rected only to God: and that, besides Him, there is 
no other being worthy of prayer (Maimonides’ com- 
mentary on Sanh. xi. 1). This doctrine is, of 
course, only a consequent result of the doctrine 
of God’s omnipotence, and that He alone is the Cre- 
ator and the Ruler of the world, so that He alone 
can grant men their desires. But in this inhibition 
against praying to other beings, the Jewish religion 
includes also the invocation of angels or aught else 
as mediators between God and man. The Jew 
needs no agent whatever when he prays to his 
God: “When men will approach God,” says the 
Talmud (Yer. Ber. ix. 18a), “they need seek out no 
mediator, nor need they announce their arrival 
through a doorkeeper. God says to them, ‘When 
ye are in need, call upon none of the angels, neith: r 
Michael nor Gabriel, but call upon Me, and J will 
hear ye at once, as it is written (Joel iii. 5 (A.V. ii. 
321): “ Whosoever shall call on the name of tle Lord 


1338 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Theology 


ghall be delivered.”’” Every man can reach his God 
through prayer, without any mediation; for even 
though God is clevated high above the world, when 
aman entersa house of God and utters a prayer, 
even in a whisper, He hears it immediately (Yer. 
Ber. é.c.). “The Lord is nigh unto all them that 
call upon him, to all that call upon him in truth” 
(Ps. cxlv. 18). He is equally near to all: to the 
highest as well as to the lowliest. If a prayer be 
uttered in the right frame of mind and with right 
intentions, it is efficacious whether pronounced by a 
Moses or by the lowliest one in Israel (comp. Ex. R, 
xxi. 3). 

Holy Scripture mentions several instances where 
a prophet or a pious man prays for another; as, for 
example, Abraham for Abimelech, Moses for Pha- 
raoh, etc. These prayers, although not expressive 
of the improved condition of those for whom they 
are uttered, are nevertheless heard by God, in order 
to show that He is the Ruler of the world and that 
those who believe in Him do not call upon Him 
in vain. “He is a prophet, and he shall pray for 
thee, and thou shalt live,” says God to Abimelech 
(Gen. xx. 7), God inflicts sufferings upon unbe- 
lievers, with the intention of recalling them through 
the prayer of a pious one, thereby to show the un- 
believers that He, the Ruler of the world, is accessi- 
bie to the prayers of those that believe in Him. 

As has been said above, the circumstance that 
man was created in the image of God imposes upon 
him the duty of ordering his life entirely according 
to the will of God; and only by doing so can he at- 
tain the highest perfection and fulfil his destiny. 
In order to act according to the will of God it is 
necessary that man should know what God wills of 
him. Through his God-given intellect man is en- 
abled, in many cases, to recognize the will of God; 
but, in order to understand it fully, he needs a 
direct communication from God; that is, a divine 
revelation. Such a manifestation of the divine will 
was made even to the first human being, Adam, 
as well as to Noah and to the patriarchs Abraham, 
Isaac, and Jacob. Moses assured Israel that God 
would raise after him other prophets, who would 
make known to the people the divine will (Deut. 
xviii. 15-18); and he indicated to them the signs 
by which they might distinguish a true prophet 
from a false one (¢). xiii. 2-6, xviii. 20-22). The pur- 
pose of the true Prophets was only to enlighten the 
people as to the will of God, thereby bringing them 
to a clearer understanding of their duty: to live 
according to that will (Albo, J.c. iii, 12), The 
seers that arose in Israel and in Judah, and whose 
prophecies have been preserved in the books of the 
Old Testament, proved themselves true prophets 

through their personal characters as 

Divine well as through the nature of their 
Revelation. prophecies. The Jewish religion has, 
: therefore, established as an important 
doctrine the recognition, as inspired by God, of all 
the prophetic utterances that have been handed 
down (Maimonides’ commentary on Sanh. xi. 1). 
The times and places at which God bestows on a 
man the distinction of revealing Him to the people 
depends entirely upon His own will; but prophets 
must possess certain virtues and characteristics that 


make them worthy of receiving the divine com- 
munications (see PROPHETS AND PRoPHECY). Those 
whom God found worthy of receiving such direct 
information regarding His will were, in a manner 
which seemed inexplicable and supernatural to the 
laity, possessed of the firm impression and the un- 
shakable conviction that God spoke to them and 
apprised them of His will. They were convinced 
also that this impression was not a mere feeling 
of their souls, but that it came to them from with- 
out: from God, who revealed Himself unto them, 
making them His instruments through which He 
communicated His will to their fellow beings (see 
REVELATION), But in order to inspire the laity 
with faith in the Prophets, God considered it 
necessary on Mt. Sinai to let the whole Jewish 
people hear that Hespoke to Moses, that they might 
believe him forever (Ex. xix. 9); and when God 
then revealed Himself to the entire nation He con- 
vinced them “that He could commune with a human 
being” (comp. Deut. v. 24). They thereupon re- 
nounced all desire to receive commands and teachings 
from God direct. They were convinced that Moses 
repeated God’s words to them faithfully; and they 
declared themselves willing to hear all that he 
spoke in God’s name, and to act accordingly (Deut. 
v. 24). God thereupon revealed to Moses all the 
commandments and all the statutes and judgments, 
which Moses communicated to the people (¢. 31) 
This revelation on Mt. Sinai is therefore the chief 

foundation of the Jewish faith, and 
The Torah. guarantees the divine origin of the 

Law as contained in the Pentateuch. 
Before his death Moses wrote down the five books 
named after him (the Pentateuch), and gave them 
to the people (2). xxxi. 24-26); and he commanded 
them to observe everything therein written, and 
to transmit it to their children as the teaching of 
God. However much the succeeding generations of 
Israel, after the death of Moses, fell off from God 
and became idolaters, there has been in each genera- 
tion a group of pious men who have guarded faith- 
fully the holy inheritance and transmitted it to their 
children. And through this careful transmission 
the teachings of Moses have been preserved un- 
changed through all ages, It is therefore set up as 
one of the fundamental dogmas of the Jewish 
religion that the Torah contained in the Pentateuch 
is identical with that which was revealed by God to 
Moses on Mt. Sinai (Maimonides’ commentary on 
Sanh. xi. 1). No changes have been made therein 
except with regard to the characters in which it was 
written (Sanh. 21b). 

The Torah contains rules and regulations which 
should govern the life of man and lead him to 
moral and religious perfection. Every rule is ex- 
pressive of a fundamental ethical, moral, or relig- 
ious idea. Those regulations in which human intel- 
ligence is unable to discern the fundamental] idea 
are, through belief in their divine origin, vouchsafed 
the same high religious importance; and the ethical 
value of submission to the will of God where its 
purpose is not understood is even greater. In 
observing the Law man’s good intention is the 
chief point (see Nomis). 

These written laws are supplemented through 


Theology 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


134 


oral teachings; and the interpretation of the written 
doctrines is entrusted to the sages and scholars, who 
expound them according to prescribed rules. They 
add to or deduct from the individual regulations; 
and in many instances, when it is for the good of 
the Law, they may annul an entire clause. In such 
cases, however, the whole body of scholars, or at 
least a majority, must agree as to the necessity and 
correctness of the measure (see AUTHORITY; ORAL 
Law). Aside from such minor changes and occa- 
sional annulments, which are made in the spirit of 
the Law, and are intended to sustain the entire 
Torah (“Bittulah shel torah zehu yissudah ”; Men. 
99b), the Law is to be regarded, in whole or in parts, 
as unchangeable and irrevocable. It isa firm article 
of faith in the Jewish religion that this Law will 
never be changed, and that no other doctrines will 
be given by God to man (Maimonides, /.¢.). 

Of many clauses of the Law it is expressly stated 
that they are meant to be eternal rules (“hukkot 
‘olam”), or that they are obligatory on all genera- 
tions (“le-dorot ‘olam”); and there is not a single 
indication in the Holy Scriptures that the Law is 
ever to be replaced by other revealed doctrines. 
The new covenant of which Jeremiah speaks (xxxi. 
31-33) is not to be made on the basis of a new re- 
vealed law, but on the basis of the old law, which 
shall take firmer root in the hearts of the believers. 
It was even promised to the Israelites that new 
prophets should arise, and they were commanded to 
harken to the words of these prophets (Deut. xviii. 
15-18). But the new prophets can reveal no new 


law, and a prophet who sets up a law which con- . 


flicts with the old doctrines is a false 

Perma- prophet (2). xiii. 1-4). And also a 
nence and prophet who declares the old law to 
Sufficiency be valid for a certain period only, is a 
of false prophet, for his statement con- 

the Torah. flicts with the teachings of Moses, the 
greatest of all prophets, who plainly 

says in many passages (Ex. xti. 14, 17 e¢ seg.) that 
the regulations shall be obligatory forever (Maimoni- 
des, “ Yad,” Yesode ha-Torah, ix.; dem, “ Moreh,” 
ii. 39; Saadia, “ Emunot we-De‘ot,” iii. 7-10). The 
words “It [the commandment] is not in heaven” 
(Deut. xxx. 12) are explained in the Talmud (B. M. 
59b) as meaning that there is nothing left in heaven 
that has yet to be revealed in order to elucidate the 
Law. A decision or a legal question based only on 
such a heavenly revelation is not recognized (Mai- 
monides, “Yad,” /.c.). The doctrine of the un- 
changeableness of the Law is further emphasized 
by another fundamental dogma of Judaism, which 
declares the prophecy of Moses to surpass that of 
any of his predecessors or successors (Maimonides, 
l.c.). That the prophecy of Moses is different from 
and superior to that of any other prophet is ex- 
plicitly stated in Num. xii. 8. Whether this differ- 
ence was one of quality, as Maimonides thinks 
(“ Yad,” @.c. vii. 6; “‘ Moreh,” ii. 35), or one of degree 
only, as Albo (/.c. iii. 17) supposes, is immaterial. 
The fact is sufficient that the prophecy of Moses 
was superior to that of any other prophet. The 
Torah was given through Moses, of whose superior 
gift God Himself convinced the Israelites on Mt. 
Sinai. Should another prophet arise and declare 


the Law given by God through Moses to be invalid, 
then he would have to be a greater prophet than 
Moses; this, however, is inconceivable according to 
the fundamental doctrine which declares Moses to 
be the greatest prophet of all time. Those prophets 
are not to be believed who declared the old covenant 
to be dissolved, and that they were sent by God to 
make a new one; for one can not be as firmly con- 
vinced of their divine authority as of that of the old 
covenant, which they themselves do not deny 
(Abraham ibn Daud, in “Emunah Ramah,” ii.; 
comp. also Albo, é.c. iii. 19). 

The fact that the Law was given to man, and that 
he was requested to observe its precepts, implies 
that it depends on man alone whether or not he will 
do so. The freedom of the human will is explicitly 
announced in the Bible also: “I call heaven and 

earth to record this day against you, 

Freedom of that I have set before you life and 
the Will. death, blessing and cursing: therefore 
choose life, that both thou and thy 

seed may live: That thou mayest love the Lord thy 
God, and that thou mayest obey his voice, and that 
thou mayest cleave unto him: for he is thy life, and 
the length of thy days” (Deut. xxx. 19-20). The 
Mishnah teaches: “ Everything bas been foreseen by 
God, and yet He has given to man freedom of will” 
(Ab. iii. 15), Also the Talmud plainly teaches of 
the freedom of will: “Everything is in the hand of 
God, with the exception of the fear of God, and 
piety: these alone are dependent upon the will of 
man” (Ber. 83b). “When any one would keep his 
life clean and virtuous, he is aided; but if he chooses 
to keep it unclean and wicked, he is not hindered,” 
says Simeon ben Lakish (Shab. 104a). The teachers 
of post-Talmudic times all regarded the liberty of 
the human will as a fundamental doctrine of Juda- 
ism. Aithough it is difficult to reconcile this doc- 
trine with the knowledge or prescience of God, 
various attempts have been made to effect such a 
reconciliation, in order that it might not become 
necessary to deny either of them (comp. Saaclia, 
“Emunot we-De‘ot,” ii. 9; “Cuzari,” v. 20; Mai- 
monides, “ Moreh,” iii. 20; Crescas, “Or Adonai,” II. 
i. 4; Albo, &c. iv. 5). The liberty and responsi- 
bility of man justify some retribution for his acts: 
rewards for the observance of divine precepts and 
commandments, and punishment for their trans- 
gression, A just retribution presupposes God’s 
providence and His omniscience. The belief in 
God’s omniscience—that is, the belief that He sees 
and knows everything, even the secret thoughts of 
man, and that nothing can take piace in the world 
otherwise than by His will—is one of 

God’s Prov- the fundamental dogmas of Judaism. 
idence. Moses warns Israel not to forget that 
all events proceed from God: “And 

thou say in thine heart, My power and the might 
of mine hand hath gotten me this wealth. But 
thou shalt remember the Lord thy God: for it 
is he that giveth thee power to get wealth” (Deut. 
viii. 17, 18). Isaiah promises that punishment shall 
be meted out to the Assyrian king because he flat- 
tered himself with the belief that he owed his glory 
to his own power and to his own wisdom, and did 
not realize that he was only God's instrument (Isa. 


135 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Theology 


x. 12-16). Only the ungodly say, “The Lord shall 
not see, neither shall the God of Jacob regard it” 
(Ps. xciv. 7). The Psalmist reproves them, and 
says to them that God sees and hears everything, 
and that He knows the very thoughts of men, even 
when they are vain (22. verses 8-11). And in another 
passage he thanks God for regarding even the low- 
liest and most insignificant of men and for caring for 
them (Ps. viii. 5, cxliv. 4). The words “Fear thy 
God” are, according to the Rabbis, added to com- 
mandments which depend upon the intentions of 
man; asif to say to him: “Fear God who knows 
thy thoughts” (Kid. 32b). That nothing takes 
place in the world without divine ordination is ex- 
pressed by the Rabbis in the maxim that no man 
hurts his finger here on earth unless Heaven willed 
it so(Hul. 7b). Also the theologians and religious 
philosophers of the Middle Ages recognized the be- 
lief in divine providence as a fundamental doctrine 
of Judaism (comp. Maimonides, “ Moreh,” iii. 17-18; 
Albo, J.c. iv. 7-11; see also PROVIDENCE). 

In close relation with the doctrine of divine provi- 
dence stands the doctrine of retribution: that God 
rewards those who keep His commandments, and 

punishes those who transgress them. 


Divine The doctrine of retribution is one of 
Retribu- the fundamental teachings of Judaism, 
tion. and was revealed to the Jews on Mt, 


Sinai when God said to them that He 
would visit the sins of the fathers upon the children, 
and show mercy to those who loved Him and kept 
His commandments (Ex. xx. 5-6). In many com- 
mandments the reward given for their observance is 
indicated (Ex. xx. 12; Deut. xxii. 6-7). This doc- 
trine, however, contains also a difficulty; for if 
nothing can take place in the world without God’s 
will, and since He rewards the pious and punishes 
the transgressors, how does it come to pass that 
so many pious suffer while the ungodly prosper? 
This problem, which engaged the prophets Jeremiah 
(xii. 1) and Habakkuk (i. 13, ii. 4), the author of 
Job, and the psalmist Asaph (Ps. 1x xili. 2 e¢ seq.), has 
also in post-Biblical times held the attention of the 
most prominent spirits of each generation; and in 
Talmudic, as also in post-Talmudic, times several 
attempts were made to solve and explain it (comp. 
Ber. 7a; Albo, dc. iv. 7, 12-15). Most of the solu- 
tions and explanations have been based on the fol- 
lowing two ideas: (1) Man, with his limited intel- 
lect, is not able to determine who is in reality a 
pious man (“zaddik gamur”) or who is in reality 
a sinner (“rasha‘ gamur”), Man can mistake a 
pious one for a transgressor, and vice versa. Nor 
can man correctly determine actual good and actual 
evil. Much which appears evil to man proves 
to be productive of good; while, on the other hand, 
many things which are seemingly good have evil 
results for human beings. Short-sighted man, there- 
fore, able to judge from appcarances only, may 
not pretend to judge the acts of God. (2) The 
other idea which endeavors to reconcile the doc- 
trine of divine retaliation with the fact that pious 
men suffer while transgressors prosper, is the idea 
of the immortality of the soul. When man dies his 
soul does not die with him, but returns to God who 
gave it to man (Eccl. xii. 7). The soul is immortal, 


and after the death of man, separated from the body, 
it continues its existence In another world; and in 
this other world does complete retaliation take place. 
The doctrine of the immortality of the soul and of 
a future life is not definitely stated in the Holy 
Scriptures; but it is implied in many passages, es- 
pecially in the Psalms (comp. “Cuzari,” i. 115; 
Albo, @.c. iv. 39-40; Wohlgemuth, “Die Unsterb- 
lichkeitslehre in der Bibel,” in “ Jahresbericht des 
Rabbinerseminars in Berlin,” 1899). 
Immortal- The doctrine of the soul’s immortality, 
ity of and of a future life in which retribu- 
the Soul. tion shail take place, is set forth 
plainly and emphatically in post-Bib- 
lical Jewish literature—in the Mishnah and in the 
Talmud. “Let not thy imagination persuade thee 
that the grave is to be a place of refuge for thee,” 
says the Mishnah (Ab. iv. 22); “Thou wert born 
against thy will, and against thy will livest thou. 
Against thy will shalt thou die and be compelled to 
account for thy life before the King of Kings, the 
Holy One, praised be He.” In Deut. vii. 11 it is said 
with reference to the commandments: “which I 
command thee this day, to do them,” and these 
words are explained by the Rabbis as meaning: “To- 
day—that is, in this world—shall man observe the 
commandments; but he should not expect his reward 
in this world, but in another” (‘Ab. Zarah 8a). “ Re- 
ward for good deeds should not be expected in 
this world” (Kid. 39b’. By the promise of a long 
life for those who honor their parents (Ex. xx. 12) 
is meant eternal life in the hereafter. The reward 
and punishment for good and evil deeds respect- 
ively to be meted out in the other world, can be of 
a spiritual nature only, since they apply entirely 
to the soul. “In the future world are to be found 
no material pleasures; but the pious ones, with 
their crowns of glory, enjoy the splendor of God,” 
says the Talmud (Ber. 1%a). As the object of doc- 
trines and commandments is to lead man to the high- 
est degree of perfection, so also is the reward for his 
observance of the Law an eternal enjoyment of the 
presence of God and true knowledgeof Him. The 
punishment of the transgressor consists in his being 
excluded from all the divine splendur. This causes 
the soul to experience the greatest agony and re- 
morse for its ungodly life. Although the belief 
in divine retribution is a fundamental doctrine of 
the Jewish religion, the latter teaches at the same 
time that neither the expectation of a reward nor 
the fear of punishment should influence the mind of 
man in his observance of the divine precepts, Ju- 
daism sets it up as an ideal that the command- 
ments be kept through love of God (Sotah 3la; 
‘Ab. Zarah 19a; see IMMORTALITY; NOMISM). 

The belief in the resurrection of the dead is closely 
connected with the doctrine of the immortality of 
the soul and of retribution in the hereafter. This 
belief in resurrection is conceived in various man- 


ners by Jewish theologians. Some 

Resurrec- hold that, since retribution in the 
tion of world to come can fall upon the soul 
the Dead. only, bodies will, upon the day of res- 


urrection, rejoin their souls so that 
both may be rewarded or punished together for the 
deeds done in common (comp. Albo, l.c. iv. 35). 


Theology 
Theophany 


This conception is expressed also in the parable of 
the lame and the blind (Sanh. 91a, b). Maimonides, 
on the other hand, understands resurrection figura- 
tively only, and believes it refers to the immortality 
of the soul, which, after death, awakens to a new 
life without incarnation (“ Ma’amar Tehiyyat ha- 
Metim,” passim). 

But no matter how differently the theologians 
view the doctrine of resurrection, they all firmly 
believe that God can quicken the dead, and that 
He will do it when He so chooses (Maimonides’ 
commentary on Sanh. xi. 1). As to when, in 
what manner, and for what purpose resurrec- 
tion will take place; who will participate there- 
in, whether the Jewish nation alone, or even 
only a part thereof; and whether the resurrected 
dead will thenceforth live forever or die anew — 
all these questions can not be answered. Explana- 
tions bearing on them have been made by various 
teachers (Saadia, “Emunot we-De‘ot,” vii.), but 
they are all mere conjectures (comp. Albo, J.c. 
iv. 85). 

The doctrine of resurrection is expressed by Dan- 
jel (xii. 2): “And many of them that sleep in the 
dust of the earth shall awake, some to everlasting 
life, and some to shame and everlasting contempt.” 
The sages of the Talmud hold that resurrection is 
alluded to also in various passages of the Pentateuch 
(comp. Sanh. 90b), one of which is as follows: “T 
kill, and I make alive ” (Deut. xxxii. 39). The Mish- 
nah sets up this doctrine as an important article of 
faith, and holds that those who do not believe there- 
in, or who do not believe that it is embodied in the 
divine teachings of Judaism, and indicated in the 
Law, can have no share in the world to come (Sanh. 
xi. 1). By the Talmud, and by the theologians and 
religious philosophers of medieval times also, the 
doctrine of resurrection was recognized as an im- 
portant article of faith (comp. “ Albo,” /.c.). The 
supporter of the Jewish religion and of all the 
ethical and moral ideals therewith connected is the 
Jewish nation, which God chose from among all peo- 
ples (Deut. vii. 6). The selection of the Jewish na- 
tion is evidenced in the fact that God found it wor- 

thy of a direct manifestation on Mt. 

The Chosen Sinai, that He revealed to it religious 

People. truths, and that He bestowed upon it 

the peculiar grace of causing prophets, 

who should explain these truths, to arise from its 
midst. 

This choice of the Jewish nation was not, 
however, made arbitrarily by God; it was based 
upon special merit which the Jews possessed above 
other ancient peoples. Abraham, the progenitor of 
the Jewish nation, possessed a true knowledge of 
God; and he commanded his children and de- 
scendants to “keep the way of the Lord, to do jus- 
tice and judgment ” (Gen. xvili. 19). But of all the 
descendants of Abraham, the Jewish people is the 
only one which has kept the legacy of its progenitor 
(comp. “Cuzari,” ii. 6). 

This knowledge of God which the Jews inherited 
from Abraham made them more religiously inclined 
than other nations; it made them fit to receive reve- 
lation, and to acknowledge the value of the laws 
and accept them. R. Johanan expresses this as fol- 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


136 


lows: “God offered the Torah to all the nations, but 
none could or would accept it, until He offered it to 
the Israelites, who were both willing and qualified to 
receive it” (‘Ab. Zarah 2b). Israel, however, may 
not keep these teachings for itself alone; they were 
not given it for its own exclusive property. The 
doctrines were given to Israel only because it was 
the only one among the nations which was qualified 
to accept them and to live according to them. And 
through Israel’s example the other nations will be 
led to a true knowledge of God, and to the accept- 
ance of His teachings. In this way will be fulfilled 
the promise which was given to Abraham (Gen. 
xxii. 18), that “in thy seed shall all the nations of 
the earth be blessed.” With the exception of such 
laws and precepts as are based on nationa)] events, 
the whole Law is intended for all of humanity, 
which, through observance of the divine doctrines, 
may acquire a true knowledge of God and of His 
will, 

With reference to Lev. xviii. 5, the sages say that 
by the statutes of the Law are designated not the 
law for the priests or the Levites or the Israel- 
ites, but the statutes of the Law which man has 
to observe, and according to the regulations of which 
he must live (Sifra, Ahare Mot, xiii. [ed. Weiss, p. 
86b]). Israel has acted according to this princi- 
ple, and has not withheld the laws of God from the 
nations. Most civilized nations owe their know]- 
edge of God to these teachings. But the nations 
have not yet attained to a correct understanding of 
these doctrines, and neither in their political nor 
in their social lives have they reached the ideals of 
justice and brotherly love. The Jews, in posses- 
sion of the revealed doctrines, and peculiarly gifted 
to comprehend the same and to realize their ideals, 
have been called upon, as they once taught the na- 
tions the knowledge of God, so in future to teach 
them other religious ideals. But this they can not 
do as long as they live in exile, dependent and per- 
secuted and despised, aud regarded as the reprobate 
sons of God. They can do this when they again 
attain political independence, settling in the land of 
their fathers, where they, in their political and social 
life, can realize the ideais of justice and love taught 
by the Jewish religion. The belief 
that this will some time happen con- 
stitutes an article of faith in Judaism 
which reads as follows: “A redeemer 
shall arise for the Jewish nation, who shall gather 
the scattered Jews in the land of their fathers. There 
they shall form an independent Jewish state and 
reawaken to independent national life. Then all 
nations shall go often to Palestine to study the in- 
stitutions of a state founded on love and justice. 
From Zion the peoples shall be taught how they, 
in their own state institutions, may realize the ideals 
of justice and brotherly love; and the highest re- 
ligious doctrines shall go forth from Jerusalem ” 
(comp. Isa. ii. 2-4; Mic. iv. 1-4). The mission of 
salvation to be accomplished through the redemp- 
tion of Israel is, however, only an indirect and re- 
mote aim. The direct and first aim is to compen- 
sate the Jewish nation for all the sufferings it has 
endured through its years of exile. God’s relations 
to a nation are similar to those toward an individual. 


The 
Messiah. 


137 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Theolog 
Theophany 


The Jewish nation lost its political independence on 
account of its sins and failings, and was sent into 
exile for that reason. This punishment, however, 
jis not calculated to annihilate the Jewish peo- 
ple; for as God does not wish the death of the indi- 
vidual transgressor, but rather his conversion, 
neither does He wish the destruction of a nation 
which has sinned. God has promised 
The Resto- the Jews that He will not cast them 
ration away even while they are in the lands 
of Israel. of their enemies; neither will He 
break His covenant with them (comp. 

Lev. xxvi, 44). 

God has promised to redeem them when they 
repent of all the sins which caused the loss of their 
national independence. “ And it shall come to pass, 
when all these things are come upon thee, the bless- 
ing and the curse, which I have set before thee, and 
thou shalt cajl them to mind among all the nations, 
~vhither the Lord thy God hath driven thee, And 
shalt return unto the Lord thy God, and shalt obey 
his voice according to all that I command thee this 
day, thou and thy children, with all thine heart, and 
with all thy soul; That then the Lord thy God will 
turn thy captivity, and have compassion upon thee, 
and will return and gather thee from all the nations, 
whither the Lord thy God hath scattered thee. If 
any of thine be driven out unto the utmost parts of 
heaven, from thence will the Lord thy God gather 
thee, and from thence will he fetch thee: And the 
Lord thy God will bring thee into the land which 
thy fathers possessed, and thou shalt possess it; and 
he will do thee good, and multiply thee above thy 
fathers” (Deut. xxx. 1-5). When and in which 
manner this redemption will take place is not ex- 
plained by any reliable tradition; and the many de- 
scriptions given by various teachers are only per- 
sonal conjectures. When will the redemption take 
place? That is a question which can not be an- 
swered. And all calculations regarding the time of 
the advent of the redeemer are only conjectures. 
But it is a traditional belief among the Jews that it 
may take place at any time when the people are 
properly prepared to receive him (Sanh. 98a). The 
natural consequence of this belief is the demand for 
good acts. The nation must uphold its national and 
religious endowments, and not, through ill conduct, 
irreligious actions, and antinational endeavors, 
frustrate or make difficult its redemption. When 
the Jewish people believe in their redemption, 
when they desire it with all their hearts, and when 
with all their actions they strive to deserve it—then 
the redeemer may at any time arise from among 
them (2d. ). | 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Besides the works cited throughout the article 

see also: Bahya b. Joseph, Hobot ha-Lebabot ; Samson Ra- 

phael Hirsch, Nineteen Letters of Ben Uziel, transl. by Drach- 
man, New York, 1899; 8. Schechter, Studies in Judaism, 

Philadelphia, 1896; M. Friedlander, The Jewish Religion, 


Fondo 1891; Morris Joseph, Judaism as Creed and Life, 
ib. . 


K. J. Z. BL. 

THEOPHANY: Manifestation of a god to 
man; the sensible sign by which the presence of a 
divinity is revealed. If the word is taken in this 
Sense, and the passages which merely mention the 
fact of a revelation without describing it are sepa- 
Tated from those which speak of the “angel of God,” 


only four theophanies will be found in the Bible. 
Kautzsch (in Herzog-Plitt, “Real-Encye.” xv. 588) 
interprets the term in a broader sense, and divides 
theophanies into three classes, as follows: (1) those 
related as historical facts; (2) those which are the 
subjects of prophetic vision or annunciation; and 
(3) those which consist in purely poetic fancy. This 
classification may be applied to the four theophanies, 
The Sinaitic revelation is historical; the passages 
relating the divine inspiration of Isaiah (Isa. vi.) 
and of Ezekiel (Ezek. i.) represent subjects of 
prophetic vision; and Ps. xvili. 4-16 is poetic de- 
scription. 
The Sinaitic revelation is related in calm, simple 
language in Ex. xix, 16-25. The manifestation is ac- 
companied by thunder and lightning;. 
The Sina- there is a fiery flame, reaching to the 
itic The- sky; the loud notes of a trumpet 
Ophany. are heard; and the whole mountain 
smokes and quakes. Out of the midst. 
of the flame and the cloud a voice reveals the Ten 
Commandments. The account in Deut, iv. 11, 12, 
33, 36 and v. 4, 19 is practically the same; and in its 
guarded language it strongly emphasizes the in- 
corporeality of God. Moses in his blessing (Deut. 
XXXIli. 2) points to this revelation as to the source 
of the special election of Israe), but with this differ- 
ence: with him the point of departure for the 
theophany is Mount Sinai and notheaven. God ap- 
pears on Sinai like a shining sun and comes “ac- 
companied by holy myriads” (comp. Sifre, Deut. 
248). Likewise in the song of Deborah the manifes- 
tation is described as a storm: the earth quakes; 
Sinai trembles; and the clouds drop water. It is. 
poetically elaborated in the prayer of Habakkuk 
(Hab. iii.); here past and future are confused. As 
in Deut. xxxiii. 2 and Judges v. 4, God appears. 
from Teman and Paran. His majesty is described 
asa glory of light and brightness; pestilence pre- 
cedes Him. The mountains tremble violently; 
the earth quakes; the people are sore afraid. God 
rides in a chariot of war, with horses—a conception 
found also in Isa. xix. 1, where God appears on a 
cloud, and in Ps. xviii. 11, where He appears on a 
cherub. 
Isaiah and Ezekiel receive their commissions as. 
prophets amid glorious manifestations of God. 
Isaiah supposedly sees God on a high and lofty 


throne. In reality, however, he sees 

In Isaiah not Him but only His glorious robe, 
and the hem and train of which fill the 
Ezekiel. whole temple of heaven. Before the 


throne stand the seraphim, the six- 
winged angels. With two wings they cover their 
faces so as not to gaze on God; with two they 
cover their feet, through modesty ; and with the re- 
maining two they fly. Their occupation is the 
everlasting praise of God, which at the time of the 
revelation took the form of the thrice-repeated cry 
“Holy!” (Isa. vi.). 

Ezekiel in his description is not so reserved as. 
Isaiah. The divine throne appears to him asa won- 
derful chariot. Storm, a great cloud, ceaseless fire, 
and on all sides a wonderful brightness accompany 
the manifestation. Out of the fire four creatures be- 
come visible. They have the faces of men; each 


Theophilus 
Thessaly 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


138 


one has four wings; and the shape of their feet en- 
ables them to go to all four quarters of the earth 
with equal rapidity and without having to turn. 
These living creatures are recognized by the prophet 
as cherubim (Ezek. x. 20). The heavenly fire, the 
coals of which burn like torches, moves between 
them. The movement of the creatures is harmoni- 
ous: wherever the spirit of God leads them they go. 
Beneath the living creatures are wheels (“ ofannim ”) 
full of eyes. On their heads rests a firmament upon 
which is the throne of God. When the divine chariot 
moves, their wings rustle with a noise like thunder. 
On the throne the prophet sees the Divine Being, 
having the likeness of a man. His body from the 
loins upward is shining (“hashmal”); downward it 
is fire (in Ezek. viii. 2 the reverse is stated). In the 
Sinaitic revelation God descends and appears upon 
earth; in the prophetic vision, on the other hand, 
He appears in heaven, which is in keeping with the 
nature of the case, because the Sinaitic revelation 
was meant for a whole people, on the part of which 
an ecstatic condition can not be thought of. 

Very different is the theophany of the Psalmist 
(Ps. xviii. 8-16). He is in great need; and at his 
earnest solicitation God appears to save him. Be- 
fore Him the earth trembles and fire 
glows. He rides on a cherub on the 
wings of the wind. He is surrounded 
with clouds which are outshone by 
His brightness. With thunder and lightning He 
destroys the enemies of the singer and rescues him. 

As may be seen from the descriptions of the vari- 
ous theophanies, the deep monotheistic spirit of the 
Israelites hesitates to describe the Divine Being, and 
confines itself generally to describing the influence 
of the revelation upon the minds and characters of 
those beholding it. See REVELATION. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Kautzsch, in Herzog-Plitt, Real-Encyc. xv., 
s.v.; Hamburger, &. B. T.1.,8.v. Herrlichkeit Gottes. 


K. M. Rt. 


THEOPHILUS: High priest; son of Anan, and 
brother of JONATHAN, who was deposed by Vitellius 
in 37 c.£, in favor of Theophilus (Josephus, “ Ant.” 
xviii. 5, §& 3). He officiated for about three years, 
when he was succeeded by Simon Cantheras. This 
Theophilus is probably identical with the father of 
the high priest Matthias, and, according to Bitchler, 
he is likewise the same as Hananeel the Egyptian 
(Parah iii. 5). The name of Theophilus figures in 
the Seder ‘Olam (Neubauer, “M. J. C.” i. 167). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gratz, Gesch. 4th ed., iii. 317; Schiirer, Gesch. 
3d ed., ii. 218; Biichler, Das Synedrion in Jerusalem, p. 97, 
Vienna, 1902 
WwW. B. S. Kr. 


THEOSOPHY. See CABALA. 


THERAPEUTZE (Greek, Oeparevrai — “ Wor- 
shipers of God”): A community of Jewish ascetics 
settled on Lake Mareotis in the vicinity of Alex- 
‘andria at the time of Philo, who alone, in his work 
“De Vita Contemplativa,” has preserved a record of 
their existence. The fact that the Therapeute are 
mentioned by no other writer of the time, and that 
they are declared by Eusebius (8d cent.)in his “ His- 
toria Ecclesiastica” (II., ch. xvi.-xvii.) to have been 
Christian monks, has induced Lucius, in a special 
work entitled “Die Therapeuten und Ihre Stellung 


In the 
Psalms. 


in der Geschichte der Askese ” (1879), to attempt to 
prove the Christian origin and character of the 
Philonean work and of the “monks and nuns” de- 
scribed therein, after Griitz (“ Gesch.” 4th ed., ili. 799) 
had declared it to be spurious. Lucius found many 
followers, among whom was Schiirer (“Gesch.” 3d 
ed., iii. 585-588), His arguments, however, have 
been refuted by the leading authorities on Philo, 
viz., Massebieau (“Revue de 1]’Histoire des Reli- 
gions,” 1887, pp. 170-198, 284-319), Wendland (“ Die 
Therapeuten,” 1896), and most thor- 

Depicted oughly and effectively by Conybeare 
by Philo. (“Philo About the Contemplative 
Life,” Oxford, 1895; see also Bousset, 

“Religion des Judenthums im Neutestamentlichen 
Zeitalter,” 1903, pp. 4438-446). Although the life of 
the Therapeutz as depicted by Philo appears rather 
singular and strange, its Jewish character may as 
little be questioned as the authenticity of the 
Philonic work itself. The influx of many currents 
of thought and religious practise produced in the 
Jewish diaspora many forms of religious life 
scarcely known to the historian: several of these 
helped in the shaping of the Christian Church. 
The name “Therapeute#” (Qepavevtai; ‘Ixerai is 
another name for these ascetics) is often used by 
Philo for Jewish believers or worshipers of God; and 
it was the official title of certain religious gilds found 
in inscriptions, as was also the Latin name “Cul- 
tores” = “ Worshipers” (see Conybeare, l.c. p. 298, 
and MretvuEntrEs). It corresponds with the Aramean 
“Pulhane di-Elaha.” The members of the sect seem 
to have branched off from the Essene brotherhood; 
hence also the meaning “Physicians” given to the 
name “Therapeutz” (Philo, Z.c. § 1), just as the 
title “ Asaiai” (= “ Healers ”) was given to the Esaioi 
(see EssrnEs). The Therapeute differed, however, 
from the Essenes in that they lived each in a sepa- 
rate cell, called “ monasterium,” in which they spent 
their time in mystic devotion and 

Mode of ascetic practises, and particularly in 

Life. the study of the Torah (“the Law and 

the Prophets”) and in reciting the 

Psalms as well as hymns composed by them. 

While remaining in retirement they indulged in 

neither meat nor drink nor any other enjoyment of 
the flesh. 

Like the Essenes, they offered every morning 
at sunrise a prayer of thanksgiving to God for the 
light of day as well as for the light of the Torah, 
and again at sunset for the withdrawal of the sun- 
light and for the truth hidden within the soul. In 
studying the Scriptures they followed the allegor- 
ical system of interpretation, for which they used 
also works of their own sect. They took their meals 
only after sunset and attended to all their bodily 
necessities at night, holding: that the light of day was 
given for study solely. Someate only twice a week; 
others fasted from Sabbath to Sabbath. 

On the Sabbath they left their cells and assembled 
ina large hall for the common study of the Law 
as well as for their holy communion meal. The 

oldest member of the community be- 

Sabbath. gan with a benediction over the Torah 
and then expounded the Law while all 

listened in silence; the others followed in turn. 


139 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Theophilus 
Thessaly 


After this they sat down to a common meal, 
which was very simple, consisting of bread and salt 
and herbs (hyssop); and water from a spring was 
their drink in place of wine. The Therapeute, 
differing in this respect from the Essenes, included 
women members. These, though advanced in years, 
were regarded as pure virgins on account of their 
lives of abstinence and chastity; and they seem to 
have been helpful in nursing and educating waifs 
and non-Jewish children that took refuge in such 
Essene communities (Philo, l.c.§ 8). For these fe- 
male members a partition was made in the assembly 
hall, separating them from the men by a wall three 
to four cubits in height, so that they might listen to 
the discourses on the Law without infringing the 
rules of modesty becoming to women (comp. the 
“tikkun gadol” in the Temple gatherings at Sukkot; 
Suk. v. 2); also at meals the women sat at sepa- 
rate tables remote from the men. Young men, but 
no slaves, waited at table; and probably young 
women at the tables of the women. They all wore 
white raiments like the Essenes. After the repast, 
passages of Scripture were explained by the presi- 
ding officer and other speakers, with special reference 
to the mysteries of the Law; and each of these in- 
terpretations was followed by the singing of hymns 
in chorus, in which both men and women invariably 
joined. 

Of all the festivals of the year they celebrated 
with especial solemnity “the night of the seventh 
Sabbath” (Pentecost), when they ate unleavened 


bread in place of the two loaves of leavened bread - 


from the new wheat offered on Pentecost in the 
Temple. After this they spent the whole night until 
sunrise in offering up praises and in 
Pentecost. songs of thanksgiving sung in chorus 
by menand women; the song of Moses 
and Miriam at the Red Sea was thus sung. The 
singing itself was rendered according to the laws of 
musical art, which seems to have been borrowed 
from Egyptian temples, and was then trans- 
mitted to the Christian Church (see Conybeare, l.c. 
p. 313). 
Whether these nocturnal celebrations took place 
every seventh week or only at Passover and Pente- 


cost (and the Feast of Sukkot), as Conybeare thinks, 


is not made clear in Philo’s description. The prob- 
ability is that the Passover night gave the first im- 
pulse to such celebration (see Wisdom xviii. 9); and 
the custom of rendering the song of the Red Sea 
chorally appears to have prompted its recitation 
every morning in the synagogal liturgy in a manner 
betraying an Essene tradition. How far back the 
celebration of the night preceding Shabu‘ot by 
study and song until daybreak goes may be learned 
from the Zohar (Emor, iii. 93), where reference is 
made to the custom of “the ancient Hasidim who 
spend the whole night in the study of the Law and 
thus adorn Israel as a bride to be joined anew to 
God, her bridegroom.” 

In no way, however, does the Philonic description 
bear any trace of the Christian character attributed 
to it by Gritz and Lucius. See also Jew. Encyc. 
Xx. 8b, 3.0. PHILo JUDZXUS, K. 


THESSALONICA. See SALONICA. 


THESSALY: Province of northern Greece, on 
the A’gean Sea. It numbered Jews among its in- 
habitants at a very early date, although those that 
now (1905) live there speak Spanish and claim to 
be descendants of refugees who emigrated from 
Spain. There are Jewish communities at La- 
rissa, Trikala, and Volo. None of them has a 
rabbi; and Hebrew studies there are in a state of 
decay. At Larissa and Trikala religious instruction 
is given in Jewish public schools established under 
the provincial Jaw relating to such schools; they are 
supported by the government. The community of 
Trikala, by reason of numbering (according to the 
census) “not more than 1,000 members,” has no 
special school. The Jewish students finish their 
education in the government higher schools; and 
some even enter the University of Athens. 

The congregations have synagogues similar to 
those of every community in Turkey: one story, 
with colored windows, and with columns in 
the middle which support the dukan and candle- 
sticks. The most beautiful of these synagogues is 
that at Larissa, which is very large and is situated 
in the center of a court in which there are several 
“patte midrashim”; one of these serves as a library 
and yeshibah, where religious studies are daily pur- 
sued. The congregation of Larissa is proud of its 
past grandeur. Its members speak of the famous 
“Yeshibat Rabbanim,” which was a seat of learning 
at which twenty to twenty-five chief rabbis studied 
the Talmud and wrote religious works. Of the 
latter some manuscripts still exist in the old library. 

Larissa, which formerly possessed a great num- 
ber of rich Jews, was called “The Tree of Gold.” 
About fifty-five years ago a riot took place, the poor 
Jews rising up against the rich. It became so serious 
that many of the wealthy Israelites emigrated, which 
wrecked the city’s prosperity. To-day its rich Jews 
may be counted on the fingers; and the numerous 
poor ones are cared for by a charitable institution. 
Among the philanthropic members of the congrega- 
tion should be mentioned the Matalon brothers. The 
Greco-Turkish war of 1897 gave the finishing stroke 
to this already impoverished community: besides 
the misfortune which the Jews shared in common 
with the other inhabitants in having their homes 
destroyed and their property stolen, they were ac- 
cused by slanderers of having taken part in the 
plundering. 

The community of Trikala, which is younger 
than that of Larissa, is more prosperous, not having 
suffered from the ruinous consequences of the 
war, This community numbers among its mem- 
bers the richest Greek Jew, Elia Cohn, whose for- 
tune is estimated at from tive to ten million francs. 

Volo possesses the youngest Jewish community in 
Thessaly. It was organized toward the close of the 
nineteenth century by Spaniards of the province, 
and by other Jews who came from Janina, Chalcis, 
and Salonica. Since its annexation to Greece the 
city has become the first port in Thessaly, Most of 
the Jews of Volo are in easy circumstances; there 
are hardly any poor among them. The community 
is the most progressive in Greece. The Jewish youth 
speak Greek even in their social intercourse; and they 
have organized a club, called “The Future,” in con- 


2 


Theudas 
Throne 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


140 


nection with which instructive lectures are delivered ; 

aud work is undertaken having for itsaim the build- 

ing up of the community. This club is presided 

over by Solomon Daffas, formerly director of a 

school of the Alliance Israélite Universelle. The 

Jews of Volo have organized also a Philharmonic 

Society. 

g, M. C. 

THEUDAS: 1. Pseudo-Messiah, who appeared 
during the consulate of Cuspius Fadus and succeeded 
in winning a large number of adherents. In proof 
of his Messianic mission he is said to have promised 
to lead his followers across the Jordan after divi- 
ding its waters simply by his word. Regarding this 
as indicative of open rebellion against Rome, Cus- 
pius sent a division of cavalry against Theudas and 
his followers, who were almost entirely annihilated 
(comp. Acts v. 86). Theudas was decapitated, and 
his head was carried to Jerusalem as a trophy of 
victory. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Josephus, Ant. xx. 5, 8 1; Eusebius, Hist. 
Ecel. U1. ii.; Sehmidt, in Herzog-Plitt, Real-lneye. xv. 553- 
557; Klein, in Schenkel, Bibel-Lexctkon, vy. 510-513 ; Schirer, 
Gesch. i. 566, and note 6. 

2. Expounder of the Law; flourished in Rome 
during the Hadrianic persecutions. He aided with 
generous gifts of money the teachers of the Law 
who had suffered from these persecutions, and ar- 
ranged with the Roman communities that the taxes 
formerly paid to the Temple in Jerusalem should be 
used for the schools, which otherwise would have 
been without any source of support (Yer. M. K. 
Sia). 

Theudas introduced into Rome the practise of eat- 

ing on the eve of Passover a lamb prepared in ac- 

cordance with the custom observed in Jerusalem 
with regard to the sacrificial lamb (Pes. 53a, b; Ber. 
19a; Bezah 28a). According to tradition, this so 
enraged the Palestinian codifiers that they sent him 
the folowing message: “If you were not Theudas 
we would excommunicate you.” In his capacity as 

archisynagogue it was Theudas’ duty to deliver a 

sermon in the synagogue each Saturday. One of 

these sermons has been preserved, in which he em- 
phatically asserts that it is the duty of a Jew to suf- 
fer martyrdom rather than abandon his faith (Pes. 

53b; Midr. Teh. to Ps. xxviii.). 

In the Talmud, Theudas is once erroneously men- 
tioned in connection with Simeon ben Shetah—a mis- 
take which has been pointed out by Bacher. The 
oldest Mishnah teacher to mention Theudas is R. 
Jose. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Brill, Jahrb. viii. 27; Bacher, ig. Tan, ii. 
160; Vogelstein and Rieger, Geseh. der Juden in Rom, i. 30, 
70, 108 et segq., 176. 

Ww. B. Ss. O. 


THIEF. See THeErr anp STOLEN GooDs. 
THIENGEN. See TypocRarnHy. 
THISTLES. Sec THORNS AND THISTLES. 


THOMAS, EMILE (EMIL TOBIAS): Ger- 
man actor; born at Berlin Nov. 24, 1886. Thomas 
has had a most varied career, He made his début in 
1852 with the company of Pitterlin, which traversed 
the Erzgebirge, Saxony. The plays were ultrasen- 
sational—“ Der Wahnsinnige,” “ Die Giftmischerin,” 


and “Die Grabesbraut.” Thomas received no mone- 
tary compensation, being paid in food; and the ar- 
rangement lasted for three years. He then ob- 
tained engagements in Gérlitz, Leipsic, Cologne, 
Danzig, and Breslau. In the last-named city, 
Dreichmann, director of the Friedrich-Wilhelmstidt- 
ische Theater, Berlin, saw the young actor and en- 
gaged him for his house. Thomas made his début 
there Dec. 3, 1861, as the Baker’s Boy iu “ Hermann 
und Dorothea.” So great was his success that he 
was made stage-manager. In this capacity he pro- 
duced Offenbach’s “Die Schéne Helene” (himself 
playing Aaichas) and Salingré’s “ Pechschulze.” In 
1866 Chéri Maurice engaged him for the Thalia 
Theater, Hamburg, where he remained until 1875, 
when he became manager of the Woltersdorffthea- 
ter, Berlin. Two years later he resigned and went 
on a starring tour which lasted a year; he then 
joined the Ringtheater, Vienna. After the destruc- 
tion of this house in 1881, Thomas appeared at the 
Wallnertheater, Berlin. In 1886 he went with his 
wife, Betty Thomas-Damhofer, tothe United States, 
scoring financial and artistic successes. 

On his return to Germany in 1887, Thomas as- 
sumed the management of the Centraltheater, Ber- 
lin, which he renamed the “Thomas-Theater”; but 
his direction was most unsuccessful, and he was 
forced to relinquish it. Since then he has played in 
the principal theatersof Germany and Austria. Since 
1902 he has acted at the Metropoltheater, Hamburg. 
His best rdles are: Strzese in “ Der Raub der Sabi- 
nerinnen”; Hdlbchen in “1783 Thaler, 224 Silber- 
groschen”; and Geer in “Der Flotte Bursche.” 


SU OSe Pts Das Geistige Berlin, p. 540; Eisenberg, Biog. 
ex. 


S. E. Ms. 
THOMAS, FATHER. Sce DaMascts AFFAIR. 


THOMASHEFSKI, BORIS: Judso-German 


actor; born at Kiev May 30, 1866. He went to New 


York to seek work in 1881 and soon organized a 

Jewish troop which played in Turn Hal}, Fourth 

street. Three years later he removed to Chicago, 

where he became a theatrical manager. In 1893 he 
settled in New York, and became one of the leading 

Yiddish actors. At present (1905) he is lessee and 

manager of the People’s Theater in that city. 
Thomashefski plays the chief character in almost 

all the pieces produced at his theater, most of which 
are written by Latteiner. He has himself written 
some Judseo-German plays and published a collec- 

tion of witty sayings (in “Theatre Journal,” 1903- 

1905, i., ii.). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: American Jewish Year Book, 5665 (1905), p. 
200; H. Hapgood, The Spirit of the Ghetto, pp. 189-140, New 
York, 1902. 

A. M. SEL. 
THORN: Town of West Prussia, founded in 
1233 by the Knights of the Teutonic Order. Jews 
were not permitted to dwell in Thorn while the 
knights held sway; and after the Polish govern- 
ment took possession of the town, in 14538, they 
were admitted only occasionally. Several Jews 
were living there about the middle of the seven- 
teenth century; and in 1749 they were allowed to 
open a school. In 1766 all the Jews except six 
were expelled; but they seem to have returned in 


141 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Theudas 
Throne 


the following years. In 1774 and 1779 the Jews 
were again driven out; returning, they were once 
more ordered to leave in 1793, when Prussia took 
- possession of the town; and, though they succeeded 
in obtaining a respite, they were expelled in 1797. 
Many Jews settled gradually in the town when it 
became part of the duchy of Warsaw, after the 
Peace of Tilsit; according to the town records, they 
stole in during the French occupation. Jn 1823 the 
community numbered 52 families, comprising 248 
individuals, 

The first rabbi was Samuel Heilmann Leyser of 
Lissa, who seems to have settled in the town to- 
ward the end of the eighteenth century ; he officiated 
without remuneration down to 1847. His succes- 
sors were: Dr. Krakauer (1847-57); Dr. Engelbert 
(1857-62); Dr. Rahmer (1862-67); Dr. Oppenheim 
(1869-91); and Dr. I. Rosenberg, the present in- 
cumbent, who has held office since 1892. The fol- 
lowing scholars have lived at Thorn: Zebi Hirsch 
Kalischer (d. 1875), author of “ Derishat Ziyyon,” 
“Emunah Ramah,” and “Sefer ha-Berit ‘al ha- 
Torah”; his son Louis Kalischer, author of “Kol 
Yehudah”; and Isaac Miesses, author of “ Zofnat 
Pa‘neah” and other works. 

The community possesses a synagogue, built In 
1847; a home for the aged, organized in 1892; a re- 
ligious school, a loan society, a hebra kaddisha, 
and a literary society. In 1903 the Jews of Thorn 
numbered 1,200 in a total population of 30,000. 
The Jewish inhabitants of the suburbs of Podgorz 
and Mocker, and of several neighboring villages, 
are members of the Thorn congregation. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Téppen, <Acten der Stiindetage Preussens, 


Leipsic. 1878-86; Wernicke, Gesch. Thorns; Mitthetlungen 
des Coppernicusvereins zu Thorn, No. viii., Thorn, 1842, 


S, I. R. 


THORNS AND THISTLES: The desert 
flora of Palestine is unusually rich in thorns and 
thistles, containing « whole series of acanthaceous 
shrubs and various thistles, including Acanthus, 
Carduus (thistle), Centaurea Calcitrapa (star-thistle), 
Cirsium acarna, Linn. (horse-thistle), Cnicus bene- 
dictus, Linn. (blessed thistle), Cynara Syriaca, Linn. 
(cardoon), Echinops (globe-thistle), Eryngium ni- 
traria, Noea, Notobasis Syriaca, Linn. (Syrian this- 
tle), Ononis antiquorum, Linn. (tall rest-harrow; 
var. leiosperma, Post), Onopordon (down-thistle), 
Pheopappus scoparius, Sieb., Silybum Marianum, 
Linn. (milk-thistle), Tribulus terrestris, Linn. (Jand- 
caltrops), and others, some of them in many sub- 
species. All these plants were very troublesome to 
the farmer (Prov. xxiv. 81), who frequently set fire 
to his fields to get rid of them (Isa. x. 17), while 
the Prophets threatened the people with a plague of 
briers and thistles (Isa. v. 6; Jer. xii. 13), The ty- 
rant is compared to the useless bramble (Judges ix. 
14); and King Amaziah is likened to the thistle (II 
Kings xiv.9). Instead of fruit the earth is to bring 
forth “thorns and thistles” (Gen. iii. 18), which 
must, therefore, be edible, and which are considered 
by the Midrash to be artichokes. 

Many names for these plants are found in the 
Bible as well as in post-Biblical literature. Acan- 
thaceous trees and shrubs, some of them admitting 
of classification, constitute the first group, which 


includes: 414%, Bible and Mishnah (also Assyrian, 
Phenician, and Aramaic) = Lycium Euvropzeum, 
Linn. (not Rhamnus), box-thorn; 3p, Bible, Mish- 
nah, and Aramaic = Rubus sanctus, Schreb., black- 
berry; mow = Acacia; Why, Mishnah, and wi, 
Talmud = Crategus <Azarolus, Linn., hawthorn; 
pO, Mishnah, and X92, Talmud = Zizyphus lotus, 
Lam., jujube, and Zizyphus spina-Christi, Linn., 
Christ’s-thorn; p|rw, Mishnah, and ‘pow, Talmud 
= Zizyphus vulgaris, Lam., common jujube. 

The second group comprises acanthaceous or 
prickly herbs, shrubs, and nettles: pryy2 (2), Bible, 
Aan, Mishnah, and xnyn, Talmud (Assyrian, “egu ” 
[?]) = Alhagi Maurorum, DC., alhagi; yin and 
Y1p, Mishnah, Xp yd and Xp, Talmud = Car- 
thamus tinctorius, Linn., safflower; 74, Bible, and 
noapn, Talmud = Centaurea Calcitrapa, Linn., star- 
thistle; min(?), Bible, Norn, Mishnah and Talmud = 
Echinops spinosus, Linn., or Echinops viscosus, DC., 
echinops (?); AXINAN = Eryngium Creticum, Lam., 
button-snakeroot; D39°p, 9333 = Cynara Scolymus, 
Linn., artichoke; nasy = Cynara Syriaca, Boiss., 
and Cynara Cardunculus, Linn., cardoon (the heads 
of which are well described by Rashi in his commen- 
tary on Ps. )xxxiii, 14); “"ow = Paliurus aculeatus, 
Linck., garland-thorn; psp (?), Bible = Phao- 
pappus scoparius, Sieb., pheopappus; pqn = Sola- 
num coagulans, Forsk., nightshade; 4553p, wp (2), 
Bible, and Naiwap, Talmud = Urtica urens, Linn., 
nettle, 

General terms, some of them applied also to 
thorns, are MN, WD, DIY, pp, Dw, and ney in 
the Bible, and °N21F, MIN, NAY, KIT, Nyayy, and 
Y1p in the Mishnah and Talmud. 

s. I. Lé. 


THRASHING-FLOOR. See AGRICULTURE. 
THREE. See NUMBERS AND NUMERALS. 


THRESHOLD: In early times the threshold 
had a special sanctity; and that of the Temple was 
a marked spot, indicating specific taboos (see I Sam. 
v. 4 et seqg.; comp. Zeph. i. 9). There were special 
keepers (A. V. “ porters ”) of the threshold (IL. Kings 
xxii. 4; I Chron. ix. 22; II Chron. xxiii, 4; Jer. 
xxxv. 4), There isa wide-spread custom of making 
family sacrifices at the threshold in addition to those 
at the hearth. Herodotus reports this of the Egyp- 
tians (ii. 48). Trumbull suggests that there is a 
specific reference to the threshold in Ex. xii. 22 
(LXX.), in connection with the institution of the 
Passover. Even to the present day it is considered 
unlucky to tread on the threshold. He suggests 
also that the word “ pesah,” or “ passover,” means a 
“leaping over” the threshold, after it has been sanc- 
tified with the blood of the threshold-covenant. The 
threshold of Dagon’s temple was evidently sacred 
in this way; and it has been suggested by Cheyne 
that I Kings xviii. 20-21 should be rendered “How 
long will ye leap over both thresholds?” (that is, 
worship both Baal and Yirwm), 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. Clay Trumbull, Threshold Covenant, Phil- 
adelphia, 1896. jJ 


THRONE: 1. A royal seat, or chair of state. 
The king sits “upon the throne of his kingdom” 
(Deut. xvii. 18). Pharaoh delegated full power to 


Throne 
Tiberias 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


142 


Joseph to rule over Egypt; “only in the throne 
will I be greater than thou” (Gen. xli. 40). The 
royal throne is sometimes designated as “the 
throne of the kings” (Jer, lii. 32), The most mag- 
nificent throne was that of SoLoMON (see JEw. 
Encyc, xi. 441 e¢ seg.; J. S. Kolbo made a model 
of Solomon’s throne and exhibited it in New York 
city in 1888), The throne, like the crown, was a 
symbol of sovereign power and dignity. It was 
also the tribunal, the “throne of judgment” (Prov. 
xx. 8), where the king decided matters of law and 
disputes among his subjects. Thus “throne” is 
synonymous with “justice.” 

2. The Throne, the abode of God, known as 
“Kisse ha-Kabod” (the Throne of Glory), from 
which God manifests His majesty and glory. Mi- 
caiah “saw the Lord sitting on his throne, and all 
the hosts of heaven standing by him on his right 
hand and on his left” (I Kings xxii. 19; compare 
the vision of Isaiah [vi.1] with that of Ezekiel [x. 
1]). The throne of God is Heaven (Isa. lxvi. 1); in 
future it will be Jerusalem (Jer. iti. 17), and even 
the Sanctuary (Jer. xvii. 12). Thus the idea of the 
majestic manifestation of God gradually crystallized 
in the cabalistic expression “koah ha-zimzum ” (the 
power of concentration), God’s Throne is the 
symbol of righteousness; “justice and judgment 
are the habitation of thy throne” (Ps. lxxxix. 15 
[A. V. 14]). 

The Throne of Glory is an important feature in the 
Cabala. It is placed at the highest point of the 
universe (Hag. 12b); and is of the same color as the 
sky—purple-blue, like the “sapphire stone” which 
Bzekiel saw and which had previously been per- 
ceived by the Israelites (Ex. xxiv. 10; Sotah 17a). 
Like the Torah, it was created before the world 
(Pes. 54a). R,. Eliezer said that the souls of the 
righteous are concealed under the Throne (Shab. 
152b). When Moses ascended to heaven to receive 
the Torah the angels objected, whereupon God told 
him to hold on to the Throne and defend his action 
(Shab. 88b). It is asserted that the likeness of Jacob 
is engraved on the Throne of Glory (Zohar, Wayig- 
gash, p. 211a). For the throne of Elijah sce 
ELIgJAH’s CHAIR. 

J. J. D. E. 


THUNDER: The sound that follows lightning. 
The proper Hebrew term for it is py (Ps. Ixxvii. 
19 et passim; Job xxvi. 14; Isa. xxix. 6), but it is 
often rendered in the Bible by by5, plural nibip (‘= 
“voice,” “ voices”), the singular being always fol- 
lowed by Ayn’ (= “the voice of Yuwu”; Ps. xxx. 
3; Isa. xxx. 80). In the plural, with the exception 
of Ex. ix. 28, where it is followed by onde, the 
word “God” is omitted but understood (2b. ix. 23 
and elsewhere). 

Thunder is one of the phenomena in which the 
presence of Yawn is manifested; and it is also one 
of His instruments in chastising His enemies. Ac- 
cording to Ps. Ixxvii. 18-19, it was a thunder-cloud 
that came between the Israelites and the Egyptians 
when the former were about to cross the Red Sea 
(comp. Ex. xiv. 20). The hail in the seventh 
plague of Pharaoh was accompanied by thunder (2d. 
1x. 23 e¢ passim). The Law was given to the Israel- 


ites from Sinai amid thunder and lightning (id. xix, 
16). In the battle between the Israelites and the 
Philistines m the time of Samuel, a thunder-storm 
decided the issue in favor of the Israelites (I Sam. 
vii. 10; Ecclus. [Sirach] xlvi. 17). Later, when the 
Israelites asked Samuel for a king he prayed to God 
for a thunder-storm that the petitioners might be 
overawed (I Sam. xii. 18). The declaration of Jere- 
miah (Jer. x. 18): “When he uttereth a voice there 
is a multitude of waters,” probably refers to thunder. 
The most poetical description of a thunder-storm 
occurs in Ps, xxix, 3 e¢ seg. Thunder following 
lightning is spoken of in Job xxxvii. 3-4; and in 
two other passages they are mentioned together (2. 
XXVili, 26, xxxviii. 25). The separation of the water 
from the dry land at the time of the Creation (comp. 
Gen. i. 9) is said in Ps. civ. 7 to have been accom- 
plished by the voice of God, which probably refers 
to thunder. Theclattering noise of battle is likened 
to thunder (Job xxxix. 25). Thunder is metaphor- 
ically used to denote the power of God (2b, xxvi. 
14). The goods of the unjust disappear in a noise 
like thunder (Ecclus, (Sirach] xl. 13). In the ritual 
is included a special benediction to be recited on 
hearing thunder (see LIGHTNING, BENEDICTION ON). 
s. M. SEL. 


THURGAU. See SwitzERLaAND. 
TIAO KIU KIAOU. Sce CHINA. 


TIBBON. See Ign TiBpon, 


TIBERIAS: City founded by Herod Antipas in 
the year 26 c.z., and named in honor of the emperor 
Tiberius; situated on the western shore of Lake 
Gennesaret, near certain hot springs, in the most 
beautiful region of Galilee. The population of the 
city was very heterogeneous, thus giving rise to 
various stories. For example, one legend was to 
the effect that after the building of the city had 

been begun human bones were found, 

Founded whence the conclusion was drawn that 

by Herod the site must once have been a burial- 

Antipas. place; so that the whole city was de- 

clared unclean. The pious were ac- 
cordingly forbidden to dwell there, since the merest 
contact with graves made one unclean for seven 
days (Num. xix. 16; Oh. xvii., xviii.). Herod, be- 
ing determined to people the city at all hazards, 
was, therefore, obliged to induce beggars, adven- 
turers, and foreigners to come there; and in some 
cases he had even to use violence to carry out his 
will. The majority of the inhabitants, nevertheless, 
were Jews. 

The city had its own government, with a council 
(Bovdy) of 500 members at the head, the archon 
(apyor) being the presiding officer. From _ this 
council was chosen a board of ten members called 
“the ten elders” (Séxa mpOroc), their chief function 
being the punctual levying of the taxes, for which 
their own means were security. There were also 
hyparchs and an “agronomos” at the 
head (comp. Pauly-Wissowa, “ Real- 
Encyc.” s.v.). Since Tiberias was the 
capital of Galilee, it was ruled by 
Herod until he was exiled to Lyons (France) in 89. 
It then came under Agrippa I., in whose possession 


Govern- 
ment. 


143 


it remained until his death in 44, after which it was 
subject directly to Rome. It was the capital of 
Galilee until 61, when Nero gave it to Agrippa IL., 
and thus detached it from Galilee, since that prov- 
ince did not belong to him. 

When, in 66, the great revolution raged through 
the whole of Palestine, the inhabitants were divided 
into three factions: (1) the party on the side of 
Agrippa and the Romans; (2) the great mass of the 
poor, who were partizans of the rebellion; and (8) 
the neutrals, including the historian Justus of Ti- 
berias, who were neither friendly to Rome nor eager 
for the revolution. The revolutionists, headed by 
Jesus ben Zappha or Zopha, archon of the city, soon 
gained control; but the Roman faction would not 
give way. When, therefore, John of Giscala lodged 
a complaint in the Sanhedrin at Jerusalem against 
Josephus, who 
was then at Ti- 
berias, the coun- 
cil sent to the 
city an embassy 
of four men 
with 2,500 
troops. Jose- 
phus at first 
sought to annul 
the decision of 
the Sanhedrin; 
but his efforts 
proved unsuc- 
cessful, and, 
compelling the 
embassy to re- 
turn to Jerusa- 
lem, he subdued 
the revolution- 
ary party, 
whereupon the 
Roman sympa- 
thizers appealed 
to Agrippa for 
aid, which he refused to grant. After Vespasian 
had conquered the greater part of Galilee, however, 
Tiberias voluntarily opened its gates to him, and 
favor was shown the inhabitants for Agrippa’s sake. 

Of the famous buildings in Tiberias the most 
prominent were the royal palace (which was stormed 

and destroyed in the Jewish war on 
Buildings. account of its pictures), the stadium, 

@ synagogue (zpocevy7), and a great 
assembly hall (uéy:orov oixnua), while after the close 
of the war pagan temples, including the Adrianeum 
(‘Adpiaveiov), were built there as well as in other 
cities. The baths of Tiberias, called “demosin” or 
“demosin de-Tebarya” (dyju6o1a), were famous as 
early as the third century (Yer. Ber. ii. 5, 3; iii. 6, 
3). The synagogues of the city were the Kifra (Yer. 
Meg. i. 1) and the Kenishta ‘Attikta de-Serongin 
(Yer. Kil. ix. 5), while the “castle of Tiberias,” 
mentioned in Yer. ‘Ab. Zarah iii. 1, appears to have 
been the building which Josephus fortified to de- 
fend the city. A saying of Raba or of Abaye, “I 
Know this or that halakah as well as Ben ‘Azzai [a 
tanna of the early part of the second century] 
knows the streets of Tiberias” (‘Er. 29a; Kid. 20a; 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


I A 


JeWish School-Children at Tiverias. 
(From a photograph by E. N. Adler.) 


Throne 
Tiberias 


Sotah 45a; ‘Ar. 30b), shows that Jewish scholars lived 
in the city, at least temporarily, very soon after its 
foundation, although there is no mention of a defi- 
nite Jewish settlement there until the second half 
of the second century. 

After Simeon ben Yohai had fled from the perse- 
cutions of the Romans, and had lived in hiding for 
many years, thus injuring his health, he bathed in 
the springs of Tiberias and recovered. He seems, 
in his gratitude, to have declared either a part or 
the whole of Tiberias to be clean (Yer. Sheb. ix. 
388d; Gen. R. Ixxix.; Eccl. R. on x. 8; Esther R. i. 
9; Shab. 35b; ‘Ab. Zarah 10a; Griitz, “Gesch.” iv. 
208, 473). Judah ha-Nasi also resided there (R. H. 
381b; comp. Rashi, s.v. “Bet She‘arim”); and from 
the time when Johanan b. Nappaha settled in Ti- 
berias (Yer. Sheb. ix. 1; Bezah i. 1) the city became 
the center of 
scholarship, so 
that other acad- 
emies could not 
compare with it. 
Even R. Abbahu 
sent his son 
from Cesarea to 
Tiberias to 
study (Yer. Pes. 
iii. 7). It was, 
moreover, the 
last city in 
which a Sanhe- 
drin held sit- 
tings (R. H. 51b; 
Yer. Pes. iv. 2). 

During the 
persecutions in 
the reigns of the 
emperors Con- 
stantius and 
Gallus the Ti- 
berian scholars 
decided to in- 
tercalate a month in the calendar for the year 353; 
but fear of the Romans led to the substitution of 

“Rakkath ” (Josh, xix. 35) for “ Tibe- 

During rias” in the letter which conveyed 

Per- the information to Raba at Mahuza 

secutions. (Sanh. 12a). Thesessions of the schol- 

ars were held in a grotto near Tiberias, 

and only by the flickering of torches was it possible to 

distinguish between night and day (Gen. R. xxxi.). 

In several places in the Talmud, e.g., in Meg. 6a, the 
identity of Tiberias with Rakkath is established. 

Even in the sixth century Tiberias was still the 
seat of religious learning; so that Bishop Simeon of 
Bet-Arsham urged the Christians of Palestine to 
seize the leaders of Judaism in Tiberias, to put them 
to the rack, and to compel them to command the 
Jewish king, Dhu Nuwas, to desist from persecu- 
ting the Christians in Najran (Assemani, “ Biblio- 
theca Orientalis Clementino- Vaticana,” i. 379). 

In 614a monk of Mt. Sinai went to Tiberias to 
become a Jew. He received the name of Abraham, 
and married a Jewess of that city (Antiochius, 
“ Homilia Octoginta-Quarta,” in Migne, “ Patrologia 
Greca,” xii. 265), In the ninth century the gram- 


Tiberias 
Tiktin 


marians and Masorites Moses and Aaron ben Asher 
lived at Tiberias, which was then called Mu‘izziy yah, 
in honor of the Fatimite calif Mu‘izz. The system 
of Hebrew punctuation still in use originated in 
Tiberias and is accordingly called the Tiberian sys- 
tem (comp. Gritz, é.c. 3d ed., v., note 23, ii., and 
the remarks of Halberstam). 

At the beginning of the twelfth century the Jew- 
ish community in Tiberias numbered about fifty 
families; and at that time the best manuscripts of 
the Torah were said to be found there. According 
to some sources the grave of Moses Maimonides is 
at Tiberias; but this statement is of very doubtful 
accuracy (see Contorte, “Kore ha-Dorot,” p. 13a; 
“Sefer Yuhasin,” ed. Filipowski, p. 181b). 

In the sixteenth century Joseph ben Ardut, aided 
by the riches of Dofia Gracia and by the daily re- 
mittances of 60 aspers sent him by order of Sultan 
Sulaiman, undertook torebuild the city of Tiberias, 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


144 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Robinson, Researches, tii. 500-525; Sepp, Je- 
rusalem und das Heilige Land, ii. 188-2089 ; D.P. V. i8 
ix. 81-103; Kaminka, Studien zur esenichte Galiliias, 
Berlin, 1889 : Schiirer, Gesech. 3d ed., Index, 8.v.; Gratz, 
Gesch. iii. 269 et sey.; iv. 181 et seq.; vi. 169, 242 ix. 398; 


H. T. de Graaf, De J opdsche Wi etgelur den in Tiberias van 


70-400 1. Crs Gréningen, 1902; Neubauer, G. 7. pp, 25, 33, 208 
et seq. 
E. C. S. O. 


TIBERIAS, LAEE. See CHINNERETH. 


TIBERIUS JULIUS ALEXANDER. See 
ALEXANDER, TIBERIUS JULIUS. 


TIBNI: One of the rulers of the kingdom of 
Israel during the interregnum between Zimri and 
Omri; son of Ginath. When Zimzri, after a reign of 
seven days, had ended his life, the people of Israel 
were divided into two factions, one siding with 
Omri, and the other with Tibni. Omri’s followers 
gained the upper hand; and, finally, Tibni having 
died, Omri was declared king (I Kings xvi. 21-22). 
From a comparison of verses 15 and 23 of the 


VIEW OF TIBERIAS SHOWING THE TOMB OF RABBI MEIR. 
(From a photograph by the American Colony at Jerusalem.) 


and to allow only Jews to reside there. The old 
superstition was revived, however, that the Jewish 
religion would conquer all others when Tiberias 

was rebuilt, whereupon the workmen 


Don refused to work and had to be forced 
Joseph todoso. After a year the city was 
Nasi. completed, and Joseph wished to in- 


troduce the breeding of silkworms and 
the manufacture of wool (Chariére, “ Négociation,” 
ii, 786; Gratiani, “De Bello Cypro,” p. 492, note). 
The first Jewish immigrants to the new city went 
thither from the Pontifical States, as a result of a 
papal bull; and they were aided by Joseph Nasi. 
Their numbers and fortunes are alike unknown. 

In 1837 an earthquake destroyed most of the 
city, while in 1865 and 1866 the ravages of the chol- 
era forced the leaders of the community to apply to 
Europe for aid, appeals being printed in nearly all 
the Jewish weekly periodicals. Conditions have 
much improved, however; and since the year 1889 
the community has had its own physician. The 
cemetery is situated on the ruins of the old city. 
The Jews of Tiberias number about 2,000 in a total 
population of 3,600. 


chapter just cited, it appears that Tibni was regent 
over half the kingdom of Israel for a period of four 
years. According to the Septuagint (ad loc.), Tibni 
had a brother named Joram, who seconded him in the 
dispute over the throne and who died at the same 
time as himself, probably at the hands of Omri’s 
party. 

J. M. 


TIEN-TSIN: Commercial city of China. Its 
Jewish inhabitants number about 150, most of whom 
are Russian and Polish. They have not organized 
as a community and hold divine services ouly 
during the penitential season, when private halls 
are used and Sefer Torahsare brought from Shang- 
hai. In 1902 J. Dietrich purchased a piece of land 
and presented it tothe Jewish inhabitants for burial 
purposes. In 1904 a branch of the Anglo-Jewish 
Association was formed, of which Dr. M. Linscer is 
president. The Tien-Tsin Jews are mainly merchants 
and hotel-keepers. 

J. N. E. B. E. 


TIETZ, HERMANN: German rabbi; born at 
Birnbaum, Posen, Germany, Sept. 3, 1834, and edu- 


SEL, 


145 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Tiberias 
Tiktin 


cated at the University of Berlin (Ph.D. Halle). He 
was rabbi in Schrimm, and since 1888 he has been 
q “Stiftrabbiner ” and teacher in the bet ha-midrash 
at Inowrazlaw. Ffe has published “ Das Hohe Lied,” 
translated in verse, and with notes according to the 
Midrash (Berlin, 1878), and “ Megillat Eka,” with 
9 metrical translation and a Hebrew commentary, 
under the title “ Zikron Yehudah ” (Schrimm, 1881). 
S, F. T. 4H. 


TIFLIS. See CAatcastvs. 


TIGLATH-PILESER (Hebrew, tpxda-nban, 
and a corrupt form, spyba-nibn, in I Chron. v. 6, 
26; If Chron. xxviii. 20; Assyrian, “ Tukuiti-apil- 
e-Sar-ra ” = “my help is the son of Egarra”): King of 
Assyria from 747 to 727 3.c.; designated by modern 
Oriental historians as Tiglath-pileser IJI. He first 
appears under the name “Pul” (II Kings xv. 19; 
comp. I Chron, v. 26), the proper form of which is 
“Pulu,” as is seen in the list of Babylonian kings. 
When he assumed the crown over Assyria he seems 
to have called himself Tukulti-pal-HSar-ra after the 
great ruler of the same name in the twelfth century. 

Tiglath-pileser left several important inscriptions 
of his reign; but these were badly broken when 
discovered. Upon his accession he inaugurated a 
new policy for the government and administration 
of Assyria. Former kings had maintained by mili- 
tary force the union of the so-called empire; the 
new policy established a method of organization 
which more closely united the central and provin- 
cial sections of the government: systems of trans- 
portation and transplantation of strong but rebel- 
lious subjects minimized dangers that had wrecked 
other governments. This was the method pursued 
by Sargon at Samaria, by Sennacherib, and by other 
rulers down into Persian times. 

Tiglath-pileser’s first campaign into the west 
country took place in 748-742, when he entered 
northern Syria. While here he received tribute from 
Rezin of Damascus and Hiram of Tyre, <A two- 
year siege was necessary to reduce to complete sub- 
mission the plucky little city of Arpad, in 740 
(comp. Isa. x. 9; II Kings xix. 13), The very next 
year he seems to have clashed with the interests of 
Azariah (Uzziah), King of Judah, far in the north 
(comp. II Kings xiv. 28) and to have established 
Assyrian sovereignty there. Either in this or in the 
following year Menahem (II Kings xv. 19, 20), king 
of northern Israel, purchased his throne of the As- 
syrian ruler. 

Not until 734 was Tiglath-pileser’s presence again 
required in the west. Pekah, who had secured by 
Strategy and tragedy the throne of northern Israel, 
formed a league with Rezin of Damascus to with- 
stand any further assumption of sovereignty over 
Israel and Syria by the power centered on the Tigris. 
Together they besieged Ahaz at Jerusalem, either 
to force him to join the anti-Assyrian coalition or to 
put a man of their own choice onthe throne. <Ahaz 
in desperation appealed to Tiglath-pileser for help. 
The Assvrian king made a dash for Damascus and 
laid siege toit. In the meantime he ravaged north- 
ern Israel (comp. II Kings xv. 29) and other terri- 
tory all the way to Philistia. In 732 Damascus fell 
(comp. Isa. viii. 4; If Kings xvi. 9). At this time 

XIT.—10 


apparently Ahaz, among a number of petty kings, 
appeared within Damascus before the throne of the 
great conqueror and paid the price of submission. 
Soon after this event, probably, Tiglath-pileser in- 
cited or encouraged Hoshea to slay Pekah, the un- 
yielding king of northern Israel. Hoshea was re- 
warded by being put in authority over this Assyrian 
province; aud Tiglath-pileser retired to the east. 
In 728 he became master of Babylon, and died the 
following year. 
J. I. M. P. 


TIGRIS (Hebrew, So5n; Aramaic and Talmudic, 
nboxt; the modern Dijlah): One of the fourstreams 
mentioned in Gen. ii. 14as watering the Garden of 
Eden, and described, from the standpoint of Pales- 
tine, as flowing “in front of Assyria” (R. V.). The 
Tigris has its source in several springs in Mount 
Ararat, not far from the head-waters of the Euphra- 
tes. Near one of these springs the figures of Sarda- 
uapalus and Tiglath-pileser III. are found carved 
inthe rock. After flowing a short distance the river 
receives the waters of several mountain brooks from 
the east; and at Diarbekr it is already a fairly large 
stream. South of Mosul it is navigable for rafts, 
and at Bagdad it carries boats, while at Korna it 
unites with the Euphrates to form the Shatt al- 
‘Arab, which empties into the Persian Gulf. Its 
chief period of rise occurs, opposite Mosul, at the 
time of the melting of the snow (Kcclus, [Sirach] 
xxiv. 25), when it devastates the surrounding 
country. Hence, even in antiquity it was necessary 
to dig transverse canals in various places to carry off 
the superfluous water, which is whitish in color and 
is famed for its potability among those who Jive in 
the vicinity and who are accustomed to it. The 
river contains great numbers of fish. The Tigris 
is referred to in only one other place in the Bible, 
namely, Dan. x. 4, where in the English version the 
name is transliterated simply “ Hiddekel.” 

The Targum and the Talmud term it the Diglat, 
the earlier form of the name. In answer to the 
question why this river was called also Hiddekel, 
R. Ashi replied that it was on account of its sharp- 
ness and swiftness, the word bon being etymolo- 
gized as a compound of 7 (“sharp,” “swift”) and 
b5 (“light,” “quick ”; Ber. 59a). Neubauer proposed 
to separate the name into 47 or yn and boy (“the 
swiftly running Diklah”). In the Talmud the water 
of the river is considered to be both quickening for 
the mind and healthful for the body on account of 
its lightness (20.). It wasalso held to be one of the 
oldest rivers; and when a Jew saw its waters from 
the bridge Bostane he was enjoined to recite the 
blessing “ Blessed be He who hath made the work of 
Creation” (7b.; Yeb. 121a). 

From Bagdad to Apameia the river formed the 
boundary of Babylon (Kid. 71b). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY : McClintock and Strong, Cyc. iv. 2382, x. 403: 
Herzog-Hauck, Real-Hncyc. xv. 662; Néldeke, in Schenkel, 
Bihellexicon, Vv. 536 et seq.; Friedrich Delitzsch, Wo Lag das 
Paradies? Index, Leipsic, 188]; Neubauer, G. T. pp. 3384- 
337, Paris, 1868; 8S. Léwisohn, Mehkere Erez, pp. 136-137, 


Vienna, 1819. 
s, 5. O. 


TIKTIN: A Silesian family of rabbis originating 
from Tiktin, a town in Poland. 


Tiktin 
Tirhakah 


Abraham ben Gedaliah Tiktin: German 
rabbi; born at Schwersenz, Posen; died at Breslau 
Dec. 27, 1820. In 1811 he was appointed rabbi at 
Glogau, and five 
years later, by a 
royal rescript of 
Sept. 5, he became 
chief district rabbi 
at Breslau, where 
he officiated until 
his death. He was 
the author of sev- 
eral works, al- 
though only one 
appeared in print, 
namely, “ Petah ha- 
Bayit”  (Dyhern- 
furth, 1820), novel- 
le on the fourth 
part of the Shul- 
han ‘Aruk,. 

At Tiktin’s fu- 
neral Rabbis Jacob 
of Lissa, Moses Kronik, and Solomon Plessner de- 
livered sermons, a]l of which were published. 

s. 8. QO. 

Gedaliah Tiktin: German rabbi; born about 
1808; diedat Breslau Aug. 8, 1886. Like his father, 
Solomon Tiktin, whom he succeeded in the rab- 
binate of Breslau in 1848, Gedaliah was the cham- 
pion of Orthodox Judaism. The war which had 
been carried on for years between the Orthodox and 
Reform parties, headed respectively by Solomon 
Tiktin and Abraham Geiger, was continued after 
the former’s death. The Reform party endeavored 
to influence the German government to recognize 
Geiger as rabbi of Breslau; but, owing to Tiktin’s 
personal merit, King Frederick William IV. con- 
firmed him in office, and, later, even conferred on 
him the title of “ Kéniglicher Landesrabbiner.” It 
was not until after Geiger’s death that Tiktin and 
Joél, Geiger’s successor, came to an understanding 
in order to maintain peace in the Jewish community 
of Breslau. Even after his confirmation by the king, 
Tiktin had not exercised his power with regard to 
the slaughterers (“shohatim ”), but had contented 
himself with abstaining for several years from eat- 
ing meat. 

Tiktin was known also for his charitable activity 
during the forty-three years of his rabbinate; and 
there was hardly any charitable institution of which 
he was not a member. In 1870 he received tlie dec- 
oration of the Order of the Red Eagle in recognition 
of services rendered by him to the sick and wounded 
during the Franco-German war of 1870-71. Special 
courtesies were paid to him by the German govern- 
ment on account of his weekly visits to the Jewish 
prisoners. 

Tiktin was the author of a pamphlet entitled 
“Beitrag zur Bearbeitnng der von Seiten der Be- 
horde . Gerichteten, den Jiidischen Kultus 
Betreffenden Fragen” (Breslau, 1848). 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Allg. Zeit. des Jud. 1886, p. 554; First, Bibl. 

Jud. iii. 481; Ha-Zefirah, xiii., No. 106. 

Solomon Tiktin: German rabbi; born at Glo- 
gau; died in Breslau March 20, 1848; son of Abra- 


Abraham Tiktin. 
(From au old print.) 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


146 


ham Tiktin. He was a prominent champion of Or- 
thodox Judaism; and some idea of his anti-Reform 
activity may be gathered from the writings of his 
opponent, A. Geiger. Tiktin became rabbi at Bres- 
lau in 1824. In 1836 he prohibited the printing in 
Breslau of Moses Briick’s “Die Reform des Juden- 
thums.” But the real war between Tiktin and the 
Reform party began when Geiger presented himself 
as a candidate for the position of second rabbi (“ Rab- 
binatsassessor ” or “dayyan”) of Breslau, Geiger 
was invited to preach in Breslau on July 21, 1838; 
but Tiktin is said to have applied to the police to 
prevent Geiger from doing so. In 1842 Tiktin 
published his two pamphlets, “Darlegung des 
Sachverhadltnisses in Seiner Hiesigen Rabbinats-An- 
gelegenheit ” and “ Entgegnung auf den Bericht des 
Ober-Vorsteher-Collegiums der Hiesigen Israeliten- 
Gemeinde an die Mitglieder,” in which he accused 
Geiger of having deliberately planned the destruc- 
tion of the foundations of Judaism. Tiktin insisted 
that Geiger should not be present either at a divorce 
or at a halizah ceremony, thus denying him recogni- 
tion as a rabbinical authority. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. Geiger, Nachgelassene Schriften, i. 32 et 
seq.; idem, in Der Israelit, 1848, p. 64: E. Schreiber, Abra- 
ham Geiger, pp. 20 et seg., Spokane, 1892. 


g. M. SE. 
TIKTINER, JUDAH LOB BEN SIMHAH: 

Russian rabbi of the eighteenth century. He offi- 

ciated as ab bet din in Zagora, and later was a resi- 

dentof Wilna. Tiktiner was the author of “Shalme 

Simhah ” (2 vols., Wilna, 1806), containing novelle 

on the halakot of Asher ben Jehiel, preceded by a 

presentation of various basal principles of the Tal- 

mud, as well as of various casuistic writings. The 
work is, however, incomplete, extending only as far 
as the treatise Ta‘anit. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY : Steinsehneider, Cat. Bodl, col, 1373; Benja- 
cob, Ozgar ha-Sefarim, p. 589. 

E. C. S. O. 

TIKTINER, REBECCA BAT MEIR: Aus- 
trian authoress of the sixteenth century; flourished 
at Prague, where she died, apparently in 1550. She 
wrote two works: (1) “ Meneket Ribkah ” (Prague, 

1609; Cracow, 1618}, divided into seven “ gates,” 

treating of a housewife’s duties, and containing 

various Talmudic and Midrashic anecdotes; (2) 

“Simhat Torah Lied ” (Prague, n.d.), a poem for the 

Simhat Torah festival. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hock-Kaufmann, Die Familien Prags, p. 
1538a; Zunz, Z. G. p. 285; Benjacob, Ozar ha-Sefarim, p. 
325; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. cols. 562, 573, 2134-2135 ; Nepi- 
Ghirondi, Taledot Gedole Yisrael, p. 310; De Rossi, Dizio- 
nario, p. 313. 

E. C. 8. O. 
TIKTINSKI, HAYYIM JUDAH LOB B. 

SAMUEL: Lithuanian Talmudist; born in Mir 

Oct. 18, 1828; died in Warsaw March 30, 1899. 

He was the second son of Samuel Tiktinski, founder 

of the yeshibah in Mir, who died in 1835, leaving 

his eleven-year-old son without any material means. 

Despite his very unfavorable circumstances, young 

Tiktinski succeeded by diligent application in pass- 

ing a rabbinical examination before he was twenty, 

at which age he officiated as substitute for Rabbi 

Eiihu Shik in Deretschin when the latter went on a 

long journey. In 1850 he was invited by Rabbi 


147 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Tiktin 
Tirhakah 


Moses Abraham ben David of Mir to deliver lectures 
before the local yeshibah. By his brilliant delivery 
and his rejection of the pilpul he attracted many 
scholars; and when, in 1867, Moses Abraham dicd, 
Tiktinski was entrusted with the entire control of 
the yeshibah. Among his many pupils were Meir, 
rabbi of Draderkewin, and Mordecai Elihu, author 
ot “ Ner le-Ma’or.” 

Jn 1876 Tiktinski’s son Samuel delivered some of 
the lectures at the yeshibah ; and in 1888, when Samuel 
died, his younger brother, Abraham, took his place. 
When, in the summer of 1898, the yeshibah was des- 
troyed by fire for the second time, Tiktinski, in spite 
of illness, procured the necessary funds to rebuild 
it. He Jeft no works, his contributions to the ex- 
planation of the Talmud having been destroyed in 
the above-mentioned fire. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: M. L. Goldberg, Sefer Toledot ha-Gaon Hay- 

yim Judah LOb, Warsaw, 1901. 

RB, C. A. PE. 

TIMBREL or TABRET: Musical instrument. 
In the Hebrew music of Old Testament times, as in- 
deed in Oriental music to-day, rhythm was of much 
greater importance, in comparison with the melody, 
than it is in modern Occidental music. Accord- 
ingly instruments like the drum and tambourine, 
which serve principally to accentuate the rhythm, 
played the greatest part. The most ancient means of 
marking rhythm was the clapping of hands, a 
method which is still employed. Among the instru- 
ments of percussion, the timbrel or hand-drum 
(“tof”) is the oldest and most popular. It is very 
simple, consisting of a broad or narrow hoop of 
wood or metal over which the skin of an animal is 
stretched. Sometimes small, thin pieces of metal 
are hung upon the rim, which jingle when the tim- 
brel is shaken, as in the modern tambourine. The 
instrument is held high in one hand, while the 
performer beats on the drumhead with the fingers 
and the back of the other hand. The form of the 
instrument is similar to that of the modern tambou- 
rine, as is also the manner of playing on it. 

The Egyptians and the Assyrians possessed this 
instrument. The pictures of the former show it 
only in the hands of women; among the Assyrians 
it was played by men also. Among the Hebrews 
it was usually played by women, as an accompani- 
ment to joyful dancing (Judges xi. 34; I Sam. xviii. 
6; Jer. xxxi. 4) and tosongs (Gen. xxxi. 27; Ex. xv. 
20; I Sam. xviii. 6). The timbrel is an instrument 
Which in its whole character is inappropriate for 
mournful occasions, being in keeping only with 
cheerful songs and games, such as accompany wed- 
dings (I Macc. ix. 39), popular rejoicings (e.g., the 
reception of a victorious general; I Sam. xviii. 6 et 
seq.), banquets (Isa. v. 12), and religious festivals of 
a joyful and popular character (Ex. xv. 20; Ps. 
Ixxxi. 2). It is more rarely found in the hands of 
men. Aljl the prophets who speak at length of 
music refer to the hand-drum (I Sam. x. 5). 

The tambourine apparently had no place in the 
Temple service, however; at Jeast in the enumera- 
tion of the instruments of the Temple orchestra (II 
Chron. v. 12 e¢ seq.) only the cymbals are mentioned 
among the instruments of percussion. 

E. C. J. Br. 


TIMNATH-SERAH (in Judges ii. 9, Tim- 
nath-heres): Town in Mount Ephraim, situated 
on the northern slope of the hill of Gaash (Josh. 
xxiv. 80). Itwas given to Joshua asan inheritance, 
was fortified by him (2), xix. 50), and served as his 
place of burial (2. xxiv. 80). According to the 
“Onomasticon” of Eusebius, Timnath was an im- 
portant city in the district of Diospolis (Lydda); 
and the grave of Joshua was shown there. On the 
site of the city is situated the modern town of Tibna, 
about ten miles north of Beth-el on the Roman road 
from Cesarea to Jerusalem. Among its ruins and 
tombs is a grave of remarkable size and construc- 
tion, which is probably the one identified in the 
days of Eusebius as that of Joshua. Another tradi- 
tion, however, of Samaritan origin, locates the tomb 
farther to the northeast, in the small village of Kafr 
Haris, which is therefore frequently regarded as the 
site of Timnath. The city seems to have been iden- 
tical with the Thamnatha of I Mace. ix. 50, which, 
according to Josephus (“ Ant.” xiv. 11, § 2; “B. J.” 
iv. 8, $ 1), was the capital of a Jewish toparchy. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Guérin, Judée, ili. 37; idem, Samarie, ii. 89 

et seq.; Pal. Explor. Fund, Memoirs, ii, 374 et seq.; idem, 


Quarterly Statement, 1879, pp. 193 et seq.; Z. D. P. V. ii. 18 
et seq.; Schiirer, Gesch. 3d ed., ii. 181-186. 
E. C, I. BE. 


TIN. See METALS. 


TIRADO, JACOB: Convert to Judaism in Am- 
sterdam in the sixteenth century; diedin Jerusalem. 
With several Maranos he sailed from Portugal in a 
vessel which was driven out of its course to Emden 
in Kast Friesland. Following the advice of Rabbi 
Moses Uri ha-Levi, he continued his travels with his 
companions to Amsterdam. After his arrival there 
he confessed the Jewish faith openly, and afterward, 
though advanced in years, underwent the rite of 
circumcision, 

Together with Jacob Israel Belmonte and Samuel 
Palache, Tirado founded the Spanish-Portuguese 
community of Amsterdam, being its first president, 
Having acquired a house on the Houtgracht, he 
transformed it into a synagogue, which was called 
after him “Bet Ya‘akob,” or “Casa de Jacob,” and 
was consecrated at the New-Year’s festival, 5358 
(= Sept., 1597). Annually on Yom Kippur a spe- 
cial prayer in his behalf is recited as an acknowl- 
edgment of his important services to the community. 
In his old age Tirado traveled to Jerusalem, where 
he died. See Moses Uri B. JOSEPH HA-LEVI. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: De Barrios, Casa de Jacob, pp.3 et seq.; idem, 

Relacion de los Poetas, p. 53; D. H. de Castro, De Synagoge 

der Portugeesch-Israelitische Gemeente te Amsterdam, pp. 

5, 7; Gratz, Gesch. ix., pp. 1xxxiii. et seq. 

S. M. K. 

TIRHAKAH (nApmin): King of Ethiopia (z.c., 
Nubia). When Sennacherib and his general (Rab- 
shakeh) were besieging Lachish, Libnah, and Jeru- 
salem, it was reported that Tirhakah was approach- 
ing with an army to assist the Palestinians against 
the Assyrian forces (II Kings xix. 9; Isa. xx xvii. 9). 

This king, the Tarakos of Manetho (comp. “Tha- 
raca,” LXX. and Vulgate), the Tearkos of Strabo, 
the Tharsikes of Josephus, and the Tarku of the As- 
syrian inscriptions (written “Ta-h-ru-k” in hiero- 
glyphics with strange vocalization; the consonants 
suggest as emendation a transposition of the second 


Tirhakah 
Tisza-Eszlar Affair 


aud third consonants in the Hebrew form), was the 

third Pharaoh of the twenty-fifth or Ethiopian 

dynasty of Egypt. Me was a usurper who tried 
later to legalize his usurpation by marriage with the 
widow of his predecessor, Shabataka (the Sebichos of 

Manetho). Assyrian reports assign his death to 668- 

667 B.c.; and Egyptian inscriptions state that he 

reigned twenty-six years (twenty or eighteen ac- 

cording to Manetho). Thus his ascension to the 
throne would fall in 694-693 B.c. (according to 
others, his coronation occurred in 691 and his death 

in 665). 

Tirhakah has left in Egypt many monuments, ex- 
tending from Tanis to Napata, his capital in Nubia. 
No line of his inscriptions speaks of the great wars 
which he had to wage, at least from 676. The 
Assyrians, accusing him of having aided their rebel- 
lious vassal, King Baal of Tyre, invaded Egypt in 
that year, but their army was finally annihilated. 
In 671, however, King Esarhaddon undertook an- 
other expedition, invaded Egypt by way of Magdali 
(perhaps the Biblical Migdol), defeated an army at 
Iskhupri, and by two further victories drove Tirha- 
kah out of Egypt. The twenty petty rulers (nom- 
archs) among whom this country was distributed 
by the Assyrians followed a treacherous course, 
wavering between the Assyrians and Tirhakah, who 
invaded Egypt again in 669 and occupied the land. 
A third Assyrian army, however, was victorious at 
Karbanit (in the northwest of the Delta), destroyed 
the rebellious Sais, Mendes, and Tanis, and pursued 
Tirhakah as far back as Thebes, which closed its 
doors to the fugitive king. Theenergetic Ethiopian 
rallied his troops for another campaign, and had 
already forced Thebes to surrender, when he died. 
His stepson and successor, Tandamani (thus the As- 
syrian; Tinwat-Amon in hieroglyphics; Tementhes 
in Polynus, “Strategica,” vii. 3), made only one 
more futile attempt to regain Egypt. 

It will be seen from the above chronology that the 
monumental data can not easily be harmonized with 
the seemingly conflicting chronology of the Bible, 
which mentions Tirhakah in 701 both as king 
and as at war with the Assyrians. It is at present 
not possible to explain this discrepancy; the latest 
attempt at an explanation is that of PraSek (“ Mit- 
teilungen der Vorderasiatischen Gesellschaft,” 1908, 
viii. 148), who holds that the Biblical passage con- 
cerning Tirhakah referred originally to an expedition 
in 691 or later, the report being misplaced in the 
present text. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY : Forthe monuments of Tirhakah : Wiedemann, 
Gesch. Aegyptens, p. 590. For his ascension to the throne: 
Maspero, Histoire Aicienne, 1899, iii. 361 (with some reser- 
vations). On the cuneiform accounts: Winckler, in Schrader, 

,. A. 7. 3d ed., pp. 88 et seq. {also Mitteilungen der Vor- 

derasiatischen Gesellschaft, 1898, p. 29; Altorientalische 

Forschungen, p. 97). 

E. C, W. M. M. 


TIRZAH: 1. Ancient Canaanitish capital (Josh. 
xii. 24), which, from the context, seems to have 
been situated in the northern part of the country. 
Possibly, therefore, it should be distinguished from 
the Israelitish capital of the same name (I Kings 
xiv, 17; xv. 21, 33), which was made a royal city by 
Jeroboam I. (¢b. xiv. 17), and which remained the 
residence of the kings of Israel until Omri. Subse- 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


148 


quently Tirzah is mentioned only as the center of 
the revolution of Menahem (IJ Kings xv. 14, 16); 
and even in this passage “Tirzah,” on the basis of 
the Septuagint text, should perhaps be read “* Thar- 
seila” and be identified with the village of that 
name, Which, according to the “Onomasticon” of 
Eusebius, was 4 Samaritan town in Bashan, corre- 
sponding to the modern Tsil, 

The only information possessed concerning the 
royal city of Tirzah, which is praised for its beauty 
in Cant. vi. 4, is that it was situated in the district 
of Zelophehad in the tribe of Manasseh (Num. xxvi. 
33, xxvii. 1, xxxvi. 11; Josh. xvii. 3); but, since 
neither Josephus nor the “Onomasticon” gives any 
details regarding it, all identifications are uncertain. 
Robinson considered it to be the site of the modern 
Talluza, the Tarlusa of the Talmud, a town about 
seven kilometers northeast of Nablus (Neubauer, 
“G. T.” p. 268), while Conder, on the other hand, 
identified it with Tayasir, an ancient site with cav- 
erns, tombs, and other remains, nineteen kilometers 
northeast of Nablus. The translation of “ Tirzah ” 
by “Tirfan” in the Targum to Cant. vi. 4 has led 
other scholars to identify the place with the modern 
Al-Tirah, which lies south of Nablus, although this 
Tir‘an may perhaps be represented rather by Tur‘an, 
northeast of Nazareth. 

2. The youngest of the five daughters of Zelo- 
phehad (Num. xxvi. 33). 

E. C. J. BE. 


TISHBI, ELIJAH. See Levitra, Exvan. 


TISHBI, JUDAH BEN ELIJAH: Karaite 
scholar and liturgical poet; flourished at Belgrade in 
the first half of the sixteenth century; grandson of 
Abraham ben Judah. He copied and completed 
the exegetical work of his grandfather, entitled 
“Yesod Mikra,” and was the author of liturgical 
poems, several of which have been inserted in the 
Karaite prayer-book (“Siddur ba-Kera’im,” ii. 215; 
iii. 171, 172, 174), Judah was the copyist of the 
“Yehi Me’orot,” on the precepts attributed to Tobiah 
ben Moses. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY : Pinsker, Likkute Kadmoniyyot, p. 93; First, 

Gesch. des Kardert, ii. 293. 


K. I. Br. 


TISZA-ESZLAR AFFAIR: Accusation of 
ritual murder brought against the Jews of Tisza- 
Eszlar, a Hungarian town situated on the Theiss. 
On April 1, 1882, Esther Solymosi, a Christian 
peasant girl fourteen years old, servant in the home 
of Andreas Huri at Tisza-Eszlar, was sent on an 
errand from which she did not return. The search 
for her being fruitless, a rumor was circulated that 
the gir] had become a victim of religious fanaticism. 
The agitaticns of the anti-Semites, whose leaders, 
Onody of Tisza-Eszlar and Victor von Istéczi, had 
in the House of Deputies proposed the expulsion of 
the Jews, exercised a most pernicious influence upon 

the country population. In the gen- 


Origin of eral excitement which they stirred up 
the Ac- and which led to bloody excesses in 
cusation. many parts of Hungary, the suspicion 


that the Jews had foully dealt with 
the girl, in order to use her blood at the approach- 
ing Passover (April 4), found ready credence; and 


149 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Tirhakah 
Tisza-Eszlar Affair 


on May 4 the alarmed mother accused the Jews be- 
fore the lecal judge of having killed her daughter, 
and urged him to hold an investigation. 

On May 19 the county court of Nyireghyhaza sent 
the notary Bary to act as examining judge at Tisza- 
Eszlar. After having placed the suspected Jews 
under the surveillance of the police, Bary began his 
inquiry with Samuel, the five-year-old son of the 
synagogue sexton Josef Scharf. The babble of this 
child, from whom by means of money presents and 
pieces of sugar some women and girls had elicited 
the statement that his father had called Esther into 
his house and pinioned her, and that the slanghterer 
(“shohet”) had cut off her head, was the point at 
issue in all the proceedings. Before Bary the boy 


stated that in the presence of his father and other 
men the slaughterer had made an incision in the 
girl’s neck, while he himself and his brother Moriz 
The father, as 


had received the blood in a plate. 
well as Moriz, 
who was nearly 
fourteen years 


old, and the Y 

other suspected | 
persons, denied / ‘ 

any knowledge : 

of thedisappear- «a 

ance of the girl <qyRee 
and of her con- =74\ad: 
jectured mur- ‘egal’ 
der. On May “*aue 
19 Scharf and = 4y, : 
his wife were ‘ 


arrested; Moriz 
repeated his 
statement, and 
said in addition that he had never known anything 
about the missing girl, not even from hearsay. On 
the evening of that day Moriz was given in charge 
of Recszy, the commissary of safety, who took 
him to his country house in Nagy- 

‘‘Confes- Falu, where the court clerk, Peczely, 
sions” of received orders to watch over the 
‘the Scharf boy’s safety. Peczely, a brutish man 
Children. who had served twelve years in jail 
for murder, connived with Recszy to 

make Moriz the instrument of a blood accusation, 
Intimidated by cruelty and threats, the boy con- 
fessed in the night that after Sabbath morning serv- 
ice his father had called Esther to his house under 
the pretext of requiring her to remove some candle- 
sticks (an act forbidden to Jews on Saturday); thata 
Jewish beggar, Hermann Wollner, who lodged with 
them, had led the girl to the vestibule of the syna- 
gogue and felled her? and that, after having un- 
dressed her, two slaughterers, Abraham Buxbaum 
and Leopold Braun, had held her while another 
Slaughterer, Solomon Schwarz, incised her neck 
With a large knifeand emptied the blood into a pot. 
These three men, applicants for the vacant position 
of precentor and shohet, had come to Tisza-Eszlar to 
officiate on that particular Sabbath, and had, as the 
boy said, remained in the synagogue after morning 
Service. All this, according to his confession, Moriz 
had observed through the keyhole of the synagogue 
door, During forty-five minutes that he thus stood 


Synagogue at Tisza-Eszlur, with Home of Joseph Scharf. 
{From a photograph.) 


on watch, he saw also that after the operation a rag 
was tied around the neck of the girl aud her body 
dressed again, in the presence of Samuel Lustig, 
Abraham Braun, Lazar Weissstein, and Adolf 
Jiinger. The two conspirators Recszy and Peczely 
immediately sent.for the examining judge Bary, 
before whom the same night Moriz repeated his 
account, adding that, after the perpetrators had 
left the scene of their crime he had locked the syn- 
agogue, and that neither the corpse nor any blood 
marks were to be found. With feverish zeal Bary 
continued his investigations in the synagogue and 
houses and among the graves; but nowhere could 
any traces of the living or dead girl be discovered. 
Twelve Jews were arrested on suspicion; and Moriz 
Scharf was given in charge of the jailer. 

On June 18 there was drawn out of the River 
Theiss near Dada a body which the district physi- 
cian declared to be that of a fourteen-year-old girl, 
aud which many 
recognized as 
that of Esther 
Solymosi. Her 
mother, how- 
ever, emphatic- 
ally denied that 
it was Esther’s 
corpse, although 
sheafterward 
recognized the 
clothes in which 
the body was 
found as those 
of her daughter. 
A committee of 
experts, two 
physicians and one surgeon, declared that the 
corpse was that of a girl eighteen to twenty 
years of age, who had met with her death but 
eight or ten days before. It was then buried in 
the Catholic cemetery of Tisza-Eszlar. The anti- 
Semites, among whom was the Catholic priest of the 
town, insinuated that the body had been smuggled 
in by the Jewsand clothed in the garments of Esther 
Solymosi in order to conceal the crime of ritual mur- 
der. Several of the raftsmen who had found the 
body were induced by promises, threats, and cruel 
treatment to revoke their former testimony and to 
declare that they had brought the body to the river 
and that an unknown Jewess had furnished them 
with the clothes in which they had dressedit. New 
arrests were made; and the affair, which had now 
become acause célébre, was considerably protracted. 

On July 29 formal accusations were made against 
fifteen persons, asfollows: Solomon Schwarz, Abra- 
ham Buxbaum, Leopold Braun, and Hermann Woll- 
ner, of murder; Josef Scharf, Adolf Jiinger, Abra- 
ham Braun, Samuel] Lustig, Lazar Weissstcin, and 

Emanuel Taub, of voluntary assistance 

Formal Ac- in the crime; Anselm Vogel, Jankel 
cusations Smilovics, David WHersko, Martin 
Made. #ross, and Ignaz Klein, of abetting 
the crime and smuggling the body. 

The delay in the case was caused mainly by the 
iNegal and arbitrary acts of Bary, who conducted his 
examinations without the aid of the state attorney, 


TiszaeEszlar Affair 
Tithe 


wrote without witnesses the minutes of the proceed- 
ings, and tortured the accused and suspected. By 
order of the government, Moriz Scharf was given in 
charge of the district bailiff, who placed him in the 
custody of the warden Henter; thus removed from 
contact with his coreligionists, he was entirely under 
the influence of their adversaries, and received in- 
structions as to the testimony to be given by him at 
the trial. 

The accused were defended by Karl Edtvdés, jour- 
nalist and member of the House of Deputies, with 
whom were associated the advocates B. Friedmann, 
Alexander Funtak, Max Szekely of Budapest, and 
Ignaz Heumann of Nyireghyhaza, the seat of the 
county court before which the case was tried. Ina 
petition to Minister of Justice Pauler, Eétvés pro- 
tested against thesystem of torture practised by Bary, 
Recszy, and Peczely ; but this protest had little effect 
upon that official. The affair was so long drawn out 
that State Attorney Kozma of Budapest went to Nyi- 
reghyhaza in September to hasten the examination, 

This dragging on of the proceedings attracted 
general attention. The country was greatly agi- 
tated. Anumberof pamphlets appealed tothe pas- 
sions of the people, and attempted to establish the 
guilt of the accused, Louis Kossuth, then living in 
exile at Turin, raised his powerful voice to castigate 
the action of the authorities and to deprecate this 
stirring up of medieval prejudices. The suspicion 
of ritual murder, le considered, was a disgrace to 

Hungary; to represent as a racial 
Protest by crime or as a ritual crime a murder 
Louis which at the worst was an individual 
Kossuth. one was, he said, unworthy of modern 
civilization. This cry of indignation 
from the veteran patriot was strangely in contrast 
with the fury of persecution and prejudice which 
raged throughout the country and which was 
echoed in the House of Deputies. An interpellation 
addressed to the minister of justice by the deputy 
Ernest MrzeI in Nov., 1882, called forth exciting 
scenes. The attorney-general Havas was then sent 
to Nyireghyhaza, and he found that, despite the 
official declaration of the examining judge, the ac- 
cused had not hada single hearing. He released 
some prisoners; but, realizing that he was hampered 
by powerful influences in his endeavor to accelerate 
the affair, he offered his resignation, which was 
readily accepted. 

In the middle of November the wife of Josef 
Scharf was set free, her husband and the other pris- 
oners being still detained. At the request of the de- 
fending lawyers the body found in the Theiss was 
exhumed (Dec. 7) and reexamined by three professors 
of medicine at the University of Budapest—Schen- 
thauer, Belky, and Mihalkovics. They found that 
the opinion of the members of the former committee 
of examination had no scientific basis, and later, be- 
fore the court, they taxed them with 
gross ignorance: the body was too 

Corpse much decayed to allow a_ positive 
Exhumed. judgment. The fact that the corpse 

was not claimed by any one, left no 
doubt in their opinion, however, that it was that 
of Esther Solymosi; and as the neck was not cut, 
no ritual murder could have been committed. 


Esther’s 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


150 


On June 17, 1888, the last act in this shameful 
affair began before the court of Nyireghyhaza. 
Judge Francis Korniss presided, Eduard Szeyffert 
acting as state attorney. Although the testimony 
of Moriz Scharf was the only basis of the accusa- 
tion, the court held thirty sessions to examine the 
case in all its details; and many witnesses were 
heard. The glaring contradictions of the boy de- 
spite the careful training he had received, and the 
falsity of his accusation as exposed by a local in- 
spection of the alleged scene of the murder made by 
the court in Tisza-Eszlar on July 16, resulted, as 
was inevitable, in the unanimous acquittal of the 
accused (Aug. 3). Szalay, the attorney for the 
widow Solymosi, in a speech full of bitter in- 
vectives, appealed against the decision; but the 
supreme court rejected his appeal and confirmed the 
verdict of the county court. 

The youthful accuser whom the maneuvers of the 
anti-Semites had alienated from his faith and his 
coreligionists, and whose filial feelings they had 
suppressed, returned to his parents, who gladly re- 
ceived him. Moriz fully redeemed his past: he sup- 
ported his father until the death of the latter (1905). 

The verdict of acquittal and the deliverance of 
the prisoners, most of whom had languished fifteen 

months in prison, were the signal for 


Acquittal uprisings in Presburg, Budapest, and 
of the other parts of Hungary. The specta- 
Accused. tors who thronged the court-house 


during the sessions, and among whom 
Onody, the representative of Tisza-Eszlar in the 
House of Deputies, was most conspicuous, con- 
ducted themselves scandalously during the proceed- 
ings: they insulted the prisoners, threatened the 
witnesses and lawyers for the defense, and exhibited 
intense passion, prejudice, and hatred. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Allg. Zeit. des Jud. 1882-83, 1884, p. 248; Die 
Neuzeit, 1882-88; Der Blutprozess von Tisza-Hszlar, New 
York, 1883; Paul Nathan, Der Prozess von Tisza-Eszlar, 
Berlin, 1892. 

S 8S. Man. 


TITHE (wy): The tenth part of anything, 
appropriated as tax or sacrifice.—Biblical Data: 
Tithing one’s possessions was a very ancient cus- 
tom, existing as early as the time of the Patriarchs. 
Abraham gave Melchizedek “tithes of all” (Gen. 
xiv. 20); and Jacob made a vow that if he should 
return to his father’s house in safety he would ac- 
knowledge Yuwu as his Lord and would give Him 
a tenth of everything he possessed (2. xxviii, 20- 
22). Later the Mosaic law made the tithe obligatory 
upon the Israelites. The tithe, whether of the seed 
of the land or of the fruit of the tree, belonged 
to YHwu and consequently was holy. It was re- 
deemable by “adding thereto the fifth part there- 
of.” The tithe of cattle, however, was not redeem- 
able; and if one beast was exchanged for another both 
became holy unto the Lord. The method of levying 
the tithe of cattle is indicated: they were counted 
singly; and every tenth one that passed under the 
rod became the tithe animal (Lev. xxvii. 80-33). 

There is apparently a discrepancy between the 
Book of Numbers and that of Deuteronomy with 
regard tothe tithe. In Num. xviii. 21-26 itis stated 
that “all the tenth in Israel” is given to the Levites 
“for an inheritance”; as they had no part in the 


161 


land, the tithe was to be their principal source of 
sustenance. On the other hand, the Levites them- 
selves were required to give the priests a tenth of all 
the tithes received by them. Deut. xiv. 22-29, how- 
ever, enjoins the annual tithing of the increase of 
the field only; this was to be eaten before the Lord, 
that is to say, in the city in which the Temple 
was built. But if the distance to such city was so 
great as to render the transportation of all the 
tithes impracticable, the people might convert the 
tithe into money and spend the sum in the city on 
eatables, etc. (“whatsoever thy soul desireth”; 2d. 
verse 26). Every third year the tithes were not to 
be carried to the city of the Temple, but were to be 
stored at home (“within thy gates”), and “the 
Levite, the stranger, and the fatherless, and the 
widow ” were to “eat and be satisfied ” (7b, verse 29). 
It is to be concluded that, the seventh year being a 
Sabbatical year and no tithing being permissible 
therein, the tithe of the first, second, fourth, and 
fifth years of every cycle of seven years had to be 
brought to the Temple and eaten by the landowner 
and his family, while the tithe of the third and sixth 
years was to be left at home for the poor. 

The third year was called the year of tithing; and 
after the distribution of the tithe among the Levites 
and others, the landowners were required to an- 
nounce solemnly before the Lord that they had ob- 
served all the laws connected therewith, concluding 
such declaration with a prayer for God’s blessing 
(7b. xxvi. 12-15). A mourner was not allowed to eat 
the tithe, nor might one employ it for any unclean 
use, nor give it for the dead. 

Samuel informed the Israelites that they would 
have to give a tenth of everything to the king (I 
Sam. viii. 15, 17). When the Israelites afterward 
fell into idolatry, they continued to bring their tithes 
to the temple of their idols; but they seem to have 
adopted another system of offering them (comp. 
Amosiv, 4, Hebr.and R. V.). King Hezekiah again 
imposed the tithe on his subjects; and the people of 
Judah brought it in abundance, apparently for the 
use of the Levites. Indeed, the quantity was so 
great that the king ordered special chambers in the 
Temple to be prepared for its reception (II Chron. 
xxxi, 6-12). The same arrangement was made later 
by Nehemiah (Neh. x. 39, xiii. 12). 

J. M. SEL. 
——In Rabbinical Literature: According to the 
Rabbis, the Books of Numbers and Deuteronomy 
are complementary to each other (comp. TITHE, 
Brpuicat Data); consequently there can be no 
contradiction between them. Thus there were 
three kinds of tithes: (1) that given to the Levitesas 
stated in Num. xviii. 21 e¢ seg., and termed “the first 
tithe” (“ ma‘aser rishon”); (2) the tithe which was 
to be taken to Jerusalem and there consumed by the 
landowner and his family, and which was termed 
“the second tithe” (“ma‘aser sheni ”), it being taken 
from what remained after the first tithe had been 
appropriated; and (8) that given to the poor (“ma- 
‘aser ‘ani”). Therefore two tithes were to be taken 
every year except in the seventh year: Nos. 1 and 
2in the first, second, fourth, and fifth years; Nos. 
1 and 3 in the third and sixth years. 

The Rabbis inferred from Deut. xiv. 22 that each 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Tisza-Eszlar Affair 
Tithe 


tithe was to be taken of every year’s produce sep- 
arately, whether of crops, of cattle, or of anything 
else subject to tithing (Sifre, Deut. 105; Ter. i. 5; 


R. H. 8a, 12b). Also they fixed a par- 

The ticular day to mark the beginning of 
Tithing theyear for tithing. The first of Elul 
Year. according to It. Meir, or the first of 


Tishri according to R. Eleazar and R. 
Simeon, is the new year for the tithing of cattle; 
the tirst of Tishri, for the produce of the Jand; the 
first of Shebat according to the school of Shammai, 
or the fifteenth of Shebat according to the school of 
Hillel, for the fruit of the trees (R. H.i. 1). The 
removal of the tithes and the recitation of the con- 
fession (comp, Deut. xxvi. 12 et seg.) must take place 
on the eve of the Passover festival of the fourth and 
seventh years of every cycle of seven years, Al- 
though the removal is mentioned only with regard to 
the tithe of the poor, the Rabbis concluded that the 
other two tithes must also be cleared away at the 
same time (Sifre, Deut. 109). The Rabbis fixed the 
following rules by which one might distinguish 
tithable produce: it must be eatable, the property 
of an individual, and the product of the soil. Fruit 
must be ripe enough to be eaten; when one eats un- 
tithed fruit in an immature state, he is not guilty of 
having transgressed the Law (Ma‘as. i. 1 e¢ seq.). 
As appears from the Bible, the law of tithing was 
originally to be applied in Palestine only; the 
Prophets, however, ordained that tithing should be 
observed in Babylonia also, it being near Palestine. 
The earlier rabbis applied the Jaw of tithing to 
Egypt and to the lands of Ammon and Moab (Yad. 
iv. 3); and the scribes seem to have instituted tithes 
in Syria (Dem, vi. 11; comp. Shulhan ‘Aruk, Yoreh 
De‘ah, 331, 1 e¢ seq.). 

The Rabbis emphasize in more than one instance 
the importance of tithes. Tithing is oneof the three 
things through the merit of which the world was 
created (Gen. R. i. 6), and by virtue of which the 
Israelites obtain from God their desire (Pesik. xi. 
96b; Tan., Re’eh). Through the merit of tithes, also, 

the Israelites after death escape the 

Merit of punishment which the wicked suffer 
the Tithe. for twelve months in hell (Pesik. xi. 

97b-98a; Midr. Mishle xxxi.). The 
Patriarchs observed the law of tithing, concerning 
which statement there are two different accounts: 
(1) Abraham offered the first tithe, Isaac brought the 
heave-offering for the priests (“terumah gedolah ”), 
and Jacob brought the second tithe (Pesik. R. 25 [ed. 
Friedmann, p. 127b]); (2) Abraham presented the 
heave-offering, Isaac offered the second tithe, and 
Jacob brought the first one (Pesik. xi. 98a; comp. 
Gen. R. Ixiv. 6; Num. kh. xii. 13; Pirke R. EI. 
xxvii., xxxiii.). He who partakes of fruit that has 
not been tithed is like one who eats carrion; and 
Judah ha-Nasi’s opinion is that one who eats fruit 
of which the tithe for the poor has not been appro- 
priated is deserving of death (Pestk. xi. 99a, b). 
One of the interpretations of Prov. xxx. 4 is that 
he who fulfils the duty of tithing causes rain to fall, 
and that he who fails therein causes drought (Yalk., 
Prov. 962). Non-fulfilment of the law of tithing 
brings hurricanes (Midr. Teh. to Ps. xviii.). 
The tithe for the poor gave rise to the tithing 


Tith “TS ~ 
eee THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 152 


That the tithe spoken of in D, and whichis termed 
by the Rabbis “the second tithe” (see TITHE IN 
RABBINICAL LITERATURE), is more ancient has 
been concluded by W. R. Smith (“ Rel. of Sem.” 2d 
ed., pp. 245 ef seg.), Who, moreover, thinks that in 
earlier times the tribute was nota fixed amount, but 
that it took the form of first-fruits, and that ata 
later period a tithe was fixed to provide the public 
banquets at sacred festivals. Subsequently the 
tithe became the prerogative of the king (I Sam. 
viii. 15, 17); but from the Book of Amos (ivy. 4) it 
appears that in the time of that prophet the Israelites 
paid tithes for the use of their sanctuaries in the 
Northern Kingdom, as, similarly, in the Persian 
period the tithes were converted to the use of the 
Temple of Yuwn (Mal. iii. 8-10). Those instituted 
by Nehemiah for payment to the Levites were a 
development of the heave-offering (“terumah ”) 


of one’s earnings, with the object of distributing 
among the needy the sum so appropriated, This is 
inferred in Sifre (quoted -in Tos. to Ta‘an, 9a) from 
Deut. xiv. 22, and is therefore considered as an obli- 
gation imposed by the Mosaic law (“ Ture Zahab ” to 
Shulhan ‘Aruk, Yoreh De‘ah, 249, 1; comp. Isaiah 
Horwitz, “Shene Luhot ha-Berit,” and Joseph Hahn, 
“Yosef Omez,” p. 176, Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1728). 
Joel Sirkes in his “Bayit Hadash” (to Shulhan 
‘Aruk, Z.¢.), however, thinks that tithing one’s earn- 
ings is simply a custom and is not obligatory either 
under the Mosaic or under the rabbinical law. The 
whole of the tithe must be given to the poor; and 
no part of it may be appropriated to any other relig- 
ious purpose (Shulhan ‘Aruk, /.¢., Isserles’ gloss). 
WwW. B. M. Set. 
——Critical View: There are evidently two con- 
flicting sources with regard to tithes. D mentions 


eS Gt I IO UY Oc 2 


own v7 wyT} Dy ANNI. 


FRA - ‘ \ Sa Nai] ee ~~ 


TITLE-PAGE OF TRACTATE MENAHOT, PRINTED BY DANIEL BOMBERG, VENICE, ]o22. 
(From the Sulzberger collection in the Jewish Theologica] Seminary of America, New York.) 


only the tithes of corn, wine, and olive-oil, which | given to the priests. Not only do the terms 
were to be levicd every year and to be eaten by the | “terumah” and “ma‘aser” often occur together in 
landowner in the Holy City in the first, second, | the Old Testament, but it is stated in Neh. x. 37 e¢ 
fourth, and fifth years of every Sabbatical cycle, | seg. that the Levites were required to collect their 
while in the third and sixth years they were to be | tithes under the supervision of a priest. R. Eleazar 
distributed among the Levites, strangers, orphans, | b. Azariah held that the first tithe might also be paid 
and widows (Deut. xii. 16, xiv. 22 et seg.). P, on | to the priest (Yeb. 86b). | 

the other hand, destines this tithe for the Levites Comparing verse 80 with verse 82 of Lev. xxvii., 
(Num. xviii. 21 e¢ seg.); and, in a probably late ad- | it may be concluded that the tithe of cattle was to 
dition (Lev. xxvii, 80-83), tithing is extended to the | go to the priests or the Levites. This was the opin- 
fruit of the trees and to cattle also. Itis true that | ion of Philo (“De Preemiis Sacerdotum,” § 2 [ed. 
in D the Levites, too, have a share in the tithe | Mangey, ii. 234]); but the Rabbis refer the whole 
(Deut. xii. 18; comp. xiv. 27); but the owner’sin- | passage to ihe second tithe (Sifre, Deut. 68; Hag. 
vitation to the Levite to partake thereof seems to | i. 4; Men. vii. 5). 

have been voluntary. It may be noticed that in J. M. SEL. 
the priestly part of the Book of Ezekiel (xliv. 15 TITLE-PAGE: Hebrew incunabula, like manu- 
et seg.) there is no mention whatever of a tithe | scripts, were mostly provided with colophons, which 
appointed for the Levites. Nehemiah instituted | served as title-pages. The title of the Soncino edi- 
such atithe; and he directed that the Levitesshould | tion of Berakot, 14838, is given in the printer’s colo- 
give a tithe of their portions to the priests (see | phon. The title-page of Ibn Gabirol’s (or Jedaiah 
TiTHeE, Brpitican Dara). Hence it may be con- | Bedersi’s ?) “Mibhar ha-Peninim ” (Soncino, 1484) is. 
cluded that the passages in Numbers and Leviticus | preceded bya short preface. In Nahmanides’ com- 
regarding tithes were written under the influence of | mentary on the Pentateuch (Lisbon, 1489) the ti- 
the Book of Nehemiah. tle, “Hiddushe Torah,” precedes the preface. In 


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HON,”’ ALTDORF, 
ical Seminary of Amer. 


ZEA 


TITLE-PAGE OF ““SEFER NI 


) 


New York 


ica, 


h Theolog 


18. 


in the Jew 


ction 


(From the Sulzberger colle 


Title-Page 


“Seder ha-Tahanunim Asher Nahagu Bene Roma” 
(= The Order of Devotions According to the Cus- 
tom of Rome) the title is given in the colophon 
(Soncino, 1487). In David Kimhi’s “Sefer ha- 


Shorashim” (Naples, 1491) the title, on the first 
page, is surrounded by a wood-engraving. 

In the early sixteenth century the colophon still 
predominated. The title of the “Sefer Minhag 
Abot,” the condensed liturgical code of Zedekiah b. 
Abraham’s “ Shibbole ha-Leket,” appears in the colo- 
About this period the titles 


phon (Mantua, 1514). 
of books began to 
appear on the first 
page, next to the 
cover. In the first 
complete Babylo- 
nian Talmud, which 
was printed by 
Bomberg in Venice, 
1520-28, the title on 
the first page oc- 
cupies a narrow 
space of five lines, 
a little above the 
center, and, trans- 
lated, reads: “ Mas- 
seket Niddah, with 
Commentaries of 
Rashi, Tosafot, Ex- 
tracts of Decisions 
in Tosafot, Com- 
mentary on the 
Mishnah by Mai- 
monides, Commen- 
tary and Decisions 
by Asheri. Printed 
by Daniel Bomberg, 
in the year 5280, in 
Venice.” Soon, 
however, the titles 
began to occupy 
the entire page, 
some being bor- 
dered with orna- 
mental wood- or 
metal - engravings 
of flowers, or of 
Moses, Aaron, Da- 
vid, and Solomon, 
or of angels, deer, 
and lions. The 
original engravings 
were sometimes 
used by non-Jewish 
artists, which ac- 
counts for the non-Jewish character of some of 
the title-pages. The borders included the print- 
er’s device and marks. The printers at Prague 
in the sixteenth century decorated their title- 
pages in the style of an illuminated manuscript. 
As a popular title-page design, the entrance to 
the Temple, above which was inscribed “This 
gate of the Lord, into which the righteous shall 
enter” (Ps. cxviii. 20), with the pillars of Jachin 
and Boaz, occupied high rank. The Amsterdam, 
1666, “ Tikkun,” for night reading, has an engraved 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Title-Page of “‘Shefa‘* Tal,’ Hanau, 1612. 


(From the Sulzberger collection in the Jewish Theological Seminary of America, New York.) 


154 


title-pave with a representation of Shabbethai 
Zebi and his disciples. Isaac Aboab’s “ Menorat 
ha-Ma’or” (Amsterdam, 1722) has a 
very elaborately engraved title-page. 
Maimonides’ “Sefer ha - Mizwot” 
(with Judeo-German translation by 
J. Landau, Prague, 1798) has the entire first title- 
page, including the title and inscription of the 
book, engraved, and contains the figures of 
David and Solomon, the Levites’ musical instru- 
ments, the Ark, and the candlestick. 

Frequently two 
title-pages were 
used, the first being 
ornamented and 
giving the name 
and contents of the 
book in general 
terms, the second 
giving a fuller de- 
scription in plain 
type. The Amster- 
dam, 1679, edition 
of the Bible, which 
has a Judo-Ger- 
man translation, has 
a second engraved 
title-page. Often 
the title-page was 
artistically very at- 
tractive; the largest 
types were used for 
the title. The Tal- 
mud published by 
Schapira in Slobuta 
(1817-22) gives the 
titles of the treatises 
and the special com- 
mentaries (not 
printed in former 
editions) and the 
name of Slebuta in 
red. In the second 
Slobuta edition, 
1834-36 (only Bera- 
kot, Shabbat, and 
‘Erubin being pub- 
lished), there were 
two title-pages, 
some lines being in 
red and some in 
black; the Wilna- 
Grodno edition 
(1832-52) followed 
this style. The 
matter on the title-page is sometimes spaced and 
sometimes crowded. The Venice Abudarham of 
1566 has the author’s preface of eighteen lines on the 
title-page. Joshua Falk Cohen’s “ Abne Yehoshua‘,” 
the first rabbinical work published in America (New 
York, 1860), has the description of the contents, on 
the title-page, set in the form of atriangle. Anum- 
ber of modern books use vowel-points on the title- 
page. 

Some title-pages misrepresent the contents of the 
book. The title-page of the Bomberg Pentateuch, 


Decora- 
tions. 


AMSTERDAM, 1679. 
inary of Amer 


ection in the Jewish Theolog 


? 


OF BIBLE 


° 


TITLE-PAGE 


New York.) 


ca. 


¢ 


ical Sem 


Sulzberger call 


(From the 


Title-Page 
Titles of Hebrew Books 


Venice, 1524, calls for Ibn Ezra’s commentary on 
the Five Rolls, which, however, is not in the book. 
The same thing occurred in the case of Isaac Abra- 
vanel’s commentary on the Megillot (Venice, 1578). 
Judah ha-Levi’s “Cuzari,” with translation and 
commentary by David Cassel (Leipsic, 1858), has a 
second title-page, dated 1841, which states that part 
of the commentary was written conjointly by H. 
Jolowicz and D. Cassel. Moses Hayyim Luzzatto’s 
“Migdal ‘Oz” (2b. 1854) mentions “F. Delitzschii 
prolegomena ” in the title-page, but the latter is not 
included in the book. 

Some old works were supplied with new title- 
pages. Elijah Levita’s “Sefer ha-Tishbi” (Isny, 
1541) was given a new title-page and preface at 


Vp} 


S) 


yop> (s 
(D9 79) ko 


kul 


= 


TITLE-PAGE FROM A SHABBETHAIAN “'TIKKUN,”” 
AMSTERDAM, ¢c. 1666. 


(From the Sulzberger collection in the Jewish Theological Seminary of America, 
New York.) 


Basel in 1557. The title-page bearing the imprint 
of Frankfort-on-the-Oder, 1595, covers the edition 
of Wittenberg, 1587, by Crots. The “Yosippon,” 
with the title-page of Leipsic, 1710, is the old 
edition of Gotha, 1707. The commentary of Abra- 
vanel on the Early Prophets with the title-page of 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


156 


Frank fort-on-the-Main, 1786, is the Leipsic edition 
of 1686. This device of changing the title-page was 
probably due to the bookseller’s desire to mislead 
the purchaser; or perhaps the old title-pages were 
missing and were 
replaced by a sec- 
ond printer. Still 
it is difficult to ex- 
plain why one edi- 
tion of a certain 
date and place 
should have various 
title-pages, as in the 
case of Ibn Shu- 
‘aib’s “ Kol Bokim,” 
a commentary on 
Lamentations (Ven- 
ice, 1589), and Hay- 
yim Abraham Os- 
trosa’s “Sefer Ben 
le-Abraham” (Salo- 
nica, 1826), some 
copies of which 
read “Sefer Ben 
Abraham,” omit- 
ting the “le”; per- 
haps the printer dropped that letter from th. form 
before he had finished the edition. 

Some of the errors in the title-pages affect the 
name of the author. In Moses b. Elijah Galina’s 
“Hokmat ha-Parzuf” (Amsterdam, 1658) the name 
reads “Elijah ben Moses.” In Elijah Alfandari’s 
“Seder Eliyahu Rabbah,” responsa (Constantinople, 
1719), the name “Shabbethai” on the title-page is 

anerror. Mistakes in dates of publica- 

Errors in tion, especially in acrostics, are nu- 
Names and merous. Sometimes the date on the 

Titles. title-page is different from that in the 

colophon, or the two title-pages dis- 
agree. For example, the Amsterdam, 1705, edition 
of the Bible has a second title-page dated 1700-8. 
Elijah b. Joseph Trillinger’s “ Mishnat R. Eli‘ezer” 
(Frank fort-on-the-Oder, 1707) gives the correct date 
in the colophon, but on the title-page of the first 
volume the date 1655 is given in acrostic. On some 
title-pages the dates are incorrectly given, as in the 
Tur Hoshen Mishpat of Venice, 1567, in which the 
date given is 5027, instead of 5827. A similar mistake 
occurred in Joseph b, Hayyim Jabez’s commentary 
on the Psalms (Salonica, 1571), in which the words 
“Shelosh Me’ot” (= “three hundred ”) are omitted. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: De Vinne, Title-Pages as Seen by a Printer, 

New York, 1901. 

J. J. D. E. 

TITLES OF HEBREW BOOKS: In Hebrew 
literature, books, with few exceptions, are recog- 
nized by their titles independently of their authors’ 
names. Citations from and references to the “ Pene 
Yehoshua‘,” or “Sha’agat Aryeh,” are often made 
by students who neither know nor care to know the 
name of the author. Hence the bibliographer’s first 


Title-Page from a Miniature Siddur, 
Amsterdam, 1728. 
(From the Sulzberger collection in the Jewish 
Theologica! Seminary of America, New York.) 


aim is the listing of Hebrew books by their titles 


rather than by the names of their authors. 

The titles of the Biblical books are said to have been 
decided by the Great Assembly, headed by Ezra. 
“Torah,” “Nebi’im,” and “Ketubim ” (Pentateuch, 


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GUIS I OA EE ale TI Oe PO TREE os ‘ ‘ OEP. Seat ee po PR Fa et SR alae EW akin ae 


Soracenee te 


TITLE-PAGE FROM BIBLE, WILNA, 1865, 


(From the Sulzberger collection in the Jewish Theological Seminary of America, New York.) 


‘TITLE-PAGE FROM LATER PROPHETS, WITH ABRAVANEL’S COMMENTARY, 
AMSTERDAM, 1641. 
(From the Sulzberger collection in the Jewish Theological Seminary of America, New York.) 


Titles of Hebrew Books 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


158 


Prophets, and Hagiographa) were the titles given 
to the principal divisions. The Torah was subdi- 
vided into five “fifths.” entitled “ Hamishshah 
Humshe Torah” (Hag. 14a). The Book of Exodus 
was called “Homesh Sheni” (Second Fifth), and 
Numbers, “Homesh ha-Pekudim” (Fifth of the 
Numbered; Sotah 86b).. The Minor Prophets were 
known as the “Shenem ‘Asar” (The Twelve), and 
Chronicles as “Dibre ha-Yamim” (The Events of 
the Days; B. B. 14a). 

In a later period the five “books of Moses” re- 
ceived respectively the titles “ Bereshit,” “Shemot,” 
“ Wayikra,” “Bemidbar,” and “ Debarim,” these be- 
ing merely the tirst important words in 
the five books; while the separate 
sections of the Talmud and the dif- 
ferent midrashic works became known 
by titles indicating either their contents or the gen- 
eral nature of their relation to the Law. The Mish- 
nah and Gemara together form the Talmud, 7.e., 
the “Study,” “ Teaching.” 

In the geonic period, besides the collections of re- 
sponsa and codes called “ Halakot Pesukot,” or “ Ha- 
lakot Gedolot” (halakic decisions credited to Judah 
Gaon), there were Saadia Gaon’s “Sefer ha-Kmunot 
we ha-De‘ot” (Book of Creeds and Opinions), Hai 
Gaon’s “Mikkah u-Mimkar” (Buying and Selling), 
and Amram Gaon’s “Seder,” or “Siddur,” The title 
“Reumah” is curious for a work on “shehitah” by 
Nahshon Gaon; but this is explained by Reifmann to 
be a misprint, the proper title being “Re’u Mah” 
(See What), the two words beginning the text. 

Immediately after the geonic period the works of 
legal authorities were known by their authors’ 
names—Alfasi, RaMBaM (Maimonides), Mordecai, 
Asheri. The commentators Rashi, Ibn Ezra, 
RaSHBaM, Abravanel, and others gave no other 
title than “Perush” (exposition, commentary) to 
their works. Later, the titles of the books again took 
the place of the authors’ names, and references were 
made to the “ Ba‘al ha-Turim,” the “ Ba‘al ha-Lebu- 
shim,” the “ Bet Yosef,” and the “Shulhan ‘Aruk”; 
among the few exceptions in later times were the 
works of Wilna Gaon and R. Akiba Eger. Cabalis- 
tic books bear fanciful and highly poetical titles: 
“Zohar ” (Brightness), formerly known as the “ Mid- 
rash of R. Simeon b. Yohai”; “ Bahir ” (Shining); 
“Ra‘ya Mehemna” (True Shepherd); “Sifra di-Ze- 
ni‘uta” (Book of Secrets); “Libnat ha-Sappir ” (Sap- 
phire Paving); “Ginnat Bitan” (Garden of the Pal- 

ace); “Bat Melek” (Daughter of the 
Cabalistic King); “‘Ez Hayyim” (Tree of Life). 
Books. General titles were given to certain 
classes of literature, such as “Tosa- 
fot” (additions or glosses to the Talmud, chiefly by 
French rabbis), “ Poskim” (decisions), “ Hiddushim ” 
(novella on halakic subjects), and “Derushim ” 
(notes on haggadic expositions). The “She’elot 
u-Teshubot ” (responsa) bear sometimes the name of 
the author, sometimes a special title. In modern 
times “ Bi’ur” (explanation) has replaced the title 
“Perush.” 

Most Hebrew titles are catchwords or familiar 
Biblical phrases; some have reference to the name 
of the author; for example, “Zera‘ Abraham” or 
“Zera’ Yizhak ” (Seed of Abraham, or Isaac). “ Helel 


Biblical 
Titles. 


ben Shahar ” (“ Lucifer, son of the morning”; Isa, 
xiv. 12) isappropriated by an author whose first name 
is Hillel. “Derek Oniyyah” (“the way of a ship”; 
Prov. xxx. 19) is due to the surname of the author 
being “Schiff” (ship). One author by the name of 
Cohen made the titles of all his works refer to that 
name, all beginning with a “waw ”: “ We-Shab ha- 
Kohen” (“And the priest shall come again,”; Lev. 
xiv. 89); “We-He‘erik Oto ha-Kohen” (“and the 
priest shall value him”; Lev. xxvii. 8); “ We-Hish- 
shab-Lo ha-Kohen” (“And the priest shall reckon 
unto him”; Lev. xxvii. 18, Hebr.). Samuel Jaffe chose 
as titles for his works Biblical phrases beginning 
with his name; thus, “ Yefeh ‘Enayim” (Beautiful 
Eyes), “ Yefeh Kol” (Beautiful Voice), ete. “ Elef 
ha-Magen ” (“a thousand bucklers”; Cant. iv. 4) is 
the title of a work by Moses Galante containing a 
thousand responsa. The title of one of Azulai’s 
books is “ Debash le-Fi” (Honey to My Mouth), * De- 
BaSh” being the abbreviation of “ David ben Sarah.” 
Lipschtitz’s “Tif’eret Yisrael” contains refercnces 

to his own name and to the numerical 


Special values of the names of his father, chil- 
Ex- dren, and grandchildren (see his intro- 
pedients. ductionto Tohorot). Most of the Bib- 


lical phrases used as titles have no re- 
lation to the names of the authors of the works, asin 
the case of “ Ba-Urim Kabbedu Yitwi” (“ Glorify 
ye the Lord in the fires”; Isa. xxiv. 15), the title of 
a commentary on Rashi on the Pentateuch. 

Some authors found titles in the nomenclature of 
the Tabernacle—its accessories, the vestments of the 
priests, the various ingredients of the incense—and 
the names of flowers, fruits, wines, and oils. Morde- 
cai Jaffe is the author of the “ Lebushim” (Garments), 
divided into “Lebush Tekelet” (Blue Apparel), 
“Hur” (White), “Buz we-Argaman” (Linen and 
Purple), “‘Ateret Zahab” (Crown of Gold), “‘Ir 
Shushan” (“the city of Shushan”; based on Esth. 
viii. 15). It made little difference whether the 
title had or had not any bearing on the contents of 
the book so long as it appealed to the fancy of 
the author. Abraham Jacob Paperna, in _ criti- 
cizing this method, said that if the custom of choos- 
ing Biblical phrases at random were continued, 
it would svon be possible to read the whole Bible by 
collecting and arranging Hebrew book-titles. <Ac- 
cording to a popular belief, the Messiah will appear 
when that has been done (“Kankan Hadash Male 
Yashan,” p. 24, Wilna, 1867). Authors borrowed 
also Talmudical phrases, such as the one just 
quoted, which means “A New Vessel Full of Old 
[Wine] ” (Ab. iv. 20), and “Emat Mafgia‘ ‘al Ari” 
(The Lion’s Fear of the Gnat; see Shab. 77b), the 
title of a counter-criticism by Benamozegh of Leon 
of Modena’s“ Ari Nohem” (The Howling Lion), 
an attack upon the Zohar. 

The relation of a commentary to a text is some- 
times indicated by a similarity in titles; Maimon- 

ides’ “ Mishneh Torah” was followed 

Self- by Caro’s commentary “ Kesef Mish- 
Flattery in neh” (Double Money), De Boton’s 
Titles. ‘“Lehem Mishneh” (Double Bread), and 
Judah Rosanes’ “ Mishneh le-Melek ” 

(Vice-King). Caro’s Shulhan ‘Aruk (Table Pre- 
pared) is covered by Isserles’ “Mappah” (Table- 


ed Re ee 
fey fos fay: 
S PFA AN Ant 


ow eo & & 8 OLE 


a > Se SAL ¢ 


YY 


TITLE-PAGE IMITATING VIGNETTES IN HEBREW MANUSCRIPTS. 
(From Giinzburg’s ‘‘ Ornamentation des Anciens Manuscripts,”’ St. Petersburg, 1904.) 


Titles of Hebrew Books 
Titles of Honor 


cloth), annotations. Caro himself annotated his 
“Bet Yosef” (House of Joseph) in his “ Bedek ha- 
Bayit ” (Breach in the House). In his eagerness to 
embellish his work with a beautiful Biblical phrase 
an author rarely hesitated, on the score of modesty, 
to select such a title as “Zeh Yenahamenu” (He 
[This] Shall Comfort Us) or “Matok mi-Debash” 
(Sweeter than Honey). Highly extravagant titles, 
especially when referring to nobles or kings, some- 
times aroused the suspicion of a government. This 
was so in the case of Yom-Tob Lip- 
Eulogistic mann Heller’s commentaries on Asheri 
Titles. which he entitled “ Ma‘adanne Melek” 
(Royal Dainties) and “ Lehem Hamu- 
dot” (Pleasant Bread [from the King’s Table]; see 
Dan, x. 3; the Prague, 1628, edition), the author 
being accused of treasonable pretensions, Conse- 
quently the publishers of the edition of Firth, 1745, 
were compelled to change the titles to “ Ma‘adanne 
Yoin-Tob” (Dainties of Yom-Tob) and “ Dibre Ha- 
mudot” (Pleasant Words). 

On the other hand, some authors took pains to 
select titles that would indicate the nature of the 
contents of their books, as in the works “Agur” 
(Gatherer); “ Kol Bo” (Al in It), collections of litur- 
gical minhagim,; “ eneset ha-Gedolah ” (Great As- 
sembly), a digest of all the responsa in the order of the 
Turim ; “ Torat ha-Kena’ot” (Law of Jealousies), rules 
for polemics; and “Shebet le-Gew Kesilim” (Rod 
for the Fool’s Back), the last-named being a severely 
censorious work. Perhaps the most appropriate 
titles are those used in memorial and eulogistic 
works. The Talmudical treatise “Ebel Rabbati” 
(Great Mourning) later received the euphemistic 
title “Semahot” (Joys). The modern manual for 
mourners is similarly called “Sefer ha-Hayyim” 
(Book of the Living). The book of recitations and 
prayers in commemoration of Simeon b. Yohai 
is called “Hillula Rabbah” (Grand Celebration), 
Others have such titles as “Alion Bakut” (Gen. 
xxxv. 8), “Ebel Kabed” (Grievous Mourning), 
“Ebel Mosheh” (Mourning for Moses), “Misped 
Mar” (Bitter Wailing), “Kol Nehi” (Voice of 
Lamentation), “Kol Bokim” (Voice of Crying), 
“*Emek ha-Baka” (Valley of Baca; see Ps. lxxxiv. 
6). Some books have two Hebrew titles, and others 
have one in Hebrew and one in another language, 
references being made to either. 

The repetition of the same title by various au- 
thors is a source of annoyance and confusion to the 
bibliographer. Benjacob, in his “ Ozar ha-Sefarim ” 
{up to 1863), records no less than 27 books entitled 
“Ez Hayyim ”; 20 entitled “Shir Yedidut”; 16 en- 
titled “ Zofnat Pa‘aneah”; 15 entitled “ Leshon Lim- 
mudim”; 14 each entitled “Keter Torah,” “ Lekah 
Tob,” “Ma‘amar Mordekai,” “Mekor Hayyim,” 
“Sefat Emet”; 13 each called “Heshek Shelomoh,” 
“Safah Berurah”; 12 each entitled “Eben Bohan,” 
“Derek Hayyim,” “Mikweh Yisrael”; and there are 
twenty other titles each of which is used for from 8 
to 12 books. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Delmedigo, Behinat ha-Dat, ed. Reggio, p. 


132, Vienna, 1833; I. D'Israeli, Curiosities of Literature, p. 
104; Reifmann, in Ha-Shahar, ii. 342; 8. Schechter, Studies 


in Judaism, xi. A. Berliner, Hebritische Biichertitel, 
Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1906 
J. J. D. E. 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


160 


TITLES OF HONOR: Words and phrases ap- 
plied to persons to distinguish their noble birth, 
or their official or social rank and station, or as marks 
of acknowledgment of their learning and piety. 
——Biblical Data: The title “adon” = “lord” 
was given to the owner of property and slaves; also 
to the person to whom homage was paid as a guest 
of honor (Gen. xviii. 8) or who has done an act of 
kindness (7d. xix. 18). Abraham was entitled “lord” 
and “nesi elohim” = “mighty prince ” (¢b. xxiii. 6), 
also “prophet” @db. xx. 7). The representative of 
the people was a “melek” = “leader,” or in some 
eases “king.” Next in rank was the “aluf” = 
“duke” or “chieftain.” Each of the dukes of Esau 
was the ruler of a family or clan (¢. xxxvi. 15), 
and was probably subject to the head of the whole 
tribe. The king appointed a viceroy 
termed “mishneh” = “second.” Jo- 
seph was mishneh to Pharaoh, with the 
title “abrek” = “bow the knees” (2b. xli. 43), de- 
noting the reverence due to his dignity; though ac- 
cording to the Talmud “ab-rek” (49 38) is a com- 
pound word whose two elements signify respect- 
tively “father” (in wisdom) and “ young” (in years), 
the whole denoting “young father” in the sense of 
* Jupiter” = “Ju” -+- “pater” (Levinsohn, “Shora- 
she Lebanon,” s.2. 7728). Pharaoh renamed Joseph 
“ Zaphnath-paancah ” = “the revealer of secrets.” 

Moses as a spiritual leader was recognized by the 
tidles “ish ha-Elohim” = “the man of God” (Deut. 
xxxilji. 1) and “‘ebed YuwH” = “the servant of the 
Lord” (@. xxxiv. 5). These titles were applied to 
other prophets also (I Sam. ii. 27; Isa. xlii. 19). 

The civil administration was conducted by judges 
who had the title of “prince,” “ruler” (“sar,” 
“sarim ”) over certain divisions of the people, com- 
prising thousands, hundreds, fifties, and tens (Ex. 
xvili. 21). Ina later period the judges (“ shofetim ”) 
became the real rulers of the Israelites, till, like the 
Gentiles, the latter adopted a king. In Moses’ time 
these were called also the “zekenim” = “elders” 
and the “nes?im” = “rulers” (lev. iv. 22) of the 
congregation. 

The title of birth, “bekor,” assigned to the first- 
born son in every family, carried with it special 
privileges of inheritance. The title “kohanim ” = 
“priests,” applied to all descendants of Aaron, and 
that of “ Lewiyim ” = “ Levites,” to the rest of the 
tribe of Levi, carried with them privileges with 

regard to tithes and certain duties in 

Titles of connection with the administration of 

Birth and religious services in the Temple; thus 

Nobility. the senior priest was called “kohen 

mashiah ” = “the anointed priest” or 

“kohen gadol” = “the high priest.” The prophet 

(“nabi”) bore also the titles “ro’eh” and “hozeh” 
= “seer” (I Sam. ix. 9; II Kings xvii. 13). 

Titles of nobility not connected with the tribe of 
Levi, but recognized by the people or conferred by 
the king as distinctions of ancient and noble stock, 
high descent. and gentility, were the following: 
“ azil,” 6s hor” = “freeman v. and “ nasik,” & HO- 
zen,” or “razon” (Prov. xiv. 28) = “prince.” Titles 
of civil officers chosen by the people were: “aluf,” 
“nasi,” “nagid,” “kazin,” and “rosh” = “chief.” 
Titles of officers connected with the royal palace 


Origin. 


161 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Titles of Hebrew Books 
Titles of Honor 


were: “abi ha-melek ” (the father of the king, 7.e., 
prime minister); “saris” (eunuch, chamberlain, the 
king’s friend; I Kings iv. 57); “rab ha-tabbahim ” 
(executioner) ; “ yoresh ‘ezer” (crown prince); “ mish- 
neh” (viceroy); “shalish” (third in rank, chief 
of staff); “nizzab” or “nezib” (tribal governor; 
I Kings iv. 7); “pebah,” “sagan” (lieutenant and 
deputy; Jer, li. 23); “abir,” “addir” (knight and 
hero); “kereti” and “peleti” (royal couriers and 
headsmen forming the body-guard of David); 
“seren” (satrap of the Philistines); “tifsar” (a 
military prefect); “partam,” “°’ahashdarpan ” 
(satrap under the Persian government); “sarek ” 
(overseer; Dan. vi. 3); “rab,” “rabreban” (chief, 
chieftain); “mazkir” (recorder). During the Exile 
the Persian king gave his courtiers titles: thus 
Danicl was renamed “Belteshazzar” (2d. i. 7), and 
Nehemiah “Tirshatha” (Neh. viii. 9). For later 
titles see EXILARCH, GABBAI, GAON, Nasr, PARNAS, 
RABBI, etc. 

J. J. D. E, 
In Rabbinical Literature: The Rabbis lay 
stress on the distinction due to “ yihus” and “zekut 
abot” (see Parriarcus). A descendant of a noble 
family is a “yabsan” (well-born; comp. “gentle” 
in “gentleman”). The destruction of Jerusalem 
is ascribed to the lack of distinction between the 
nobles and the common people: “As 
with the people, so with the priest; 
as with the servant, so with the mas- 
ter” (Isa. xxiv. 2; Shab. 119b). With 
the exception of Simeon ha-Zaddik (= “the just ”) 
the members of the Great Assembly and of the San- 
hedrin were not referred to by any title (Ab. i. 2). 
The Biblical title “nasi” for the president of the 
commupity and “ab bet din” (father of the court of 
law) for the chief justice existed at an early period 
in the Palestinian academies. The title “rabban” 
general master of the community) was given to 
Johanan b. Zakkai and to Gamaliel the Elder. The 
title “rabbi,” designating an individual master, was 
only less honorable than “rabban.” In the Babylo- 
nian schools “rab” was used instead. The title 
“rabbi” without the proper name was used to des- 
ignate Judah ha-Nasi I. The scholars mentioned 
in the Mishnah, known as TANNAIM, except those of 
the early period, have the title “rabbi” prefixed to 

their names, as have also the Palestin- 

Communal ian amoraim, the Babylonian amoraim 
and bearing that of “rab” (see AMORAIM). 
Religious The later Talmudists bear the title Mar 
Titles. (master), HABER (“colleague ”) and 
HAKAM were titles used in Palestine. 

ABBA was used in Babylon, as was the title “resh ga- 
luta” (EXILARCH), or “rosh ha-keneset” (head of 
the synagogue). Resu Kawuau denoted the presi- 
dent of the students who assembled in the months 
of Adar and Elul. Parnas was the title of the ad- 
ministrator of the community; Gawpal, that of the 
public almoner, the collector and distributer of char- 
ities (Ned. 656). The Hazzan in the mishnaic period 
was the sexton of the synagogue; in later times he 
was the reader of prayers; while the sexton or beadle 
was known as the “shammash.” A teacher was 
called “melammed,” and his assistant “resh dukana ” 
(B. B. 21a). The latter taught the class of younger 


XIT. —11 


Aris- 
tocracy. 


children stationed on a platform; hence the name 
DUKAN. 

Honorific phrases used as epithets were assigned 
to the great rabbis in the ‘Talmudic period by their 
disciples and admirers. R. Johanan b. Zakkai was 
called “the light of Israel, the right pillar, the 
mighty hammer” (Ber. 28b). Jose the priest, a dis- 
ciple of Johanan b. Zakkai, was styled “hasid” = 
“pious” (Ab. ii. 11); there was also a R. Simeon 
Hasida (Suk. 52b). R. Eleazar called R. Asi “mofet 
ha-dor” = “the wonder of the generation” (Hul. 
103b). Metaphorical terms were similarly used: R. 
Eleazar b. Simeon was “a lion the son of a lion” 
(B. M. 84b); R. Hiyya b. Abin was exalted as “the 
lion of society ” (Shab. 111); Samuel was known as 
“the lion of Babylon” (2. 58a); R. Akiba, as “ozar 
balum” = “a treasure of knowledge” (Git. 67a); 
R. Meir (whose real name was Me’ashah) was 80 called 
because he enlightened the eyes of the wise in the 
Halakah (‘Er. 18b); R. Menahem b. Simeon, “the 
son of the holy” (‘Ab. Zarah 50a); R. Eleazar, “the 
best scholar” (Ker. 13b); R. Joseph, a “sharp 
knife” (Yeb. 122a), meaning that he was keen 
and logical in reasoning. The Jast-mentioned 
title was given also to Raba, Joseph’s son (Hul. 
77a). KR. Joseph was styled “Sinai,” and Rabbah 
““oker harim ” = “ mountain-razer ” (Hor. 14a). The 
former title describes the traditional and logical 
scholar; the latter, the pilpulist who depends on 
technical argumentation. 

In the geonic period the title Gaon replaced 
“nasi” as referring to the president of the commu- 
nity. The principal of the academies of Sura and 
Pumbedita were known as “rosh yeshibah” or 
“resh metibta.” The principal teachers were the 

“resh sidra” and the “resh kallah.” 
Titles in The title “nagid” was conferred on 
the Middle R. Samuel (1027-55), the author of 
Ages. “Mebo ha- Talmud,” and later re- 
placed the title “gaon” in Egypt 
(see Ecypr), The title “dayyan” (judge) appears 
to have been first used in the eleventh century, in 
Spain (see BAHYA, JOSEPH IBN PakupDA). In France 
and Germany the title “parnas” was revived, 
“manhig ” (leader) being applied to the same official. 
The tithe GABBAI for the receiver of the taxes and 
contributions of the congregation was revived 
among the Sephardim ; he ranked next to the par- 
nas, The title “rabbenu” (our master) was given 
to Gershom, T'iam, Hananeel, and Nissim. 

The title Morenw (“our teacher”) as a rabbin- 
ical degree introduced by R. Meir ha-Levi of 
Vienna, was first conferred on R. Shalom and R. 
Jacob Mélln attheend of the fourteenth century. The 
titles “ darshan” and MaGe1b were given to preachers. 

Among the titles conferred on eminent Jews by 
governments in various countries were the follow- 
ing: In England during the twelfth and thirteenth 
centurics Bishop oF THE JEws, or “episcopus Ju- 
deeorum,” and PRESBYTER JUDAORUM, equivalent 
to the title “rabbi” or “ab bet din.” In Germany 
the rabbi was sometimes called HocnMEIsTER, “Ju- 
denmeister,” or “ Judenbischoff ”; the learned Jew, 
“gelehrte Jude.” “Court Jew” (“Hofjude”) was 
equivalent to SHETADLAN aosnw, the title of the 
attorney and representative of the Jews in their re- 


Titles of Honor 
Titus 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


162 


lations with the government in Poland and later 
in Russia. 

King Matthias of Hungary created the offices of 
“princeps Judeorum,” “supremus Judxorum,” 
and “prefectus Judseorum,” held by members of 
the MENDEL family (1482-1539), who were respon- 

sible for the Jewish taxes and were 


Govern- clothed with special jurisdiction over 
ment the Jews. Other government officials 
Titles. were “doctor Judw#orum” and “ma- 


gister Judeoram,” whom the emperor 
appointed to settle all disputes between the Jews 
(Jost, “Gesch. der Israeliten,” vi. 54, Berlin, 1826). 
Rabbi Leon of Mantua in the fifteenth century re- 
ceived the title of Messer (“ maestre ”), usually given 
to physicians. The Turkish government confers 
the title “hakam bashi” on the chief rabbi of the 
Sephardim; it thus also occurs in Egypt. 

In the sixteenth century the title “maran” (our 
lord) was applied to Joseph Caro of Safed, author 
of the Shulhan ‘Aruk; and fora long time there- 
after it was not given to any other person. The 
title “gaon” was revived in honor of ELIJAH B. 
SoLomon of Wilna (1720-97); and since it has been 
misapplied to ordinary rabbis, the gaon of Wilna is 
described also as “gaon amitti” = “the genuine 
gaon.” The title “harif,” from the Talmudic title 
“sakkina harifa ” (sharp knife), was revived in the 
eighteenth century. The title Banun dates back 
perhaps to the fourteenth century. It was used later 
in combination with an adjective, as “bahur he- 
hashub” (the honored or worthy youth); and “ye- 
shibah bahur” designated the student in the yeshi- 
bah. The title “<illuy ” (par excellence) described 
the young Talmudic genius. 

The Hasidim came into existence in the time of 
Elijah Wilna, Their rabbis are variously styled 
“gaddik” (righteous), “ba‘al mofet” (wonder-mas- 
ter), “ba‘al shem ” (renowned master), and in Judeo- 
German “Rebbe” or “guter Yid.” 

In modern times the principal rabbi is known as 
“rab ha-galil” (district rabbi) and “rab ha-kolel” 
(equivalent to “chief rabbi” and “ grand rabbin ”); 
also as “rabbi” and “dayyan,” with 
“ab bet din ” connoting the president 
of the religious and civil court, A 
new title, “zekan ha-rabbanim ” (elder 
rabbi), was conferred by the United Orthodox Rabbis 
of America, at their convention in Philadelphia in 
1908, on R. Jacob David RippBaz. 

The German titles are “ Rabbiner,” “ Rabbinats As- 
sessor ” (dayyan), and “ Rabbinats Verweser.” The 
title “reverend, ” conferred by the chief rabbi of 
England upon a Hebrew teacher, was criticized 
on the ground that “it ranks among the most mis- 
chievous and un-Jewish innovations peculiar to 
latter-day Anglo-Judaism ” (“Jew. Chron.” Jan. 3, 
1902). 

During the nineteenth century all Jewish titles 
were used in great profusion and indiscriminately. 
The title “gaon” was applied to nearly every rabbi, 
and some were addressed as “ha-ga’on ha-gadol” 
(the great gaon), “ha-ga’on ha-mefursam ” (the well- 
known gaon), and, as if to out-Herod Herod, “ ga’on 
ha-Ge’onim ” (the gaon of the Geonim); also as “ ha- 
ma’or ha-gadol” (the greater light), “me’or ha- 


Modern 
Titles. 


Golah” (the light of the Exile), and “rabban shel 
kol bene ha-Golah ” (the master of all the members 
of the Exile). The titles “harif,” 
“baki” (familiar with the Law), and 
“mutlag ” (extraordinary) were com- 
mon ones for the ordinary learned 
layman. The abuse of titles has been the subject 
of biting criticism, sarcasm, and even ridicule by 
the Maskilim, especially by Isaac ErtTER and Leon 
GORDON. 

As to the moral right to address one by an un- 
merited title, R. Samuel di MrEpina (1505-89) rules 
against it, though he permits such titles as are cus- 
tomary (Rashdam, “ Eben ha-‘Ezer,” No.65). Hay- 
yim Hezekiah Medini, in his “Sedeh Hemed ” (i., let- 
ter nm, § 140; p, § 157, Warsaw, 1896), reviews the 
decisions in the responsa collections on this question, 
and comes to the conclusion that since the title 
“gaon” has become a common rabbinical one it 
would bea breach of etiquette to omit it in address- 
ing a rabbi of some authority and repute. 

Some authors in compiling their responsa are 
careful to remove personal titles from their corre- 
spondence. R. Akiba Ecrr in his testament ordered 
his executors to erase before publication all titles 
except “rabbi ” in the numerous letters addressed to 
him on matters of casuistry. 

Joel Héschel (“ ‘Ateret Yeshu‘ah,” Wilna, 1799)and 
Jehiel Hertprin (“‘Erke ha-Kinnuyim,” Dyhern- 
furth, 1806) give lists of epithets of Biblical person- 
ages. Certain Hebrew letter-writers also contain 
various forms of titles; in particular that of Joseph 
Rakower, “Leshon Naki” (Prague, 1704, and 
often reprinted), should be mentioned. The only 
special work known on the subject of this article 
is one in manuscript by Jehiel Mendelssohn (d. 
1904), 

J 


Abuse of 
Titles. 


J. D. E. 

TITUS (full name, Titus Flavius Sabinus 
Vespasianus): Emperor of Rome from 79 to 81; 
born in 89 or 41; died Sept. 18, 81; son of VEspa- 
SIAN, theconqueror of Jerusalem. He waseducated 
at the courts of Claudius and Nero. Titus served first 
in Germany and later in Britain under his father, 
whom he subsequently assisted greatly in Judea by 
suppressing the rebellion of the Jews. 

While Vespasian was operating in Galilee, the 
news of the death of Nero (June 9, 68) was received ; 
and Titus, accompanied by Acrippa II., was sent to 
Rome to swear allegiance to Nero’ssuccessor, Galba 
was niurdered in the meantime, however; and Titus 
hastened back to Judea, where the Egyptian and 
Syrian troops proclaimed Vespasian emperor, an oc- 
currence which Josephus declares he had predicted 
in the presence of Titus himself (Josephus, “B, J.” 

iii. 8,8 9; comp, Suidas, s.v. "Iaanros ; 

In Judea. in Dion Cassius, Ixvi. 1, Titus is not 

mentioned), It was Titus, moreover, 

who, under the leadership of his father, reduced the 

cities of Jotapata, Tarichew, and Giscala, where he 

displayed, on the one hand, great courage and con- 

tempt of death, and, on the other, bitter cruelty to- 

ward the conquered; when, therefore, Vespasian 

went to Rome as emperor, Titus was left to prose- 
cute the Jewish war. 

With a considerable force he left Caesarea and 


163 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Titles of Honor 
Titus 


ca OO Ee ee Pe ee ee ee ee 


reached the walls of Jerusalem a few days before the 
Passover festival of the year 70. Omitting the de- 
tails of this memorable war, only those events which 
concern Titus personally need be mentioned here. 
Together with 600 horsemen he rode aliead of his 
main army to reconnoiter the surrounding country, 
and had ventured so far in advance that only his 
valor saved him from capture in a Jewish attack 
(“B. J.” v. 2, § 2). He endeavored at first to per- 


Coin of Titus Struck in Palestine, with Inscription, “Ivdeea 
Devicta.” 
(After Madden, “* History of Jewish Coinage.”’) 


suade the Jews to submit by making promises to 
them (Dion Cassius, lxvi. 4); and Josephus was sent 
to them several times with messages to that effect. 
They refused all overtures, however; and battering- 
rams were then set in action, and the beleaguerment 
of Jerusalem began. The Jews often 

Besieges destroyed these siege-works, and dur- 
Jerusalem. ing one of their sorties Titus himself 
Was so severely wounded in the left 

shoulder by a stone that his hand remained weak 
ever afterward (Dion Cassius, l.c. § 5; Josephus in 
“B. J.” v. 6, § 2 relates a similar occurrence, although 
he does not mention the wounding of Titus). <Ac- 
cording to Dion Cassius, the Romans refused to at- 
tack the Temple on account of their respect for its 
sanctity; and Titus had to force them todoso. Jo- 
sephus, on the other hand, differs on this point also, 


Coin of Titus, with Inscription **Ivdaea Navalis.”’ 
(After Madden, “ History of Jewish Coinage.’’) 


Stating instead that Titus first held a council of war 
with his commanding officers, among them T1BE- 
RIus JULIUS ALEXANDER, and that certain generals 
advised the destruction of the Temple. He himself, 
however, wished to spare it (“B. J.” vi. 4, § 8), and 
gave orders to extinguish the fire which had begun 
to consume the cloisters, apparently displaying this 
mildness either on account of BERENICE or to show 
his friendship for Agrippa. Against this stands the 
narrative of the monk Sulpicius, who is said to have 
drawn his information from Tacitus; and, follow- 


ing this authority, Jacob Bernays (“ Programm des 
Jitidisch-Theologischen Seminars in Breslau,” 1861, 
p. 48) charges Josephus with untruthfulness; Gritz, 
howevet (“ Gesch.” iii. 539), is Inclined to believe in 
the veracity of Josephus’ statement. 

On the following day (the tenth of Ab, 70) the 
Jews made a desperate sortie, and one of the Roman 
soldiers, weary of fighting, threw a burning piece of 
wood intothe Temple. In vain did Titus give orders 
to extinguish the flames; his voice was drowned in 
the uproar. Titus himself, impelled by curiosity, 
entered the Sanctuary, but the smoke forced him to 

withdraw; and thus the destruction 
Burning of of the Temple of Jerusalem became 
the associated with his name. On the 

Temple. ruins of the Sanctuary Titus was pro- 

claimed emperor by his soldiers (“B. 
J.” vi. 6, § 1; Dion Cassius, l.c. § 7; Suetonius, 
“Titus,” v.), although both he and his father re- 
fused the epithet “Judaicus,” because the word 
might suggest an inclination toward the Jewish re- 
ligion (see, however, Joél, “ Blicke in die Religions- 
geschichte,” il. 46). 

Even Josephus was able to point to only scanty 
traces of mildness in the life of Titus, while, on the 
other hand, cruelties are recorded which must be at- 
tributed to personal hatred on his part, and not to 
the unavoidable harshness of war, In Cvsarea in 
Palestine, in Ceesarea Philippi, and in Berytus he 
forced the captive Jews to fight against wild ani- 
mals and also against one another; and many thou- 
sands more were slain to please the revengeful Syr- 
ians and Greeks, Jt was in Rome, however, that he 
celebrated his triumphs, together with his father 
and his brother Domitian; there 700 Jews of splen- 
did physique and the leaders of the Zealots, John of 
Giscala and Simon bar Giora, helped to grace his 
procession. Two triumphal arches were erected in 

his honor. Of these, one no longer 

Arches of exists, and is remembered only on ac- 

Titus. count of the Inscription which it bore 

(“C. I. L.” vi. 444), but the other, a 

beautiful structure, still stands In Rome, and on it 

may be scen representations of the captured vessels 
of the Temple. See Titus, ARCH OF, 

The Jews hated Titus on account of his share in 
the destruction of the Temple; and the Rabbis ac- 
cordingly termed him “Titus the miscreant,” thus 
contrasting sharply with the statements of the clas- 
sical writers, who regarded him as an ornament of the 
human race. It may be proved, however, that he 
was anything but upright while he was crown 
prince; indeed, he was cruel, licentious, and am- 
bitious, and was even suspected of having sought to 
poison his father. Only during the latter part of his 
reign did he display praiseworthy qualities. A sig- 
nificant saying of frequent recurrence in rabbinic 
sources is to the effect that he was honored in Rome 
as the conqueror of the barbarians (vexyr7¢ BapBdpwv ; 
Gen. R. x.; Lev. R. xxii. 3; Lam. R., Introduction, 
No, 23, etc.), thus showing that the Jews were re- 
garded as an inferior and barbarous nation. All the 
other accounts of Titus in rabbinical literature are 
purely legendary, and their utter unreliability is 
shown by the fact that he is called the nephew instead 
of the son of Vespasian, a view which was repeated 


Titus 
Tobacco 


in medieval chronicles (Neubauer, “M. J. C.” i. 50, 
7), Inthe Holy of Holies, moreover, he was said 
to have pierced the veil of the Ark, to have had in- 
tercourse with two courtezans (a rem- 
Rabbinical iniscence of his relations with Bere- 
Legends. nice), and to have defiled the Torah 
(tb.; Git. 56b); in short, to have blas- 
phemed God. That he packed the sacred vessels in 
a basket and took them on board his ship was also 
stated in rabbinical tradition. As he stepped from 
his bath—so runs a legend—a drink was handed to 
him, when suddenly a gnat (win) stung him in the 
nose, and thus cansed his death (Ab. R. N., Re- 
cension B, vii.; it is 
noteworthy that this 
form of retribution 
also figures in Arabic 
legends, which often 
confuse Titus with 
Nebuchadnezzar, 
who likewise des- 
troved the Temple; 
“RE. J.” Inix. 212). 
This has been inier- 
preted as implving 
that Titus became mel- 
ancholy and insane 
in his declining years 
(Hamburger, “R. B. 
T.” 3.7.5; but such an 
cx planation seems in- 
admissible. Despite 
the Jewish hatred of 
Titus, many Jews as 
well as Christians 
have borne his name 
(in the New Testa- 
ment, Titus i.4; Gal. 
ii, 3; ID Cor. ii. 18, 
and elsewhere; for 
the Jews, see Krauss, 
“Lehnowo6rter,” ii. 
262); and in later 
_ times four prominent. 
Jewish families of 
Italy have traced 
their descent from 
prisoners taken by 
him (see RoME). 

The medieval Jews 
invented numerous legends concerning Titus; thus, 
according to “ Yosippon ” and Benjamin of Tudela, 
the Roman consuls {7.e., senators) blamed him for 
taking three years instead of two to conquer Jeru- 
salem. Benjamin claims also to have seen the sup- 
posed palace of Titus at Rome; and, according to 
Abraham ibn Daud (“Sefer ha-Kabbalah,” ed. 
Prague, 1795, p. 40d), Titus put to death the high 
priest Ishmael b. Elisha and R. Simeon b. Gamaliel, 
although only the latter was actually executed. The 
names of hosts of other patriots and martyrs who 
lost. their lives through Titus are unknown. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY : Gritz, Gesch. 4th ed., fli. 494, 582, 539, et pas- 
sim: Scehirer, Gesch. 3d ed., i. 610-637 et passim ; Vogelstein 
and Rieger, Geach. der Juden in Rom, i. 22-25, 91. For the 
Jewish legends, see I. Lévi in R. E. J. xv. 62-69. 
se S. Kr. 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Arch of Titus at Rome. 
(Frem a photograph.) 


164 


TITUS, ARCH OF: A triumphal! arch erected 
at Rome in honor of the emperor Titus and in 
celebration of his victory over the Jews. It rises 
on the prominent part of the Via Sacra, about 20 
vards above the Tiber. One of its faces fronts the 
Colosseum; the other, the Forum. Under the pon- 
tificate of Pius VII. the arch was restored in_ its 
lateral portions, which had become injured by time. 
The structure consists of a single arcade adorned 
with sculptured crowns and tympans. On the right 
and on the left are two united columns of a compos- 
ite order with rich entablature, and an elevated 
attic. Three bas-reliefs adorn the passage of 
the arcade. One, on 
the Colosseum side, 
shows Titus, crowned 
by Victory, standing 
upright in a car 
drawn by four horses 
and conducted by a 
female personifying 
the city of Rome. 
The second  repre- 
sents Roman soldicrs 
without weapons, 
crowned with laurels, 
and carrying the 
spoils of the Temple 
of Jerusalem. These 
spoils are: two tab- 
lets fastened on 
staffs, the seven- 
branched candle- 
stick, and the golden 
table upon which are 
leaning the sacred 
trumpets. The third 
bas-relief, under the 
vault, exhibits Titus 
sitting on an eagle, as 
he appears on the 
medals struck to 
consecrate his apo- 
theosis. 

A tradition, which 
still prevails in Rome, 
says that formerly no 
Jew ever passed un- 
der this arch, and 
that, in order to go 
from the Colosseum to the Capito], the inhabitants 
of the ghetto opened a way between the arch and 


the Palatine. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Philippi, Ueher die Rémischen Triumphal- 
reliefs, pl. ii., iii., Leipsic, 1872; Reinach, L’ Arc de Titus, in 
R. BE. J. xx., Ixv.: Reland, De Spoltis Temptt Hieroso- 
lymitani tn Areu Titiano. See, also, T. Reinach, tb. xx.; 
Appendix, Ixv.-xci.: B. Wolff-Beckh, Kaiser Titus und der 
Jiidische Krieg, in Neue Jahrbticher fiir das Klassische 
Alierthum, 1903, vi. (also published separately, Berlin, 1904). 


J. IR. I. BE. 


TOB ‘ELEM, JOSEPH. See Bonrits, JosEPH 
B. SAMUEL. 

TOB LE-HODOT. 
HA-SHABBAT. 

TOBACCO (1pRany, OID): The use of tobacco 
for smoking and in the form of snuff is common 


See MizmMor SHIR LE- YOM 


165 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Titus 
Tobacco 


among Jews, who in some countries control toa large 
extent the manufacture and sale of the product. 
It is asserted that a Jew named Luis de Terres, who 
accompanied Columbus on his expedition in 1492, 
settled in Cuba, learned the use of tobacco, and in- 
troduced it into Europe. From this time Jews have 


jiiilh 


ice 


| 
| 
| 
| 


(“ Keneset ha-Gedolah,” to Orah Hayyim, 551, 21). 
He points out the inconsistency of those authorities 
who permit smoking on holy days because it is a 
“necessity,” a “means of sustaining life,” and who 
allow it on fast-days because smoke has no *sub- 
stance” like food. In Benveniste’s opinion smoking 


\ 


\ 
Z 
m. 


7 


Z| 
NOE: 


SPOILS OF THE TEMPLE, PICTURED ON THE ARCH OF TITUS, 
(After Bartoli’s ‘‘Admiranda.”’) 


been connected with the trade in tobacco, one of the 
most important in early American history (M. J. 
Kohler, in “ Publ. Am. Jew. Hist. Soc.” x. 52). The 
introduction of tobacco into Europe encountered the 
resolute opposition of the clergy, who characterized 
tobacco-smoking as “offering mcense to Satan.” 
The Rabbis, however, discussed the use of tobacco 
not from a moral, but from a legal stand point—con- 
cerning its prohibition on Sabbaths, holy days, and 
fast-days, and as to whether smoking 
In Jewish requires a special benediction. Asa 
Law. subject of controversy it appears first 
in the “Keneset ha-Gedolah” of R. 
Hayyim Benveniste (1603-73) and the “ Magen Abra- 
ham” of Abraham Gombiner (1635-83), which fact 
tends to show that during the seventeenth century 
the practise of tobacco-smoking spread rapidly 
among the Jews of all nations. 

Gombiner describes the “drinking of  tabak 
through a pipe by drawing the smoke into the 
mouth and discharging it.” The rabbi is in doubt 
whether or not one must pronounce a benediction 
before inhaling the smoke, since it is a means of re- 
freshment, As an argument against pronouncing 
a blessing he observes that there is no “substance ” 
in the benefit derived (“Magen Abraham,” to Shul- 
han ‘Aruk, Orah Hayyim, 210, 9). He prohibits 
smoking tobacco “through the mouth ” on Passover, 
as he was informed that the tobacco was soaked in 
beer, which is “hamez” (7b. 348). Benveniste ex- 
presses himself very forcibly against smoking “tu- 
tun” (tobacco) on the Ninth of Ab; and he even 
excommunicated one who smoked on that day 


should be prohibited on holy days; he quotes the 
venerable R. Joseph Escapa as coinciding in this 
view, though he thought it unwise to enforce a 
generally accepted law. 


Table of Showbread, Pictured on the Areh of Titus. 
(After Reland, ‘t De Spoliis Templi,’’ 1715.) 


The Jews of Turkey at that time must have been 
very much addicted to the habit, for Benveniste 
pictures them as inveterate smokers, impatient for 
the close of Sabbath, when they might resume smo- 
king, and as watching for the appearance of the three 
stars which indicate the end of the day; some began 
smoking even before “ Habdalah.” “They lingered 


Tobaceo 
Tohiads 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


166 


in the streets and public houses, every man witha 
censer in his hand, inhaling the smoke and dis- 
charging it in fantastic diffusion,” 
ubtil “a thick cloud of incense went 
up” (comp. Ezek. viii. 11). He declares 
that the Name of God is desecrated 
when the Gentiles observe Jews smoking on their 
fast-days, while Mohammedans refrain from smoking 
on theirs (“Keneset ha-Gedolah,” 7. 567 [ed. Cou- 
stantinople, 1729, pp. 101 eZ seg.}). Some Jews, unable 
to abstain from tobacco even for one day, filled a 
hooka with smoke on Friday and inhaled it on the 
Sabbath, Others would visit Mohamimedan ucigh- 
bors for the sake of the tobacco smoke in their 
houses. This practise was eventually prohibited on 
the ground that it would make Judaism ridiculous 
in the eyes of the Gentiles (Alkalai, “ Zekor le-Abra- 
ham,” i. 142-148, Salonica, 1798). 

The Turkish narghile, in which the smoke passes 
through water, early became popular; Benveniste 
rules that the “tumbak” (cake of tobacco, over 
which a burning coal is placed at the other end of 
the narghile) extinguishes the fire, which is forbid- 
den even on holy days. Gombiner prohibits tum- 
bak because it is like “mugmar” (spice for burn- 
ing), mentioned in the Talmud, which likewise is 
prohibited. This, however, is disputed by R. Mor- 
decai ha-Leviin his “Darke No‘am” (No. 9, Venice, 
1698), who permits the use of the narghile on holy 
days (see “Be’er Heteb,” to Shulhan ‘Aruk, Orah 
Hayyim, 514, 1). The controversy finally ended in 
a victory for those rabbis who permitted the use of 
tobacco on holy days and fast-days, except of 
course on Yom Kippur, which is like Sabbath; still, 
some Jews still abstain from smoking on the Ninth 
of Ab. 

In spite of some objections, snuff-taking was 
permitted at any time—Sabbaths, holy days, fast- 
days, and Yom Kippur (“ Leket ha- 
Kemah,” p. 51b, Amsterdam, 1707). 
Jacob Haziz (1620-74) quotes a re- 
sponsum of Isaiah Pinto permitting the use of snuff 
on Sabbaths, even though it cures catarrh; for every- 
body, even healthy people, snuff, and it can not 
therefore be considered a drug (“ Halakot Ketannot,” 
No. 101). 

It appears that women used tobacco almost as 
much as men (see Elijah of Lublin, “ Yad Eliyahu,” 
responsum No, 65, Amsterdam, 1712). Jewish woim- 
eu in the Orient mostly used the narghile, while 
in Russia old women used snuff; others smoked 
cigarettes, like men. So prevalent was the habit of 
smoking that it was practised even in the bet ha- 
midrash. A strong effort, however, was made to 
prohibit smoking and snuffing in places of wor- 
ship (“Pahad Yizhak,” , p. 62a). In some batte 
midrashot prohibitory notices were posted in 
front of the doors (“Ha-Maggid,” 1859, vol. iii., 
No. 16). 

In countries where the government had a monop- 
oly of the tobacco trade, manufacturing and trading 
privileges were assigned to Jewish merchants at a 
fixed price per annum for a number of years. The 
question was raised whether the contractor had a 
prior right to the next contract as against the claims 
of anew competitor, Lampronti decided that con- 


Tobacco- 
Lovers. 


Snuff. 


tracts were open to competition, inasmuch as the 
matter depended on the laws and regulations of the 
government (" Pahad Yizhak,” &, p. 90a). Russian 
Jews have invented some practical cigarette-making 
machines for which they have obtained patents. 

A remarkable book is Raphael Kohen’s “ Hut ha- 
Meshullash ” (Odessa, 1874), which deals with the 
question of cigar-smoking on Sabbaths, and which 
finally reaches the conclusion that itis permissible on 
the ground that it affords “‘oneg shabbat” (delight 
aud cnjoyment). Not daring to publish his name, 
the author issued his book under a pseudonym. 
His discussion was not considered a serious one; 
nevertheless it is of a kind unusual in Hebrew 
literature. 

There are several Hebrew poems for and against 
smoking. Solomon Wilder of Amsterdam composed 
one in acceptance of a tobacco-pipe as a birthday 
present (“ Ha-Karmel,” 1862, vol. ii., No. 20), An- 
other poem characterizes the cigar and cigarette as 
“the two tails of these smoking firebrands” (Isa. 
vii. 4; see “ Ha-Boker Or,” i. 128). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Ha-Maggid, viii., No. 37; Ha-Zefirah, i., No. 

8; Keneset ha-Gedolah, iii. end; A. K. Kaufman, 

Riiuchert un Shikkert, Warsaw, 1900; Low, Lebens- 


alter, p. 351; Abrahams, Jewish Life in the Middle Ages, 
p. 189; Steinschneider, in Die Deborah (1894), vol. x1., No. 1. 


J. J. D. E. 

TOBIA BEN MOSES HA-ABEL (surnamed 
also Ha-‘Obed = “the worshiper,” Ha-Baki = 
“the erudite,” Ha-Maskil = “the teacher,” and 
Ha-Ma‘tik = “the translator”): Karaite scholar, 
Biblical commentator, liturgical poet, and transla- 
tor; flourished at Constantinople in the eleventh and 
twelfth centuries. First (“Gesch. des Karitert.” 
li. 198 e¢ seg.) conjectures Tobia’s dates to have been 
about 1070 to 1140; but it will be seen later that he 
was born earlier (see also Steinschneider, “ Hebr. 
Uebers.” p. 457). Tobia’s last three surnamesindicate 

the range of his erudition and literary 
Epoch and activity; indeed, his works them- 
At- selves show his thorough knowledge 
tainments. ofrabbinics, philosophy, and theology. 
He moreover went to Jerusalem, 
where he studied for some time under Jeshua b. 
Judah, and where he became acquainted with the 
Arabic writings of the latter as well as with those 
of Joseph b. Abraham ha-Ro’ech, afterward transla- 
ting into Hebrew many of the works of both. In 
oue of his books, entitled “Yehi Me’orot,” Tobia 
declares that he was a propagandist of Karaism, 
owing to which he suffered many persecutions from 
his own family as well as from hisopponents. But, 
he says, when one is fully convinced of the truth 
he must regard neither family nor his own life. It 
would thus appear that Tobia was of a Rabbinite 
family and that through studying Karaite works he 
became an adherent of Karaism, in consequence of 
which his family turned against him. Possibly the 
writings of no other scholar were the subject of so 
much dispute as those of Tobia ben Moses. The 
following is a list of them as may be gathered from 
various sources: 

(1) “ ¥Yehi Me’orot,” a work on the command- 
ments, so called after the opening sentence; it 
is called also “Sefer ha-Mizwot.” Firkovich as- 
cribed it to Judah Hadassi; but Aaron b. Joseph in 


167 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Tobacco 
Tobiads 


his “Mibhar” (on Emor) and Elijah Bashyvazi in 
his “Adderet Elivahu” clearly show Tobia to 
have been its author. The earliest Rabbinite au- 
thority quoted therein is Hat b. David, whose anti- 
Karaite work with regard to the Rabbinite calendar 
is repeated; then comes Saadia, many of whose anti- 
Karaite passages are repeated and refuted: and of 
Saadia’s successors may be mentioned Tobiah b. 
Eliezer (* Lekah Tob”). It may be concluded from 
the latter's work that Tobia wrote the 
*Yehi Me’orot ” not earlier than 1100. 
(2) “Zot ha-Torah,” commentary on 
the Pentateuch, a manuscript of which was found 
in the library of Eupatoria (Kozlov), but was lost 
during the Crimean war of 1853-56. 

Another important work by Tobia was (8) “ Ozar 
Nehmad,” described by Simhah Luzki (“Orah Zad- 
dikim,” p. 22b) as in two parts, the first treating of 
lawful and forbidden foods, and the second of the 
laws regarding cleanness and uncleanness. In real- 
ity this work deals with all the laws contained in 
Leviticus, as appears from Bashyazi (l.c. pp. 41d, 
48b). The author quotes all the Karaite Biblical 
commentators; and he particularly refutes the doc- 
trinesof MEsHwr AL-‘UKBARI, or Moses of Baalbek, 
whom he declares to have embraced Christianity 
toward the end of his life. The main authority 
upon whom the work is based is David b. Boaz 
ha-Nasi. Besides Simhah Luzki (/.c.), who asserts 
that the “Ozar Nehmad” was the work of Tobia, 
Delmedigo (“ Nobelot Hokmah,” p. 56a, Basel, 1631) 
and Aaron b. Joseph (in his “Sefer ha-Mizwot,” 
quoted by Mordecai b. Nissan in his “Dod Mor- 
dekai”) ascribe it to him, Pinsker (“ Likkute Kad- 
moniyyot,” Appendix, pp. 98-94), however, thinks 
that the work belongs to Jeshua b. Judah, as is indi- 
cated by Bashyazi (é.c.), and thatas Tobia translated 
this work from Arabic into Hebrew, Luzki mistook 
him for its author. It must be said, however, that 
Luzki distinguishes between the “Ozar Nehmad ” 
of Tobia and Jeshua’s work which bears the same 
title and which was actually translated by Tobia. 

Other works by Tobia were: (4) “’Teshubat ha- 
‘Ikkar” (Eupatoria, 1834), which. according to First 
(l.¢e.), isa compendium of Jeshua’s “ Kitab al-‘Ara- 
yot ” (but see Steinschneider, f.¢. p. 943). In the in- 
troduction the author speaks of the four kinds of 
intellect (“da‘at”), termed in Hebrew “sekel,” 
“hokmah,” “tushiyvah,” and “binabh”; he then 
gives the rules for exegesis, the thirteen hermeneu- 
tic rules (“middot ”) of R. Ishmael, and the twelve 
of the Greeks. (5) Religio-philosophical questions 
(“she’elot ”) addressed to his teacher Jeshua b. Judah 
in Jerusalem (see Judah Hadassi, “ Eshkol ha-Kofer,” 
p. 76a). (6) Addition (“tosafah”) to Joseph ha- 
Ro’eh’s “ Kitab al-Mansuri,” which he translated 
into Hebrew under the title “ Mahkimat Peti.” 

Tobia’s surname “ Ha-Ma‘tik” shows his great 
activity in translating. Steinschneider (/.¢c. p. 457) 
supposes that this activity began about the middle 
of the eleventh century ; Tobia would 
then be the first known translator from 
Arabic into Hebrew. Fiirst enumer- 
ates the following thirteen works of 
Joseph ha-Ro’eh and five of Jeshua b. Judah 
which were translated by Tobia: (1) “ Kitab al-Sih- 


Works. 


Transla- 
tions. 


hah”; (2) “Kitab al-Shira‘”; (8) “Kitab al-‘Ara- 
yot”; (4) “ Kitab al-Tauhid,” which Steinschneider 
supposes to be a mistake for “al-Tamyiz”; (5) 
“Kitab al-Siraj ” under the Hebrew title “Sefer ha- 
Ma’or” or “Sefer ha-Me‘orot” or “Sefer ha-Urim”; 
(6) a work on “Abib” written against Saadia; (7) 
one on feasts under the Hebrew title “Sefer ha-Mo‘a- 
dim”; (8) “Kitab al-Mansuri” under the Hebrew 
title “ Mahkimat Peti” (see above ); (9) “ Kitab al- 
Radd ‘Ala Abi Ghalib Thabit”; (10) “Ahwal al- 
Fa‘il”; (11) “ Zidduk ha-Din”; (12) “ Al-Muhtawi,” 
in Hebrew “Sefer ha-Ne‘imot” or “Zikron ha- 
Datot”; (18) “Masa’il wa-Jawa’ib,” in Hebrew 
“She’elot u-Teshubot.” Jeshua’s works translated 
by Tobia were: (1) the first part of his religious 
philosophy, under the Hebrew title “ Marpe la- 
‘Ezem”: (2) “Meshibat Nefesh”; (8) “Ozar Neh- 
mad”; (4) a work on speculation under the Hebrew 
title “Sefer ha-Ra‘yon”; (5) Jeshua’s completion of 
Joseph’s “Al-Muhtawi.” First, lhowever, omits 
mention of (6) Jeshua’s commentary on the Deca- 
logue translated by Tobia under the title “ Pitron 
‘Aseret ha-Debarim” (see P. Frankl in “ Monats- 
schrift,” xxix. 472), 

The “ Hazanya” (old Karaite ritual) contains two 
piyyutim by Tobia: one beginning “ Elohenu mi-kol 
ummah ahabtanu,” arranged in alphabetical order, 
and signed “Tobia b. Moses Hazak”; the other be- 
ginning “ Esh’alah me-El,” and being an acrostic on 
“Tobia b. Moses ha-‘Obed.” The “Siddur ha-Ka- 
ra’iin” (iv. 88) also contains a piyyut by Tobia. It 
may be added that Firkovich, in a note to Gott- 
lober’s “ Bikkoret le-Toledot ha-Kara’inn ” (p. 169), 
distinguishes between Tobia ha-Baki, the author 
of “Zot ha-Torah” and of a metrical piyyugé begin- 
ning “ Tahor ‘en sefatai tiftah,” and Tobia ha-‘Obed, 
the former having lived abouta century earlier than 
the latter. Firkovich thinks that Tobia ha-‘Obed 
was a descendant of Tobia ha-Baki and was the 
author of “Zot ha-Hayyah,” a work on clean and 
unclean animals. Still, Firkovich, in a letter to 
Pinsker (“Likkute Kadmoniyyot,” Appendix, p. 
94, note 1), contradicts himself in this matter. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: First, Gesch. des Kardert. ti. 198-207; Gott- 
lober, Birkoret le-Toledot ha-Kara’im, pp. 169-170; S. Pin- 
sker, Likkute Kadmoniyyot, p. 219, Appendix, pp. 93 et 
seq., 1389; Steinschneider, Hebr. Uebers. pp. 154 et seq., 940 


et. seq. 
Bs 6; M. SEL. 


TOBIADS: Jewish party in the Maccabean 
period. A combination of the statements of Jose- 
phus (“ Ant.” xii. 4, §§ 1-11) and of II Macc. iii. 11 
yields an interesting family history, which, how- 
ever, requires critical examination. 

During the reign of the Egyptian king Ptolemy 
and his wife Cleopatra, the high priest Onias, who 
was feeble-minded and extremely miserly, refused 
to pay the Jewish tribute of twenty talents which 
his father, Simon the Just, had always given from 
his ownmeans, In his anger the king sent Athenion 
as a special envoy to Jerusalem. threatening to seize 
the land of the Jews and to hold it by force of arms 
if the money was not fortheoming. Although the 
high priest disregarded this threat, the people were 
greatly excited, whereupon Onias’ nephew Joseph, a 
sonof Tobias and a man greatly beloved and respected 
for his wisdom and piety, reproached his uncle for 


Tobiads 
Tobiah ben Eliezer 


bringing disaster upon the people, declaring, more- 
over, that Onias ruled the Jews and held the high- 
priestly office solely for the sake of gain. He told 
him, furthermore, that he ought at all events to go 
to the king and petition him to remit the tribute- 
money, or at least a part of it. Onias, on the other 
hand, replied that he did not wish to rule, and ex- 
pressed himself as willing to resign the high-priest- 
hood, although he refused to petition the king. He 
permitted Joseph, however, to go to Ptolemy, and 
also to speak to the people. Joseph quieted the 
Jews, and received the envoy hospitably in his own 
house, besides giving him costly presents, so that, 
when Athenion returned to Alexandria, he informed 
the king of the coming of Joseph, whom he styled 
the ruler (tpoordryc) of the people. Shortly after- 
ward Joseph started on his journey, having first 
raised a loan of about 20,000 drachme in Samaria, 
although he was obliged to submit to the jeers of 
prominent men of Syria and Phenicia, who were 
visiting Alexandria in order to farm the taxes, and 
who derided him on account of his insignificant 
appearance. 

Not finding Ptolemy at Alexandria, Joseph went 
to meet him at Memphis, where the king graciously 
granted him a seat in his own chariot, together with 
the queenand Athenion. [iscleverness won for him 
the monarch’s friendship; and by his offer of 16,000 

talents against the 8,000 bid by his 
Relations opponents he secured the contract 
with Alex- for farming the taxes, the king and 
andria. queeu becoming his sureties, since he 
did not have sufficient ready money. 
He Jeft Alexandria with 500 talents and 2,000 sol- 
diers, and by punishing all who opposed hin in Ash- 
kelon and Scythopolis and confiscating their estates, 
he made himself feared through all the cities of Syria 
and Phenicia, while the great fortune which his ex- 
tortions won was held secure by his continual pres- 
ents to the king, queen, and courtiers, so that he 
retained his office of tax-farmer until his death, 
twenty-two years later. By his first wife Joseph 
had seven sons, At Alexandria he became infat- 
uated with a dancer, for whom his brother Solymius, 
who lived in the city, substituted his own daughter, 
the child of this union being Hyrcanus, who was his 
father’s favorite son and consequently the object of 
his brothers’ enmity. 

On the birth of a prince, Joseph feeling too old to 
visit Alexandria and his other sons likewise declining 
to go, sent Hyrcanus to bear his congratulations to 
the court. Arion, Joseph’s representative in Alex- 
andria, however, refused to allow Hyrcanus money, 
and the latter accordingly put him in chains, not 
only escaping punishment from the king, but even 
winning both his favor and that of the courtiers, 
whose aid his brothers had secretly invoked against 
him. Although the king sent letters recommending 
him warmly to his father, his brothers, and the offi- 
cials of Coele-Syria, the other sons of Joseph met 
him with armed resistance. He defeated them, how- 
ever, and killed two of them; but, being unable to 
remain in Jerusalem, he crossed the Jordan, and in 
the vicinity of Heshbon built the castle of Tyre, 
carrying on war with the Arabs, and ruling the dis- 
trict east of the Jordan during the entire seven 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


168 


years of SeleucusIV. The following statement is 
made by Josephus (“ Ant.” xii. 4, § 10): “And Hyr- 
cauus’ father, Joseph, died. He was a good man, 
and of great magnanimity, and brought the Jews 
out of a state of poverty and meanness to one that 
was more splendid. He retained the farming of the 
taxes of Syria, and Phenicia, anit Samaria twenty- 
two years. His uncle, Onias, also died, and left the 
high-priesthood to his son Simon.” This statement 
of Josephus is followed by the correspondence be- 
tween Onias and King Areus of Sparta, and by an 
account of the Jewish disturbances due to feuds 
after the death of Joseph, when the Tobiads be- 
came involved in a civil war. The majority of 
the people, as well as Simeon the high priest, how- 
ever, sided with the elder brother, and Hyrcanus 
did not return to Jerusalem, but continued his war- 
fare against the Arabs. Both for his own comfort, 
and also as a safeguard against attacks by his 
brothers, he built the castle of Tyre and various 
other strongholds, ruling there until the death of 
Seleucus IV. Ptolemy Epiphanesalse died, leaving 
two young sons; but when Hyrcanus saw that Anti- 
ochus Epiphanes, the new king of Syria, possessed 
great power, and when he realized that he would 
be unable to vindicate himself for his murderous 
attacks upon the Arabs, he committed suicide. and 
his property was seized by Antiochus. 
It is clear, therefore, that there are here two ac- 
counts, both legendary, the hero of the one being 
Joseph, and of the other, Hyrcanus. 
The Two The history of the earlier years of the 
Accounts. father closely resembles that of the 
son; in both cases the ambitious youth 
is opposed by the miserly parent, and in both cases 
the youth succeeds in putting his competitors to 
shame before the royal court. The narrative is sus- 
picious in many respects. Onias angers the king, 
but Joseph travels to the court both to assuage the 
king’s anger and to farm the taxes, while the 
sanguinary battle between Hyrcanus and his brothers 
isalso obscure. The mostseriousdifliculty, however, 
is the chronology. An old interpolator of Josephus 
advanced the opinion that the king mentioned in 
the story was Ptolemy III.; but this monarch was 
not the consort of Cleopatra, nor was his imnie- 
diate successor Scleucus IV. The only ruler to 
whom the narrative can properly refer is Ptolemy 
V., Epiphanes (205-182), who in 193 married Cleo- 
patra, the daughter of Antiochus III. In that case, 
however, Joseph could not have farmed the Egyp- 
tian taxes, since Coele-Syria was then under Syrian, 
and not under Egyptian, suzerainty, while the asser- 
tion that the two powers had divided the revenues 
of the country is merely an attempt on the part 
of Josephus to evade the difficulty. Nor was the 
period between Ptolemy Y.’s marriage (193) and his 
death (182) sufficiently long to agree with the state- 
ment concerning the length of time during which 
Joseph farmed the taxes (twenty-two years), and 
still less could Hyrcanus have reached manhood 
in so short a space. Biichler, therefore, finds 
himself compelled to place Joseph’s term of office 
between 219 and 199, although this stultifies the 
statement of Josephus regarding a division of the 
taxes. 


169 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Tobiads 
Tobiah ben Eliezer 


Wellhausen accordingly denies both the historicity 
and the value of the narrative, although he thinks 
that the portion dealing with the period 
of Seleucus IV. and Antiochus IV. 
may be trustworthy, and he regards 
the suicide of Hyrcanus as probable, 
since the latter supported the Ptolemies against the 
new régime of the Syrians, and might consequently 
fear the revenge of Antiochus TV. II Macc. iii. 11 
mentions money deposited by Hyrcanus, the son of 
Tobias, “a man of great dignity,” taking it for 
granted that a friendship existed between Ouias and 
Hyreanus, a supposition which is very reasonable, 
since only the other Tobiads. the brothers of Hyr- 
canus, were involved in quarrels with the legitimate 
high priest. That Hyrcanus is called the son of 
Tobias, aud not of Joseph, isdue, Wellhausen holds, 
to mere abbreviation, and does not imply any diver- 
gency jin the two accounts. 

Willreich distinguishes a threefold tradition con- 
cerning the Tobiads, the first being that of the 
pseudo-Hecatzus (according to Willreich’s interpre- 
tation), which represents Onias as a worthy man, 
and attributes to the Tobiads all the misfortunes 
which befellthe Jews. Theaccount of Josephus, on 
the other hand, which represents Onias as a weak- 
ling and the Tobiads as the promoters of Israel's 
welfare, is drawn from Samaritan sources. With 
this theory Biichler also agrees, thus explaining 
why Joseph sought aid in Samaria, and why the ac- 
count fails toexpress disapproval of the non-Jewish 
conduct of Joseph, who ate at the court of an Egyp- 
tian king and had dealings with Gentiles. Willreich 
likewise brings the Tobiads into association both 
with Tobiah, the servant mentioned by Nehemiah as 
an Ammonite (ii. 19), who consequently came from 
the east-Jordanic district, and with the Tubieni (II 
Macc. xii. 17), who were the enemies of the Jews 
(comp. I Macc. v. 18), Although Willreich does 
not absolutely deny the historicity of the narrative, 
since the castle of Hyrcanus has been discovered in 
modern times (Schiirer, “Gesch.” 38d ed., ii. 49), he 
incorrectly regards Joseph and Hyrcanus as mere 
names, representing in part Jason and Menelaus, 
although such a view is quite untenable. The third 
form of the tradition is that of Jason of Cyrene, on 
which the second Book of the Maccabees is based ; 
and Schlatter is even of the opinion that Josephus 
himself drew his account of the Tobiads from this 
same source. 

Biichler’s researches have probably established 
the historicity of the account of the Tobiads, thus 
furnishing a valuable contribution to the history of 
the period preceding the Maccabean revolt. The 
author of the first Book of the Maccabees makes no 
mention of these events because they added little 
credit to the fame of the Jews. The quarrels were 
factional ones, the issue being whether the old and 
popular government of the Ptolemies should con- 
tinue, or whether the Jews should deliver them- 
selves over to the Syrian kings and their Helleniza- 
tion. When Jason and Menelaus struggled for the 
dominant power in Jerusalem, which was, according 
to Biichler, political office (the spooracia mentioned in 
the account of the Tobiads), and no longer the high- 
priesthood, the sons of Tobias (of Tw3iev atdec) took 


Modern 
Views. 


sides with Menelaus (Josephus, “Ant.” xii. 5, ¢ 1; 

“B. J.” i.1,81); and Biichler justly regards the 

struggle between the Tobiads and the Oniads asa 

contest between Ptolemiean and Seleucid supremacy 
in Jerusalem, According tothe same scholar, morec- 
over, Menelaus and Jason themselves were Tobiads, 
although this is denied by Schiirer. All scholars are 
agreed that many puints of the Tobiad problem still 
await solution; and it is also a moot point whether 

a number of passages in Ecclesiasticus (Sirach) and 

one in the Assumptio Mosis (v. 3-6) refer to the 

Tobiads. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Wilireich, Juden und Griechen vor der Mak- 
kabdischen Erhebung, pp. 64-107, Gottingen, 1895: Well- 
hausen, J. J. G. 4thed., pp. 248-246; Bitchler, Tobiaden wrul 
Oniaden, Vienna, 1899; Sehlatter, in Theologische Studien 
und Kritiken, 18913; Gratz, in Monatssehrift, 1872: Schirer, 


Gesch, 3d ed., i. 195. 
Ap S. Kr. 


TOBIAH BEN ELIEZER: Talmudist and 
poet of the eleventh century; author of the * Lekah 
Tob” or “ Pesikta Zutarta,” a midrashic commentary 
on the Pentateuch and the Five Megillot. Zunz(“G. 
V.” pp. 293 et seg.) inferred from Tobiah’s reference 
to his father as “the great” and from his mention of 
the massacre in Mayence in 1096, that he was a na- 
tive of Mayence and a son of ELIEzeER B. Isaac HA- 
GaDoL, who is thought by Conforte (“Kore ha- 
Dorot,” p. 8b) to have been one of Rashi’s teachers. 
But as in the course of his work Tobiah often at- 
tacks the Karaites and, besides, manifests a thor- 
ough knowledge of Mohammedan customs, Rapo- 
port, in his biography of Kalir, note 33 (in “ Bikkure 
ha-‘Ittim,” x. 122-123), concluded that toward the 
end of his life Tobiah settled in Palestine. As to 
Tobiah’s birthplace, it has been proved by Solomon 
Buber that he was a native of Castoria in Bulgaria. 
as is testified to by Tobiah’s countryman Judah Leon 
Mosconi in his supercommentary on Ibu Ezra’s com- 
mentary on the Pentateuch. According to him, the 

author of the commentary on the Pen- 
A tateuch mentioned by Ibn Ezra in the 
Bulgarian. preface to his own work was a certain 
Meir of Castoria, a pupil of Tobiah b. 
Eliezer. On the other hand, in his commentary on 
Ecclesiastes, Tobiah mentions a I. Samson as his 
teacher ; and Buber supposes that he may be identica! 
with the Samson quoted by Rashi in his commentary 
on Isa. lviii. 14 and Amos vi. 3. It is also to be con- 
cluded from various dates given by Tobiahb in the 
course of his work that he wrote it in 1097 and re- 
vised it in 1107 or 1108. 

Tobiah himself entitled his work “Lekah Tob” 
in allusion to his name Tobiah; and it is so cited 
by the earlier rabbis, e.g., IBN Ezra (/.¢c.), Asheri in 
“ Hilkot Tefillin,” Zedekiah b. Abraham in “ Shibbole 
ha-Leket ”(§ 118), and many others. Since the mid- 
dle of the sixteenth century, however, it has been 
most oftenreferred toas * Pesikta Zutarta” (= “the 
Lesser Pesikta”) in distinction to the “Pesikta 
Rabbati” (= “the Greater Pesikta”). This second 
title was due to the fact that the editors of the part 
relating to Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy 
(Venice, 1546), found no title in the manuscript, but 
noted that every verse was headed ‘DF (= “ piska”™), 
and took it for granted that it was entitled “ Pesikta.” 
Consequently the rimed title which, Zunz (/.c.) thinks, 


Tobiah ben Eliezer 
Tobit, Book of 


was composed by the press-corrector Johanan Treves 
begins NXMAI IN NMIWY XM ps! (= “ Pesikta, be it 
small or great”). In the colophon the editors call 
it “Pesikta Zutarta.” It was owing to the latter 
title that the “ Lekah Tob” was confused with the 
Pesikta Rabbati by Gedaliah ibn Yahya (“Shalshelet 
ha-Kabbalah,” p, 24b, Amsterdam, 1697), by Heilprin 
(“Seder ha-Dorot,”i.), by Azariah dei Rossi (“ Me’or 
‘Enayim,” ch, xix.), and by others. The “Lekah 
Tob” is in reality half commentary and half hagga- 
dah, covering the whole Pentateuch and the Five 
Megillot. Every weekly lesson is introduced by a 
Biblical verse containing the word “tob.” Moreover, 
in the text he very often says, “I, Tobiah b. Eliezer ” 
or “Tobiah said.” It is true that in the Jerusalem 
manuscript there occurs very often the expression 
“our teacher Tobiah b. Eliezer,” from which it might 
be assumed that the “Lekah Tob” was written by 
Tobiah’s pupils; but from a closer examination of 
the text, and to judge from the Florence manu- 
script, it is evident that the expression in question 
is merely a copyist’s mistake. 

As has been said above, the “ Lekah Tob” is botha 
simple commentary (“peshat”), giving the gram- 
matical meaning of the words, and very often a hag- 

gadic commentary also. But in many 


The instances Tobiah declares that the 
‘‘Lekah standard interpretation is the simple 
Tob.” one. Even in his haggadic interpre- 


tation, which he derives from the Tal- 
mud and from the pre-Talmudic and post-Talmudic 
literatures, Tobiah manifests his love of good style. 
He endeavors to arrange the various midrashim in 
perfect order and to edit them in few words and 
clear language. He therefore shortens the mid- 
rashic passages, and, instead of the Aramaic in which 
those passages were written, renders them into good 
Hebrew, omitting also the foreign words which oc- 
cur in the midrashim. In the parts of the Penta- 
teuch which deal with the commandments he inserts 
many halakot, apparently taken from various hala- 
kic collections, particularly from Ahai Gaon’s 
“She’eltot.”. The Talmudic passages which he cites 
in connection with the halakot he often interprets 
according to hisown judgment and differently from 
Rashi. 

Throughout the whole commentary Tobiah shows 
his thorough knowledge of Hebrew grammar and 
his acquaintance with the works of the earlier gram- 
marians. Incidentally it may be remarked that 
he seems to have held the opinion that the He- 
brew roots are not necessarily triliteral. In certain 
places he interprets a Biblical word as though it 
were a mishnaic or Talmudic one. He considers 
there is not a letter too many or too few in the 
whole Pentateuch; and he bases many of his hag- 
gadic interpretations on the “keri” and “ketib.” 
One of the main features of his commentary is 
the allegorical interpretation of all the Biblical pas- 

sages which speak of God as a corpo- 


Character- realbeing, He likewise considers that 
istics and the expressions in R. Ishmael’s “He- 
Sources. kalot” must be taken figuratively (see 


“Lekah Tob” on Deut. iv. 12). In 
many places he refutes assertions of the Karaites, 
though he does not expressly name their authors. 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


170 


Like many other Biblical commentators, he trans- 
lates certain words into the language of the country 
(“Ja‘az”) in which he is Jiving, namely, Greek. 

Tobiah seldom mentions the sources for his com- 
mentary; but they are found to be as follows: Tar- 
gum of Onkelos; Baraita of R. Ishmael; Baraita of 
R. Eliezer ben Jose ha-Gelili; Sifra; Sifre; Mekilta; 
Seder ‘Olam; “Sefer Yezirah”; both Talmudim; 
Genesis Rabbah; a midrash on the blessing of Jacob 
(Jellinek, “B. H.” ili. 78 e¢ seg.): Leviticus Rabbah; 
midrash on the Five Megillot; Tanhuma; Yelam- 
medenu; Pirke de-Rabbi Eli‘ezer; Baraita di- 
Meleket ha-Mishkan; Agadat Mashiah; “ Hekalot” 
of R. Ishmael; “Sefer ha-Yashar”; Midrash Abkir; 
Midrash Hashkem; and many other midrashim. It 
seems that he utilized the “She’eltot” of R. Ahai, 
the “Halakot Gedolot,” and the “ Yosippon.” He 
quotes also Eleazar ha-Kalir, Saadia, Hai Gaon, Shab- 
bethai Donnolo, Ben Asher, Ben Naplitali, and his 
teacher R. Samson, while he cites passages from 
Menahem b. Saruk and Moses ha-Darshan without 
mentioning their names. Tobiah is in turn quoted 
by those of Rashi’s pupils who redacted the “ Lik- 
kute ha-Pardes,” and by the following: Menahem 
b. Solomon in his “Sekel Tob”; Jacob Tam in his 
“Sefer ha-Yashar”; RaSHBaM in his commentary 
on the Pentateuch; Ibn Ezra (see above); Tobiah b. 
Moses the Karaite in his “ Yehi Me’orot”; Isaac b. 
Abba Mari in his “Sefer ha-‘Ittur”; Isaac b. Moses 
in his “Or Zarua'”; ZGedekiah b. Abraham (see 
above); Judah b. Eliezer in his “ Minhat Yehudah”; 
Eliezer b. Nathan in his piyyut “ Lel Shimmurim ”; 
and numerous later Biblical commentators, hala- 
kists, and casuists. It will thus be seen that the 
“Lekah Tob” was considered as an authority by the 
German, French, and Italian, but not by the earlier 
Spanish, scholars. Of the latter Ibn Ezra alone men- 
tions it, disparagingly. But later Spanish authori- 
ties who, after the expulsion, settled in the East 
considered the “ Lekah Tob” as the chief source for 
their works. 

As has been said above, only that part of Tobiah’s 
work covering Leviticus, Numbers, and Deute- 
ronomy was edited in Venice, 1546. The same 
part was afterward reedited with a Latin trans- 
lation under the title “ Pesikta” by Ugolino in his 
“Thesaurus Antiquitatum Sacrarum” (xv.-xvi.); 
and was subsequently republished by Aaron Moses 
Padua under the title “ Midrash Lekah Tob ” (Wilna, 
1880), with a short commentary or “pbi’ur.” Four 
years later the part comprising Genesis and Exodus 
was published, also under the title “ Midrash Lekah 
Tob,” by Solomon Buber (Wilna, 1884), who added 
along introduction and copious notes. The part 
covering the Five Megillot is not yet printed; but 
extracts were published by Jellinek in 1855. The 
commentary on Lamentations was edited by Nacht 
(“ Tobiah b. Eliezer’s Commentar zu Threni,” Frank- 
fort-on-the-Main, 1895), and that on Ruth by Bam- 
berger (Mayence, 1887). 

Tobiah is known as a Hebrew poet through four 
poems of his which are still extant. One is an in- 
troduction to his commentary on Genesis, another 
is an epilogue to the same, both being acrostics 
on “Tobiah bar Eliezer Hazak”; a third is a short 
acrostic on “Tobiah,” forming an epilogue to Le- 


171 


viticus: and the remaining one isa “selihah” begin- 

ning “Ehyeh asher Ehyeh,” the verses being ar- 

ranged in alphabetical order, and signed “ Tobiah 

p. Eliezer Hazak.” The last-cited poem has been 

published by Buber at the end of his introduction to 

the * Lekah Tob.” 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Azulai, Shem ha-Gedolim, i.; Briill’s Jahrb. 
v. 182 et seq.; Midr. Lekah Tob, ed. Buber, Introduction ; 
Ha-Maggyid. xxxix., Nos. 36-37; Steinschneider, Cut. Bod, 
col. 2674; Winter and Wiinsche, Jitdische Literatur, ii. 270 
et seq.; Zunz, G. ¥. pp. 293 et seq.; Kaufmann, Bine Urhe- 
kannte Mexsianische Bewegung Unter den Juden, in Jahr- 
buch fiir Jiidische Geschichte und Literatur, i. 148 et seq., 
Berlin, 1898, 

Ss. M. SEL. 

TOBIAH BEN ELIJAH OF VIENNE 
(BURGUNDY) (called also Tobias of Burgundy 
or simply R. Tobias): French tosafist of the thir- 
teenth century. He was a younger contemporary, 
and perhaps also a pupil, of Isaac ben Abraham of 
Dam pierre, at whose funeral he was present in 1210. 
Authors of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries 
speak of Tobiah as a very prominent teacher of the 
Law; and he is known also as a Bible commentator 
and liturgical poet. It seems that he wrotea highly 
important cusuistic work, from which the many de- 
cisions quoted in his name were taken. His pupil 
Abraham ben Ephraim often refers, in his “Sefer 
ha-Mizwot,” to Tobiah as an authority. 

Tobiah is quoted in the Tosafot (B. K. 69b), sev- 
eral times in “* Mordekai,” in the “Shibbole ha- 
Leket,” and in “Tashbez.” His religious poetry, 
inspired by the persecutions of his coreligionists, 
consists of “ selihot,” included in a Burgundian Mah- 
zor. They are impressive in style, and show mas- 
tery of form. It appears from a passage in a Cam- 
bridge manuscript that Jehiel of Paris visited Tobiah 
on his journey to Palestine in 1260. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zunz, Z, G. p. 56; idem, Lileraturgesch. p. 


303: Gross, Gallia Judatea, p. 192. 
EL. C, A. Pr. 


TOBIAS, EMIL. Sce THomas, EMILE. 


TOBIT, BOOK OF: A late Jewish work, never 
received into the Jewish canon, and included in the 
Apocrypha by Protestants, although it was pro- 
nounced canonical by the Council of Carthage (897) 
and the Council of Trent (1546). It takes its name 
from the cextral figure, called Tuer (Toft, ‘fw,3eif) 
in Greek, and Tobi (939%) in a late Hebrew manu- 
Script. 

The story of the book isas follows: Tobit, a pious 
man of the tribe of Naphtali, who remained faithful 
to Jerusalem when his tribe fell away to Jeroboam’s 
cult of the bull, was carried captive to Nineveh in 
the time of Enemessar (Shalmaneser), King of As- 
syria. There, together with his wife, Anna, and his 
son Tobias, he gave alms to the needy, and buried the 
outcast bodies of the slain, keeping himself pure, 
moreover, from the food of the Gentiles. He was 
in favor with the king, however, and so prosperous 
that he was able to deposit ten talents of silver in 

trust with a friend in Media. With 
Outline of the accession of Sennacherib (the suc- 
the Story. cessor of Enemessar) the situation 

changed. Accused of burying the 
dead slain by the king, he had to flee, and his prop- 
erty was confiscated; but when Sarchedonus (Hsar- 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Tobiah ben Eliezer 
Tobit, Book of 


haddon) came to the throne Tobit was allowed to 
return to Nineveh at the intercession of his neph- 
ew Achiacharus (AHIKAR), the king’s chancellor. 
Here he continued his works of mercy; but, acciden- 
tally losing his eyesight, he fell into great poverty, 
so that in his dire distress he prayed that he might 
die. On that same day a similar prayer was offered 
by Sarah, the daughter of Raguel of Ecbatana (in 
Media), in despair because she had been married 
to seven husbands who had each been slain by a 
demon on the wedding night. The same day Tobit, 
remembering his deposit of money in Media, deter- 
mined to send his son for it. A companion and 
guide (who turns out to be the angel Raphael) being 
found for him, the two proceeded on their journey. 
At the river Tigris, Tobit caught a tish and was in- 
structed by his companion to preserve its heart, 
liver, and gall. Conducted to Raguel’s house, he 
asked Sarah’s hand in marriage, drove away the 
demon by burning the heart and liver of the fish in 
the bridal chamber, sent Raphael (whose assumed 
name was Azarias) for the money, and returned, 
with him and Sarah, to Nineveh, where Tobit’s eye- 
sight was restored by smearing his eyes with the 
fish’s gall. Father, mother, and son reached a good 
old age (Tobias living to rejoice over the destruction 
of Nineveh), and died in peace. This brief outline 
does not do justice to the artistic construction of the 
story, or to the fine touches in its descriptions of 
family life, social customs, and individual expe- 
riences. It may be reckoned among the most de- 
lightful of short stories. 

The text exists in Greek, Latin, Syriac, and Ju- 
dreo-Aramaic, besides two late Hebrew translations. 
Of the Greek there are three versions: one given in 
the Vatican and Alexandrian manuscripts of the 
Septuagint; one in the Sinaitic; and one in Codices 
44, 106, 107 of Holmes and Parsons. Of the Latin 
there are two recensions: the Old Latin, which 
agrees substantially with the Sinaitic Septuagint; 
and the Vulgate, made by Jerome from an Aramaic 
text, Which often agrees with it, although it pre- 
sents many divergencies. The Syriac follows the 
Vatican in general, although it is by no means lit- 
eral, while Codices 44, 106, 107 agree 
sometimes with this text, sometimes 
with that of the Sinaitic. The Ara- 
maic text (published by Neubauer) 
also represents the Sinaitic recension 
in a general way, but is late, and can scarcely be 
considered the descendant of Jerome’s original. 
The Hebrew copies are late and of no authority. 
The two chief Greek recensions are the earliest 
sources for the text of Tobit, though suggestions 
may be gained from the Latin and the Syriac. Of 
the Greek forms the Vatican is the shortest (except in 
ch. iv.); its style is rough and often incorrect, and it 
has many errors, frequently clerical in nature. The 
Sinaitic text is diffuse, but frequently gives the better 
readings. Both of them may depend on an earlier 
form which has been corrupted in the Vatican and 
expanded in the Sinaitic, although the question isa 
difficult one. Equally problematical is the deter- 
mination of the original language of the book. The 
forms of the proper names, and such an expression 
as xaptv xai popogv (i. 13), Which suggests JDM) IM 


Text and 
Original 
Language. 


Tobit, Book of 
Todros ben Meshullam 


(Esth. ii. 17), may be held to point to Hebrew, as 
may also the type of piety portrayed, although it 
must be noted that there is no mention in early 
times of a Hebrew text, which Jerome would doubt- 
Jess have used had he known of its existence. The 
Sinaitic forms “ Ather” for “ Asur” (xiv. 4) and 
“Athoureias” for “ Asureias ” (xiv. 15), on the other 
hand, are Aramaic. The excellent Greek style of the 
Sinaitic may suggest a Greck original. In view of 
the conflicting character of the data, it is best to 
reserve opinion as to the original language; the text 
appears to have suffered a number of revisions and 
misreadin gs. 

The picture of religious life given in Tobit (espe- 
cially the devotion to ritual details) indicates a post- 
Kizran date for the book. The special significance 
attached to almsgiving (iv. 10; xii. 8, 9) is identical 
with the idea in Ecclus. (Sirach) iii. 30 (comp. also 
Prov, x. 2), and the injunction in iv. 17, “Pour out 
thy bread on the burial of the just, but give nothing 
to the wicked,” is repeated in import in Ecclus. 
(Sirach) xii. 4-5. The prediction in xiv. 5 implies 
a period after the building of the Second Temple, 
and, apparently, before the commencement of 
Herod’s Temple. The prominence given to the 
duty of burying the outcast slain (the survival of a 
very ancient conception) seems to point to a time 
when the Jews were slaughtered by foreign enemies, 
as, for example, by Antiochus or by 
Hadrian, The necessity of marrying 
within the kin was recognized during 
a long period and does not define the 
date precisely. Polycarp’s saying (“ Ad Phil.” x.), 
“Almsgiving delivers from death,” does not prove 
that he was acquainted with Tobit, since Prov, x. 2 
may have been so understood by him. There is no 
Messianic hope expressed in the book. The more 
probable view is that it was composed between 200 
and 50 8.c. If the original language was Hebrew, 
the place was Palestine; if Greek, it was Egypt; but 
this point, too, must be left undecided. 

The reference in xiv. 10 to Achiacharus introduces 
new perplexities into the question of the origin of 
the book (see AHIKAR), Here it need only be re- 
marked that the reference is merely an illustration, 
showing acquaintance with an Ahikar story; the 
allusion is scarcely organically connected with the 
story of Tobit. 

The original form of the book may have told sim- 
ply how a pious mag, doing his duty, came safe out 
of trouble. The episode of Sarah and AsMODEUs 
appears to be a separate story, here skilfully com- 
bined with the other. The advisory discourses in 
iv. (much shortened in the Sinaitic text) and xii. 
Jook like the insertions of aneditor. For the ethical 
tone see especially iv. 15, 16, and for the religious 
ideas, xii. 8. The book isto be compared with Prov- 
erbs, Ecclesiasticus (Sirach), Daniel, and Ecclesi- 
astes. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Swete, The Old Testament in Greek (texts of 
the Vatican, Alexandrian, and Sinaitic codices); Fritzsche, in 
Handbuch zu den Apokryphen; Neubauer, The Book of 
Tobit (Old Latin, Aramaic, and modern Hebrew texts); Schii- 
rer, in Herzog-Hauck, Real-Eneye. i.; Robertson Smith, in 
Encyc. Brit.; Erbt,in Cheyne and Black, Hvcye. Bibl.; Mar- 
shall, in Hastings. Diet. Bible; Schenkel, Bibel-Lexikon ; 
Schiirer, Geseh. 3d ed., iii... Andrée, Les Apoeryphes de 
PAncien Testament: Néldeke, in Monatshberichte der Ber- 
liner Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1879; Kohut, in Gei- 


Time and 
Place. 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


172 


ger’s Jtid. Zeit.; Gratz, Gesch. iv.: Plath, in Theoloyische 
Studien und Kritiken. 1901; Israel Lévi, in R. #. J. 1902: 
Abrahains, in J. Q. Jt. i. Bissell, The Apocrypha of the Gld 
Testament (Lange series); Fuller, in Wace, Apocrypha. 


TOCKELS, MORDECAI BEN ABRAHAM 
(called also Mordecai Lisser): German Talmud- 
ist; born at Lissa; died in Berlin June 12, 1748. 
AS a poor young man be went to Berlin, where be 
was adopted by a Frau Tockels, whose name he 
adopted in gratitude for her kindness. Tockels’ 
tirst wife was the daughter of the chief of the Vienna 
exiles, Abraham ben Medel Ries: his second, a 
daughter of the equally prominent Wolf ben Me- 
shullam Salman. In 1723 Tockels was appointed 
davyan; and in 1726 he was made assistant rabbi 
(“rosh bet din”) under Chief Rabbi Michael Hasid. 
In 1729 he was chosen director of the hebra kad- 
disha, which office he held until his death. 

Tockels was the author of “Torat Hayyim we- 
Ahabat Hesed,” which was edited by his brother-in- 
law Abraham ben Meir (Berlin, 1750, 1829). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zedner, Cat. Hebr. Books Brit. Mus. p. 439, 
s.v. Lisser; Landshuth, Toledot Anshe Shem, p. 20. 


E. C. A. PE. 


TODESCO, HERMANN: Austrian financier and 
philanthropist; born at Presburg 1792; died there 
Nov. 23, 1844. At first engaging in the silk trade, he 
later won fame and wealth in the cotton business: 
and he established in Marienthal, near Vienna, 
one of the first cotton-mills worked by machinery. 
In 1835 he bought the state domain of Legnaro. near 
Padua, where he established a cotton-mill which 
became one of the most important of its kind in 
Europe. 

Todesco’s main activity, however, lay in philan- 
thropy. <Atan expense of 25,000 gulden he estab- 
lished a primary and infant school in his native town 
in 1843, and its inaugural ceremonies, on May 7 of 
the following year, were attended by the arch- 
duchess Maria Dorothea. Todesco was also one of 
the principal founders of the Jewish hospital at 
Baden, near Vienna. 

After his death his son Eduard became the head 
of the banking firm of Hermann Todesco’s Sons, 
and was raised to the Austrian nobility in 1869. 
Among his philanthropies special mention may be 
made of his gift of 100,000 gulden in 1854, of which 
three-fifths went to the Erzherzog Albrecht Vor- 
schussfund fiir Cobemittelte K. K. Offiziere, and the 
remainder was devoted to the establishment of a 
Speise-Anstalt fiir Arme Israeclitische Studenten. 
His daughter was married in 1864 to Baron Henry 
de Worms (later Lord PIRBRIGHT). 

Hermann’s other son, Moritz Ritter von To- 
desco, who was an associate of the firm, died July 
17, 1873, at the age of fifty-seven. Eduard’s son 
Hermann (born 1850) died at Baszon, Veszprim, 
Hungary, June, 1876. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Neuer Nekroloy der Deutschen, ii. 755, 


Weimar, 1844; Wiener Zeitung, 1845, No. 17; Wurzbach, 
Biographisches Lexikon. 
S. 


TODROS OF BEAUCAIRE: I (called Ha- 
Kazin). One of the chief poets of the second half 
of the thirteenth century: resided in Montpellier. 
In 1277 he was one of the five representatives of the 


173 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Tobit, Book of 
Todros ben Meshullam 


Jewish community to which James IT. of Aragon 
granted a synagogue for a long term of years in 
consideration of the payment of five Melgorian sous 
annually by the Jews of the city. Abraham Be- 
dersi, who esteemed Todros highly, and considered 
him, together with Kalonymus ben Meir of Arles 
and Kalonymus ben Todros of Narbonne, as one of 
the greatest men of his period, complained to him 
in bitter terms of the evil days in which they lived 
and of the low opinion held of poetry. Abraham 
also replied in verse to a poem which Todros ad- 
dressed to him and which when read froin left to 
right has an entirely different sense from that which 
it has when read from right to left. 


Be a Renan-Neubauer, Les Rabbins Francais, pp. 
2,716; BR. BH. J. Xix. 265, 273. 


- Rabbinical scholar of Montpellier at the begin- 
ning of the fourteenth century. He was one of the 
most devoted adherentsof Abba Mari of Lunel during 
the period of religions polemics between 1303 and 
1306, bitterly opposing all who studied science or 
philosophy. Despite the presence of Don Crescas 
Vida! of Perpignan, who was at Montpellier at the 
time, the fanaticism of Todros drove him to protest 
violently against the author (probably Moses ibn 
Tibbon) of a commentary on the Pentateuch which 
explained as allegories events recorded in the first 
five booksof the Bible. Like Abba Mari, he did not 
hesitate to disregard the opposition of Jacob ben 
Machir, and to read publicly in the synagogue of 
Montpellier the letter addressed by tifteen rabbis of 
Barcelona, headed by Solomon ben Adret, to the 
Jewish community, in which the sentence of excom- 
munication was pronounced against all who should 
devote themselves to the study of philosophy under 
the age of thirty. This rabbiis identified by Zuuz 
and Gross with Todros ha-Kazin of Beaucaire. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Gross, Gallia Judaica, p. 329; Abba Mari, 


Minhat Kena’ot. ed. Presburg, pp. 48. 61, 63; Renan-Neu- 
bauer, Les Rabhina Francais, pp. 659, 663 ; ‘Zunz. Z. G. 


p. 476. 

S. S. Is. 

TODROS (or TAUROS) OF CAVAILLON: 
French physician of the latter part of the fourteenth 
century, who flourished, according to Carmoly, 
about 1875. He was the author of a treatise enti- 
tled “Sha‘are ha-Harkabot ” (MSS. Paris, No. 1191, 
1; Cat. p. 219), a sort of pharmacopeia, written 
partly in Hebrew and partly in Latin. Carmoly 
states that Todros was appointed rabbi of Cavaillon 
by the “elders of the community,” but gives no 
proof of his assertion. Todros is probably identical 
with the Maestro Toros de Cavaillon who was one 
of the five “ baylons” or directors of the Jewish com- 
munity of Avignon in 1440. See also Topros BEN 
Mosrs Yom-Tor. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Carmoly, Histoire des Médecins, p. 108; Bri, 
Jahrb. ix. 883: Gross, Gallia Judaica, p. 53's Renan-Neu- 
bauer, Les Ecrivains Juifa Francais, p. 39; R. E, J. i. 
273: Steinschneider, Hebr. Uehers. p. 183 2 
S, S. K. 


TODROS BENISAAC: Talmnudist ; lived in Italy 
orin southern France in the latter part of the thir- 
teenth century and the early part of the fourteenth. 
He was the author of novelle on the Talmud 
treatise Nazir, which are still extant in manuscript 
(Neubauer, “Cat. Bodl. Hebr. MSS.” No. 447). To- 


dros concludes his work by saying that he composed 
it in 1322, a year in which the Jews were undergo- 
ing many persecutions. After the massacre of the 
lepers (see JEW. Excyc, v. 462 et seg.), followed by 
the outbreak of the PasTOUREAUX, the Talmud was 
burned, and the Roman emperor projected still other 
persecutions. According to Griitz, this Roman em- 
peror was Frederick, the rival of Louis of Bavaria 
and an enemy of the Jews; and he also advances the 
theory that an allusion to the persecution mentioned 
by Todros is contained in an elegy which a certain 
Joab wrote on the burning of the Talmud and which 
is found in an Oxford manuscript (Neubauer, “Cat. 
Bodl. Hebr. MSS.” No. 1061; comp. idem in “ Mo- 
natsschrift,” 1872, p. 376). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gratz, in Monatsschrift, 1886, p. 8: idem, in 
J. Q. R. ii. 104. 
EB. Cc. I. Br. 


TODROS BEN KALONYMUS: French schol- 
ar and liturgical poet; lived at Narbonne in the first 
half of the twelfth century; son of Kalonymus the 
Great, who flourished at Narbonne in the eleventh 
century, and reached the age of eighty years, being 
renowned for his learning and the services which he 
rendered to his coreligionists. A war of succession 
between the city of Narbonne and the Count of 
Toulouse, which lasted nearly ten years, entailed 
much suffering on the Jews, then numbering about 
two thousand; and Todros gave his family in bond- 
age for the special taxes which were imposed upon 
the Jews to meet the expenses of the war. He was 
the author of “ Azharot,.” or liturgical poems. He 
had a son, Kalonymus Nasi, as well as a nephew, 
Todros ben Moses, who flourished at Narbonne 
about the middle of the twelfth century, and is 
probably identical with the Todros b. Moses who, 
together with other rabbis of Narbonne, signed a 
responsum written about 1150. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gross, Gallia Judated, pp. 406-407. 
D. S. MAN. 


TODROS BEN MESHULLAM BEN DAVID 
(called also Todros Todrosi): Provencal trausla- 
tor; born at Arles in the early part of the fourteenth 
century. Of his life no details are known except 
that in 1387 he lived at Tringuetaille, where he 
completed his translation of Aristotle’s “ Rhetoric.” 
Many hypotheses have been put forth to explain 
why Todros, in signing this translation, added to 
his name the words “mi-zera‘ ha-Yehudim ” (= “ of 
the seed of the Jews”), and affixed to the date 
“heshbon ha-Yisra’elim” (= “chronology of the 
Israelites”), although it is possible that he feared 
that he might be confused with a relative of the 
same name who had embraced Christianity. 

Todros made himself known by his Hebrew trans- 
lations of Arabic philosophical works, these versions 
being as follows: (1) “‘En Mishpat ha-Derushim,” 
a selection of philosophical aphorisms by Alfarabi 
(Neubauer, “Cat. Bodl. Hebr. MSS.” No. 1839, 2; 
also in many other libraries), which Todros trans- 
lated when he was only twenty years of age; (2) 
“Hazzalat ha-Nefesh,” a rendering of the physical 
and metaphysical sections of Avicenna’s “ Kitab al- 
Najah ” (Cod. Paris, 1023, 4); (8) * Bi’ur,” the Middle 
Commentary of Averroes on Aristotle's “ Rhetoric ” 


Todros ben Moses 
Toledano 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


174 


(2b. 982, 4; 933, 38; also in many other libraries); (4) 

“Bi'ur Sefer ha-Shir,” the Middle Commentary of 

Averroes on Aristotle's “ Poetics ” (in many libraries) ; 

(5) the following three treatises of Averroes: refuta- 

tion of Avicenna’s system, which divided all things 

into the two categories of those whose existence is 

only possible of themselves while necessary as a 

result of the causes from which they proceed, and 

those whose existence is necessary of themselves; an 
essay on this system; and “ Ma’amar be-Da‘at ha- 

Kiddum,” a treatise on the problem whether God 

knows the details concerning His creatures before 

they are created, and whether His creatures exist 
potentially before they are actually formed (in many 

libraries); (6) “Ma’amar be-Sekel ha-Hayulani,” a 

fragment of the treatise of Averroes on the hylic 

intellect (Cod. Paris, 989, 2; 1028, 5). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY : Carmoly, Biographie des Israélites de France, 
p. 91; Gross, in Monatsschrift, 1880, p. 61; Steinschneider, 
Hebr. Cebers. pp. 62, 182, 197, 285, 294; idein, Cat. Bodl. cols. 
2680-2683; Renan, Averroes et Averroisme, pp. 69-70. 


J. I. Br. 


TODROS BEN MOSES YOM-TOB (or BON- 
DIA): French physician; flourished at Cavaillon in 
the second half of the fourteenth century ; identified 
by Steinschneider with TopROs oF CAVAILLON. In 
1394 he prepared a Hebrew translation of a Latin 
treatise on fever by Johanan ibn Masuyah with a 
commentary by Peter of Spain. He likewise trans- 
lated other works, the most important being the 
treatise of Arnold of Villeneuve on digestive and 
purgative medicines. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Renan-Neubauer, Les Ecrivains Juifs Fran- 

cais, p. 726; Steinschneider, Hebr. Uebers. p. 791. 


Ss. S. K. 


TOHOROT (* Purifications”): 1. Name of the 
sixth and last order in the Mishnah and the Tosefta. 
“Tohorot” is a euphemism for uncleanness, all the 
treatises of this order dealing with the laws govern- 
ing impurity. The order comprises twelve trea- 
tises, which, arranged according to the number of 
their chapters, are as follows: Kelim (80 chapters), 
Ohalot (18), Nega‘im (14), Parah (12), Tohorot (10), 
Mikwa’ot (10), Niddah (10), Makshirin (6), Zabim 
(5). Tebul Yom (4), Yadayim (4), ‘Ukzin (3), 

2. Treatise in the Mishnah and in the Tosefta, 
treating especially of the lesser degrees of unclean- 
ness the effects of which last until sunset only. In 
most editions of the Mishnah it is the fifth treatise 
in the order Tohorot. It is divided into ten chap- 
ters, comprising ninety-six paragraphs in all, The 
contents may be summarized as follows: 

Ch. i.: The thirteen regulations concerning the 
NEBELAH Of a bird, @.e., a fowl] not ritually slaugh- 
tered; what quantity of such fowl causes unclean- 
ness as nebelah, and what quantity uncleanness 
merely as other unclean foods; which parts are not 
included to make up the minimum required quantity ; 
from which moment a head of cattle not ritually 
slaughtered acquires a lesser degree of uncleanness, 
z.e., that of ordinary foods, and when the higher 
degree of impurity, that of the nebelah; which parts 
are included in order to make up the minimum 
quantity for the lesser degree, but not for the higher 
degree ($8 1-4); the mixing of different unclean 
foods to make up the required quantity—the size 


of an egg; cases in which, when the parts possess 
different degrees of impurity, the entire quantity 
becomes unclean either in the lesser 
or in the higher degree ($$ 5-6); parts 
of a mass of dough or a loaf of bread 
connected with or touching each 
other; how the uncleanness of one part affects the 
others (S§ 7-9). 

Ch. ii.: How foods become impure when touched 
by an unclean person (§ 1); how a person becomes 
unclean through purtaking of impure food (§ 2); 
difference between foods not sanctified, those con- 
stituting “terumah” (see HEAVE-OFFERING), and 
other sanctified foods, as regards their becoming un- 
clean in the various degrees ($§ 3-8). 

Ch. iii.: Impurity of beverages when in a liquid 
state, and when they have solidified; which drinks 
acquire the same degree ot uncleanness in the 
liquid as in the solid state ($$ 1-3); how unclean 
foods become clean by a change of the prescribed 
quantity (§ 4); the degree of uncleanness of a thing 
is judged from the condition in which it is found 
(§ 5); doubtful cases of uncleanness, when it is not 
known whether the unclean parts have been touched 
by the person in question; the difference between 
reasoning and unreasoning beings in such cases; 
cases in which it is doubtful whether an animal has 
transferred impurity from unclean drinks to foods 
(8 6-8). 

Ch. iv.: Doubtful cases of impurity ($$ 1-4); six 
cases in which terumah is burned because of sus- 
pected impurity (83 5-6); doubtful cases of impu- 
rity in which the sages declared the object to be 
clean; other doubtful cases in which the sages de- 
clared the object to be permissible ($8 7-12). 

Ch. v.: Regulations concerning various cases of 
doubtful impurity. 

Ch. vi.: Difference between private domain (“re- 
shut ha-yahid”) and public domain (“reshut ha- 
rabbim ”) with reference to cases of 
doubtful impurity: in the former in 
all doubtful cases objects are to be 
declared unclean; in the latter, clean (§$ 1-5); 
different localities which are considered private do- 
main with reference to the Sabbath, but public 
domain with regard to cases of doubtful impurity 
($8 6-10). 

Ch. vii.: Various cases in which a thing is ren- 
dered unclean by being touched by a person ignorant 
of the law (“‘am ha-arez”): as such @ person does 
not observe the laws of cleanliness, his touch is nec- 
essarily unclean. Cases in which one must suspect 
an ‘am ha-arez of having touched foods and drinks, 
although he, personally, may have had nothing to 
do with them. If, for example, the wife of an ‘am 
ha-arez is seen to attend to the fire ina stove on 
which a pot containing terumah is standing, it must 
be assumed that she, although attending to the fire 
only, has touched the food also; wonien being 
generally curious to find out what their neighbors 
are cooking, she would most likely remove the cover 
of the pot in order to discover the contents, 

Ch. viii.: Further regulations concerning precau- 
tions to be taken by one conversant with the Law 
(“haber”) in order to protect himself against un- 
cleanness caused by the touch of an ‘am _ ha-arez 


Contents: 
Ch. i.-iv. 


Ch. v.-x. 


175 


(88 1-5); what is to be considered fit for human 
food, thus forming a basis for the regulations con- 
cerning the impurity of foods (§ 6); further regula- 
tions concerning the impurity of beverages ($$ 7-9). 

Ch. ix.-x.: Concerning olives and the pressing of 
oil; how they can be rendered unclean. Other reg- 
ulations concerning cleanness and uncleanness, with 
special reference to wine-presses. 

The Tosefta to this treatise is divided into eleven 
chapters, and contains many passages elucidating 
the mishnaic treatise. 

Ww. B. J. Z. LL. 


TOKAHAH (“‘admonition,” “malediction”): 
The term used to connote the prediction by Moses 
of due punishment in case of disobedience of the 
divine law on the part of the children of Israel. It 
was first pronounced in Lev. xxvi., and repeated in 
Deut. xx viil., the blessings for obedience to the Law 
being cited first in both passages. According to the 
Midrash (Deut. R. i. 4), R. Aha b. Hanina declared 
that the tokahah should, strictly speaking, have 
been pronounced by Balaam and the blessings by 
Moses, but this order had been reversed that the 
Gentiles might learn the blessings through their 
prophet Balaam, and that the children of Israel 
might not question the motive of the tokahah when 
given by their friend Moses. The Mishnah terms 
the tokahah “kelalot” (= “curses ”), in contradis- 
tinction to “berakot” (= “blessings ”), both being 
read together on public fast-days, and the whole 
chapter being assigned to one person (Meg. iii. 6). 
R. Hiyya b. Gammada quoted the verse “ Despise 
not the chastening of the Lord; neither be weary of 
his correction ” (Prov. iii. 11) as a reason for insisting 
that the reading be continuous and not in sections, 
while R. Jose b. Abininterpreted itas implying that 
the portions read in public must be soarranged that 
each passage should begin and end with a cheerful 
verse (Yer. 2b.). 

Later custom, however, forbade any subdivision 
of either version of the tokahah (Shulhan ‘Aruk, 
Orah Hayyim, 428, 6). The order of reading the 
sidra “ Behukkotai” for the third person called up to 
the Law is Lev. xxvi. 10-46, and that of “ Ki Tabo,” 
for the sixth, is Deut. xxviii. 7-69, both these sections 
beginning and ending with “good” verses, with the 
tokahah between them. The Ashkenazim do not 
call up by name the person to whom the tokahah is 
assigned at the public reading in the synagogue; the 
Sephardim do, although they permit him to read 
the tokahah by himself instead of through the 
“ba‘al kore,” or public reader. In some congrega- 
tions the passage was assigned to an “ ‘am ha-arez,” 
Who did not understand the meaning of the text; 
hence the reading of the tokahah became a sort of 
reproach, so that many declined to read it when 
called up to do so. To remedy this disrespect for a 
portion of the Torah, the hakam or rabbi then volun- 
teered to read the passage. In Yiddish parlance, 
“to lay. the tokahah on him” means to curse one 
With all the contents of the tokahah. 


W. RB. J. D. E. 


TOLA: 1. Ason of Issachar who had journeyed 
to Egypt with Jacob (Gen. xlvi. 18). In the census 
of the people made by Moses and the high priest 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Todros ben Moses 
Toledano 


Eleazar after the plague the Tolaites appear as a 
tribe (Num, xxvi. 23), and during the reign of David 
they could put 22,600 warriors in the field (I Chron. 
Vil. 2), 

2. Theson of Pcau. He became judge in Israel 
after the death of Abimelech. He dwelt in Shamir 
in the plateau of Ephraim, apparently residing in 
the extreme northern portion near the borders of 
Issachar. He was judge for twenty-three years, 
and was buried in his native city of Shamir (Judges 
x. 1-2). 

E. G. HL. 5. O. 


TOLEDANO (or DE TOLEDO): A family 
taking its name from Toledo, the city in which 
it originated, and including printers, Talmudic 
scholars, rabbis, and diplomats in Turkey, Africa, 
Holland, and England, being still represented in 
Salonica, Jerusalem, Tiberias, and elsewhere. Its 
most important members are as follows: 

Aaron de Toledo: Author of religious lectures 
which appeared at Salonica in 1795 under the title 
“Dibre Hefez.” 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Conforte, Kore ha-Dorot, p. 46a; Zedner, 

Cat. Hebr. Books Brit. Mus. p. 159. 

Abraham Toledano: Rabbi in Salonica about 
1640; a contemporary of Shabbethai Jonah, with 
whom he corresponded. 

Abraham de Toledo: Author of “Coplas de 
Joseph ha-Zaddik. This work was written in 
Judeo-Spanish and published at Constantinople in 
1732. 

Daniel Toledano: Born at Miquenes; a friend 
of R. Jacob Sasportas. He was thoroughly versed 
in the Talmud, possessed a considerable Knowledge 
of statesmanship, and acted as councilor to Sultan 
Muley Ismail. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gratz, Geseh. x. 209. 


Eliezer Toledano: A scholar who went from 
Toledo to Lisbon, where he established a printing- 
house from which he issued the following works be- 
tween 1489 and 1492: an edition of the Pentateuch 
with the commentary of Nahmanides, David Abu- 
darham’s work on the ritual, Isaiah and Jeremiah 
with the commentary of Kimhi, Proverbs with the 
commentary “Kab we-Naki,” and the “ Halikot 
‘Olam,” but neither the “Tur Orah Hayyim” nor 
any treatise on the Talmud was issued from his 
press, despite statements to the contrary. Don 
Judah Gedaliah (not Yahya), who was employed in 
Eliezer Toledano’s printing-office, later established 
a press at Salonica (not Constantinople) with type 
brought from Lisbon. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Ersch and Gruber, Hucyc. section ii., part 28, 
p. 37; Kayserling, Gesch. der Juden in Portugal, p.89; Ne- 
hama, Miktebe Dodim, p. 162; see also JEW. ENCYC. viii. 107. 


Eliezer de Toledo: Rabbi at Costa, where he 
died in 1848. He was the author of the collection 
of responsa entitled “Mishnat R. Eli‘ezer” (2 vols., 
Salonica, 1833). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jellinek, Kontres ha-Maspid, p. 7. 

Habib Toledano: Son of Eliezer, and brother 
of Abraham and Jonah Toledano; born at Miquenes, 
where he suffered great hardships throughout his 
life. He was the author of the “Derek Emunah,” 
a commentary on the Passover Haggadah, which 


Toledano 
‘Toledo 


was published, together with the commentaries of 

Zashi, Samuel ben Meir, and Yom-Tob Ishbili, under 
the title “Peh Yesharim ” (Leghorn, 1888), while his 
apologetic work, “Terumat ha-Kodesh ” (7d. 1866), 
is chiefly devoted to a criticism of Reaero, 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Nepi-Ghirondi, Touledot Gedole Yisrael, pp. 
112, 114, which also contains Habib Toledano’s genealogical 
tree of his family; Steinschneider, Hebr. Bihl. xiii. 54. 
Hayyim Toledano: Brother of Joseph Tole- 

dano. About 1700 he was appointed ambassador to 

Holland and England by Sultan Muley Ismail of 

Morocco 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gratz, Gesch. x. 260. 

Hayyim de Toledo: Lived at Salonica, where 
Le published his “ Javyim Medabber,” a collection 
of commentaries 
ou legal codes 
and rulings (Sa- 
lonica, 1818). 

Isaac Tole- 
dano: <A con- 
temporary of 
Elijah Mizrahi 
and Tam Yahya; 
lived at Brusa 
about 1530. 


BIRLIGQGRAPHY: 
Zunz, Z. G. p. 440. 


Isaac Tole- 
dano: Rabbiat 
Salonica; died 
there in Nov., 
1688. He was 
the teacher of 
R. Joseph Da- 
vid, who deliv- 
ered a funeral 
‘Oration in his 
honor. 

Isaac ben 
Joseph Tole- 
dano: Rabbi in 
salonica; died 
Aug., 1718. 

Jacob Tole- 
dano: Corre- 
spondent of 
Elijah Mizrahi; 
lived at Salonica about 1510. Another Jacob 
‘Toledano—possibly the one that sent to Azulai 
the manuscript treatises which the latter printed at 
Leghorn in 1805—was dayyan, together with his 
brother Hayyim, at Miquenes in 1748. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zunz, Z. G. p. 441: Steinschneider, Verzeich- 

nis der Hebritiischen Handschriften der Kinighechen Bib- 

liothek in Berlin, Nos. 56, 66; the latter work also mentions 


other members of the Toledano family, chiefly those living at 
Miquenes. 


Joseph Toledano: Son of Daniel, and brother 
of the ambassador Hayyim Toledano. Muley Is- 
mail. the Sultan of Morocco, who had received val- 
uable assistance from Joseph on his accession to the 
throne of Muley Mohammed, sent him to The Hague 
to conclude treaties of reciprocity regarding peace, 
navigation, and commerce, 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Interior of the Church of St. Maria la Blanca, Toledo, Formerly a Synagogue. 
(From a photograph.) 


176 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: De Barrios, Historia Universal Judayea, pp. 
9 et. seq., 23; Manasseh ben Israel, Spes Israelis, Hebr. transl., 
Dp. 56b | Koenen, Geschiedenis der Joden in Nederland, p 
509 : Isaac da Costa, Israel und die Volker, German frame 

by Mann, p. 276. 


Moses de Toledo: A resident of Jerusalem, and 
the author of the “ Hazozerot Mosheh; La Trompeta 
de Mose de Toledo, Dividida en Siéte Voces, con los 
Dinim de la Tephilla y Casa de la Oracion ” (Venice, 
1643), which is probably identical with the “ Adver- 
tencias Devotas ” (Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1641) gen- 
erally attributed to him. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Wolf, Bibl. Hebr. iii. 821; First, Bibl. Jud. 
iii. 434; Kayserling. ‘Bibl. Esp.-Port. -Jud. p. 106. 


Moses ben Daniel Toledano: A native of Mi- 
quenes; author of “Meleket ha-Kodesh,” a com- 
meutary on Rashi, published by Jacob ‘Toledano 
(Leghorn, 1808). 

Solomon To- 
ledano: Sonof 
Isaac Toledano; 
died of the 
plague at Salo- 
nica in April, 
1697, 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: 
Jellinek, Kontres 
ha- Maspid, pp. 
26, 41. 

J. M. K. 
TOLEDO: 

Metropolitan 

city of Gothic 

and Moorish 

Spain, and capi- 

tal of Old Cas- 

tile. Jews must 
have been estab- 
lished there as 
early as the 
sixth century ; 
for the third To- 
ledo Council 

(589) inserted in 

its canon provi- 

sions against the 
intermarriage of 

Jews and Chris- 

tians, and 

against Jews 
holding public 
office or possessing Christian servants. The 
eighth Toledo Council (652) confirmed the anti- 

Jewish legislation of the laws of King Sisenand 

(Scherer, “ Rechtsverhadltnisse der Juden,” pp. 22- 

25), while the ninth council (654) ordered baptized 

Jews to observe Christian as well as Jewish feasts 

(Aguirre, “ Collectio Maxima Conciliorum Hispanie,” 

ii. 567). Similarly in 681 the twelfth Toledo Council 

confirmed the Erwicz decrees against Jewish con- 

verts to Christianity (Aguirre, Z.¢. pp. 682-686), and 
in 693 the sixteenth Toledo Council confirmed the 
other anti-Jewish laws. It is not surprising, there- 
fore, that the Jews are reported to have assisted the 

Arabs in the conquest of Toledo (715), During the 

Arabic period of the city’s history little is known of 

the position of its Jews. Probably it was very ad- 

vantageous, and the Jews doubtless thoroughly as- 


WUOVODVNAS ¥ 


A 


Cydwatoqyd v ody 
IMANUO “OGHIOL ,,"OLISNVUL TH 4 


410 HOLUALNI 


—12 


XII. 


Toiedo 


similated themselves with the general population in 
fanguage and customs, inasmuch as the minutes of 
the congregation were kept in Arabic down to the 
end of the thirteenth century (Asher b. Jehiel, 
Responsa, No. 56; Solomon ben Adret, Responsa, 
iii. 427). 

Several Jewish authors who wrote in Arabic were 
born and probably educated at Toledo, even after 
its conquest by the Christians, not to speak of Judah 
ha-Levi and Abraham ibn Ezra, who were born in 
Toledo but educated at Cordova. Other Jewish 
writers in Arabic were: Abraham ibn al-Fakhkhar 
the poet (b. in 
Toledo; d. there 
1231 or 1289); 
Israel of Toledo 
(Zunz, “Z. G.” 
pp. 427-428) ; Is- 
rael Israeli ben 
Joseph, who as 
late as the second 
half of the four- 
teenth century 
wrote on the rit- 
ual (idem, “ Ri- 
tus,” p. 80). It 
is not. surpri- 
sing, therefore, 
that Toledo 
should have 
been the center 
of European ac- 
tivity in transla- 
tion from Arabic 
into Hebrew, 
Latin, and Cas- 
tilian, as will be 
seen later. 

When Alfonso 
X. took Toledo 
from the Arabs 
he recognized 
the position of 
the Jews by 
granting them 
full equality 
with the Chris- 
tians; but fric- 
tion soon arose 
between the 
members of the 
two faiths. Al- 
fasi refers to persecutions in Toledo in 1090 (re- 
sponsum No. 217); and there was a massacre of the 
Jews in 1108, in which Solomon ibn Farissol was 
murdered (Rios, “ Hist.” 1, 189, 297), The equality 
of the Jews with the Christians was short-lived; for 
in 1118 a local decree was passed prohibiting any 
Jew, or any convert, from exercising jurisdiction 
over a Christian. It would appear that the “nasi,” 
or chief justice, of the Toledo Jews, whois mentioned 
about this time, had previously had the right to hale 
Christians before his court. In 1147 Judah b. Jo- 
seph ibn Ezra, probably a relative of the poet and 
exegete, was nasi at Toledo, and at the same time 
court chamberlain. 


In the same year many Jewish 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Details of Interior Ornamentation on Wal! of “ El Transito,”’ Toledo. 
(From 4 photograph.) 


178 


exiles, driven out of Arabic Spain by the persecu- 
tion of the Almohades, took refuge in Toledo. The 
Jews held important positions at court there, possi- 
bly owing to the influence of Fermosa, the Jewish 
mistress of Alfonso VHI. Thus Hayyuj Alfata be- 
came the royal physician. This favoritism appears 
to have led to a riot in Toledo in 1178, in which Fer- 
mosa was killed (Lindo, “History of the Jews of 
Spain and Portugal,” p. 71). It is possible that at 
the same time Judah and Samuel Alnaqua suffered 
martyrdom (Zunz, “Z. G.” p. 484), 

At the beginning of the thirteenth century the Shu- 
shans, the Al- 
Fakhkhars, and 
the Alnaquas 
were among the 
chief Jewish fam- 
ilies of Toledo, 
Samuel ibn Shu- 
shan being nasi 
about 1204. His 
son Joseph built 
a synagogue 
which attracted 
the attention of 
Abraham ben 
Nathan of Lunel 
(“ Ha -Manhig,” 
§ 22), who set- 
tled in Toledo 
before 1205. 
During the 
troubles brought 
upon Castile by 
the men of “ UI- 
trapuertos” in 
1211-12 Toledo 
suffered a riot 
(Rios, dc. pp. 
347-3849); and 
this appears to 
have brought 
the position of 
the Jews more 
closely to the at- 
tention of the 
authorities. In 
1219 the Jewish 
inhabitants be- 
came more 
strictly subject 
to the jurisdic- 
tion of the Archbishop of Toledo, who imposed 
upon every Jew over twenty years old an annual 
poll-tax of one-sixth of a gold mark; and any 
dispute about age was to be settled by a jury of six 
elders (Jacobs, “Sources,” No. 1265), who were 
probably supervised by the nasi, at that time 
Solomon ben Joseph ibn Shushan. In thesame year 
papal authority also interfered with the affairs of 
the Toledo Jews, ordering them to pay tithes on 
houses bought by them from Christians, as other- 
wise the Church would be a considerable loser (Ja- 
cobs, U.c. No. 1278). 

Under Alfonso X., the Wise, Toledo rose in impor- 
tance asa center of Jewish activity in translation from 


HOUSE OF SAMUEL HA-LEVI AT TOLEDO, FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 
(From a photograph.) 


Toledo 


the Arabic into Hebrew, and less often into Latin and 
Spanish. Similar activity had occurred previously ; 
but the Jewish translators either were not born in 
Toledo (as Johannes Hispanensis, who 
School of only settled there, and Samuel ibn 
Transla- Tibbon) or flourished mainly else- 
tors Under wlicre (as Judah ben Solomon ha- 
Alfonso X. Isohen ibn Matkah, who was born in 
Toledo, but passed the greater part 
of his life in Italy). However this may be, the 
number of Jewish translators increased under the 
patronage of the king. Don Zag ibn Sid was the chief 
compiler of the ALFONSINE TaBLes; and Judah 
Moses Cohen also translated works on astronomy 
from Arabic into Spanish, as did Abraham of Toledo 
and Samuel ha-Levi Abulafia. In medicine Abraham 
Alfaguin was active, as were also Hayyim Israel 
and Judah Cohen. Todros ha-Levi was another 
translator of the same period and the same place. 
It is probable also that the Spanish translation 
of “Kalilah wa-Dimnah” was executed at Toledo 
«about this time. 
It was likewise 
at this period 
(1260) that the 
Jews of Toledo 
obtained permis- 
sion from AlIl- 
fonso to build 
the largest and 
most beautiful 
synagogue in 
Spam, though a 
buli of Innocent 
IV. expressly 
forbade the erec- 
tion of any new 
synagogue, es- 
pecially any 
building higher 
than or in any 
way superior to 
the surrounding 
churches or houses. After the expulsion this syna- 
gogue became the Church of St. Maria Ja Blanca; and 
it, still (1905) survives as a national monument. Its 
numerous pillars and arches render it one of the most 
characteristic buildings of the Moorish type in Spain ; 
and during the nineteenth century its ornamentation 
formed the model for numerous synagogues in 
other countries (see SYNAGOGUE ARCHITECTURE). 
The favorable condition of the Jews of Toledo 
during Alfonso’s reign is indicated by the large pro- 
portion of the poll-tax for Castile paid by them in 
1290—namely, 1,062,902 maravedis out of the total 
of 2,594,014, the amount of their “servicio” not 
being given for that year. In addition to this pay- 
ment, they had to pay tribute te the archbishop in 
the folowing year (1291; Jacobs, lc. No. 1282): 
and there are occasional indications of friction be- 
tween the royal officers and the episcopal dignitaries 
as to the exact limitation of their taxation rights 
over the Jews. 
It was toward the beginning of the fourteenth 
century (probably about 1305) that the Jews of To- 
ledo, on the recommendation of Solomon ben Adret, 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


: 
| 


Old Juderia of Toledo, from the Plaza de Barrio Narevo, 
(From a photegraph by Dr. William: Popper.) 


180 


chose as their spiritual leader Asher ben Jehie! (d, 
1328), perhaps the greatest halakist of his time in 

Germany. His influence, like that of 
Asherites. his two sons (Jacob, author of the 

“Tur,” and Judah, who succeeded his 
father in 1328), was directed against the more ration- 
alistic and philosophical tendencies of Jewish Spain; 
and the family of the Asherites, of which the pedi- 
gree given by Zunz (“Z. G.” p. 422) is here repro- 
duced, thenceforth ruled spiritual matters in Toledo, 
In the great controversy between the Maimonists 
and anti-Maimonists, the Jews of Toledo—e.g., Meir 
ben Abraham, Jacob Crisp, Jonathan Ashkenazi, 
Samson b. Meir, Meir b. Joseph, and Solomon b. 
Moses Abudarham—supported the traditional side 
(Perles, “R. Salomo b. Abraham b. Adereth,” 1863, 
pp. 10, 45, 48). 

In the middle of the fourteenth century there rose 
into prominence in Toledo, Samuel ha-Levi Abulafia, 
who appears to have acted asa kind of treasurer and 
general adviser to Pedrothe Cruel. It was on his 
advice that the 
king established 
Mariade Padilla, 
his mistress. at 
Toledo; and in 
the struggles be- 
tween Pedro and 
his brother 
Menry de Tras- 
tamara this fact 
was cited by the 
adherents of the 
latter as an ex- 
planation of 
their opposition 
to Samuel Abu- 
lafia. On May 
7, 1855, an at- 
tack was made 
on the “aleana,” 
or sinaller Jew- 
ry, of Toledo by 
Henry de Trastamara, in which no fewer than 1,200 
Jews were killed or wounded (Rios, /.¢. ii. 224). Not- 
withstanding this, Samuel Abulafia’s intluence and 
riches grew apace; and, in addition to a magnifi- 
cent private mansion, he obtained permission to 
build another synagogue, inscriptions in which still 
recall his munificence. After the expulsion the 
synagogue was turned into a church and becume 
known as “El Transito”; but in the year 188% it 
was converted into a national monument, and the 
interior decorations, which are in the finest Moorish 
style, were cleansed and restored. While not pre- 
senting so striking an interior as St. Maria la Blanca, 
the friezes on the walls and the interior Hghting by 


> narrow windows near the roof make it remarkable, 


and have led to imitation in many modern syna- 
gogues (see SYNAGOGUE ARCHITECTURE). In the 
very year (1360) in which the synagogue was built 
Samuel Abuiatia lost his influence with Pedre and 
was seized and forced to leave Toledo. 
Notwithstanding the influence of the Asherirtes, 
the increasing stringency of the Castilian laws 
against the Jewsand the great inducements held out 


181 


— 


to them to accept baptism led to a large number of 
conversions, either forced or voluntary, at Toledo. 
The converts (“conversos”) were freed from the 
anti-Jewish legislation of the Cortes, and had at the 
same time relations with and support from their 
former brethren in faith; and their political and 
social influence was increased. This condition of 
things was strongly opposed by the ecclesiastics of 
Toledo; and the complaints and bickerings between 
the two parties led to a violent outbreak against the 
conversos, lasting three weeks (July 19 to Aug. 9, 
1367), during which no fewer than 1,600 houses 
were burned and a considerable number of conver- 
sos lost their lives (Rios, U.c, ili. 149; for the details 
see Jew. Encyc. viii. 319, s.c. MaARANos). Notwith- 
standing, or perhaps in consequence of, this, a trib- 
ute of no less than 20,000 doubloons was extorted 
from the Jews of Toledo by the king (June 6, 1369). 
Friction continued to exist between the ecclesiastical 
authorities and the Jews. Thus a quarrel arose be- 
tween the monastery of St. Ursula and the Toledo 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


rt 0 mo A cee 


Toledo 


Asher and Israel b. Joseph Alnaqua. Four years 
later, inhabitants of the neighboring villages of 
Carlo and Santa were summoned before the Arch- 
bishop of Toledo to account for their action on the 
day of the riots (2. No. 181%). 

This was practically the ruin of the Toledo Jewry. 
Only a few years later Henry ILI. threatened the 
Jews with slavery if they did not pay all their taxes 
(6. No. 1800); and the next year John II. with- 
drew civil jurisdiction from them and entrusted it to 
the alcaldes, Ferrer visited the city for a fortnight 
in May, 1411, with the result that, as stated above, 
the synagogue was turned into the Church of St. 
Maria la Blanca. In truth, the majority of the sur- 
vivors of the massacre of 1391 had saved their lives 
by becoming converted; so that very few true be- 
lievers still remained in the city, and the history for 
the following century deals mainly with the con- 
versos. These were deprived in 1419 of all oppor- 
tunity to hold public office (2+. No. 1264); and on 
June 15, 1449, thirteen of them were turned out of 


Judah 


Kliakim 


Uri = Yehudit 


i=. 


Havyim 
(d. 1314) 


Jehiel ger 
. 1349) 


daughter 
= Judab 


ben Asher Asher 


Miriam 
= Judah 


ben Asher 


Solomon 
(d. 1349) 


ASHERITES 


aljama with regard to certain rights connected 
with the Jewish abattoirs (Jacobs, U.c. No. 1291). 
Nevertheless, Archbishop Pedro, on May 17, 1888, 
appointed his own physician, Hayyim, as judge of 
the Jews throughout the whole archbishopric during 
the absence of Rabbi Don Zulema al-Fakhkhar 
(Rios, Ze. p. 257). The king, however, claimed the 
right of confirmation for this office (Jacobs, J.c. No. 
1294), 

In the terrible massacres of 1891, induced by the 
violent exhortations of Vicente FERRER, the city 
was the scene of one of the most appalling out- 
breaks. Hitherto the nobles of Toledo had on the 
Whole done their part in protecting the Jews; but 
when the agitation reached that city (Aug. 5) they 
Were found among the most violent in the onslaught 
on the larger Jewry. This had resisted the attacks 
of Henry II.; but it was now entered by the rioters 
at different gates, almost all the Jews being put to 
death, and their houses and synagogues sacked. 
Many of the latter edifices were torndown. Among 
the victims of the riots were Chief Rabbi Judah b. 


aera aerial | | | | 
solomon A Gutele Judah Jacob se Wi Simeon daughter 


Eleazar 


ASHER = Reine 
(d. 1828) 


(d. 1327) 


(d. 1342) = Judah 


(** Ba‘al ha-Turim “*) 
Crisp 


Judah 
Solomon 
(d. 1354) 


Hayyim 
(b. 1835; d. 1349) 


AT TOLEDO. 


office as “suspects in faith,” among them being 
members of the Lunez, Lopez, Gonzalez, Herrera, 
and Cota families, afterward distinguished among 
the Maranos, whose very name is supposed to have 
originated in Toledo at this time (Rios, l.c. iii. 128). 
The conversos did not yield their positions without 
astruggle. There was even another riot in 1467, in 
which they appear to have got the better of their 
oppressors; for in the same year they were forbid- 
den to bear arms thenceforth, and in the following 
year theirexclusion from public office was confirmed 
by Ferdinand IV. (Jacobs, U.¢. No. 1822). 

The few writers whose birth or activity connects 
them with Toledo after 1391 are mainly converts, as 
Martin of Toledo, the mathematician; Juan de Es- 
pafia and Rodrigo Cota, the poets; and Alfonso de 
Spina, the controversialist, who was the first to sug- 
gest the expulsion of the Jews. A further indica- 
tion of the low condition to which the Jews of 
Toledo had fallen is the fact that they were able to 
pay only 2,600 maravedis for their servicio to the 
archbishop (1474). Though freed from taxes upon 


Toledo 
Tombs 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


182 


inheritance throughout Castile, at Toledo the Jews 
had to pay on succeeding to the property of their 
fathers. 

Though the Inquisition was first introduced at 
Seville, in Jan. 6, 1481, the largest number of autos 
da fé in Spain during the existence of the Jews there 
were held at Toledo. In 1484 many Jews were rec- 
onciled by the Inquisition (2b. No. 1260), An auto 

da fé was held on Dec. 10, 1486, at 
Introduc- which no fewer than 1,640 were ab- 
tion of the solved orreconciled, and others on Jan. 

Inquisi- 15, March 15, and May 7 in the follow- 

tion. ing year, when 822 were reconciled. In 
1488 two autos were held, on May 24 
and July 30, respectively, at the former of which 21, 
and at the latter 16, Jews were burned, 400 others 
being punished 
later. The eg Soe eernee 
tragedy of La Jive : 
GUARDIA was Pa 
immediately 
connected with 
the Jewry of 
Toledo; and a 
representation of 
the punishment 
of the victims is 
still extant in 
one of the clois- 
ters of the ca- 
thedral. The 
affair is said to 
have had a de- 
termining influ- 
ence in connec- 
tion with the 
expulsion which 
took place two 
years later. 

Toledo was 
practically the 
center of the 
Spanish Jewry 
in Christian 
Spain. Besides the writers already mentioned, 
both Judah ha-Levi and Abraham ibn Ezra were 
born at Toledo, though both Jeft it early for 
Cordova: Abraham ibn Daud was a Toledan; Ju- 
dah al-Harizi was born and passed most of his 
life in the city. Among the payyetanim of To- 
ledo may be mentioned Joseph b. Israel, Jacob b. 
Eleazar, and Mar Isaac b. Jacob. Of secular poets 
may be mentioned Judah ibu Shabbethai and Jehiel 
b. Asher. Besides, the astronomer Israel Israeli the 
Younger deserves notice, as well as Joseph Nahmias 
and Abraham ibn Zarzal, though the last-named 
was more of an astrologer, Toledo being a center 
for the magic arts generally. It issaid that Michael 
Scott Jearned his magic from a Toledo Jew named 
Andreas, who translated works on magic from the 
Arabic. Judah ibn Balaam the grammarian, Judah 
ben Shabbethai the satirist, and the cabalists Shem- 
Tob ben Jacob, Joseph ibn Wakkar, and Joseph ben 
Judah lived there; and Jonah Gerondi, Todros Abu- 
lafia, Moses Narboni, Solomon Zarfati, and Azariah 
ben Joseph (Bonafos Astruc) were among the vis- 


** Ei 'Transito,” Formerly a Synagogue. 
(From a photograph by Dr. William Popper.) 


itors to the city. After the arrival of Asher b. Je- 
hiel, Toledo was distinguished as a center of Tal- 
mudic study also. Jeroham b. Meshullam lived 
there, as did Aaron ben Joseph ha-Levi 
Rabbis and Toledo (for a short time about 1291); 
Scholars. Menahemb. Aaron was anauthority on 
the ritual there about 1374; Samuel 
Sevillo and Joshua Levi b. Joseph learned the Tal- 
mud at Toledo; Meir Cohen, the casuist, lived there, 
and Isaac, the father of Joseph Caro, was born 
there; while the name of the first printer in Portu- 
gal, Eleazar Toledo, indicates bis connection with 
the Spanish city. 

At one time the whole of the southwest portion of 
the city was inhabited by Jews, and there were two 
Jewish quarters—the Alcana, or smaller Jewry, and 
the Juderia it- 
self, in which 
both the still ex- 
tant synagogues 
were located, 
The Jewish 
quarters were 
surrounded by 
a Wall after the 
Catholic mon- 
archs at the Cor- 
tes of Toledo in 
1480 had ordered 
that all Jews 
should be sepa- 
ratedintospecial 
“barrios.” 

Tombstones 
of the old To- 
ledo Jewry. are 
still in exist- 
euce; and the 
inscriptions on 
them have been 
published by 
Luzzatto under 
the title “Abne 
Zikkaron.” 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zunz, Z. G. pp. 404-441; Jacobs, Sowrees, pp. 

69-78, 209, 210, 248b; Rios, Toledo Pintoresca, Toledo, 1848. 


EB. C. 2 
TOLEDO, OHIO. Sce Ouro. 


TOLEDOT YESHU‘. Scc JEsus IN JEWISH 
LEGEND. 

TOLERANZPATENT. Sce Josepru II. 

TOLL. See LEIBZ0LL. 


TOMASHOV, JACOB B. SIMEON: Polish 
rabbi of the seventeenth century. His father is 
styled “ha-Kadosh,” a term generally given to a 
martyr, so that Simeon may have been martyred 
during the massacres instigated by CHMIELNICKT. 
Jacob was probably rabbi at Nemirov, where his 
wife and three sons were murdered in 1648. He 
then resolved to emigrate to Palestine, but seems to 
have remained for several years in Venice, where he 
published his “Ohel Ya‘akob” (1667), a homily on 
that part of the Pentateuch which deals with the 
‘Akedah. He left a work, as yet unpublished, en- 
titled “Toledot Ya‘akob,” which contains homilies 


183 


on the Pentateuch, the preceding work probably 
being a part of it. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Benjacob, Ozar ha-Sefarim, p. 19, No. 374; 


Nepi-Ghirondi, Zaledot Gedole Yisrael, p. 182; Steinschnei- 
der, Cat. Bodl. col. 1256. 


a M. SEL. 


wee 


TOMBS: From the earliest times the Hebrews 
practised burial of the dead ("3p, whence “ keber” 
= “tomb ”), so that cremation, which was custom- 
ary among the Moabites and Edomites, was regarded 
by the Jewish prophets as sinful and inhuman 
(Amos i. 1), and was used only as an additional 
punishinent in the case of criminals (Josh. vii. 25; 
but see [ 8am. xxxi. 12). The most primitive mode 
of burial seems to have been either to throw the 
corpse into a pit or to pile stones over it wherever 


it happened to be at the time of death, an analogy 


, 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Toledo 
Tombs 


passage, which refers to Joab, shows that this custom 
was not restricted to the burial of kings and proph- 
ets, as Winer (“B. R.” i. 444) has 
supposed. The custom of interring 
Jewish kings in their castles, close to 
the Temple wall, isseverely condemned 
by the prophet (Ezek. xliti. 7-9), this criticism show- 
ing that graves were considered unclean, and were 
therefore not to be made near human habitations 
(Num, xix. 16). Graves were, accordingly, outside the 
cities (Luke vii. 12; John xi. 30), or, according to rab- 
binical precepts, fifty ells from the town (B. B. ii. 9). 
A special field thus came to be set apart for the dead, 
but the simple methods of burial observed by the 
Jews prevented any development of a necropolis 
resembling the Greek or the modern Italian type. 
Special care was taken to keep lepers separated from 


Single 
Tombs. 


FaCaDE OF THE CHURCH OF ST, MARIA LA BLANCA AT TOLEDO, FORMERLY A SYNAGOGUE, 
(From Amador de los Rigs, “ Monumentos.’’) 


being found in the Mosaic law that the blood of aui- 
mals which had been killed must be covered with 
dust on the place where it had been poured out 
(Lev. xvii. 18). According to Josh. vii. 26, the re- 
mains of Achan were buried under a heap of stones 
in the valley of Achor, and the corpse of a con- 
quered king was similarly interred (2). viii, 29), 
while Absalom’s body was thrown into a pit in the 
forest, and covered with stones (II Sam. xviii. 17). 
Adam and Eve are said to have been taught inter- 
ment by seeing a raven bury its young in the sand 
(Pirke R. El. xxi.), and even Moses interred an 
Egyptian in the very place where he had killed him 
(Ex. ii. 12). 

Single burial was customary in ancient times, as 
is still the case among many peoples and in many 
lands, The most natural method was to bury one’s 
dead near the house on one’s own land, as is clear from 
IT Sam. xxv. 1 and I Kings ii. 84, while the latter 


others in death as well as in life, and the body of a 
leprous king was accordingly buried in the open 
field (II Chron. xxvi. 23). The graves of the com- 
mon people were likewise kept separate from those 
of the wealthy and prominent (II Kings xxiii. 6; 
Jer, XXVi. 28). 

The tomb is to the dead what the house is to the 
living, so that the grave is termed a “house ” (Isa. 
xiv. 18), or the “long home” (Eccl. xii. 5), while in 
Job xxx. 23 it is called “ the house appointed for all 
ving.” The terrors associated with it are ex pressed 
by the terms “pit” (Isa. xiv. 19, xxxviii. 18), or 
“pit of destruction ” (Ps. Iv. 24), while the appro- 
priate metaphor “silence” (22. xciv. 17, cxv. 17) 
is still in current use among the Jews. The powers 
of death are implied by the words “hell” (“sheol ”) 
and “destruction” (“abaddon”; Prov. xv. 11; Job 
xxvi. 6). The later Jewish terms, on the other 
hand, contain no allusion to the horror of death, the 


Tombs 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


184 


cemetery being called simply the “house of graves” 
‘MIA Ma), or the “ house of eternity ” (pady V3: 
see Bec). xii. 5), or even, in a euphemistic sense, the 
“house of life” (a AM m3). 

The wealthy and prominent followed the custom 
of the neighboring country of Egypt, and prepared 
their tombs in their own lifetime, often on an elab- 
orate scale, as is evident from the allusions to Jacob 
(Gen. xlix. 29, 30; 1. 5, 18), Asa (II Chron. xvi, 14), 

Shebna (Isa. xxii. 16), and Joseph of 

Family Arimathea (Matt. xxvii. 60), the refer- 

Sepulchers. ence in all these instances being to 

family sepulchers, which were the rule. 
Thisis confirmed by such phrases, frequently used in 
mentioning the Patriarchs and David, as “ gathered 


| 
| 


stances of prominent men who were interred there. 
This custom has increased in the course of time to 
such an extent that many Jews make a point of 
spending their Jast days in Palestine so as to be 

buried there. 
Desecration of a tomb was regarded as a grievous 
sin, and in ancient times the sanctity of the grave 
was evidenced by the fact that it was 


Desecra- chosen as a place of worship, thus ex- 
tion and  plaining the circumstance that a sacred 
Conse- _— stone(“ mazzebah”) wasseton Rachel’s 
cration. grave, and that sacred trees or stones 
always stood near the tombs of the 

righteous, The ancient Bedouin custom of placing 


the graves of their ancestors and of men of superior 


TRADITIONAL TOMBS OF THE KINGS, NEAR JERUSALEM. 
(From a photograph by Bonfils.) 


unto his fathers,” “slept with his fathers,” or “ gath- 
ered unto his people.” Not only was this true of 
kings and men of prominence (II Kings ix. 28; II 
Chron. xxxii. 38, xxxv. 24; I Mace. ii. 70, ix. 19, 
xHi. 25), but the custom was a general one (Gen. 
xxili, 20; Judges viii. 82; If Sam. ii. 382; I Kings 
xii. 22; Tobit xiv. 10), and it was the natural desire 
of those who died away from home to be buried in 
the family grave (Gen. xlvii. 29; I Sam. xix. 38; 
I Kings xiii. 22,31; Neh. ii. 3). One who could not 
hope to be interred thus was at least eager to rest 
in his native country (IT Macc. v. 10) and in holy 
zround (Josephus, “ Ant.” x. 4,83). From the Tal- 
mudie period to the present time it has been the de- 
sire of all pious Jews to be buried in the sacred soil 
of Palestine; and the Talmud itself enumerates in- 


sanctity on high mountain peaks was imitated by 
the Israelites, who located the tomb of Aaron on 
Mount Hor, The mountain summit thus became a 
place of worship of the divinity, and may, by a 
slight extension of the term, be designated as taboo, 
since it was partly holy and partly unclean. Traces 
of such places of worship ean still be found in Pal- 
estine, and the Mohammedans in like manner use 
high placesas burial-grounds, “In this respect the 
usage corresponds precisely to what we find to-day. 
The ‘makam’ is the place of the saint. It is pref- 
erably on a hilltop, but may simply be a tomb of a 
saint in a rade enclosure under the open heavens, 
or the tomb may be in a little building, usually 
with adome, called a ‘kubbah’” (Curtiss, “ Primi- 
tive Semitic Religion To-Day,” p. 148, London, 


185 


1902; see illustration annexed to p. 178: “Grave of | 
Holy Man near Medeba ”). | 
No stranger might be interred in a family sepul- 
cher (Matt. xxvii. 60); and the Nabatean inscriptions 
contain curses against those who desecrate the fam- 
ily tombs (Neubauer, in “Studia Biblica,” i. 212), a 
similar inscription being found on the sarcophagus 
of Eshmunazar, King of Sidon. Freedmen, how- 
ever, were buried in the family tombs of their 
former masters, Violation of the tomb was punish.- 

able by fines (Schiirer, “ Gesch.” 8d ed., ili. 54). 
The preference for family sepulchers resulted in 
the development of a monumental style of tomb in 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Tombs 


Interment in tle rocks of the hills was suggested 
to the Phenicians by the natural conformation of 
the country, which contained caves every where that 
required artificial agencies only for the final touch. 
These cave-tombs were often situated at heights 
which seemed almost inaccessible; and where no 
natural caverns were formed in the walls of the 
rock, rectangular and roomy caves were artificially 
made by hewing excavations into the stone from 
above, while occasionally subterranean chambers 
were cut with lofty walls in which the graves were 
made. According to a Palestinian explorer, “the 
Phenician sepulchral chambers at Sidon and at Tyre 


= 


ANCIENT TOMBS OUTSIDE THE CITY WALLS GF JERUSALEM. 
(From a photograph by Bonfils.) 


Palestine as elsewhere. Although such structures 
afforded ample opportunity for a display of pomp 
and for the employment of sculpture 
and painting, as is shown by Egypt, 
the Jews did not bend their energies 
in that direction. Despite their insig- 
nificant appearance, however, these tombs are the 
very ones which testify to the activity of the former 
inhabitants of the country, since the graves, hewn 
into the solid rock, have shown themselves proof 
against decay. Few of these tombs reflected any 
architectural credit on the Jews, since they were 
mere feeble imitations of the work of the Phenicians 
and developed no originality of their own, 


Rock- 
Tombs. 


consist for the most part of quadrangular vaults 
with three half-arched niches, one facing the en- 
trance, and the other two on the sides. The Jewish 
tombs, on the other hand, are low, oblong chambers 
with many rows of partitions, so that the corpses 
are separated only by a small stone ridge. The 
Phenician structures apparently contained sar- 
cophagi, while the plan of the Jewish tombs shows 
that they were intended for corpses wrapped in 
cloth” (Van de Velde, “Reise Durch Syrien und 
Palastina,” German transl. by K. Gobel, i. 235, Leip- 
sic, 1855). 

According to the results thus far obtained, three 
different types of Palestinian tombs may be distin- 


Tombs 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


186 


guished: (I.) Tombs hewn in the rock, which are 
the most numerous, since the soft limestone of the 
Palestinian hills favored their construction. <A char- 
acteristic feature of these tombs is the preference for 
entire walls instead of pillars (Renan, “ Mission de 
Phénicie,” p. 822). These Jewish sepulchers are 
simple, having nothing in common with the Egyp- 
tian pyramids. They are entirely unadorned with 
paintings; and only those of a comparatively recent 
period contain inscriptions. Of this type of tombs 
three varieties may be distinguished: (1) Siugle 
chambers without doors or other means of closing 
them and with but one grave, hewn vertically into 
the ground. (2) Single chambers with several 
graves, which might be either (a) shelf-graves, in 
which the corpses were laid on stone shelves which 
ran along the sides of the rock and which were often 
hewn breadthwise into it, so that a sort of over- 
hanging vault (“arcosolia”) was formed; or (8) 
thrust-graves, quadrangular galleries, which were 
cut lengthwise ; 

into the cliff, 
and into which 
the bodies were 
thrust horizon- 
tally. These 
galleries, or 
niches, which 
were called 
“kok” (plural, 
“kokim”) by 
the Rabbis, had 
a ltength of about 
1.8 meter, a 
width of 0.45 
meter, and a 
height of 0.45 
meter, and may 
be regarded as 
the specifically 
Jewish type 
of grave. (38) 
Tombs of large 
size with con- 
necting cham- 
bers, which, if 
not located in a 
natural cave about the level of the ground, were 
reached by small stairways hewn into the rock. 
Tombs entered by vertical shafts, like those con- 
structed by the Egyptians, have not thus far been 
discovered in Palestine. 

(II.) Artificial tombs, which are of later date and 
occur less frequently. They may be compared with 
the modern Egyptian graves, which consist of “an 
oblong vault, having an arched roof, ... made 
large enough to contain four or more bodies. Over 
the vault is constructed an oblong monument (called 
‘tarkeebeh‘) of stone or brick, with astela or up- 
right stone (‘shahid ’) at the head and foot” (Lane, 
“Manners and Customs of the Modern Egy ptians,” 
ii. 802, London, 1846; 5th ed. ii, 265). 

({11.) Sarcophagi, which were anthropoid in shape 
among the Phenicians, but which consisted in their 
Hebrew type simply of troughs, cut to the length 
of the body and hewn vertically inthe walls. They 


| 


Interior View of the Traditional Tombs of the Judges, Showing Arrangement of Vaults, 
(From the “ Journal of Biblical Literature,’’) 


were, therefore, virtually shelf-graves, although 
they also bore a certain resemblance to the vertical 
tombs. 

The two types chiefly known to the Rabbis 
were thrust-graves (“kokim”) and vertical graves 
(“kebarot”), neither of which might be constructed 
on a festival, although it was permitted to dedicate 
the former if the communal interests required it 
(M. K. i. 6). A tannaitic and an amoraic saying state 
that kokim were dug, while kebarot were built. 
Thrust-graves were so little known among the Jews 
of the later period that Maimonides did not mention 
them in his codification of the passages bearing on the 
subject, alluding only to the earth-grave (“keber”). 
A section of the Mishnah, however, clearly explains 
the construction of a family tomb (B. B. vi. 8). 

In case one sold a place of burial to an associate, 
or obtained one from him, he might make the inner 
room four ells broad and six ells long, the height of 
the cave being given in Tosef., B. B. vi. 22 as four 
ells. In this 
room, moreover, 
he might con- 
struct eight cav- 
ities, three in 
cither side wall, 
and two in the 
narrow wall 
facing the en- 
trance. Each 
cavity was four 
ells in length, 
seven in height, 
and six in width 
(the Tosef., 
however, made 
the height seven 
“tefahim,” or 
handbreadths, 
an extra tefah 
being added for 
the arched cover 
of the sarcopha- 
gus). 

According to 
R. Simeon, “the 
inner room of 
the cave is six ells broad and eight ells long, and 
it contains thirteen cavities, four on the right, four 
on the left, three opposite the entrance, and one 
on each side of it.” The owner of the ground on 
which the tomb was situated was required to grant 
a frontage of six ells square, so as to admit the bier 
and its bearers. The purchaser of the vault might 
from its interior open an additional one to the right 
and one to the left of the original tomb, In the 
opinion of R. Simeon, however, the purchaser might 
open an additional vault on each of the four sides, 
while R. Simeon b. Gamaliel regarded this as de- 
pendent on the formation of the rock (see Samuel b. 
Mcir’s commentary ad doc., and the plan given in all 
editions of the Talmud). 

As the honor of the dead was carefully guarded, 
the ‘Talmud entered into a discussion of R. Simeon’s 
scheme of construction, which allowed two graves 
at the entrance since visitors to the tomb would 


187 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Tombs 


necessarily have to step on them. To the sugges- 
tion that they might project from the wall like bolts 
from a door, the retort was given that not cven an 
ass (or, according to Yer., not even a dog) would be 
buried in such a fashion. They could, therefore, 
be located only in the corners of the cave opposite 


Aare 
| 
a 


Forms of Tombstones from the Old Cemetery at 
Frankfort-on-the-Main. 


(From Horovitz, *‘ Inschriften.’’) 


the entrance, and must have been sunk deep in the 
wall, otherwise they would have touched each other 
(B. B. 101b). The Palestinian source, however, pre- 
supposes a special] construction of the cave itself, 
and considers it allowable to have two cavities, one 
above the other, provided the cave was protected 
against trampling (Yer. B. B. 15c). 

A field in which such graves were located was 
subject to special laws. Trees might not be planted 

upon it, nor might seed be sown in it. 
Laws About In Oh. xviii. 4 the corrupt form 7 Iw 
Tombs. 3)3 appears, which was erroneously 
derived in M. K. 5b from “baka,” 
since it was the scene of wailing and lamentation 
over the dead. Tosef., Oh. xvii. 1, however, has 
the better reading D°3!3 ATW, with the correct in- 
terpretation: “A kokim field is one in which the 
earth has been dug up and cavities excavated at 
the sides.” Such niches were known to all ancient 
Semitic races; the Nabatzans called them “ goh,” 
and the Palmyrenes “ gamchin” (Krauss, “ Lehn- 
worter,” ii, 282; I. Low, 2d.). The pious will rise 
from the dead by means of these niches (Targ. Cant. 
viii. 5), which in other passages are described as 
cavities (“mehilot”; Ket. 111a). 

Outside of Palestine the custom of interring 
bodies in galleries was continued in the CATACOMBs; 
but among the Jews the single grave became more 
common, as was also the case in Babylonia, where 
the soil was sandy. Later information concerning 
the subject is found ina responsum by Natronai, 
gaon of Sura, who was asked whether the face of a 
corpse laid in a cavity should remain exposed, or 
Whether it should be covered with earth (Kohut, 
“Aruch Completum,” iv. 210), The Jewish graves 
in Carthage have the exact measurements of the 
rabbinical kokim. : 

Many natural graves have been preserved in Pal- 
estine. Van de Velde (J.c. i. 186) saw at the ancient 
Canaanitish town of Hazor a vault, called “kabur,” 


or grave-cellar, which he declared must have a very 
large subterranean chamber, though the entrance 
was filled up. 

Among the famous graves which have been partly 
preserved, and more or less accurately identitied, 
may be mentioned the tombs of David, John Hyr- 
canus, Alexander Jannzus, Herod, and 
most of the tombs of the kings; also 
the tomb-chambers of Helena of Adia- 
bene, and the tomb of St. James with 
the very ancient inscription “Bene Hezir.” <All of 
these graves, which are of the kokim type, are at 
Jerusalem. 

No less renowned are the tombs of the patriarchs 
at Hebron, Joshua’s tomb at Thamna, the tomb of 
the Maccabees at Modein, and the grave of Arche- 
laus at Bethlehem, while Jewish legends know also 
numerous other graves of prophets and rabbis in 
Palestine and Babylonia (see Luncz, “ Jerusalem,” i. 
71 et seg., where about 800 are mentioned), which still 
receive great honor, even from Mohammedans. 
That so few tombs have been preserved is due, ac- 


Famous 
Graves. 


DS To ee ra me gma oe 
EA > ¥ OO appa = 


~ =e me AR ees 
Vib Trial ite Slane” 


We, a 

ve Sse" 955 Arve 
Meee Y Oy Ne et fai Be 

EA sm rn ators 2 

is TY ivadal 23. Wa BL CS be ig 


ss 
pg SS es Serres sys Fi 
1B ititete: tre ik lL fateh 8 be) 
A) oy * d 
4 eqs) Weyer’ AS Ne BS 
el ae ee 


tri 930 ov Bays pe 
3 


G3 oem be i a cw 7: 
’ ’ ite 


QZ! a sey sey SSA 89 tTFFRS Ve 
fey AN ig? WN oe tie Wad p 
a Smee ein sse g2ema 
iia doin? i pal 


be eked bas better te} PA VEC wre cy 
ewe i cme bm Come a 


Sans sy Rts Be semn FF 
Lida €X Oi asa tmae eat T 


Bees rents pate ss 
$a NCS ia ae ee 


= 3 Searls eae & eA , 
se TOW IMIIA SI B 


Tombstone of the Sixteenth Century. 
(in the Museo Civico, Bologna, Italy.) 


cording to the Jewish traveler Benjamin of Tudela, 
to the fact that “the graves of the Jews are situated 
about three miles from Jerusalem. In ancient times 
the dead were buried in caves, and each grave was 
marked with the year of death [“ta’rikh,” which, 
however, can hold good only of the medieval 


Tombs 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


188 


period}. but the Christians destroyed the graves, 
and used the stones for building-material ” (“J. Q. 
R.” vii. 128). It is clear, therefore, that the same 
fate was then befalling the Jewish monuments 
which is still annihilating them, like all other antiy- 
uities of the Holy Land. 

In ancient times the graves had but one enemy, 
the ravenous jackal (Pliny, “ Hist. Nat.” viti. 44), 
and the tombs were, therefore, closed by means of 
doors, or by large stones (Matt. xxvii. 60, xxviii. 2; 
John xi. 38), which in the Talmud is often ex- 
pressed by the phrase bon ono (“he closed the 


The mishnaic saying (M. K. i. 1), “ The graves should 
be marked [j*)¥1] at the festival,” probably re- 
ferred originally to the tombstones, since the Ta}- 
nud itself bases the passage on the Biblical pry (M. 
Kk. 5a). It is generally regarded, however, as an 
allusion to the whitening of the graves after the 
rainy season (Ma‘as. Sh. v. 1; B. K. 69a, where the 
reason is given “that the bones are white”), which 
was done to protect against defilement the numerous 
pilgrims who traversed the roads at the Passover 
festival (see Josephus, “Ant.” xviii. 2,8 3; Matt. 
XXii. 27). R. Bannaah was especially praised for 


Cd 


INSCRIPTION ON THE TOMBSTONE OF SAMUEL BEN SHEALTIEL, DATED MONZON, PALENCIA, 4857 (1096). 
(From the ‘ Boletin de la Real Academia de la Historia,” Madrid.) 


top-stone *: see Kohut, “ Aruch Completum,” ii. 281; 
Jastrow. “Dict.” p. 222), “golel” being frequently 
used in combination with “dofek ” 
Protection (Jastrow, l.e. p. 287), which signifies a 
of Graves. low estrade of stone enveloping the 
grave on all sides, and probably used 
to support the stone cover. In addition to closing 
the grave with a stone, it was occasionally sealed 
(Krauss, “Leben Jesu,” p. 262, Berlin, 1902). 

These stone covers, however, must not be con- 
founded with the tombstones erected on graves in 
honor of the dead. The Sephardic Jews lay these 
tombstones flat on the graves; but since these monu- 
ments are erected to be seen, the upright position, 
preferred by the German Jews, is the more normal 
one. In Biblical Hebrew the tombstones are called 
ny (IT Kings xxiii. 17: Jer, xxxi, 21; Ezek, xxxix, 
15), while the Rabbis termed them wp3. The grave- 
stone was erected at the expense of the estate of the 
deceased (Shek. ii. 5), although it was not necessary 
to set up a monument in memory of the righteous, 
since their own decds (their teachings) were a me- 
moriat of them (Yer. Shek. 47a; Gen. R. Ixxxii.). 


ee 
ar ee 


| 


thus marking caves (tombs), including that of 
Abraham (B. B. 58a), while Simeon ben Lakish is 
likewise said to have marked the burial-place of R. 
Hiyya(B. M. 85b), and to have cast himself in prayer, 
for the propitiation of the great, on the graves of the 
pious (22.), of the Shammaites (Hag. 22b), of the 
justified (75. 16b), and of the wronged (Yoma 87a). 
In the Middle Ages Jonah Gerondi wished to offer 
an apology on the grave of Maimonides (Griitz, 
“Gesch.” 3d ed., vii. 98). 

The custom of making pilgrimages to famous 
tombs, and of praying at the graves of parents and 
ancestors, is still maintained among 
all classes of Jews. Even in the Bib- 
lical period the belief was current that 
interment beside a great man might 
work miracles (II Kings xiii. 21). See PrnarIMaAGEs. 

Judicial procedure required two forms of burial, 
one forcriminals who had been beheaded or hanged, 
and the other for those who had been stoned or 
burned (Sanh. 46a), while interment among convicts 
was the utmost disgrace (Yeb. 32b). The tombs of 
Gentiles were entirely different from those of Jews 


Pilgrim- 
ages. 


GQ Uatansyue) “Bar anay ,, ‘OngsTy Wed) (, {UstaazpeyVir) UBA AVA y ,, ‘OApevg wor) 


“SUNGCUON TD CPVORLETG ON LLOEd AC CAYOMSLESN Y LY AUSLA ING) AHL NOU ANOLSHIVO.L ULI OG “AVGUALSKY LY AWGLANAD ALE WOU SANOISANOL IVENANVNYC) 


es 


 ecumereareenn i et 


SY er nee: RU RR eet ernest fee oars 


id 
} 
& 
t 
7s 
T: 
L 
i 


mips 


eter 
Se 


Tombstones THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 190 


(t). 61a). Special caves were used for the inter- TOMBSTONES (Hebr. mayp, pl. Mayyd): The 
ment of the pious (“hasidim ”) and of the members | customof markinga grave by a stone which bore an 
of the Sanhedrin (“dayyanim”; M. K. 17a), as well | inscription describing the qualities of the deceased 
as for still-born children (“nefalim”; Ket. 20b). | and giving his age and the date of his death was 
In the ancient cemetery of Prague the Nefel-Platz | foreign tothe ancient Hebrews. Stones were indeed 
is still to be seen: different legends are, however, } used to mark the sites of graves, such as the pillar 
attached to it, and its origin can not, therefore, be { (“mazzebah”) placed by Jacob on the tomb of Rachel 
determined. Even at the present time all Jewish | (Gen. xxxv. 20), and the sign ("ziyyun”) set up ac- 
communities invariably bury suicides in a sepa- | cording to Ezekiel (xxxix. 16); but they were not 
rate part of the cemetery. Abba Saul was buried | intended as monuments and bore no inscriptions, 
at his father’s feet (Sem. xii.), thus reviving | Even in the geonic period the custom seems to have 
in a certain measure the use of family tombs, | been unknown tothe Jewsof the East, and it can not, 


CEMETERY AT ROME. 
(From a photograph.) 


Every one who beholds a Jewish grave is required ; therefore, have been current in Talmudic times. The 
to repeat the following prayer: “Blessed be He | stone termed “golel” in the Mishnal (Oh. ii. 1), 
who begat thee in righteousness, who nurtured | which, according to Hai Gaon, was laid up on the 
thee in righteousness, who letteth thee rest in right- | side-walls (dofekin), served only to protect the 
eousness, and who will resurrect thee in righteous- | grave from jackals, while that called “ziyyun ” was 


ness. . . . Blessed be He who giveth life to the | merely a mark to warn passers-by against Levitical 
dead” (Ber, 58b). For other expressions of the re- impurity. Graves in Palestine were 


tombs, see BurRIAL; BURIAL SOCIETY; CREMATION ; Palestine tations, however, for “nefashot,” 
FcnNeran Rites; MournNrina. in Biblical or stone buildings in the shape of 
or houses or cupolas, were erected, in 
Talmudic Phenician fashion, over them (‘Er. 
Times. v. 1; Shek. ii. 5). On the tomb 
of his father and brothers at Modin, 

Simon Maccabeus erected a monument consisting of 
seven pyramids on which were carved armor and 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Nicolai, De Sepuleris Hebraicis, in Ugotino, 
Thesaurus, xxxiii.; Winer, B. R. i. 443; Nicoll, in Hastings, 
Dict. Bible, iv. 454: Stade, Gesch. des Volkes T[srael, i. 14- 
15; Hamburger, AR. B. 7.1. 476; Kinzler, Die Biblisehen Al- 
terttimer, p. 345, Calw and Stuttgart, 1884; Rosenmiiller, 
Arch. ii.23; Benzinger, Arch. pp. 163 et seq. 


ligious sentiments of the Jews as displayed in their None in not devoid of monumental ornamen- 
J. S. Kr. | 


191 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Tombstones 


ships (I Macc. xiii. 27-29). Such monuments be- 
came the fashion in the first centuries of the com- 
mon era, while the rivalries which arose between 
families, and the love of ostentation, led to the 
spending of great sums for the adornment of graves. 
To put an end to this extravagance Simeon ben 
Gamaliel declared that the pious were remembered 
by their words, and that it was an insult to their mem- 
ory toput monuments on their gravesas though they 


bonne of 688; or else they had a Hebrew translation 
of the Greek or Latin inscription, as does that of 
Tortosa. 
It can not be determined with certainty when the 
custom of inscribing Hebrew epitaphs 
Earliest in on tombstones first’ became general 
Europe. among the Jews in Europe. The 
oldest example known is a gravestone 


of Brindisi dated 832. It is true that Jacob 


would have been forgotten without them (Yer. Shek. + M6lln (MaHaRIVL) asserts that in his lifetime a 


ii. 7, 47a). It 
was only outside 
Palestine that 
some Jews, 
adopting the 
custom of the 
Greeks and the 
Romans, began 
to use tomb- 
stones with in- 
scriptions com- 
memorating the 
status of the de- 
ceased. These 
epitaphs were 
written in Greek 
or Latin in the 
first centuries of 
the commonera, 
and began with 
the name of the 
deceased or with 
the introductory 
phrase ’Evéade 
Kaitat (Keita) or 
“Hic jacet” 
(= “Tiere lies ”), 
while eulogies 
recalling Bib- 
lical verses and 
idioms were 
used as final for- 
mulas, as, for in- 
stance, Isa. Ivii. 
2 or Ps. iv. 9. 
The stones were 
adorned with a 
variety of sym- 
bols in addition 
to the epitaphs 
themselves, the 
most common 
being a seven- 
branched candlestick (in allusion to Prov. xx. 27, 
“The spirit of man is the candle of the Lord”), a 
fruit from which sprang an ear of grain (probably 
an allusion to the resurrection of the dead), an oil- 
vessel, a palm-branch, or a curved horn represent- 
ing the Suorar which will be blown by the Messiah 
toannounce the resurrection of the dead. Except 
for the presence of these symbols, the Jewish tomb- 
stones of the first centuries of the common era 
could not be distinguished from those of the Chris- 
tians. Later gravestones, however, bore, in addition 
to the Greek or Latin inscription, the Hebrew for- 
mula Seaw by ody, as does the tombstone of Nar- 


Section of the Old Chatham Square Cemetery, New York. 
(From a photograph.) 


gravestone was 
discovered in 
the cemetery of 
Mayence _ bear- 
ing a Hebrew 
epitaph which 
was eleven hun- 
dred years old, 
but as he does 
not state that 
he himself deci- 
phered the in- 
scription, no 
credence can be 
given to his as- 
sertion (“Lik- 
kute Maharil,” 
ed. Warsaw, p. 
86b), A char- 
acteristic fea- 
ture of the ep- 
itaphs of the 
early Middle 
Ages was the 
simplicity of 
their style. 
They usually 
began with the 
words MIF PVSA, 
WNT JANN, or 
ONS AAA, 
and closed with 
one of the usual 
eulogies (see 
INVOCATION). 
In the later 
medieval period 
epitaphs became 
more detailed 
and bombastic, 
and in some Ger- 
man cemeteries 
various em- 
blems representing the profession of the deceased 
were added to the inscriptions. Thus, for in- 
stance, a tailor had a pair of shears on his tomb- 
stone; a musician, a violin or a harp; a gold- 
smith, a crown and two chains; a physician, a 
lion holding a sword; and an apothecary, a mortar, 
In some places in Germany the tombstones bore the 
emblems of the houses in which the deceased had 
lived, thus showing figures of dragons, bears, lions, 
or stars. The tombs of kohanim are distinguished 
by two open hands as placed during the priestly 
benediction, while a Levite’s gravestone often bears 
aewer. Names, especially those derived from plants 


Tombstones 


THE JEWISIT ENCYCLOPEDIA 


192 


or fromanima} life, are frequently represented picto- 
rially ; and reliefsof the whole human body are found. 

The form of the tombstone was generally very 
simple ; and the material varied considerably in differ- 
ent countries. In Frankfort-on-the- 
Main gravestones were generally made 
of red sandstone, rarely of white 
sandstone or granite. The Ashke- 
nazim usually placed the tombstones upright, while 
the Sephardim laid them horizoutally on the graves. 
The custom of 
carving Hebrew 
inscriptions on 
gravestones seems 
to have developed 
much later in the 
East than in Bu- 
rope, since there 
is no mention of 
it in geonic liter- 
ature. Although 
Benjamin of 
Tudela attributes 
the dearth of very 
ancient tomb- 
stones in Pales- 
tine to the fact 
that the Christians 
destroyed the 
Jewish graves 
and used the 
stones for build- 
ing-material, this is a mere supposition, and there 
is no proof whatever that the use of tombstones 
with Hebrew inscriptions became general in Pales- 
tine much earlier than the twelfth century. It 
is true, on the other hand, that both in the life- 
time of Benjamin of Tudela and for several cen- 
turies afterward Jewish graves were often des- 
troyed and the stones were used for building 
purposes in Christian and Mohammedan countries 
alike. Thus, when the Jews were banished from 
Firth, the gravestones of the community were 
used to erect walls around the city; and David ibn 
Abi Zimra (sixteenth century) relates that in his 
lifetime the Egyptian Mohammedans nsed to steal 
Jewish tombstones and resell them to Jews after 
having obliterated the inscriptions. To put an 
end to this traffic, the local rabbis allowed their 
congregations to use only newly quarried stones for 
monuments to the dead (Radbaz, i. 741, quoted by 
Abrahams, “Jewish Life in the Middle Ages,” p. 
78). Although tombstones became customary, they 
were not obligatory (Shulhan ‘Aruk, Yoreh De‘ah, 
364), and every Jewish cemetery contains some 
graves without them. The stone was seldom set up 
before the expiration of a year after the date of 
death, since the departed soul required that lapse of 
time before it could be purified. Inscriptions are 
generally dated according to the era of creation; and 
the year is preceded by the day of the month, or the 
Sabbatical section, or both. In some cases the nu- 
merica) value of a Scriptural plrase is used to mark 
the date, and there are also instances in which the 
Christian date is given side by side with the year of 
creation, 


Inscrip- 
tions. 


Cemetery of the White Jews of Cochin. 
(From a photograph.) 


The following are specimens of Hebrew inscrip- 
tions found on the tombstones of prominent men. 
The gravestone of Elijah Levita reads: Jan xo 
Sy apn ner Sy ony $55 aan pytn von 
xomiimmyoa mds!) pvowa dps i npos awe ion 
mod ims ot) DNS PAPI PNA TwN AT en 
(Ovne asa amy wera aby par p'ty noe 
crieth from the wall, and mourneth befure 
every passer-by over 
the grave—over cur 
Tabbi who hath <«le- 
parted and ascended 
into heaven. Elijah 
is gone to the Lord 
in a whiriwind 
feomp. If Kings ii, 
llj—he who shed 
light on the darkness 
of grammar = § and 
turned it into light. 
He ascended Shebat 
toward the end, in the 
year 300 [= 1549], and 
his soul is bound up in 
the bundle of life.” 


The following 
epitaph is found 
on the tombstone 
of Leon of Mo- 


dena: PIDN YIN 
DIAN FAP ANA ypprzp 
Mm WD ;3pP 
Spam wpm ody 
by NOI PI A TN TAN sins 


**Four yards of ground in this graveyard, “by purchase 
by kerchief,’ were from eternity transferred from above to 
Judah Aryeh of Modena. In these be bid himself and disap- 
peared.” 


Manasseh ben Israel’s tombstone bears the words: 
‘OID Ho yTY AA Hy AID NS My ann nn xb 
Wat ADH HY MAW PTY DA swwoy Twas i poy 

PUNT NOD 


“The rabbi did not die; his light is not yet extinguished: 

he liveth still in the heights of the Terrible. 

Examples of By his pen and the sweetness of his speech bis 

Inscription. remembrance will be eternal like the days of 
the earth.” 


On the tombstone of Joseph Delmedigo is found 
the following inscription: THD) AIP mbSy "99 NY 
sw Sp) 09 1) movSs Nw oD oN moass 
WAM) new ‘ond my mn Wwe mons Sy 
say $92 AID NYDIN AANA AND AYMAN AIS 
yp ods my Wwe AY 939 WIP) ANTI ADs 
m2wn °_ID NNN wnows) AMIN pina inysn il mn3 
Sy say Sy vm we aD) ND |) ADT ANID an 
mOY Ar asm a sy men pa awe Ssqe nee 
pin pra say 599 bin wow awe 12 Yawn 
naz pws 737 59 wn» aby xdi i ay pydp 
miqaz> mann mbm nap | oan omap mbn: 
omap mwyys il Wy mwa ANNA Iw on 
NO993 9319 An mon yaw S33) 4aDy Ia Aan 

asi Ros ban Sian yop oa ean 


** Take up weeping, Wailing, and lamenting, how] in mourn- 
ing and desolation, suffer bitterness like wormwood, for a ehief 


“The stone 


193 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Tombstones 


eee a ae ee ee ke a eee ee oe ee 


and a great man is fallen in the camp, one who was the crown 
of the inherited (sciences, 7.e., Jewish learning] and astronomy. 
wisdom was lost [with him] and understanding disappeared. 
Js there one like him in clime or country—west, east, south, 
porth—-to whom the spirit of God hath been given? His wisdom 
singeth in the streets, while his soul, under the wings of the 
snekinah, is hidden and preserved. Hasten, break out in lamen- 
tations and howlings over the man, the pride of Israel who hath 
passed away [the phrase 77735 7*3 is merely a rhetorical figure 
in imitation of Gen. xv. 17]. For he is the Joseph who sold corn 
[i.e., propagated learning; comp. Gen. xlii. 6], whose reputa- 
tion spread everywhere, who tore up mountains and broke 
rocks. Nothing was hidden from him. Ina tongue that speak- 
eth proud things he composed works. In the ‘Noblot Hok- 
mah’ he creditably speaketh of astronomy and **ibbur.’ To 
compose many works was his intention and desire. In all the 
geven sciences he was very efticient. He omitted nothing, 
small or great; he collected and thesaurized everything.” 


Some prominent men composed for themselves the 
epitaphs which they wished to be put on their tomb- 
stones, such as the one found on the gravestone 
of Jonathan Eybeschiitz, which reads as follows: 


spy awe wen i mmbdn Sy monn soy $5 ue 
yee iar py Ss aun i] mam jew mn p35 
ndpniinnsy anewns nw 3S Sy ww sotinnws 
bay pox’ pox qweo tl mina posed yo ian 
Seay mwas 3 0 DO wy mor |! am aan 
owe an absan naa xows row 5 | nn 

nv. 


** Every passer-by should see what is engraved on these tables. 


THE CEMETERY AT TUNIS. 
(From a photograph in the possession of Dr. Maurice Fishberg, New York.) 


The tombstone of Moses Hagiz bears the epitaph: 
(NS py POA wross nNAN i] Ts Nap Sx 1A Tay 
imodoy aindva poy yp BNO mor 2 Sons 
Os (IMTNMT IN ATTA a IND AWN wh 
Hyde qraya xd Ara ANIM MDT (read: 1 px] 
[? snen] inaon Sian may sa yy py npp pr 7b 
wa aS ponop aw pane ov iliniose2 $52 ws 

Myo 1p. IIT HDS 


‘““Passer-by, turn toward me, read something beseeming: 
Underneath me a man prepared his dwelling-place. Yesterday 
the light of his face shone majestically, showing his greatness 
and sovereignty ; to-day clods of earth encompass the beauty of 
his body and its brilliancy. It hath neither bodily form nor 
Substance: we can compare naught unto it. It behooveth thee 
only to keep thine eves open; know that, like him, as a still- 
born child thou wilt fall in its [death’s] trap. Beware of the last 
day, for the wise man foreseeth the end from the beginning.” 


XIT.—138 


The man who stood as a model, who flourished like a lily, re- 
turned to dust, and his visage became marred more than any 
man’s. Pray, take it to heart to repent sincerely and to offer 
for him many prayers to the Lord of spirits that He should 
gather to Him his soul, and not cast it away. The merit of your 
deeds will be a protection, for all the souls of Israel are one. 
Learn to despise honors and to flee from greatness.” 


See, also, the articles BurtiaL, CEMETERY, and 
PALEOGRAPHY, 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Perles, Die Leichenfeierlichkeiten des Nach- 
biblischen Judenthums, in Monatsschrift, 1860; Geiger, 
Zeitschrift fiir die Gesch. der Juden in Deutschland, iii. 
211 et seq.: Bender, Beliefs, Rites, and Customs of the Jews 
Connected with Death, Burial, and Mourning, in J. Q. R 
1894, 1895; S. Rapoport, Gal ‘Ed, Introduction: Horowitz, 
Inschriften des Alten Friedhofs, Introduction, Frankfort- 
on-the-Main, 1901 ; Schuchostov, Mazzebat Kodesh, Introduc- 
tion, Lemberg, 1863-69, 


J. J. Br. 
The shape of Jewish tombstones varies, as a rule, 
according to the country in which they are found, 


Tombstones 
Tophet 


THE JEWISIL ENCYCLOPEDIA 


194 


though occasioually the Jews carry with them to 
other countries the practise of their native land. No 
very careful examination of the development of 
Jewish tombstones has hitherto been made; but it 
appears probable that in the earlicr instances the 
grave of an important personage was covered by a 
stone in the shape of a sarcophagus, at the end of 
which a description of the personinterred beneath it 
was incised. This is clearly shown in the collec- 
tion of tombstones in the old Sarajevo cemetery 

(see JEw. Encyc. xi. 60) and in the 


Sar- tomb of [Isaac ben Sheshet (25. vi. 
cophagus 682). A further development of 
Model. this method is found in the tomb 


of Joseph Delmedigo at Prague 
(tb. iv. 509), with which 
may be compared the 
tombs of Judah Léw 
ben Bezaleel (46. vii. 854) 
and Mordecai Meisel (20. 
viii. 442). All these have 
ornamental and decorated 
panels of stone, corre- 
sponding, as it were, to 
the head and foot of an 
old-fashioned bedstead. 
From this type the shape 
of tombstones appears to 
have developed in two dif- 
ferent directions, adoptec 
by the Sephardim ant 
Ashkenazim respectively. 
The Sephardim, who, at 
Amsterdam, for example 
(2b. i. 544, iii. 435), used 
the sarcophagus form 
without end-pieces, grad- 
ually lowered the sarcoph- 
agus till it was almost 
level with the ground, as 
can be seen in the Beth 
Holim burial-ground at 
London (2). viii. 158) ; the 
top was rounded, and on 
this the inscription was 
engraved. In Amsterdam 
this rounding was found 
inconvenient for the 
somewhat elaborate coats 
of arms carved upon tomb- 
stones, and the top was made perfectly flat, and 
practically rested on the ground, so that as the grave- 
yard became filled up it was almost entirely paved 
with tombstones, as at Altona (¢b. i. 475) and at 
Tunis. In Cochin occur sarcophagus tombstones on 
which theinscriptions still retain their original posi- 
tion at the end (see illustration on p. 192). In Italy 
the sarcophagus form appears to have been retained 
only as regards the lid, which formed the whole of 
the tombstone (b. x. 61). 

With the Ashkenazim, on the other hand, the foot- 
piece, possibly for economy’s sake, was detached 
from the sarcophagus, and the inscription was in- 
cised upon it, apparently on the outside of the 
grave, as in the case of the Brody cemetery (2d. iii. 
640), where obviously the inscriptions which abut 


Vault of Friediander Family at Saint Petersburg, Russia. 
(From a photograph.) 


| on the path must be at the ends of the graves, since 


the latter would otherwise be under the path. After. 
ward the inscription was cut on the interior of the 
upright stone, 7.é., the portion facing the tomb 
itself, 

The earliest form seems to have been a plain, 
square, somewhat thick stone, as at Mayence, with 
which may be compared the Seville tombstone illus- 
trated in JEw. Excyc. xi. 208. This square formis 
found also in the old cemetery at Worms (sce page 
562). At Erlangen each grave was marked by a 
perfectly square block of stone, as can be seen in the 
article Burtar (2. tii. 484). The first attempt at 
ornament secins to have been to make the top of the 
stone come to a point, as is Seen in many of the 
tombstones in the old 
Prague cemetery (7%. x. 
165). The headstone was 
shaped at the top, and the 
inscription was inserted 
over the head of the corpse 
and facing the grave itself, 
A further process was 
to make a kind of margin 
for the inscription, which 
took various forms accord- 
ing to the outline of the 
stone itself (see illustra- 
tion on p. 187). Excel- 
lent examples of all these 
types can be seen in the 
illustration of the Endin- 
gen cemetery (24. ill. 6389). 
In the later forms of the 
surcophagus tombs of 
Prague these borders and 
outlines became very clab- 
orate, aS can be seen from 
the tombstone of Judah 
Low (24, vii. 354). Florence 
uses round pillars instead 
of the sarcophagus model. 

In western Europe and 
America, Jewish tomb- 
stones have become exact- 
ly similar to those of the 
surrounding population. 
Thus, in the United States 
the stone put over Moses 
Seixas is a plain square 
slab of the old-fashioned type (>. xi. 161); that 
over Judah Touro is a short obelisk (7b. ix. 295), 
while the monument over the grave 
of Uriah Levy is in its way quite a 
work of art, and has distinct reference 
to his naval career (¢), viii. 65). In 
the richer Jewish families the gravestone has al- 
ready been replaced by a family vault of a some- 
what elaborate character. Reference to the follow- 
ing illustrations in THe Jewish ENCYCLOPEDIA 
(volume and page are given) will show the variety 
in the shape of tombstones: 


Modern 
Forms. 


PLOT Dias oid sates Webi ne 300 A 6 Se cane ea ee eee eset i. 475 
AMISUETORMyiviccsicd's 55550 s dhe ss ouees sie sas sees tiacas i. 544 
Brod Yc2 sous acts tei ciaeecsaaes Ma neaedaioas eens Sie jii, 640 
Delmedigo, Josepbiesscccsscccccvccevcsevcersatseesarees iv. 509 


x : Neer T 
195 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Posner 


ee ae a ee ee ae 


Dessall esses seen eee ete eneeeees ieeeeecetseeseeeeeees HV, 5839 1 xix. 6, 11, 12, 18, 14) and once in LI Kings (xiii. 
EMCEE anaes sesseceesersreesessecerssesecseseersess Hl, 639 1 10) to designate a place in one of the valleys just 
Frankfort-on-the-Main ..... cece cece eee eee eee vevveee dil, 638 * ca Mie es 

Gans. DAVIG.. ccc ccsce scare cee rece eenesse teen neaeenes Vv. 566 outside the Wy alls of Jerusalem. The meaning of 
Isaac ben Sheshet......... siceseeecceseecssevevccereeaes Vi 632 | the word is much in dispute. W. Robertson Smith 
Judah Low ben Bezaleel.......ssseeeeeeeeeeesereeeeeees Vil. 354 | (“ Rel. of Sem.” p. 227, note) connects it with an 
Le Others SMa tse | Aramaic loan-word which means “fireplaces.” The 
NR) CCE cu cieaeeewas on ocmmiagermaneeseeaats Vili. 386, 387 | formation of the word is similar to that of * Molech ” 
Meisel, Mordecai... a ee ee ee earaenuahs Eee ce Will. 442 and “ Ashtoreth.” The passage in Kings locates the 
TR renee TA SIIL i ig ig! Bat 23 | Place in the valley of the son of Hinnom, Now 
Newport. SE eds eeTsee en pho nsec eae se i. 510, ix. 295 | there are three valleys in Jerusalem which converge 


are se ES A ake ae he Pd es ln ig nr ne as ig ee See Set = Se ae 


VAULTS OF ARNHEIM AND ZORKOWSKI FAMILIES, SALEM FIELDS CEMETERY, NEW YORK. 
(Froin «a photograph.) 


NIKGISDATE a sscgevsisisind’steaet peste te Aenierd a acedbehcosets ix. 806 | just below the poo] of Siloam: Kidron from the 
Hane al oe Ocenia ca Scena eae oe east side of the city; Wady al-Rababi from the 
gaint Petersburg LINES ST!am! 8 | southwest; and the Tyropeon extending from the 
SATAICV Oss Somuiaien vv deusiciete nie idee d te: invades xi.60 | Jaffa gate to Siloam. Thereis no consensus of opin- 
Seixas, (FeTSHOM METAEZ.... 1... sec cn sees sete eeeeees .-»- 1.160 | jon as to which of these valleys represents the an- 
Seville......... i discal ate led Saale ntatle wats saiaie mae traa eee atas « xi. 208 
EE VUIS edhe bats drastic abut acelin eee ale thes Rade xii, 27 the convergence of the three valleys marks a part of 
Vienna....... segereune: egebinetee, winted sesamiae enG .. xii. 438°, Tophet. It is also very generally agreed that To- 
Wertheimer, Samson... 6... cee cee cee eee eee eee ee estan xii. 504 phet did not extend up the valley of the Kidron on 
Worms....... gis ue Aca SS oe teh eater eNews weve wo. Xii. 562 é ‘ : 

the east side of Jerusalem. It is to be connected, 


then, either with the Tyropmon depression or, pref- 
erably, with the great valley marking the southwest 
border of the city. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Admirable examples of old tombstones are 
given in H. de Castro, Keur van Grafsteenen, Leyden, 1883, 


ee sas 3 

XS, MOSES. cess eneeses xi. 161 | cient Tophet. There is, however, agreement that 
| 

and in L. Jerabek, Der Alte Prager Juden-Friedhof, 1908. 


TOPAZ. Sce GEMs. a Tophet as described especially in Jer. vii. 31, 32 

was dedicated to the horrible rites of human sacri- 
TOPEKA. Sce Kansas. fice, of the immolation of children to Baal and other 
TOPHET (n5n; mnpn, Isa. xxx. 33): Old Tes- | abominable idols. Josiah takes especial pains (II 


tament, term used chiefly by Jeremiah (vii. 31, 32; Kings xxiii. 10) to defile this despicable spot and 


Torah 


— ee 


thus to put a stop to the atrocious sacrifices of hu- 
man life which had been made by at least two kings 
of Judah, Jeremiah’s references to Tophet charac- 
terize it and at the same time specify that the pun- 
ishment which threatens rebellious Judah shall so 
revolutionize and reverse current wrongs as to fill 
this valley with the corpses of those who shall be 
slain in the impending calamities. Tophet shall 
henceforth be called “the valley of slaughter” (Jer. 
vii. 32). After the overthrow of Jerusalem in 586 
B.c., and down to New Testament times, incidental 
references to Tophet or Gehenna (D327 JQ N39) indi- 
cate that it was a kind of perpetually burning 
rubbish-heap, where the refuse of Jerusalem was 


consumed, 
E. G. Ht. I. M. P. 


TORAH (Hebrew, AN; Aramaic, NN IN; 
Greek, Néuoc): Name applied to the five books of 
Moses, GENEsIs, Exopvus, Lreviticus, NuMBERs, 
and DEuTERONOMY. The contents of the Torah 
as a whole are discussed, from the point of view of 
modern Biblical criticism, under PENTATEUCH, where 
a table gives the various sources; while its impor- 
tance as a center of crystallization for the Hebrew 
canon is treated under BrisLE Canon. The present 
article, therefore, is limited to the history of the 
Pentateuch in post-Biblical Judaism. 

The Torah receives its title from its contents, the 
name itself connoting “doctrine.” The Hellenistic 
Jews, however, translated it by véuoc = “law” (e.g., 
LXX., prologue to Kecclus. [Sirach], Philo, Jose- 
phus, and the New Testament), whence came the 
term “law-book”; this gave rise to the erroneous 
impression that the Jewish religion is purely no- 
mistic, so that it is still frequently designated as the 
religion of law. In reality, however, the Torah 
contains teachings as well as laws, even the latter 
being given in ethical form and contained in his- 
torical narratives of an ethical character. 

In the books of the Bibie the following names of 
the Pentateuch occur: #17 AWN Wp in II Chron. 
xvii. 9, Neh. ix. 8, and, with the added 
epithet Ww 3°32, II Chron. xxxiv. 14; 
while mim AN alone, without 4Hp, 
is found in IT Kings x. 31, I Chron. xxii. 11, and II 
Chron. xii. 1, xxxi. 8, 4, and xxxv. 26. Sometimes 
ond, or a word of similar meaning, is added, as 
ondx niin wp, Josh. xxiv. 26, Neh. viii. 18 (with- 
out HD, 2. x. 29). Another designation is 4pp 
nwo mon, Josh. viii. 31, xxiii. 6; Il Kings xiv. 6; 
Neh. viii. 1; or Aw non, I Kings ii. 3; II Kings 
xxiii. 25; Mal. iii. 22 (A. V. iv. 4), with the addi- 
tion of “Jay; Ezra tii. 2 (with the addition of 
onsen yx), vil. 6; mvp oAD, ID Chron. xxv, 4 
(preceded by ANNI), xxxv. 12. The oldest name 
doubtless is MVNA IPD (Deut. i. 5; xxxi. 9, 11, 24; 
xxxii. 46; Neh. viii. 2), sometimes shortened to 
muns (Deut. i. 5; xxxi. 9, 11, 24; xxxii. 46; Neh. 
viii. 2), or to "Hp (Neh. viii. 5), or to Man (Deut. 
xxxili. 4). The last two names occur with great 
frequency in Jewish tradition, where the Torah 
becomes @ living creature. The expression “the 
five books,” which is the origin of the term “ Penta- 
teuch,” occurs only in Jewish tradition, which has 
also been the source for “Genesis,” etc., as the 


Name. 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


196 


names of the books of the Pentateuch (see Blau, 
“Zur Einleitung in die Heilige Schrift,” pp. 40-48), 
According to all critics, regardless of the schools 
to which they belong, the Torah forms a single 
work, which is represented, even at the present day, 
by the synagogal ScroLL oF THE Law; nor does 
history know of any other Torah scroll. The five- 
fold division of the Pentateuch was 

Quinary due to purely external causes, and not 
Division of toadiversity of content; for in volume 
the Torah. the Torah forms more than a fourth 
of all the books of the Bible, and 

contains, in round numbers, 300,000 jetters of the 
1,100,000 in the entire Bible. A work of such com- 
pass far exceeded the normal size of an individual 
scroll among the Jews; and the Torah accordingly 
became a Pentateuch, thus being analogous to the 
Homeric poems, which originally formed a single 
epic, but which were later split into twenty-four 
parts each. Like them, moreover, the Pentateuch 
was divided according to the sense and with an ad- 
mirable knowledge of the subject (Biau, “ Althe- 
briisches Buchwesen,” pp. 47-49), while subdivi- 
sions were also made into the so-called open and 
closed “ parashiyyot,” whose exact interrelation is 
not yet clear. There are in all 669 


Division sections, 290 open and 379 closed. 
into Another class of parashiyyot divides 
Sections. the weekly lessons, now called “sid- 


rot,” into seven parts. The Torah 
also falls, on the basis of the lessons for the Sab- 
bath, into 54 sidrot according to the annual cycle, 
and into 155 according to the triennial cycle. The 
former division, which is now used almost univer- 
sally, is the Babylonian; and the latter, which has 
recently been jnutroduced into some Reform congre- 
gations, isthe Palestinian. The latter class of sidrot, 
however, has no external marks of division in the 
scrolls of the synagogue; while the divisions in the 
former, like the parashiyyot, are indicated by blank 
spaces of varying length (see Stpra). This proba- 
bly imphes a greater antiquity for the sections 
which are thus designated, although the divisions 
into 5,845 verses, which seem to be still older, have 
no outward marks. The system of chapters was in- 
troduced into the editions of the Hebrew Bible, and 
hence into the Torah, from the Vulgate. This mode 
of division is not known to the Masorah, though 
it was incorporated in the final Masoretic notes, 
for individual books of the Pentateuch. It is 
given in modern editions of the Hebrew Bible 
simply on the basis of the stereotyped editions of 
the English Bible Society, which followed earlier 
examples. 

The external form of the Torah is discussed in 
such articlesas MANUSCRIPTS, SCROLL OF THE LAW, 
and MANTLE oF THE LAW; but so numerous are 
the assertions of tradition concerning its contents 
and its value that the repetition of even a very 
small part of them would far exceed the limits of 
thisarticle. Every page of the Talmud and Midrash 
is filled with citations from the Pentateuch and with 
the most fulsome praise of it, united with super- 
human loveand divine respect therefor. In the five 
volumes of Bacher’s work on the Haggadah, the 
Torah and its study form a special rubric in the 


197 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Torah 


a ee a ee po ee ee SS SS eee 


account of each “sofer,” or scholar of the Law. In 
all probability there never was another people, ex- 
cept possibly the Brahmans, that sur- 


Jewish rounded its holy writings with such 
Tradition respect, transmitted them through the 
and centuries with such self-sacrifice, and 
the Torah. preserved them with so little change 


for more than 2,000 years. The very 
letters of the Torah were believed to have come from 
God Himself (B. B. 15a), and were counted carefully, 
the word “soferim” denoting, according to the Tal- 
mud (Kid. 30a), “the counters of the letters.” A 
special class of scholars devoted all their lives to the 
careful preservation of the text (“Masorah”), the 
only analogy in the literature of the world being 
found in India, where the Vedas were accurately 
preserved by similar means. 

The Torah is older than the world, for it existed 
either 947 generations (Zeb. 116a, and parallels) or 
2000 years (Gen. R. viii., and parallels; Weber, 
“Jiidische Theologie,” p. 15) before the Creation. 
The original Pentateuch, therefore, like everything 
celestial, consisted of fire, being written in black let- 
ters of flame upona white ground of fire (Yer, Shek. 
49a, and parallels; Blau, “ Althebriiisches Buchwe- 
sen,” p. 156). God leld counsel with it at the crea- 
tion of the world, since it was wisdom itself (Tan., 
Bereshit, passim), and it was God’s first revelation, 
in which He Himself took part. It was given in 
completeness forall time and for all mankind, so that 
no further revelation can be expected. It was given 
in the languages of all peoples; for the voice of the 
divine revelation was seventyfold (Weber, l.c. pp. 
16-20; Blau, “Zur Einleitung in die Heilige Schrift,” 
pp. 84-100), It shines forever, and was transcribed 
by the scribes of the seventy peoples (Bacher, “Ag. 
Tan.” ii. 208, 416), while everything found in the 
Prophets and the Hagiographa was already con- 
tained in the Torah (Ta‘an. 9a), so 
that, if the Israelites had not sinned, 
only the five books of Moses would 
have been given them (Ned. 22b). 
As a matter of fact, the Prophets and 
the Hagiographa will be abrogated; but the Torah 
will remain forever (Yer. Meg. 70d). Every letter 
of it isa living creature. When Solomon took many 
wives, Deuteronomy threw himself before God and 
complained that Solomon wished to remove from the 
Pentateuch the yod of the word 737" (Deut. xvii. 17), 
with which the prohibition of polygamy was 
spoken; and God replied: “Solomon anda thousand 
like him shall perish, but not one letter of the Torah 
shall be destroyed ” (Lev. R. xix.; Yer. Sanh. 20c; 
Cant. R. 5, 11; comp. Bacher, é.c. ii. 128, note 5), 
The single letters were hypostatized, and were act- 
ive even at the creation of the world (Bacher, /.c. i. 
347), an idea which is probably derived from Gnos- 
tic speculation. 'The whole world is said to be only 
sz'op Of the Torah (‘Er. 21a). 

_ Israel received this treasure only through suffer- 
Ing (Ber. 5a, and parallels), for the book and the 
Sword came together from heaven, and Israel was 
obliged to choose between them (Sifre, Deut. 40, 
end; Bacher, J.c. ii. 402, note 5); and whosoever de- 
nies the heavenly origin of the Torah will lose the 
future life (Sanh. x. 1). This high esteem finds its 


Preexist- 
ence of 
the Torah. 


expression in the rule that a copy of the Pentateuch 
is unlimited in value, and in the ordinance that the 
inhabitants of a city might oblige one another to 
procure scrolls of the Law (Tosef., B. M. iii. 24, 
xi, 23). The pious bequeathed a copy of the Torah 
to the synagogue (2. B. K. ii. 8); and it was the 
duty of each one to make one for himself, while 
the honor paid the Bible greatly influenced the 
distribution of copies and led to the foundation 
of libraries (Blau, “ Althebriisches Buchwesen,” 
pp. 84-97). 

The highest ideal of young and old and of small 
and great was the study of the Law, thus forming 
a basis for that indomitable eagerness of the Jewish 
people for education and that unquenchable thirst 
for knowledge which still characterize them. “As 
the child must satisfy its hunger day by day, so 
must the grown man busy himself with the Torah 
each hour” (Yer. Ber. ch. ix.). The mishnah (Pe’ah 
i.) incorporated in the daily prayer declares that the 
study of the Law transcends all things, being greater 
than the rescue of human life, than the building of 
the Temple, and than the honor of father and mother 
(Meg. 16b). It is of more value than the offering of 
daily sacrifice (‘Er, 63b); a single day devoted to 
the Torah outweighs 1,000 sacrifices (Shab. 30a; 
comp. Men. 100a); while the fable of the Fish and 
the Fox, in which the latter seeks to entice the 
former to dry land, declares Israel can live only in 
the Law as fish can live only in the ocean. Who- 
ever separates himself from the Torah dies forth- 

with (‘Ab. Zarah 8b); for fire con- 

Study of sumes him, and he falls into hell (B. 
the Torah. B. 79a); while God weeps over one 

who might have occupied himself with 
it but neglected to do so (Hag. 5b). The study 
must be unselfish: “One should study the Torah 
with self-denial, even at the sacrifice of one’s life; 
and in the very hour before death one should devote 
himself to this duty” (Sotah 21b; Ber. 63b; Shab. 
83b). “ Whoever uses the crown of the Torah shall 
be destroyed” (Ned. 62a). Al], even the lepers and 
the unclean, were required to study the Law (Ber. 
22a), while it was the duty of every one to read the 
entire weekly lesson twice (Ber. 8a); and the oldest 
benediction was the one spoken over the Torah (zd. 
11b). Prophylactic power also is ascribed to it: it 
gives protection against suffering (7b. 5a), against 
sickness (‘Er. 54b), and against oppression in the 
Messianic time (Sanh, 98b); so that it may be said 
that “the Torah protects all the world” (Sanh. 99b; 
comp. Ber. 3la). The following sayings may be 
cited as particularly instructive in this respect: “A 
Gentile who studies the Torah is as great as the 
high priest” (B. K. 88a). “The practise of all the 
laws of the Pentateuch is worth less than the study 
of the scriptures of it” (Yer. Pe’ah i.), a conclusive 
refutation of the current view of the Nomism of the 
Jewish faith. After these citations it becomes 
readily intelligible that, according to the Talmudic 
view, “God Himself sits and studies the Torah” 
(‘Ab. Zarah 8b). 

The spirit of criticism naturally developed from 
this devotion to the Pentateuch, in spite of faith and 
reverence, The very existence of the doctrine that 
the Law was of heavenly origin, and that whosoever 


Torah 
Toronto 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


198 


denied this dogma had no share in the life to come 
(Sanh. x.), shows that there was a school which 

assumed a, critical attitude toward the 
Criticism of Torah. There is much evidence in 
the Torah proofofthis; but here only the history 

Among of criticism within the orthodox syn- 

Jews. agogue will be discussed. It wasa 
moot point whether the Law was 
given all at once or in smaller rolls at different 
times (Git. 60a); and the further question was dis- 
cussed, whether Moses or Joshua wrote the last cight 
verses of the Pentateuch (B. B. 14b-lida). It was 
definitely affirmed, on the other hand (2.), that 
Moses composed the sections concerning Balaam 
(Num. xxii.-xxiv.), thus closing all discussions on 
that score. Many tacit doubts are scattered through 
the Talmud and Midrash, in addition to those which 
Einstein has collected. In the post-Talmudic period, 
in like manner, there was no lack of critics, some of 
them recognized as such again only in recent times, 
although Abraham ibn Ezra, who was joined by 
Spinoza, has long been recognized as belonging to 
this class. 

The composition of the Torah should be discussed 
on the basis of the old Semitic concepts, which 
planned a work of literature practi- 
cally rather than systematically. Rep- 
etitions, therefore, should not be 
eliminated, since things which are 
good and noble may and should be brought to re- 
membrance many times. From the point of view 
of eflective emphasis, moreover, a change of context 
may develop a new and independent application of 
a given doctrine, especially if it be repeated in other 
words, Thus tradition (The Thirty-two Rules of Eli- 
ezer b. Jose ha-Gelili) took “the repeated doctrine ” 
as itsrule of interpretation, and left large numbers 
of repetitions (parallel passages) in its collections of 
oral teachings. The framework of the Pentateuch 
is historical narrative bound together by the thread 
of chronology. There is no rigid adherence to the 
latter principle, however; and the Talmud itself 
accordingly postulates the rule: “ There is no earlier 
and no later in the Torah ” (Pes. 6b e¢ passim). From 
a Masorctic point of view, the Mosaic code contains 
the history of a period of about 2,300 years. As has 
already been noted in regard to the names of the 
individual books, the Talmud and the Masorah 
divided the Torah into smaller units according to its 
contents, so that Genesis includes the story of Crea- 
tion and of the Patriarchs, Exodus the account of 
the departure from Egypt, the revelation, and 
so on. 

The style of the Pentateuch, in keeping with its 
content, differs widely from the diction of the 
Prophets and the Psalms. It is less lofty, although 
it is not lacking in dramatic force, and it is concrete 
rather than abstract. Most of the laws are formu- 
lated in the second person as a direct address, the 
Decalogue being the best example. In certain 
cases, however, the nature of the subject requires 
the third person; but the Torah reverts as quickly 
as possible to the second as being the more effective 
form of address (comp., for example, Deut. xix. 
11-21). In the Pentateuch, temporal depiction is 
the usual method. The process of creation, rather 


Composi- 
tion. 


a a gp TE 


than the universe as a whole, is described; aud the 
account brings the world visibly into being in six 
main parts, In the creation of man, of plants, and 
of paradise God is seen at work, and the same proc- 
ess of coming into being may be traced in the ark 
of Noah and similar descriptions. A 
remarkable example of word-painting 
is the account of the consecration of 
Aaron and his sons to the high-priesthood (Lev. 
vili.). Here the reader watches while Moses washes 
the candidates, dresses them, etc. (“ Magyar-Zsid6é 
Szemle,” ix. 565 e¢ seg.). Naive simplicity isa char- 
acteristic trait of Pentateuchal style, which under. 
stands also the art of silence. Thus, as in all great 
products of world-literature, feminine beauty is not 
described in detail; for Sarah, Rachel, and other 
heroines are merely said to be beautiful, while the 
completion of the picture is left to the imagination 
of the reader. 

The contents of the Torah fall into two main 
parts: historical and legal. The latter commences 
with Ex. xii.; so that the Tannaim maintained that 
the Law actually began there, proceeding on the 
correct principle that the word “Torah” could be 
applied only to teachings which regulated the life of 
man, either leading him to perform certain acts 
(commands = AYy MyN)) or restraining him from 
them (prohibitions = Awyn sb ms). The Talmud 
enumerates a total of 613 rules, 248 being commands 

and 865 prohibitions (see JEw. ENcyc. 

Laws of iv. 181, s.0. COMMANDMENTs, THE 
the Torah. 613). In the post-Talmudic period 

many works were written on these 618 
“mizwot,” some even by Maimonides. The legal 
parts of the Pentateuch include all the relations of 
human life, although these are discussed with 
greater detail in the Talmud (see TALMUDIC Laws). 
The Torah recognizes no subdivisions of the com- 
mandments; fer all alike are the ordinances of 
God, and a distinction may be drawn only accord- 
ing to modern ideas, as when Driver (in Hastings, 
“ Dict. Bible,” iti. 66) proposes a triple division, into 
juridical, ceremonial, and moral “ torot.” 

Montefiore was correct when, in laying emphasis 
on the ethical aspect of the Biblical concept of God, 
he declared that even the law of the Bible was per- 
meated with morality, propounding his view in the 
following words (“ Hibbert Lectures,” p. 64): “ Most 
original and characteristic was the moral influence 
of Jahveh in the domain of law. Jahveh, to the 
Israelite, was emphatically the God of the right. 

From the earliest times onward, Jahvel’s 
sanctuary was the depository of law, and the priest 
was His spokesman.” The most prominent charac- 
teristic of the Pentateuchal Jaw, as compared with 
the laws of ancient peoples and of medieval Europe, 
ig mildness, a feature which is still further devel- 
opedinthe Talmud. The Torahis justly regarded as 
the source of humanelaw. Although 
such phrases occur as “that soul shall 
be cut off from his people” or “so 
shalt thou put theevil away from the 
midst of thee,” it would be incorrect to take them 
literally, or to deduce from them certain theories of 
penal law, as Férster has recently done. On the 
contrary, these expressions prove that the Mosaic 


Style. 


Penal 
Law. 


199 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Torah 
Toronto 


Se en ne ee ee ee 


law was not a legal code in the strict sense of the 
term, but an ethical work. Although the Talmud- 
ists made it a penal code, instinctively reading that 
character intoit, the penal law of the Torah is some- 
thing theoretical which was never put into practise. 
This view is supported by the fact that a command- 
ment is stated sometimes without the threat of any 
penalty whatever for its violation, and sometimes 
with the assigument even of death as a punishment 
for its transgression. In like manner, tradition fre- 
quently substitutes such a phrase as “he forfeited 
his life ” for “ transgression worthy of death.” 

On the other hand, the civil law of the Torah, 
which is more developed aud bears a practical char- 

acter, probably accords more closely 
Civil Law. with ancient Jewish legal procedure. 

It reflects the conditions of an agricul- 
tural state, since most of the laws relate to farming 
and cognate matters. There was no Hebrew word 
for “store,” although “just measure” was men- 
tioned. It must be borne in mind, however, that to 
satisfy the more advanced conditions of later times, 
the Talmudists both supplemented the Mosaic law 
anil by means of analogy and similar expedients 
interpolated into the Torah much which it did not 
contain originally. 

From the earliest times the Synagogue has pro- 
claimed the divine origin of the Pentateuch, and has 
held that Moses wrote it down from dictation, while 
the religions based on Judaism have until very re- 
cently held the same view. Biblical criticism, how- 
ever, denies the Mosaic authorship and ascribes only 
a portion of varying extent to so ancient an origin. 
A history of criticism in regard to this point is given 
by Winer (“B. R.” it, 419 e¢ seg.) and by Driver (in 
Hastings, “ Dict. Bible,” iii. 66), while Montefiore 
expresses himself as follows (/.¢.): 


“The Torah—or teaching—of the priests, half judicial, half 
pedagogic, was a deep moral influence; and there was no ele- 
ment in the religion which was at once more genuinely Hebrew 
and more closely identified with the national God. There is 
good reason to believe that this priestly Yorah is the one retlig- 
ious institution which can be correctly attributed to Moses... . 
Though Moses was not the author of the written law, he was 
unquestionably the founder of that oral teaching, or Torah, 
which preceded and became the basis of the codes of the Penta- 
teuch.’’ 


The legal partsof the Torahare found in Ex. xx.- 
Xxiii., XXV.-XXXi, xXxXiv.-xxxv.; Lev.i.-vili., xi.- 
xXv., xxvil.; Num. v.-x., xviii, xix., xXvli.-xxx., 
these laws being repeated in Deut. iv. et seq. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bacher, Ag. Tan.: idem, Ag. Pal. Amor. 
Index, s.v. Tora and Studium der Lehre; Baumgartner, 
Les Etudes Isayogiques chez les Juifs, Geneva, 1886; Blau, 
Zur Hinleitung in die Heilige Schrift, Strasburg, 1894; 
idem, Studien zum Althebrdischen Buchwesen und zur 
Biblischen Litteraturgeschichte, Strasburg, 1902; Biichier, 
The Triennial Reading of the Law and Prophets, in J. Q. 
R. vi, 1-73; Eisenstadt, Ceber Bibelkritik tn der Talmuadi- 
Schen Litteratur, Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1894; Forster, Das 
Mosaische Strafreeht ti Seiner Gesehiehtlichen Entwicke- 
lung, Leipsie, 1900; Hamburger, 2. B. T. supplementary vol. 
ili. 60-75; Hastings, Dict. Bible, iii. 64-73; JEw. ENCYC. vii. 
633-688 ; Michaelis-Saalschiitz, Mosaisches Recht, Berlin, 
1842-46; Herzog-Hauck, Real-Eneye. xiii. 486-502; Weber, 
Jiidisehe Theologie, pp. 14-34, and Index, Leipsic, 1897; Wi- 
ner, B. R. 3d ed, i. 415-422. For the eriticism of the Torah 
compare the text-hooks of the history of Judaism and of Old 
Testament theology. See also PENTATEUCH. 


J L. B. 


ITORAT KOHANIM (THE SIFRA). Scc 
Miprasn HiacGAaDAn, 


TORDESILLAS: Spanish city near Valladolid, 
with a Jewish community, which was visited by 
Vicente Ferrer toward the end of 1411 for propa- 
gandic purposes. He advised the Jews of the city 
to change their abode for the narrow ghetto of Val- 
ladolid, but his counsel was disregarded. In 1474 
the number of Jews in Tordesillas was still so great 
that they paid 900 maravedis in taxes. Tordesillas 
was the birthplace of Moses ha-Kohen de Tor- 
DESILLAS. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Rios, Hist. ii. 428 et seq., iii, 594. 

J. M. K. 

TORDESILLAS, MOSES HA-KOHEN DE: 
Spanish controversialist, who was called upon to 
suffer for his faith, an attempt being made to con- 
vert him to Christianity by force. Despite cruel 
persecution, he remained true to his convictions, 
although he was robbed of all his possessions and 
reduced to poverty. Before long he was chosen 
rabbi by the community of Avila, where he was 
compelled to carry on a religious debate, about 
1372, with the convert JOHN OF VALLADOLID in 
the presence of Christians and Mohammedans. It 
was an easy task for Moses ha-Kohen, who was ac- 
quainted with the Christian sources, to refute in 
four debates the arguments of his opponent, who 
tried to prove the Christian dogmas from the Scrip- 
tures. Soonafterward he was obliged to enter upon 
a new contest with a disciple of the convert ABNER 
oF Bureos, with whose writings, especially with 
his “ Mostrador de Jeosticia,” Moses was thoroughly 
acquainted. In 1874, at the desire of the members 
of his community, he wrote, in the form of a dia- 
logue between a Jew and a Christian, the main sub- 
stance of his debates, which treated of the Trinity, 
of the virginity of Mary, of sacrifice, of the alleged 
new teachings of Jesus and of the New Testament, 
of the seven weeks of Daniel, and of similar matters. 
His book, which is divided into seventeen chapters, 
dealing with 125 passages emphasized by Christian 
controversialists. is entitled “‘Ezer ha-Emunah ” 
(The Support of Faith). It was sent by its author 
to David ibn Ya’ish at Toledo, and manuscripts of 
it are found at Oxford, Berlin, Parma, Breslau, and 
elsewhere. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: De Rossi-Hamberger, Hist. Worterb. pp. 317 
et seq.; Gritz, Gesch. 3d ed., vili. 20-21; Neubauer, Jewish 
Interpretations of the Fifty-third Chapter of Isaiah, p. 10; 
Steinschneider, Verzeichnis der Hebrdischen Handschriften 
der Konighichen Bibliothek zu Berlin, p. 5L; idem, Hebr. 
Bibl. ii. 85, note 10. 


J. M. K. 


TORONTO: Canadian city; capital of the prov- 
ince of Ontario. Toronto possesses four regularly 
organized Jewish congregations, the oldest being 
the Holy Blossom congregation, which had its be- 
ginnings in 1845, though it was not formally organ- 
ized until 1852. Its tirst synagogue was in Rich- 
mond street, the building being dedicated in 1857; 
later the congregation moved to its present home in 
Bond street. Attached to it is a large and well- 
organized Sabbath-school. The Goel Tsedek con- 
gregation, founded in 1880, has a synagogue in Elm 
street; the Shomerei Shabbas, an Austrian congre- 
gation organized in 1891, worships in Chestnut 
street; and the Chevra Tillim congregation, organ- 
ized in 1895, is at Richmond and York streets. In 


Torquemada 
Tortoise 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


200 


addition to these there are a number of minor con- 
gregations, formed in recent vears, but acquiring a 
large membership and steadily growing in impor- 
tance. 

The Jewish communal institutions of Toronto in- 
clude organizations of a philanthropic, educational, 
religious, and literary character. Among these are 
the Jewish Benevolent Society, the Ladies’ Monte- 
fiore Aid Society, the Hebra Kaddisha, the Toronto 
Hebrew Ladies’ Aid Society, the Hebra Linous Ha- 
tsedek, the Austrian Hebrew Ladies’ Aid Society, a 
branch of the Anglo-Jewish Association, the Toronto 
branch of the Council of Jewish Women, the Young 
Men’s Hebrew Association, the Jewish Literary So- 
ciety, the Talmud Torah, the Toronto Hebrew Benev- 
olent Society, the Jewish Shelter Society, the Judean 
Club, several lodges, and four Zionist organizations 
—the Agudath Zion, Toronto Daughters of Zion, 
B’nai Zion Association, and Ahavath Zion Society. 

Toronto has a population of 207,971, of whom 
about 7,000 are Jews. 

A. C. I. bE BS. 


TORQUEMADA, TOMAS DE. 
DA Fir; INQUISITION. 

TORRE, LELIO (HILLEL) DELLA: Iital- 
ian rabbi and educator; born in Cuneo, Piedmont, 
Jan. 11, 1805; died in Padua July 9, 1871. His 
father, Solomon Jehiel Raphael ha-Kohen, died in 
1807; and Lelio was brought up by his uncle Sab- 
batai Ethanan Treves, a rabbi in Piedmont. From 
1823 to 1829 he acted as tutor in Hebrew and in Bib- 
lical exegesis in the Collegio Colonna e Finzi founded 
in Turin by the Jewish community: and in 1827 he 
was appointed assistant rabbi. When the rabbin- 
ical college was founded in Padua in 1829, Della 
Torre was appointed professor of Talmud, homi- 
letics, and pastoral theology, which position he held 
until his death; in 1869 he occupied for several 
months, during a vacancy, the rabbinical chair of 
Padua. Cuneo, his native town, honored him by 
engraving his name on a bronze tablet among those 
of the most illustrious citizens of Italy. 

Besides his thorough familiarity with all branches 
of Hebrew literature and Jewish history, Della Torre 
was master of several ancient and modern languages, 
writing Hebrew, Italian, and French with equal 
facility. He wrote numerous Hebrew poems, most 
of which were included in his collection “Tal Yal- 
dut,” which, together with a supplement of later 
compositions entitled “ Egle Tal,” appeared in Padua 
in 1868. He was the authoralso of various articles 
in Hebrew periodicals, treating mostly of subjects re- 
lating to the science of Judaism and written in pure 
classical Hebrew. They may be found in “ Kerem 
Hemed” (iv. 9), in the new “ Bikkure ha-‘Ittim,” in 
“Ozar Nehmad” (i.), and in various volumes of 
“Kokebe Yizhak.” Of his published works the fol- 
lowing may be mentioned: “Cinque Discorsi,” 
Padua, 1884; “Della Condizione Degli Ebrei Sotto 
VImpero Germanico nel Medio Evo,” 76. 1842; “TI 
Salmi Volgarizzati sul Testo Massoretico ed [lus- 
trati con Argomentie Note. Parte Prima, Testo, 
Traduzione ed Argomenti,” Vienna, 1845; “Preghi- 
ere degl’ Israeliti. Traduzione dall’ Ebraico,” 7d, 
1846; “Orazioni per Ordinazioni Rabbiniche,” Ven- 


See Avro 


ice, 1852; “Poésies Hébraiques,” Padua, 1869; “ Is- 
crizioni Sepolcrali,” 2d. 1870; and “ Pensieri sulle 
Lezioni Sabbatiche del Pentateucho,” 23. 1872. His 
“Orazioni Postume” (Padua, 1879, pp. 189-202) 
contains an autobiographical sketch and a complete 
list of his works. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Ozar ha-Sifrut, ili. 91-92; 5. Jona, in Cor- 

riere Israelitico, 1872. 

S. P. Wy, 

TORT (Hebrew, pp; Latin, “delictum”): 
Any wrongful act, neglect, or default whereby legal 
damage is caused to the person, property, or repu- 
tation of another. Liability arises either from con- 
tract or from tort. Direct and wilful tort is TREs- 
pass. Trespass on the person is ASSAULT AND 
BaTtery. Other torts arise from lack of skill or 
care (see ACCIDENT; BAILMENTs [sometimes deemed 
liabilities from contract]; FAULT; FRAuD AND Mis- 
TAKE; GoRING Ox). Among the torts not elsewhere 
treated are: 

Mesne Profits: The income derived from land 
unlawfully held by the possessor, for which he is 
answerable to the true owner when the latter recov- 
ers the land from him by the judgment of a court. 
The Talmud speaks of the possessor of land without 
right as the “robber of the land” (in English law, 
“disseizor”): and he, or even a third person who 
takes fruits or branches from land thus withheld 
from the true owner, is considered as morally guilty 
of robbery (see the prohibition of an Israelite using, 
in the ritual thyrsus on the Feast of Booths, a 
palm-branch or citron taken from land held by a 
disseizor [Suk. iv. 1, 2]), The liability to pay 
mesne profits is implied and rather distantly indi- 
cated in the Mishnah (Git. v. 2). Assuming that he 
who sells land with warranty is liable not only for 

the price of the land which he re- 


In the _ ceives, but also for the mesne profits 
Mishnah which the purchaser will have to pay 
and after eviction to the true owner, it is 
Talmud. here taught that from motives of pub- 


lic policy the warranty inserted in the 
deed of sale, though in the nature of a bond, is to 
be levied, as far as it secures the purchaser against 
this liability, only upon “free property,” not on 
“subjected property,” z.e., on lands which in the 
meanwhile have been given away, sold, or encum- 
bered (for the distinction see DEED). The Gemara 
(B. M. 14a, b) discusses this matter fully in the 
light of the warranty, the Hability of the unlawful 
possessor being taken for. granted (see Maimonides, 
“Yad,” Gezelah, ch. xiv.). 

Depasturing: A liability for full damagesis im- 
posed by Ex, xxii. 4(Hebr.), “If a man pastures 
on field or vineyard and sends his cattle to pasture 
in the field of another, he shall make it good with 
the best of his field and the best of his vineyard.” 
When he pastures thus purposely, it is really a tres- 
pass; but the liability for “ foot or tooth” is often as 
full when beasts go of themselves into the domain 
of another. Accidental injuries of this kind have 
been referred to under AccipDENT. But when a 
beast eats the neighbor’s produce, is the owner lia- 
ble for the harm done, or only for his profit by its 
eating? In thecase put in Scripture he is of course 
bound for the former. Other cases are thus put by 


201 


Maimonides (“ Yad,” Nizke Mamon, ii. 6-12), who 
draws from B. K. 14-27 passim: 

When, from necessity, a beast eats something 
not its usual food, ée.g., when an ass eats vetches or 
fish, the owner pays full damage, if the occur- 
rence took place on the grounds of the injured 
party; but if on the highway, he pays only the 

amount which he has profited. Where 
Wilful and a beast of prey enters the grounds 
Ac- of the injured party and tears or de- 
cidental. vours a domestic animal, the owner 
of the beast is liable for full damage, 
because it is its nature to act in the manner as it did: 
but if a dog should trespass and eat lambs or a 
cat eat grown hens, only half damage is due; for 
this is unusual. When anass, finding bread in a bas- 
ket, eats the bread and breaks the basket, the owner 
pays full damage for both. Where a beast, whether 
walking or standing, eats grass from the middle of a 
square, the owner pays what he profits: where it 
eats from the side he pays full damage. For what 
it eats out of the door of a shop, its owner is required 
to pay the equivalent of what he has profited there- 
by; from the interior of the shop, full damage. If, 
walking along the road, a beast eats off the back 
of another beast, only the saving in fodder is paid 
for; if it jumps out of its place, full damage is due. 
If one’s beast glides or stumbles into another’s garden 
and eats, etc., the owner owes only for what he prof- 
its, even if the beast goes from bed to bed, or stays 
inthe garden all day; butif it walksinto the garden 
in the regular way, there is liability for full damage. 
So, also, if it is pushed into the garden by a com- 
panion; for the owner should lead his herd in single 
file. 

Unintentional Injury: Though “a man is al- 
ways forewarned,” that is, liable for his actions, 
asleep or awake, intentional or unintentional (see 
ASSAULT AND BATTERY, and authorities there cited), 
there is a broad exception to the rule; viz., when 
the mischief is done on the ground of the injuring 
party. For what a man does within his own do- 
main, he is liable in damages only if it was done 
wilfully; but he is not hable if done either un- 
consciously or under compulsion. Where a man 
climbs a ladder, and a rung falls out under him and 
strikes another, he is liable if the rung was not 
strong enough or not well set; but if it was strong 
and well set, the harm done is regarded as providen- 
tial, and he goes clear, even if it happened within 
the domain of the injured party; while on his own 
ground he would go clear in either case (“ Yad,” 
Hobel, iv. 3, 4, based on B. K. 28). 

Betrayal: The man of violence (“annas,” gener- 
ally denoting an arbitrary or cruel official of the Gen- 
tile kingdom) is often mentioned in the Talmud and 
the codes. The most odious among torts was that of 
betraying the person or property of a fellow Israel- 
ite into the hands of the annas (see B. K. 5a, 
114a; “Yad,” Hobel, viii.; Shuthan ‘Aruk, Hoshen 
Mishpat, 328). In the ‘Aruk it is put thus: “He 
who (by informing] delivers up property into the 
hands of an annas, whether Gentile or Jew, is 
bound to make good, from the best part of his estate, 
Whatever the annas has taken, though he has not 
handled the thing at all, but has only shown the 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Torquemada 
Tortoise 


way; and if he dies, the damage done is levied from 
his estate in the handsof his heirs.” The informer 

is excused if he has given informa- 
Informers. tion under bodily duress; but if he has 

handled the property himself, he is 
liable even then; for a man has no right to save 
himself at the cost of another. Further on, a relig- 
ious sanction is given to this civil liability: “He 
who delivers up an Israelite, either in his body or 
in his property, to the Gentile has no share in the 
world to come.” And on the strength of a case re- 
ported in B. B. 116a it is also said that it is not only 
permissible but meritorious to kill an informer in 
order to put a stop to his villainous trade. 

Slander and Insult: It has been shown under 
ASSAULT AND BATTERY that the insult or humili- 
ation incidental to an assault is to be paid for sepa- 
rately; but in the case of an insult when there is 
no assault, even when one spits at another and 
does not reach his body but only his garment, there is 
no ground for recovery (B. K. 91a) And in the 
same connection a Palestinian amorais quoted: “The 
tradition goes [AIDIN At), ‘He who shames an- 
other by words is free from everything.’” But the 
Jerusalem Talmud (B. K. 6c) makes an exception in 
favor of the “elder,” meaning a rabbi. Thus: “He 
who puts an elder to shame pays him the price of 
his shame. One Meshullam affronted R. Judah ben 


Hanina: the matter came before R. Simeon ben 
Lakish; and he fined Meshullam a litra 

Elder of gold.” This precedent was carried 
‘Put to into the Halakah; and all the Geonim 
Shame.” followed it. They applied it toevery 


scholar (O5f% +5n), and thus the rule 
appears in the code of Muimonides (“ Yad,” Hobel, 
iti. 5), where the penalty is put at 35 denarii of gold 
(the weight of 8% shekels of gold); but he adds that 
in Spain many of the scholars waive their privilege. 
While others than scholars have no civil remedy for 
insult or slander, the act of “blanching a man’s face 
in public” or that of “attaching a nickname to one’s 
neighhor” is, as has been seen in ONA’AH, among 
the unpardonable sins punished in the future world. 
It is also found (Ket. 46a) that the sin of “ bringing 
out an evil report” (slander) is fully recognized, on 
the strength of the text “Thou shalt not go up and 
down as a tale-bearer among the people” (Lev. xix. 
16); but there is no civil remedy for the wrong done. 

EK. C. L. N. D. 


TORTOISE: Rendering in the Authorized Ver- 
sion of the Hebrew word “zab” (Lev. xi. 29; see 
LizaRpD). Some commentators assume “ gallim ” in 
Hos. xii. 12 to mean “tortoises,” a view which has 
the support of the Septuagint, the Peshitta, and old 
Arabic versions. Two species of land tortoise, Zes- 
tudo greca and Testudo letthit, and several of the 
aquatic tortoises have becn found in Palestine. Of 
the latter the mys caspica is the most numerous. 

The Talmud uses “zab” and also “zabuni” to 
denote the toad (Toh. v. i). In Ber. 33a itis said that 
the water-snake is the issue of the toad and the snake. 
The tortoise is assumed to be intended in NND"D 
and *S*5 in Nid. 17a and Gen. R. Ivii. 2. 

PEO Gn ANNs Tristram, Nat. Hist. p. 2553; Lewysohn, Z. T. 


BE. G. H. I. M. C. 


Tortosa 
Tosafot 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


202 


TORTOSA: City in Catalonia where Jews lived 
and owned land as early as the Roman period. This 
Jewish community was one of the richest in the 
country in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, 
and had certain ancient privileges which were 
confirmed from time to time until 1828. In 1262 
the “bayle” of Tortosa and farmer of the royal 
taxes was Astruc Jacob Xixen or Xuxen (Shushan). 
The Jews of the city owed him 9,000 sueldos, and 
on their refusal to pay, the king, with whom he 
stood in special favor, and who had granted him 
privileges for life, gave him the right of distraincr. 

The Jews of Tortosa were always ready, however, 
to make sacrifices if it was for the good of the coun- 
try. When James II. was in need of money for 
conquering the county of Urgel, which also con- 
tained Jewish communities, the Jews of Tortosa, 
together with those of Barcelona, Gerona, Valencia, 
and Lerida, furnished him with 115,000 livres; and 
when Alfonso, the son and successor of James, was 
fitting out a fleet in 1823 for the conquest of Cer- 
defia, the Jewish community of Tortosa contributed 
and manned two ships, being exempted from all 
taxes for several years in recognition of their 
services. 

The chief occupations of the Jews of this city 
were farming, viniculture, commerce, and manufac- 
turing. In 1220 the brothers Astruc of Tortosa 
possessed lands upon the island of Majorca. They 
owned large establishments for dyeing linen and 
cotton, and sold their wares in a special market- 
place. They were allowed to take an annual inter- 
est of four dinars per livre, but were subject to 
heavy special taxes, since they were obliged to pay 
the state 4,000 sueldos in 1284 alone, as table-moneys 
(“ceuas ”), in addition to the municipal assessments 
on their houses and lands. On its own responsibil- 
ity the Jewish community in Tortosa ordained that, 
to be valid, all marriages must be performed be- 
fore authorized persons of the community and in the 
presence of ten grown men, and that any woman of 
Tortosa could contract a new marriage without a 
previous ritualistic divorce, unless married in this 
fashion. The year of terror, 1391, was eventful for 
the Jews in Tortosa as well as in other cities. The 
community, previously so wealthy, could no longer 
pay its taxes, and there, as elsewhere, many ac- 
cepted baptism; many Maranos fell victims to the 
Inquisition in Tortosa. 

Tortosa was cither the birthplace or the residence 
of several Jewish scholars. Menahem ben Saruk, the 
earliest Hebrew lexicographer; Shem-Tob ben Isaac 
and his son Abraham, both Hebrew translators; and 
the physician and philosopher Jacob Mantino were 
born there: there, too, lived Isaac Maimon and 
Abraham b. Alfual, who carried on a correspondence 
with Isaac ben Sheshet; and also the modern Hebrew 
satiric poet Solomon ben Reuben Bonfed, rabbi and 
delegate of the community at the disputation of 


Tortosa. 


BIBLIOGRAPITY : Belaguer, Historia de Catalufia, vi. 123; Bo- 
letin Acad. Hist. Vii. 508; Isaae b. Sheshet, Responsa, Nos. 
361 ef seq., 399: Jaeobs, Sources, Nos. 201, 253, 806, 880, 834 ; 
Rios, Hist. ii. 71, 155. 


S. M. K. 
TORTSCHINER, LOB B. ABRAHAM. Sce 
CorDoveRo, ARYEN Lon. 


TOSAFOT (“additions”): Critical and explana- 
tory glosses on the Talmud, printed, in almost all edi- 
tions, on the outer margin and opposite Rashi’s notes. 
The authors of the Tosafot are known as Tosafists 
(“ba‘ale ha-tosafot”). For what reason these 
glosses are called “tosafot” is a matter of dispute 
among modern scholars. Many of them, including 
Graetz, think the glosses are so called as additions 
to Rashi’s commentary onthe Talmud. In fact, the 
period of the Tosafot began immediately after Rashi 
had written his commentary ; the first tosafists were 

Rashi’s sons-in-law and grandsons, and 
Meaning of the Tosafot consist mainly of strictures 
Name. on Rashi’scommentary. Others, espe- 
cially Weiss, object that many tosafot, 
particularly those of Isaiah di Trani, have no refer- 
ence to Rashi. Weiss, followed by other scholars, 
asserts that “tosafot ” means “additions ” to the Tal- 
mud, that is to say, they are an extension and de- 
velopment of the Talmud. For just as the Gemara 
is a critical and analytical commentary on the Mish- 
nah, soare the Tosafot criticaland analytical glosses 
on those two parts of the Talmud. Further, the 
term “tosafot” was not applied for the first time to 
the glosses of Rashi’s coutinuators, but to the To- 
sefta, the additions to the Mishnah compiled by Ju- 
dah ha-Nasi I. “Tosefta” is a Babylonian term, 
which in Palestinian writings is replaced by “ tosa- 
fot” (see Yer. Pe’ab ii, 17a; Lev. R. xxx. 2; Cant. 
R. vi. 9; Eecl. R. v. 8). The Tosafot resemble the 
Gemara in other respects also, for just as the latter 
is the work of different schools carried on through 
along period, so the former were written at differ- 
ent times and by different schools, and gathered later 
into one body. 

Up to and including Rashi, the Talmudic com- 
mentators occupied themselves only with the plain 
meaning (“ peshat”) of the text; but after the be- 
ginning of the twelfth century the spirit of criticism 
took possession of the teachers of the Talmud. 
Thus some of Rashi’s continuators, as his sons-in-law 
aud his grandson Samuel ben Meir (RaSHBaM), 
while they wrote commentaries on the Talmud after 
the manner of Rashi’s, wrote also glosses on it in a 
style peculiarto themselves. The chief characteristic 
of the Tosafot is that they evidence no recognition 
of any authority, so that, in spite of the great respect 
in which Rashi was held by the Tosafists, the latter 
freely corrected him. Besides, the Tosafot do not 
constitute a continuous commentary, but, like the 
“Dissensiones” to the Roman code of the first quar- 
ter of the twelfth century, deal only with the diffi- 
cult passages of the Talmudic text. Single sen- 
tences are explained by quotations which are taken 
from other Talmudic treatises and which seem at first 

glance to have no connection with the 
Character. sentences in question. On the other 

hand, sentences which seem to be re- 
lated and interdependent are separated and embodied 
in different treatises. It must be added that the 
Tosafot can be understood only by those who are 
well advanced in the study of the Talmud, for the 
most entangled discussions are treated as though 
they were simple. Glosses explaining the meaning 
of a word or containing a grammatical observation 
are very rare. 


203 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Tortosa 
Tosafot 


a 


The Tosafot may be considered from the point of 
view of a methodology of the Talmud. The rules 
are certainly not gathered together in one series, as 
they are, for instance, in Maimonides’ introduction 
to the Mishnah; they are scattered in various parts, 
and their number is quite considerable. Neither are 
they stated in fixed terms; a generally accepted rule 
is followed by “This is the way of the Talmud” or 
«The Talmud usually declares.” Sometimes the 
negative expression is found, “This is not the way 
of the Talmud.” <A frequently recurring rule is in- 
dicated by some such formula as “ We find many 
like this.” It must be borne in mind that what has 
peen said hitherto concerns the general features of 
the Tosafot, and does not conflict with the fact that 
the writings of different tosatists differ in style and 
method. With regard to method, it should be said 
that the Tosafot of Touques (sce below) concern 
particularly the casuistic interpretation of the tradi- 
tional law, but do not touch halakic decisions. 

The chief home of tosafot literature was incon- 
testably France, for it began with Rashi’s pupils, 
and was continued mainly by the heads of the 
French schools. It is true that, practically, tosafot 
began to be written in Germany at the same time as 

in France, but the French tosafists al- 


Mostly ways predominated numerically. The 
of French first tosafot recorded are those written 
Origin. by Rashi’s two sons-in-law, Meir b. 


Samuel of Ramerupt (RaM) and Judah 
ben Nathan (RIBaN), and by a certain R. Joseph 
(Jacob Tam, “Sefer ha-Yashar,” No. 262, “ Hagga- 
hot Mordekai,” Sanh., No. 696; see below). But 
their tosafot not being otherwise known, the actual 
father of the tosafot in France was undoubtedly 
Jacos B. MEiR Tam, whose style was adopted by his 
successors. He wrote a great number of tosafot, 
many of which are to be found in his “Sefer ha- 
Yashar”; but not all, as many passages that are 
cited in the edited tosafot are not found in the work 
just mentioned. In Germany, at the same time, there 
flourished Isaac BEN ASHER HA-LEVI (RIBA), leader 
of the German tosafists, who wrote numerous tosa- 
fot, which are mentioned by Abraham b. David 
(“Temim De‘im,” Nos, 158, 207-209), and which are 
very often cited in the edited tosafot (e.g., to Sotah 
17b). But Isaac ben Asher’s tosafot were revised 
by his pupils, who, according to Jacob Tam (“Sefer 
ha-Yashar,” No. 282), sometimes ascribed to their 
teacher opinions which were not his. Zedekiah b. 
Abraham (“Shibbole ha-Leket,” 1., No. 225), how- 
ever, refutes Jacob Tam’s assertion. 

The most prominent tosafist immediately after 
Jacob Tam was his pupil and relative Issac BEN 
SAMUEL HA-ZAKEN (RI) of Dampierre, whose tosa- 
fot form a part of the Tosafot Yeshanim (see be- 
low). Isaac was succeeded by his pupil SAMSON BEN 
ABRAHAM OF SENs (d. about 1285), who, besides en- 
riching the literature with his own compositions, 
revised those of his predecessors, especially his 
teacher's. and compiled them into the group known 
as the Tosafot of Sens (YiNw MIpDIN). Samson’s 
felow pupil Jupan Bb. Isaac oF Paris (Sir Leon) 
Was also very active; he wrote tosafot to several 
Talmudic treatises, of which those to Berakot were 
published at Warsaw (1863); some of those to ‘Abo- 


dah Zarah are extant in manuscript. Among the 
wmany French tosafists deserving special mention 
was SAMUEL B. SOLOMON OF FaLAIse (Sir Morel), 
who, owing to the destruction of the Talmudain 
France in his time, relied for the text entirely upon 
his memory (Meir of Rothenburg, Responsa, No. 250). 

The edited tosafot owe their existence particularly 
to Samson of Sens and to the following French 
tosafists of the thirteenth century : (1) MosEs oF 
EVREUxX, (2) ELIEZER OF ToUQteEs, and (8) PEREZ 
BEN ELIJAH OF CORBEIL. 

(1) Moses of Evreux, one of the most prolific tosa- 
fists, furnished glosses to the whole Talmud; they 

form a distinct group known as the 
Schools of Tosafot of Evreux (S9)9"% MpDIN 
Tosafists. or NINN ADIN). It may be pre- 
sumed that the “ Tosafot of R. Moses ” 
mentioned by Mordecai b. Hillel (“ Mordekai,” on 
Sanh., No. 937) are identical with the tosafot just 
mentioned. According to Joseph Colon (Responsa, 
No. 52) and Elijah Mizrahi (“Mayim ‘Amukkim,” 
i., No. 37), Moses wrote his glosses on the margin of 
Isaac Alfasi’s “ Halakot,” probably at the time of 
the burning of the Talmud. 

(2) Eliezer of Touques, of the second half of the 
thirteenth century, made a compendium of the 
Tosafot of Sens and of Evreux; this compendium 
iscalled the Tosafot of Touques (719 mpDIN), and 
forms the basis of the edited tosafot. Eliezer’s 
own glosses,written on the margin, are known as 
the Tosafot Gillayon or Gilyon Tosafot. It 
must be premised, however, that the Tosafot of 
Touques did not remain untouched; they were re- 
vised afterward and supplemented by the glosses of 
later tosafists. Gershon Soncino, who printed these 
tosafot, declares that his ancestor Moses of Firth, 
who lived in the middle of the fifteenth century, 
was a descendant in the fifth generation of Moses of 
Speyer, whois mentioned in the Tosafot of Touques. 
It is supposed that the last redactor of these tosafot 
was a pupil of Samson of Chinon. 

(8) Perez ben Elijah of Corbeil was one of the 
most active of the later tosafists. Besides supply- 
ing tosafot to several treatises, which are quoted by 
many old authorities and are included among the 
edited tosafot (and many of which were seen in 
manuscript by Azulai), he revised those of his pred- 
ecessors. His pupils were not less active; their 
additions are known as the Tosafot of Perez b. 
Elijah’s Pupils. 

It has been said that the first German tosafist, 
Isaac b. Asher ha-Levi, was the head of a school, 
and that his pupils, besides composing tosafot of 
their own, revised his. In the thirteenth century the 
German schools were represented by BARUCH BEN 
Isaac, in Regensburg, and later by MEiR or Ro- 
THENBURG; the Italian school was represented by 
TsarAn DI TRANI. Ifthe tosafot of ASHER B, JEIIEL 
(d. 1828) are to be included, the tosafistic period ex- 
tended through more than two centuries. When the 
fanaticism of the French monasteries and the bigot- 
ry of Louis TX, brought about the destruction of the 
Talmud, the writing of tosafot in France soon ceased. 

Other bodies of tosafot are: 

French Tosafot: Mentioned in the novelle on 
Tamid ascribed to Abraham b. David. Zunz (“Z. 


Tosafot 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


G.” p. 57) thinks that the Tosafot of Sens may be 


referred to under this title; but the fact that Abra- 
ham b. David was much earlier than Samson of Sens 
leads to the supposition that the glosses indicated 
are those of previous tosafists, as Jacob Tam, Isaac 
b. Asher ha-Levi, and Isaac b. Samuel bha-Zaken and 
his son. 

Piske Tosafot (“Decisions of the Tosafot”): 
Collection of halakic decisions gathered from the 
edited tosafot to thirty-six treatises—Nazir and 
Me‘ilah being excepted—and generally printed in 
the margin of the Tosafot; in the later editions of 
the Talmud, after the text. These decisions num- 
ber 5,931; of these 2,009 belong to the treatise Bera- 
kot and the order Mo‘ed; 1,398 to Niddah and the 
order Nashim; 1,508 to Nezikin; and 1,021 to Ko- 
dashim, The decisions contained in the tosafot to 
Shabbat, Pesahim, Gittin, Ketubot, Baba Kamma, 
Baba Mezi‘a, Baba Batra, and Hullin number fully 
one-half of those recognized as authoritative. The 
compiler of these decisions can not be identified with 
certainty; Asher b. Jehiel, his son Jacob b. Asher, 
and Ezekiel, uncle of Eliezer of Touques, are given 
by different authorities. Jacob Nordhausen, also, 
is known to have compiled tosafot decisions; in 
fact, references to two groups of “Piske Tosafot ” 
are found in the werks of the later casuists. 

Spanish Tosafot: This term is used by Joseph 
Colon (Responsa, No. 72) and by Jacob Baruch Lan- 
dau (“Agur,” § 827), and may apply to Talmudic 
novelle by Spanish authors. Jeshuah b. Joseph 
ha-Levi, for instance (“ Halikot ‘Olam,” § 827), ap- 
plies the term “tosafot” to the novell# of Isaac ben 
Sheshet. 

The Edited Tosafot (called also Our Tosafot): 
The tosafot which have been published with the 
text of the Talmud ever since its earliest edition 
(see TALMUD, EDITIONS OF), They extend to thirty- 
eight treatises of the Babylonian Talmud. Most of 
the treatises are covered by the Tosafot of Touques, 
some by the Tosafot of Sens; many are provided 
with the tosafot of various authors, revised by 
Perez b. Elijah’s school. The authorship of the 
tosafot to seventeen treatises only can be estab- 
lished with certainty: Berakot, Moses of Evreux; 
Shabbat, ‘Erubin, and Menahot, the Tosafot of 
Sens; Bezah, Nedarim, Nazir, Sanhedrin, Makkot, 
and Me‘ilah, Perez b. Elijah’s school (many written 
by Perez himself); Yoma, Meir of Rothenburg; 
Gittin, Baba Kamma, and Hullin, the Tosafot 
of Touques; Sotah, Samuel of Evreux; ‘Abodah 
Zarah, Samuel of Falaise; Zebahim, Baruch b. Isaac 
of Worms. The tosafot to Mo‘ed Katon were writ- 
ten by a pupil of a certain R. Isaac; the author of 
the tosafot to Hagigah wrote tosafot to other treatises 
also. Those to Ta‘anit belong to the post-tosafot 
period, and differ in style from those to other 
treatises. 

Tosafot Alfasi: Quoted by Joseph Colon (Re- 
sponsa, Nos. 5, 81) and Judah Minz (Responsa, No. 
10). The term inay designate either the tosafot of 
Samuel b. Meir and Moses of Evreux, or glosses to 
Alfasi’s “Halakot.” 

Tosafot of Gornish (DI, py, wm): 
Mentioned by Joseph Solomon Delmedigo (“ Nobelot 
Hokmah,” Preface) and Solomon Algazi (“Gufe 


204 


Halakot,” No. 195), the latter quoting these tosafot 


to Baba Kamma. But as the same quotation is made 
by Bezalcel Ashkenazi (“Shittah Mekubbezet,” to 
Baba Kamma) and ascribed to a pupil of Perez ben 
Elijah, Azulai (“Shem ha-Gedolim,” ii.) concludes 
that these tosafot originated in Perez b. Elijah’s 
school. Still, Mordecai b. Hillel (“ Mordekai,” Bb. B. 
on No. 886) meutions a R. Judah of Gornish, and 
Abraham ibn Akra (“Meharere Nemerim,” Venice, 
1599) reproduces Talmudic novelle by “M. of Gor- 
nish” (Embden gives “Metr of Gornish” in the 
Latin translation of the catalogue of the Oppenheim 
Library, No. 667), Manuscript No. 7 of the Giinz- 
burg collection bears the superscription “ Tosafot of 
Gornish to Yebamot,” and in these tosafot French 
and German rabbis are quoted. Manuscript No. 603 
of the same collection contains also the Tosafot of 
Gornish and novelle by Judah Minz, and frag- 
ments of Gornish tosafot are found in manuscripts 
in other libraries. 

Different theories have been ad vanced with regard 
to the name “Gornish.” According to Schechter 
(“ Jew. Chron.” May 4, 1888), it is a corruption of 
“Mayence,” while H. Adler thinks it a corruption 
of alse (the English “Norwich”; see Neubauer 
in “R.E. J.” xvii. 156, and Gross, “ Gallia Judaica,” 
pp. 186 et seg.). Gross (l.¢e.) thinks that Gornish 
may be identical with Gournay, in France, and that 
“M. of Gornish,” apparently the author of the Tosa- 
fot of Gornish, may be Moses of Gornish and iden- 
tical with the Moses of #3" mentioned in the Tosa- 
fot of Sens (to Pesahim). It may be added that in 
the supplement to Zacuto’s “Yuhasin” (p. 164a, 
Cracow, 1581) a David of “ Durnish” occurs. 

Tosafot Hizoniyyot (“ Exterior” or “ Uncanon- 
ical Tosafot”): Tosafot which are neither of Sens 
nor of Touques. They are so called by Bezaleel 
Ashkenazi; he included many fragments of them 
in his “Shittah Mekubbezet,” to Baba Mezi‘a, Na- 
zir, ete. 

Tosafot Shittah (or Shittah): Name some- 
times applied to the recensions of Perez b. Elijah 
or to the tosafot of Jechiel of Paris (Bezaleel Ashke- 
nazi, é.c.; notes to “Sha‘are Dura,” § 57; and many 
other authorities). 

Tosafot Yeshanim (“Old Tosafot ”): This group 
comprises four smaller ones: (1) the general tosafot 
of Sens, including those appearing among the edited 
tosafot; (2) the earlier unedited tosafot (for exam- 
ple, those to Kiddushin by Isaac b. Samuel ha-Zaken 
of Dampierre, and those to ‘Abodah Zarah by bis 
son Elbanan b. Isaac); (8) a collection of old tosafot 
published by Joseph Jessel b. Wolf ha-Levi in 
“Sugyot ha-Shas” (Berlin, 1736); (4) various tosa- 
fot found in ancient manuscripts, as the tosafot to 
Hullin written in 1860, the manuscript of which is 
in the Munich Library (No, 236), In the collection 
published by Joseph Jessel b. Wolf ha-Levi (No. 3), 
besides the old tosafot to Yoma by Moses of Couey 
(comp., however, Israel] Isserlein, “Terumat ha- 
Deshen,” No. 94, who declares they belong to the 
Tosafot of Sens), there are single tosafot to sixteen 
treatises—Shabbat, Rosh ha-Shanah, Megillah, Git- 
tin, Baba Mezi‘a, Menahot, Bekorot, ‘Erubin, 
Bezah, Ketubot, Kiddushin, Nazir, Baba Batra, 
Horayot, Keritot, and Niddah. In the recent Wilna 


205 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Tosafot 


Talmud edited by Romm the old tosafot to several 
treatises are printed. 

The Tosafot quote principally Rashi (very often 
under the designation “kontres” [= “commenta- 
rius ”7]), most of the tosafists, many of the ancient 
authorities (as Kalonymus of Lucca, Nathan b. 
Jehiel, and R. Hananeel), some contemporary 
scholars (as Abraham b. David of Posquiéres, 
Maimonides, Abraham ibn Ezra, and others), and 
about 180 German and French Talmudists of the 
twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Many of the 
last-named are known as authors of genera] Tal- 
mudic works, as, for instance, Eliezer b. Nathan 
of Mayence, Judah of Corbeil, and Jacob of Coucy; 
but many of them are known only through their 
being quoted in the Tosafot, as in the case of 
an Eliezer of Sens, a Jacob of Orleans, and many 
Abrahams and Isaacs. Some are even mentioned but 
once, as Eliezer of xpop (Tos. B. B. 79b), Ephraim 
b. David (supposed contemporary of Judah Sir Leon; 
Tos. ‘Ab. Zarah 39a), and one Hezekiah (Tos. B. B. 
44b). A commentary on the Pentateuch entitled 
“Da‘at Zekenim” (Leghorn, 1783) is attributed to 
the Tosafists. In form this commentary follows the 
style of the Tosafot; Rashi is often discussed, and 
sometimes corrected. 

Of the great number of tosafists only forty-four 
are known by name. The following is an alphabet- 
ical list of them; many, however, are known only 
through citations: 

A(HaRA): Quoted in the edited tosafot to M. K. 
14b, 19a, 20b, 21a ef seg. 

Abigdor b. Elijah ha-Kohen: Flourished in 
the middle of the thirteenth century; his tosafot are 
mentioned in the edited tosafot to Ket. 63b. 

Asher b. Jehiel: His tosafot, entitled “ Tosefot 
ha-Rosh ” or “ Tosefe Tosafot,” appeared in various 
epochs and works. Many of them were inserted by 
Bezaleel Ashkenazi in his “Shittah Mekubbezet”; 
those to Yebamot and Ketubot appeared separately 
at Leghorn, 1776; to Sotah, partly at Prague, 1725, 
and partly in Jacob Faitusi’s “ Mar’eh ha-Ofannim ” 
(Leghorn, 1810); to Megillah and Shebu‘ot, in Eli- 
jah Borgel’s “Migdanot Natan” (2b. 1785); and to 
Kiddushin, in the “Ma‘aseh Rokem” (Pisa, 1806). 
They are included in Romm’s recent edition of the 
Talmud. 

Baruch b. Isaac (see above and Jew. ENcyc. 
li, 559). 

Eleazar b. Judah of Worms: Author of tosa- 
fot to Baba Kamma, extracts from which are 
found in Bezaleel Ashkenazi’s “Shittah Mekub- 
bezet.” 

Elhanan b. Isaac: Flourished at the end of the 
twelfth century; his tosafot arementioned by Abra- 
ham b. David in his *Temim De‘im” and in the 
edited tosafot to B. M. 11b and Sheb, 28a. His tosa- 
fot to Nedarim are referred to by Joseph Colon 
(Responsa, No. 52); those to Megillah, in Isaiah di 
Trani’s “Ha-Makria‘” (No. 31, p. 19d); those to 
‘Abodah Zarah, in “ Mordekai” (No. 1864). 

Eliezer b. Joel ha-Levi (n"'2N5): Flourished 
in the beginning of the thirteenth century; author 
of tosafot to several treatises (comp. Michael, “ Or 
ha-Hayyim,” No. 427). 

Eliezer ben Samuel of Metz (Re’EM): Au- 


thor of tosafot to several treatises, of which those 
to Hullin were seen by Azulai. 

Eliezer of Toul: French tosafist of the begin- 
ning of the thirteenth century, whose tosafot are 
mentioned by Zedekiah Anaw in his “Shibbole ha- 
Leket.” 

Eliezer of Touques (seeaboveand JEw. ENcyc. 
v. 120), 

Elijah ben Menahem: His tosafot are men- 
tioned in “ Haggahot Maimuniyyot,” Kinnim, No. 20. 

I (RI, probably R. Isaac, but not to be confused 
with Isaac b. Samuel ha-Zaken, who occurs most 
often as RI): His tosafot, in which the older RI is 
quoted, are mentioned by Samson b. Zadok (“ Tash- 
bez,” § 3386). 

Isaac ben Abraham (RIBA or RIZBA), sur- 
named ha-Bahur (“the younger,” in distinction 
from his teacher Isaac b. Samuel ha-Zaken): Brother 
of Samson ben Abraham of Sens. Like his brother, 
Isaac lived as a youth at Troyes, where he attended 
the lectures of Jacob Tam (“Temim De‘im,” No. 87), 
and afterward at Sens (23.; “Haggahot Maimuniy- 
yot,” Ishut, No. 6). After the death of Isaac ben 
Samuel, Isaac ben Abraham succeeded him as head 
of the school of Dampierre, after which place he is 
often called (“Or Zarua‘,” i. 225a). Isaac ben Abra- 
ham was one of the French rabbis to whom Meir ben 
Todros Abulafia addressed his letter against Maimon- 
ides’ theory of resurrection. He died at Dampierre 
prior to 1210, not Jong before his brother Samson emi- 
grated to Palestine (“Semak,” No. 81; “ Mordekai” 
on Ketubot, No. 357). As he is mentioned often in 
the edited tosafot (Shab. 3a, passtm; Yoma 20a; et 
al,) and by many other authorities (“Or Zarua‘,” 
i. 26b; “Shibbole ha-Leket,” i., No. 231), it may be 
concluded that he wrote tosafot to several Talmudic 
treatises. Those to Bekorot were in the possession 
of Hayyim Michael of Hamburg. Isaac ben Abraham 
is frequently mentioned as a Biblical commentator 
(“Da‘at Zekenim,” 8a, 48b, 49b, Leghorn, 17838; 
“ Minhat Yehudah,” 8a, 18a), and his ritual decisions 
and responsa are often quoted (“ Or Zarua‘,” i. 18b 
et passim; Meir of Rothenburg, Responsa, No. 176; 
et al.). 

Isaac ben Abraham ha-Bahur may be identical 
with the liturgical poet Isaac b. Abraham who 
wrote a hymn beginning “ Yeshabbehuneka be-kol 
miflal,” for Simhat Torah or for the Sabbath after 
it, and a selihah for Yom Kippur beginning “Hen 
yom ba la-Adonai” (comp. Zunz, “ Literaturgesch.” 
p. 385). 

Isaac b. Asher ha-Levi (see above and JEw. 
Encye, vi. 620). 

Isaac ben Jacob ha-Laban: Pupil of Jacob 
Tam and one of the earlier tosafists (“ ba‘ale tosafot 
yeshanim ”). He was the author of a commentary 
on Ketubot quoted by Isaac Or Zarua‘ (see Judah 
Minz, Responsa, No. 10). He is quoted very often 
in the edited tosafot (Yeb. 5b; B. K. 72a; e¢ av.). 

Isaac ben Meir (RIBaM) of Ramerupt: 
Grandson of Rashi, and brother of Samuel b. Meir 
(RaSHBaM) and Jacob Tam; died before his father, 
leaving four children (Jacob Tam, “Sefer ha-Yashar,” 
No. 616, p. 72b, Vienna, 1811). Although he died 
young, Isaac wrote tosafot, mentioned by Eliezer b. 
Joel ha-Levi (“Abi ha-‘Ezri,” § 417), to several 


Tosafot 
Tosefta 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


206 


treatises of the Talmud. Isaac himself is often 
quoted in the edited tosafot (Shab. 188a; Ket. 29b 
et pusstm). 

Isaac ben Mordecai of Regensburg (RI- 
BaM): Flourished in thetwelfth century; pupil of 
Isaac b. Asher ha-Levi. He corresponded with Ja- 
cob Tam and was a fellow pupil of Moses b. Joel 
and Ephraim b. Isaac. His tosafot are quoted by 
Eliezer b. Joel ha-Levi (¢.c. 3 420) and Meir of Ro- 
thenburg (“Semahot,” § 73; “Haggahot Maimuniy- 
yot,” Abelot, p. 294a). Heis often quoted also in 
the edited tosafot (Ket. 55a; B. K. 22b et passim). 

Isaac ben Reuben: His tosafot are mentioned 
in the “Shittah Mekubbezet,” Ketubot, 48a, He 
may be identical with the Isaac b. Reuben who 
made a comment on Rashi to B. K. 32d. 

Isaac b. Samuel ha-Zaken (see above and 
Jew. Encyc. vi. 681). 

Isaiah di Trani (RID): Italian tosafist of the 
first half of the thirteenth century. The greater 
part of his tosafot were published under the title 
“Tosefot R. Yesha‘yahu ” (Lemberg, 1861-69); and 
many were inserted by Bezaleel Ashkenazi in his 
“Shittah Mckubbezet.” 

Israel of Bamberg: Lived in the middle of the 
thirteenth century; mentioned as an author of tosa- 
fot in “ Mordekai” (to ‘Ab. Zarah, Nos. 1244, 1279, 
1295, 1356) and “Haggahot Mordekai” (to Shab. 
xiv.). Extracts froin the tosafot of Israel’s pupils 
were reproduced by Bezaleel Ashkenazi (/.c.). 

J. Cohen: Supposedly a contemporary of Meir 
b. Baruch of Rothenburg, and perhaps identical 
with Judah ha-Kohen, Meir’s relative. In the ex- 
tracts from his tosafot to Baba Kamma, inserted in 
the “Shittah Mekubbezet,” he quotes, among inany 
other authorities, his still living teacher, the Kohen 
whom Zunz (*Z. G.” p. 42) supposes to be identical 
with Abigdor b. Elijah ha-Kohen. From the “ Shit- 
tah Mekubbezet” to Baba Mezi‘a it is seen that J. 
Cohen wrote tosafot to the same treatise. 

Jacob of Chinon: Lived in the thirteenth cen- 
tury; pupil of Isaac ben Abraham, author of a 
“Shittah” (“Mordekai,” on Sanh., No. 928). He 
himself is quoted in the edited tosafot (Ber. 12a; 
Nazir 53a; et al.). 

Jacob ben Isaac ha-Levi (Jabez): Flourished 
at Speyer about 1180; a pupil of Kalonymus b. 
Isaac the Elder (Eliezer b. Nathan, “ Eben ha-‘Ezer,” 
p. 18c, Prague, 1610). He was the author of tosafot 
(“ Haggahot Maimuniyyot,” Kinnim, No. 16) and of 
decisions (“ pesakim”; “ Mordekai,” Hul., No. 1188). 
He is quoted also in the edited tosafot (to Kin. 23a). 

Jacob ben Meir Tam (sce above and JEw. 
Encyc. vii. 86). 

Jehiel ben Joseph of Paris (d. 1286): His tosa- 
fot are quoted as authoritative by Perez b. Elijah 
(glosses to “‘Ammude Golah,” p. 50a, Cremona, 
1556), in “Kol Bo” (No. 114), and in “ Mordekai” 
(Hul., No. 924). He is frequently quoted also in 
the edited tosafot. 

Joseph (or Yehosef): Flourished, according 
to Zunz (“Z. G.” p. 33), about 1150. Zunz identifies 
this Joseph with the pupil of Samuel b. Meir whose 
glosses are quoted in the edited tosafot (to Ket. 70a), 
and thinks he may be identical with the Joseph of 
Orleans often cited in the edited tosafot (Shab. 


ee 8 yep AO 


12a et passim). If so, he must be identified. accord- 
ing to Gross (“Gallia Judaica,” p. 34), with JosepH 
BEN [sAAC BEKOR SHOR. Weiss, however, suggests 
that this Joseph might have been cither Joseph 
Bontils, Jacob Tam’s teacher, or Joseph b. Isaac of 
Troyes, one of Rashi’s pupils. Thus it seems that 
in any case the tosafist mentioned in the “Sefer ha- 
Yashar” must be distinguished from the one men- 
tioned in Tos. Ket. 70a, as the latter was a pupil of 
R. Samuel. 

Joseph Porat: Many fragments of his tosafot to 
Shabbat are included in the edited tosafot. 

Judah b. Isaac of Paris (sce above and JEw. 
Excyc. vii. 344). 

Judah ben Nathan (RIBaN): Son-in-law and 
pupil of Rashi, and to a great extent his continua- 
tor. It was Judah who completed Rashi’s commen- 
tary on Makkot (from 19b to the end) and who wrote 
the commentary on Nazir which is erroneously attrib- 
uted to Rashi. He wrote, besides, independent com- 
mentaries on ‘Erubin, Shabbat, Yebamot (Eliezer 
b. Joel ha-Levi, “Abi ha-‘Ezri,” $3 188, 885, 397, 
408), and Pesahim (“Semag,” prohibition No. 79). 
Finally, Halberstam manuscript No. 323 contains 
a fragment of Judah’s commentary on Nedarim. It 
is generally considered that Judah b. Nathan wrote 
tosafot to several treatises of the Talmud, and he is 
mentioned as a tosafist in “Hageahot Mordekai” 
(Sanh., No. 696). He is often quoted in the edited 
tosafot. 

Levi: His tosafot are quoted in the “ Mordekai ” 
(B. M. iv., end). 

Meir b. Baruch of Rothenburg (sce above and 
JEW. Encyc. viii. 487). 

Meir b. Samuel of Ramerupt: His tosafot are 
mentioned by his son Jacob Tam (" Sefer ha- Yashar,” 
No, 252) and often in the edited tosafot. 

Moses b. Jacob of Coucy: Author of Old 
Tosafot to Yona and of some published in the col- 
lection “Sugyot ha-Shas” (Berlin, 1786), 

Moses b. Meir of Ferrara: Fiourished in the 
thirteenth century; probably a pupil of Judah b. 
Isaac of Paris. His tosafot were used by the com- 
piler of the “Haggahot Maimuniyyot” (see Jew. 
Enxcyc. ix. 86). 

Moses b. Yom-Tob of Evreux (see above and 
Jew, ENcycC., ix, 65), 

Perez ben Elijah of Corbeil (see above and 
JEW. Excyc, ix. 600). 

Samson b. Abraham of Sens (see above and 
JEW, Encyc. xi. 2). 

Samson b. Isaac of Chinon: Flourished in the 
thirteenth and fourteenth centuries; author of the 
“Sefer Keritut.” In this work (i. 7, $1; v. 3, 
§§ 120, 148) Samson refers to his glosses on ‘Ernbin 
and ‘Abodah Zarah; he appears to have written 
glosses on other Talmudic treatises also. 

Samuel of Evreux: Author of tosafot to sev- 
eral treatises; those to Sotah are among the edited 
tosafot (see JEW. Encyc. xi. 16). 

Samuel ben Meir (RaSHBaM): Author of 
tosafot to Alfasi; under his supervision his pupils 
prepared tosafot to several treatises (“Sefer ha- 
Yashar,” p. 85d). 

Samuel b. Natronai (RaShBaT): German 
Talmudist of the end of the twelfth century; author 


207 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Tosafot 
Tosefta 


of tosafot to ‘Abodah Zarah (see “Kerem Hemed,” 
vii. 50). 

Samuel b. Solomon of Falaise (see above and 
Jew. Encye. xi. 28). 

Simhah b. Samuel of Speyer: Flourished in 
the thirteenth century; his tosafot are mentioned by 
Meir of Rothenburg (Responsa, iv., No. 164). 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Azulai, Shem ha-Gedolim, ii; Benjacob, Ozar 

ha-Sefurim, pp. 621 et seq.; Buchholz, in Monatsschrift, 

XXXVili. 342, 398, 450, 559; Gritz, Gesch. 3a ed., vi. 143-144, 

210; vil. 108-110; Karpeles, Gesch. der Jiidischen Literatur, 

i. 574 et seq.; Weiss, Dor, iv. 386-352; idem, Toledot Rahbbenu 

Tam, pp. 2-4: Winter and Wiinsche, Jiidisehe Literatur, ii. 

465 et seqg.; Zunz (the chief source for this article), Z. G@. pp. 

29 et sey. 

J M. SEL. 


TOSEFTA (lit. “extensions”; “additions ”): 
Name of a collection of baraitot which treat in a 
more complete form than does the Mishnah the sub- 
ject of traditional Jaw. In tannaitic literature old 
halakot are often amplified by explanatory notes 
and additions. Such additions were made by R. 
Akiba (‘Eduy. iit. 1, vili. 1; Kil. i. 8; ‘Orlah ili. 
7), R. Eliezer ben Zadok (Tosef., Men. x. 28), R. 
Simeon (Sifra, Wayikra, Hobah, vii. [ed. Weiss, p. 
Q1b]), R. Judah (Shab. 75b; ‘Ab. Zarah 48a), R. 
Jose (Toscf., Kelim, B. K. vii. 4), and other tan- 
naim. The explanatory notes are introduced with 
the word “Hosif” (“He has added” or “He has 
extended ”). A sentence thus elucidated and com- 
pleted was called a tosefta, this term being used 
not for the additional notes only, but for the entire 
aphorism in its completed form. This meaning is 
plainly seen in Yer. Shab. vili. Ila (comp. also 
Pesik. R. 14; Eccl. R. viti. 1), where it is stated 
that R. Abbahu was greatly pleased over the dis- 
covery of an ancient tosefta, which, as a matter of 
fact, was an old tannaitic maxim with added ex- 
planatory matter, 

The work known by the name “ Tosefta” consists 
of a collection of such elucidated maxims, giving 
the traditional sayings in a remarkably complete 
form, whereas the Mishnah gives 
them in a condensed form only. The 
title of this collection, NNSDIN, is 
really a plural word, and ought to be pronounced 
“Tosefata,” as is apparent from the Hebrew form 
(VNSDIN, which isused forthe Aramaic RASpyN ; Eccl. 
R. v. 8). Erroneously, however, the singular form 
“Tosefta” has been adopted. A compilation enti- 
tled “ Tosefta ” is often mentioned in Talmudic-mid- 
rashic literature; and most authoritative critics re- 
gard itas identical with the extant Tosefta, of which 
this article treats. From R. Johanan’s allusions to 
the Tosefta (Sanh. 86b) nothing can be adduced 
against the theory of the identity of the extant To- 
sefta with the work to which he refers; and his 
words in no way indicate, as Brill has interpreted 
them, that R. Nehemiah was the author of the To- 
Sefta (see below). Moreover, the Babylonian Tal- 
mud refers to a Tosefta which is certainly identical 
With the work here treated. Thus Yoma 70a cor- 
rectly cites a saying by R. Akibaas being contained 
in the Tosefta (Tosef., Yoma, iii. 19, textus receptus). 
_ Scholastic tradition regards the tanna Hiyya BAR 
AnBa as the author of the Tosefta, this belief being 
based on the circumstance that the schools of the 
Amoraim regarded as authoritative only those tan- 


Contents. 


naitic traditions which had their origin in the col- 
lections of R. Hiyya or R. Hoshaiah: and inas- 
much as only one Tosefta from the 
period of the Amoraim had been pre- 
served, there was justificatiun for the 
belief that only the authentic (and 
therefore the most commonly used) 
collection had been saved in the vicissitudes of the 
ages, Ona closer view of the matter, however, this 
circumstance can not be accepted as proof of Hiy- 
ya’s authorship; for since the collection of Hoshaiah 
was also considered authoritative, there are equal 
grounds for supposing either that the latter was the 
sole author of the Tosefta, or that he and Hiyya 
edited the work in collaboration. Inasmuch, how- 
ever, as Hivya himself is mentioned in the Tosefta 
(Neg. viii. 6), the final redaction of the work must 
be attributed to a later hand. 

To define the purpose of the work presents as 
many difficulties as does its authorship. Formerly 
the Tosefta was generally regarded asa sort of com. 
mentary on the Mishnah, this belief being fostered 
by a false interpretation of its title as “supplements.” 
But even disregarding the fact that the correct defi- 
nition of the word “ Tosefta” as given above stamps 
the work as independent of the Mishuah, a cursory 
examination of its contents will show that it can not 
be regarded as a commentary. It does not discuss 
the passages in the Mishnah in a commentarial 
manucer, and, to judge by its contents, it might be 
regarded either as a continuation of the Mishnah or 
asa work of equal rank therewith; for it cites the 
mishnaic passages in almost the same terms as the 
Mishnah itself. The latter circumstance, also, pre- 
cludes the possibility of regarding the Tosefta as a 
commentary, Inasmuch as it contains additions and 
supplements to the Mishnah; for in a mere supple 

ment there would be no room for al- 

Relation to most verbatim repetitious of sentences 
Talmudic contained in the Mishnah itself. To 
Baraitot. this succeeds the question of the rela- 
tion of the Tosefta to the baraitot cited 

in Talmudic discussions; for several such baraitot 
are contained literally in the Tosefta, while others 
are paraphrased, although the redaction of the par- 
allel passages differs in respect to important points. 

The question which thus presents itself is whether 
the Talmudic baraitot are mere citations from the 
Tosefta, or whether they originally constituted an 
independent collection. In the first case it would 
be difficult to explain the reason for the redactorial 
differences in the parallel passages. In the second. 
on the other hand, it would be necessary to take for 
granted not only the existence of an earlier Tosefta, 
but also that this, and not the one now extant, was the 
authentic one. For, as stated above, the Amoraim 
made use of authentic sources only; and those 
baraitot that are cited in the Talmud but are not 
contained in the extant Tosefta must necessarily 
have been taken from an earlier work. This would 
disprove the identity of the existing Tosefta with 
the work mentioned in Talmudic literature. All 
these questions show how difficult it is to determine 
the origin, the nature, and the importance of the 
Tosefta. The solution of the problem has been at- 
tempted by various scholars at various periods; and 


Attributed 
to Hiyya 
bar Abba. 


Tosefta 
Tdétbrief 


of these attempts those made by Sherira, Maimon- 
ides, Me’iri, and Frankel were the most important 
because they alone rest on critical investigations 
of historical sources. But even these investigators 
failed to solve the problem in a manner wholly sat- 
isfactory. Frankel’s theory, although deficient in 
so far as it leaves some points unexplained and 
others not accurately defined, comes nearer the truth 
than any other. When these deficiencies are sup- 
plied and some points modified, a correct conception 
of the origin and nature of the Tosefta may be 
formed. 

Any investigation to determine the status of the 
Tosefta must be directed to the following points: 
the origin and scope of the work; its redaction; its 
relation tothe Mishnah; and its relation to the barai- 
tot cited in the Talmud. Information bearing on 

the first point is derived from a titer- 

Critical ary-historical notice by R. Johanan 
Problems. (Sanh. 86a), which, after eliminating 

material unnecessary for this ques- 

tion, runs as follows: “Those mishnaic sentences 
that are cited without mention of the author’s name 
(AMD) belong to R. Meir; the sentences in the To- 
sefta cited without the name of the author are R. 
Nehemiah’s ; all, however, are given in the spirit 
and according to the method of R. Akiba.” This 
utterance of R. Johanan’s implies, therefore, that as 
the Mishnah had three successive redactors (Akiba, 
Meir, and Judah ha-Nasi [.), so must also the redac- 
tors of the Tosefta be supposed to have been three 
in number, namely, Akiba, Nehemiah, and a third, 
unknown redactor. The origin of the Tosefta can 
therefore be traced back to Akiba, who laid the 
foundation of this work as well as of the Mishnah, 
in both of which he used a peculiar redactorial sys- 
tem of hisown. Thus in the Mishnah he gave only 
the fundamental principles in condensed form, in 
order to furnish a handbook of traditions as an aid 
to the memory. In the Tosefta, however, he gave 
the traditional sentences in their complete form, 
supplementing them with explanatory notes; he 
gave also various cases, which in the Mishnah were 
represented by a single statement. These two col- 
lections, compiled according to different methods, 
were intended to supplement each other; and it was 
Akiba’s aim through them to preserve the traditional] 
teachings in their entirety and in a systematic way, 
as well as to promote a knowledge of them. Meir 
and Nehemiah, both pupils of Akiba, endeavored to 
accomplish the object had in view by their master; 
but each restricted himself to oneof Akiba’s methods, 
Meir chose the method of condensation, and com- 
piled a work in which he included much of the ma- 
terial from Akiba’s Tosefta, and which combined 
many of the more important features in both of 
Akiba’s collections. Nehemiah followed the same 
plan of combining both of Akiba’s col- 

Relations lections in one work; but in doing so 

to Mishnah hechose the casuistic method. In this 
of R. Meir. way originated two collective works 
' —Meir’s Mishnah, edited according to 

the system used by Akiba in his edition of that 
work, and Nehemiah’s Tosefta, edited according to 
the method followed by Akiba in his Tosefta edition. 

The relation of Meir’s Mishnah to Nehemiah’s 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


208 


Tosefta was not, however, the same as that which 
existed between Akiba’s collections of the same 
names. The former were not two collections mutu- 
ally dependent on and supplementing each other: 
they were rather two independent works, both of 
which aimed at the preservation and proper arrange- 
ment of traditional maxims, The difference between 
them consisted only in the different methods em- 
ployed in their compilation. Meir’s Mishnah con- 
tained the traditional maxims in condensed form, 
while Nehemiah’s Tosefta cited them in their com- 
plete form and provided them with explanatory and 
supplementary notes. The methods evolved by 
Akiba and used by Meir and Nehemiah were 
adopted also by later compilers in their endeavors to 
preserve and transmit traditional doctrines. Judah 
ha-Nasi I., whose Mishnah compilation was based on 
that of Meir, followed the latter’s method of redac- 
tion; while the redactor of the Tosefta now extant 
followed the method used by Nehemiah, whose To- 
sefta constituted the basis for his work. The rela- 
tion between the Mishnah of Judah ha-Nasi and the 
Tosefta which has been preserved corresponds with 
that which existed between Meir’s Mishnah and 
Nehemiah’s Tosefta. They.are independent works 
which seek to accomplish by different means a simi- 
lar purpose. There is, of course, a certain homo- 
geneity between the two works, inasmuch as the 
Tosefta treats and elucidates the corresponding 
passages in the Mishnah; but the purpose of the 
redactor of the Tosefta was to produce an independ- 
ent collection, and not merely additions to and ex- 
planationus of another compilation. 

Who was the redactor of the extant Tosefta? As 
has already been proved, the scholastic tradition at- 
tributing its authorship to R. Hiyya 
is unreliable, since the circumstance 
that Hiyya himself is mentioned in the 
Tosefta eliminates the possibility of his 
being its author; and that. Hiyya and Hoshaiah 
edited the work in collaboration is most unlikely. 
The Jerusalem Talmud often refers to dissensions 
between these two amoraim; and if the Tosefta 
should be considered the product of their combined 
efforts, it would be natural to ask whose authority 
was accepted as decisive in cases where the redac- 
tors disagreed. How, indeed, could a decision have 
been possible in a case where the difference of opin- 
ion related to a halakic tradition? To regard Ho- 
shaiah as sole redactor of the Tosefta is not possible 
either; for in many questions on which, according 
to the Jerusalem Talmud, he and Hiyya disagreed, 
the opinion of the latter has been given general 
validity (comp. Frankel, “Mebo,” p. 25a). Only 
one surmise is possible; namely, that Hiyya and 
Hoshaiah, independently of each other and perhaps 
with quite different objects in view, were engaged 
in the compilation of baraitot, as were also their 
contemporaries Levi, Bar Kappara, and Samuel. 
The collections of Hiyya and Hoshaiah differed from 
the others in that these two compilers took Nehe- 
miah’s Toseftaasa basis fortheir collections. Each 
of them thus compiled an extended Tosefta enriched 
with new elements; and these two Toseftot differed 
in various important respects. A later redactor, 
whose name has not been ascertained, combined 


Author- 
ship. 


209 


these two Toseftot into one work, to which he added 
some maxims taken from the collections of Levi, 
Bar Kappara, and Samuel; and in this manner orig- 
inated the Tosefta in the form in which it is now 
extant. This final redactor considered Hiyya’s opin- 
jons authoritative; and in all points where Hosha- 
iah’s Tosefta differed from Hiyya’s the latter’s opin- 
ions alone were given validity. 

The preference thus given to Hiyya’s work, how- 
ever, must not be ascribed to any views held by the 
schools of the Amoraiin, but to the personal convic- 
tions of the final redactor. In the schools both To- 
seftot were considered authoritative, and baraitot 
cited from either were regarded as authentic. This 
view also expiains the relation of the existing To- 
sefta to the Talmudic baraitot, which latter could 
have been taken only from one of these authentic 
Toseftot. Such baraitot as are given verbatim in the 
existing Tosefta are either citations from Hiyya’s 
work or baraitot which were given alike in both 
Toseftot; while those baraitot which, either essen- 
tially or verbally, differ from the parallel passages in 
the present Tosefta were taken from the Tosefta of 
Hoshaiah, the reason for the divergence being that 
the final redactor of the existing Tosefta preferred 
the opinion of Hiyya. 

Like the Mishnah, the Tosefta is divided into six 
orders (“sedarim ”), the names of which correspond 
to those of the mishnaic orders: namely, (1) Zera‘im, 
(2) Mo‘ed, (8) Nashim, (4) Nezikin or 
Yeshu‘ot, (5) Kodashim, and (6) Toho- 
rot. The orders are subdivided into 
treatises, Which, with a few exceptions, bear the 
same namesas thoseof the Mishnah. Four treatises 
are missing from the Tosefta, namely, Abotin the or- 
der Nezikin, and Kinnim, Middot, and Tamid in the 
order Kodashim. The number of treatises in the 
Tosefta is thus fifty-nine; but the treatise Kelim in 
this work is divided into three parts, namely, Baba 
Kamma, Baba Mezi‘a, and Baba Batra. If these 
three “ babot ” were regarded as three different trea- 
tises the total number would be sixty-one. The 
treatises are divided into chapters (“perakim ”), 
which again are divided into paragraphs; but the 
division into chapters is not the same in the different 
manuscripts. According to the Erfurt manuscript, 
the total number of chapters is 428; according to 
the Vienna manuscript and the older Tosefta edi- 
tions, 421. 

The Tosefta appeared first as an addendum to Isaac 
Alfasi’s “‘ Halakot ” (Venice, 1521), and has since been 
appended to all editions of that work. The best 
edition of the Tosefta is that published by M. §. 
Zuckermand] (Pasewalk, 1880), who made use of the 
Erfurt manuscript. Zuckermand] published also a 
supplement (Treves, 1882) containing a summary of 
the work, an index, and a glossary. A Latin trans- 
lation of thirtv-one Tosefta treatises was published 
by Ugolino in his “Thesaurus Antiquitatum Sacra- 
Tum” (vols. xvii.-xx., Venice, 1755-57). 

The Tosefta has been the subject of many com- 
mentaries, The Wilna edition of the Talmud, for 
example, which contains the Tosefta in addition to 
Alfasi’s “Halakot,” reprints the following two com- 
mentaries : (1) “ Tana Tosefa’ah,” by Samuel Abigdor 
b. Abraham, a work in two parts, part i, entitled 

XIT.—14 


Division. 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Tosefta 
Tdétbrief 


“Minhat Bikkurim,” being the main commentary, 
while part ii., entitled “Mizpeh Shemu’el,” con- 
tains an index to the Tosefta passages 
Texts and cited in the Talmud and in the Mid- 
Com- rashim. (2) “Hasde Dawid,” explian- 
mentaries. atory notes by David Pardo. In addi- 
tion to these two commentaries, which 
cover theentire Tosefta, the same Talmud edition con- 
tains the following commentaries on single treatises: 
“Magen Abraham,” by Abraham Abali of Kalisz, 
on the order Nezikin; a commentary by Elijah Gaon 
of Wilna on the order Tohorot; and Jacob Kahana 
of Wilna’s “ Mare de-Matuita,” on the treatise ‘Eru- 
bin. M. Friedmann wrote a commentary on the 
order Mo‘ed, which he published under the title 
“Pekelet Mordekai,” appending it to his edition of 
the Tosefta (part i., containing the treatises Shabbat 
and ‘Erubin, Paks, 1898; part ii., Pesahim, Sheka- 
lim, Yoma, and Sukkah, 2d. 1900). Medieval au- 
thors mention two Toseftot to Berakot (see Brill in 
“ Ha-Maggid,” xiii. 127), but it is not clesr to which 
works they applied the name “ Tosettot.” 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Letter of Sherira Gaon, in Neubauer, M. J. C. 
i. 13-15; Maimonides, Hinleitung in die Misechnah; Meiri, 
in his commentary on Abot, ed. Stern, Vienna, 1854; Frankel, 
Hodegetica in Mischnam, pp. 304-307, Leipsic, 1859: J. Op- 
penheim, Toledot ha-Mishnuah, in Bet Talmud, ti. 237~245, 
348-393 ; J. H. Dinner, Die Theorien ther Wesen und Ur- 
sprung der Tosefta Kritisch Dargestellt, Amsterdain, 1874; 
D. Hottmann, Mischrnah und Tosefta, in Berliner’s Maga- 
zin, 1882, pp. 153-163: M, S. Zuckermandl, Die hirfurter 
Handschrift der Tosefta, Berlin, 1876; idem, Der Wiener 
Tosefta Codex, Magdeburg, 1877; idem, Tosefta Varianten, 
Treves, 1881; N. Brill, Beoriff und Ursprung der Tosefta, 


in Jubelschrift zum Neunzigsten Geburtstag des Dr. L. 
Zunz, pp. 92-110, Berlin, 1884. 
J. Z. L. 


W. B. . 

TOTBRIEF: Term applied in Germany to the 
edicts issued by the kings and emperors, to the papal 
bulls, and to the edicts of various ecclesiastical au- 
thorities, by which the Christians were exempted 
from paying theirdebtsto Jews. The Tétbrief might 
deprive the creditor either of the interest due on the 
money loaned or of both principal and interest. 
The first Tétbrief known was that of Louis VII. of 
France, who, at the instigation of Peter Venerabilis, 
Abbot of Cluny, issued in 1146 a decree exempting 
all Crusaders from payment of their debts to the 
Jews, in accordance with the papal enactment of 
Eugenius IIL. in the preceding year. Later, in 1180, 
Philip Augustus relieved all Christians from their 
liabilities to their Jewish creditors on condition of 
their paying to him the fifth part of their debts. 
Louis VIIL. annulled, in 1228, all debts due to Jews 
by Christians that had been outstanding for five 
years or more, and canceled the interest on debts less 
than five years old. 

In Germany, in the fourteenth century, such can- 
celations were common. The first case in which 
Jews were deprived of the interest due to them was 
in 1299, when King Albert diverted such interest 
payments to the Monastery of Eberbach. After the 
time of Henry VII. and Louis the Bavarian cancel- 
ations of the whole debt, principal and interest, 
were very frequent, The former exempted (1812) 
Conrad of Weinsberg from the payment of such 
debts; while the latter relieved (1315) the city of Ess- 
lingen from its debts to the Jews of Ueberlingen as 
well as to other Jews who had scttled in cities hos- 


Totemism 
Toulouse 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


210 


tile to him. In 1816 Louis issued a similar edict in 
favor of the inhabitants of Heilbronn; in 1328, in 
favor of the Abbey of Fulda; in 1826, in favor of a 
number of noblemen who owed money to Jews of 
Alsace; in 1382, in favor of the Abbey of Bamberg. 
These exemptions were even more numerous in the 
third and fourth decades of the fourteenth century, 
when, during the persecutions, the emperors can- 
celed the claims of Jews both living and dead. 

All these were single instances of the cancelation 
of debts due to Jews; only under King Wenzel, to- 
ward the end of the fourteenth century, did the 
Toétbrief assume seriously comprehensive propor- 
tions. On June 12, 1385, the king concluded a 
treaty with the representatives of all the Swabian 
towns, who agreed that their municipalities should 
pay the king 40,000 gulden in return for a“ privi- 
lege,” consisting of eight articles, by which their 
debts to Jews were either entirely or partially can- 
celed, and through which the Jews finally lost all 
their claims. For, while many Jews who had the 
means recovered part of the money due to them by 
paying a certain sum to the city authorities, King 
Wenceslaus, in order to check this, issued a second 
edict (1890), commanding the Jews to abandon all 
claim to debts due from Christians. It must be said, 
however, that the Totbrief of 1390 did not apply 
throughout the whole German empire, but only to its 
southwestern part, as Bavaria, Wiirzburg, and other 
provinces. In Spain the same sort of edict was 
called a “moratoria” (see Jacobs, “Sources,” pp. 
xxiv., xxv., Nos. 97, 100-108; p. xliii., No. xlv.). 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gritz, Gesch. 3d ed., vi. 148 et seg., vii. 23, 

villi. 50 et seq.; Nibling, Die Judengemeinden tr Deutsch- 

land, pp. 134, 374, 391, 402; Stobbe, Die Juden in Deutsch- 

tand, pp. 181 et seq., 249 et seq. 

J. M. SEL, 

TOTEMISM: A primitive social system in which 
members of aclan reckoned kinship through their 
mothers, and worshiped some animal or plant which 
they regarded as their ancestor and the image of 
which they bore tattooed on their persons. It was 
suggested by J. 8. Maclennan (in “The Fortnightly 
Review,” 1870, i. 207) that this system existed 
among the early Hebrews; and his view was taken 
up by Robertson Smith (in “The Journal of Philol- 
ogy,” 1880), who based his theories upon the re- 
searches of J. G. Frazer on totemism. Robertson 
Smith later connected this view with his theory of 
sacrifice, which he regarded as originally a method 
of restoring the blood covenant between the mem- 
bers of a clan and its totem. The following are the 
chief arguments in favor of the existence of totem 
clans among the ancient Israelites: 

I. Animal and Plant Names: A considerable 
number of persons and places in the Old Testament 
have names derived from animals or plants. Ja- 
cobs (“Studies in Biblical Archeology,” pp. 94-103) 
has given a list of over 160 such names, including 
Oreb (the raven) and Zeeb (the wolf), princes of the 
Midianites; Caleb (the dog), Tola (the worm), Shual 
(the fox), Zimri (the chamois), Jonah (the dove), Hul- 
dah (the weasel), Jael (the ibex), Nahash (the serpent), 
Kezia (the cassia), Shaphan (the rock-badger), Ajalon 
(the great stag), and Zeboim (the hyena). Many of 
these, however, are personal names; but among the 
Israelitish tribes mentioned in Num. xxvi. are the 


Shualites, or fox clan of Asher; the Shuphamites, or 
serpent clan of Benjamin; the Bachrites, or camc] 
clan; and the Arelites, or lion clan of 
Arguments Gad. Other tribes having similar 
in Favor of uames are the Zimrites, or hornet clan, 
Totemism. and the Calebites,ordog tribe. Inthe 
genealogy of the Horites (Gen. xxxvi.) 
several animal names occur, such as Shobal (the 
voung lion), Zibeon (the hyena), Anah (the wild ass), 
Dishan (the gazel), Akan (the roe), Aiah (the kite), 
Aran (the ass), and Cheran (the lamb). The occur- 
rence of such a large number of animal names in 
one set of clan names suggests the possibility that 
the Horites, who were nomads, were organized on 
the totem-clan system. 

II. Exogamy is the system under which any 
member of a clan may not marry within his own 
clan, but must marry a member of a kindred clan. 
Smith deduces the existence of such clans among the 
Horites from the mention of Anahclans and Dishan 
clansin the list. He also draws attention to Shimeis 
among the Levites, Reubenites, and Benjamites. 
Female descent is the only means of tracing kin- 
ship inexogamous clans; and Smith sees a survival 
of this in the case of the marriage of Abraham and 
Sarah, who were not of the same mother, while 
Abimelech appealed to his mother’s clan as being of 
his flesh (Judges viii. 19), and Naomi told Ruth to 
return to her mother’s house (Ruth i. 8). 

III. Ancestor and Animal Worship: Smith 
attributes the friendship between David and Na- 
hash, King of the Ammonites, to the fact that they 
were both members of aserpent clan spread through- 
out Canaan. That animals were worshiped among 
the Hebrews is well known, as is shown by the leg- 
ends of the golden calf and the brazen serpent. The 
second commandment prohibits this. Smith draws 
attention to the case of animal worship in Ezek. viii. 
7-11, where Ezekiel sees “every form of creeping 
things, and abominable beasts, and all the idols of 
the house of Israel, portrayed upon the wall round 
about,” and in the midst of them stood Jaazaniah 
ben Shaphan (the rock-badger), “with every man 
his censer in his hand, and a thick cloud of incense 
went up.” Here there is animal worship connected 
with the name of a person who appears to be con- 
nected with an unclean beast, the “shaphan.” See 
also ANCESTOR WORSHIP. 

IV. Forbidden Food: Members of a totem clan 
did not eat the totem animal. Assuch totems grad- 
ually spread throughout the nation, a list of forbid- 
den animals would arise which might be analogous 
to the list of forbidden animals given in Lev. xi. and 
Deut. xv. Jacobs, however, has shown that in the 
list of animal names given by him forty-three are 
clean as against forty-two unclean. 

V. Tattooing and Clan Crests: A totem is 
tattooed on the skin of the totem worshiper; and 
there is evidence in Lev. xix. 28 that the Israclites 
were forbidden to make tattoo-marks, whilean allu- 
sion to this practise may be contained in Isa. xliv. 5 
and in Ezek. ix. 4. The mark of Cain may perbaps 
have beenatattoo-mark. In none of these instances, 
however, are there indications that the tattoo-marks 
were in an animal form or connected with animal 
worship. The tribes of Israel when on the march 


211 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Totemism 
Toulouse 


had standards (Num, i. 52, ii, 2 e¢ seg.); and rabbinic 
literature zives details of the crests (see FLAG), which 
were derived from the blessings of 


Absence Jacob (Gen. xlix.) and Moses (Deut. 
of Historic xxxiii.). In these most of the tribes 
Con- are compared to an animal: Judah to 
nection. a lion; Issachar to an ass; Dan toa 


serpent; etc. In Moses’ blessing, how- 
ever, Dan is compared to a lion’s whelp, which 
seems to show that the tribes were not arranged on 
a totemic system. 

VI. Blood Feud: The practical side of the totem 
system insured the existence of relatives scattered 
throughout a tribe, who would guarantec the taking 
up of the blood feud in case one of the members of 
the totem clan was injured or killed. Theexistence 
of the blood feud can be recognized in IJsrae] (see 
Go’EL), but there is no evidence of a connection with 
totemism. Altogether, while traces and survivals 
are found of institutions similar to those of the totem 
elan, there is not sufficient evidence to show that it 
existed in Israel during historic times, though it is 
possible that some such system was found among 
the Edomites. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. Robertson Smith, Animal Worship and 
Animal Tribes Among the Ancient Arabs and in the Old 
Testament, in Journal of Philology, ix. 75-100; Jacobs, 
Studies in Biblical Archaeology, pp. 64-108; J. S. Cook, in 
J. Q. R. 1903; Zlapetal, Totemismus im Alten Testamente, 
Freiburg, 1903; I. Lévi, La Famitle chez les Anciens Heé- 
breur, Paris, 1903; S. Reinach, Cultes, Atythes et Religions, 
Paris, I$ 

J 


TOUL (Hebr. Sw, xbiw; “Or Zarua‘,” i. 131b; 
“Mordekai” on B. Kk. x., No.198): Capital of an arron- 
dissement in the department of Meurthe-et-Moselle, 
France, with a Jewish population dating from the 
thirteenth century. Among the scholars who were 
once residents of this city may be mentioned R. Elie- 
zer of Toul, the author of tosafot; and his brother 
Abraham, a pupil of Rabbi Isaac the Elder of Dam- 
pierre and identical, according to Gross, with Abra- 
ham of 71 (read by), one of the scholars to whom 
Meir ben Todros Abulafia of Toledo addressed his 
epistle assailing the doctrine of the resurrection as 
set forth by Maimonides. 

In 1708 the Bishop of Toul petitioned the French 
government to expel from Nancy the Jewish bank- 
ers Samueland Solomon Levy, Jacob Schwob, Isaiah 
Lambert, and Moses Alcan, but his efforts were un- 
successful. In 1721, 180 Jewish families, many of 
them residents of Toul, were permitted by Duke 
Leopold to remain on his estates without molestation 
in their religion and commerce. Leon Cohen, one 
of the leading members of the community of this 
city, took part in the General Assembly convoked at 
Paris by Napoleon in 1806. Thecommunity of Toul 
is governed by the Jewish consistory of Nancy, and 
at present (1905) contains forty or fifty Jewish 
families. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gross, Gallia Judaica, pp. 211-212; idem, 
pectin. 1885, p.519; R. Bb. J. xxxiv. 108; Zunz, Z. 
- p. 39. 


8 S. K. 


TOULON (Lebr. bit) : Capital of an arrondisse- 
Ment in the department of the Var, France. Like 
most of the principal cities of Provence, Toulon 
Contained a Jewish community in medieval times; 


and under the counts of Provence the Jews of the 
city fared like those of many other communities, 
being sometimes oppressed and somctimes treated 
with kindness. When the Black Death raged 
throughout France in 1348, the Jews of Toulon were 
accused of having poisoned the neighboring springs 
and wells, and forty were killed in a single night. 
Noteworthy among the scholars of the city were: 
Berechiah ben Azariah of nin or bin (Rabbinovicz, 
“ Dikduke Soferim,” xi. 17), to whom belonged the 
Codex Vat. 120, dating from the fourteenth century 
and containing a number of treatisesof the Talmud ; 
and Astruc of Toulon, one of the publishers of the 
first edition of Jechiel ben Jekuthicl’s “ Bet Middot.” 
At the present time (1905) the Jewish community 
of the city forms a part of the consistorial circum- 
scription of Marseilles, and numbers about thirty 
families. ; 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gross, Gallia Judaica, p. 218; Papon, His- 


toire Génerale de Provence, tii. 190; Steinschneider, Cat. 
Bodl, col. 1278; Steinschneider, Hebr. Bibl. xiii. 84. 


8. Ss. K., 


TOULOUSE (Hebr. mundi. andi): Capital 
of the department of Haute-Garonne, France, where 
a large number of Jews lived as early as the begin- 
ning of the eighth century. In conformity with an 
old custom, and in punishment for some fancied 
crime, one of their number, generally the most re- 
spected old man of the community, was obliged to 
appear every Good Friday at the door of the cathe- 
dral to have his ears boxed in public. They vainly 
addressed a petition to King Charles the Bald in 850 
to have this custom abolished; but it continued until! 
the beginning of the twelfth century, when it was 
replaced by an annual tax payable to the monks of 
St. Sernin between All Saints’ Day and the feast 
of St. Sernin, and by a yearly contribution of 44 
pounds of wax, to be delivered on Good Friday at 
the Cathedral of St. Stephen. 

In the thirteenth century the counts of Toulouse 
were favorably disposed toward the Jews on all oc- 
casions, and granted them the right of acquiring 
real estate without paying rent. Many estates were 
held by two prominent Jewish families, one repre- 
sented by Espagnol and his sons Solomon and Pro- 
vencal, and the other by Alacer (Eliezer) and his 
sons Abraham and Belid. In 1242 Raymond VII. 
granted the Jews the right of freely disposing of 
their property, and of selling, mortgaging, or leas- 
ing their farms, estates, and seigniories on condition 
of paying a tax of 12 Toulouse deniers on each 
pound of the sale price and 6 deniers on each pound 
of the rent; but in 1290 King Philip the Fair took 
action against those Jews who had surreptitiously 
obtained letters of exemption from the taxes im- 
posed upon them. In the district of the seneschal of 
Carcassonne a special judge was appointed to take 
charge of the cases in which Jews were interested ; 
but in Toulouse the Jews were tried before the 
same judges asthe Christians, Philip the Fair con- 
firmed this arrangement in 1304 by decreeing that 
the regular judges should handle all Jewish cases, 
whether civil or criminal. Several Jews who were 
arrested in 1306 accepted baptism rather than leave 
the city, but Solomon ibn Verga goes too far when 
he says that the whole community was converted. 


Touro 
Tours 


The total amount confiscated by the king in the 
seneschalate of Toulouse was 75,264 pounds Tours 
currency. 

Returning to Toulouse in 1815, the Jews were soon 
subjected to a tax of 2,000 pounds. In 1821 the Pas- 
TOUREAUX massacred many Jews, and forced the re- 
mainder to accept baptism, thus annihilating the 
community. 

As early as the eleventh century the Jews of Tou- 
louse possessed a synagogue, which was under the 
direction of R. Judah b. Moses ha-Darshan, who later 
went to Narbonne. He is called a oargy Neway in “RR, 
KE. J.” x. 102, which, according to a happy conjec- 
ture of Gross (“Gallia Judaica,” p. 215), must be 
read pnb wast. This synagogue was situated 
on the present Place des Carmes, but it was con- 
fiscated by Philip the Fair in 1306, and sold in 
1310. 

From the time of the massacre by the Pastoureaux 
there was no Jewish community at Toulouse until 
the beginning of the nineteenth century. At the 
present time (1905) it contains between fifty and 
sixty families, who are 
subject to the Jewish con- 
sistory of Bayonne. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Vita Sancti 
Theodardi, in Acta Sancto- 
rum, Mensis Mai, i. 142; 
Arch. Isr. 1861, p. 449; Bédar- 
ride, Les Juifs en France, 
pp. 89-90, 227; Catel, Mémoirs, 
pp. 237, 520, 890; Depping, Les 
Juifs dans le Moyen Age, 
pp. 47, 145, 160; Dom Vaissete, 
Histoire Géiérale de Lan- 


Gallia Judaica, pp. 218-215; 
Joseph ha-Kohen, “mek ha- 
Baka (translated by_ sée), 
pp. 69, 71, 72, 2385; Ordon- 
nanees des Rois de France, i. 
307, 443; Saige, Les Juifs du 
Languedoe, pp. 11, 14 et seq.3 
Solomon ibn Verga, Shebet 
Yehudak, pp. 6, 4. 
S. S. K. 
TOURO, JUDAH: 
American philanthropist; 
born at Newport, R. L, 
June 16, 1775; died at New 
Orleans, La., Jan. 13, 1854; 
son of Rev. Isaac Touro 
and Reyna Hays. His 
father was of Portuguese 
origin and had settled in 
Jamaica, but went to New- 
port about 1760 to serve 
as minister of the Jewish 
congregation there. During his residence in the 
town he became a close friend of Ezra Stiles. 
Shortly after the outbreak of the American Revo- 
lution, Newport was taken by the British, and the 
Jewish patriot citizens consequently left. The syna- 
gogue was closed, and its members scattered throu gh- 
out the other colonies. The father of Judah went to 
Kingston, Jamaica, where he died Dec. 8, 1788; 
thereupon the mother returned to the United States 
with her children, making her home with her brother, 
Moses Michael Hays, who had become an eminent 
merchant of Boston. She died in 1787; and young 
Touro was reared and educated by his uncle, in 
whose counting-house he was later employed. At 


a 


SSS 
8 


ny 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Judah Touro. 


212 


the age of twenty-two he was sent as supercargo 
with a valuable shipment to the Mediterranean ; and 
the results of the trip showed his remarkable busi- 
ness ability. 

A few years later (1802) he went to the French ter- 
ritory of Louisiana, settling at New Orleans, then a 
small town of about 10,000 inhabitants. There he 

opened a store, and soon built up a 
Settles in thriving trade in New England prod- 
New ucts. Later he became the owner of 
Orleans. many shipsand of valuable real estate, 
until he was pumbered among the 
most prominent merchants of the place. After the 
territory had become part of the United States, 
Touro repeatedly exhibited his public spirit. Dur- 
ing the defense of New Orleans by Andrew Jackson 
he entered the ranks as @ cominon soldier, and was 
severely wounded on Jan. 1, 1815, being given up 
for dead; but he was saved by the bravery and 
care of his friend Rezin Davis Shepherd, a young 
Virginian merchant, who had settled in the same 
city. Their friendship continued throughout their 
lives; and both of them 
amassed great for- 
tunes. 

Touro’s name will al- 
ways be numbered among 
the foremost in the an- 
nals of American philan- 
thropy. His charities 
knew neither race nor 
creed, and his public 
spirit was no less note- 
worthy. 

To Amos Lawrence and 
Judah Touro belongs the 
credit of supplying the 
funds for completing the 
Bunker Hill Monument, 
each subscribing $10,000 
for the purpose. In 1843 
the completion of the 
monument was celebrated 
by a banquet in Faneuil 
Hall, Boston, at which 
the generosity of the two 
donors was publicly ac- 
knowledged., A resolution 
was also adopted by the 
directors to the effect that 
John Quincy Adams, Dan- 
ie] Webster, Joseph Story, 
Edward Everett, and Franklin Dexter be appointed 
a committee to prepare an inscription for a tablet 
which was to be placed on the monument and which 
was partly to record the liberality of Lawrence and 
Touro. 

Another object of his generosity was his native 
city of Newport. In 1842 he improved the enclo- 

sures of the old Jewish cemetery im- 


Benefac- mortalized by Longfellow; and it was 
tions to his money which purchased the Old 
Newport. Stone Mill supposed to have been 


built by the Norsemen, Touro’s de- 
sire being that the historic landmark and the sur- 
rounding grounds might be saved for the town. 


2138 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Touro 
Tours 


The grounds in which the mill is situated are still 
known as Touro Park. 

In him the poor of New Orleans had a constant 
friend and benefactor, and many incidents of his 
charity are recorded. A noteworthy case was that 
of a Universalist congregation whose church was 
sold at auction under foreclosure of a mortgage and 
was bought by Touro, who returned it to the wor- 
shipers. Its minister, the Rev. Theodore Clapp, be- 
came Touro’s friend; and in his memoirs he givesa 
most appreciative account of the benefactor of his 
church. 

Though he gave liberally to charitable objects 
during his entire life, the provisions of the will of 
Touro, who died unmarried, disposed of over half 
a million dollars in charity, an enormous sum in those 


days. These provisions were published throughout 
the United States and even in the jour- 

Touro’s nals and periodicals of many Euro- 
Will. pean countries. Among the larger be- 


quests were $80,000 for founding the 
New Orleans Almshouse, liberal endowments for 
nearly all the Jewish congregations of the country, 
bequests to the Massachusetts Female Hospital, the 
Female Asylum, and the Boys’ Asylum of Boston, 
and one for the preservation of the old cemetery at 
Newport, and for the payment of the salary of the 
minister of the old synagogue in that city. A large 
sum was also left in trust to Sir Moses Montefiore 
foralmshousesin JERUSALEM. In addition to these, 
there were private bequests, including one to the 
Rev. Theodore Clapp already mentioned; while 
the entire residuary estate was left by Touro to his 
friend Shepherd. His body was taken to Newport, 
and lies in the old Jewish cemetery. The funeral is 
stated “not to have been equaled since the reinter- 
ment of Commodore Perry in 1826.” Ata later date 
a public meeting was held at Boston to express re- 
gret at his death. On his tombstone, which may 
still be seen, are inscribed the appropriate words: 
“The last of his name, he inscribed it in the Book of 
Philanthropy to be remembered forever.” 

A few years after his death a public movement 
was inaugurated by the citizens of New Orleans to 
erect a monument to his memory; but opposition to 
this tribute came from a number of Jewish rabbis 
throughout the country, who claimed that Judaism 
forbade the erection of any graven image, and that 
a statue came within the scope of prohibition. This 
led to an interesting theological controversy, much 
of which has been preserved in Benjamin’s “ Drei 
Jahre in Amerika”; but the outbreak of the Civil 
war put a sudden end to the matter. The story of 
Touro’s life has been woven into Wassermann’s 
German novel “ Judah Touro ” (Leipsic, 1871). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Walker, Judah Touro, in Hunt, Lives of 


American Merchants, ii. 440-467, New York, 1858; Apple-.- 


ton’s Cyclopedia of American Biography, vi. 144, ib. 1894: 
Denison, The Israelites of Rhode Island, in Narragansett 
Historical Register, iv. 308-312 ; Warren, History of Bunker 
Hill Monument, pp. 283, 311-312, 330; Clapp, A utobiograph- 
ical Sketehes and Recollections During a Thirty-five Years’ 
Residence in New Orleans, 3d ed., pp. 94-104, Boston, 1858 : 
Daly, The Settlement of the Jews in North America, New 
York, 1893: Wolf, The American Jew as Patriot, Soldier, 
and Citizen, pp. 68-64, 71, 440; Benjamin II., Drei Jahre in 
Amerika, pp. 365-381, Hanover, 1862; Mendes, The Jewish 
Cemetery at Newport, in Rhode Island Historical Maga- 
2iné, Vi.103; National Cyclopedia of American Biography, 
vi. 361, New York, 1901; Abraham, in Publ. Am. Jew. Hist. 


Soc. iii. 98-100; Phillips, ih. vi. 189; Frankland, Fraqments 
of History, in American Jews’ Annual, 1889-95, p. 30. 


J L. Hit. 


TOURS (Hebr. yyy. “Mordekai” on M. K. No. 
921; or yin, “ Yosippon,” ed. Venice, p. 6b): Capi- 
tal of the department of Indre-et-Loire, France. 
Since the first half of the sixth century Jews have 
lived either in the city or in its environs, especially 
in Civray. About the year 580 a Jewish tax-gath- 
erer of Tours named Amantius, together with his 
three attendants, one Jew and two Christians, was 
attacked byacertain Injuriosus, stripped, murdered, 
and thrown intoa well. At the close of the elev- 
enth century Philip I. of France made over to his 
wife, Bertrade, half the revenues from the Jews 
of Tours, while in 1119 and 1148 Louis VI. and his 
son, Louis VII., presented this income as an offer- 
ing to the Abbey of Saint Martin. In 1141 the 
Jews were obliged to give the king at Easter the 
sum of thirty sous, together with half a pound of 
pepper and other gifts in kind; and at Christmas 
they were forced to give half a pound of pepper, 
two loaves of bread, a pitcher of wine, and a certain 
quantity of meat. At theend of the twelfth century 
they were compelled to pay 80 sous annually to 
Richard, King of England and Count of Tours, and 
to the Abbey of Saint Martin. After the year 1202 
the kings of France collected the revenues of the 
Jews, which amounted to 120 livres in 1284, but 
which increased to 1,024 livres and 5 denarii in 1298, 
and reached the sum of 2,077 livres, 9 denarii in the 
following year. In 1306 the Jews were expelled from 
Tours; but they returned in 1815, and were mo- 
lested four years later by a band of rogues who pre- 
tended to have a commission from the king to extort 
money fromthem. Then came the charge of poison- 
ing the wells; and in 1321 they were again driven 
from Tours, Amboise, Loches, and Chinon. 

The Jews of Tours had their own ghetto, which 
was called “la Juiverie ” and was situated in the 
parish of Saint-Pierre du Boile in the Rue des 
Maures, called the Rue des Morts or de la Juiverie 
in the eighteenth century. In 1806 Philip the Fair 
presented the Jewish quarter to the archbishop and 
his clergy. 

The cemetery was in the parish of Saint Vincent, 
in front of the “old garden”; it extended from the 
vineyards of Saint Vincent to the Rue dela Chévre, 
and from the vineyards of the vestry of Saint Julian 
to the street which ran in front of the “old garden.” 
In the thirteenth century certain disputes arose be- 
tween the Jews of Tours and the archbishop, Pierre 
de Lamballe, but in 1255 the latter guaranteed them 
perpetual possession of their cemetery and of a 
house and the vineyards attached, reserving for him- 
self only the right of jurisdiction and a rent of five 
gold oboles of the value of 25 sous, payable an- 
nually at Christmas. In case of non-payment the 
Jews were liable to a fine of 74 sous, and they were 
forbidden to till the ground uutil they should have 
discharged their debt. In return, the archbishop, 
in guaranteeing the peaceable possession of the 
eemetery, granted also the right to inter therein the 
bodies of their coreligionists without regard to the 
place of death, while in the house attached to the 


| graveyard they were permitted to place a guardian 


Tower ee 
Trade-Unionism 


exempt from service to the archbishop and from the 
payment of any rental. This agreement was ratified 
in 1805 by Archbishop Renaud, the successor of Pierre 
de Lamballe; but in the following year the cemetery 
was confiscated, together with the other property of 
the Jews, and it disappeared completely in 1359-60. 

The most noteworthy scholars of the city were: 
Solomon of Tours, the correspondent of Rashi, who 
ealled him his “dear friend”; David of Tours: and 
Joseph ben Elijah, brother of Perez of Corbeil 
(Zunz, “Z. G.” p. 41). At present (1905) there are 
about twenty Jewish families in the city. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Boutaric, Actes du Parlement, fi., No. 5718; 

Giraudet, Histoire de la Ville de Tours, i. 127, 188; Gross, 

Gallia Judaica, pp. 217-218; Lelogeais, Histoire des Rues 

de Tours, p. 8L; RE. J. xv. 247, 254; xvii. 210-234; xviii. 

262-270; Venantius Fortunatus, Vita Sancti Germant. 

s. S. K. 

TOWER (Hebr. Ss): A building of strength 
or magnificence (Isa. ii. 15; Cant. iv. 4, vii. 4), and, 
with a more limited connotation, a watch-tower in 
a garden or vineyard or in a fortification. It was cus- 
tomary to erect watch-towers in the vineyards for 
the guards (Isa. v. 2), and such round and tapering 
structures may still be seen in the vineyards of 
Judea. Similar towers were built forthe protection 
of the flocks by the shepherd, in the enclosures in 
which the animals were placed for the night (comp. 
the term “tower of the flock,” Gen. xxxv. 21; 
Micah iv. 8), and it is expressly stated that Uzziah 
built such structures in the desert for his enormous 
herds (IT Chron. xxvi. 10). Around these towers 
dwellings for shepherds and peasants doubtless de- 
veloped gradually, thus often forming the nuclei 
of permanent settlements. 

Towers for defense were erected chiefly on the 
walls of fortified cities, the walls themselves being 
strengthened by bastions (Neh. iii. 1), and the angles 
and gates being likewise protected by strong towers 
(II Kings ix. 17). Thus the walls of the city of 
Jerusalem were abundantly provided with towers in 
antiquity, and the ancient tower of Phasael (the so- 
called “towerof David ”) in the modern citadel is an 
excellent specimen of this mode of defense, its sub- 
structure being of massive rubblework, and the 
ancient portion of the tower erected upon it being 
built of immense square stones (for illustration see 
Jew. Encyc. vii. 142). The citadel forming the cen- 
ter of a fortified city was also termed “migdol” 
(Judges viii. 9, ix. 46). It was usually erected at 
the highest point of the city, and formed the last 
place of refuge in case the town was besieged and its 
walls stormed (Judges ix. 46). 

E.G. fi. I. Be. 


TOY, CRAWFORD HOWELL: American 
Christian Orientalist; born at Norfolk, Va., March 
23, 1836. He was educated at the University of 
Virginia, and studied Orientalia at the University of 
Berlin (1866-68). On his return from Europe he was 
appointed professor of Hebrew at the Southern Bap- 
tist Theological Seminary, Greenville, 8. C., and 
in 1880 became Hancock professor of Hebrew and 
Oriental languages at Harvard University. He is 
the author of “The Religion of Israel” (1882), and 
“ Judaism and Christianity ” (Boston, 1890), a careful 
and sympathetic study of the relation between the 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


214 


two religions. He edited the Hebrew text and the 
English translation of Ezekiel for the Polychrome 
Bible in 1899, and published a commentary on Prov- 
erbs in the “ International Critical Series” in the same 
year. Toy has been editor of the Hellenistic de- 
partment of TuE JEwisH ENCYCLOPEDIA since its 
inception. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Who's Who in America, 1905. J 

TRABOT (TRABOTTI): Family of Italian 
scholars of the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth 
centuries, which immigrated to Italy from France, so 
that several of its members bore the additional name 
“Zartati.” The most important representatives of 
the family are as follows: 

Azriel Trabot: 1. Scholar of the sixteenth 
century ; probably a member of the rabbinical college 
inRome. Nothing is known of his literary activity. 
2. Rabbi at Florence and Ascoli in the sixteenth 
century; sonof Jehiel Trabot (1). A responsum by 
him, dated 1567, is extant in manuscript. $3. Rabbi 
of Ascoli at the beginning of the seventeenth century ; 
son of Jechiel Trabot (2).' He was the author of 
some responsa, extant in manuscript, and of a list of 
rabbis (reprinted in “R. HE. J.” iv. 208-225) from 
Rabiua and R. Ashi to R. Nissim the Younger. 

Jehiel Trabot: 1. Rabbi at Pesaro during the 
earlier part of the sixteenth century; sonof Azriel 
Trabot (1). On the maternal side Jehiel was a 
grandson of Joseph Colon, whose name he bore in 
addition to his own. He is mentioned in Jacob 
Alpron’s collection of responsa entitled “ Nahalat 
Ya‘akob,” and responsa signed by him in 1519 and 
1520 are extant in manuscript. 2. Rabbiof Ferrara 
and Pesaro; died after 1590; son of Azriel Trabot 
(2). He was the author of certain responsa divided 
according to the ritual codes; they have been pre- 
served in manuscript. 

Levi Trabot: One of the carliest members of the 
family. He flourished in the first half of the fif- 
teeuth century, and emigrated from France to Italy, 
whence he went to Jerusalem, so that his son Na- 
thaniel called him oSyy7 we. Like several other 
members of the family, he bore the name “ Zarfati.” 
Codex Turin No. 65 contains two poems by another 
Levi Trabot, written in honor of the presentation of 
scrolls of the Law to the synagogue in Mantua, one 
being composed in 1581, and the other in 1596. 

Menahem ben Perez Trabot: Rabbiat Ferrara 
in the latter part of the fifteenth and the beginning 
of the sixteenth century. Responsa by him are 
still extant in manuscript. 

Nethaneel ben Benjamin ben Azriel Trabot: 
Rabbi of Modena; born about 1576; died Dec. 22, 
1653; uncle of Solomon Graciano, He was one of 
the greatest and most respected of Italian rabbis. 
Of his works the following have been preserved: a 
ritual decision at the beginning of the collection of 
responsa entitled “ Kenaf Renanim”; a responsum 
in the “ Pahad Yizhak ” of Lampronti (i. 11 1b-112a); 
and a responsum in the “ Debar Shemu’el” of Samuel 
Aboab (No. 19). His great learning is mentioned in 
the collection entitled “Be’er ‘Esek ” (No. 53): and 
his so-called “Testament” has been reprinted by 
Mortara in Berliner’s “ Magazin ” (xiv. 11-22), Men- 
tion should also be made of a responsum treating of 


215 


—— 


the reformation of synagogal music, addressed to 
Samuel Norzi, and reprinted in the “ Monatsschrift,” 
xxxix. 350-357. Four elegies on his death were re- 
printed in “ R. E. J.” xxxv, 256-2638. 

Nethaneel ben Levi ha-Nakdan Trabot: 
Calligrapher and punctuator; flourished in the six- 
teenth century. A copy of the Masorah entitled 
“Patshegen ” (Codex de Rossi No. 7), and a manu- 
script of the Pentateuch (Codex Ambrosianus No, 
35) are still preserved as specimens of his work. He 
was also known as a liturgical poet, being the author 
of two Habdalot (Codex de Rossi No. 1050). He 
likewise composed an elegy in twenty-six stanzas. 

Es.-€: S. O. 


Perez Trabot: Hebrew lexicographer; lived 
in Italy at the close of the fourteenth and the 
beginning of the fifteenth century. He calls him- 
self either “Zarfati” or “Katelani,” thus showing 
that he had emigrated, probably after the expulsion 
of the Jews from France in 1395, to Catalonia, and 
thence to Italy. He was the author of a work enti- 
tled “ Makre Dardeke,” containing a Hebrew-French 
or a Hebrew-Catalan vocabulary (Naples, 1488), and 
in his introduction to this work he speaks of the 
banishment of the Jews from France. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Neubauer, in R. H. J. ix.316; Schwab, ib. xvi. 

243: Perles, Beitrdge zur Gesch. der Hebrdischen und Ara- 


mitischen Sprachstudien, pp. L11 et seq.; Renan, Les Heri- 
vains Juifs Francais, pp. 576 et seq. 
I. Br. 


E. C. 
Perez Jehiel ben Nethaneel Trabot: Litur- 
gical poet of the sixteenth century. He was the 
author of three elegies beginning (1) pytn wp TON; 

(2) Faw) ADS; and (8) jw IN. 

The following members of the Trabot family are 
also mentioned: Abraham Trabot, who wrote 
Codex Turin No. 17 as far as Numbers, and dated 
the colophon on the 2d of Heshwan (Nov.), 1664; 
Berahiel ben Hezekiah Trabot, author ofa small 
mahzor completed at Florence on the 7th of Nisan 
(March 9), 1490 (Codex Modena No. 6); Hayyim ben 
Raphael Trabot, whose signature appears in a 
Florentine codex (Plut. I., No. 80) of 1462; Jacob 
ben Aaron Trabot, the author of marginal glosses 
in Codex Turin A. xiii. 3; Judah Trabot of Nizza, 
the author of a commentary on the “Tempio” of 
Rieti (Codex Turin A. v. 27); Menahem ben Ne- 
thaneel Raphael Trabot, who purchased Codex 
Turin A. vii. 18 on July 22, 1472; Perez ben 
Menahem Trabot, rabbi at Ferrara in the six- 
teenth century (Lampronti, “ Pahad Yizhak,” iv. 22); 
Phinehas ben R. Menahem Trabot, rabbi of 
Ferrara in the sixteenth century (72., s.v. ay Sn); 
Raphael Trabot, who sent Abraham of Perugia 
an account of a journey to Jerusalem, dated the 
28th of Ab (Aug. 21), 1523 (Cod. Florent., Plut. IL, 
No. 85); Solomon Trabot, said to have been the 
father of Joseph Colon (Codex Parma No. 1420; 
Codex No. 2 of the Foa collection); and Solomon 
(da Trevoux) Trabot, rabbi of Savigliano in the 
fifteenth century (Steinschneider, “Hebr. Bibl.” 
xii. 117). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY : Kaufmann, in R. E. J. iv. 208-225, xxxv. 256- 
263; Mortara, in Berliner’s Magazin, xiv. 11-24; Azulai, 
Shem ha-Gedolim, i. 48a, 74b-75a ; Gedaliah ion Yahya. Shal- 
shelet. ha-Kabbalah, ed. Amsterdam, pp. 48b, 40a, 52-53: 


Nepi-Ghirondi, Toledot Gedole Yisrael, pp. 34, 210, 271, 296; 
uenn, Heneset Yisrael, p. 525a; Steinschneider, Hebr. Bibl. 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Tower 
Trade-Unionism 


xii. 117, xv. 104; Kerem Hemed, ii. 152-153; Conforte, Kore 

ha-Dorot, ed. Cassel, p. 50a; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. cols. 

2052-2053; Kaufmann, in Monatsschrift, xxxix. 3850-357; 

Mortara. Indice, pp. 65-66; Mose, vy. 155; vi. 52, 264, 3388; Zunz, 

Literaturgesch. pp. 507, 588. 

E. C. S. O. 

TRACHTENBERG, HERMAN : Russian ju- 
rist; boruin Jitomir 1839; died there 1895. He stud- 
ied law at the University of St. Petersburg, and at 
the end of his course entered the government serv- 
ice. For meritorious work he was granted the Order 
of Stanislaus of the third degree and that of Vladi- 
mir of the fourth degree, thus gaining the rights and 
privileges of a hereditary citizen. He was noted 
for his compilations of briefs on criminal cases. At 
the end of the seventies he was accorded the rare 
honor of being elected honorary justice of the peace 
for the district of St. Petersburg. 

Trachtenberg always took an active interest in the 
affairs of the Jewish community of St. Petersburg, 
and in 1891 devoted much time and energy to the 
case of the Starodub Jews, who were victims of the 
anti-Jewish riots, 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Khronika Voskhoda, 1895, No, 34. 
H. R. J. G..L. 
TRADE. See COMMERCE. 


TRADE-UNIONISM.—In England: Except- 
ing in Holland, the creation of a Jewish proletariat 
has every where followed immigration from the east- 
European centers, where the massing of population 
gradually led to the formation of a Jewish laboring 
class. The first union in which mainly Jews were 
interested, the tailors’ union, was founded in 1872. 
Prior to that date, and for some years after, the 
Jews had no specific reason for being interested in 
labor organization. Excepting two, such crafts as 
the earlier settlers followed called for individual 
rather than organized effort. These two exceptions 

were the various branches of the dia- 


In Dia- mond and cigar trades, both of Dutch 
mond and origin. Diamond-polishing was early 
Cigar subdivided into four branches; and 
Trades. the introduction of steam fostered the 


natural tendency in this trade toward 
factory methods. But few men were engaged in the 
trade at the time of the discovery of the South-A fri- 
can diamond-fields, and the labor system in vogue 
among them maintained a certain form of master- 
ship for one in every three of the mill-hands, 

The cigar industry, owing to heavy duties and 
licenses, was at an early date forced to follow the 
factory system, although there was little if any 
machinery employed in the work, and the subdivi- 
sion of labor was of the simplest kind. This trade, 
however, was one of the first to adopt the trade- 
union principle, and the Jews entered this organiza- 
tion, still one of the strongest in existence, in large 
numbers; only recently, owing to the combination 
in some cases of cigar- and cigarette-making, and 
to the use of Yiddish, have Jews found it necessary 
to form a specific Jewish union in that trade. 

The formation of a Jewish artisan class, particu- 
larly in East London, after 1881, together with the 
introduction of machinery, created possibilities of 
Jewish labor combination, and the history of some 
of the strongest organizations begins with 1882. 
The immigrants introduced into England the manu- 


Trade-Unionism 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


216 


facture of cheap clothing (displacing the historic 
Jewish trade in old clothes), mantle-making, and 
ladies’ tailoring, and developed the fur and rubber 
trades, both of which are practically in Jewish hands. 
The evidence presented to the Royal Commission on 
Alien Immigration, 1902-3, before which the found- 
ers of various trades appeared, contains much inter- 
esting information on these points. There were at 
all times certain rough divisions in the various 
branches of the “needie industries,” but the intro- 
duction of the steam-driven sewing-, cutting-, and 
braiding-machines changed the form of the industry 
from what had been largely home work to factory 
labor of a highly specialized kind. The Jews were 
directly responsible for this. One of 
In the their advocates before the Royal Com- 
Clothing mission on Alien Immigration said that 
Industries. “they utilized the sewing-machine as 
a scientific instrument of production.” 
This subdivision presented the possibility of the 
middleman turning “sweater,” and forcing down 
the price of labor by introducing the “ greener,” the 
craftless immigrant who could learn one or another 
branch of the trade, according to the degree of skill 
required, in from six weeks to eighteen months. 
The same principles applied to the leather and cabi- 
net-making trades; but owing to the existence of 
the factory form of labor prior to the introduction 
of specialized machinery the general trade-unions in 
both cases proved sufficiently powerful to be able 
to absorb the special Jewish unions soon after their 
formation. Jewish unions or Jewish unionists, as 
such, are not nowadays found engaging in strikes. 
The needle industries, however, became more strong- 
ly Jewish, and in 1889 the masters confronted the 
organizations of their employees by forming their 
own union, the Jewish Masters’ Society. Jew- 
ish labor combination followed logically upon the 
sweater, the greener, and the demand for cheap 
clothing. Indeed, the creative cause and the condi- 
tion of Jewish labor are well told in the following 
demands made in the 1889 strike, in which fully 
10,000 Jews participated: 


(1) That the hours of work shall be reduced to twelve, with 
one hour for dinner and a half-bour for tea. 

(2) That meals shall be taken ontside the factory premises. 

(3) That government contractors shall pay wages at trade- 
union rates. 

(4) That government contractors and sweaters shall not give 
out work to be done at home at night after working hours. 


This strike lasted six weeks, and it seems to have 
been to the ultimate disadvantage of the Jewish 
working classes. The history of the movement from 
that day represents a series of attempts to organize 
or reorganize, the effort being unquestionably ham- 

pered by the fact that the union is 

The First estranged from the general trade-unions 
Strike. by the use of Yiddish in all meetings 
and by the existence of marked social- 

istic and anarchistic tendencies among the leaders. 
Of late, however, these have exhibited a well-defined 
Zionist attitude. In the nineties there were a num- 
ber of strikes; and in several cases these resulted in 
shorter hours and better wages. The strikers also 
made a considerable point of their desire to observe 
the Sabbath and the Jewish holy days; and in this 


way they gained the support of the rabbinate. It can 
not, however, be said that at any time a serious at- 
tempt was made to enforce this observance, and it 
would appear that the pleas of the strikers were 
more political than religious in purpose. 

With the growth of immigration there came an 
increase in the number of the trades in which the 
Jews were interested, and a corresponding growth in 
the strength of the trade-union organizations formed. 
The movement spread to Birmingham, Leeds, Man- 
chester, and other manufacturing cities. Inter- 
Jewish conferences were held, an attempt was made 
to bring the Jewish labor movement as a whole 
under one organization, and the representatives of 
the Jewish unions were recognized and took part in 
the general trade-union conferences held from time 
to time. Of all these unions only one has so far be- 
come conspicuous—that of the Jewish bakers, who 
have not only fought their masters for sanitary bake- 
houses, better wages, and shorter hours, but have 
aided their masters in the fight against the general 
trade-union of bakers, which endeavored to compel 
the Jews to obey a law several hundred years old 
prohibiting the baking of bread in London on Sun- 
days, a restriction that was apparently ignored when 
Parliament enacted the Sunday exemption clauses 
for Jews in the Factory Acts, 

The strength of the movement has differed at vari- 
ous times; to-day (1905) it is weaker than it was ten 
years ago. It has had its organs and its recognized 
leaders; but itis contended that a Jew does not make 
a good unionist, “because one ruling passion never 
leaves him—his desire to rise from his low position 
and be a master.” Lewis Lyons, who has been par- 

ticularly active in the creation of the 

Weakness specifically Jewish unions, told the 

of the above-mentioned commission that the 

Movement. “Jewish trade-unions fluctuate in 

consequence of excessive immigration, 

and that the labor leaders have from time to time 

the utmost difficulty in maintaining a solid and dis- 

ciplined organization.” On the other hand, statistics 

show that in the tailoring trade proportionately more 
Jews than non-Jews are united. 

There are no accurate statistics as to the number 
of Jews in the various Jewish and general unions in 
England; and the following is merely a list of the 
number of organizations existing in London be- 
tween 1882 and 1902: tailors, 81 unions; butch- 
ers, 1; bakers, 1; cigar-makers, 1; iron and tin-plate 
workers, 1; compositors,1; brush-makers, 1; house- 
painters, 1; card-box makers, 1. Of these 39 
unions, 6 were dissolved and 3 were merged in other 
organizations. <A furriers’ and a costermongers’ 
union have been founded since 1902, bringing the 
present total up to 32, There are, in addition, 
Jewish tailors’ unions in Birmingham (1), Leeds 
(2, with 1,800 members), Manchester (3), and 
Sheffield (1). Tailors’ organizations probably ex- 
ist also in Bradford, Bristol, Glasgow, Hull, and 
Reading. 

The chief organs of the Jewish trade-union move- 
ment have been: “Der Polischer Jiidel” (1882), 
“Die Zukunft ” (1884), “Die Neue Welt” (1900-1), 
News items are also given in “Reynolds’s News- 
paper.” 


217 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Trade-Unionism 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Georg Halpern, Die Jiidischen Arbeiter in 
London,in Mitnehener Volkswirtschaftliche Studien, Stutt- 
gart and Berlin, 1903; John Dycke, The Jewish Immigrant, 
in Contemporary Review, vol. 1xxv. (1899); Report of the 
Select Committee of the House of Lords on the Sweating 
System, 1889-90; Wages in Jewish Tatloring Workshops in 
Leeds and Manchester, in Labor Gazette, vot. i., No. 1 
(1898): Henri Dagan, Le Prolétariat Juif, in La Revue 
Blanche, Oct., 1901; D. F. Schloss, The Jew as Workman, 
in Nineteenth Century, Jan., 1801. Report of the Royal 
Commission on Alien Immigration, London, 1903; Jew. 
Chron. (Labor Column), passim ; Jewish Year Book, 1902-5. 


J. J. DE H. 


—In the United States: Itisonly inthe United 
States and in England that Jews find the oppor- 
tunity to enter pon-Jewish trade-unions in large 
numbers. In these countries Jewish workers, like 
others, enter the unions of their various crafts. From 
their ranks have risen such trade-union leaders as 
Samuel Gompers (for more than twenty years presi- 
dent of the American Federation of Labor), Joseph 
Barondess, and Henry White. Jews have showna 
special preference for the clothing trades. Accord- 
ing to official reports, three-fourths of the workmen 
in these trades in New York are Jews. In these in- 
dustries, therefore, the unions are practically Jewish 
organizations, 

The first attempts at organization among Jewish 
workmen untedate the main influx of Jewish immi- 
gration into England and America. The first union 

of Jewish tailors in New York was 

The Be- organized in 1877, It had an ephem- 

ginnings. eral existence. When, in the eighties, 
Jews began to arrive in large numbers, 
the need of organization was soon realized. Several 
unions came into existence, and strikes were declared 
which met with varying degrees of success. About 
the time of the eleventh census (1890) New York city 
had become the center for the manufacture of wom- 
en’s ready-made clothing. The year 1890 witnessed 
the first great strike of Jewish workmen: the cloak- 
makers struck in all factories and sweat-shops, and 
after enduring great suffering for cight weeks they 
won the strike. Wages were raised to such an ex- 
tent that the workers were able to earn during the 
busy season from $25 to $30 a week. 

The first success cemented the union. In the 
winter of 1892 another general strike was declared 
with the object of maintaining the advantages which 
had been gained by the previous movement; and 
although this time the employers formed an associa- 
tion and firmly withstood for a while the demands 
of the strikers, theyat length gave way, The union 
then demanded from the employers the payment of 
an indemnity for the losses incurred through the 
strike. The employers regarded this demand as ex- 
tortion; they paid, but instituted a criminal prose- 
cution against the secretary of the union, Joseph 
Barondess. He was indicted, found guilty, and sen- 
tenced by the trial court. The Supreme Court of 
the State of New York reversed the sentence, holding 
that in the absence of intent to appropriate the 
- Money to his own use the defendant, who merely 
acted as the representative of his union, was not 
guilty of extortion. The decision of the Supreme 
Court was reversed by the New York Court of Ap- 
peals, which affirmed the sentence of the trial court. 
The defendant, however, was soon pardoned by the 
governor, 


Litigation had exhausted the resources of the 
union, and when the general depression of business 
began the union was soon broken up. With the 

restoration of business prosperity in 

Varying 1897 it wasrevived, and hassince hada 

Fortune. continuous existence, its paying mem- 

bership reaching at one time 15,000; 
but at other times its membership has sunk very 
close to the zero point. 

The history of other Jewish unions is similar to 
that of the Cloak-Makers’ Union, which under nor- 
mal conditions has the largest membership. The 
weakness of all Jewish unions in the tailoring trades 
is the fluctuating character of their membership. 
Prof. John R. Commons, in his report on “ Immigra- 
tionand Its Economic Effects,” prepared for the In- 
dustrial Commission, speaks as follows regarding 
the character of Jewish trade-unions in the United 
States: 

“The Jew’s conception of a labor organization is that of a 
tradesman rather than that of a workman. In the clothing 
manufacture, whenever any real abuse arises among the Jewish 
workmen, they all come together and forma giant union and 
at once engage in a strike. They bring in 95 per cent of the 
trade. They are energetic and determined. They demand the 
entire and complete elimination of the abuse. The demand is 
almost always unanimous, and is made with enthusiasm and 
bitterness. They stay outa long time, even under the greatest 
of suffering. During a strike large numbers of them are to be 
found with almost nothing to live upon and their families suf- 
fering, still insisting, on the streets and in their hails, that their 
great cause must be won. But when once the strike is settled, 
either in favor of or against the cause, they are contented, and 
that usually ends the union, since they do not see any practical 
use for a union when there is no cause to fight for. Conse- 
quently the membership of a Jewish union is wholly uncertain. 
The secretary’s books will show 60,000 members in one month 
and not 5,000 within three months later. If perchance a local 
branch has a steady thousand members from year to year, and 
if they are indeed paying members, it is likely that they are not 
the same members as in the year before.” 


The instability of the Jewish unions has been 
ascribed to the character of the Jew, who has an in- 
born desire to be “his own boss”; the ambition of 
the Jewish worker is to rise above the working class, 
rather than to improve his own condition simultane- 
ously with that of his class; hence the sweating sys- 
tem, with its numerous contractors and subcontract- 
ors. The clothing trade in its beginnings requiring 
little capital, the development of the clothing indus- 
try in New York within recent years has been 

marked, in contrast with the general 
Sweating. trend of the time, by a tendency 

toward small-scale production. The 
scattering of employees in numerous small shops 
is unfavorable to organization. Another cause which 
has interfered with the progress of organization in 
trades followed largely by Jews is the influence of 
Socialist agitation among Jewish workers. More 
than one Jewish trade-union has been wrecked by 
dissensions between divergent schools of Socialism. 

One of the oldest and strongest Jewish trade-unions 
is the organization of compositors of Jewish news- 
papers and printing-offices, the Hebrew-American 
Typographical Union, which is affiliated with the 
International Typographical Union. The Jewish 
unions of New York are combined in acentral body, 
known as The United Hebrew Trades. This feder- 
ation comprises the unions of those working in the 
clothing trades, of compositors, of employees of the 


Traditionelle Judenthum, Das 
Translations 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


218 


Jewish theaters, and a few minor unions. Some of 
these unions are affiliated with the American Feder- 
ation of Labor. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Report of the Industrial Commission on Im- 
nigration, 1901, vol. xv.; Georg Halpern, Die Jiidischen 
Arbeiter in London, in Mitnchener Volkswirtschaftliche 
Studien, Stuttgart and Berlin, 1903; Report of the Chief 
Labor Correspondent of the Board of Trade on Trade- 
Unions, in the Annual, 1892 et seq. 


A. I. A. H. 


TRADITIONELLE JUDENTHUM, DAS. 
See PERIODICALS. 


TRADITIONS: Doctrines and sayings trans- 
mitted from father to son by word of mouth, and 
thus preserved among the people. Such traditions 
constitute a large part of Jewish oral teachings (see 
ORAL Law); and many halakic doctrines seek to 
trace their descent from Moses on Mount Sinai (see 
SINAITIC COMMANDMENTS). There are other tradi- 
tions, however, which refer to national and his- 
torical events, rather than to halakic problems. Of 
these haggadot, scattered through Talmudic and 
midrashic literature, the following two may be cited 
as examples: (1) Sotab 10b: “ We have received the 
tradition from our fathers that Amoz, the father of 
the prophet Isaiah, and Amaziah, the king of Ju- 
dah, were brothers”; and (2) Yer. B. B. 15e: “It is 
a haggadic tradition that the space occupied by the 
Holy of Holies in the Temple was not included in 
the stipulated measurement of the latter.” 

The Hebrew designations for tradition are “ Maso- 
ret” (Ma) and “ Kabbalah ” (7$25), while halakic 
tradition is designated also as “ Halakah ” (abn). 

S. J. Z. L. 


TRAJAN: Roman emperor from 98 to 117. 
Like Vespasian, Titus, and Hadrian, heis frequently 
mentioned by Jewish writers; and he exercised a 
protound influence upon the history of the Jews 
throughout the Babylonia, Palestine, and Hellenistic 
Diaspora. His ambition led him to the farthest 
eastern boundaries of the Roman empire, where he 
warred against the Parthians, although in the mean- 
time the Jews arose in Egypt and in Cyrene “as 
though carried away by some wild and riotous spirit ” 
Eusebius, “ Hist. Eccl.” iv. 2). The insurrection at 
Alexandria is mentioned in a papyrus fragment in 
the Louvre, which refers to a suit brought before the 
emperor by an Alexandrian and a Jew, although the 
ruJer there designated may be Haprian, Trajan’s 
successor (see T. Reinach in “R. E. J.” xxxvii. 218). 

The task of subduing the Jews in Egypt and 
Cyrene was entrusted by Trajan to Marcius Turbo, 
with whom the emperor is confused in rabbinical 
sources, which frequently write the name Trajan 
“Tarkinos” (Krauss, in “R. E. J.” xxx. 206, xxxi. 
47; idem, “ Lehnworter,” ji. 278). Cyprus also was 
the scene of a violent Jewish uprising, which seems 
likewise to have been quelled by Turbo. In the 
same year (116), or possibly a year later, when Tra- 
jan thought the Parthians subdued, the Jews of Mes- 
opotamia, mindful of the treatment which their Pal- 
estinian brethren had received at the hands of the 
Romans, and of their own sufferings, especially at 
Nisibis and Adiabene, during the four years of Tra- 
jan’s campaign, arose in rebellion, determined to 
expel the Romans from theircountry. Trajan there- 


upon ordered the Mauritanian prince Lusius QUI- 
ETts to proceed against the Jews, and gave him 
strict orders to purge the provinces of them, his 
rigid obedience to this order winning for the legate 
the governorship of Palestine (Eusebius, “ Hist. 
Eccl.” iv. 2; ¢dem, “Chronikon,” ed. Schoene, ii. 
164; Orosius, vii. 12; Dion Cassius, ]x viii. 32). 

In the meantime, however, rebellion had again 
broken out in Judea; and it is highly probable that 
the Palestinian Jews also rendered assistance to their 
oppressed brethren elsewhere, especially in Egypt, 
this fact possibly furnishing an explanation of Tra- 
jan’s expedition to Egypt (Esther R. proem, § 8). 
The rabbinical legend gives the following reason for 
the revolution: The emperor’s wife (the governor’s 
wife is probably meant) bore a child on the 9th of 
Ab, when the Jews were lamenting, and it died on 
the Feast of Hanukkah, when the Jews illuminated 
their houses; and in revenge for these fancied insults 
the wife urged her husband to punish the Jews (22.). 
No such legend, however, is needed to explain the 
Jewish rebellion against the Roman government, for 
during the reign of Trajan the Christian descend- 
ants of David, who were relatives of Jesus, were 
persecuted ; and Schlatter rightly infers that the pa- 
triarchal family likewise died for its faith, since 
it was supposed to be Davidic. The Palestinian 
revolt appears to have been organized by two 
brothers, Paprus and Luliani, and rabbinical sources 
expressly allude to Trajan’s proceedings against the 
pair (Sifra, Emor, viii. 9, and parallels; see also 
Kohut,“ Aruch Completum,” iv. 74), whom heis said 
to have sentenced to death in Laodicea, although he 
afterward ordered them taken to Rome, where they 
were executed. Here again the rabbinical sources 
confuse Trajan with his governor, Lusius Quietus, 
who was later deposed and executed by Hadrian. 
The marvelous escape of Pappus and Luliani was 
celebrated bya semifestival called “Trajan’s Day,” 
which fell, according to the Meg. Ta‘an., on the 12th 
of Adar (see Ratner in Sokolow, “Sefer ha-Yobel,” 
p. 507), although it is more probable that this day 
really commemorated the success of the Jewish forces 
against the Roman army. Denarii of Trajan are 
mentioned in the Talmud (‘Ab. Zarah 52b); and it 
is also noteworthy that, according to the inscrip- 
tions of thisempcror, he constructed a road from the 
Syrian border to the Red Sea. The unrest which 
marked the end of his reign was notallayed until his 
successor Hadrian became emperor. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gratz, Gesch. 8d ed.. iv. 112-117; Schirer, 


Gesch. 30 ed., i. 661-668; Schlatter, Die Tage Trajans und 
Hadrians, p. 88, Giitersloh, 1897. 
S, : S. Kr. 


TRANI: Family of scholars, members of which 
were prominent in Spain and the Levant. 

Aaron di Trani: Spanish tosafist; born in Cas- 
tile; descendant of a family which produced several 
eminent Talmudists. He received his education 
under the direction of R. Joseph Ajfasi, At an early 
age he removed to Italy, whence he went, in 1502, 
to Adrianople. There he made the acquaintance of 
Joseph Caro, who had gone thither to publish his 
“Bet Yosef.” As a Talmudist, Trani was very 
highly esteemed by his contemporaries. He ranks 
among the representatives of pilpul, not only on ac- 


219 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Traditionelle Judenthum, Das 
Translations 


count of his preference for the Tosafists, but also by 
yirtue of the fact that his nephew and pupil Moses 
di TRANI, in conjunction with the son of Joseph 
Caro, introduced pilpul into the schools of Palestine. 
It may, however, be assumed that Aaron Trani’s 
pilpul did not go to extremes, else Joseph Caro 
would not have spoken of him so highly. The few 
notes concerning him which may be found in the 
works of others were collected by Michael in his 
“Or ha-Hayyim.” 

J. SR. L. G. 

Isaiah (ben Elijah) di Trani (the Younger): 
See JEW. Encyc. vi. 644. 

Isaiah (ben Mali) di Trani (the Elder; 
RID): See Jew. Encyc. vi. 644. 

Joseph di Trani: Scholar of the fifteenth and 
sixteenth centuries; uncle of Moses diTrani. Ex- 
pelled, with his brother, from the city of his birth 
in 1502, he settled in Salonica. 

Joseph di Trani (the Elder): Talmudist of the 
latter part of the sixteenth century ; lived in Greece. 
By contemporary scholars he was called »"p 7A», 
and regarded as one of the foremost Talmudists of 
his time. He was the author of “She’elot u-Teshu- 
bot,” a work in three parts: part 1. comprises 152 
responsa, together with a general index (Constanti- 
nople, 1641); part ii. consists of 111 responsa in the 
order of the first three parts of the ritual codex 
(Venice, 1645); part iii. contains responsa to the 
fourth part of the ritual codex, together with no- 
velle to the treatise Kiddushin, and supercommen- 
taries on RaN’s and Alfasi’s commentaries on the 
treatises Ketubot and Kiddushin (25. 1645). The 
entire work appeared in Fiirthin 1764. Joseph also 
published novelle to the treatises Shabbat, Ketubot, 
and Kiddushin (Sudzilkov, 1802), and the responsa 
which were embodied in Alfandari’s “Maggid me- 
Reshit ” (Constantinople, 1710). He left several 
commentaries in manuscript—on Alfasi, on Maimon- 
ides’ “Yad,” and on KR. Nathan’s “‘Aruk.” 

Joseph (ben Moses ben Joseph) di Trani (the 
Younger): Talmudist; born at Safed 1578; died 
at Constantinople 1644. He early showed a marked 
predilection for Talmudic studies, and upon the 
death of his father (1585) he was sent to Egypt, 
where he continued them under his uncle Solomon 
di Trani. When the latter, in 1587, fell a victim to 
the plague, Joseph returned to Safed, where he be- 
came a pupil of Solomon Sagi. There he remained 
until 1609, when he received a call to a rabbinate in 
Constantinople, where he officiated until his death. 
He is reported to have founded several benevolent 
institutions in Constantinople. Of his works the 
only one Known is “Zofenat Pa‘neah” (Venice, 
1653; Frankfort-on-the-Oder, 1694), a collection of 
sermons on the weckly lessons and the festivals. 

Moses ben Joseph di Trani (the Elder; called 
ban): Talmudist; born at Salonica 1505; died 
in Jerusalem 1585. His father had fled to Salonica 
from Apulia three years prior to his birth. While 
still a hoy Moses was sent to Adrianople to pursue 
the study of the Talmud under the supervision of 
his uncle Aaron, At the age of sixteen he went to 
Safed and completed his studies under Jacob Berab. 
In 1525 he was appointed rabbi at Safed; he. held 
this office until 1585, when he removed to Jerusalem. 


Moses di Trani was the author of: “ Kiryat Sefer ” 
(Venice, 1551), commentary on the Bible, the Tal- 
mud, and difficult passages in the commentaries 
of Maimonides; “Sefer ha-Tehiyyah weha-Pedut ” 
(Mantua, 1556; Wilna, 1799; Sudzilkov, 1884; War- 
saw, 1841), commentary and notes on ch. vii. and 
viii. of Saadia Gaon’s “Emunot we-De‘ot”; “ Bet 
Elohim” (Venice, 1576), a moral and philosophical 
work on prayer, atonement, and the fundamental 
principles of faith; “She’elot u-Teshubot” (vol. i., 
7b. 1629; vol. ii., 2b. 1630), a collection of 841 re- 
sponsa, with an index. 

Moses ben Joseph di Trani (the Younger): 
Flourished during the first half of the seventeenth 
century. He published the commentaries of his 
father, and wrote some sermons, which appeared in 
the “ Zofenat Pa‘neah ” (Venice, 1658). 

Solomon di Trani: Son of Moses ben Joseph 
the Elder, and brother of Joseph di Tranithe Elder; 
flourished in Egypt, where he died from the plague 
in 1587. He wrote a preface to the works of his 
father, in which is contained much information bear- 
ing on the Trani family. He is also the reputed 
author of “Marbiz Torah be-Yisracl,” a collection 
of sermons, still extant in manuscript. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zunz, Z. G. pp. 38, 229-230; idem, Literatur- 

gesch. p. 363: Azulai, Shem ha-Gedolim; Conforte, Kore ha-~ 

Dorot (ed. Cassel); Jost. Gesch. der Juden, viii. 456, note; 

Glidemann, Gesch. ti. 189 et seq.; Bass, Sifte Yeshenim, i. 

49a, 68a; Berliner, Peletat Soferim, p. 13; idem, in his 

Magazin, i. 45, 54; Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael; Benjacob, 

Ozar ha-Sefarim; Steinscbneider, Cat. Bodl. cols. 1392, 1536, 


2006-2007 ; De Rossi, Dizionaria, p. 319; Ibn Yahya, Shal- 
shelet ha-Kabbalah, ed. Amsterdam, p. dla. 


E. C. 8. O. 
TRANSFER. See ALIENATION AND ACQUISI- 
TION. 


TRANSLATIONS.—Into Hebrew: After the 
early victories of the Mohammedans and the conse- 
quent spread of Arabic civilization, the Jews of the 
Eastern countries became familiar with and adopted 
to a large extent the Arabic language; so much so 
that rabbis and scholars, if they desired to be under- 
stood by the masses, were compelled to write their 
works in that language. After the center of Jew- 
ish learning shifted from the Orient to Spain and 
southern France, some of these works, especially 
those dealing with the Halakah and Hebrew gram- 
mar, were translated from Arabic into Hebrew. 
In the tists of translations in this article the title of 
the translation is, as a rule, given in parentheses, 
with the date and place of publication of the first 
edition. 

The oldest Hebrew translations from Arabic date 
from the eleventh century. In 1078 Isaac ben Reu- 
ben Albargeloni rendered into Hebrew, under the 
title “Ha-Mikkah weha-Mimkar,” Hai Gaon’s trea- 
tise on purchase ( Venice, 1602), also Ibn 
Janah’s lexicon “ Kitab al-Usul” (“Se- 
fer ha-Shorashim”). About the same 
time, perhaps a little earlier, some 
Karaite writings were translated into Hebrew by 
Moses ben Tobia. At the beginning of the twelfth 
century Moses ben Samuel ha-Kohen tbn Gikatilla 
translated the two principal works of Hayyuj, the 
treatises on “ Verbs Containing Weak Letters” and 
“Verbs Containing Double Letters” (edited with an 
English translation by John W. Nutt, London and 


From 
Arabic. 


~ 


Translations 


Berlin, 1870). From the first half of the twelfth 
century there are a translation, or rather a para- 
phrase, of Saadia’s “ Emunot we-De‘ot,” and a trans- 
lation of his commentary on the “Sefer Yezirah,” 
both by Moses ben Joseph of Lucena. Toward the 
middle of the same century Ibn Ezra translated 
Hayyuj’s grammatical works, two works on the 
astrology of Mashallah (“She’elot ” and “ Kadrut ”), 
and a treatise on geomancy (“Sefer ha-Goralot”). 
About the same time Judah ben Isaac ibn Ghayyat 
translated a casuistical dissertation on a part of 
Shebu‘ot. 

All these translations are said by Judah ibn Tib- 
bon, in the introduction to the “ Hobot ha-Lebabot,” 
to be defective in character, their imperfections 
being due either to a less than thorough knowledge 
of Arabic or Hebrew on the part of the translators, 
orto the fact that the latter give their own opinions 
instead of those of the authors. A similar view is 
expressed by Judah ben Barzillai, in his commentary 
on the “Sefer Yezirah,” with regard to Moses ben 
Joseph’s translation of Saadia’s commentary on that 
work, the Hebrew of which he declares to be unin- 
telligible. 

A new era in regard to methods of translation be- 
gan with Judah IBN T1BpBon, “the father of transla- 

tors.” At the request of Meshullam 

The Ibn _ ben Jacob and his son Asher, Judah 

Tibbons. translated, in 1161, the first treatise of 

Bahya ben Joseph tbn Pakuda’s eth- 
ical work “ Kitab al-Hidayah ila Fara’id al-Kulub.” 
After its completion Joseph Kimhi translated the 
remaining nine treatises and then the first one also. 
However, at the request of Abraham ben David of 
Posquiéres, Judah completed, under the title “ Ho- 
bot ha-Lebabot ” (Naples, 1489), the translation of 
the whole work, his version gradually superseding 
that by Kimhi, of which only a small fragment has 
been preserved (published by Jellinek in Benjacob’s 
edition of the “Hobot ha-Lebabot,” Leipsic, 1846). 
The translation of Bahya’s work was followed by 
translations of Ibn Gabirol’s “ Kitab Islahal-Akhlak ” 
(“ Tikkun Middot ha-Nefesh,” Constantinople, 1550), 
Judah ha-Levi'’s “Kitab al-Hujjah” (“Sefer ha- 
Kuzari,” Fano, 1506), [bn Janah’s “ Kitab al-Luma‘ ” 
(“Sefer ha-Rikmah,” ed. B. Goldberg, Frankfort- 
on-the-Main, 1856) and “ Kitab al-Usul” (“Sefer ha- 
Shorashim,” ed. W. Bacher, Berlin, 1896), and Saa- 
dia’s “Kitab al-Amanat wal-I‘tikadat” (“Sefer 
ha-Emunot weha-De‘ot,” Constantinople, 1562). To 
Judah ibn Tibbon is attributed also, although on 
very slight grounds, the translation of the col- 
lection of maxims “Mibhar ha-Peninim,” usually 
ascribed to Ibn Gabirol, and of Aristotle’s “ Posterior 
Analytics.” In all these translations Judah endeav- 
ored to render faithfully the very words of the au- 
thors—by no means an easy task, considering the 
richness of the Arabic vocabulary and the poverty 
of the Hebrew. 

In order to reproduce the abstract ideas found in 
the philosophical writings new word-forms and 
technical terms had to be established. These word- 
forms and technical terms were naturally modeled 
after those of the Arabic, which, in their turn, were 
literal translations from the Greek. It is not sur- 
prising, therefore, that in the Hebrew versions of 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


220 


the philosophical writings there are many expres- 
sions which are unintelligible to those unacquainted 
with the Arabic terminology; but this can not be 
imputed as a fault to the translator, who could not 
find in Hebrew words adequate to the expression of 
abstract ideas, Hebrew being essentially the lan- 
guage of a people of concrete ideas. Judah’s work 
is nevertheless far from being above criticism; it 
contains many faults which are due either to the 
translator’s limited knowledge of Hebrew or to his 
misunderstanding of the original. Desiring to be 

faithful to the latter, Judah, like 

Literal jl the translators who took him as 

Method of their guide, invariably rendered cach 

Transla- Arabic word intoan equivalent in He- 

tion. brew, without considering that a lit- 

eral translation is not always possible 

and that some sentences must necessarily be recast 

in order to make them intelligible to a reader who 
is a stranger to Arabic constructions. 

Another grave defect in Judah’s method of trans- 
lation, and one which gave rise to many errors and 
misunderstandings, was that he always used the 
same Hebrew word as an equivalent for a given 
Arabic word, regardless of the variations of meaning 
attached to the latter. Thus, for instance, he 
always uses the Hebrew verb 4p (“to stand ”) for 
the Arabic 4p}, although, according to the preposi- 
tion by which the latter is followed, it may also 
mean “to read,” “to study,” ete. Yet, notwithstand- 
ing numerous faults, Judah’s translations were 
recognized as standards and accepted as models by 
all the Hebrew translators of Arabic in the Middle 
Ages. Thus his version of the “ Cuzari” superseded 
that made a little later by Judah ibn Cardinal, as 
his rendering of the “Kitab al-Usul” superseded 
those made by Isaac ha-Levi and Isaac ben Judah 
Albargeioni. 

The thirteenth century was especially rich in He- 
brew translations from the Arabic, and those of 
Samuel IBN TIBBON, the son of Judah, were promi- 
nent among them. An enthusiasticadmirer of Mai- 
monides, Samuel began by translating several of 
his works, the most important among which was 
the “ Dalalat al-Ha’irin,” which he finished in 1190 
under the title “Moreh Nebukim.” Samuel clung 

more tenaciously than his father to the 


Transla- letter of the Arabic text; he even in- 
tion of troduced Arabic words into his trans- 
Maimoni- lations, and, by analogy with the Ara- 
des. bic, gave to certain Hebrew words 
meanings different from the accepted 

ones. This system of translation could but impair 


the intelligibility of a text difficult in itself; and thus 
the “Moreh” abounds in passages which are enig- 
matic to those who do not possess a profound knowl- 
edge of Arabic. Samuel’s translation was, indeed, 
approved by Maimonides himself, to whom it had 
been sent for revision; but in sucha case Maimonides 
was the person least qualified to judge, since, as the 
author of the original and an expert in Arabic, he 
naturally had no difficulty in reading the Hebrew 
version, This at least must have been the opinion 
of the poet Judah al-Harizi, who, at the beginning 
of the thirteenth century, made a new translation of 
Maimonides’ work and accused Samuel ibn Tibbon 


221 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Translations 


of having intentionally obscured the text. Al- 
Harizi was not successful in his attempt to super- 
sede Samuel’s translation with his own, for the 
former was found by some critics to be more faith- 
ful to the original. Thus Shem-Tobibn Falaquera, 
passing judgment upon both translations, says: 
“In Ibn Tibbon’s translation the errors are few, 
and if the learned translator had had time he cer- 
tainly would have corrected them; but in Al-Harizi’s, 
mistakes are numerous and words are often given 
wrong meanings.” 

In addition to the “Moreh,” Samuel translated 
the following works of Maimonides: a4 treatise on 
resurrection (“Iggeret,” or “Ma’amar Tehiyyat ha- 
Metim ”); the Mishnah commentary on Pirke Abot, 
with the psychological introduction (“Shemonah 
Perakim”); the “Thirteen Articles of Faith” (“She- 
losh ‘Esreh ‘Ikkarim ”); a letter addressed to Joseph 
ibn ‘Aknin. Samuel did not confine his activity 
to Jewish writings, but translated works written 
by Arabs and bearing on philosophy and medicine. 
Among these were: Yahya ibn Batrik’s Arabic 
translation of Aristotle’s “Meteora” (“Otot ha- 
Shamayim,” or “Otot ‘Elyonot”), three small trea- 
tises of Averroes (“Sheloshah Ma’amarim ”), and Ali 
ibn Ridwan’s commentary on the “ Ars Parva” of 
Galen. 

No less prominent in the neld of translation was 
the above-mentioned poet Judah al-Harizi. In ad- 
dition to the “ Dalalat al-Ha’irin,” he translated Mai- 
monides’ treatise on resurrection (already rendered 

into Hebrew by Samuel ibn Tibbon) 

Judah and his Mishnah commentary on Ze- 
al-Harizi. ra‘im, Hariri of Busrah’s “ Makamat ” 

(“ Mahberot Itiel”), Ali ibn Ridwan’s 
ethical epistle, Galen’s essay against hasty inter- 
ment, a treatise on the soul (“Sefer ha-Nefesh ”) 
also attributed to Galen, an originally Greek work 
on the “Dicta of the Philosophers” (“ Mussare ha- 
Filosofim ”), and an anonymous treatise on geomancy 
(“Sefer ha-Goralot ”). 

A prolific translater, whose style, although less 
poetic, was more clear than that of his contemporary 
Al-Harizi, was Abraham ben Samuel Hasdai. 
Among his translations are the following: the 
pseudo-Aristotelian “Kitab al-Tuffahah” (“Sefer 
ha-Tappuah,” Venice, 1519; frequently reprinted); 
Ghazali’s ethical work “ Mizan al-‘Amal” (“ Mozene 
Zedek,” in which the translator replaced the quota- 
tions from the Koran and the Sunnah with their 
equivalents from Bible and Talmud; ed. Goldenthal, 
Leipsic, 1889); Isaac Israeli’s “Kitab al-Istiksat” 
(“Sefer ha-Yesodot”); Maimonides’ “Sefer ha-Miz- 
wot,” with his letter to the Yemenite Jews (“Iggeret 
Teman”); anda romance presenting incidents in the 
life of Buddha (“Ben ha-Melek weha-Nazir,” Con- 
stantinople, 1518). About the same timeas the last- 
named work a famous book of fables was translated, 
under the title “Sefer Kalilah wa-Dimnah,” by the 
grammarian Jacob ben Eleazar. | 

From about 1280 to 1300 the most important Ara- 
bic works on philosophy, medicine, astronomy, 
mathematics, and other branches of learning were 
translated. The leading translators of that period 
were Jacob ANATOLIO (son-in-law of Samuel ibn 
Tibbon), Moses 1nn Trpzon, Jacob ben Machir 1BN 


TIBBON, the Italian physician Nathan ha-Me’ att, 
and Zerahiah ben Isaac ben Shealtiel GRacrAN. Ana- 
tolio translated the “ Almagest ” of Ptolemy (“ Hibbur 
ha-Gadol ha-Nikra al-Majesti”), the “Elements of 
Astronomy ” by Al-Fargani, a treatise on sy logisms 
by Al-Farabi (“Sefer Hekkesh ha-Kazer”), and the 
first five books of Averroes’ Middle Commentary on 
Aristotle’s “ Logic,” consisting of the Introduction 
of Porphyry and the four books of Aristotle on the 
“ Categories,” “Interpretation,” “Syllogisms,” and 
“ Demonstration.” 

Moses ibn Tibbon, like his father, began his career 
as a translator with several works of Maimonides, in- 
cluding the treatise on hygiene(“ Miktab,” or “ Ma’a- 
mar be-Hanhagat ha-Beri’ut ”), a mishnaic commen- 
tary (probably on Zera‘im), the “ Book of Precepts” 
(“Sefer ha-Mizwot,” Constantinople, ¢. 1516), the 

treatise on logic (“MiNot ha-Higga- 

Arabic yon,” Venice, 1552), the treatise on poi- 
Philosophy sons (“Ha-Ma’amar ha-Nikbad,” or 

and “Ha-Ma’amar be-Teri’ak”), and the 

Science. commentary on Hippocrates’ “ Apho- 

risms,” Moses’ other translations are: 
Averroes’ commentaries on Aristotle’s “ Physica Aus- 
cultatio” (“Kizzure ibn Roshd ‘al Shema‘ Tib‘i,” 
Riva di Trento, 1559); “ De Ceelo et Mundo ” (“ Kelale 
ha-Shamayim weha-‘Olam”); “De Generatione et 
Corruptione ” (“Sefer ha-Hawayah weha-Hefsed ”); 
“Meteora” (“Sefer Otot ha-‘Elyonot ”); “ De Anima” 
(“ Kelale Sefer ha-Nefesh ”) ; the Middle Commentary 
on the last-named work (“ Bi’ur Sefer ha-Nefesh ”); 
“Parva Naturalia” (“Ha-Hush weha-Muhash”); 
“ Metaphysica ” (“ Mah she-Ahar ha-Teba‘ ”); a com- 
mentary on Avicenna’s“ Arjuzah” (* Bi’ur Arguza”); 
Avicenna’s “Small Canon ” (“ Ha-Seder ha-Katan ”); 
Batalyusi’s “ Al-Hada’ik” (“ Ha-‘Agullot ha-Ra‘yo- 
niyyot,” ed. Kaufmann, Leipsic, 1880); Al-Hassar’s 
treatise on arithmetic (“ Seter ha-Heshbon”); Euclid’s 
“Elements” (“Shorashim,” or “ Yesodot”); Al- 
Farabi’s “Book of the Principles” (“ Hathalot ha- 
Nimza’ot ha-Tib‘iyyim,” ed. Filipowski, Leipsic, 
1849); Geminus’ introduction to the “ Almagest ” 
(“Hokmat ha-Kokabim,” or “Hokmat ha-Teku- 
nah”); Ibn al-Yazzar’s “ Viaticum ” (“ Zedat ha-De- 
rakim ”); Hunain’s introduction to medical science 
(“Mabo el-Meleket ha-Refu’ah”); Razi’s works on 
the division of maladies (“ Ha-Hilluk weha-Hilluf ”) 
and on the antidotes; Hunain’s translation of The- 
mistius’ commentary on the treatise “Lamda” 
(“Perush Ma’amar ha-Nirsham be-Ot Lamed ”) and 
of the Aristotelian physical questions (“She’elot 
Tib‘iyyot”): Kosta ben Luka’s translation of the 
“Spherica” of Theodosius Tripolitanus (“Sefer 
Teodosiyus be-Kadur ”); and Ibn Aflah’s astronom- 
ical work “ Kitab Dahiyah.” 

Jacob ben Machir ibn Tibbon translated: the 
“Blements” of Euclid; the treatise of Kosta ben 
Luka on the armillary sphere; the “ Data” of Euclid 
(“Sefer ha-Mattanot”) according to the Arabic 
translation of Ishak ben Hunain; the treatise of Au- 
tolycus on the sphere in movement (“ Ma’amar Tal- 
kus”); three treatises on the sphere by Menelaus of 
Alexandria; Abu ‘Ali ibn Hasan ibn al-Haitham’s 
astronomical work (“Ma’amar bi-Tekunah,” or 
“Sefer ‘al Tekunah”); Abu al-Kasim Ahmad ibn 
al-Saffar’s treatise on the use of the astrolabe; Abu 


THE JEWISH 


Translations 


Mohammed Jabar ibn Aflah’s compendium of the 
“Almagest”; Abu Ishak ben al-Zarkalah’s astro- 
nomical work (“Iggeret ha-Ma‘aseh be-Luah ha- | 
Nikva Sofihah”); the preface to Abraham bar Hiyya’s 
astronomical work; an extract from the “ Almagest ” 
on the arc of a circle: Averroes’ compendium of the 
“Organon” (“ Kizzur mi-Kol Meleket Tiggayon,” 

Riva di Trento, 1559); Averroes’ paraphrase of 
books xi.-xix. of Aristotle’s history of animals: 

Ghazali’s “ Mizan al--Uyun,” in which are refuted 
the philosophical ideas antagonistic to religion (“ Mo- 
zene ha-‘Iyyunim ”). 

Nathan ha-Me’ati, called the “ Prince of Transia- 
tors” and the “Italian Tibbonide,” translated the fol- 
lowing medical works: ‘Ammar ben ‘Alial-Mausuli’s 
“Al-Muutahib fi ‘Daj al-‘Ain,” on the treatment of 
the eye; the “Canon” of Avicenna; the aphorisms 
of Hippocrates, with Galen’s commentary; the 
aphorisms of Maimonides, and a selection from vari- | 
ous authors, chicfly from Galen (“ Pirke Mosheh,” 

Lemberg, 1804), Many anonymous 
Thirteenth- translations are attributed to Nathan 
Century ha-Me’ati: Razi’s treatise on bleeding 
Activity. (“Ma’amarbe-Hakkazah”); Zahrawi's 
“Kitab al-Tasrif” (Hebrew title, “ Ze- 
ruf”); Ibn Zuhr’s “ Kitab al-Aghdhiyah” (“Sefer 
ha-Mezonot”); an anonymous work on the causes of 
eclipses (“ Ma’amar ‘al Libbot Likkut ha-Me’orot ”). 
A translation of Galen’s commentary on Hippocrates’ 
work “On Airs, Waters, and Places,” begun by 
Nathan, was completed in 1299 by his son Solomon, 
whose son Samuel In turn concluded the translation 
of an extract from Galen’s commentary on Hippoc- 
rates’ work “On Regimen in Acute Diseases,” and 
the translation of a medical work by Ibn Zuhr. 

Zerahiah ben Isaac ben Shealtiel Gracian trans- 
lated: Aristotle’s “Physics” (“Sefer ha-Teba‘ ”), 
“Metaphysics” (“Mah she-Ahar ha-Teba‘”), “De 
Celo et Mundo” (*Ha-Shamayim weha-‘Olam ”), 
“De Anima” (“Sefer ha-Nefesh ”), and “ De Causis ” 
(“ Ha-Bi’ur ha-Tob ha-Gamur”); Averroes’ Middle 
Commentaries on Aristotle’s “ Physics,” “ Metaphys- 
ics,” and “De Celo et Mundo,” with the commen- 
tary of Themistius on the last-named work; the first 
two books of Avicenna’s “Canon”; Al-Farabi’s 
“ Risalah fi Mahiyyat al-Nafs” (“ Ma’amar be-Mahut 
ha-Nefesh”); a medical work of Galen from the 
Arabic of Hunain ibn Ishak (“Sefer ha-Hola’im 
weha-Mikrim ”); three chapters of Galen’s Kavayevy, 
with the same title in Hebrew characters; Maimon- 
ides’ treatise on sexual intercourse ; the “ Aphorisms” 
of Maimonides. 

The other translations of the second half of the 
thirteenth century were by: 

Albalag, Isaac; Ghazali’s ‘* Makasid al-Falasifah’’: Elijah 
Cohen’s ‘* Makamah ” (similar to the “* Assemblies *’ of Hariri), 
under the title ‘* Megillat ha-‘Ofer.”” 

Almoli, Nethaneel: Maimonides’ commentary on Kodashim. 

Hayyim ibn: Vives: Farewell letter of Ibn Sa’igh to ‘Ali ben 


‘Abd al-‘Aziz ibn al-Imam of Granada. 
Jacab ben Moses ibn ‘Abbasi: Maimonides’ commentary on 


Nashim. 

Joseph al-Fawwal: Maimonides’ Mishnah commentary on 
Mo‘ed. 

Ma‘arabi, Nahum : Maimonides’ “‘ Iggeret Teman ” (‘* Petah 


Tikwah ”)s Isaac Israeli’s, or Jacob ben Nissim’ s, commentary 
on the “Sefer Yezirah ’; Joseph ibn Zaddik’s ** Microcosmos ”’ 
(**Ha-‘Olam ha-Katan ”): Saadia’s commentary on the thirteen 
hermeneutic rules of R. Ishmael (** Sheiosh-*Esreh Middot’’). 


ENCYCLOPEDIA 


222 


Shem-Tob ibn Falaquera: Ibn Gabirol's * Mekeor Haryim.’ 
Shem-Tob ben Isaae: Averroes’ Middle Comm entary on" De 


Anima”; Razi’s * Al-Mansuri” ; Zahrawi's °° Al-Tasrif.”’ 
Solomon ibn Ayyvub: Averroes’ **De Coelo et Mundo’: Avi. 
cenna’s “ Arjuza’’; Ibn Janah’s “ Kitab al-Taswiyah’’; Mai- 


monides’ ** Kitab al- Fara’ id.” 
Solomon ibn Ya‘akub: Maimonides’ commentary on Nezikin. 


A great number of Arabic works on mathematics, 
medicine, astronomy, and philosophy, especially by 
Averroes, were translated during the fourteenth cen- 
tury. The leading translator in the first twenty 
years of that century was KALONYMUS BEN KALON- 
YMUS BEN Meir (Maestro Calo), who rendered the 
following Arabic works into Hebrew: 


Al-Farabi's treatise on the intellect (‘‘ Ma’amar be-Sekel we- 
ha-Muskal *’). 

Al-Farabi’s division of the sciences (‘‘ Ma’amar be-Mispar ha- 
Hokmot’’), 

Al-Farabi’s treatise on the method of studying philosophy 
(** Igeeret be-Siddur Keri’at ha-Hokmot *’). 

Al-Kindi’s treatises on nativities C'Iggeret be-kizzur ha- 
Ma’amar be-Moladot’’) and on the influence of the heavenly 
bodies on rain (** Iggeret be ‘Illot”’). 

Al-Kindi’s treatise on humidity and rain (*‘ Iggeret be-Lahit 
ube-Matar ’’). 

‘Ali Ibn Ridwan’s * Kitab al-‘Imad fl Ugul al-Tibb” (** Ha- 
‘ Ammad be-Shoroshe ha-Refu’ah my, 

Archimedes’ treatise on the sphere and the cylinder, from the 
version of Kosta ben Luka. 

Averroes’ commentaries on the “Topics”? (‘‘ Bivur Sefer 
Tobiki’’) and on “*Sophisms*’ (** Bi‘ur Sufistika ”’). 

Averroes’ Great Commentary on the ‘“*Second Analytics” 
(‘* Bivur Sefer ha-Mofet’’). 

Averroes’ Middle Commentaries on ‘* Physies’*; on ‘De 
Generatione et Corruptione’’ (* Sefer ha-Ha- 
wayah weha-Hefsed ”’); on ‘* Meteora”™ (** Otot 
ha-Shamayim”’). 

Averroes’ Middle Commentary on the ‘* Meta- 
physies ** (** Sefer Mah she-Ahar ha-Teba* *’), 
dissertations on the first book of the ‘* First 


Transla- 
tions of 
Averroes. 


Averroes’ 
Analytics.” 

Commentary on the Kapzos of Ptolemy, from the Arabic ver- 
sion of Abu Jafar Ahmad ben Yusuf ben Ibrahim (*‘* Sefer ha- 
Peri ha-Nikra Me’ah Dibburim”’). 

Galen’s s treatise on clysters and colic, from the version of Hu- 
nain ibn Ishak (“* Sefer Galyanus be-Hakna ube-Kulga ”’). 

Galen’s essay on bleeding (‘Sefer Galy anus be-Hakkazah ”*). 

Nichomeeus of Gerasa’s treatise on arithmetic, with a com- 
mentary of Abu Sulaiman Rabiya ibn Yahya. 

Ptolemy’s treatise on the planets (*‘ Be-‘Inyane ha-Kokabim 
ha-Nebukim ”’). 

Thabet ibn Kurrah’s work on geometry, ** Fi al-Shakl al- 
Kutta’? (‘Sefer ha-Temunah ha-Hittukit’’). 

Treatise on the triangle by Abu Sa‘adan. 

Treatise on mathematical propositions (** Sefer Meshalim be- 
Tishboret’’), 

Treatise on Euclid’s five geometrical bodies in relation to the 
theory of Apollonius, and the commentary of Simplicius. 

Treatise on cylinders and cones 3 CMa’ amar be-Iztawwonot 
ube-Hiddudim ”’). 

Treatise on plants, attributed to Aristotle, with Averroes’ 
commentary (‘Sefer ha-Zemahtm *’). 

Treatise on animals (‘ Iggeret Ba‘ale Hayyim"’), from the 
twenty-first treatise of the encyclopedia of the Brethren of Sin- 
cerity (Mantua, 1557). 


Another important translator from the Arabic, 
and of the same period, was Samuei ben Judah 
(Bonjudas) Males. His translations include: 


Abu Abdallah Mohammed ibn Mu‘ad of Seville on the eclipse 
of the sun, July 3, 1097, and on the dawn (“* Iggeret be--Ammud 
ha-Shahar ”’). 

Abu Ishak al-Zarkalah on the movement of the fixed stars 
(* Ma’amar be-Tenu‘at ha-Kokabim ha-Kayyamim ”). 

Abu Mohammed Jabbar ibn Aflah’s compendium of the ‘* Al- 
magest.”’ 

Alexander of Aphrodisias on the intellect (‘** Ma’amar Alek- 
sander al-Firduzi’’). 

Averroes’ Middle Commentary on Aristotie’s * 
Ethics.” 


*Nichomachean 


223 


Averroes’ commentary on Plato’s ** Republic.”’ 

Averroes’ Short Commentary on the “Organon ’’; on geomet- 
rical bodies (books xxx. and xxxi. of Euclid), a supplement to 
the translation of Kalonymus ben Kalonymus ; commentary on 
the * Almagest,”’ i.-iii. 

Dissertations on some obscure passages of Averroes’ com- 
mentary on the *‘ Organon,”? by Abu al-Kasim ibn Idris, Abu 
al-Elajjaj ibn Talmus, Abu al-‘Abbas Abmad ben Kasim, and 
‘Abd al-Rahman ben Tahir. 


Other Arabic works were translated in the four- 
teenth century by: 


Ibn Vives al-Lorqui: Various books of the **Short Canon ” of 
Avicenna. 

Isaac ben Joseph ibn Pulgar: Ghazali’s ** Makasid al-Falasi- 
fah*’ (** Kawwanot ha-Filosufim *’). 

Isaac ben Nathan of Cordova: Maimonides’ ‘* Makalah fi al- 
Taunhid*’? (**Ma’amar ha-Yihud*’), Tabrizi’s commentary on 
Maimonides’ twenty-five premises, and probably Joseph ibn 
*Aknin’s metaphysical essay. . 

Joseph ben Abraham ibn Wakkar: A medical work (‘Sefer 
Refu’ot’’) and Zahrawi's “ Kitab al-Tagrif.” 

Moses ben Samuel ben Asher: Averroes’ commentary on 
** Logic.”’ ; 

Moses ben Solomon of Beaucaire: Averroes’ Great Commen- 
tary on the ** Metaphysics.” 

Nathan Judah ben Solomon: Ibn Abi Salt Umayya's medical 
work ( Kelal Kazer weha-Saminim ha-Nifradim”’) and Gha- 
zali’s ** Makasid’*’ (** Kawwanot ha-Filosufim’’), 

Nethaneet ben Meshuliam (or Menahem ben Nethaneel): Ju- 
dah ibn Balaam’s treatise on the Hebrew accents (‘* Horayyat 
ha-Kore’’). 

Samuel Motot: Abraham ibn Daud’s “ Al-‘Akidah al-Rafl‘ah ” 
(*‘Emunah Ramah”; the same work was translated. under 
the title **‘ Emunah Nisa’ah,”’ by Solomon Labi). Samuel Motot 
translated also passages from pseudo-Ibn Ezra (**Sefer ha- 
‘Azamim *’). 

Shem-Tob Ardotial: Isaac Israeli’s ritual work (** Mizwot Ze- 
maniyyot’’). 

Samson ben Solomon: The compendium of Gélen’s writings 
by the Alexandrians (** Ha-Kibbuzim le-Aleksandriyim ’’). 

Solomon Dapiera: Moses ben Tobi’s commentary on the di- 
dactic poem ‘°° Al-Saba‘niyyah ”’ (“‘ Batte ha-Nefesh”’). 

Solomon ibn Patir: Ibn Haitham’s astronomical work ‘* Kaul 
fi Hi’at al-‘Alam.” 

Todros Todrosi: Averroes’ Middle Commentaries on the 

‘** Poetics’ and ‘* Rhetoric,”’ the three essays 

Aristotelian against Avicenna, the treatise on the intellect, 

Com- Avicenna’s ‘‘ Naja,’? and Al-Farabi’s philo- 

mentaries. sophical questions, ‘‘‘Uyun al Masa’il” (‘En 
Mishpat ha-Derushim **). 

———-Averroes’ treatise against Ghazali’s ** Tahafut al-Fala- 
sifah*’ (*‘ Happalat ha-Happalah’’). 

Ghazali’s answers to philosophical questions (‘* Ma- 
‘amar bi-Teshubot She’elot Nish’al Mehem’’). 

-————Pseudo-Ibn Ezra’s **Sefer ha-‘Azamim,” and Joseph 
ion Wakkar’s and Solomon ibn Ya’ish’s supercommentaries on 
Ibn Ezra’s commentary on the Pentateuch. 


With the fourteenth century the era of transla- 
tions from the Arabic was practically closed, only a 
few works being translated during the fifteenth and 
sixteenth centuries. These were: 


Hayyim ibn Musa: A medical work of Al-Jazzar. 

Isaac ben Joseph Alfasi: Ghazali’s ‘* Mishkat al-Anwar ”’ 
(‘“ Mashkit ha-Orot we-Pardes ha-Nizanim ”’). 

Mazliah of Galilee and Solomon Ma‘arabi: Isaac Alfasi’s rules 
relating to the treatise Ketubot. 

Moses Galina: An astronomical treatise of Omar ibn Moham- 
med Mesuman (*‘Sefer Mezukkak’’). Moses Galina translated 
also a work on astrology (**‘ Mishpat ha-Mabbatim ’’) and one 
on geomancy (‘* Sefer ha-Goralot’’). 

Moses ben Joseph Aruvas: The pseudepigraphic work 
known as the Aristotelian ‘* Theology.” 

Saadia ben David al-Adeni: Ghazali’s ‘‘ Zakat al-Nufus.” 
(Saadia declared this to be his own work.) 

Tanhum Moses of Beaucaire: Hippocrates 
(“ Panim le-Panim”’). 

Zerahiah ha-Levi Saladin : Ghazali’s ** Tahafut al-Falasifah " 
(“ Mappalat ha-Pilusufim "). 


_ Several translations from the Arabic were made 
In the second half of the nineteenth century: Reck- 


9 bb 


Prognostics ”’ 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Translations 


endorf translated the Koran (Leipsic, 1857); Joseph 
Derenbourg translated Maimonides’ commentary on 
Seder Tohorot (Berlin, 1887-89); fragments of Saa- 
dia’s commentaries on Proverbs, Isaiah, and Job 
were translated by Derenbourg, Meyer Lambert. 
and Wilhelm Bacher; Isaac Broydé translated Bah- 
ya’s “Ma‘ani al-Nafs” (“Torot ha-Nefesh,” Paris. 
1896). 
The following are among the numerous works 
translated anonymously by Jewish authors: 
Sahl ibn Bishr, astrological work, under the title ‘* Kelalim “"; 
four works attributed to Isaac Israeli: (1) ‘* Kitab al-Adwiyvat 
al-Mufridah wal-Aghdhiyah,”* on diet (** Sefer 
Anonymous Mehubbar mi-Ma’amar ha-Rishonim be-Teba’ 


Transla- ha-Mezonot we-kKohatam’’); (2) ‘‘ Kitab al-: 
tions. Bul” (‘Sefer Mehubbar mi-Ma’amar ha-Ri- 


shonim be-Yedi‘at ba-Sheten’): (3) ‘ Kitab 
al-Hummayat’’?; (4) ‘‘ Aphorisms’? (‘* Musar ha-Rofe’im ”): 
Saadia’s ‘* Emunot’’; Hai Gaon's treatise on oaths (** Mishpete 
Shebu‘ot’); Responsa of the Geonim (Natronat, Saadia, Sherira, 
Hai); Japheth ben Ali’s commentary on the Pentateuch; Josh- 
ua's ** Teshubot ha-‘Ikkarim ” and Bereshit Rabbah; Judah ibn 
Baalam’s works on homonyms (“Kitab al-fajnis’’), on the 
particle (** Otot ha-Inyanim ”),and on ** Verba Denominativa.”’ 
** AL-Af‘al al-Mushtakkah min al-Asma”’ (‘* Ha-Po‘’alim Shehen 
me-Gizrot ha-Shemot’’); Moses ibn Ezra’s “* Kitab al-Hada‘ik fi 
Ma‘ani al-Mujaz wal-Hakikah ”’ (“ “Arugat ha-Bosem ”*); Joseph 
ibn Zaddik’s ‘* Microcosm’ (***Olam Katan’’); Maimonides* 
treatises on the calendar (“Sefer ha-‘Ibbur’’), on happiness. 
** Makalah fi al-Sa‘adah ” (°° Pirke ha-Hazlahah ”’), and en forced 
conversions (** Iggeret ha-Shemad ”’), responsa on hemorrhoids. 
* Fi al-Bawasir” (‘‘ Ha-Ma’amar be-Refu’at ha-Teharim”’), on 
sexual intercourse, ** Fial-Jama‘ah *’ (‘° Ma’amar ha-Mishgal *’), 
and on poisons, * Al-Sumum wal-Mutaharriz min al-Adwiyah 
al-Kitalah,’’ and the commentary on Hippocrates’ © Aphorisms **: 
Joseph ibn *AKnin's ‘* Makalah fl Tibb al-Nafs ’* (** Marpe le-Ne- 
fesk’’); Abraham Maimonides’ ** Kifayah’?; Moses Abulafia’s 
theological work ‘*Ma’amar Elohi’’?; Joseph ibn Nahmias’ as- 
tronomical work ‘‘ Nur al-‘Alam”’ (*‘Or ‘Olam’’); Joseph ibn 
Wakkar’s work on the Sefirot. 

The oldest known Hebrew translation from the 
Latin belongs to the thirteenth century. About 1250 
Solomon ben Moses Melguciri translated the treatise 
known as “De Somno et Vigilia” and attributed 
to Aristotle (“Ha-Shanah weha-Yekizah”); Aver- 
roes’ commentary on the third book of Aristotle’s 
“Metaphysics”; Avicenna’s “De Ceelo et Mundo”; 
and Mattheeus Platearius’ “De Simplici Medicina.” 
About the same time Berechiah ben Natronai Krespia 
ha-Nakdan gave a Hebrew version of Adelard of 
Bath’s “Questiones Naturales,” and of a “Lapi- 
dary ” containing a description of sixty-three kinds 
of stones. Toward the end of the same century 
Samuel ben Jacob of Capua rendered into Hebrew, 
under the general title “ Meha-‘Ezah weha-Teba‘im,” 
the Latin version “De Medicamentarum Purga- 
tionum Delectio,” or “Castigatione,” of a work of 
Mesue the Elder. About the same time Hillel ben 
Samuel translated the Latin version of Hippocrates’ 
“ Aphorisms” by Constantinus Africanus, and “ Chi- 
rurgia Burni.” 

The fourteenth century, an age of translations 
from the Arabic, was equally fertile in translations 
from the Latin. About1305 Estori Farhi translated, 
under the title “ Targum Sefer Refu’ot,” Armengaud 
Blaise’s “De Remediis,” and, under the title “Sefer 

ha-Kibbusim,” an anonymous work on 

From the purgatives that had been rendered 
Latin. into Latin from the Arabic by Elijah 
ben Judah. In 1820 Hezekiah ben 

Halafta gave a Hebrew version of Petrus Hispanus’ 
treatise on logic (“Higgayon”). About the same 


Translations 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


224 


time Samuel ben Benveniste translated, under the 
title “Menahem Meshib Nafshi,” Boethius’ “De 
Consolatione Philosophie.” In 1827 Israel Caslari 
translated, under the title “Ma’amar be-Hanhagat 
ha-Beri’ut,” Arnaud de Villeneuve’s “ Regimen 
Sanitatis.” 

More important than the above translations from 
the Latin were those made by Leone Romano, who, 
toward the middle of the same century, rendered into 
Hebrew the following works: /Egidius, “De Esse 
et Essentia ” (“ Ma’amar ha-Nimza weha-Mezi’ut ”); 
his treatises on the faculties of the soul (“ Ma’amar 
Hebdale Kohot ha-Nefesh we-UWillukehem ”), and on 
syllogisms (“Ma’amar ha-Hawayah ha-Hekkeshiy- 
yah ”); his commentary on the third book of Aristot- 
le’s “De Anima”; and extracts from the commentary 
on Aristotle’s “ De Demonstratione ”; Albertus Mag- 
nus’ commentary on the third book of Aristotle’s 
“De Anima,” and various extracts from Albertus 
Magnus’ works; Alexander the Minarite’s glosses 
to Aristotle’s “ Metaphysics”; extracts from Angelo 
de Camerino’s works; the “Liber de Causis” 
ascribed to Aristotle; Thomas Aquinas’ “Treatise 
on Ideas,” and extracts from his “ Contra Gentiles ” 
(“ Neged ha-Ummot”); Averroes’ “ De Substantia Or- 
bis” (“‘Ezem ha-Shamayim ”); Boethius’ “ De Uni- 
tate et Uno” (“Ma’amar ha-Ehad weha-Ahadut”), 
Other translations from the Latin were as follows: 
Johannes Paulinus’ treatise on the medical virtues 
of the skin of the serpent (“ Ma’amar bi-Segullot ‘Or 
ha-Nahash ”), by David ibn Bilia; Francesco dei 
Cenneli’s, Gentile da Foligno’s, and John of Bur- 
gundy’s “Consilia” (“‘Ezah”), by Joshua of Bo- 
logna; Arnaud de Villeneuve’s treatise “ De Vinis” 
(“ Ha-Dibbur be-Yenot”), and Bernard of Gordon’s 
and Gilbert’s treatises on fevers, both translated by 
Judah Nathan (“En Bongodas” and “ Bonjues”); 
Bernard de Gordon’s “ Lilium Medicine ” (“ Perah ha- 
Refu’ot ”), by Moses ben Samuel of Roecambra (John 
of Avignon) and by Jekuthiel ben Solomon of Nar- 
bonne (“Shoshan ha-Refu’ah ”); Leon’s “ Historia de 
Preliis ” (* Toledot Aleksander ”), by Immanuel ben 
Jacob Bonfils; Bernard Alberti’s “ Materia Medica ” 
(“ Mebo ha-Melek ”), Arnaud de Villeneuve’s “ Medi- 
cationis Parabole” and bis work on digestion and 
purgatives, the commentary of Gerard de Solo on 
the ninth book of Razi’s “Al-Manzuri,” and Petrus 
Hispanus’ treatise on logic, all by Abraham Abigdor 
(Bonet) ben Meshullam ben Solomon; Gerard de 
Solo’s commentary on the ninth book (“ Pathology ”) 
of Razi and his manual of medicine (“ Meyashsher 
ha-Mathilim ”), a chapter on the relation between 
astronomy and medicine attributed to Hippocrates, 
and Bernard de Gordon’s “ Lilium Medicine” and 
“Prognostic,” all by Leon Joseph of Carcassonne; 
Arnold de Villeneuve’s “ Digestiva,” by Todros ben 
Moses Yom-Tob; Arnold de Villeneuve’s “De Ju- 
diciis Astronomie ” (“ Panim la-Mishpat ”) and Sac- 
robosco’s “Sphera Mundi” (“ Moreh ha-Ofannim ”), 
by Solomon ben Abraham Abigdor (the first work 
was translated by him at the age of fifteen); Arnold 
de Villeneuve’s “Tabula Super Vita Brevis,” by 
Bonenfante of Milhaud; Ibn Rijal’s astronomical 
work from the Latin version of #gidius or of Pe- 
tro de Regio (“ Mishpate ha-Kokabim ”), by Solomon 
ben David Davin. 


The fifteenth century was for the Hebrew transla- 
tions from the Latin what the fourteenth was for 
those from the Arabic; it was the richer in literary 
productions, but with it the era of translations 
closed. The most important of the translated works 
in that century were: 

Abraham ben Joseph ben Nahmias: Thomas Aquinas’ com. 
mentary on Aristotle’s ** Metaphysics.” 

Abraham Solomon Catalan: Albertus Magnus’ ** Philosophica 
Pauperum”’ (“Kizzur ha-Filosofia ha-Tib‘it’’), and Marsilius’ 
“Questions” on the ‘“Isagoge’’ of Porphyry, on the “* Cate- 
gories,’”’ and on hermeneutics. 

Abu al-Khair: Albubather’s ‘‘ Liber de Nativitatibus”’ (Se. 
fer ha-Moladot *’) and Rajil’s astronomical work ** Completus.” 

Asher ben Moses Valabrega;: Guy de Chauliac’s ‘ Chirurgia 
Parva.’ 

Azariah ben Joseph ben Abba Mari: Boethius’ ** De Consola- 

tione Philosophize,’’ the twenty-eighth book of 

Medieval /Zabrawi’s * Liber Practice’ (after the Latin 
Science and of Simon of Genoa), the second book of the 
Philosophy. ‘Simplicia’’ of Dioseorides, and Gerard de 

Sabbionetta’s astronomical work ** Theorica.” 

Baruch ben Isaac ibn Ya‘ish: Aristotle’s ‘* Metaphysics ** and 
the tales, ‘*Gesta Romanorum”’ (“Sefer Hanok ’’), of Petrus 
Alfonsis. 

Benjamin ben Isaac of Carcassonne: Juan de Burgundia’s 
treatise on the spread of the plague (°° Be-‘Ippush ha-Awwir 
weha-Deber,”’ or “* ‘Ezer Eloah ’’). 

David ben Jacob Meir: John of Gmiind’s astronomical work, 

David ibn Shoshan ben Samuel of Avignon: Thomas Bicot’s 
‘*Textus Abbreviatus Aristotelis, Super VIII. Libros Physic et 
Tota Naturalis Philosophia”’ (*' Toledot Adam ”’). 

Elijah ben Joseph Habillo: Thomas Aquinas’ ** Queestiones 
Disputate,”’ *“*Queestio de Anima,” “* De Anima Facultatibus” 
(**Ma’amar be-Kohot ha-Nefesh,’’ published by Jellinek in 
‘** Philosophie und Kabbalah,’’ Leipsic, 1854), and **‘ De Univer- 
galibus’’; Questions on Thomas Aquinas’ treatise on ‘* Being 
and Quality’? (*She’elot Ma’amar be-Nimza ube-Mahut"’); 
Oceam’s ‘*Summa Totius Logices* and ‘* Queestiones Philo- 
sophice’’; Aristotle’s ** De Causa’’; and Vincenz de Beauvais’s 
**De Universalibus.”’ 

Ephraim Mizrahi: Georg Purbach’s astronomical work *‘ The- 
orica’”’ (** Te’orika ha-Nikra Mahalak ha-Kokabim”’). 

Isaac Cabret (or Cabrit): John Sancto Amanelo’s “ Expositio 
in Antidotarium Nicolai.” 

Joseph ben Benveniste; Joshua ben Joseph ibn Vives al-Lor- 
gui’s treatise on the effects of nourishment, and on the simple 
and compound medicaments (‘“* Gerem ha-Ma‘alot’’). 

Judah Shalom (Astruc) ben Samuel: Petrus Hispanus’ “ Parva 
Logica’? and his commentary on Hippocrates’ ** Aphorisms.” 

Meir Alguadez: Aristotle’s ** Ethics ** and “ Economics.” 

Mordecai Finzi: The Alfonsine Tables. 

Moses ben Abraham of Nimes: The Alfonsine Tables. 

Moses ben Mazliah: Serapion’s ** Simplicia,’’? from the Latin 
of Gerard de Cremona. 

Phinehas ben Zebi ben Nethaneel: Raimundus Lullus’ ** Ars 
Brevis.” 

Solomon ben Moses Shalom: Antonius Guainerius’ ‘* De Fe- 
bribis’’ (‘*Kelal meha-Kaddahut’’) and Bartolomeo Monta- 
gnana’s ‘* Consilium ”’ (*‘ Meba-‘Ezah ”’), 

Thaddeus: Treatise on fevers (** Kelal Kazer ‘al Minhag ha- 
Kaddahut’’). 

After the sixteenth century Hebrew translations 
from the Latin became very scarce. The few works 
translated included: a treatise on eclipses of the sun 
and moon (“Ma’amar Nikbad be-Likkuyot Sham- 
shiyyot we-Ycrahiyyot”), by Moses ben Abraham 
Sahlun; Albertus’ (Magnus 7?) “Questions and An- 
swers on the Six Natural Things Required by the 
Body According to the Science of Medicine,” by 
Moses ibn Habib; an ethical work (“ Zemah Zaddik,” 
Venice, 1600), by Leon de Modena; Thomas Aquinas’ 
“Summa Theologie Contra Gentiles,” by Joseph 
Zahalon; the letters of Seneca, by Judah Leon ben 
Eliezer Brieh (published in “ Kerem Hemed,” ti. 119 
et seg.); Spinoza’s “Ethics,” by Solomon Rubin 
(* Heker Eloah ”); the thirteenth chapter of Tacitus’ 
history, by Solomon Mandelkern. 


225 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Translations 


During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries 
very few works of any kind were translated into 
Hebrew; but with the Haskalah movement in Rus- 
sia and Galicia the works of promi- 
nent European writers began to be ren- 
dered into that language. The fol- 
lowing is a list of them, given wnder 
the heading of the language from which the trans- 
lations were made: 


English. Aguilar, Grace: ‘* Vale of Cedars ’’ (** “Emek ha- 
Arazim,”’ by Abraham Shalom Friedberg, Warsaw, 1875). 

Bunyan: “ Pilgrim’s Progress” (transl. by S. Hoga, London, 
1845). 

Byron: “Hebrew Melodies’? (“Shire Yeshurun,” by Solo- 
mon Mandetkern, Leipsic, 1890). 

Cumberland, Richard: **The Jew” (“Ish Yehudi,”* by Jo- 
geph Brill, Wilna, 1878). 

Defoe, Daniel: ‘* Robinson Crusoe” (‘* Kur ‘Oni,’’ by Isaac 
Moses Rumseh, Wilna, 1861). 

Disraeli, Benjamin: ‘“‘ David Alroy”’ (‘‘Hoter mi-Geza‘ Yi- 
shai,’? by Abraham Abel Rekowski, Warsaw, 1880); ‘* Tancred ” 
(Nes la-Goyim,”’ by Judah L6b Levin, th. 1883). 

Eliot, George: *“ Daniel Deronda’ (transl. by David Frisch- 
man, Warsaw, 1894). 

Longfellow: *Excelsior”’ (transl. by Henry Gersoni, New 
York, 1871). 

Milton: * Paradise Lost * (** Wa-Yegaresh ha-Adam,”’ by Isaac 
Edward Salkinson; also under the title ‘‘Toledot Adam we- 
Hawwah,” by Samuel Raffalowich, Jerusalem, 1892). 

Mocatta, F. D.: “The Jews in Spain” (°° Ha-Yehudim bi-Se- 
farad,”’ by Israel Be’er Franklin, Jerusalem, 1876); “* The Jews 
jn Spain and Portugal, and the Inquisition’ (transi. by Isaac 
Hirsch Barth, Cracow, 188), 

Shakespeare : *‘ Othello”? and ‘*‘Romeo and Juliet’ (°* Itiel* 
and ** Rom we-Ya‘el,”’ by Isaac Edward Salkinson, Vienna, 1874 
and 1878). 

Spencer, Herbert: ‘* Education, Intellectual, Moral, and Phys- 
jeal’’ (** Sefer ha-Hinnuk,”* by Judah Léb Davidovich, Warsaw, 
1894). 

Zangwill, Israel: “* Ghetto Tragedies’ (‘* Mahazot ha-Getto,”’ 
by &. L. Gordon, Warsaw, 1896). 

French. Bernardin cde Saint Pierre: ‘* Harmonie de la Na- 
ture’’ (*'Sulam ha-Teba‘,”* by Joseph Herzberg, Wilna, 1850). 

Carnot, Hippolyte: ** Histoire de la Révolution Francaise *’ 
(°° Ha-Mahpekah ha-Zarfatit,”’ by Ludvipol, Warsaw, 1898). 

Daudet, Alphonse: A short novel transl. by Abraham Shaiom 
Friedberg, in ** Me-Sifrut ha--Ammim.” 

Florian, Jean Pierre Clarisde: ‘‘ Numa Pompilius”’ (** Eli‘ezer 
‘we-Naftali” [7], by Aaron Margolis, Warsaw, 1864; also by 
Isaae Troller, Wilna, 1867). 

Halévy, Ludovie: A short novel transl. by Abraham Shalom 
Friedberg, in ** Me-Sifrut ha--Ammim.” 

Hugo, Victor: **L’Ane”’ (** Ha-Ifamor weha-Filosof,”’ by Wolf- 
‘gang Gronich, Vienna, 1881); ‘* La Guerre Civile” (‘* Milhemet 
ben Ahim,”’ by J. Lewner, Warsaw, 1896); ** Le Dernier Jour de 
la Vie d'un Condamne ”’ (transl. by Safran, tb. 1898). 

Kahn, Zadoc: * L’Esclavage Selon la Bible et le Talmud.” 

Maspero: ** Histoiredes Anciens Peuples de l’Orient ”’ (transl. 
‘by Ludvipol and Joseph Halévy, Warsaw, 1898). 

Massé, Victor: ** Histoire d’une Miette’’ (‘* Toledot Pas Le- 
‘hem,”’ by Abraham Jacob Tiktin, Warsaw, 1882); ‘‘Une Episode de 
la Révolution Francaise *’ (transl. by Moses Weissberg, i. 1884). 

Maupassant, Guy de: ‘Selections’? (*' Ketabim Nibharim,”’ 
7 vols., Warsaw, 1904-5, by N. Slousehz). 

Mickiewicz, Adam: “* Le Livre de la Nation Polonaise et les 
Pelerins Polonais”’ (‘*Sefer ‘Am Polonim we-Gere Polonim,” by 
Moses Ezekiel Ascarelli, Paris, 1881). 

Racine: *‘ Esther” (transl. by Joseph Haltren and Solomon 
J. Rapoport) and ** Athalie”’ (transl. by Meir ha-Levi Letteris, 
Prague, 1843). 

Scribe: “‘La Juive’’ (** Rahel ha-Yehudiyyah,”? by Siismann 
Marik, Warsaw, 1886). 

Sue, Eugéne: ‘“*Les Mystéres de Paris’? (‘‘Mistere Pariz,” 
by Kalman Schulman, Wilna, 1857-76): “Le Juif Errant” 
(“Ha-Zofeh be-Erez Nod,” by Simhah Posner. Warsaw, 1856- 
1873); “Les Sept Péchés Capitana” ( Sheba‘ Hatta’ot She’ol,” 
by Lasar Schapira, in ** Meged Yerahim’’). 

Verne, Jules: ** Vingt Mille Lieues sous Jes Mers”’ (‘* Be-Mezu- 
lot Yam,” by Isaac Wolf Sperling): “Voyage au Centre de la 
Terre’ (** Be-Beten ha-Adamah,” idem). 

Zola: Three short stories translated by S. Sluschtsch. War- 
Saw, 1898. 


XII.—15 


Modern 
Times. 


Z—ski, L.: Novel, published by the °° Archives Israélites,”’ 
depicting Jewish life in Russia (*“*Hatan Damim,” by Abraham 
Jacob Bruck, Lemberg, 1878). 

German. Andersen: ** Maérchen und Erzahlungen” (transl. 
by D. Frischuiann, Warsaw, 1897). 

Bernstein: ‘* Aus dem Reiche der Natur” (** Yedi‘at ha-Teba‘,”’ 
by D. Frischmann, il. 1882-85): ‘ Brahmanische Weisheit”’ 
(** Mishle Brakman,”’ by Seborr, Lemberg, 1867). 

Borne, Ludwig: “ Briefe aus Paris” (transl. by S. J. E. Tri- 
wasch, Warsaw, 1897). 

Canipe: ** Theophron ” (** Musar Haskel,”’ by Baruch Schin- 
feld, Prague, 1831; transl. also by Arnopolsky, Odessa, 1863); 
on sea-voyages (“‘ Massa’ot ha-Yam,”’ by Elias Levi, Zolkiev, 
1818); ** Sittenbiichlein’’ (transl. by David Zamoscz, Breslau, 
1818); “Die Entdeckung Amerika’s” (** Mezi’at Amerika,’’ by 
Moses Mendelsohn, Altona, 1807; transl. also by David Zamosez, 
Breslau, 1824); ‘Robinson der Jiingere”’ (transl. by David 
Zamoscz, ih. 1824). 

Cassel, David: ** Geschichte und Literatur der Juden ™ (transl. 
by D. Radner, Warsaw, 1880). 

Eckhard: German transl. of Philo’s ‘‘ Legatio ad Caium”’ 
(‘*Malakut Filon ha-Yehudi,” by Marcus Aaron Giinzburg, 
Warsaw, 1837). 

Ellenberger, Henri: “* Die Leiden und Verfolgungen der Ju- 
den” (*‘ Zal we-Or,”’ by Hermann Horowitz, Presburg, 1882). 

Francolm: ‘* Die Juden und die Kreuzfahrer” (‘* Ha-Yehu- 
dim be-Angliya,’’ by Miriam Mosessohn). 

Goethe: ‘* Faust’’ (* Ben Abuyah,”’ by Meir ha-Levi Letteris, 
Vienna, 1860); **Hermann und Dorothea” (** Ha-Zedek,”’ by 
Marcus Rothenburg, Warsaw, 1857). 

Gratz, Heinrich: ‘** Geschichte der Juden” (‘*Dibre ha-Ya- 
mim li-Bene Yisrael,” by S. P. Rabbinowitz, Warsaw, 1890). 

Giidemann: ** Geschichte des Erziehungsweseus ” (** Ha-Torah 
weha-Hayyitn ba-Arazot ha-Ma‘arab li-Yeme ha-Benayim,” by 
Abraham Sbalom Friedberg, tb. 1893-95). 

Gustavsobn ; ‘Sammlung von Jugenderzihlungen ” (trans). 
by N. Pius, Warsaw, 1896-98); “* Die Drei Briider’” (‘* Shelashot 
Ahim ’’); ‘** Der Hirt und die Kénigstochter” (‘* Ha-Ro‘eh we- 
Bat ha-Melek ”’): ** Der Schlaflose Kénig *’ (the last three transl. 
by J. Lewner, Warsaw, 1896-98), 

Heine, Heinrich: * Judah ha-Levi,’? a poem (transl. by Solo- 
mon Luria, Warsaw, 1886). 

Heise, Paul: ‘““Sulamit” (transl. by 8. Gordon, i}. 1896). 

Herzberg, Frankel: ** Die Vergeltung” (**Ha-Gemul,”’ by P. 
Slonimsky, Odessa, 1867). 

Herzl, Theodor: “ Der Judenstaat”’ (*‘ Medinat ha-Yehudim,”’ 
by Michel Berkovitz, Warsaw, 1896); ‘*‘Das Neue Ghetto” 
(**Ha-Getto he-Hadash,”’ by Reuben Brainin, ib. 1898). 

Hoffmann, Fr.: “* Kénigssohn’’ (** Ben ha-Melek,’’? by Moses 
Samuel Sperling, Warsaw, 1876); ** Unredliches Gut”? (** Naha- 
lah Mebohelet,”’ by Manus Manassewitz, Wilna, 1887). 

Honigmann: ‘“*Die Erbschaft”’ (‘* Ha-Yernshshah,”’? by 
Samuel Joseph Fuenn, Wilna, 1884). 

Jellinek, A.: “* Der Jidische Stamm in Nichtjiidischen Spriich- 
wortern ”’ (transl. by Elimelech Wechsler, in ‘** Ha-Asif,”’ vol. fii.). 

Josephus: “*Jiidische Alterthimer’ (** Kadmoniyyot ba-Ye- 
hudim,”* by Kalinan Schulman, Wilna, 1864); ** Kriege’’ (‘* Mil- 
hamot ha-Yehudim,” idem, ib. 1884). 

Kayserling ; ** Biographische Skizze des Menasseh ben Israel ” 
(** Toledot Manasseh ben Yisrael,’”? by Joseph Lasar Epstein, in 
** Ha-Karmel,”’ iii.). 

Klopstock, G.: ‘* Der Tod Adams” (** Mot Adam,”’ by Menahem 
M. Litinsky, Prague, 1817). , 

Kohn, 8.: ** Der Retter ” (** Podeh we-Mazzil,”* by Lasar Isaac 
Schapira, Warsaw, 1866). 

Kompert, L.: ** Zwei Trimmer’ (‘*Shete Harabot,”’ by Siis- 
mann Marik, St. Petersburg, 1880; transl. also by Wolf Jawetz, 
Warsaw, 1887). 

Kotzebue: ‘* Der Schatz” (°° Ha-Ozer,” by David Rosenhand, 
Warsaw, 1845): “‘ Der Arme Poet”’ (‘* Ha-Meshorer ha-‘Ani,”’ 
by Isidor Briistiger, Lemberg, 1884). 

Lazarus, M.: ‘* Der Prophet Jeremiah’ (transl. by Reuben 
Brainin, Warsaw, 1896). 

Lehmann, M.: ** Der Graf und Jude” (transl. by Joseph L6éb 
Petuchowsky, in ‘* Ha-Lebanon,”’ 1872; also by Samuel Joseph 
Fuenn, under the title ** Ha-Hilluf,’’ Wilma, 1873); ** Das Licht 
der Diaspora” (** Ma‘or ha-Golah,” by Joseph L6b Petuchowsky, 
ib, 1890); ** Bostanai*’ (transl. by Samuel Joseph Fuenn, i/). 1872). 

Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim: “ Nathan der Weise *’ (** Nathan 
he-Hakam,” by 8. Bacher, Vienna, 1866; transl. also by A. B. 
Gottlober, who rendered the Hebrew in the same meter as the 
original, ib. 1874); ‘* Philotas’’ (‘‘ Abinadab,’’ by J. Falkovich, 
Odessa, 1868): ‘* Die Juden”’ (*‘Ha-Yehdim,”’ by Jacob Kohn, 
Warsaw, 1845: also in verse by Hirsh Teller, Vienna, 1881): 
‘**Der Freigeist’? (‘‘Honen we-Noten,” by D. Kohn); ‘* Miss 


Transiations 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


226 


Sara Sampson’' (‘Sarah Bat Shimshon,”* by Israel Frenkel, 
Warsaw, 1857):"* Fabeln (' Lessing we-sippuraw,”” by Moses 
Reicherson, New York, 1902), 

Lippert, Julius: * Kulturgeschichte’ (**'Toledot Hasblamut 
ha-Adam,”* by David Frischmann, Warsaw, 1894-1901). 

Maier: ** Die Zerst6rung von Betar” (°° Harisut Beter,”’ by 
Kalman Schulman. Wilna, 1858); ** Elisha ben Abuyah”’ (in 
**Safah Berurah,” idem, ib. 1847). 

Manes: ‘ Gesammelte Schriften” (transl. by Joseph Kuttner, 
Vienna, 1865), 

Meisel: ‘* Die Meiselgasse’’ (transl. by J. Lewner, Warsaw, 
1897). 

Mendelssohn, Moses: “Jerusalem ’* (transl. by A. B. Gottlo- 
ber, Jitomir, 1867; also by Vladimir Federow, Vienna, 1876); 
** Die Sache Gottes  (* Ma’amar ‘al ha-Hashgatah,”’ by Samuel 
Joseph Fuenn, Wilna, 18/2); °° Phadon”’ (transl. by Isaiah Beer- 
Bing, Bertin, 1786). 

Mosenthal: **‘ Deborah’? (transl. by David Radner, Warsaw, 
1880). 

Philippson, Ludwig: ** Israelitische Religionslehre ’’ (** Yesod 
ha-lat ha-Visraelit,”’ by Isaac Beer Epstein, Kénigsberg, 1849); 
** Miriam die Hasmonierin” (‘* Miryam bha-Hashmonit,”’ by Jo- 
seph Lasar Epstein, Wilna, 1863); ‘Spanien und Jerusalem” 
(** Sefarad we-Yerushalayim,”* by Phébus Dicker, in “* Ha-Asif,” 
Vol. iii.); *““ Die Marranen’ (** Nidhe Yisrael,” by Abraham 
Abel Rakowsky, Warsaw, 1875); “* Jacob Tirado” (*° Ya‘akob 
Tirado,” by Samuel Joseph Fuenn, Wilna, 1874); ** Der Fliicht- 
ling aus Jerusalem’ (*‘* Ha-Palit,’?> by Miriam Mosessohn); 
***Ezra ha-Sofer’’ (epic poem, transl. by Solomon Mandelkern, 
Vienna, 1886); ‘* Das Martyrerthum ” (‘* Kiddush ha-Shem,” by 
Zupnik, Brody, 1867; ‘tJojachin” (transl. by 8. Bacher, Vi- 
enna, 1859). 

Reckendorf: ‘“ Geheimnisse der Juden” (** Zikronot le-Bet 
Dawid,” by A. 8S. Friedberg, Warsaw, 1893-95; under the title 
** Mistere ha-Yehudiin,”’ the first volume was translated by Abra- 
ham Kaplan). 

Reclam : ** Gesundheitschliissel”’ (*‘ Netib Hayyim,”? by A. 
Schapira, Warsaw, 1887). 

Samter: ‘* Rabbi von Liegnitz’’ (** Rab le-Hoshia‘,’’ by Abra- 
ham Shalom Friedberg, Warsaw, 1886). 

Samuely: “‘Aus dem Finsteren”’ (transl. by A. Mirsky, in 
** Keneset Yisrael,”’ vol. iii.). 

Schiller: ** Spaziergang Unter den Linden” (transl. by Kalman 
Schulman, in ‘** Safah Berurah,’’ Wilna, 1847); ‘ Philosophische 
Briefe” (transl. by Solomon Rubin, Lemberg, 1851); ‘* Die Zer- 
stérung Troja’s ” (* Harisat Troya,” in verse, by Micah Leben- 
sohn, Wilna, 1851); ** Die Sendung Moses” (‘* Dibre Emet,” by 
Elias Levin, ib. 1866); **Die Braut von Messina’ (‘** Medanim 
ben Ahim,.”’ by Jacob Levin, Brody, 1868); ** Die Rauber ” (** Ha- 
Shodedim,”’ by Moses Schulbaum, Lemberg, 1871); ** Wilbelm 
Tetl’’ (transl. by David Radner, Wilna, 1878); ** Don Carlos ” 
(by the same, ib. 1879); ** Marie Stuart’? (transl. by Solomon 
Kovner, ib. 1879); ““Turandot” ( Tirgah.”’ by Osias Atlas, 
Przemysl, 1879); “ Fieseo’’ (** Kesher Fiesko,” by Samuel Apfel, 
Drohobicz, 1889); ‘** Resignation” (‘ Amarti Yesh Tikwah,” by 
Neumanowitz, Warsaw, 1888). Meir ha-Levi Letteris trans- 
lated a number of pieces in ** Ayyelet ha-Shahar,”’? Vienna, 1860, 

Schleiden, M.: ‘‘Die Bedeutung der Juden”’ (*' Mif‘alot ha- 
Yehudim,” by Arie Geronim Gordon. Wilna, 1882), 

Schumacher, P.: ‘* Berenika” (transl. by David Frischmann, 
Warsaw, 1895). 

Steinschneider, Moritz: ** Die Jitdische Literatur” (‘‘ Sifrut 
Yisrael,’ by Malter, Warsaw, 1899). 

Tugendhold, W.: ** Der Denunciat ’’ (‘‘ Ha-Moser,” or ** Aha- 
rit Resha‘,” Breslau, 1847). 

Weisel, L.: °° Die Goldene Strasse’ (** Rehob ha-Zahab,”’ by J. 
Lewner, Warsaw, 1897); ** Die Falsche Beschuldigung ” (‘* *Alilot 
Shaw,”’ by Moses Samuel Sperling, Warsaw, 1878), 

Wertheimer, Ritter von: **Jidische Lehre und Jiidisches Le- 
ben” (**Emet we-Misbpat,”” by Zupnik. Drohobiez, 1888). 

Zschokke: ** Das Abenteuer der Neujahrsnacht ”* (** Lel Shim- 
murim,” by Isidor Margolis, Wilna. 1878). 

Italian. Dante: ‘* Divina Commedia” (** Mar’ot Elohim,”’ 
by Saul Farmiggini, Triest, 1869), 

Luzzatto, Simeon: “‘ Diseorse Circa il Stato Degli Hebrei, 
ch. xiii.” (transl. by Isaac Reggio, in “ Iggeret Yasbar,” voi. i.). 

Marfei: ‘* Merope,” a tragedy (transl. by Samuel Aaron Ro- 
manelli, Rome, 1903), 

Metastasio: “‘Isacco ” (** *Akedat Yizhak.”” by Elijah Bardach, 
Vienna, 1833); a poem (°* Teshu‘at Yisrael bi-Yede Yehudit,”’ 
by Franco-Mendez, Rédelheim, 1804). 

Polish. Kozlowski: ‘* Estherka.”’ a Grama (‘*Ma‘aseh Es- 
ter,’ by Israel Frankel, Warsaw, 1889). 

Orzhesko: ‘‘ OKanski” and ‘' Mirtala’’ (transl. by Abraham 
Abel Rakowsky, Warsaw, 1886 and 1888). 


Paulicki: Onpopular medicine (“ Marpele- ‘Am,’ by Beza- 
teel Judah Eliasberg, Wilna, 1854, 1842; Jicomir, 1886). 

Rinaldo Rinaldini: novel (*Lahakat Shodedim,” by Hayyim 
Goldstein. Warsaw, 1859). 

Russian. Bogron: “ Poimannik *’ (** Ha-Nilkad be-Shehi- 
tot Anshe Resha’.”* by Isaac Andres. Warsaw, 1877). 

Frug: Poems (** Kol Shire Frug,"* by Jacob Kaplan, Warsaw, 
1898). 

Harkavy: “‘Judah ha-Levi’ (transl. by Abraham Shalom 
Friedberg, in ** Keneset Yisrael,” vol. fi., 1886). 

Hufeland: * Enchiridion Medieon ” (*' Darke ha-Refu’ot,”’ by 
Jacob Frobnberg, Jitomir, 1869). 

Kriloy: Fables (* Tikkun Meshalim,’’ by Moses Reicherson, 
Wilna, 1860). 

Lewanda: ‘* Genevi Milost Magnata” (** ‘Ir u-Behalot,”’ by 
Samuel Léw Citron, in “ Keneset Yisrael,’ 1886); *’ Abrabam 
Yosefovich ™ (* Abraham ben Yosef,’ idem). 

Rabbinoviech, Osip: * Shtrafnoi’* (** Ben ‘Onesh,”? by Kanel- 
sky, Odessa, 1863). 

Turgenef: Short story transl. by Abraham Shalom Friedberg, 
in ** Me-Sifrut ha-‘Ammim.” 

Spanish, Cervantes: “ Don Quixote” (* Abino‘am ha-Ge- 
lili,”’ by I. Fraenke), Lemberg, 1871). 

Creseas, Hasdai: ** Tratado”’ (** Bittul ‘lkre Dat ha-Nozarim,” 
by Joseph ibn Shem-Tob, published by Ephraim Deinard, 
Kearny, N. J., 189-4). 

Escudero, Lorenzo (Abraham Peregrino): *‘ Fortalezza de} 
Judaismo y Confusion del Estrafio’’ (‘‘Zeriah Bet El,” by 
Marco Luzzatto of Triest [in manuseript]). 

Morteira, Saul: **'fractado de la Verdad de la Ley” (‘' Torat 
Mosheb,”’ by Isaac Gomez de Gosa [in manuscript). 


From the Hebrew: Aside from the Arabic 
versions of the Bible, the Talmud, and the prayers 
(with which this article is not concerned), only three 
Arabic translations from the Hebrew 


Into are extant: the travels of Eldad ha- 
Arabic. Dani, by an anonymous translator; 


the Yosippon (“ Yusuf ibn Karyun”), 
by Zechariah ibn Sa‘id; and Isaac ibn Crispin’s 
“Sefer ha-Musar” (“ Mahasin al-Adab ”), by Joseph 
ibn Hasan, which issupposed by Steinschneider to 
have been itself an adaptation from the Arabic. 
Through the Hebrew versions of the Arabic scien- 
tific works the treasures of the East and of ancient 
Greece were opened to the West. Indeed, with the 
exception of a small number of Latin translations 
made directly from the Arabic, mostly with the 
assistance of Jewish interpreters, all the works from 
which the Latin world learned mathematics, astron- 
omy, medicine, philosophy, and other sciences were 
translated from the Hebrew versions made from the 
Arabic. Although it is possible that some among 
the Latin translations of the twelfth century were 
made from the Hebrew, the oldest known dates only 
from the thirteenth century. About 1260 John of 
Capua translated, under the title “ Directorium Vite 
Humane” (published by J. Dercnbourg, Paris, 
1887), Joel’s Hebrew version of the “Kahilah wa- 
Dimnah.” He translated also Maimonides’ work on 
the dietary laws and Ibn Zuhr’s medical work “ Al- 
Taisir.” Toward the end of the same century Ar- 
mengaud Blasius translated Jacob ben Machir ibn 
Tibbon’s treatise on the quadrant invented by the 
latter, under the title “Quadrans Novus” or “ Quad- 
rans Judaicus.” 

During the fourteenth century only a few works 
were translated from the Hebrew into Latin. Among 
these were the anonymous “Sefer ha-Hinnuk,” on 
the precepts, and Abner of Burgos’ “Iggeret ha- 
Gezerah.” During the fifteenth century Latin liter- 
ature was enriched with many valuable works from 
the Hebrew. About 1486 Elijah Delmedigo made 
the following translations: “ Questiones Tres: i. De 


227 


Primo Motore; ii. De Mundi Efficientia; iii. De Esse 
Essentia et Uno” (Venice, 1501); “ Averrois Quxs- 
tio in Libro Priorum * (” Analytics,” Venice, 1497): 
Averroes’ commentary on Plato's “ Republic” (* De 
Regimine Civitatis”): “Averrois Commentatio 

{Summa] in Meteora Aristotelis,” with 
Into Latin. fragmentsfrom Averroes’ Middle Com- 

mentary (7b. 1488); “Averrois Com- 
mentatio [Media] in Metaph. Aristotelis,” i.-vii. 
(2b. 1560); Averroes’ proem to the Large Commen- 
tary ou Aristotle's “Metaphysics,” xii.; Averroes’ 
“De Substantia Orbis”; “Sperma.” Delmedigo’s 
protector, Pico de Mirandola, translated at the same 
time the commentary of Menahem Recanati on the 
Pentateuch, the “Hokmat ha-Nefesh” (“Scientia 
Aninie”) of Eleazar of Worms, and the “Sefer ha- 
Ma‘alot” of Shem-Tob Falaquera. The teacher of 
Pico de Mirandola, Flavius Mithridates, translated 
thirty-eight fragments of various cabalistic works, 
Maimonides’ epistle on resurrection, Levi ben Ger- 
shon’s commentary on Canticles, and Judah’s 
“Ma’amar ha-Hawwayah ha-Hekkeshiy yah ” (*Ser- 
mo de Generationc Sylogismorum Simplicium et 
Compositorum in Omni Figura”). 

Very important contributions to Latin literature 
from the Jewish mystical writings were made at the 
end of the fifteenth century and at the beginning of 
the sixteenth by Cardinal 4gidius de Viterbo, who 
translated the Zohar, “Ginnat Egoz,” “Sefer 
Razi’el,” “Ma‘areket Elahut,” “‘Eser Sefirot,” and 
other cabalistic works. Among the translations of 
purely scientific works made in the sixteenth cen- 
tury, the most noteworthy are those of Abraham de 
Balmes, Kalonymus ben Judah (Maestro Calo), Ja- 
cob Mantino, and Moses Alatino. Abraham de 
Balmes translated Ibn Haitham’s astronomical work 
(“Liber de Mundo”) from the Hebrew version of 
Jacob ben Machir ibn Tibbon, and the “farewell 
letter” of the Arabic philosopher Ibn Baga or Avem- 
pace (“Epistole Expeditionis”). Kalonymus ben 
Judah translated Zerahiah ha-Levi’s Hebrew version 
of Ghazali’s “Tahafut al-Falasifah” (“ Destruc- 
tio,” Venice, 1527), Samuel ibn Tibbon’s Hebrew 
version of Averroes’ treatise on the intellect (“De 
Conversione Intellectus,” ¢b.), and Moses ibn Tib- 
bon’s Hebrew version of Alpetragius’ treatise on 
astronomy (Venice, 1581). The translations of Ja- 
cob Mantino were: “ Paraphrasis Averrois de Par- 
tibus et Generatione Animalium,” with the commen- 
tary of Levi ben Gershon; Averroes’ compendium 
of Aristotle’s “ Metaphysics”; the Middle Commen- 
tary on Aristotle’s “Isagoge”; books i.-iv. of 
“Topics ” and “ Poetics” (Venice, 1550); a commen- 
tary on Plato’s “Republic”; proem to the Large 
Commentary on the third book of Aristotle’s treatise 
on the soul; proem to book xii. of Aristotle’s 
“Metaphysics”; the Middle Commentary on Aris- 
totle’s “Physics”; Averroes’ medical work “Col- 
liget”; the first book of Avicenna’s “Canon”; Mai- 
monides’ “Shemonah Perakim.” Moses Alatino 
translated Moses ibn Tibbon’s Hebrew version of 
Themistius’ paraphrase of the four books of Aris- 
totle’s “De Calo” (Venice, 1574); Avicenna’s 

Canon”; Nathan ha-Me’ati’s Hebrew version of 
Galen’s commentary on a work of Hippocrates (“ De 
Aére, Aquis et Locis”). Among other works trans- 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Translations 


Jated into Latin in the sixteenth century were: 
Ezobi's “Ka‘arat Kesef” (by Reuchlin, Tibingen, 
1512-14, and Jean Mercier, Paris, 1561); Levita’s 
“Tishbi” (by Paul Fagius, 1541, who translated also 
the “ Alfabeta de Ben Sira” and the “Sefer Ama- 
nah”); Benjamin of Tudela’s travels (by Arias Mon- 
tanas); the travels of Eldad ha-Dani (by G. Gene- 
brard, Paris, 1584); Levita’s grammatical works and 
Maimonides’ treatise on logic (by Sebastian Miin- 
ster, Basel, 1524 e¢ seq., who translated also the Yo- 
sippon, 1529-41); and a list of the 613 command- 
ments from “SeMaG ” (1583). 

With the close of the sixteenth century the era of 
Latin translations, from the Hebrew, of Arabic 
scientific works ended, and the Jews ceased to serve 
as intermediaries between the civilizations of the 
East and the West. The work dropped by them 
was taken up by Christians, who had acquired from 
Jews their knowledge of Hebrew and other Oriental 

languages, and who made Latin trans- 


Christian lationsof many Jewish writings of the 
Transla- Middle Ages. Foremost among these 
tors translators, in the first half of the sev- 


into Latin. enteenth century, were the Buxtorfs; 

the elder Buxtorf translated the Bib- 
lical concordance, “ Me’ir Netib,” of Isaac Nathan 
ben Kalonymus and the “Iggeret Shelomim ” (“In- 
stitutio Epistolaris Hebraica, sive de Conscribendis 
Epistolis Liber, cum Epistolarum Hebraicarum Cen- 
turia,” Basel, 1610); the younger Buxtorf, Johan- 
nes, translated Maimonides’ “Moreh Nebukim” 
(“ Doctor Perplexorum,” Basel, 1629) and Judah ha- 
Levi’s “Cuzari” (“ Liber Cosri,” 7). 1660). Among 
the other Jewish works translated in the same cen- 
tury the most noteworthy were: Lipman-Mith)- 
hausen’s “Sefer ha-Nizzahbon” (by John Heinrich 
Blendinger, Altdorf, 1645); the disputations of I. 
Jehiel and of Nahmanides; Isaac Troki’s “ Hizzuk 
Emunah”; the “Toledot Yeshu ”; the “travels” of 
R. Pethahiah and the “Megillat Wenz” (by Wa- 
genseil); Cordovero’s “Pardes Rimmonim” (“De 
Sanctissima Trinitate Contra Judsos,” by Joseph 
Ciantes, Rome, 1664); Leon de Modena’s dialogue 
on the subject of gambling (by August Pfeifer, 
Wittenberg, 1665; also by Thomas Hyde, Oxford, 
1698, who translated Farissol’s “Iggeret Orhot 
‘Olam,” under the title “ Tractatus Itinerum Mundi,” 
7b. 1691); the commentaries of Abravanel and others 
on Joshua; Moses Kimhi’s “Introductio ad Scien- 
tiam”; Joseph Yahya’s commentary on Daniel; 
“Ttinerarum Benjaminis of Tudela” (by Constantin 
VEmpereur); the “ Alphabet of Ben Sira,” “ Megillat 
Antiochus,” “Otiot de Rabbi ‘Akiba,” a part of 
Eldad ha-Dani’s mythical travels, and Azariah dei 
Rossi’s “ Me’or ‘Enayim” (all by Bartolocci in his 
“ Bibliotheca Magna Rabbinica”); Abravanel’s com- 
mentary on Daniel (by Hittinger); the “Idra Rab- 
bah,” the “Idra Zuta,” the “Sifra de-Zeni‘uta,” the 
cabalistic essays of Naphtali Herz and Jacob El- 
hanan, the “Sha‘arha-Shamayim” of Abraham Cohen 
de Herrera, and several of the writings of Isaac Luria 
(by Knorr von Rosenroth in his “Kabbala Denu- 
data,” Sulzbach, 1677-78); Maimonides’  hilkot 
“*Abodat Yom ha-Kippurim,” “ Hamez u-Mazzah,” 
“Kiddush ha-Hodesh,” “Ta‘aniyot,” “Seder ha- 
‘Abodah,” and “Seder ha-Korbonot” (by Ludwig 


Translations 
Transliteration 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


228 


Compiegne de Weil, who translated also Abraham 
Yagel’s catechism, “ Lekah Tob”); the first part of 
Gans’s “Zemah Tob” (by Wilhelm Varot and also 
by Voisin); Zacuto’s “Sefer ha-Yuhasin,” various 
parts of Maimonides’ “ Mishnoch Torah,” and part of 
the account of the travels of the Karaite Samuel 
ben David; Maimonides’ “ Yad,” Talmud Torah and 
Teshubah (by Robertus Claverius). 

Among the Latin translations of the eighteenth 
century the most noteworthy are: part of Maimon- 
ides’ “ Mishneh Torah” and extracts from the rab- 
binical commentaries on Psalms (by IHeinrich Jacob 
Bashuysen, Hanover, 1705; Hanau, 1712); the “Sefer 
ha-Tappuah” (“Biga Dissertationum,” Giessen, 
1706); Rashi’s commentary on the Bible and the 
“Yosippon” (by John Frederick Breithaupt, Gotha, 
1707, 1710); the Karaite Mordecai ben Nissim’s 
“Dod Mordekai” (“ Notitia Kareeorum ex Tractate 
“Mardochai,” by Wolf, who translated also various 
fragments of Jewish writings in his “ Bibliotheca He- 
brea”); selections from the commentaries of Rashi, 
Abravanel, Ibn Ezra, and Isaiah di Tranion Joshua, 
antl Moses Nakdan’s “Sha’ar ha-Neginot” (“ Porta 
Accentuum,” by John Georg Abicht); a part of 
Elijah Levita’s “Shibre Luhot” (by Nagel, Altdorf, 
1758-71); portions of the “Tahkemoni” (by Ure); 
Jedaiah Bedersi’s “ Behinat ‘Olam ” (by Uchtmann); 
the “Seder ‘Olain Rabbah” (by Eduard Maier). 

The following isa list of the works which have 
been translated from Hebrew into modern languages: 


English. Aristotle, Pseudo-: ‘* Sefer ha-Tappuah,’’ on the 
immortality of the soul (by Isidor Kalisch, Detroit, 1882). 

Bedersi: ** Behinat ha-‘Olam’’ (by ‘Tobias Goodman). 

Benjainin of Tudela: ‘* Massa‘ot’”’ (by Asher, London, 1840). 

Hayyuj, Judah: “Two Treatises on Verbs Containing Treble 
and Double Letters,’’ and the ** Treatise on Puuctuation ” (by 
John W. Nutt, London and Berlin, 1870). 

Joseph ha-Kohen; ‘‘ Dibre ha-Yamim™ (by Bialloblotzky, 
London, 1834-36). 

Judah al-Harizi: Portions of the ‘“Tahkemoni’” (by F. de 
Sola Mendes, in “ Jew. Chron.”? London, 1873). 

Judah ha-Levi: Poems (by M. Breslau, in ‘* Ginze Oxford,” 
Londan, 1851; Edward G. King, in *’ Jew. Quart. Rev.” vii. 464; 
Joseph Jacobs, in ‘‘ Jewish Ideals’; Einma Lazarus, ** Songs of 
a Seinite,”? New York, 1882; Lady Magnus, “* Jewish Portraits,” 
London, 1897; A. Lucas, in ‘‘ Jewish Year Book,” London, 
1898 ; Nina Davis, “‘Songs of an Exile,’ Philadelphia, 1901). 

Levinsohn: * Efes Damim” (by Loewe, London, 1840). 

Levita, Elijab : °* Massoret ha-Massorah ”’ (by Ch. D. Ginsburg, 
London, 1887). 

Maimonides: ** Moreh Nebukim” (by Michael Fnedlinder, 
London); parts of the *‘Mishneh Torah” (by H. Bernard and 
EB. Soloweyczik, id. 1868). 

Mapu, Abraham: “ Ahabat Ziyyon’’ (by Frank-Jaffe, Lon- 
don, 1887). 

Nieto, David: ‘* Matteh Dan’’ (by Loewe, London, 1842). 

Pethahiah of Regensburg: ‘“‘ Massa‘ot’’ (by Benisch, Lon- 
don, 1856). 

Romanelli: ** Massa‘ ba-Arab”’’ (by Schiller-Szinessy, Cam- 
bridge, 1887). 

Schwarz: ‘‘ Dibre Yosef,’ geography of Palestine (by Isaac 
Leeser, Philadelphia, 1850). 

Troki, Abraham: ‘* Hizzuk Emunah ” (*‘ Faith Strengthened,” 
by M. Mocatta, London, 1851). 

‘* Yashar, Sefer ha-’’ (by Mordecai Noah, New York, 1840). 

** Yezirah, Sefer’’ (by Isidor Kalisch, 1877). 

Yosippon: Parts (by Gaster, in ‘* Jerahmeei,” 
1899). 

French. Abraham ibn Ezra: ‘* Ma‘adanne Melek ” (‘* Dé- 
lices Royales, ou le Jeu des Echecs,”’ by Hollaenderski, Paris, 
1864). 

Alfonsi, Petrus: “ Sefer Hanok,” tales (by Picques). 

Bedersi, Jedaiah ben Abraham: “ Behinat ha-‘Olam” (by 
Philippe Aquinas and Michel Beer). 

Benjamin of Tudela: ** Massa‘ot’’ (by Jean Philippe Boratier, 
Paris, 1734). 


London, 


Bilia, David ben Yom-Tob ibn: ** Yesodot ha-Maskil” (by S. 
Klein, Metz, 1849). 

Caro, Josepli: Shulhan ‘Aruk (extracts from the first and 
second parts under the tile “Rituel du udaisme,’’ by Pavly 
and Neviasky, Orleans, 1896-1901). 

Eldad ha-Dani (transl. by Carmoly, Brussels, 1834). 

Joseph ha-Kohen: “*Emek ha-Baka” (°° Vallée des Pleurs,” 
by Julian Sée, Paris, 1881). 

Judah al-Harizi: ** Tahkemoni”™ (by Carmoly, Brussels, 1343- 
1844; parts were translated by Sylvestre de Sacy). 

Maimonides: Treatise on poisons (** Traité de Poisons,” by I. 
M. Rabbinowicz, Paris, 1865); ‘* Moreh Nebukim”’ (°° Guide des 
Egarés,”’ by S. Munk, Paris, 1856). 

Modena, Leon of: Dialogue on the subject of gambling (‘Le 
Joueur Converti,”? by Carmoly). 

Pethahiah of Regensburg: **Sibbub Rab Petahyah”’ (by Car- 
moly, who translated also, under the title “* Itinéraires dela Terre 
Sainte,’’ accounts, by various writers, of travels in Palestine). 

German. Aboab, Isaac: ‘* Menorat ha-Ma’or” (by Jacob 
Raphael Fiirstenthal, Breslau, 1844). 

Abraham ibn Daud: **Emunah Ramah” (by S. Weil, Frank- 
fort-on-the-Main, 1882). 

Abraham ibn Ezra: ‘“* Yesod Mora’’ (by Michael Creizenach, 
Mayence, 1840), 

Albo, Joseph: ‘Sefer ha-‘Ikkarim’’ (by W. Schlessinger, 
Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1844). 

Aristotle, Pseudo-: ** Sefer ha-Tappuah ”’ (by J. Musen, Lem. 
berg, 1873). 

Rabya ben Joseph: ‘Hobot ha-Lebabot’ (by Fiirstenthal, 
Breslau, 1835, and by Baumgarten and Stern, Vienna, 1854). 

Bedersi, Jedaiah: ** Bakkashat ha-Memim’’ (by Benjamin 
Wolf Prerau,. Briinn, 1799); ‘** Beliinat “Olam”? (by Isaac Auer- 
bach, Hirsh ben Meir, Joel ben Joseph Faust, Simson Hambur- 
ger, Auerbach, J. Levy, Joseph Hirshfeld, Stern (in verse], and 
Judah Kron). 

Benjamin of Tudela: ‘* Massa‘ot’’? (by Mordecai Drucker, 
Amsterdam, 1691). 

Carmoly: ** Maimonides und Seine Zeitgenossen ”’ (Frankfort- 
on-the-Main, 1840). 

Caro, Joseph: Shulhan ‘Aruk (by H. Léwe, Vienna, 1896, and 
by Fr. Lederer, 1897-1901). 

Crescas, Hasdai: The fifth chapter of the ‘Or Adonai’ (by 
Philip Bloch, 1879). 

Duran, Profiat: ** Al Tehi ka-Aboteka’”’ (by Geiger, in ‘‘ Wiss. 
Zeit. Jiud. Theol.” iv.). 

Eldad ha-Dani (Dessau, 1700; Jessnitz, 1723; and in Eisen- 
menger’s ** Entdecktes Judenthum,”’ ii. 527). 

Ephraim of Bonn: The persecutions by the Crusaders (by S. 
Baer, Berlin, 1892). 

Francis, Immanuel: “ Metek Sefatayim ” (“‘ Die Hebriiische 
Verskunst,”’ by Martin Hartmann, Berlin, 1894). 

Hasdai, Avraham: *' Ben ha-Melek weha-Nazir”’ (° Pring 
und Dervisch,” by Wolf Alois Meisel, Stettin, 1847). 

Isaac Israeli: ** Sefer ha-Yesodot” (by 8. Fried, Frankfort- 
on-the-Main, 1900), 

Joseph ha-Kohen: ** *Emek ha-Baka”’ (by Wiener, Leipsic, 
1858). 

Judah al-Harizi: “ Tahkemoni” (by Kampf, Berlin, 1845); 
Mussare ha-Filosuflm” (by J. Léwenthal). 

Judah ha-Levi: *‘ Cuzari”’ (by D. Cassel and Jelowiez, Leip- 
sic, 1841) ; poems (by Zunz, Geiger, Kimpf, Sachs, Steinschnei- 
der, Heller, and Sulzbach). 

Kalonymus ben Kalonymus: *‘* Eben Bohan °° (by Moses Eisen- 
stadt, or, according to Zedner, by Katzenellenbogen, Sulzbach, 
1705; in condensed prose by W. Meisel, Budapest, 1878). 

Lebensohn, Micah Joseph: ‘Shire Bat Ziyyon” (°° Gesinge 
Zion’s,’’ by Joshua Steinberg, Wilna, 1869). 

Levinsotn: “ Efes Damim’’ (by Albert Katz, Berlin, 1884). 

Levita, Elijah; ‘*‘ Massoret ha-Massorah ’’ (by Mayer Gottlieb, 
1772). 

Maimonides: ** Moreh Nebukim” (the first part by Fiirsten- 
thal, Krotoschin, 1839; the second, by M. Stein, Vienna, 1864; 
the third, by Scheyer, Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1888); ** Millat 
ha-Higgayon’” (by M. 8. Neumann, Vienna, 1822; by Heilberg, 
Breslau, 1828); Introduction to the Mishnah (** Das Jiidische 
Traditionswesen ’ (by Firstenthal, Breslau, 1844); treatise on 
poisons (*‘Gifte und Ihre Heilungen,” by M. Steinschneider, 
Berlin, 1878); essays on hygiene (by D. Winternitz, 1843). 

Mapu, Abraham: “ Ahabat Ziyyon” (“*Tamar,” by S. Man- 
delkern, Leipsic, 1885). 

Mendelssohn, Moses: ‘‘Sefer ha-Nefesh”’ (by David Fried- 
lander, Berlin, 1887). 

Modena, Leon of: Dialogue on gambling (by Friedrich Al- 
bert Christiani, 1688); the abridged commentary on the Passover 
Haggadah of Isaac Abravanel, entitled ** Zeli Esh *’ (Firth, 1804). 


229 


Rashi: Commentary on the Pentateuch (Prague, 1833-38). 

Rosenfeld: ‘Tenubot Sadeh,’? poems and epigrams (by 
Fiirstenthal, Breslau, 1842), 

Saadia : “* Emunot we-De‘ot ” (by Julius Fiirst, Leipsic, 1845; 
the introduction and first chapter, by Philip Bloch, 1879). 

Schweitzer: ‘*Mazkeret Ahabah”’ (metrically translated by 
Fiirstenthal, Breslau, 1841). 

Verga, Solomon: ‘*Shebet Yehudah” (by Wiener, Hanover, 
1836). 

Wiener: “*Gezerat Ostraik” (by Jehiel Michael Morowey- 
ezyk, Cracow, 1852). 

Italian. Bahya: **Tokahah’’ (by Deborah Ascarelli, Ven- 
ice, 1601). 

Bedersi, Jedaiah: ** Behinat “Olam ’”’ (in ‘‘ Antologia Israeti- 
tica,”’ 1880). 

Judab al-Harizi: “‘Mishle Hakamim™ (“Motti di Diversi 
Saggi,”’ by Simon Massarani). 

Judah ha-Levi: ‘*Canzoniere Sacra di Giuda Levita” (by S. 
de Benedetti, Pisa, 1871). 

Luzzatto, §. D.: “Derek Erez” (“Il Falso Progresso,” by 
Pontremoli, Padua, 1879). 

Maimonides: ** Moreh Nebukim” (by Jedidiah Moses of Re- 
canati, 1580, and by D. J. Maroni, 1870). 

Mizrahi, Elijah: Part of the “Sefer ha-Mispar”’ (by M. Stein- 
schneider, Rome, 1866). 

Modena, Leon of: The abridged commentary of Abravanel 
on the Passover Haggadah, entitled ** Zeli Esh.” 

Moses: ** Vita e Morte de Mose*’ (by Benedetti de Salvatore). 

Rieti, Moses: The second part of the ** Mikdash Me'‘at,”’ en- 
titled ** Me‘on ha-Sho’alim ” (by Deborah Ascarelli, Venice, 1601). 

Solomon: ‘*Clavis Solomonis’’ (by Abraham Colorni). 

Russian. Abramovich: ‘*Ha-Abot weha-Banim” (‘‘Otzy 
i Dyeti,’’ by Leo Bienstok, St. Petersburg, 1867). 

Brandstidter: ** Mordekai Kizwiz’’ (in ‘‘ Yevreiskaya Biblio- 
teka’’). 

Eichhorn: ‘* Ha-Kerab”’ (by Osip Rabbinovich, 1847). 

Joshua ben David of Samoscez: * Zuk ha-‘Ittim *’ (** Byedstoiya 
Vremion,”’ by Moses Berlin). 

Nathan Nata of Hanover: *“* Yewen Mezulah” (by S. Mandel- 
kern, St. Petersburg, 1878). 

Rosensohn; **Shelom Ahim,” on the catholicity of the Mosaic 
religion (transl. Wilna, 1876). 

Spanish. Abner of Burgos: ‘* Moreh Zedek °’ (‘* El Mostador 
de Justicia’): °** Milhamot sdonai” (** Las Batallas de Dios *’). 

Alguadez, Meir: Prescriptions for various diseases (by Joseph 
ha-Kohen). 

Bahya ben Joseph ibn Pakuda: ‘* Hobot ha-Lebabot ”’ (by Jo- 
seph Pardo, Amsterdam, 1610). 

Elijah de Vidas: Several sections of the ‘“* Reshit Hokmah” 
(by David Cohen Lara, under the title ‘“*Tratado del Temur 
Divino,’ Amsterdam, 16338). 

** Hinnuk, Sefer ha-”?: Anonymous work on the precepts, of 
the thirteenth century. 

Jonah Gerondi: Ethical work (by Joseph Shalom Gallego, or 
Galigo, under the title ‘“‘ Sendroe [Sendero] de Vidas,’ Amster- 
dam, 1640). 

Judah ha-Levi: ** Cuzari’’ (by Jacob Abendana). 

Maimonides: (** Tratado de los Articulos de la Ley Divina,” 
by David Cohen de Lara, Amsterdam, 1652); commentary on the 
Mishnah (by Jacob Abendana). 


For other translations from and into the Hebrew 
see BIBLE TRANSLATIONS; Manzor; TALMUD. 

Js I. Br. 

TRANSLITERATION.—Into Hebrew: The 
Greek and Latiu words which entered into the lan- 
guage of the Hebrews are transcribed in the Talmud, 
Midrash, and Targum according to purely phonetic 
principles, their etymologies being entirely disre- 
garded. Besides the lack in Hebrew of that rich 
System of vocalization which characterizes the Latin, 
and especially the Greek, the alphabets of these lan- 
guages incinde characters which are not represented 
in the Hebrew, and therefore their transliteration is 
attended with many complications; sometimes it. is 
even very difficult to detect the root of the tran- 
scribed word. The Hebrew consonants represent 
the following Greek and Latin equivalents: 3 = 8 
or “b,” 7 or “p,” gor “f": 3=y or “g” and some- 
times also «k; = dor “d”; }=the Latin “v” 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Translations 
Transliteration 


and sometimes also 8 or “b”; }=¢ or “z” and 
sometimes also coc; M=v7; )=8@ and also Tt or 
“tf”; % = the Latin “j”; 5 = xy and sometimes 
also «; iw, or "1" 3 p= nor * im”: 3 o:or 
“n”; y has no equivalent either in Greek or in 
Latin; B= 7 or“p” and ¢or“f”; yoo; p=x«or 
“k” and the Latin“q”; "=por“r”; woo; n=8#. 
The Greek double letters § and ware respectively 
represented by Dp or p3, and by pS. The nasal 
sounds }y, y*, yx are reproduced jin a manner analo- 
gous to the Latin, Syriac, Arabic, etc., as, for in- 
stance, xdaoee for ayyedoc, 9p for avadyxy, "D9\p 
for xoyyy. The Latin and Greek vowels are tran- 
scribed as follows: @ by &, sometimes by y or 7: ¢€ 
or “e” by &, sometimes by y or 9; ¢ by & °&, 
or’; o by &, 38, or 4; 7 by *& or %, less frequently by 
Mm; » by NS or 4; a (Latin “e”) by °& or; e by 9; 
o by & or’; ev by IN, ON, or AN; cv by $8, SN, or 
‘N; ov(Latin “u”) by nor). The hiatus is always 
neglected, while both the spiritus asper and the spir- 
itus lenis are scrupulously represented, the former by 
mand the latter by &. The aspirated / is indicated 
by 75 or 37; even internal aspiration occurs, as, for 
instance, PY9M9D for ovvédpiov. However, the vow- 
els are not always Kept intact, but are often inter- 
changed contrary to the rule. Syllables are fre- 
quently elided by apocope, apheresis, and especially 
syncope. 

With the adoption of the Arabic language by the 
Jews residing in Moslem countries, the Jewish wri- 
ters treating of subjects pertaining to religion and 
Judaism were forced in some degree to conform to 
the culture of the people for whom they wrote, 
the great mass of whom, though speaking Arabic as 
their mother tongue, were not able toread it. Jew- 
ish authors, or at least those among them whose 
works were destined for the common people, were 
therefore compelled to transliterate their Arabic into 
Hebrew characters. The system of transliteration 
generally adopted by them was as follows: For each 
Arabic letter the corresponding... . |, 
Hebrew was given. The letters, eb Sr >) Ee, 
which have no equivalents in 
Hebrew, were represented by 3O¥DN, with dots 
above or below the letters except in the case of the 3, 


which, when dotted, corresponds toC and not to 
In some writings both ()? and are ren- 


dered by a dotted y. In vocalized texts the vowel- 
points are reproduced either by the same signs as are 
used in the Arabic or by the vowel letters "~; the 
“hamza,” the “waslah,” and the “tashdid” are al- 
ways rendered by the same signs as in the Arabic. 
Indeed, the transliteration into Hebrew from the 
Arabic is the most simple and the easiest, since, with 
the exception of the six lettcrs mentioned, which are 
always transcribed in the same way, the pronuncia- 
tion of each Arabic letter finds an exact eyuivalent 
in Hebrew. Far more complicated is the system of 
transliteration from the Persian, which includes four 
additional characters that have no equivalents either 
in Arabic or in Hebrew; even the purely Arabic 
characters have not always the same sound in both 
languages, and their transcription in Hebrew is 
variable. Thus in the older Judeo-Persian literary 
productions the system of transliteration is different 


Transliteration 
Transmigration of Souls 


from that used in more recent writings in Bokhara. 
In the former 3 is frequently written with dagesh 
when it designates “b” and without dagesh when 
it stands for “w”; 3 with or without dagesh corre- 


sponds to the Persian talege corresponds to ae CG 
and also to 3}; 3 represents the 5, and sometimes 
also the 3: 3 with or without dagesh represents 


s} and Cs o= UO . Awith rafeh = 3, with- 


ou. it S&S. In the voealized texts the long “a” is 
indicated vy the vowel letter & or by Kamez;: short 
“i” or “G” is designated either by shewa or by &; 
short “ii” is desiguated by the vowel letter}; short 
“7” by the vowel letter *®, In the modern writings 
four forms of 3 are used: (1) 3 for Gz (2) 3 for the 

& (8) §for 3; and (4) 4 for C. 

The use of Hebrew characters tor foreign words or 
sentences was introduced into France in the tenth 
century. Some Biblical or Talmudical commenta- 
tors, in order to convey to the reader the exact mean- 
ing of a word or sentence not easily explained in 
Hebrew, accompanied the Hebrew word or sentence 
with an equivalent in the vernacular. With the 
exception of the following letters, the method of 
transliteration adopted by these commentators is the 
same as that used in the Talmud for the Latin con- 
sonants: “c” before “a,” “o,” “u,” or in combina- 
tion with “h” is represented by p, and before “e,” 
“i,” “y,” or when it is provided with a cedilla (“¢ ”), 
by ¥; “zg” before“a,” “o,” “u” is reproduced by 3, 
and before “e,” “i,” “y,” by ?; double “s” is repre- 
sented by y; “j” by a single or double %, and some- 
times also by 3, as, for instance, ws (= “jeter ”); 
“on” ig rendered by a single or double %, and also 
by 3; “n” is often eliminated in the transliteration, 
as, for instance, 258 (= “enfaut”), and 19 is often 
rendered by 3, as, for instance, }3(= “nom”); “h” is 
rendered by & or»; “x” and“z” by wory; “v” is 
rendered by Jor}. The systemof transliteration of 
the simple vowels * a,” rT e,” 66 i, ” ae «uy ey Gg 
the same as that used in the Talmud for the Latin, 
their pronunciation being identical in both languages: 
“5 N; “og” and “u” = 1; and a7? oe Pa Wy my 
The accentuated “e” is sometimes rendered by a 
double *, and the mute “e” at the end of a word by 
s or 7 or by both. As to the diphthongs, “ai,” 
“ei,” “ie” are represented by a single or double °, 
with or without &; ¢.7., sodas (= “ haleine ”), nwa 
(=“bien”); “oi,” “aui,” “aeu.” and “eui” are re- 
produced by a single or double * preceded by 4, as, 
for instance, nop (= “feuille”), SID" ( = 
“wuvre”); “au” and “eau” are rendered by & or 4 
or by both; “eu” and “ou” almost always by }. 

With the single exception of “a,” which is some- 
times rendered by 7 instead of &, the simple vowels 
are transliterated in Judeeo-Spanish, or Ladino, in 
the same way as in French. The Spanish diph- 
thongs, being very limited in number, and each of 
the vowels being pronounced, present uo difficulty ; 
thus “ei,” “ey,” and “ie” are always rendered by a 
double ', while “io,” “ya,” and “yo” are reproduced 
by either a double ora single *; “ia” is reproduced by 
a single », followed by & or 7 or both. Great con- 
fusion reigns in the transliteration of the consonants, 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


230 


many of which are indifferently reproduced by va- 
rious Hebrew letters, while the same Hebrew letter 
may represent many Spanish. Thus the soft “c” is 
indifferently represented by }, D. ¥. and w; “fF” and 
“og” are rendered by 7, eg., iT (= “fue”), KVIN 
(= “genero”); “h” by 3 (especially before “«”), 5, 
and §, and when occurring at the beginning or in the 
middle of a word it is frequently omitted; “j” by 
3, 7, t, w, and sometimes also by®?; “Il” and “fi” by 
double +; “m” and “n” often interchange in the 
transliteration, as, forinstance, *‘DINp (= “campe ”), 
pid (= “nos”). Metathesis of “a” before “r” takes 
place in the transliteration, as, for instance, T'S 
(= “verde”), ANIVPS (= “aceordar”); or of “r” 
before “e,” as, for instance, FTINY (= “ tarde”); 
“q” preceding “i” is rendered by 3p; “s” =D, w, 
and}; “x” = w; “Zz” =porpf. The other conso- 
nants are represented by the same Hebrew letters as 
their equivalents in Latin or French. The follow- 
ing first two verses of the Bible in Ladino and in 
Spanish may serve as an illustration of the method 
of transliteration: wd wt Se wep PE 'DIMD Ss 
NW FINN TYR TINY 35 WT YD mb uy pido 
NR WEMIN TT PAORD MAW TT NPLPN IN FNTINT 
wd 7 BOND say wan ot St qn 
wasn — “En principio crio el Dios los cielos y la 
tierra. Y la tierra era vagua y vacia y escuridad 
sobre faces del abysmo, y viento del Dio esmoniense 
sobre faces de Jas aguas.” 

The transliteration of Italian into Hebrew 
differed but little from that of French and Span- 
ish. The soft “c” was represented by }. D. ¥, 
while the hard “c,” “ch,” and “ceh” were rendered 
by 9; oar before Com a a oe or * n.” and * ge ” 
were rendered by a single or double 9, as, for in- 
stance, “YY (= “giudice”), iy (= “ giorno ”), 
yop (= “formaggio”): “gu” and “qu” were 
generally reproduced by 43; “s,” “ss,” and “se” 
were rendered by }, BD, and wt; when the “ec” fol- 
lowing the “s” was a hard one they were rendered 
by pp or wp. In some cases the “t” was rendered 
by ¥, as, for instance, ayosnp (= “stoltitia ”); 
“7” and “zz” were reproduced by ft, Y. and wy, 
and in some cases also by ». The vowels were ren- 
dered in tle same way as in French, with the ex- 
ception of the “o,” which in Italian was represented 
by ® or IN instead of 4. The diphthong “ia” was 
rendered by a single or double * followed by AN or 
by NS alone; “ie” was represented by a single or 
double :; “au” and “ao” by 1"; “ae” by a double 
‘; the vowels which are not pronounced were left 
out altogether, as, for instance, Ory (= “ciottolo ”). 
As an illustration of the Italian method of translit- 
eration the following verse of the “ Me‘on ha-Sho’a- 
lim ”of Moses Rieti may serve, which was translated 
into Italian by Deborah Ascarelli, and incorporated 
in Hebrew characters in the Roman Mahzor: 1& 
NOVY op TT moar avy moINT ran 
TOsTIA TONE NID TINVNE US NVYNTW kk" 
MD VITNSD = “Otempio dératori, voglia infinita, di 
chi cerco pieta grazia e favore, tuo fonte benedetto 
spanda vita.” 

Judging from the Anglo-Jewish contracts of the 
thirteenth century published by the Anglo-Jewish 
Historical Exhibition, the method of translitera: 


231 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Transliteration 
Transmigration of Souls 


tion into Hebrew from the English differed from the 
French or Italian only in those consonants ard vow- 
els which have a special pronunciation. The soft 
“ce” was represented by ¥ or w: “ch” by por ¥: 
“jj” and the soft “g” by a single or double 7 
tg or “ss ” by my yy, or t: “th ” by r, O?, or 0), 
followed by wor ¥; “v” by Yor 93. 3 some- 
times stands for p; m fort; 3 (rafeh) for 1; aud 
jyfory. The simple vowels were transcribed in the 
sume way as the French; as to the diphthongs, “ai” 
and “ay” were rendered by double’; “au” and “ou” 
by 4 NY, or N; “eg” and “ae ” by a single .: “ ey? 
by a single or double 4; “ia,” “ic,” and “ey” by a 
double or single ° es by Nor7 or both; “oi” 
and “oy” by 3; “ew” by jy or by}. In the trans- 
literation of the numerous English words which en- 
tered the Judszo-German in the English-speaking 
countries, the pronunciation was faithfully pre- 
served. The hard “c,” “ch,” and “q” are repre- 
sented by Pp, while the soft “c” is rendered by ¥; 
the “f” and “p” are both rendered by 5, with the 
only difference that for the former the 8 is rafeh, 
while for the latter it is with a dagesh; the soft 
“go” is represented by wy; the “j” by wm; “s” 
or “ss” by BD; “t” by , and before “ion” by 
w: “th” by a3; “v” by 3 (rafeh) or 4; “w” by 4 
ory~. According to the English pronunciation, the 
“a” Is represented by N or %; the “e” by py or’; the 
“i” by vor wR; the “o” by 3 §; the “u” by § or x. 
in the transliteration of the diphthongs the vowels 
that are not pronounced are left out altogether. 

Up to the beginning of the nineteenth century the 
transliteration of the German words which form the 
bulk of the jargon called Judeo-German differed 
little from that current in the other Western dialects: 
the only deviation in the transcription of the vowels 
was the use of the & torepresent both “a” and “o,” 
whereas the latter was rendered in Spanish and 
French by}. At the beginning of the nineteenth 
century the transliteration of the German under- 
went many changes. §& became silent at the end of 
words after vowels, and at the beginning before } and 
%. “E” was represented by yp instead of by +: “aj” 
and “ej” by »; “6” and “ii” by “3 “ii,” “au.” 
“eu” by 4; “ei” by * or NR; “au” by 4 or YR. 
Of the consonants the following may be meutioned : 
“ch” was be presented by 5 (rafeh), but when fol- 
low ed by By by P ; “sch” and “ss” by w; soft “s” 
byt; “s” befaree t” or“p” by wi *f"and“v” by 3 
{rafeh) and 4. In peed times “v” is rendered by } 
and not by 3, and “w” by 1), so that only one letter 
occurs with rafeh, ae § for“f.” Jn printed 
books § stands generally for “p,” while 5 is “f.” 
——From Hebrew: From the time of Origen (ec. 
185-254), who in his Hexapla transliterated the text 
of the Pentateuch into Greek characters, to the mid- 
dle of the nineteenth century no attempt was made 
to elaborate a scientific system of transcription of 
Hebrew in foreign characters, and every one fol- 
lowed his own caprice. In 1854 Bargés published 
the Book of Ruth with a French transliteration of 
the text. In his system, which was followed by 
hearly all the French Orientalists, the letters 
NDIA, according as they have or have not dagesh, 
_ are represented by their equivalent French -letters 
with or without “bh.” Thus 3—“b,” 3= “bh,” 3 


Ser s — iS4 gh,’s — ry 9 d,” | _ 14 dh,” ba) — a fs) —_ 
“kh,” B=“p,” B=“ph.” Both 7 and M are rep- 
resented by “h,” the former pronounced with a 
slight aspiration, and the latter with a hard one. y 
is represented by a capital “H”; y by “ts” or “s”; 
pby “q”; whby “sch.” The following may serve 
as an illustration of Bargés’ method of translitera- 
ting both the Hebrew consonants and vowels: “ Va- 
iehi b-imé schephot hasch-schéphetim va-ichi ra 
Habh bfa’drets. Va-ielekh isch mib-bet Lehem ie- 
houdhbah la-ghour bi-sedhé Mo’ab hou ve-ischt-o 
ou-schene bhana-v,” which reads in Hebrew: sabe! 
Mead WAN AP PINE WN nN ow|biA Dipy 2 
922 13vA TAVND NT ANID Tea wad AAD ond 

A more rational system of transliteration was 
suggested by the Royal Asiatic Society for Great 
Britain and Ireland, which transcribes the Hebrew 
epphabe as follows: N=“’”; 3=“ b®; 2="b"3a= 
i ee ae a aiesidad ee ae 
“h” or “hh”; =" 2, a gan’ | ”, pee eae 


va Ky”; eee me Ga wp, pH" Es 
Fotis 6 Gag p—“s 7 Y=" roe Hh= “p” ee 
"183 pa qs ca = a Ge w=" s 7, py=“s”: n 


=“t"°;n=“t.” The long vowels are nee: 
by yo 66 é,” 6c 1” 66 6,” 66 TI ”, ; the short by bs <n x3 e,” 
eg SEO SPs the ee eoweale with - hataf 
by “a,” “e,” “o”; the dagesh forte by doubling 
the letter. As an illustration of the latest system 
of transliteration adopted by German scholars 
the following passage of Jeremiah published by 
Wilhelm Erbt (Géttingen, 1902) may serve: “ Pit- 
titani, Jahvé, wa’eppat ha-zaqtani wattukal, 
hajiti lishoq kol-hajjom kullé lo‘ eg- -li ki-middé 
‘fadabbér ’ez‘aq: bhamas wasod ’eqra’. Ki-haja 
debar-jahwe li Ieherpa ul-qelés Kol-hajjom. We 
"amarti: lo-"ezkerennu, we lo ’adabber ‘od bi§m6, we- 
haja belibbi ke’eS bo‘eret ‘asur be‘agmotdi, wenil’éti 
kalkél, welo’ukal.” =$Saamy yApIn nas in MAB 


sais stove: °% ayd fda pine b3 pine men 
mean % MPAIT MAD NN TWA DAN pyIN 
siy 2270 by AIISINE Nd SATION: DIT b3 pdpbs 
radon cnONYA YY MYR wD °2b2 oN joeia 

Son xi baba 


Iu regard to the system of transliteration followed 
in THE JeEwist ENCYCLOPEDIA, see p. vii. of this 


volume, 
8, IL. Br. 
TRANSMIGRATION OF SOULS (termed 


also Metempsychosis): The passing of souls into 
successive bodily forms, either human or animal. 
According to Pythagoras, who probably learned the 
doctrine in Egypt, the rational mind (9p7-), after 
having been freed from the chains of the body, as- 
sumes an ethereal vehicle, and passes into the region 
of the dead, where it remains till it is sent back to 
this world to inhabit some otlier body, human or 
animal. After undergoing successive purgations, 
and when it is sufficiently purified, it is received 
among the gods, and returns to the eternal source 
from which it first proceeded. This doctrine was 
foreign to Judaism until about the eighth century, 


Transmigration of Souls 


when, under the influence of the Mohammedan 
mystics, it was adopted by the Karaites and other 
Jewish dissenters. It is first mentioned in Jewish 
literature by Saadia, who protested against this 
belief, which at his time was shared by the Yud- 
ghanites, or whomsoever he contemptuously desig- 
nated as “so-called Jews” (O° DMI WDD ; 
see Schmied], “Studien,” p. 166; zdem, in “ Monats- 
schrift,” x. 177; Rapoport, in “ Bikkure ha-‘Ittim,” 
ix. 28; ¢dem, introduction to Abraham bar Hiyya’s 
“Hegyon ha-Nefesh,” p. lii.; Jellinek, in “Orient, 
Lit.” 1851, p. 410; First, “Gesch. des Kariiert.” i. 

81). According to Saadia, the reasons 

Doctrine given by the adherents of metempsy- 
Refuted by chosis for their belief are partly in- 

Saadia.  tellectual and partly Scriptural. The 

former areas follows: (1) Observation 
shows that many men possess attributes of animals, 
as, for instance, the gentleness of a lamb, the rage 
of a wild beast, the gluttony of a dog, the light- 
ness of a bird, etc. These peculiarities, they 
assert, prove that their possessors have in part 
the souls of the respective animals. (2) It would 
be contrary to the justice of God to inflict pain upon 
children in punishment for sins committed by their 
souls in a previous state. The Scriptural reasons 
are conclusions drawn from certain Biblical verses, 
such as: “Neither with you only do I make this 
covenant and this oath; but with him that standeth 
here with us this day before the Lord our God, and 
also with him that is not here with us this day” 
(Deut, xxix. 14, 15); “Blessed be the man that 
walketh not in the counsel of the ungodly,” etc. 
(Ps. i. 1). Both sets of reasons are refuted by Saa- 
dia, who says that he would not consider it worth 
while to show the foolishness and the low-minded- 
ness of the believers in metempsychosis, were he not 
afraid lest they might exercise a pernicious influence 
upon others (“ Emunot we-De‘ot,” vi.). 

The doctrine counted so few adherents among the 
Jews that, with the exception of Abraham ibn Daud 
(“Emunah Ramah,” i. 7), no Jewish philosopher 

until Hasdai Crescas even deemed it 

Influence necessary to refute it. Only with the 
of Cabala. spread of the Cabaladid it begin to take 
root in Judaism, and thenit gained be- 

lievers even among men who were little inclined to- 
ward mysticism. Thus one sees a man like Judah 
ben Asher (Asheri) discussing the doctrine in a let- 
ter to his father, and endeavoring to place it upon 
a philosophical basis (“ Ta‘am Zekenim,” vii.). The 
cabalists eagerly adopted the doctrine on account of 
the vast field it offered to mystic speculations. 
Moreover, it was almost a necessary corollary of 
their psychological system. The absolute condition 
of the soul is, according to them, its return, after 
developing all those perfections the germs of which 
are eternally implanted in it, to the Infinite Source 
from which it emanated. Another term of life must 
therefore be vouchsafed to those souls which have 
not fufilled their destiny here below and have not 
been sufficiently purified for the state of reunion with 
the Primordial Cause. Hence if the soul, on its first 
assumption of a human body and sojourn on earth, 
fails to acquire that experience for which it de- 
scended from heaven, and becomes contaminated by 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


232 


that: which is polluting, it must reinhabit a body 
till it is able to ascend in a purified state through 
repeated trials. This is the theory of the Zohar, 
which says: “All souls are subject to transmi- 
gration; and men do not know the ways of the 
Holy One, blessed be He! They do not know that 
they are brought before the tribunal both before 
they enter into this world and after they leave it; 
they are ignorant of the many transmigrations and 
secret probations which they have to undergo, and 
of the number of souls and spirits which enter into 
this world and which do not return to the palace of 
the Heavenly King. Men do not know how the 
souls revolve like a stone which is thrown froma 
sling. But the timeis at hand when these mysteries 
will be disclosed ” (Zohar, ii. 99b). Like Origen and 
other Church Fathers, the cabalists used as their 
main argument in favor of the doctrine of metemp- 
sychosis the justice of God. But for the belief in 
metem psychosis, they maintained, the question why 
God often permits the wicked to lead a happy life 
while many righteous are miserable, would be un- 
answerable. Then, too, the infliction of pain upon 
children would be an act of cruelty unless it is 
imposed in punishment for sin committed by the 
soul in a previous state. 

Although raised by the Cabala to the rank of a 
dogma, the doctrine of metempsychosis still found 
great opposition among the leaders of Judaism in 

the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, 

Opposition In his “Iggeret Hitnazzelut,” ad- 
to dressed to Solomon ben Adret in de- 

the View. fense of philosophy, Jedaiah Bedersi 
praises the philosophers for having op- 

posed the belief in metempsychosis. Hasdai Crescas 
(“Or Adonai,” iv. 7), and after him his pupil Joseph 
Albo (“ ‘Ikkarim,” iv. 29), attacked this belief on 
philusophical grounds, considering it to be a heathen 
superstition, opposed to the spirit of Judaism. The 
opposition, however, gradually ceased; and the be- 
lief began to be shared even by men who were im- 
bued with Aristotelian philosophy. Thus Isaac 
Abravanel sees in the commandment of the levirate 
a proof of the doctrine of metempsychosis, for which 
he gives the following reasons: (1) God in His 
mercy Willed that another trial should be given to 
the soul which, having yielded to the sanguine tem- 
perament of the body, had committed a capital sin, 
such as murder, adultery, etc.; (2) it is only just 
that when a man dies young a chance should be 
given to his sou! toexecute in another body the good 
deeds which it had not time to perform in the first 
body; (8) the soul of the wicked sometimes passes 
into another body in order to receive its deserved 
punishment here below instead of in the other world, 
where it would be much more severe (commentary 
on Deut. xxv. 5). These arguments were wittily 
refuted by the skeptical Leon of Modenain his pam- 
phlet against metempsychosis, entitled “Ben Da- 
wid.” He says: “It is not God, but the planets, 
that determine the temperament of the body; why 
then subject the soul to the risk of entering into a 
body with a temperament as bad as, if not worse 
than, that of the one it has left? Would it not be 
more in keeping with God’s mercy to take into con- 
sideration the weakness of the body and to pardon 


233 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Transmigration of Souls 


the soul at once? To send the soul of a man who 
died young into another body would be to make it 
run the risk of losing the advantages it had acquired 
initsformer body. Why send the soul of the wicked 
to another body in order to punish it here below? 
Was there anything to prevent God from punishing 

it while it was in its first body?” 
Upon the doctrine of metempsychosis was based 
the psychological system of the practical Cabala, 
inaugurated by the cabalists of the 


The school of Luria. According to them, 
School of all the souls destined for the human 
Luria. race were created together with the 


various organs of Adam. As there 
are superior and inferior organs, so there are supe- 
rior and inferior souls, according to the organs with 
which they are respectively coupled. Thus there 
are souls of the brain, of the eye, of the head, ete. 
Each human soul is a spark (“nizaz ”) from Adam. 
The first sin of the first man caused confusion among 
the various classes of souls; so that even the purest 
soul received an admixture of evil. This state of 
confusion, which gives a continual impulse toward 
evil, will cease with the arrival of the Messiah, who 
will establish the moral system of the world ona 
new basis. Until that time man’s soul, because of 
its deficiencies, can not return to its source, and has 
to wander not only through the bodies of men, but 
even through inanimate things. If a man’s good 
deeds outweigh his evil ones, his soul passes into a 
human body; otherwise, into that of an animal. 
Incest causes the soul to pass into the body of an un- 
clean animal; adultery, into that of an ass; pride 
in a leader of a community, into that of a bee; for- 
gery of amulets, into that of a cat; cruelty toward 
the poor, into that of a crow; denunciation, into 
that of a barking cur; causing a Jew to eat unclean 
flesh, into a leaf of a tree which endures great suf- 
fering when shaken by the wind; neglect to wash 
the hands before meals, into a river. 

The main difference between the passing of the 
soul into a human body and its transmigration into 
an animal or an inanimate object consists in the 
fact that in the former case the soul ignores its 
transmigration, whilein the latter itis fully aware of 
itsdegradation, and suffers cruelly therefrom. With 
regard to the transmigration of the soul into a crow 
Moses Galante, rabbi at Safed, relates that once he 
accompanied Isaac Luria to ‘Ain Zaitun to pray at 
the tomb of Judah ben Hai. On approaching the 
place he noticed on an olive-tree which grew near 
the tomba crow which croaked incessantly. “ Were 
you acquainted,” asked Luria, “with Shabbethai, 
the tax-farmer of Safed?” “Iknew him,” answered 
Galante: “he was a very bad man and displayed 
great cruelty toward the poor, who were not able to 
pay the taxes.” “This crow,” said Luria, “ contains 
his soul” (“Shibhe ha-Ari,” p. 29). 

A quite new development of the doctrine of me- 

tempsychosis was the theory of the im- 


Impreg- pregnation of souls, propounded by 
nation of the cabalists of the Luria school. Ac- 
Souls. cording to this theory, a purified soul 


that has neglected some religious du- 
ties on earth must return to the earthly life and 
Unite with the soul of a living man, in order to make 


good such neglect. Further, the soul of aman freed 
from sin appears again on earth to support a weak 
soul unequal to its task. Thus, for instance, the 
soul of Samuel was supported by those of Mosesand 
Aaron; thesoul of Phinehas, by those of Nadab and 
Abihu. However, this union, which may extend to 
three souls at one time, can take place only between 
souls of a homogencous character, that is, between 
those which are sparks from the same Adamite 
organs. As the impregnated soul comes either to 
make good a neglect or to support a weak soul, it 
enters into the body only after the man has com- 
pleted his thirteenth year, when he reaches the age 
of religious duty and responsibility. 

The dispersion of Israel has for its purpose the 
salvation of man; and the purified soulsof Israelites 
unite with the souls of other races in order to free 
them from demoniacal influences. Each man, ac- 
cording to the practical Cabala, bears on his fore- 
head a mark by which one may recognize the nature 
of the soul: to which degree and class it belongs; 
the relation existing between it and the superior 
world; the transmigrations it has already accom- 
plished; the means by which it may contribute to 
the establishment of the new moral system of the 
world; how it may be freed from demoniacal influ- 
ences; and to which soul it should be united in 
order to become purified. He who wishes to ascer- 
tain to which of the four worlds his soul belongs 
must close his eyes and fix his thought on the four 
letters of the Ineffable Name. If the color he then 
beholds is a very bright, sparkling white, his soul 
has proceeded from the world of emanation (ody 
moyen): if an ordinary white, from that of creative 
ideas (RMN diy): if red, from that of creative 
formation (AVY ndwy); and if green, from that of 
creative matter (Mwypnr bry). 

The cabalists of the Luria school pretended to 
know the origins and transmigrations of all the 
souls of the human race since Adam; and in their 
works accounts are given concerning Biblical per- 

sonages and the great teachers of Ju- 

Special daism. Thus, for instance, tue soul 
Instances. of Aaron is said to have been derived 

from the good part of that of Cain. It 
entered into the body of the high priest Eli, who, in 
ex piation of the sin committed by Aaron in making 
the golden calf—a sin punishable with lapidation— 
broke his neck in falling from his seat. From Eli it 
transmigrated into the body of Ezra; and it then 
became purified. The name “ Adam” contains the 
initials of David and Messiah, into whose bodies the 
soul of the first man successively entered. The 
name “Laban” contains the initials of Balaam and 
Nabal, who successively received Laban’s soul. 
Jacob’s soul passed into Mordecai; and because the 
former had sinned in prostrating himself before 
Esau, Mordecai obstinately refused to prostrate 
himself before Haman, even at the risk of endan- 
gering the safety of the Persian Jews, Interesting 
is the account given in the “Sefer ha-Gilgulim ” of 
the souls of some contemporaries of Isaac Luria. The 
soul of Isaac de Lattes is said there to have been a 
spark from that of a pious man of the olden times 
(HOTP PTY); that of Joseph Vital, one from the 
soul of Ezra; that of Moses Minz, one from the soul 


Transmigration of Souls 
Traubel 


of Seth, the son of Adam. To the soul of Moses 
Alshech was united that of the amora Samuel ben 
Nahimani; hence the former’s talent for preaching. 
Both Moses Cordovero and Elijah de Vidas partook 
of the soul of Zechariah ben Jehoiada; hence the 
great friendship that existed between them. Be- 
cause of some sin his soul had committed in a pre- 
vious state Moses Vital was unable to acquire a per- 
fect knowledge of the Cabala. The soul of Joseph 
Delpino centered intoa black dog. Hayyim Vital pos- 
sessed, according to Isaac Luria, a soul which had 
not been soiled by Adam’s sin. Luria himself pos- 
sessed the soul of Moses, which had previously been 
in the bodies of Simeon ben Yohai and Hamnuna 
Saba. 

Generally the souls of men transmigrate into the 
bodies of men, and those of women into the bodies 
of women; but there are exceptions. The soul of 
Judah, the son of Jacob, was in part that of a wom- 
an; while Tamar had the soul of aman. Tamar’s 
soul passed into Ruth; and therefore the latter 
could not bear children until God had imparted to 
her sparks from a female soul. The transmigration 
of a man’s soul into the body of a woman is consid- 
ered by some cabalists to be a punishment for the 
commission of heinous sins, as when a man refuses to 
give alms or to communicate his wisdom to others, 

The theory of impregnation gave birth to the 
superstitious belief in “dibbuk” or “ gilgul,” which 
prevailed, and still prevails, among the Oriental 
Jews and those of eastern Europe. This belief as- 
sumes that there are souls which are condemned to 
wander for a time in this world, where they are tor- 
mented by evil spirits which watch and accompany 
them everywhere. To escape their tormentors such 
souls sometimes take refuge in the bodies of living 
pious men and women, over whom the evil spirits 
have no power. The person to whom such @ soul 
clings endures great suffering and loses his own 
individuality; lhe acts as though he were quite an- 
other man, and loses all moral sense. 
He can be cured only by a miracle- 
working rabbi (“ba‘al shem”) who is 
able to cast out the soul from his body by exorcisms 
and amulets. The usual exorcismin such cases con- 
sisted in the rabbi’s reciting, in the presence of ten 
men (see MinyAn), the 91st Psalm, and adjuring 
the soul in the name of God to leave the body of the 
afflicted one. In case of refusal on the part of 
the soul to yield to this simple injunction, the ban 
and the blowing of the shofar are resorted to. In 
order that it may cause the least possible amount of 
damage to the body, the soul is always directed to 
pass out through the small toe. 

The belief that migrant souls seek refuge in the 
bodies of living persons became more and more 
deeply rooted; and regular methods for expelling 
them are given in the cabalistic works of the seven- 
teenth century. This superstition is still widely 
spread, especially in Hasidic circles. Curtiss relates 
(“ Primitive Semitic Religions of To-Day,” p. 152) 
that a few years ago a woman was exorcised in Pal- 
estine, and that the spirit when questioned replied 
that it was the soul of a Jew who had been mur- 
dered in Nablus twelve years before. The migrant 
soul was generally believed to belong to a wicked 


Gilgul. 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


234 


or murdered person; but if may happen that that of 

a righteous man is condemned, for a slight offense 

committed by it, to wander for a while in this world. 

such a soul is, however, free from demoniacal in- 
fluences, and it enters the body of a living person 
not to avoid evil spirits (who have no power over 
it), but to atone for the fault it has committed. As 
soon as this has been accomplished it leaves the 
body of its own free will. Hayyim Vital. records 
that while sojourning at Damascus in 1699 he was 

called upon to entertain himself with the soul of a 

pious man which had entered the body of the daugh- 

ter of Raphael Anaw. The soul informed him that 
it was exiled from heaven for having slighted the 

virtue of repentance. For a time it dwelt in a 

fish, but this fish was caught and sold to Raphael 

for the Sabbath meal; the soul then entered the body 
of the daughter of the house. In proclaiming be- 
fore Vital the great importance of repentance it 
became free to return to its heavenly abode (“ Shib- 
he Hayyim Wital,” ed. Lemberg, p. 11). Narra- 
tives of this sort abound in the cabalistic writings of 
the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and many 
of them are reproduced in the “ Nishmat Hayyim ” 
of Manasseh ben Israel, who showed himself a tirm 
believer in all kinds of gilgulim and dibbulsim. 

He even went so far as to endeavor to demonstrate 

that references to them are to be found in the Bible. 

It is noteworthy that most of the cases of exorcism 

occurred at Safed or inits neighborhood; that is, 

in localities where mysticism was flourishing. A 

curious case is cited by Moses Prager in his * Zera‘ 

Kodesh”: it is interesting from the fact that David 

Oppenheim, the collector of Hebrew books and 

manuscripts, who was the rabbi of Nikolsburg, 

Moravia, was one of the signatories of the narrative. 

See DIBBUKIM. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Azariah da Fano, Gilyule Neshamot, passim ; 
Manasseh ben Israel, Nishmat Hayyim, part tii., eh. xiv.; 
part iv., ch. xx.: Luria, Sefer ha-Gilgulim, passim : Shebahe 
ha-Avri, passim; Israel Saruk, Shibhe Hayyim Wital, pas- 
sim; Abraham Shalom Hai, Sefer Nifla’im Ma‘aseka, p. 18; 
Ginsburg, The Kabhaianh, p. 42; TERS Btude sur UOri- 
gine du Zohar, pp. 320 et seq., Paris, 1902; P. Rudermann, 
Uebersicht tther die Idee der Seelenwanderung, Warsaw, 
1878; 8. Rubin, Gifgul Neshamot, Cracow, 1898; Alexander 


W.M. Menz, Demonic Possession in the New Testament, 
Edinburgh, 1902: Giidemann, Gesch. i. 202, 205, 216. 


K. I, Br. 
TRANSVAAL. See Soutn AFRICA. 


TRANSYLVANIA (Hungarian, Erdély ; Ger- 
man, Siebenbiirgen): A district which has formed 
a part of Hungary since 1867. According to one 
tradition, the first Jewish settlers of this region 
were subjects of the Persian king Xerxes, who 
fled thither after the battle of Salamis; while 
another tradition states that they were colonized 
there by the Dacian king Decebulus, It is certain, 
at all events, that Jews lived in Transylvania soon 
after the country had become a part of Dacia 
during the Roman period. The earliest mention 
of them in historical sources, however, is in 1578, 
when it was decreed in Art. xxii. of the regulations 
passed by the national assembly at Kolozsvar that 
“Greeks and likewise Jews might not engage in 
trade, except in places especially assigned them 
for residence.” This “locus depositionis” in which 
Jews were allowed to live was Gyulafehérvar (Karls- 


235 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Transmigration of Souls 
Traubel 


burg, formerly called Weissenburg, Alba Julia, 
and Alba Carolina), a frontier town, where the Turk- 
ish trade passed through Jewish hands. In 1623 the 
erand duke Gabriel Bethlen granted the Jews the 
privilege of settling in fortified cities, of carrying on 
commerce throughout the country, and of unre- 
stricted observance of religion. This privilege, al- 
though made a law by the national assembly in 1627, 
was of short duration. The ordinances passed by 
the national assembly in 1650 provided that the 
Jews should be restricted commercially, and should 
be forced, like the Greeks, to wear distinctive 
articles of clothing and badges; and the Intolerant 
grand duke George Rakoczy II. deprived them of 
the right of residence in fortified towns. These pro- 
visions, however, were never carried out. While 
the emperor Joseph IL, in his patent of 1781, ap- 
pointed Gyulafehérvar as a residence for the Jews, 
and while the same provision was made by the gov- 
ernment as late as 1845, the Jews have always lived in 
various parts of the country, although their numbers 
may have been small. The religious congregation 
and the only community officially recognized, how- 
ever, were at Gyulafehérvar, where there was a bet 
din as early as 1591. The first rabbi whose name is 
known was Joseph Reisz Auerbach (1742-50), who 
was succeeded by Solomon Selig b. Saul ha-Kohen 
(1754-58), Johanan b. Isaac of Belgrade (until 1760), 
Benjamin Zeeb Wolf of Cracow (until 1777), Moses 
b. Samuel ha-Levi Margolioth (1778-1817), Mena- 
hem b. Joshua Mendel (1818-23), Ezekiel b. Joseph 
Panet (1823-45), and Abraham Friedmann (1845-79), 
all of whom held the title of district rabbi. 

The Sabbatarians (Sambatianer) are important 
factors in the history of the Jews in Transylvania. 
This sect originated among the Christians, under the 
influence of the Reformation, and was founded in 
1588 by Andreas Eéssy, whose followers regarded 
the Jews as the chosen people and held their belief 
to be the only true faith. They observed the Jew- 
ish dietary laws, kept the Jewish feasts, and were 
especially strict in their observance of the Sabbath, 
The persecutions of the princes Gabriel Bethlen 
and George Rakoezy I. alienated the Sabbatarians 
further and further from Christian doctrines, until 
they approached Judaism so closely that the only 
congregation which survived the persecution, and 
which still existsin Bozéd-Ujfalu, officially adopted 
Judaism with the permission of Baron Eétvés, min- 
ister of religion. At present (1905) the Jewish pop- 
Wation of Transylvania is 59,239. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: S. Kohn, A Szombatosok, Torténet tik, Dog- 
matikdjuk, és Iradalmuk, Budapest, 1888; H. Hazai, Mun- 
kdlatok a Szombatosokroél, ib. 1908; Eisler, Ar Erdélyi Zsi- 


d6k Multjabol, Kiausenburg, 1901. 
8, L. V. 


TRASTEVERE. Sce Rome. 


TRAUBE, LUDWIG: German physician and 
medical author; born at Ratibor, Prussian Silesia, 
Jan. 18, 1818: died at Berlin April 11, 1876; elder 
brother of Moritz Traube. He studied at the gym- 
nasium of his native town and the universities of 
Breslau, Berlin (M.D. 1841), and Vienna. After a 
postgraduate course at Vienna University he estad- 
lished himself as a physician in the city of Berlin in 
1842. In 1843 he opened a private seminary course 


| on auscultation and percussiou, which he continued 


fora year; in 1844 he commenced his experiments 
on animals, especially in regard to affections of the 
lungs through cutting of the nervus vagus, in 
which experiments he followed the work of Longet. 
The results of his labors were: “Die Ursachen und 
die Beschaffenheit Derjenigen Verinderungen, 
Welche das Lungenparenchym nach Durechschnei- 
dung der Nervi Vagi Erleidet” and * Beitrag zur 
Lehre von den Erstickungserscheinungen am Respi- 
rations-A pparat,” published in 1846 and 1847 respect- 
ively in “ Beitrige zur Experimentellen Pathologie.” 

Traube became privat-docent at Berlin University 
and assistant to Schoenlein at the Charité Hospital 
in 1848, and was appointed chief physician of a 
department of the same institution and assistant 
professor in 1857. In 1862 he was appointed pro- 
fessor at the Prussian institution for army surgeons 
(Friedrich Wilhelms-Institut zur Ausbildung von 
Militiiriirzten); in 1866 he received the title of “ Ge- 
heimer Medizinalrath”; and in 1872 he became 
professor at the university. 

Through the above-mentioned essays Traube be- 
came one of the leading German specialists in ex- 
perimental pathology, in which field he remained 
prominent up to his death. His fameas a clinician, 
too, was great, he being one of the best teachers at 
his university. Traube was also one of the leading 
practitioners of Europe, Many of his essays were 
epoch-making. To these belong his monographs 
on digitalis, fever, thermometry in medicine, dis- 
eases of the lungs, heart, and kidneys (“Ueber den 
Ausammenhang von Herz- und Nierenkrankheiten,” 
Berlin, 1856), and above all his works on experi- 
mental pathology. His essays were originally 
published in the “Charité Annalen,” “ Verhand- 
lungen der Berliner Medizinischen Gesellschaft,” 
and other medical journals. He collected them 
later and published them in “Gesammelte Beitriige 
zur Pathologie und Therapie” (vol. i., Berlin, 
1871, contains his experimental essays; vol. ii., 7d. 
1871, his clinical experiments; vol, ili., 23. 1878, 
published after his death by his nephew Albert 
Friinkel, contains his diary, and minor scientific 
works). In 1867 Traube published “ Die Symptome 
der Krankheiten des Respirations- und Circulations- 
apparates ” (not complete), 

In 1878 a monument was erected to the memory 
of Traube in the second court of the Charité. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Pagel, Biog. Lex. Vienna, 1901; Meyers Kon- 

versations-Lextkon; Brockhaus Konversations-Lexikon 3 

Leyden, Geddichtnissrede auf Ludwig Traube, Berlin, 1876; 

ae Geddchtnissrede auf Ludwig Trawbe, Breslau, 

S. F. T. YH. 

TRAUBEL, HORACE: American editor; born 
at Camden, N. J., Dec. 19, 1858; educated in the 
public schools of his native town. In 1892 he was 
appointed, jointly with Richard Maurice Buckle and 
Thomas B. Harned, literary executor of Walt Whit- 
man; lie has contributed to the periodical press a 
number of essays on that poet. In 1886 he founded 
the Contemporary Club in Philadelphia. Among the 
publications which Traubel has edited are: “The 
Conservator” (Philadelphia; from 1890 to 1905); 
“The Dollar or the Man,” and “Cartoons of Homer 
Davenport ” (1900). In conjunction with his coex- 


Travelers 
Treason 


ecutors he edited a memorial volume on Walt Whit- 
man. Traubel is editor-in-chief of “The Artsman,” 
a publication founded in Philadelphia in 1903. He 
is also secretary of the International Walt Whitman 


Fellowship. 
A. F. H. V. 


TRAVELERS: Jews early became accustomed 
to wandering, either by compulsion, as in the Exile 
and in the Diaspora, or through natural dispersion. 
The spreading out of the Jewish race in the first and 
second centuries indicated a willingness to change 
homes rarely found in other classes under the Roman 
empire, owing to the local nature of their cults. 
After the destruction of the Temple there was noth- 
ing to prevent Jews worshiping in any part of the 
habitable globe. Jews were found as far north as 
the Black Sea and as far west as Spain, and the in- 
tercourse between Palestine and Babylonia was con- 
tinued, as is shown by the cases of Hillel, Akiba, 
and Rab. Communications between Palestine and 
Rome were frequent; and the example of Saul of 
Tarsus shows the wide extent of country that an 
individual without any means could cover in the 
course of a few years (see Harnack, “ Ausbreitung 
des Christenthums,” Berlin, 1904). With the spread 
of Islam, Jewish traders became the chief interme- 
diaries between Moslem and Christian lauds; and 
two routes between Spain and China are recorded as 
traversed by Jewish traders known as “ Radanites,” 
who are described in the “ Book of Ways,” written 
about 817 by Ibn Khordadhbeh (see COMMERCE). 
Other Jewish trade-routes ran from Byzantium to 
Prague, and possibly extended farther north. A Jew 
named Isaac accompanied an embassy of Charle- 
magne’s from Aix-la-Chapelle to Bagdad in 802, It 
is said that Jacob ibn Tarik was sent in the ninth 
century from Bagdad as far as Ceylon to obtain as- 
tronomical books from the Indians; and according 
to Abraham ibn Ezra a Jewish traveler brought from 
India the so-called Arabic numerals (see “Fables of 
Bidpai,” ed. Jacobs, p. xxiv.). His name is given 
also as “Joseph of Spain” (Weissenbron, “Zur 
Gescli. der Jetzigen Ziffern,” 1892, pp. 74-78). 

The travels of Eldad ha-Dani are stated to have 
extended from Babylonia to Spain, but their au- 
thenticity is somewhat doubtful. The travels of 
Abraham ibn Ezra between 1140 and 1168 extended 
as far as Palestine on the one side, and to England 
on the other. The same century was distinguished 
by two important travelers. BENJAMIN of Tudela 
started from Saragossa in 1160 and went at least as 
far as Bagdad, returning to Spain about 1171. It 
is doubtful whether his accounts of countries east 
of Bagdad are derived from personal knowledge or 
from hearsay. About the same time Pethahiah of 
Regensburg traveled from Prague to Poland and 
South Russia, to Bagdad, to Jerusalem, and back to 
Greece and Bohemia. In 1210 a band of over 800 
rabbis from France and England made a pilgrimage 
to the Holy Land, following the example of Judah 
ha-Levi in 1140 and starting the practise of pilgrim- 
ages, a list of which will be found under PILGRim- 
AGE. KEstori Farhi was perhaps the most important 
of their followers; after the expulsion of Jews from 
France in 1306 he wandered in Spain, Egypt, and 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


236 


Palestine, over which he traveled very thoroughly 
for seven years for geographical purposes. 

Jews were intimately connected with the impor- 
tant extension of geographical knowledge in the 
fifteenth century—theoretically through the school 
of Majorca map-makers to which belonged CRESQUES 

Lo JunEU and Mecta, and practically 

Part in througha numberof travelers like Af- 

Geograph- fonso de Bayba, Abraham of Bega, and 
ical Joseph of Lamejo, who accompanied 
Discovery. Pedro de Covilham on the discovery 
of the land-route to the East Indies, 
and Gaspar da Gama, who had gone from Poland to 
Goa, where he met Vasco da Gama (Jacobs, “Story 
of Geographical Discovery,” p. 89, New York, 1904). 
Jews accompanied Columbus on his first voyage to 
America (see AMERICA, DISCOVERY OF). 

Pilgrimages like those of Meshullam b. Menahem 
of Volterraand Obadiah Bertinoro to the Holy Land 
and back became too frequent to deserve special 
mention; David Reubeni’s travels were in the oppo- 
site direction. A certain Jew named Jechonadab of 
Morocco, mentioned by André Thevet as having ac- 
quired twenty-eight languages from personal inter- 
course with those who spoke them, was probably 
well acquainted with North Africa. Antonio de 
Montesinos appears to have traveled widely in South 
America; he claimed to have discovered there the 
Lost Ten Tribes about 1642. Moses Pereira de Pavia 
traveled from Holland to Cochin and described the 
Jews there (1687), while Teixeira’s descriptions of 
his travels in the Philippines, China, and parts of 
America are of considerable interest. In the eight- 
eenth century few names of travelers occur, apart 
from those of pilgrims to Palestine and wanderers 
through Europe, though Samuel Romanelli of Man- 
tua, who lived in Berlin in 1791, described his travels 
from Gibraltar to Algicrs and Morocco, giving many 
interesting details. In the nineteenth century Jews 
took a large share in travel in unknown parts. Men- 
tion may be made of Joseph Wolf and his travels to 
Bokhara; of Nathaniel Isaacs, who was one of the 
earliest to explore Zululand and Natal; and of C.S. 
Pollack, one of the earliest settlers in New Zealand, 
of which he wrote an account (“ Residence in New 
Zealand,” 2 vols., London, 1881-87). W. G. Pal- 
eTave gave an interesting account of his journeys in 
central Arabia; Arminius Vambéry of his in cen- 
tral Asia; Captain Binger discovered the bend of 
the Niger; and Captain Foa wandered from South: to 
North Africa. Emin Pasha and Louis A. Lucas are 
also to be mentioned as having added to the knowl- 
edge of darkest Africa. On. Polar expeditions 
Bessels, Israel, and Angelo Heilprin have done 
service. 

Among modern travelers who have devoted their 
attention particularly to the condition of Jews in 
various lands have been: Benjamin II., who 
wandered over all the continents except Australia; 
Jacob Saphir, who was especially interested in the 
Jews of Yemen; J. Halévy, who visited the Falashas; 
and J. Rinmann, who traveled among the Jews of 
India. Chorny’s travels among the Jews of the 
Caucasus and Deinard’s among those of the Crimea 
should be mentioned. To these should be added E. 
N. Adler, who has visited most of the outlying 


237 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Travelers 
Treason 


colonies of Jews in Africa, Asia, and America 
(“Jews of Many Lands,” Philadelphia, 1905). 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zunz, Literatur der Juden,in G.S. i. pe 

Ss, e 

TRAVNIK: Town of Bosnia. The first Jews 
settled there at the beginning of the nineteenth cen- 
tury, during the reign of the sultan ‘Abd al-Majid, 
most of them being Sephardim from Sarajevo. The 
first to come were the army purveyor Abraham Es- 
kenasi, the Ottoman army surgeon Isaac Salom (de- 
scendants of both of whom are now living at Sara- 
jevo), and the rabbi Isaac Attias. About this time 
Moses Amar, a Jew from Belgrade, whose descend- 
ants still live in that city, was employed by the 
Ottoman government as collector of taxes at Trav- 
nik. His successors down to the time of the occu- 
pation (1878) were the following Jews: Judah Mon- 
tilijo, R. Salom, T. Levi, D. Salom, and M. I. Salom. 
The Ottoman government treated them liberally, 
allowing them to close the tax-office on Jewish 
feast-days and on Saturdays—a fact which indi- 
cates the influence and respect which the Jews 
enjoyed. 

The Jews of Travnik have always been conserva- 
tive. About 1840, when their number had increased, 
they built a wooden chapel, which was replaced by 
a massive temple in 1868, the leading Jews of the 
community helping in its construction by personally 
carrying stone and brick. A schoolhouse was erected 
in 1877, but both these edifices were burned in the 
conflagration of Sept. 3, 1908. The acting rabbi, 
Isaac Attias, who has already been mentioned, was 
succeeded by Abraham Abinon, who officiated for 
twenty-six years, when he was called to SARAJEVO 
as chief rabbi of the Sephardim in Bosnia-Herzego- 
vina. The Jews of Travnik have never been sub- 
jected to any persecutions or restrictions on account 
of their religion, and have always lived peaceably 
with the followers of other creeds. In 19038, out of 
a total population of 6,626, there were 426 Jews in 
the town, comprising ina single community sixty- 
five Sephardic and twenty-four Ashkenazic families, 
the latter having come after 1878. 

Ji. S. WE, 


TREASON.—Biblical Data: In the strictest 
sense there is no record in the Bible of an attempt 
to betray one’s country, nor is there any mention of 
an unsuccessful attempt at regicide, which is high 
treason; but there are numerous instances of suc- 
cessful attempts to overthrow the government by 
killing its head. Abimelech, the son of Jerubbaal, 
slew his half-brothers, the seventy sons of Gideon, 
and proclaimed himself ruler of Israel (Judges ix. 
1-5). Athaliah annihilated all those of royal 
blood and made herself Queen of Judah (IT Kings 
xi. 1). 

Saul evidently considered David’s action as 
treasonable and deserving of death (I Sam. xx. 81), 
and he executed Abimelech and his family of priests 
for aiding David (I Sam. xxii. 11-18), though Sam- 
uel, by God's command, had already anointed David 
as Saul’s successor. Nevertheless, David killed the 
Amalekite who assisted Saul in committing suicide, 
“for stretching forth his hand to destroy the Lord’s 
anointed” (II Sam.i.14). Baanah and Rechab, two 


captains, killed Ish-bosheth, the son of Saul, in the 
expectation of being rewarded by David; but the 
latter charged them with treason and executed them 
(II Sam. iv. 2-12). Joab killed Absalom for having 
attempted to overthrow the government and to 
depose his father, David, in the kingship (II Sam. 
xvili. 14). Shimei, the son of Gera, was guilty of 
treason in insulting and cursing David (II Sam. xvi. 
5-8). When Shimei begged David’s forgiveness, the 
latter pardoned him (IJ Sam. xix. 21), but King 
Solomon found a pretext to avenge his father (I 
Kings ii, 46). Sheba, the son of Bichri, raised the 
standard of rebellion against David, and was killed 
by those he had misled (II Sam. xx. 22). Adonijah 
was found guilty of treason, and was finally executed 
(I Kings i. 5, ii. 25). 

Zimri, a captain in the army of Elah, the son of 
Baasha, killed his king, and after a reign of seven 
days, fearing capture, committed suicide (I Kings 
xvi. 9-18). His action became proverbial, and was 
recalled in Jezebel’s remark, “ Zimri, ... who slew 
his master” (II Kings ix. 81). Pekahiah, the son of 
Menahem, King of Israel, was killed by his captain 
Pekah, the son of Remaliah, who succeeded him. In 
return, Hoshea, the son of Elah, conspired against 
Pekah, killing and replacing him (II Kings xv. 25, 
30). Ishmael killed Ahikam’s son Gedaliah, whom 
the king of Babylon had appointed governor (II 
Kings xxv. 25). 

——In Rabbinical Literature: The Rabbis find 
the penalty of death for disobedience to the king in 
Josh. i, 18 (see Sanh. 49a), A Jewish king may in- 
flict. death upon those guilty of revolt. Even if the 
king orders one of his subjects to go to a certain 
place, or forbids him to leave his own house, he 
must obey or become Hable to capital punishment. 
The king also has the right to kill one who insults 
or disgraces him, as in the case of Shimei ben Gera. 
Death for treason is by the sword only. The king 
may also punish the offender otherwise, but he may 
not confiscate his property, as this would be rob- 
bery (Maimonides, “ Yad,” Melakim, iii. 8). David 
ben Solomon ibn Abi Zimra defines a king as one 
chosen by a prophet or elected by the people. but 
not a self-appointed ruler who has acquired his 
kingdom by usurpation. No one can be guilty as a 
“mored be-malkut” in the case of such a king 
(commentary on the “ Yad,” ad loc., ed. Wilna, 1900), 
R. Joseph partly justifies David’s action against 
Uriah by the latter’s reference to “my Jord Joab, and 
the servants of my lord” (II Sam. xi. 11), which 
placed Joab on equal terms with the king, an offense 
which amounted to treason (Shab. 56a). Others are 
of the opinion that Uriah deserved death because he 
disobeyed David’s command to go home (Tos. ad 
loc., 8.V. ")8)). David adjudged Nabal guilty of 
disrespect to the king; but Abigail pleaded that 
Saul was still living and that David was not yet 
recognized generally as king: David admitted the 
force of her argument (I Sam. xxv. 33; Meg, 
14b), Amasa was guilty of disobedience when he 
“tarried longer than the set time which he [{Da- 
vid] had appointed him,” and thereby earned his 
death at the hands of Joab (II Sam. xx. 5, 10; 
Sanh, 49a). 

J. J. D. E. 


Treasure-Trove 
Tree-Worship 


TREASURE-TROVE. Sce FINDER or PRor- 
ERTY. 


TREBINO (TREMINO) DE SOBRE- 
MONTE, TOMAS: Martyr; burned at the stake 
at Mexico, or Lima, April 11, 1649. He had previ- 
ously been reconciled by the Inquisition; but in 
1642, during the trial of Gabriel de Granada, infor- 
mation was brought against him and his wife, Maria 
Gomez. He appears to have been thrown into the 
dungeon of the Inquisition at that time, and kept in 
imprisonment till his death, possibly in order that 
the Inquisitor might obtain possession of his fortune; 
for when burning he taunted the officials with using 
up wood which had cost them nothing, because it 
had been bought with hismoney. Out ofa group of 
109 prisoners, Trebino de Sobremonte was the only 
one to be burned alive. He died without uttering 
a groan, mocking “the pope and his hirelings,” as 
he called them, and taunting his tormentors with his 
last breath. De Barrios, the Spanish-Jewish histo- 
rian, who visited Cayenne in 1660, dedicated two 
sonnets to him. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Obrégon, Mexico Viejo, vol. ii. C. Adler, in 
Publ. Am. Jew. Hist. Soc. vii., pp. vi. 5, 59, 60, 63; G. A. 
Kohut, tb. iv. 124, 161-162; xi. 164. 

A. J. 

TREBITSCH, ABRAHAM BEN REUBEN 
HAYYAT: Austrian scholar; born at Trebitsch, 
Moravia, about 1760; died at Nikolsburg in the first 
half of the nineteenth century. He attended the 
yeshibah of Léb Fischels at Prague in 1775 (“ Korot 
ha-‘Ittim,” p. 24a), and then settled in Nikolsburg, 
where he became secretary to the “ Landesrabbiner.” 
He was the author of “ Korot ha-‘Ittim,” a history of 
the European monarchs, including the emperors of 
Austria, from 1741 to 1801 (part i., Briinn, 1801; 
with additions, under the title “ Korot Nosafot,” up 
to the year 1880, by Jacob Bodek, Lemberg, 1841). 
It deals especially with the history and literature of 
the Jews in the Austrian states. Trebitsch’s work 
is a continuation of Menahem Mann ben Solomon 
ha-Levi’s “She’erit Yisrael,” which traces the history 
down to the year 1740 (see Jew. Encyc. i. 490, s.2. 
AMELANDER). 

Trebitsch, with Hirsch Menakker, was the author 
of “Ruah Havyim,” a story of the exorcising of an 
evil spirit that possessed a young man (published in 
Hebrew and Yiddish, Nikolsburg, 1785; Frank fort- 
on-the-Oder, 1794). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY : Benjacoo, Ozar ha-Sefarim, p. 527, No. 827; 
First, Bibl. Jud. iii. 442; Zedner, Cat. Hebr. Books Brit. 
Mus. p. 176, 

D. S. MAN. 

TREBITSCH, NEHEMIAH (MENAHEM 
NAHUM): Austrian rabbi; born at Prague Aug. 
14, 1779; died there July 4, 1842. He was a son 
of Selig Trebitsch, hazzan at the Altneuschule, and 
he received a thorough Talmudical training at the 
yeshibah of Jacob Ginsberg. Upon the recom- 
mendation of the “ Landesrabbiner” Mordecai Benet 
(Marcus Benedict), Trebitsch became rabbi of Pross- 
nitz in 1826. 

On May 138, 1832, the government confirmed the 
electionof Trebitsch as “ Landesrabbiner” of Moravia, 
in succession to Mordecai Benet, and granted him a 
salary of 600 florins; he was the last Moravian 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


238 


“ Landesrabbiner” of the old school. In Sept., 1883, 
the provincial government issued a decree conferring 
upon the chief rabbi the power of proposing candi- 
dates for the various rabbinates of the province, and 
of making an appointment when the congregation 
failed to inform him of a vacancy or rejected the 
candidate proposed by the “ Landesrabbiner.” This 
decree, for which Trebitsch was declared by his op- 
ponents to be responsible, brought him into con- 
flict with the congregations of Gewitsch, Weiss- 
kirchen, Prossnitz, and Loschitz ; and tive years later 
(May 23, 1838) another decree canceled the chief 
rabbi's privilege of proposing candidates. Abraham 
Neuda, rabbi of Loschitz, whom Trebitsch refused 
to confirm on account of Hberal tendencies, was re- 
instated after having passed a successful examina- 
tion before a committee of which Trebitsch was a 
member. This defeat, and the censure of the gov- 
ernment for his opposition to the use of the German 
language among the Jews greatly affected Tre- 
bitsch, who died while on a journey to Carlsbad. 
Trebitsch wrote: “Shelom Yerushalayim,” glosses 
on Seder Mo‘ed of the Palestinian Talmud, with the 
text and David Frinkel’s commentary (Vienna, 
1821); “Kobez ‘al Yad,” notes on Maimonides’ 
“Yad ha-Hazakah,” part i., with text (7b. 1835). 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Kol Nehi, a funeral sermon (Hebr. and Get- 
man), Prague, 1842; L. Low, Das Méhrische Landesrab- 
binat, in Gesammelte Schriften, ii. 195-212. 


S. S. Man. 


TREE OF LIFE.—Biblical Data: According 
to Gen. ii. 9, there stood in the midst of the Garden 
of Eden a “tree of life,” apparently by the side of 
the “ tree of knowledge of good and evil.” Although 
Gen. iii. 3 seems to presuppose but one tree there, 
Gen. iii. 22 asserts that, after the primitive pair 
had eaten of the tree of knowledge, they were ex- 
pelled from Eden lest they should put forth their 
hands and take of the tree of life and live forever. 
The view of the writer was that Eden contained a 
tree the magical power of the fruit of which con- 
ferred immortality upon him who partook of it, 
though Yuwu prohibited mortals from partaking 
of this fruit. 

A tradition of this tree lingered longin Israel. In 
Prov. iii. 16-18 the poet says of wisdom, “Length 
of days is in her right hand; .. . She is a tree of 
life to them that lay hold upon her,” a passage 
which clearly alludes to the primitive conception of 
a life-prolonging tree. Again, Prov. xi. 80 reads, 
“The fruit of the righteous is a tree of life”; and 
Prov. xiii. 12, “ Hope deferred maketh the heart sick: 
but when the desire cometh, it is a tree of life.” In 
Prov. xv. 4 it is said, “A wholesome tongue is a tree 
of life.” In the last three references the thought 
may not be so literal as in the first, but the use of 

the tree of life in this gnomic poetry 

Referred to is evidence that the tradition lived. 
in In Ezek. xlvii. 12 also there seems ta 
Proverbs. bean allusion to the tree of life. In 
describing the river which would flow 

out from Jerusalem to the Dead Sea the prophet 
says, “And by the river upon the bank thereof, on 
this side and on that side, shall grow all trees for 
meat, whose leaf shall not fade, neither shall the 
fruit thereof be consumed: it shall bring forth new 


239 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Treasure-Trove 
Tree-Worship 


fruit according to his months.” In the New Testa- 
ment, Where this passage is quoted (Rev. xxii. 2), 
the tree is described as the tree of life. 

In the extracanonica] literature there are two or 
three additional references. The Ethiopic Book of 
Enoch (xxiv. 4) describes the tree of lifeas having 
“a fragrance beyond all fragrance; its leaves and 
bloom and wood wither not forever; its fruit is 
beautiful and resembles the dates of a palm.” The 
Slavonic Book of Enoch (viii. 3) says, “In the midst 
there is the tree of life . . . and this treecan not be 
described for its excelience and sweet odor.” IV 
Esd. viii. 52, in describing the future, says, “ Unto 
you is paradise opened, the tree of life is planted,” 
etc. 

——Critical View: Budde (“Urgeschichte,” pp. 
46 et seg.) showed that in the original narrative of 
Gen. ii.-iii. there was butone tree. This, he thought, 
was the tree of knowledge, and he accordingly elim- 
inated the tree of hfe. Barton, however, has shown 
(*Semitic Origins,” pp. 98 e¢ seq.) that in primitive 
Semitic life the especially sacred tree was the date- 
palm, and that, because of its bisexual nature and 
because of a belief that man came to self-realization 
through sexual relations, it was regarded as both the 
tree of knowledge and the tree of life. The differ- 
entiation which divided these functions between 
two trees came in at a later time, when knowledge 
of the origin had become in part obscured. That 
this is the source of the idea of the tree of life among 
the Hebrews is rendered probable by the following 
considerations: (1) the Temple of Solomon, which 
was evidently intended to imitate a garden (comp. 
Bevan, in “Jour. of Theol. Studies,” iv. 502 e¢ seq.), 
was carved with cherubim, palm-trees, and flowers 
(I Kings vi. 29-82); (2) a recollection of the real 
origin of the tree of life crops out in Ethiopic Enoch, 
xxiv. 4; (3) the tradition came to the Hebrews by 
way of Babylonia (comp. PaRaDIsE, CRITICAL 
View), and in Babylonia not only was the palm the 
sacred tree of a sacred garden (comp. Barton, l.c. p. 
107), but in the literature its name is sometimes 
written with the determinative for deity (idem, 
“Documents from the Archives of Telloh,” 1905, 
plate 25). Fora similar Babylonian conception of a 
food of life see ParapDIsrE, CRITICAL VrEw. In 
Hebrew literature this idea first appcars in its literal 
form in Genesis, is used as a literary metaphor in 
Proverbs, and in Ezekiel and the apocalypses be- 
comes a part of the picture of the heavenly paradise. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Budde, Urgeachichte, pp. 46-88, Giessen, 1883 ; 
Toy, Proverbs, in International Critieal Com. 1899, pp. 69, 
o : Barton, Sketch of Semitic Origins, pp. 90-98, New York, 


evo 


E. G. A. G. A. B. 


TREE-WORSHIP: Trees have been objects of 
worship in all parts of the world (comp. Mannhardt, 
“Wald- und Feldkulte,” Berlin, 1875). They were 
worshiped among the Semites (comp. Wellbausen, 
“Reste Arab. Heidentums,” 2d ed., 1897, pp. 101 et 
seq.; W. R. Smith, “Rel. of Sem.” 2d ed., 1894, pp. 
185 e¢ seg.; Barton, “Sketch of Semitic Origins,” pp. 
87 et seg.), and the Hebrews were no exception to this. 
The tree that was generally regarded as sacred in 
Palestine was the oak, or the terebinth, which in hot 
countries, especially the more southerly of those 


about the Mediterranean, takes the place of the oak. 
It is called “allon,” which possibly meant “di- 
vine tree” (from by), though another etymology is 
perhaps more probable. This was not the only 
sacred tree; for traces of the worship of the palm- 
tree survive (comp. TREE oF LIFE), and Abraham 
planted an “eshel” (tamarisk) by the sacred wells 
at Beer-sheba and called on the name of God there 
(Gen. xxi. 88), Tamarisks existed also at Ramah in 
the time of Saul and at Jabesh in Gilead (I Sam. 
Xx1i, 6, xxxi. 18, Hebr.). It was the terebinth, how- 
ever, Which was generally worshiped, and the wor- 
ship of which was denounced by the Prophets. 

The worship of this tree is connected with the 
earliest traditions. At Shechem, Yuwu is said to 
have appeared to Abraham at the terebinth (R. V. 
margin) of Moreh, when he first entered the land 
(Gen. xii. 6 e¢ seg.). Under this tree Jacob buried 
the foreign gods of his followers (Gen. xxxv. 4); 

and Joshua set up a “mazzebah” under 
The Sacred the terebinth which was in the sanc- 
Terebinth. tuaryof Yuwr(Josh. xxiv. 26). Per- 

haps it was this tree to which allusion 
is made in Judges ix. 37. Near Beth-el there was 
another of these sacred terebinths (Eng. versions, 
“oak”; Gen. xxxv. 8). At Hebron, Abraham built 
an altar under one; there he dwelt, and there Yawn 


Sacred Terebinth on Jabal Ausha‘, Palestine. 
(From a photograph.) 


appeared to him (Gen. xii. 18, xiv. 18, xviii. 1 e¢ 
seg.). A descendant of this tree (see illustration 
st. ABRAHAM'S Oak) is still pointed out at 
Hebron, and is venerated by the Russo-Greek 
pilgrims who visit Palestine every year: it has prob- 
ably maintained its sacred character through all the 
intervening centuries. At Oplira a sacred terebinth 
(A. V. “oak ”) existed in the time of Gideon (Judges 
vi. 11, 19). The wide-spread existence of this tree 
is evidenced by the names derived from it—as Elim 
(Ex. xv. 27), Elon (Judges xii. 11), and Elath (II 
Kings xiv. 22). The extent of its worship is indi- 
cated also by the denunciations of the Prophets. 
A favorite phrase of theirs in describing idolatrous 
practises was “upon every high hill and under 
every green tree” (Deut. xii. 2; Jer. ji. 20). Some- 


Trees 
Trespass 


times the name of the terebinth is combined with 

this phrase (comp. Isa. Ivii. 5 and Ezek. vi. 18, R. 

V. margin), showing that it was to this tree the 

Prophets referred. 

The sacred character of many of these trees has 
survived to the present time. There is, for example, 
one on Jabal Ausha‘, and others are at ‘Ain Yajuz and 
Suf (comp. Barton in “ Biblical World,” 1904, xxiv. 
170, 174; tdem, “A Year’s Wandering in Bible 
Lands,” 1904, p. 162). The one at Suf is thickly hung 
with rags. In southern Gilead to-day the limbs of 
the ordinary terebinth are cut for fire-wood, so that 
the tops of the trees are kept small and are much 
misshapen. The sacred ones, on the contrary, are 
left intact and cast a fine shade. Perhaps this was 
the case in aucient times also. If so, it would ex- 
plain the phrase “green tree” as applied to those 
which were sacred. 

Other trees besides those mentioned may have had 
a sacred character, as is suggested by the fact that 
David once received an oracle through the mulberry- 
or balsam-tree (“baka”; comp. II Sam. v. 24); but 
nearly all trace of such a character has disappeared. 
As has been pointed out, the Prophets were unable 
completely to suppress tree-worship, which has sur- 
vived in Palestine through all religious changes to 
the present day. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: In addition to the works mentioned, see Bau- 
dissin, Stuclien, vol. ii.; Jacobs, Studies tn Biblical Arche- 
ology, pp. 68-74. 

E. C. G. A. B. 

TREES, LAWS CONCERNING: Cutting 
down fruit-bearing and useful trees is forbidden by 
the Mosaic law. In time of war the fruit-trees about 
a besieged city may not’ be injured or used to build 
defenses; for war is waged against foes, and not 
against the life-preserving works of nature (Deut. 
xx. 19-20). The Rabbis regard this as an admoni- 
tion against any kind of waste or wilful destruction. 
The prohibition is technically known as “bal tash- 
hit” (thou shalt not destroy; Shab. 129a). Some 
authorities, however, permit the cutting down of 
fruit-trees when the site is needed for a dwelling 
(“Ture Zahab,” to Shulhan ‘Aruk, Yoreh De‘ah, 
117, 6). 

A tree which extends into the public road may be 
cut to allow a camel and its rider to pass beneath (B. 
B. ii. 14). Trees were often used to mark the bound- 
ary between fields belonging to different owners. 
The fruit of a tree belongs to the owner of the 
land in which the tree is planted, though the 
branches extend over other property. If the trunk 
of the tree is in two properties, the two owners be- 
come partners in the treeand divide the fruit (B. M. 
107a; “ Yad,” Shekenim, vi. 9). One who purchases 
three trees in one field may claim the right to as 
much ground around the treesas is necessary for the 
gatherer and his basket (B. B. 82b); one who pur- 
chases less than three trees has no claim to ground. 
An adjacent owner can not object because the roots 
of a tree are in his ground. He may, however, cut 
the roots when they are in the way of his plow or if 
they enter his well. When there is no fence between 
two separately owned fields, one must not plant trees 
nearer than 4 ells from his neighbor’s boundary-line 
(B. B. 26a). Enough space must be left on either 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


240 


side of a river to allow a rower room to run his 


boat. ashore (Shulhan ‘Aruk, Hoshen Mishpat, 
155). 
Ww. B. J. D. E. 


TREMELLIUS, JOHN IMMANUEL: Ital- 
ian Hebraist; born at Ferrara 1510; died at Sedan 
Oct. 9, 1580. He was educated at the University of 
Padua. He was converted about 1540 to the Cath- 
olic faith through Cardinal Pole, but embraced Prot- 
estantism in the following year, and went to Stras- 
burg to teach Hebrew. Owing to the wars of the 
Reformation in Germany he was compelled to seek 
asylum in England, where he resided at Lambeth 
Palace with Archbishop Cranmer in 1547. In 1549 
he succeeded Paul Fagius as regius professor of Ie- 
brew at Cambridge. On the death of Edward VI. 
he revisited Germany, and, after some vicissitudes, 
became professor of Old Testament at Heidelberg 
(1561)... He ultimately found refuge at the College 
of Sedan, where he died. His chief literary work 
was a Latin translation of the Bible from the He- 
brew and Syriac. The five parts relating to the 
Old Testament were published at Frank fort-on-the- 
Main between 1575 and 1579, in London in 1580, and 
in numerous later editions. Tremellius also trans- 
lated into Hebrew Calvin’s “Catechism” (Paris, 
1551), and wrote a “Chaldaic” and Syriac grammar 
(Paris, 1569). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Dictionary of National Biography. 

T. : 
TRENEL, ISAAC: French rabbi; born at Metz 
Dec. 28, 1822; died at Paris in 1890. He studied at 
Marmoutier under his uncle Jacob Haguenauer, a 
famous Talmudist, and later at Merzig, Prussia, 
under the Talmudist Moise Lévy, known also as R. 
Moché Merzig. After completing his studies at the 
rabbinical school of Metz, Trénel was appointed 
rabbi at Besancon; he resigned that office soon after, 
however, and went to Paris, where he was for a 
time secretary of the Comité de Bienfaisance Israé- 
lite. After some years he was appointed assistant to 
the chief rabbi of Paris, and in 1856 director of the 
Ecole Centrale Rabbinique, which was transferred 
to Paris in 1859; he retained the latter office until 
his death. He was the author of a Hebrew-French 
dictionary, compiled in collaboration with N. Sander 
(Paris, 1859), and of a study on the life of Hillel the 
Elder, published in the report of the Séminaire 
Israélite (2. 1867). 

s. I. L. 


TRENT (German, Trient): Oldest city of the 
Tyrol; a sovereign bishopric from 1027 to 1803, 
During the first half of the fourteenth century a 
small number of Jews, probably from Italy, settled 
in the episcopal city. During the first decades their 
history differed in no wise from that of the Jews 
living in the rest of the TyRoL; but by the begin- 
ning of the fifteenth century there existed for the 
Jews of Trent special ordinances similar to those in 
force in Bozen, as is proved by an order pro- 
mulgated by Bishop Ulrich ITT. of Brixen in 1408. 
The Jews as prominent business men showed them- 
selves of service to the bishops, and accordingly 
stood high in favor with them. Thus Bishop Alex- 
ander of Masovia (1423-44) on one occasion gave @ 


241 


decision in favor of the Jew Isaac against Peter 
von Rido (Sept. 8, 1440). The Jewish physician 
Tobias, who later (1475) died a martyr for his 
faith, was likewise very popular among the Chris- 
tians. 

The Jews owned houses, estates, and a separate 
Jewish school, and in general lived on the best of 
terms With their Christian fellow citizens, until the 
favaticism of a priest caused untold disaster to 
descend upon the small but prosperous community. 
Bernardinus of Feltre, the indirect and probably the 
direct instigator of the murder of Simon of Trent, 
prought about the notorious ritual-murder proceed- 
ings of 1475 (see Simon oF TRENT). The commu- 
nity was dissolved; its rich members were put to 
death after the confiscation of their property by 
order of Bishop Hinderbach ; and the surviving mem- 
bers were expelled. Sixtus IV., seriously ill at the 
time, in the bull “ Facit nos pictas,” dated June 20, 
1478, sanctioned these proceedings in spite of the 
efforts made by the Bishop of Ventimiglia, who 
showed that the charges which had been brought 
were a mere tissue of lies. For centuries from that 
time no Jews dwelt in Trent; and as late as Oct. 20, 
1688, the proceedings of 1475 were cited by the prince 
bishop Karl Emanuel of Madruzzo as ground for 
forbidding the settlement of Jews in the town, On 
the same occasion a law was promulgated to the ef- 
fect that Jews when traveling might not pass through 
the precincts of Trent in closed wagons or sedan- 
chairs, and that they must wear on the breast a 
badge the sizeof athaler. The penalty for violating 
this law was to bea long imprisonment or heavy 
fine. In 1725 and again in 1781 it was ordered that 
Jews wear hats covered with red or yellow cloth. 
A few Jews were allowed to stay in Trent when 
provided with special letters of protection from the 
emperor, but only for a few days. Such a safe-con- 
duct was granted, for example, by Emperor Maxi- 
milian to the Jew Emanuel, son of Samson, on 
March 1, 1516. 

In recent times several Jewish merchants have sct- 
tled in Trent; but they have no opportunities for 
holding religious services, and, like all the Jews in 
the Tyrol, they belong to the community of HoHEN- 
EMS. 

J. A. TA. 

TRESPASS: Injury done directly, in most cases 
purposely, to the person or property of another. 
Trespass on the person has been discussed under the 
head of AssAULT AND BaTTERyY: it remains to speak 
of the Talmudic law of trespass on property. 

According to the Mishnah (B. K. ii. 6), “a man is 
always forewarned.” That is, like the master of the 
forewarned ox (see GoRING Ox), he is always liable 
for the whole damage arising from his direct act; 
and the words are added: “ whetherawake or asleep, 
whether acting of purpose or from ignorance.” 

The Scripture preseribes punishment for only one 
typical ease (“ab”) of trespass en property (Lev. 
Xxiv.8,Hebr.): “And he who kills a domestic animal 
shall make it good, life for life”; and (7b. verse 21): 
‘And he who smites a beast shall make it good.” 
This is extended by the oral law to all cases of direct 
harm done to property ; but the above-quoted section 
of the Mishnah also singles out as a case, “ whether 

XTI.—16 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Trees 
Trespaass 


he has blinded one’s eye, or has broken his vessel, 
he pays full damage.” In other places the Mishnah 
or Baraita speaks of tearing a person's 

Trespass clothes, or destroying his crops or 

on plants, or killing his beast. Only one 

Property. exception is made: viz., when the 

trespass constitutes otherwise a death- 
deserving, sinful act, there is no liability to make 
the damage good in money (sce the case of the bur- 
glar in Sanh. viii. 6). 

Not only is sleep or ignorance no defense against 
the charge of trespass, but unwillingness or acting 
under compulsion (D198) does not free from liability 
—for instance, where one stumbles or falls from the 
roof and in so doing hurts a person or breaks a 
thing—unless the hurtful movement was made 
under irresistible force and was not caused by lack 
of care (B. K. 26-28). This is illustrated in the 
Mishnah (B. K. iii. 4-5) thus: 

** When two potters [men carrying earthenware] are walking 
one behind the other, and the first stuinbies and falls, and the 
second stumbles over hiin, the first is liable for the damage done 
to the other. Or when one goes along with his jar or barrel, 
and the other with his joist [meaning side by side], and the jar 
of the one is broken against the joist of the other, the latter goes 
clear; for each had the right to go where he went. If the man 
with the joist walked in front and the jar or barrel was broken 
against it, the man with the joist goes clear; but if he stood 
stiil, unless he told the man With the barrel to stand still also, 
he is liable. If the man with the barrel walked in front, and 
the other man behind him, and the barrel was broken by the 
joist, [the bearer of the latver] is liable; but if the man with 
the barrel suddenly stands still, without telling the man behind 
him to stop, the latter goes free. And the same resnuits will 
follow where one carries a burning lamp and another a bundle 
of flax.” 

But when the injurious act is committed on the 
grounds of the injuring party, he who commits 
it is liable only for what he dees wilfully, not for 
what he does unwitting:y or involuntarily; such at 
least is the opinion of Maimouidcs, taken from post- 
Talmudic authorities, though based upon hints and 
analogies in the Mishnah and the Baraita. 

The trespasser is responsible not only for what he 
does with his hand or other parts of his body, or 

with a weapon or implement which he 

Extent of wields, but also for any injury which 

Trespass. he does by throwing or shooting or by 

spitting. But if he casts anything on 

the ground (even his saliva) and injury arises there- 

from afterward (e.g., where it causes a man ora beast 

to stumble), it is not a trespass, but is in the nature 
of a pit (see JEw. Encyc. i. 160b, s.7. ACCIDENT). 

Where one strikes iron with a hammer so that 
sparks issue therefrom, by which a neighbor’s 
house or goods are burned or otherwise damaged, it 
is deemed a trespass, for which the wielder of the 
hammer is liable. When one pushes his neighbor's 
beast into the water, or prevents it from leaving the 
water, and it 1s drowned, or when he locks it ina 
circumscribed place, where it dies from heat or from 
lack of air, he is liable; and thus in similar cases of 
death indirectly inflicted. 

Where an injury does not affect the neighbor’s 
property in the body and can not be seen—where 
the shape of the thing is not changed, yet the thing 
itself is diminished in value—it is held (Git. 53b) 
that under the letter of the Torah there is no labil- 
ity for damage; but there is a rabbinical ordinance 


Trespass-Offerings 
Treves 


to the effect that the person causing the diminution 
in value must make it good. This would happen 
where things Levitically clean were defiled by the 
act of one not the owner; or where “wine of a 
heathen libation ” (JD3 }") was mixed with another 
man’s wine, rendering its use unlawful; or in like 
cases where food or drink has by the trespasser's 
act been made a thing forbidden under the Jewish 

dietary, Levitical, or other religious laws. 
Where one man orders or procures another to 
commit a trespass, and the agent docs so, both prin- 
cipaland agent are liable for the dam- 


Trespass agedone. Where the construction of 
Through a house, or of a similar thing in which 
Agent. several work together, causes an in- 


jury, if those doing the several parts 
of the work are associated as partners therein, all 
are liable; but if they work as employees, each for 
his own wages, only the one who actually causes the 
injury is liable, 

This case is also put: Five men have each put a 
burden on a beast, and it walks along; asixth puts a 
further burden on it, and it stops and dies; the 
sixth alone is liable. If, however, the beast had 
stopped before the additional weight was laid on it, 
the sixth man gues free; but if there is doubt as to 
the facts, all six are liable, and the damage is di- 
vided among them; and generally, when two or 
more jointly have killed an animal or broken an im- 
plement, the damage is paid by them in equal parts. 

All damages to property are paid in money, and 
are ascertained by subtracting the value of the dead 
beast or of the wreckage from the worth of the beast 
or other article before the trespass was committed, 
See RoBBERY. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Maimonides, Yar, Hohel w-Mazzik, vii. 7; 
Shuthan “Aruk, Hoshen Mishpat, 400-419, passim. 


E. C, L. N. D. 
TRESPASS-OFFERINGS. Sce SAcrIFICE. 


TREUE ZIONSWACHTER, DER. Sce Peni- 
ODICALS. 


TREUENBURG or TREUENFELD, JA- 
COB. See Bassevt, JAcoB: Coat or ARMS, 


TREVES (ancient, Augusta Treverorum; 
German, Trier): City of Rhenish Prussia, formerly 
an clectorate comprising upper and lower bishoprics 
with Trevesand Coblenz as capitals (see diw. ENcyc. 
iv, 183). In all probability Jews lived in the city in 
the carly centuries of the cominon era, for Treves 
was the central point connecting Gaul and Rome. 
There is no specific mention of them, however, be- 
fore 1066, when Archbishop Eberhard (1047-66) 
menaced them with expulsion unless they should 
accept baptism before Faster; but this threat was 
ineffective, for he was murdered on Feb. 12, 1066, 
by a priest named Christian, who had been in- 
stigated, it was alleged, by the Jews. Thirty years 
later (June, 1096) the pillaging bands of Emikos 
advanced upon Treves. Several Jews committed 
suicide, while the remainder sought refuge in the 
palace of Archbishop Egilbert, who endeavored to 
persuade them to accept baptism, although those 
who were converted obtained the permission of 
Emperor Henry IV. in the following year to return 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


242 


to Judaism (see Gratz, “Gesch.” vi. 102 et seg.; Sal- 
feld, “ Martyrologium,” pp. 8, 19 [Hebrew part], and 
pp. 98, 140 e¢ seg. [German part], where a list of the 
names of the martyrs is given). The other commu- 
nities of Treves, including those at Berncastel, 
Cochem, and Wittlich, were almost totally destroyed 
by the Crusaders. During the archbishopric of 
Bruno of Treves early in the twelfth century (1102- 
1124), one of the residents of the city was a Jew 
named Joshua, who later embraced Christianity, and 
who enjoyed a reputation as a physician, mathema- 
tician, astronomer, and student of Hebrew literature. 
Abrion, the Jew of Treves, who was unusually well 
versed in German, scems to have been a contempo- 
rary of Joshua (Goethe, “ Reineke Fuchs,” ii.). 

In 1262 the Jews were expelled from Treves by 
Archbishop Heinrich of Vinstingen, who invited 
Lombards to take their places, although the latter 

proved to be even more usurious than 
First the Jews, The elector Baldwin of 
Expulsion, Treves employed Jewish financial 
1262. agents, among them Muskin (1323-36); 
Jacob Daniel (until 1341), a banker 
who had a Hebrew chancellery and who, like his chief 
manager, bore the title of “Judweorum dominus”; 
and Michael, Jacob’s son-in-law, who wasinthe elect- 
oral service until 1849. The Jews of Treves suffered 
much during the ARMLEDER PERSECUTIONS in 1336, 
when their houses were pillaged (Salfeld, dc. p. 
239, note 1); but three years later they were per- 
mitted to remain in ‘Treves in consideration of an an- 
nual tax of 100 pounds heller, half this sum being 
paid in May and half on St. Martin’s Day. At Co- 
blenz on March 17, 1345, two Jews of Treves farmed 
the archiepiscopal “ Rheinzoll” of 15 tournois for 
three years at 6545 livres gros tournois annually. 

At the time of the Black Death the Jews of Treves 
were persecuted, like those of the entire Moselle val- 
ley (Salfeld, 4c. pp. 69, 78, 80, 84 [Hebrew part]; 
pp. 246 e¢ seg., 268, 276, 286 [German part]). On 
Oct. 9, 1354, Archbishop Boemund IT. engaged the 
Jew Symon as bis physician in ordinary, and Em- 
peror Charles V., in a document dated Metz, Dee. 
13, 1856, granted the elector the right of admitting 
Jews. On Sept. 30, 1862, an agreement was made 
between Archbishop Cuno of Falkenstein and the 
city of Treves by which the latter pledged itself to 
protect the Jews of the archbishopric like any other 
citizens, although the number of families permitted 
to reside there was limited to fifty; and they were 
ordered to pay an annual tax of 100 livres noir tour- 
nois in two instalments, at St. John’s Day and at 
Christmas, while in case twenty-five families or fewer 
lived there, they were to pay 50 livres. On Aug. 
24, 1405. King Ruprecht waived his claim to the 
OPFERPFENNIG which had not been collected 
from the Jews of Treves for several years, al- 
though he ordered them for the future to pay it 
annually (Stern, “Ké6nig Ruprecht von der Pfalz,” 
p. 31, Ixiel, 1898). 

The Jews of Treves anciently lived in a district 

(“Vicus Judeorum,” mentioned ina 
The Jewry. document of Sept. 21. 1284) repre- 
sented by the modern Judenplatz; the 
main street of residence was the Judenmauergasse 
(Jiidemergasse) near the Jewish cemetery. This 


243 


Jewish quarter is mentioned in documents of 1830, 
1346, and 1350; the synagogue (“scola”) in one of 
1234; the cemetery, of 1240; the “Spythus,” or dan- 
cing-hall, which was used for marriages (see Gitide- 
mann, “ Gesch.” iii, 188 ef seg.), of 1815; the hospital, 
of Oct.12, 1422;anda* Judenporte ” in Simeonsgasse, 
of 1460. At the head of the Treves community, 
whose members appear as owners of real estate as 
early as 1229 and Feb. 19, 1235, was a BisHop oF 
THE JEWS (“episcopus,” “magistratus Judeorum ” 
[1307]), who was required to loan the archbishop 10 
marks yearly without interest, receiving in return 
a cow, an aam of wine, two bushels of wheat, and 
a discarded cloak. Each Christmas and Easter the 
Jews gave six pounds of pepper to the archbishop 
and two to the chamberlain, besides furnishing silk 
and girdies for new garments for the former. For 
their cemetery they had to pay six denarii to the 
cathedral on St. Stephen’s Day (Dec. 26 or Aug. 3). 

In 1418 Archbishop Otto von Ziegenheim banished 
the Jews from the entire electorate of Treves; and al- 

most seventy years elapsed before the 

Second Jew Ytzinger was admitted (1486) 
Expulsion, asa veterinary surgeon into Vallendar, 

1418. south of Coblenz, where other Jews 
were afterward allowed to settle (July 
19 and Oct. 7, 1499) fora period of five years, on pay- 
ment of an annual tax of 35 gulden. In the begin- 
ning of the sixteenth century Jews were again per- 
mitted to live in the archbishopric of Treves, and in 
a document dated at Cochem, Feb. 1, 1555, Arch- 
bishop Johann of Isenburg granted them the privi- 
lege, renewed in 1679, of appointing a rabbi, al- 
though they were obliged to submit to additional 
taxation. On July 1, 1561, however, Archbishop 
Johann von der Leyen notified the Jews that they 
inust leave the archbishopric within five months, 
though twenty-three families were permitted to re- 
main for another period of five years from Dee. 1, 
1561: while Jacob III. and Johann VII. of Schoene- 
berg ordered the Jews to leave Treves in 1580 and 
the following years, their complete expulsion occur- 
ring on Oct. 23, 1589. After a few years, however, 
the electors of Treves granted special commercial 
privileges tosome Hebrew merchants, headed by the 
silk manufacturer MAGINoO, and as early as 1593-94 
Jews were again residing in the episcopal city, 
although, according to the statute-books, they were 
compelled to wear the yellow BabDGE on their gar- 
ments. On Jan. 15, 1618, Archbishop and Elector 
Lothar von Metternich promulgated a special ordi- 
nance for the Jews, which was reissued on Feb. 14, 
1624; and in 1663 the electoral court chancery en- 
acted that those Jews of Treves who were under the 
archbishop’s protection should be permitted to use 
wells and pastures and to gather firewood any- 
where, 

The 15th of Elul, 5435 (= 1675), marked the begin- 
ning of a persecution of the Jews in Treves which 
lasted until Purim of thesame vear: and by order of 
the physician Tewle. who was the head of the Jew- 
ish congregation, and who began the Treves memor- 
book in 1664, this day was appointed a general fast 
for the community in memory of this event. At 
Treves, as elsewhere, the Jews suffered at times from 
the pranks of Catholic students, as in 1666, 1687, 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Trespass-Offerings 
Treves 


1707, and 1723. In 1681 Archbishop Johann Hugo 
issued a new Jewish ordinance, and in 1696 the Jews 
were forbidden to acquire real estate. A law rela- 
ting to the Jews, promulgated by Elector Franz 
Ludwig in 1723, remained in force until the end 
of the electorate, although the archbishopric was 
secularized in 1808. 

The city of Treves was taken by the French on 

Aug. 10, 1794; by a law enacted on the 29th of 
Fructidor, year 5 (= Sept. 15, 1797), 
Under the the LEIBZOLL was abolished (see Han- 
French. — sen, “Treviris, oder Trierisches Archiv 
fiir Vaterlandskunde,” ii. 37, No. 217, 
Treves, 1841); and the French invasion brought also 
civic equality to the Jews. Treves then became a 
consistorial diocese, like Bonn and Krefeld. On 
Sept. 9 and 10, 1859, the new synagogue of Treves 
was dedicated. At present (1905) the community 
numbers 900, and maintains several benevolent soci- 
eties, as well as a Society for Jewish History and 
Literature. A separate Orthodox congregation also 
exists. 

Among the rabbis and scientists of Treves the fol- 
lowing may be mentioned: David Tewle b. Isaac 
Wallich, communal leader and physician (exiled 
from Fulda; died Oct. 5, 1691; see Kaufmann, 
“ Vertreibung der Juden aus Wien,” pp. 225 [note 3], 
226 [note1]; Lowenstein, “Gesch. der Juden in der 
Kurpfalz,” p. 6, note 2; also mentioned in Gershon 
Ashkenazi’s Responsa, Nos. 18, 21, 84, 89, and in the 
preface); R. Joseph Israel b. Abraham Worms (died 
in Bingen Sept. 9, 1684); his son R. Isaac Aaron 
Worms (died in Metz July 25, 1722; see Liwen- 
stein, /.c. p. 99and note 1; Gershon Ashkenazi’s Re- 
sponsa, No. 18; Cahen, “Le Rabbinat de Metz,” in 
“RE. J.” 1886, pp. 48 et seg.); Moses Meir Grot- 

wohl (died 1691; see Léwenstein, lc. 
Rabbis and p. 86, note 2; Jair Hayyim Bacha- 
Scholars. rach’s Responsa, p. 234b; Jacob Rei- 
scher’s Responsa, ft. 110; Freudenthal, 
“Aus der Heimat Mendelssolins,” p. 287); Moses 
Lewow (see Friedberg, “ Luhot Zikkaron,” 2d ed., 
1904, p. 78; Lewinstein, “ Dor Dor we-Dorshaw,” p. 
95, No. 628); R. Moses b. R. Heshel (died 1st of Ab, 
1788): R. Moses Shah (or Moses Trier b. R. Eliezer 
= R. Moses Levy, dicd Nisan, 1840; see Lowenstein 
in “ Blatter fir Jiidische Gesch. und Literatur,” iii. 
98); Joseph Kaun; Dr. I. Hollander (died Dec. 8, 
1880); Dr. M. S. Zuckermandel (at present “ Stifts- 
rabbiner” in Breslau); and the present chief rabbi, 
Dr. Bassfreund. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY : Ehrmann, in [sraelit, 1881, Nos. 34 et seq.; G. 
Liebe, in Westdeutsche Zeitschrift fitr Geseh. wid Kunst, 
xii. 821 ct seq.; A. Schoop, ib., supplementary vol. i. 144 et 
seg.: Seh6mann, in Jahresbericht der Gesellschaft fiir Niitz- 
liche Forschung zu Trier, 1854, p. 40; 1859-60, p. 2 (Hebrew 
epitaphs of 1346): Lewin, Das Trierer Memorbuch, in Rah- 
mer’s Jitd. Lit.-Blatt, 1881, Nos. 40-41, p. 159; Aronius, Re- 
gesten, Nos. 2, 160, 176, 180, 189, 222, 352, 475, 499, 581, et pas- 
sim: Joseph ha-Kohen, ‘Emek ha-Baka, ed. Wiener, pp. 17, 158, 
note 62, p. 162. note 80 (on the murder of R. Stmeon of Treves); 
Lamprecht, Deutsches Wirtschaftslehben im Mittelalter. 
IkBH, 1, 2, 1446 et seq., 1472 ef seg.: comp. also Lewinsky in 
Brann’s Monatssehrift, 1904, p. 457; Hecht, ib. 1858, pp. 179 
et seq.; 1861, pp. 358 et seq.: Gidemann, Gesen, i. 224; Kobut, 
Gesch. der Deutschen Juden, pp. 186, 188, et passim; Sta- 
tistisches Jahrbuch des Deutsch-Israelitischen. Gemeinde- 
bundes, 1903, p. 85. 

D. A. LEw. 


TREVES: Family which derived its name from 
the Prussian city of Treves, famous for its prominent 


THE JEWISH 


Treves 


men. No other family can boast such a continuous 
line of scholars as this one, branches of which have 
been known under the names Treves, Tribas, 
Dreifuss, Trefouse, and Drifzan. There exist, 
however, no means of tracing the connection of 
these various branches, which even as early as the 
fourteenth and fifteenth centuries were already 
scattered over Germany, Italy, southern France, 
Greece, Poland, and Russia. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: FCohez ‘al Yad, iii. 14, 15; Steinschneider, 
Hebr. Bibl. iv. 152; Zeitschrift fiir Geseh. der Juden in 
Deutschland, i. 311; Gross, Gallia. Judaica, p. 242; A. Ep- 

stein, in Monatsschrift, xlvi. 159-160, notes 2-6. 3 0 


The subjoined chart is that of the Italian branch, 
which is the only one of which a genealogy can be 
given. 


ENCYCLOPEDIA 


; eae. 


244 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Mortara, Indice, p. 66; Zunz, Ritus, p. 32, 
note b; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 711; Benjacob, Ozar 
ha-Sefarim, p. 83 Azulai, Shem ha-Gedolim, ti. 20; Britl’s 
Jahrh, i, 109-111. 


| 
| Aryeh Léb ben Naphtahi Treves: Russo-Polish 
' scholar; born 1848; died 1873; lived in Augustovo, 
' He was a valued collaborator on the journal “ Ha- 
Mezgid,” to which he contributed articles over the 
signature “ Ture Eben.” 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Briills Jali7h. 1.121; Ha-Maggid, 1873, p. 60. 
Dob Bar ben Judah Treves: Scholar of the 
eightcenth century; died 24st of Tishri (Oct. 17), 
1803. Prior to 1760 he officiated as rabbi in Hungary, 
and from that year to 1790 as rabbinical judge in 
Wilna, Ile was the author of “Rebid ha-Zahab” 
(Grodno, 1797), a commentary on the Pentateuch, 
in which, through cabalistic explanations, he en- 


Johanan T. 
(13th cent.) 


Joseph T. (the Great) 
(13th cent.) 


Mattithiah T. of Provence 
(b. ¢. 1828; d. ¢. 1887) 


i eg ae Se rE el 


\ 
Abraham T. 
(d. after 1884) 


Joseph T. of Paris 
(d. Aug., 1429) 


‘ Johanan T. 
(d. after 1549) 
Gershon T. 
(15th cent.) 


' 


Johanan T. 
(d. July 21, 1489) 
| 


y 


| 
Joseph T. of Constance 
(d. after 1429) 


Mattitbiah T. 


———— REGS Fs goat of Abraham T. Joseph T. 
(d. after 1566) (d. end (d. after 1566) Jehiel T.- Samuel T. 
Abraham T, Isaac T. of 16th cent.) (d. after 1508) (d. after Li5u; 


I6th cent.) (16th cent.) 


DInLiogRAPHY: Mortara, in Brill, Jahrbticher, i. 105 ef seq. 


i, 


TREVES 


Abraham b. Gershon Treves (called also Zar- 
fati): French cabalist; flourished about 1572. He 
was the author of the following works: (1) com- 
mentary on the “ Ma‘areket ha-Elahut” of R. Perez; 
(2) glosses to the “Sefer Yezirah” and to the com- 
mentaries of Moses Botare!, Nahmani, and Abraham 
b. David; (8) glosses to the “Sha‘are Orah.” 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Nepi-Ghirondi, Toledot Gedole Yisrael, p. 8; 
First, Bibl. Jud. iii. 444; Briill’s Jahrb. i. 118-114. 


8. FB. T. H. 


Abraham ben Solomon Treves (called also Zar- 
fati): Scholar of the sixteenth century. He emi- 
grated from Italy to Turkey, where he officiated as 
rabbi of German and Portuguese congregations in 
Adrianople and various other cities. He favored 
the Sephardic ritual, and corresponded with David 
Cohen and Elijah Mizrahi. From one of his letters 
to Joseph Caro (“Abkat Rokel,” No. 34) it appears 
that he wasa physician also. He was the first scholar 
to quote the “ Kol Bo,” and was the author of “ Bir- 
kat Abraham,” a work on the ritual. 


rabbi in Alsace) 
Eliezer T. 


Naphtali Hirz T. 
(d. after 1531) 


| 


Eliezer T. 
(d. 1o67) 


(), 


Joseph T. 
(d. 1564) 


5. 


PEDIGREE, 


deavored to establish a connection between the writ- 
tenand theoral law. He wrotealso “Shir Hadash ” 
(Wilna, 1800), a commentary on the Song of Solomon. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. cols. 893-894; Ben- 


jacob, Ozar_ha-Sefarim, pp. 643, 575; Fuenn, Kiryak Ne’e- 
manah, p. 200; Briil’s Jahrb. i. b21. 


as Eliezer Frankfurt): German rabbi; born 1495; 
died 1567. [He officiated as rabbi in Frankfort-on- 
the-Main. Tlewas an adherent of Asher LEMMLEIN, 
a pseudo-Messiah who appeared in the sixteenth 
century, and attributed the non-fulfilment of Lemm- 
lein’s prophecy concerning the Messiah to cireum- 
stances other than fraud. 

Eliezer held the Frankfort rabbinate for twenty- 
two years; and during a ritualistic controversy which 
took place in 1550 he was called upon to render a 
decision. In 1558 he was a member of a com- 
mittee appointed by Emperor Ferdinand I. to organ- 
ize a system for registering the votes of the Jews 
of Prague. In 1561 he went for a time to Cracow, 


Eliezer ben Naphtali Hirz Treves (known also 
} 
| 
| 


245 


where he copied Solomon Molko’s commentaries. 
He was an euthusiastic collector of manuscripts, 
from which he prepared certain treatises. There 
are extant several decisions signed by Eliezer, per- 
taining to the community of Frank fort-on-the-Main, 
and extending over the period 1556-66 with the ex- 
ception of the time spent by him in Cracow. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gans, Zemah Dawid, p. 40b; Moses Isserles, 
Responsa, No. 58; Wolf, in Steinschneider, Hebr. Bibl. 1861, 
p. 151; Gritz, Gesch. ix. 364; Zunz, Z. G. p. 233 and note d; 
Gedaliaibn Yahya, Shalshelet ha-Kaltbatah, ed. Amsterdam, 
p. 5la; De Rossi, Dizionario, p. 520: Steinschneider, Cat. 
Boal. col. 96%; Brill’s Jahrb. i. 105-106. 

Eliezer ben Samuel Treves (surnamed Ash- 
kenazi): Polish scholar of the sixteenth and seven- 
teenth centuries; officiated as rabbi in Opatow. He 
wrote several Talmudic commentaries, of which, 
however, only one was published; namely, that on 
the treatise Hullin, entitled “ Dammesek Eli‘ezer ” 
(Lublin, 1646). In the same year he published a 
collection of daily prayers under the title “Siah ha- 
Sadeh.” He was the author alsoof a treatise on the 
writing of names in bills of divorce; and on a 
journey through Belgrade he gave a copy of that 
work to Rabbi Simhah ha-Kohen Portrapa, who 
happened to be there at that time, and who later 
embodied it in a work published by himself. In 
1648 Eliezer approved Jacob Chentschin’s commen- 
tary on the Masorah. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Azulai, Shem ha-Gedolim, i. 230; Steinschnei- 
der, Cat. Bodl. col. 964; Bass, Sifte Yeshenim, p. 75b, No. 
es aes Ozar ha-Sefarim, p. 175; Brill’s Jahrb. i. 
8. gS. O. 
Emilio Treves: Italian writer; born at Triest 

Dec. 31, 1834. He was educated in his native town, 

and when quite young entered the printing-office of 

the “Oesterreicher Lloyd” in that city. He con- 
tributed to the “Raccoita dei Classici,” a work is- 
sucd from that press and edited by Anton Racheli. 

At the same time Treves wrote anonymously for 

“L’Anelo,” a journal prohibited by the Austrian 

government. When hisassociation with “ L’ Anelo” 

was discovered he went to Paris, where he was cor- 
respondent for the “Crepusculo” of Milan. Two 
years later he went fora short time to Turin, and 
then became manager ofa printing establishment at 

Fiume. When this house tailed Treves followed 

the vocation of a teacher in Udine. 

In 1858 he settled in Milan and became transla- 
tor for the official journal “ Gazzetta di Milano,” at 
the same time contributing to the “Italia Musicale ” 
and “Uomo di Pietra.” Inthe warof 1859 he served 
in Garibaldi’s legion, and after peace was declared 
resumed his connection with the “Gazzetta.” In 
1862 he founded the “Museo di Famiglia,” and in 
1865 the “ Biblioteca Utile,” comprising examples of 
Italian literature as well as various works translated 
from other languages intoItalian. In 1869 he resigned 
his position en the “Gazzetta di Milano” and found- 
ed the “Corriere de Milano,” which he sold in 1871. 
In the latter year he entered into partnership with 
his brother Giuseppe, and in 1874 the two founded 
In Milan the “Tlustrazione Italiana,” which proved 
very successful. 

Treves has written many articles for various jour- 
hals and publications, and is the author also of sev- 
eral dramas, e.g., “Richezzae Miserie,” Triest, 1847, 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Treves 


Which was well received, and “I] Duca d’Enghien,” 
wb, 1850. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: P. Wurzbach. Biographisches Lexicon des 

Kaiserthums Oesterreich, Vienna, 1882. 

Gershon Treves: Scholar of the fifteenth cen- 
tury. He wasof German descent and resided in 
Avignon. Upon the death of Joseph Colon, his 
father-in-law, he arranged the latter’s collection of 
respousa, Nos. 13, 14, 98, and 102 of which contain 
letters addressed to himself. During a controversy 
between the rabbi of Padua and Lewa Landau, 
Treves was drawn into the dispute (see Moses Minz, 
Responsa, No. 98). 

Bie OGReriYe Colon, Responsa, No. 102; Briill's Jahrh. i. 


Giuseppe Treves: Brother of Emilio Treves, 
and with bim cofounder in 1874 of the “ Illustra- 
zione Italiana.” 

8. F. T. H. 

Hayyim Treves (known also as Hayyim 
Schwarz): Scholar of the sixteenth century ; rabbi 
of the former provinces of Cologne and Jiilich. In 
Lo77 he resided in Kénigswinter, and from 1585 to 
1595 in Ahrweiler. His son-in-law was Isaac ben 
Hayyim of Ahrweiler. Trevesin deciding a certain 
question was said to have attacked Christianity ; 
and his son-in-law, together with other contempo- 
rary scholars, was compelled to give testimony in 
the matter, 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Auerbach, Berit Abrakam, p. 23a; Briill’s 

Jahrb. i. 106-107. 

Isaac Treves: Son of Shneor Treves of Frank- 
fort-on-the-Main. He was rabbi of Kopytzk; but 
no details of his life are known. 


Isaac ben Gershon Treves: Venetian scholar of 
the sixteenth century. He was employed as a cor- 
rector of the press on several rabbinic Bible editions 
which appeared at Venice in 1508, and later on 
Issachar ibn Susan’s “‘Ibbur ha-Shanim ” (Venice, 
1579), a work treating of the Hebrew calendar. 
Tsaac was the author of an introduction to Eliezer 
Ashkenazi’s “ Ma‘ase Adonai,” of an index to Elijah 
de Vidas’ “Reshit Hokmah,” and of additions to 
Solomon al-Kabiz’s commentary on the Book of 
Esther. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY : Steinschneider, Cat. Bod]. cols. 585, 2912; Nepi- 
Ghirondi, Toledot Gedole Yisrael, p. 182; Zedner, Cat. Hebr. 
Books Brit. Mus. p. 865; Brtill’s Jahrb. i. 114. 


S. S. O. 


Isaac and Jacob Treves: Two Austrian philan- 
thropists who in 1828 donated a fund of 2,100 florins 
to the Sick Soldiers’ Home in Vienna (Militéir-Inva- 
lidenhaus). 

s. F. T. MT. 


Israel Hezekiah Treves: Hazzan at the Italian 
synagogue in Padua in the eighteenth century, and, 
on the death of its rabbi in 1782, rabbinical judge 
there. He wasa pupil of the poet Moses Hayyim 
Luzzatto, who introduced him to the mysteries of 
Cabala. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Almanzi, in Kerem Hemed, tii. 374; Carmoly, 
in Revue Orientale, ii. 182; Nepi-Ghirondi, Toledot Gedole 
Yisrael, p. 204; Gritz, Gesch. x. 388; Briill's Jahrb. i. 116. 
Jacob Treves (called also Jacob Brisker, after 

his native town, Brest, in Russia): Scholar of the 


Treves 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


246 


seventeenth century; son of the martyr Moses Abra- 
ham Treves (Ashkenazi); lived in Frankfort-on-the- 
Main. In 1680 he wrote an addendum to Shabbe- 
thai Bass’ supercommentary on Rashi’s commentary 
on the Pentateuch (Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1712). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinsehneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 2230; Benjacob, 

Ozar ha-Nefarim, p. 609; Sifte YFeshentm, Introduction ; 

Bris Jahrb, i. 119. 

Jehiel ben David Treves: German scholar of 
the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries; rabbi of 
Gailingen. THe was the author of important notes 
to Rashi and to the tosafot of the treatisc Bezah 
(Offenbach, 1717). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Wolf, Bibl. Hebr. ii. 910; Briill's Jahrb. i. 11%. 


Jehiel ben Simeon Sofer Treves (Ashkenazi): 
Russian rabbi of the eighteenth century; officiated 
in Tikoczin, Russia. Nothingis known concerning 
his career; but his “ Be’cr Heteb,” a compendium 
of the Shulhan ‘Aruk, has won tlfe approval of 
the casuists, and is regarded as a standard work on 
Jewish law. Certain eminent Talmudists, however 
(Jacob Reischer and: Raphael Meisels, for example), 
have pointed out the author’s imprudence in attack- 
ing Moses Isserles in an unjustifiable manner (“She- 
but Ya'akoh,” iii, No. 41; introduction to the “ To- 
sefet Shabbat ”). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 1242; Azulai, 
Shem ha-Gedolim. ii. 12; Benjacob, Ozar ha-Sefarim, p. 64; 
Bris Jahrb, i, 119-120, 

8. S. O. 


Johanan ben Mattithiah Treves: Chief rabbi 
of France from about 1885 to i894; died in Italy 
July 21, 1489. After having received his rabbinical 
diploma from his father, who was chief rabbi of 
France, he married the daughter of the rich and in- 
fluential Manessier de Vesoul, and filled the position 
of rabbi in a provincial town. On the death of his 
father he returned to Paris and was appointed, by 
agreement of Charles VI. with the community, to 
the chief rabbinate. 

During the last years of his incumbency he suf- 
fered much persecution at the hands of Isaiah ben 
Abba Mari (called also “ Astruc of Savoy ”), a former 
pupil of his father. Being well versed in rabbin- 
ical literature, [saiah arrogated to himself, with the 
approbation of Meir ben Baruch of Vienna, the 
right to ordain French rabbis, and endeavored by all 
possible means to undermine Johanan’s authority. 
The latter applied for aid to Hasdai Crescas and 
Isaac ben Sheshet, who pronounced themselves in 
favor of the persecuted rabbi, blaming both Isaiah 
and his supporter Meir ben Baruch (“She’elot u- 
Teshubot Ribash,” No. 270). The quarrels, how- 
ever, ceased ouly with the expulsion of the Jews 
from France in 1894, Johanan then settled in Italy, 
where he remained until his death. 

Johanan was one of the most eminent rabbinical 
authorities of his time; and his halakic decisions 
were often cited (“Sha‘are Dura,” see Neubauer, 
“Cat. Bodl. Hebr. MSS.” No, 690). From Italy he 
carried on a scientific correspondence with Jacob 
Mé!ln (MaHaRIL). A responsum of his on the 
prayers of orphans for their deceased parents, and 
a letter addressed to the community of Padua, are 
still extant in manuscript in the Florence Library 


(Bisconi, “ Bibliothecee Hebraice Florentine Cata- 

logus,” p. 426). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Rieti, Mikdash Me‘at, p. 104; Lebrecht, Hand- 
sehriften und die Ersten Ausgaben des Talmuds, p. 51, note 
2; Carmoly, in Arch. Isr, 1856, p. 262; Briill’s Jahrb. i, 95 
et seg.; Gross, Gallia Judaica, p. 334. 

G. I. Br. 

Joseph ben Hirz Treves: German scholar; 
born in 1490. Together with his brother Eliezer he. 
published his father’s commentary on the prayer- 
hook, to which he added anintroduction and glosses, 

He took part in the publication of the mystagogie 

Midrash on Ruth, which appeared) under the title 

“Tappuhe Zahab,” or “Yesod Shirin.” (Thingen, 

1560; Cracow, 1569). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Briill’s Jahrb. i, 104-105 and note 76, 


Joseph ben Johanan Treves I. (surnamed ha- 
Gadol = “the Great”): First bearer of the name of 
Treves. He flourished in the fourteenth century, 
and, according to Zunz (“Z. G.“ p, 178), was rabbi 
in Paris. Brill, however (“ Jahrb.” 1. 90), refers to 
him asrabbi of Marseilles about 1543, His wife was 
well versed in Jewish literature, and explained sev- 
eral Talmudical passages; and when later she with 
her sons took up her residence in Paris the whole 
family was exempted from wearing the Jewish 
badge. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zunz, 4. G. p. 173; Gritz, Gesch. viii. 8-9; 
Isaac ben Sheshet, Responsa, No. 271; Isaac de Lattes, [e- 
sponsa, p. 88. Vienna, 1860; Carmoly, in Revue Oricntale, ii. 
14; Briill’s Jahrb. i. 90-91. 

Joseph ben Lipmann Eliezer Treves (sur- 
named Ashkenazi): Rabbi of the seventeenth 
century ; officiated in Prossnitz, Moravia. He edited 
a brief abstract of Jacob Wen's “ Hilkot Shehitah ” 
(Amsterdam, 1660), and wrote an elegiac poem 
(“kinah”) on the destruction of Kremsir by the 
Swedes in 1648 and on the devastations which took 
place in Poland and Lithuania. The poem ap- 
peared in 1648. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zunz, Literaturgesch. p. 485; Steinschneider, 
Cat. Boal. col, 1466. 

Joseph ben Mattithiah Treves: Brotlier of 
Johanan Treves; scholar and liturgical poet of the 
fifteenth century; died on the Ninth of Ab, 1429. 
At an early age he emigrated to Italy, and there 
wrote the following liturgical poems: a yozer for 
the Sabbath preceding New-Year; “Silluk,” con- 
sisting of three parts and containing exhortations 
to repentance; aud “ Tokabah,” a prayer written in 
the form of a dialogue between the living and the 
dead. In Italy he had copies made of several wri- 
tings, of which one, of the “Sefer ha-Nayyar,” writ- 
ten in 1892, is still extant. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zunz, Literaturgesch. p. 370; idem, Ritus, 
p. 81; Briill’s Jahrb. i. 99, 

Joseph ben Mattithiah Treves: Rabbi of Sa- 
vigliano, Italy, in the sixteenth century. In the 
divorce proceedings instituted by the physician Jo- 
seph Tamari of Venice against his son-in-law Sam- 
uel Venturozzo of Perugia, Joseph sided with the 
latter. Of his writings only a responsum has ap- 
peared in print (in Lampronti’s “Pahad Yizhak,” 
i. 105a). A commentary by him on the first chapter 
of Genesis, and a treatise of his on the Talmudic 
proverb “An old man in the house is a burden; an 


247 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Treves 


old woman, a treasure” (‘Ar. 19a), are extant in 

manuscript, 

BIBLIOGRAPHY : Nepi-Ghirondi, Toledot Gedole Yisrael, p.161; 
Mortara, Judice, s.v. Treves; Zunz, Ha-Patlit, pp. 22-23. 
Levi ben Jacob Treves (surnamed Zarfati): 

French scholar of the sixteenth century. He was 
the first who declared it permissible at the reading 
from the Law to call up before any Cohen who 
might be present an Israelite who paid for the 
privilege. In the course of time this seems to have 
become customary in several places; for even in the 
eighteenth century German casuists protested vigor- 
ously against it. Levi is probably identical with 
the Levi ben Jacob who copied Abravanel’s com- 
mentary on Isaiah, and who, at an advanced age, 
emigrated to Jerusalem. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Ibn Yahya, Shalshelet ha-Kabbalah, ed. Am- 


sterdain, p. 48b; Havyim Benveniste, Keneset ha-Gedolah 
on Shwharw ‘Aruk, Orah Hayyim, No. 185; Ezekiel 


lead 


Katzenellenbogen, Kenexet Vehezkel, No. 7; Steinschnei- 

der, Liebr. Bibl, 1871, p. 185; Briuls Jalerh. i, 115. 

Mattithiah ben Joseph Treves (called the 
Provencal): French scholar; chief rabbi of Paris; 
born there about 1825; died about 1887. He was edu- 
cated by his father, and later studied under Nissim 
ben Reuben and Perez Cohen ben Isaac. He lived in 
various Spanish cities until 13861, when he returned 
to Paris; and, as at that time there were only a few 
scholars in France, he founded a seminary in the 
French capital. Through the intercession of his 
brother-in-law, Procurator Manessicr de Vesoul, 
Charles V. in 1863 appointed him chief rabbi of 
Paris. 

Mattithiah collected books, and also engaged in 
literary pursuits. A responsum signed by him is 
extant in the Paris Library (Codex 676. No. 5). 
He was the author of a work on Talmudic meth- 
odolugy, fragments of which have been preserved 
in Joseph ibn Verga’s “She'crit Yosef” (ed. Man- 
tua, pp. 3b, 4a). He is said to have been styled “ Ha- 
Parnas,” and to have composed several liturgical 
poems, among which were one for the eve of the 
Day of Atonement, and oue---a penitential prayer in 
twenty stanzas—treating of the Ten Martyrs. He 
is the alleged author of a work entitled “Eben 
Bohan.” A manuscript copy of the Talmud, now 
in the Royal Library, Munich, and wlich was made 
by a German copyist for Benjamin Josiphiah, was at 
one time in the possession of Mattithiah. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gross, Gallia Judaica, pp. 532-584; Judah 

ibn Verga, Shebet Yehucah, ed. Amsterdam, p. 50: Zunz, 

Literaturgesch. p. 368: Ibn Yahya, Shalshelet ha-Kabbatah, 

ed. Zolkiev. p. 48a; Bass, Sifte Veshenim,x.. No. 9; Heilprin, 

Seder ha-Dorot, ti. 827; Dukes, in Kobezg, Introduction, p. 

6: Rabbinoviez, Dikdulke Soferim, i... Introduction, pp. 

27-385; Britill’s Jahrb. {. 91 et seq. 

Menahem ben Abraham Treves (Dreifuss) : 
Rabbi in Sulzburg; died 1857. He was the author 
of “Orah Mesharim” (Miihlhausen, 1858; 2d ed., 
Mayence, 1878), treating of the dogmas of faith. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zedner. Cat. Hebr. Books Brit. Mus. p. 761 ; 

Benjacob, Ozar ha-Sefarim, p. 50; Zeitlin, Bibl. Post-Men- 

dels. p. 398: Briill’s Jahrb. i. 122. 

8. S. O, 


Michael Treves: Italian cngineer of the nine- 
teenth century ; lived in Venice. He is the author of 
“Sulla Perforazione Meccanica delle Ferriere ed in 


Particolare sul Gigantesco Traforo delle Alpi Cozie 
dette del Montcenisio,” Venice, 1864; “Di Alcuni 
Errori Economici . della Veneta Industria Ve- 
traria,” 720. 1864; “ Pensieri sull’ Avvenire del Com- 
mercio e dell’ Industria in Italia,” 7b. 1864; “ Lezioni 
Popolari Presso ’ Ateneo Veneto,” etc., 7b. 1865. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Fiirst, Bihl. Jud. iii. 444; Wurzhach, Bio- 
ge phisches Lexicon des Kaiserthums Oesterreich, Vienna, 


s, F. T. H. 


Mordecai Treves: Italian scholar of the four- 
teenth century. He was the author of a historical 
work treating of the selihah poets, in the intro- 
duction to which he tells of the persecutions of 
1849. He mentions a town named Heila (Kd), 
where Mar Zutra was buried, and which contained 
large institutions of learning. From this, as well as 
fron. the circumstance that Treves confuses the 
names of the selihah poets, Zunz deduces that he 
fuiled to consult historical sources. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zunz, Literaturgeseh. pp. 625-627; Briill’s 
Jahrb. i. 115. 

Moses ben Jacob Treves: Venetian rabbi and 
scholar of the seventeenth century. His father was 
a friend of David de Pomis. From 1648 he maijn- 
tained a reguiar correspondence with Samuel Aboab, 
In 1661 he wrote a poem in honor of Yom-Tob Val- 
vason, the founder of a bet ha-midrash in Venice ; 
this poem was published in “ Hed Urim” (Venice, 
1661). In 1668 he was a member of the rabbinical 
committee of Venice before which the itinerant 
prophet Nathan of Gaza was arraigned. In 1670 
he sanctioned the publication of Solomon Rocca’s 
“Kawwanat Shelomoh,” a cabalistic commentary 
on the prayers. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Debar Shemu’el, No. 375; Emden, Torat. ha- 
Kena’ot, ed. Lemberg, No. 67; Nepi-Ghirondi, Toledot Ge- 
dole Yisrael, p. 245: Mortara, Indice, p. 66; Zedner, Cat. 
Hebr. Books Brit. Mus. p. 756; Bral’s Jahrb. i. 115-116. 
Naphtali Hirz Treves: Younger brother of 

Eliezer ben Samuel Treves (Ashkenazi). He held 

an important rabbinate in Poland, but no details of 

his life and literary activity are known. 

Naphtali Hirz ben Eliezer Treves: Caba- 
list and scholar of the sixteenth century; officia- 
ted as hazzan in Frankfort-on-the-Main, He was 
the author of “ Perush” (1560), a famous cabalistic 
commentary on the prayer-book; and probably also 
of “ Naftule Elohim” (Heddernheim, 1546), an index 
to Bahya ben Asher’s commentary on the Penta- 
teuch. The preface to the “ Naftule Elohim” consists 
partly of the result of private studies and partly of 
quotations fromother cabalistic works. Treves wrote. 
too, a supercommentary on Rashi, which is still ex- 
tant, Naphtali Hirz engaged in disputations with 
Christian scholars: and he made comments on the 
pronunciation of German, He is especially impor- 
tant for his accounts of Jewish customs and cere- 
monies, 


BIRLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. cols. 2028-2030: 
Nepi-Ghirondi, Toledot Gedole Yisrael, p. 94; Conforte, Kore 
ha-Dorot, p. 27a; Jost’s Annalen, li. 162: Zunz, Z. G. p. 190: 
Gans, Zemah Dawid, p. 406, Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1692; 
Azulai, Shem ha-Gedolim, ii. 92a: Zunz, in Steinschneider, 
Hebr. Bibl. x. 134; Briill’s Jahrb. i. 101-104. 


Raphael ben Baruch Treves: Italian scholar 
of the seventeenth century. He was the author of 
a commentary on the Song of Solomon, which, to- 


Treves 
Tribes, Lost Ten 


gether with some of bis Talmudic decisions, was 
printed in Constantinople iu 1748. This commen- 
tary is written in the style used by the philosophers 
of the early Middle Ages, and follows the methods 
known as “ Pakt3DeS ” (the initials of “Peshat,” “ Re- 
mez,” “Derash,” and “Sod”). Raphael affixed his 
approbation to Elijah ha-Kohen’s “Shebct Musar” 

(Smyrna, 1667). 

Raphael ben Baruch must not be confounded with 
the Raphael Treves who, in the beginning of the 
eighteenth century, owned a printing establishment 
in Constantinople, from which R. Nissim’s novelle 
to Gittin were issued. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zedner, Cat. Hebr. Books Brit. Mus. p. 761; 
Azulai, Shem ha-Gedolim, ii. 29a; Benjacob, Ozar ha-Sefa- 
rim, p. 108; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col, 38024; idem, J ti- 
dische Typographie, in Erseh and Gruber, Eincyc. section ii., 
part 28, p. 63b; Briill’s Jahrb. i. 117. 

Raphael Joseph ben Johanan Treves: Rabbi 
of Ferrara in the sixteenth century. Of his works 
only two responsa are extant, one treating of the 
legality of the levirate marriage, and the other of 
the permissibility of business partnerships between 
Jews and Christians when the latter attend to busi- 
ness on Saturdays and Jewish holy days. Treves is 
especially known as acorrector of the press in Foa’s 
printing establishment at Sabbionetta. He wrote 
encomiums on Maimonides’ “ Moreh,” and Meir 
Me’iri’s “ Yair Natib,” which appeared in 15538; and 
he supplied marginal glosses to Abraham ben Isaac 
ha-Levi’s commentary on the Song of Solomon 
(1558). 

In the Tamari-Venturozzo case Treves played a 
double réle, for after having signed the sentence of 
excommunication against Sainuel (1566), he appeared 
as a witness for the latter. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Nepi-Ghirondi, Toledot Gedole Yisrael, p. 
307; Lampronti, Pahad Yizhak, iii., part 2, pp. 21-23; Stein- 
schneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 2129; Mosé, v. 125, 281, 2323 vi. 


268: Brill’s Jahrb. i. 113. 
S. S. O. 


Sabbato Graziado Treves: Austrian rabbi; 
born at Vercelli in Piedmont about 1780; died at 
Turin June 25, 1856. Instructed by his father, who 
was a rabbi, he himself became, about 1800, a rabbi 
in Asti, where he remained until 1820, when he be- 
came chief rabbi at Turin. This office he held until 
1888, when he was called to Triest, where he oftici- 
ated during the remainder of his life. 

8. F. T. HH. 


Samuel ben Eliezer Treves (surnamed Ash- 
kenazi): Rabbi of Opatow in the sixteenth and 
seventeenth centuries. He was the author of no- 
velle (“hiddushim ”) on the treatises Ketubot and 
Kiddushia (Prossnitz, 1600-2), consisting of abstracts 
of the works of Joseph ibn Leb, Samuel di Medina, 
and Solomon Cohen. He apyecars to have settled 
permanently in Moravia toward the close of his life. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Benjacob, Ozar ha-Sefarim, p. 183; Stein- 

schneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 2424: idem, Jiidische Typographie, 

in Erseh and Gruber, Facye. ii. 55; Wolf, Bibl. Hebr. i. 1089 ; 

Briill’s Jahrb. i. 118, note 167. 

Samuel Isaac Treves: Italian scholar of the 
eighteenth century. He published a work entitled 
“Wut ha-Meshullash ” (Leghorn, 1876), and consist- 
ing of songs, elegies, and lyric poems, 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zeitlin, Bibl. Post-Mendels. p. 398. 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


248 


Shneor ben Joseph Joel Treves: Rabbi of 
Frankfort-on-the-Main in the seventeenth century, 
He was the author of a Biblical commentary enti- 
tied “ Hibbur,” which was known in Russia in the 
eighteenth century. With him originated the often- 
mentioned custom followed by the Treves family of 
not partaking of a meal in the tabernacle on the 
eve preceding Shemini ‘Azeret. 

BIBLIOGRAPITY: Fuenn, Kiryah Ne’emanah, pp. 172, 200, 284, 
287: Briill’s Jahrb, i. 119; Epstein, in Monatsschrift, xivi. 
159-160. 

Simeon Treves: Son of Shneor ben Joseph Joel 
Treves. He was secretary to the community of 
Frankfort-on-the-Main. 

S. 8S. O. 


Virginia Treves (née Tedeschi): Italian au- 
thor; born at Verona; wife of Giuseppe Treves. 
She contributed to the “ Mlustrazione Italiana ” under 
the nom de plume “ Cordelia,” and was the author 
of “Il Regno della Donna” (Milan, 1879) and 
“Prime Battaglie” (2b. 1881). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Wurzbach, Bingraplisches Lexicon des Kat- 

serthums Oesterreich, Vienna, 1882. 

Ss, F. T. H. 

Zebi Hirsch Treves: Scholar in Wilna; son of 
Zeeb Wolf Treves, 

Zeeb Wolf ben Jacob Treves: Scholar of the 
eighteenth century. He lived in Wilna; and his 
signature appears attached to rabbinical decisions 
of the period. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Fuenn, Kiryah Ne'emanah, pp. 122, 196; 


Brill’s Jahrb. i. 121. 
S. 8. O. 


TREVOUX (Hebrew, 9199): Principal town 
of the arrondissement of the same name in the de- 
partment of Ain, France. Henry of Villars, Arch- 
bishop of Lyonsand seignior of Trévoux, stipulated 
in the charter which he gave to the latter town in 
1300 that no Jew should be allowed to settle in it. 
A certain number of Jews nevertheless obtained per- 
mission to establish themselves there on payment 
of a yearly tax of 15 livres. TheJews who were ex- 
pelled from Lyous in 1420 sought refuge at Tré- 
voux, Where they engaged in making gold and 
silver wire. In 1425 they were obliged tocontribute 
largely to the forced loan which the city had to 
make to the Duchess of Bourbon, who had succeeded 
to the seignioralty of Trévoux. 

The other inhabitants of the town, who were jeal- 
ous of the Jews, especially of their conimercial pros- 
perity, accused them in 1429 of having in their pos- 
session Hebrew books containing blasphemies against 
the Christian religion. At the instance of the arch- 
bishop the Duchess of Bourbon ordered an investi- 
gation, which she entrusted to Jean Namy, appellate 
judge of Beaujolais; Jean Chalon, licentiate in law; 
and Ayme, a baptized Jew of Chambéry, who was 
commissioned to inspect the Hebrew books and to 
translate the reprehensible passages. The books 
were thereupon seized and burned, and the Jews, 
aiter being sentenced to pay various fines, were ex- 
pelled from the city (see CHAMBERY). Three years 
later a few of them returned; but they were again 
driven out in 1467; and there was another expulsion 
in 1488. A certain number of these Jews subse- 
quently took the name “Trabot” or “ Traboto,” 


249 


indicating their native place. Steinsclineider (“ Cat. 
Bodl.” col. 2052) has given a list, which has been 
completed by Berliner (sec his “ Magazin,” ii. 16, 96). 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bédarride, Les Juifs en ireaiee, ete., p. 3163 

Depping, Les Juifs dans le Moyen Aye, p. 195; Gross, 


Gallia Judaica, pp. 219-223; Jolibois, Bistoirve de la Ville 
et du Canton de Trévoux, pp. 12 et seg., Lyons, 1858; R. EB. 
Q 


J. X. BB-59, : 
g S. Is. 


TRIAL. Sce PROCEDURE IN Civit CAUSES. 


TRIBES, LOST TEN: According to the Bible, 
Tiglath-pileser (IIT Kings xv.29) or Shaimancser (2. 
xvii. 6, xvili. 11), after the defeat of Israel, trans- 
ported the majority of the inhabitants of the Nerth- 
ern IWingdom to Assyria, and placed them in Halah 
and Habor, on the stream of Gozan, and in the towns 
of Media. In their stead a mixed multitude was trans- 
ported to the plains and mountains of Israel. Asa 
Jarge number of prophecies relate to the return of 
“Israel” to the Holy Land, believers in the literal 
inspiration of the Scriptures have always labored 
under a difficulty in regard to the continued ex- 
istence of the 
tribes of Israel, 
with the excep- 
tion of those of 
Judah and Levi 
(or Benjamin), 
which returned 
with Ezra and 
Nehemiah. If 
the Ten Tribes 
have disap- 
peared, the lit- 
eral fulfilment of 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Treves 
Tribes, Lost Ten 


gum of pseudo-Jonathan to Ex. xxxiv. 10; but the 
course of the River Sambation is differently given, 
according to the prepossessions of the various wri- 
ters (see SAMBATION). Akiba, indeed, because he 
was a believer in the Messianic claims of Bar Kokba, 
and trusted in the immediate fulfilment of such pas- 
sages as Isa. xi. 11, Jer. xxi. 7, Ezek. xxxvii. 15, 
without the restoration of Israel, distinctly expressed 
the opinion that the Ten Tribes would never return 
(Sanh. x. 8). In the ninth century ELDAD BEN Mani 
HA-Dani came forward, claiming to give specific 
details of the contemporary existence of the Ten 
Tribes and of their location at that time. Dan, 
Naphtali, Gad, and Asher were in Havilah; Zebu- 
Junand Reuben in the mountains of Paran; Ephraim 
and half of Manasseh in South Arabia; Simeon and 
the other half of Manasseh in the land of the 
Chazars (7%). According to him, therefore, the 
Ten Tribes were settled in parts of southern Arabia, 
or perhaps Abyssinia, in conformity with the identi- 
fication of Havilah. The connection of this view 
with that of the Jewish origin of Islam is obvious; 
and David Reu- 
beni revived the 
view in stating 
that he was re- 
lated to the king 
of the tribes of 
Reuben situated 
in Khaibar in 
North Arabia. 
According to 
Abraham Faris- 
sol, the remain- 
ing tribes were 


the prophecies in the desert, on 
would be impos- the way to Mec- 
sible; if they ca, near the Red 
have not disap- Sea; but he 
agent ee Japanese Types, Showing Jewish Features. ae se 
. (According to McLeod, “Epitome of the Ancient History of Japan,” Tokyo, 1879.) : 
exist uuder a Ganges with 


different name. The numerousattempts at identifi- 
cation that have been made constitute some of the 
most remarkable curiosities of literature. 

In the Apocrypha it is presumed that the Ten 
Tribes still exist as tribes. Thus Tobit is stated to 
be of the tribe of Naphtali, and the Testaments of 
the Twelve Patriarchs assume their continuous ex- 
istence. In the Fourth Book of Ezra (xiii. 89-45) it 
is declared that the Ten Tribes were carried by 
Hosea, king in the time of Shalmaneser, to the Eu- 
phrates, at the narrow passages of the river, whence 
they went on for a journey of a year aud a half toa 
place called Arzareth. Schiller-Szinessy pointed out 
that “Arzareth” is merely a contraction of “erez 
aheret,” the “other land ” into which the Lord says He 
“will cast them [the people] as this day ”; see Deut. 
Xxix. 27, which verse is referred by R. Akiba to the 
Lost Ten Tribes (Sanh. x. 4; comp. “Journal of Phi- 
lology,” iij. 114). 

According to haggadic tradition, the Ten Tribes 
Were divided into three groups, one on this side of 
the River Sambation, another on the opposite side, 
and the third in the neighborhood of Daphne, near 
Antioch (Lam. R. v. 2). This was based on the Tar- 


the River Gozan, and assumes that the Beni- 
Israel of India are the descendants of the Lost 
Ten Tribes. The Ganges, thus identified by him 
with the River Sambation, divides the Indians from 
the Jews. The confusion between Ethiopia and 
Farther India which existed in the minds of the 
ancients and medieval geographers caused some 
writers to place the Lost Ten Tribes in Abyssinia. 
Abraham Yagel, in the sixteenth century, did so, 
basing his conclusions on the accounts of David 
Reubeni and Eldad ha-Dani. It is probable that 
some of the reports of the Fauasyas led to this iden- 
tification. According to Yagel, messengers were 
sent to these colonists in the time of Pope Clement 
VII., some of whom died, while the rest 

Arabia, broughtback tidingsof the greatness of 
India, and the tribes and their very wide terri- 
Abyssinia. tories. Yagel quotes a Christian 
traveler, Vincent of Milan, who wasa 

prisoner in the hands of the Turks for twenty-five 
years, and who went as far as Fez, and thence to 
India, where he found the River Sambation, and a. 
number of Jews dressed in silk and purple. They 
were ruled by seven kings, and upon being asked to 


Tribes, Lost Ten 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


250 


pay tribute to the sultan Salim they declared they 
had never paid tribute to any sultan or king. It is 
just possible that this may have some reference to 
the “Saisanam ” of the Jews of Cocuin. Itis further 
stated that in 1680 a Jew of Salonica traveled to 
Ethiopia, to the land of Sambation, and that in 1646 
one Baruch, traveling in Persia, claimed to have 
met aman named Malkiel of the tribe of Naphtali, 
and brought back a letter from the king of the 
children of Moses; this letter was seen by Azulai. It 
was afterward reprinted in Jacob Saphir’s book of 
travels (“Eben Sappir,” i. 98). Moses EpREII wrote 
a separate work on the subject. So much interest was 
taken in this account that in 1881 a certain Baruch 
ben Samuel of Piusk was sent to search for the 
children of Moses in Yemen. He traveled fifteen 
days in the wilderness, and declared he met Danites 
feeding flocks of sheep. So, too, in 1854 a certain 
Amram Ma‘arabi set out from Safed in search of the 
Teu Tribes; and he was followed in 1857 by David 
Ashkenazi, who crossed over through Suakin to 
make inquiries about the Jews of Abyssinia. 

In 1835 Asahel Grant, an American physician, was 
appointed by the American Board of Foreign Mis- 
sions to pursue his calling among the Nestorians 
of Mesopotamia. He found among them a tradi- 
tion that they were descendants of the Lost Ten 

Tribes, a tradition which had already 
Nestorians been gathered by Smith and White 
and Devil- «during their earlier mission (“Re- 
Worship- searches in Armenia,” vol. ii.). He 
ers. found also among the Jews of the 
neighborhood of Urumiah recognition 
of this tradition, which he considered to be contirmed 
by the following facts: they dwelt in the neighbor- 
hood to which the Israelites were originally deported, 
while Josephus declared that the Ten Tribes lived 
beyond the Euphrates up to his time (“ Ant.” xi. 5, 
§ 3), and his statement is confirmed by Jerome 
(“ Opera,” vi. 780); their language is a branch of the 
Aramaic; they still offer sacrifices and_first-fruits 
like the ancient Israclites, and they prepare for the 
Sabbath on the preceding evening; they have Jewish 
names and Jewish features. Other similarities of 
custom are recorded by Grant (“The Nestorians, or 
the Lost Fribes.” New York, 1845), Grant was of 
the opinionalso thatthe Yezidis, or devil-worshipers, 
of the same region were likewise descended from the 
Ten Tribes, as they observed the rite of circumci- 
sion, offered sacrifices, including that of the paschal 
lamb on the 34th of Nisan, and also abstained from 
forbidden food (2b. pp. 863-372). 

According to their native traditions, the Afghans 
also are to be identified with the Tost Ten Tribes. 
They declare that Nebuchadnezzar banished them 
into the mountains of Ghur, whence they main- 
tained correspondence with the Arabian Jews. When 
some of the latter were converted by Mohammed, one 
Khalid wrote to the Afghans and in- 
vited them to embrace Islam. Several 
Afghan nobles went to Arabia under 
one Kais, who claimed to trace his descent through 
forty-seven generations from Saul. He was accord- 
ingly greeted by Mohammed by the title of “malik,” 
in deference to this illustrious descent. Kais is re- 
ported to have died at the age of eighty-seven, in 


Afghans. 


Soe a ge a OR ga 


662; and all the modern chiefs of Afghanistan claim 
to be descended from him (Malcolm, “ History of 
Persia,” ii. 596, London, 1815). The Afghans still 
call themselves “* Beni-Israel,” and are declared to 
have a markedly Jewish appearance. Their claim 
to Israclitish descent is allowed by most Moham- 
medan writers. G. Moore, in his “Lost Tribes” 
(pp. 148-160, London, 1861), also identified the Af- 
ghans with the Ten Tribes. 

In order to avoid the disabilities imposed upon 
Rabbinite Jews, the Karaites of Russia attempted 
to prove that they were guiltless of the execution of 

Jesus because they were descended 


Karaites trom ihe Lost Ten Tribes and had 
andthe been scttled in the Crimea since the 
Caucasus. time of Shalmaneser (seventh century 


B.c.). In particular Abraham FIrKo- 
vicu edited a number of forgeries of inscriptions on 
tombstones and manuscripts to prove the early date 
of their settlement in the Crimea. The argument 
was effective with the Russian government in 1795, 
when they were exempted from the double taxation 
imposed upon the Rabbinites, and in 1828, when it 
obtained for them exemption from military service. 
From the similar traditions among the Jews of the 
Caucasus, according to Chorny (“Sefer ha- Massa ‘ot,” 
p. 585, St. Petersburg, 1884), the Jews of Derbent de- 
clared that the Daghestan Jews were those who 
were carried away by the Assyrians, and that some 
of them had ultimately migrated to Bokhara, and 
even as faras China. It is, of course, only natural 
that the outlying colonies in China, in India, and 
even in the Sahara should have been at one time 
or another identified as remnauts of the Lost Ten 
Tribes, 

G. Moore, indeed, attempts to prove that the high- 
class Hindus, including all the Buddhists, are de- 
scendants of the Sacre, or Scythians, who, again, 
were the Lost Ten Tribes. He transcribes many of 
the Indian inscriptions into Hebrew of a wonderful 
kind to prove this contention. Buddhism, aecord- 
ing to him, is a fraudulent development of Old Tes- 
tament doctrines brought to India by the Ten Tribes. 
The Kareens of Burma, because of their Jewish ap- 
pearance, their name for God (“ Ywwah ”), and their 
use of bones of fowls for divination purposes, are 
also identitied by him and by Mason as descendants 
of the Lost Tribes, 

The identification of the Sace, or Scythians, with 
the Ten Tribes because they appear in history at the 
same time, and very nearly in the same place, as the 
Israclites removed by Shalmaneser, is one of the chief 
supports of the theory which identifies the Eng- 
lish people, and indeed the whole Teu- 
tonic race, with the Ten Tribes. Dan 
isidentified sometimes with Denmark, 
and sometimes with the Tuatha da 
Danaun of Irish tradition; but the main argument 
advanced is that the English satisfy the conditions 
of the Prophets regarding Israel in so far as they 
live in a far-off isle, speak in a strange tongue, 
have colonies throughout the world, and yet wor- 
ship the true God. For further discussion of the 
argument and the history of its development see 
ANGLO-ISRAELISM. 

One of the most curious offshoots of the theory is 


Angilo- 
Israelism. 


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Tribes, Lost Ten 
Tribes, The Twelve 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


252 


that which identifies the Shindai, or holy class, of 
Japan as the descendants of the Lost Ten Tribes. 
This is advocated by N. McLeod in his “Epitome 
of the Ancient History of Japan” (8d ed., Tokyo, 
1879). He calls attention toa point of agreement 
between the two, namely, the fact 
that the first known king of Japan 
was Osee, 730 B.c., and the last king 
of Israel was Hosea, who died 722 b.c. In addition 
to this, McLeod points out that the Shinto temple 
is divided into a holy and a most holy place. The 
priests wear a linen dress, bonnet, and breeches. 
like the Jewish priests of old, and the ancient Tem- 
ple instruments are “.sea in the Shintotemple. The 
Japanese worship their ancestors, as the old Israel- 
ites did; and in addition to this McLeod points out 
the Jewish appearance of some Japanese, and sup- 
plements his “ Epitome” with a volume of illustra- 
tions depicting among other things the supposed 
rafts on which the Israelites crossed, via Saghalien, 
to Japan, and their supposed order of march. Stil] 
further removed is the suggestion of some writeis 
that the Australians are the Lost Tribes br cause 
they practise circumcision (“Allg. Zeit. de. Jud.” 
1842, No. 6). 

Quite recently the Masai of British Es 4frica 
have been identified owing to similarity of -astom 
(M. Merker, * Die Masai,” Berlin, 1904). 

Immediately after tne discovery of Central and 
South America the legend of the Lost Tribes be- 
gan to be referred to the aboriginal inhabitants. 
Garcia, in his “Origen de los Media- 
nos” (1607, pp. 79-128), declares that 
the Tribes passed over the “Strait of 
Aninai,” z.¢e., Bering Strait, and went by that way 
to Mexico and South America. He deduces their 
identity from the common cowardice and want of 
charity of the Israelites and Indians. Both of these 
peoples, according to him, bury their dead on the 
hills, give kisses on the cheek asasign of peace, tear 
their clothes as a sign of mourning, aud dance as a 
sign of triumph. Garcia claimed to have found 
many Hebrew terms in the American language. 

According to Manasseh ben Israel, Antonio Mon- 
tesinos deposed in 1644 before the bet din of Am- 
sterdam that while traveling in Peru he had met 
with a number of the natives who recited the 
“Shema‘” in Hebrew, and who informed him 
through an interpreter that they were Israelites 
descended from Reuben, and that the tribe of Joseph 
dwelt in the midst of the sea. He supported their 
statements by tracing Jewish customs among other 
inhabitants of Central and South America. The In- 
dians of Yucatan and the Mexicans rent their gar- 
ments in mourning and kept perpetual fires upon 
their altars, as did also the Peruvians. The Mexi- 
cans kept the jubilee, while the Indians of Peru and 
Guatemala observed the custom of levirate mar- 
riage. Manasseh ben Israel therefore concluded that 
the aboriginal inhabitants of America were the Lost 
Ten Tribes, and as he was of the opinion that the Mes- 
siah would come when the whole world was in- 
habited by the descendants of Israel, he directed his 
efforts to obtaining admission for the Jews to tbe 
British Islands, from which they were at that time 
excluded (see MANASSEH BENISRAEL). The Mexican 


Japan. 


America. 


theory waslatertaken up by Viscount Kingsborough, 
who devoted his life and fortune to proving the thesis 
that the Mexicans were descended from the Lost 
Ten Tribes, and published a magnificent and ex- 
pensive work on the subject (“ Antiquities of Mex- 
ico,” 9 vols., 1837-45). Kingsborough’s chief argn- 
ments are that Mexicaus and Israelites believe in 
both devils and angels, as well as in miracles, and 
use the blood of the. sacrifice in the same way, 
namely, by pouring it on the ground; also that the 
high priest of Peru is the only one allowed to enter 
the inner, most holy part of the temple, and that 
the Peruvians anointed the Ark, as did the Israelites. 
He also finds many similarities in the myths and 
legends. Thus certain Mexican heroes are said to 
have wrestled with Quetzalcohuatl, like Jacob with 

the angel (“ Antiquities of Mexico,” vol. vii.). 
Manasseh b. Israel’s views were taken up by T. 
Thorowgood in his “Jewes in America” (London, 
1650), and he was followed by the “ Apostle” Eliot 
in a publication ten years later; and 


North- their views, referring now to the North- 
American American Inciansinstead of the Mexi- 
Indians. cans or Peruvians, were adopted by 


Cotton Mather, Roger Williams, and 
even William Penu. 8. Sewall also gave expres- 
sion, in 1697, to the same views in a special pub- 
lication. 

Charles Beatty, in his “ Journal of a Two-Months’ 
Tour” (London, 1678), declared that he had found 
among the Delaware Indians traces of Israclitish ori- 
gin; and J. Adair, in his “ History of the American 
Indians” (Loudon, 1775), devotes a considerable 
amount of attention to the same view, which he 
accepts. Adair was followed by Jonathan Edwards. 
A special work was written by E. Boudinot (“ A Star 
inthe West,” Trenton, N. J., 1816); and he was fol- 
lowed by Ethan Smith in 1825, and by Israel Wors- 
ley (“ View of the American Indians, Showing Them 
to Be Descendants of the Lost Tribes of Israel,” Lon- 
don, 1828). Mordecai M. Noah accepted the Israel- 
itish origin of the Indians (1887) in a pamphlet re- 
published in Marryat’s “ Diary in America” (vol. ii.). 
J. B. Finlay claimed to have found traces among 
the Wyandottes in 1840, and the view was even con- 
sidered by George Catlin in his “Manners... of 
the North American Indians ” (London, 1841). Dis- 
coveries of alleged Hebrew tablets, as at Pittsfield, 
Mass., 1815, and Newark, Ohio, about 1860, have 
given fresh vigor to the theory. Altogether, with 
the exception of the Anglo-Israelite craze, a larger 
amount of literature has been written on this identi- 
fication than on any other. 

It was doubtless owing to this belief in the identity 
of the Lost Ten Tribes with the American Indians 
that Joseph Smith was led to adopt a somewhat 
similar view in his celebrated “Book of Mormon.” 
According to him, America was colo- 
nized by two sets of people—one being 
the Jaredites, who came over after 
the dispersion from the Tower of Ba- 
bel; the other a group of sixteen, who came from 
Jerusalem about 600 B.c, Their chief families were 
destroyed about the fourth century B.c., and de- 
scendants of the remainder are the North-American 
Indians. 


The 
Mormons. 


253 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Tribes, Lost Ten 
Tribes, The Twelve 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Manasseh b. Israel. Hope of Israel, ed. Wolf, 
pp. 24-28, London, 1901; Eisenmenger, Enitdecktes Juden- 
thum, ii. 515-573; A. Neubauer, Where Are the Ten Tribes? 
in J. Q. R. i. 14-28, 95-114, 185-201, 408-423; A. F. Hyamson, 
The Lost Tribes and the Influence of the Search for Them 
on the Return of the Jews to England, in J. Q. R. xv.: M. 
Lewin, Wo Sind die Sttimme Israels zu Suchen ? Presburg, 
1901; Bancroft, Native Races of the Pacific, v. 78-102; 
Justin Winsor, Narrative and Critical History of America, 
i. 115-116; Mallory, Israelite and Indian, New York, 1889. 


E. C. J. 

TRIBES, THE TWELVE: The individual 
tribes having been treated under their respective 
captions, it is proposed to discuss in the present 
article the theories concerning the nature, number, 
and origin of the tribes cf Israel. The uncritical 
or precritical theory accepts as data of personal 
histories the Biblical accounts of the Patriarchs’ 
lives. Accordingly, the tribes are regarded as hav- 
ing been formed in the main by the natural increase 
of the offspring of Jacob. The descendants of each 
of his sons are believed to have held together and 
thus constituted a social entity, though foreign 
wives and slaves were at times admitted and their 
offspring absorbed. The difficulties which have led 
to the rejection of this theory by most Biblical 
scholars are of atwofold nature. In the first place, 
such natural origin could by no means account for 
the numbers given in the Biblical books as the cen- 
sus of the various tribes. Anthropology furnishes 
no other example of a nation having arisen by nat- 
ural descent from one ancestral family. In the sec- 
ond place, the study and comparison of the various 
yand only in one instance perfectly concordant) lists 

of the tribes, as preserved in the Bib- 

The Lists. lical records, suggests that considera- 

tions other than the fact of common 

descent underlie the different groupings and dis- 
eordant order of tiese tribal tables, and the com- 
mon origin is thus shown to be only theoretical. 
The tribes are arranged in twenty different orders, 
only one of which (Num. ii., vii., x. 14-29) recurs. 

Various principles are readily detected to be 
worked out in the tables, (1) A certain number of 
tribal lists (e.g., those in Gen. Xxix.-xxxv., xlvi., 
xlix.; Ex. i.; Num. i., ii., vii., x., xiii, xxvi.; I 
Chron. ii., xxvii.) trace descent from Jacob, but 
through his various wives and concubines, grouping 
those always together that have a common mother, 
thus: (a) tribes of Leah: Reuben, Simeon, Levi, 
Judah, Issachar, Zebulun; (4) tribes of Zilpah 
(Leah’s slave): Gad, Asher; (c) tribes of Rachel: 
Joseph, Benjamin; (@) tribes of Bilhah (Rachel’s 
slave): Dan and Naphtali. (2) Other lists are ar- 
ranged according to geographical position (Num. 
xxxiv.; Deut. xxxiti.; Josh. xiii.; Judges v.; I 
Chron. ii. 3-viii.). (8) Tradifion concerning both 
aftinity and geographical position (Deut. xxvii.). 
But even here the relative importance of the tribes 
decides whether they are to receive a blessing ora 
curse. Ezekiel’s Hst (Ezek. xiviii.) reflects the 
prophet’s ideal conceptions. It is thus plain that 
the records do not give simpleand indubitable facts, 
but disclose certain theories and reflect certain post- 
patriarchal conditions. 

As anthropology presents no warrant for assuming 
that nations are formed through natural descent 
from one ancestor, so the process of a tribe’s origin 
must be the reverse of that underlying the presenta- 


tion of Biblical patriarchal tradition. Tribes result 
from combinations of various septs or clans. The 
tribe (Hebr. “ matteh ” or “shebet”) was a confeder- 
ation of “mishpahot” (R. V. “ families ”) and septs; 
and these again were composed of various households 
(“ battim” or “batte abot”). Community of worship 
is the characteristic and constitutive element of this 
ascending and enlarging order of tribal society 
(comp. I Sam. xx. 6). The names of the tribes 
probably represent, therefore, former eponymous 
deities whose “sons”—even in a physical sense— 
the members of the tribe felt themselvesto be. The 
tribal denominations therefore do not represent lhis- 
torical and personal progenitors, but mythical fig- 
ures, former divinities, or heroes, 

This is the theory now held by most of the mod- 
ern scholars, modified by the recognition that many 
of the subclans’ names point to local- 
ities—the nuimen of the place being 
believed to be the father of the inhab- 
itants. This fact suggests a similar 
original meaning of the names of some of Jacob’s 
sons (é.g., Asher, Benjamin [the southern]); and it is 
evident that in the patriarchal cycles later history is 
projected into earlier centuries, so that tribal rank- 
ings as expressed in patriarchal family events corre- 
spond to subsequent historical relations. For ex- 
ample, Joseph and Judah typify two distinct lines 
of descent, Judah in all likelihood being a non- 
Israelitish mixed tribe. In the quarrels of Leah and 
Rachel are mirrored the struggles for the hegemony 
waged by these two scts of tribes. 

That some of these tribes are descended through 
a concubine, the bondwoman of a legitimate wife, 
expresses the historical fact that they were deemed 
to be of less pure blood or of less importance than 
others, and were held to a certain extent in vas- 
salage by the more powerful tribes. In like manner 
later territorial relations are worked out in the tribal 
genealogies, which accounts for the omission of some 
of the tribes (e.g., Simeon and Levi) from the lists or 
from the blessings (Deut. xxxiii., for instance). 

The historical kernel involved in all the tribal cat- 
alogues and the patriarchal legends would appear to 
be this: In the Sinaitic Peninsula a number of pas- 
toral tribes had for centuries been pasturing their 
flocks; and at times, when food was scarce, were 
driven to take refuge in Egypt, in the border district 
of which country some (eé.g., Joseph) of their num- 
ber found settled habitations. These tribes were 
loosely conscious of their common religious affinity, 
regarding as their progenitor Israel, whose sons they 
were called (“Beni Israel”). This loose conscious- 
ness gave way to a deeper national sense of unity 
under Moses, though in the conquest of Palestine 

the tribes still acted without coher- 
Historical ence. Judah seems to have stood 
Kernel. aloof from the tribe of Joseph and 
its vassals, and to have joined its 
fortunes with theirs only after the Joseph group 
had finally gained a foothold across the Jordan. 
Geographical considerations after this replaced the 
traditional memories of relations that prevailed in 
the trans-Jordanic districts, Judah and Benjamin in 
the south gaining fora time the ascendency over 
Joseph in the north. 


Modern 
View. 


Triennial Cycle 


With the establishment of the kingdom and the 
later division of the realm the force of tribal associ- 
ation gradually waned. In fact, the premonarchical 
period of tribal dissensions and intertribal feuds 
had reduced many of the tribes to a state of weak- 
ness which resulted in their absorption by their 
stronger and more numerous neighbors, This process 
of tribal disintegration was accelerated by the Syrian 
and Assyrian wars leading up to deportation. and 
exile, the “ten” tribes constituting the Northern 
Kingdom being “lost” through natural decimation 
in consequence Of war and famine at home and 
through absorption by the “people of the land,” 
the Syrians north of them and the colonists settled 
in their territory by the Assyrian conquerors, 

The artificiality of the number twelve isapparent. 
The subdivisions of Joseph (Ephraimand Manasseh) 
intrude into the duodecimal notation, while, on the 
other hand, omissions as frequently reduce the num- 
ber. Manasseh at times is treated as two, which 
again interferes with the theory. That twelve is : 
favorite conventional number, even in connection 
with non-Jacobean tribes, appears from Gen. xvii. 
20; xxii. 20-24; xxv. 18-16; xxxvi. 15-19, 40-43. 
It probably is of mythological character, having 
some connection with the twelve months of the year 
and the twelve signs of the zodiac. According to B. 
Luther (in Stade’s “Zeitschrift” [1901], xxi.), this 
number recalls the twelve departments into which 
Solomon divided the land of Israel, which division, 
however, attests the sacred nature of the number, 
twelve being used asaround figure. Other reckon- 
ings, as ten and eleven, are indicated in TT Sam. xix. 
43; I Kings xi. 31. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: G. B. Gray, The Lists of the Twelve Trihes, 
in Exrpositor, March, 1902; Charles, Book of Jubilees, 1902, 
pp. 170 et seq.: Weilhausen, 1. J. G. pp. 11-13: idem, P’role- 
gomena, ete., 4th ed., pp. 322-3829; Stade, Gesch. des Volkes 
Israel, 3d ed., i. 519 et seqg:; Stade’s Zeitschrift, i.; Steuer- 
nagel, Die Hinwanderung der Israelitischen Stdmme in 
Kanaan, 1901; Gunkel, Genesis, 2d ed., p. 285; €. Matthes, 
Israels Neder zetting in Kanaan, in Theoloyiseh Tijdschrift 


(1902), xx xvi. 
E. G. H. 


TRIENNIAL CYCLE: Acycle of three years, 
in the courseof which the whole Law isread on Sab- 
baths and festivals. This was the practise in Pales- 
tine, whereas in Babylonia the entire Pentateuch 
was read in the synagogue in the course of a 
single year (Meg. 290). The modern practise fol- 
lows the Babylonian; but as late as 1170 Benjamin 
of Tudela mentioned Egyptian congregations that 
took three years to read the Torah (“ Itinerary,” ed. 
Asher, p. 98). The reading of the Law in the syn- 
agogue can be traced to at least about the second 
century b.c., when the grandson of Sirach refers to 
itin his preface as an Egyptian practise; it must, 
therefore, have existed even earlier in Palestine. It 
has been suggested that the reading of the Law was 
due to a desire to controvert the views of the Samar- 
itans With regard to the various festivals, for which 
reason arrangements were made to have the passages 
of the Pentateuch relating to those festivals read 
and expounded on the feast-days themselves. 

The Masoretic divisions known as “sedarim” 
and variously indicated in the text, number 154 in 
the Pentateuch, and probably correspond, there- 
fore, to the Sabbath lessons of the triennial system, 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


254 


as Was an surmised by Rapoport Pee ree er re re Ke- 
dem,” p. 11). The number varies, however, so that 
een Me’iri reckoned 161 divisions, correspond- 
ing to the greatest number of Sabbaths possible in 
three years; the Yemen grammars and scrolls of the 
Pentateuch enumerate 167 (see SIDRA); and the trac- 
tate Soferim (xvi. 10) gives the number as 175 (comp. 
Yer. Shab. i. 1). It is possible that this last divi- 
sion corresponds toa further development by which 
the whole of the Pentateuch was read twice in seven 
years, or once in three and a half years. The min- 
imum seder for a Sabbath portion when seven per- 
sons are calied up to the Law (see ‘ArLryAn) should 
consist of twenty-one verses, since no one should 
read less than three verses (Meg. iv. 4). Some seda- 
rim have less than twenty-one verses, however, as, 
for example, Ex. xxx. 1-8. 

If the 154 sedarim are divided into three portions 

corresponding to the three years, the second would 
comimence at Ex. xii. and the third at 
Divisions Num. vi. 22, a passage treating of the 
and Begin- priestly blessing and the gifts of the 
ning of twelve tribal chiefs after the erection 
the Cycle. of the Tabernacle. Tradition assumes 
that the events described in Num. vi. 
took place on the tst of Nisan, and it would follow 
that Gen. i. and Ex. xi. would also be read on the 
tirst Sabbath of that month, while Deut. xxxiv., the 
last portion of the Pentateuch, would be read in 
Adar. Accordingly, it is found that the death of 
Moses is traditionally assigned to the 7th of Adar, 
about which date Deut. xxxiv. would be read. 

A. Biichler has restored the order of the sedarim 
on the assumption that the reading of the Law was 
commenced ou the 1st of Nisan and continued for 
three years, and he has found that Genesis would be 
begun on the Ist of Nisan, Deuteronomy on the 1st 
of Elul, Leviticus on the Ist of Tishri, and Exodus 
and Numbers ou the 1dth of Shebat, the four New- 
Years given in the Mishnah (R. H. i. 1). Nisan has 
always been regarded as the ecclesiastical New- 
Year. This arrangement would account for many 
traditions giving definite dates to Pentateuchal oc- 
currences, the dates being, strictly speaking, those 
of the Sabbaths on which the lessons recording the 
oceurrences are read. Thus, it is declared that the 
exodus from Egypt took place on Thursday, the 
15th of Nisan (“Seder ‘Olain,” x.), aud the passage 
relating to the Kxodus was read on that day, The 
slaving of the Passover lamb is said to have occurred 
on the 10th of Nisan, and js described in Ex, xii. 21, 
the passage read in the tricunial cycle on the second 
Sabbath of Nisan, which would be the 10th where 
the 15th fell on Thursday. This hkewise explains 
the tradition that the Israelites encamped at Ram- 
eses on a Sabbath, the 17th of Nisan, on which Ex. 
xii. 87 would be read in the triennial cycle. The 
tradition that Rachel was remembered on New-Year’s 
Day (R. HL. 10b) is due to the fact that in the first 
vear of the cycle the sidra Gen. xxx. 22, beginning, 
“ And God remembered Rachel,” would be read on 
Rosh ha-Shanah. As the reading of Deut. xxxiv. 
would occur on the 7th of Adar, there would be 
four remaining Sabbaths to be filled in before the 
new triennial cycle, which began with Nisan. Four 
special Sabbaths, Shekalim, Zakor, Parah, and Ha- 


255 


Hodesh, still oceur in Adar. Including these and 
the festival parashiyyot, and possibly also the special 
sedarim for Hanukkah and Purim, eleven extra di- 
visions would be obtained, making up the 166 or 167 

of the Yemen Bible. 
The triennial cycle seems to have been established 
in New Testament times. John vi. 4 contains an 
allusion to the Passover, and vii. 2 to 


Connec- the Feast of Tabernacles, while in vi. 
tions 59, between the two, reference is made 
Between toa sermon on the manna delivered in 
Readings the synagogue at Capernaum. This 
and would be appropriate for a discourse 
Festivals. on the text for the first or eighth of 


the month Iyyar (¢.e., between Pass- 
over and Tabernacles), which, in the triennial cycle, 
dealt with Ex. vi. 1-xvii.1, where the aceount of the 
manna is given. 
So, too, at the 
season of Pente- 
cost the cycle of 
readings in the 
first year would 
reach Gen. Xi., 
which deals with 
the story of 
Babel and the 
confusion of 
tongues, so that 
in Acts ii. Pente- 
cost is associated 
with the gift of 
the spirit which 


Hanucea 
led to a confu- eight days 
sion of tongues. 

Similarly, the 
Decalogue was 


read on Pente- 
cost in the see- 
ond year of the 
cycle, whence 
came, according 
to Biichler, the 
traditional asso- 
ciation of the 
giving of the 
Law with Pen- 
tecost. Ex. 
Xxxiv., which 
contains 4 Sec- 
ond Decalogue, 
is accordingly 
read on the 29th 
of Ab, or 80 
days after Pen- 
tecost, allowing 
after the sin of 


Cycle. 
are Indicated by Radii. 


exactly forty days before and 
the golden calf. So too Deut. 
v., containing a third Decalogue, began on the 
Same day, the 29th of Ab. The above diagram 
shows the arrangement and the connection of the 
various dates with the successive sedarim, the three 
concentric rings showing the three cycles, and the 
twelve radii separating the months of the Jewish 
year indicated in the inner circle. 

In addition to this division of the Pentateuch into 
& triennial reading, E. G. King has proposed an ar- 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Diagrain Showing Arrangement of Readings from the Law During the Triennial 


The Readings are Represented by Concentric Circies; Hebrew Months 


(From the “ Journal of Theological Studies.’’) 


Triennial Cycle 


rangement of the Psalms on the same system, thus 
accounting for their lection in a triennial cycle 
which varied between 147 and 150 Sabbaths; and 
he also shows the agreement of the five divisions or 
books of the Psalms, now fixed by the 

The Trien- doxologies, with the five divisions of 
nial Cycle the Pentateuch, the first and third 
of the books of both the Psalter and the Pen- 

Psalms.  tateuch ending in the month Shebat. 

Ps. {xxii. 19 would be read on the same 
day as Ex, xl. 84, the two passages throwing light 
on each other, The Asaph Psalms (Ix xiii.-lx x xiii.) 
would begin, on this principle, on the Feast of 
* Asif” in the seventh month, just when, in the first. 
year of the Pentateuchal cycle, Gen. xxx. et seq. 
would be read, dealing with the birth of Joseph, 
whose name is there derived from the root “asaf.” 
A still more re- 
markable coin- 
cidence is the 
fact that Ps, ec. 
would come just. 
at the time in 
Adar when, ac- 
cording to tradi- 
tion, the death of 
Moses occurred, 
and when Deut. 
XXXiii. would be 
read; hence, it 
is suggested, 
originated the 
heading of Ps. 
xc.,“ A prayer of 
Moses, the man 
of God.” The 
Pilgrim Psalms 
(CX X.-CXXXiV.) 
would be read, 
in this system, 
during the fif- 
teen Sabbaths 
from the 1st of 
Elul to Hanuk- 
kuh, the very 
time when a 
-constant proces- 
sion of pilgrims 
was bringing 
the first-fruits to. 
the Temple. 
Many other as- 
sociations of 
appropriate 
Psalms with the 
festivals which they illustrate have been pointed 
out. 

Besides these examples Biichler gives the fol- 
lowing sections of the Pentateuch read on various 
Sabbaths in the different years of the cycle, basing 
his identification on certain haggadic associations 
of the Sabbaths with the events to which they refer. 
In the first year the four sedarim of Nisan appear 
to be Gen. i. 1-ii. 3, if. 4-Hi. 21, iii, 22-iv. 26, and v. 
1-vi.8. The second Sabbath of Iyyar was probably 
devoted to Gen. vi. 9-vii. 24 (comp. vii. 1). In the 


Triennial Cycle 
Trier 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


256 


second year the readings on the Sabbaths of Nisan 
deal with Ex. xii., xili., xiv., and xv., ch. xiv. con- 
curring with the Passover; and it is for this reason 
that the Haggadah states that Adam taught his 
sons to bring a Passover offering, since the passage 
Gen, iii. was read during the Passover week in the 
cycle of the first year. In Iyyar of the second year 
the readings included Ex. Xvi. 1, xxvili., xvii. 1, Xviil. 
1, and xix. 6, there being usually five Sabbaths in 
that month. Two of the portions for Siwan are 
also identified as Ex. xx. 1, xxii.4; at the end of 
Elul Lev. i. was read; while on the first days of 
Tishri 2d. iv. 1, v. 1, and vi. 12 were the readings, 
and on the 10th 
(Yom [ippur) 
db. viii. 1 and 
Neos 

In the third 
cycle, besides 
the account of 
the death of Mo- 
ses already re- 
rerred to as be- 
ing read on the 
ith of Adar, or 
the 7th of She- 
bat, in Nisan the 
four pericopes 
were Nin. vi. 
22, vi. 48, viii. 
1, and ix. 1, 
while the third 
Sabbath of ly- 
yar was devoted 
to the reading of 
Num. xv. 1, and 
the 3d of Ab 
to that of 2d. 
xxXxvi. Some 
of these pas- 
sages were re- 
tained for the 
festival read- 
ings, even after 
the annual cycle 
had been intro- 


duced. 
Besides the Cyele. 
readings from are Indicated by Radii. 
the Law the 
readings from 


the Prophets were also arranged in a triennial 
eycle. These appear to have been originally a 
few selected verses intended to strengthen the pas- 
sage from the Law read _ previously, 
and so connect it with the following 
discourse of the preacher, which took 
for its text the last verse of the haftarah. Thus 
there is evidence that Isa. lii. 8-5 was at one time 
regarded as a complete haftarah to Gen. xxxix. 1. 
Even one-verse haftarot are known, as Ezek. xlv. 
17 and Isa. Ixvi. 28, read on New Moons. A list of 
the earlier haftarot suitable for the festivals is given 
in Meg. 31a. Evidence of two haftarot for one fes- 
tival ig shown in the case of Passover, for which 
Josh. v. 10 and Josh. iii. are mentioned. This 


Haftarot. 


Diagram Showing Arrangement of Readings from the Psalms During the Triennial 
The Psalms are Represented by Concentric Circles; Hebrew Months 


(From the “Journal of Theological Studies.”’) 


can easily be explained by the existence of a trien- 
nial cycle, especially as Num. ix. 2-8 was the read- 
ing for the tirst day of Passover, and corresponds 
exactly to Josh. v. 20. In the case of the New- 
Year it has been possible to determine the haftarot 
for the three cycles; I Sam. ii. 21, Jer. xxxi. 19, and, 
for the third year, Joel ii, 1, corresponding to the 
reading Deut. v., which formed the Pentateuchal 
lesson. For Hanukkah, the Torah seder of which 
treats of lamps(Num. viii. 1-2), the haftarot Zech. iv. 
2 and J Kings vii. 49 were selected as being suitable 
passages. A third haftarah is also found (I Kings 
xviii. 31), completing the triennial arrangement. 

The Karaites 
adopted some of 
the triennial 
haftarot in their 
reading of the 
Law. The haf- 
tarot of the first 
year of the cycle 
can often be 
identified by this 
fact. Of the 
twenty-nine se- 
darim of the 
Book of Exodus 
eighteen were 
taken from 
Isaiah, three 
from Jeremiah, 
four from the 
Minor Prophets, 
three from the 
historica] works, 
and one from 
Ezekiel, whose 
words, for some 
reason, seem on 
the whole to 
have been es- 
chewed by those 
who selected 
the prophetic 
readings. A 
certain con- 
fusion seems to 
have arisen 
among the haf- 
tarot, owing to 
the fact that 
along some congregations the reading of the Pen- 
tateuchal portions was begun on the Ist of Elul 
(also regarded as a New- Year). 

In the Masoretic text of the Prophets occur a 
number of divisions marked as sedarim which cor- 
respond to smaller divisions in the Torah. Among 
these may be mentioned: 

I Kings vi. 11-13 corresponding to Ex. xxv. 


122 


123 


Ezek. xii. 20 ‘° ** Lev. xxvi.3or4? 
I Sain, vi. 14 “ “Num. iv. 17 
Josh. xvii. 4 Pe ** Num. xxvi. 52 


Jer, ix. 22-24 ae ** Deut. viii. 
If Kings xiii, 23 ss * Deut. x. 
at oe 


Judges ii. 7 Deut. xxxi. 14 
The present arrangement of haftarot seems to have 
been introduced into Babylonia by Rab, especially 


Hosted by Google 


SIDROT 
(THE LAW) 
First year cycle begins in Nisan with 
Genesis 1; 1, 
Sidrot for Holy Days given on outer 
Inargin, vary for each year of the 
cycle, 
Asterisks indicate slight changes in 
annual cycle, 


HV3A MIN TWAID 


GS). 


Nos. in thick type, same in annual 
and triennial cycies, 


Nos, in brackets and thick type, dif- 
ferent in the two cycles. 


Bormay ¢ Co., 


NY. 


J. BE. Vol. XU Copyright, 1904, by Fuak & Wagnalls Company, New York & London 


TRIENNIAL CyjOF READINGS 


FROM THE Lay }gE PROPHETS. 


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se ee: 2 a eee he ah 
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NUMBERS 
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83] 
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oh He Ss ily z. 
s\ se 32h b, Loe a. 
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vk Oe 4 “, 0p 
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we St oS. NG. wat 
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SS Vv ° © é ¢ Bc) C Ap 7? 
f a Sy © fo» 2 Yd \ 
Pa ® Fa ye we op 
ern ~, . 
iS ry 5 ea ae e's, \ 
“es 7 
as Sof es Ff we F 5 Ye 
“é fs PF RRR & BN, 
| S sips ® 
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a, 
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4, 
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= oy 
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= 
= < TS. Dets 
N 


HAFTAROT 
(THE PROPHETS) 
In outer circles alternative 
Ee readings connected by braces 
fee K=Karaite Haftarot 
ae . ty AB=Aggadat Bereshit 
a 52 Seph=Sephardic Haftarot 
Haftarot in brackets used in 
annual cycle. 


Green —First Year 
Red—Second Year 
Black—Third Year 


Hosted by Google 


257 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Triennial Cycle 
Trier 


ee 


those for the three Sabbaths of repentance preceding 
the Ninth of Ab, and the three consolatory ones suc- 
ceeding it. Biichler has traced the prophetic por- 
tions of these three latter Sabbaths for each of the 
three years of the cycle as follows: 
I. Isa. x1. 1, li. 12, liv. 11. 
II. Isa. xlix. 14, 1x. 1, Lxi. 10. 
Ilf. Isa. liv. 1, Zech. ii. 14, ix. 9. 

He finds traces of the triennial cycle also in the 
prophetic portions for the four supplementary Sab- 
baths, Shekalim, Zakor, Parah, and Hodesh. For 
Shekalim lhaftarot are found from («) J] Kings xii., 
(b) Ezek. xlv. onward (among the Karaites), and (¢) 
I Kings iv. 20 onward. It is tolerably clear that 
these were the haftarot of the three different years 
of the cycle when that particular Sabbath came 
round. It is possible that when the arrangement of 
the calendar and of the reading of the Law was first 
made these four supplementary Sabbaths were in- 
tended to fill out the time between the 7th of Adar, 
when the account of the death of Moses in Deut. 
xxxiv. was read, and the first Sabbath in Nisan, 
when the cycle began. Traces of the cycle are also 
found in the haftarot for the festivals. Thus, on the 
first day of Passover, Ex, xii. 29 was read, approxi- 
mately in its due place in the cycle in the second 
year; and corresponding to this Josh. v. 10 was read 
in the Prophets, whereas there are also traces of 
Num, ix. 22 being read on that day, as would occur 
in the third year of the cycle, when Josh. iti. was 
read as the haftarah, The passage for the second day 
of Passover, Num. ix. 1 e¢ seg., which was introduced 
by the Babylonians, has attached to it IL Kings xxiii. 
21 as the haftaral, and would correspond to the sec- 
tion in the first year’s cycle. On Pentecost, Ex. xix. 
was read in the second year, while Gen. xi. 15 was 
read for the first year of the cycle. So, too, on New- 
Year, Gen. xxx. 22 was read in the first year, Lev. 
iv. in the second, and Deut. v. in the third, the cor- 
responding haftarot being Jer. xxxi. 19, 1 Sam. ii., 
and Joel ii. Forthe Sukkot of the first year for the 
sidra of Gen. xxxil., the haftarah was Zech. xiv. 
16-19; for that of the second year, Lev. ix. 10, the 
haftarah was I Kings viii. 8; and for that of the 
third year, Deut. viii. 9, the haftarah was Isa. iv. 
6 (among the Karaites). 

In the accompanying diagram the sidrot of the Law 
for the Sabbaths of the three years of the cycle are 
indicated, as well as the haftarot which accompany 
them. Sometimes these have alternatives, and in 
several cases, as for Gen. xl. 23, xliii. 14, Ex. i. 1, 
Xxvii. 20, and Lev. xix. 1, three haftarot are given 
for the sidra, pointing in all probability to the haf- 
tarot reading during the triennial cycle. In this 
enlarged form the connection of the beginning of 
the reading of the books with the various sacred 
New-Years, those of Nisan, of Elul (for tithes), and 
of Shebat (for trees), comes out most clearly and 
convincingly. The manner in which the present- 
day reading of the Law and the Prophets has been 
derived from the triennial cycle is shown clearly by 
the diagram. It would appear that at the beginning 
of the cycle all the sidrot of the month were read to- 
gether; but this was soon given up, as obviously it 
Would result in the whole of the Law being read 
in three-quarters of a year or less. 

XII.—17 


There are indications of the application of the trien- 
nial cycle tothe Psalms also. The Aggadat Bereshit 
treats twenty-eight sedarim of Genesis uniformly in 
three sections, one devoted to a passage in Genesis, 
the next to a corresponding prophetic passage (haf- 
tarah), and the third to a passage from the Psalms, 
generally cognate with either the Law or the Proph- 
ets. It may be added that in Luke xxiv. 44 a 
threefold division is made of “the Law of Moses 
and the Prophets and the Psalms.” 

The transition from the triennial to the annual 
reading of the Law and the transference of the be- 
ginning of the cycle to the month of Tishri are at- 
tributed by Bichler to the influence of Rab, and 
may have been due to the smallness of the sedarim 
under the old system, and to the fact that people 
were thus reminded of the chief festivals only once 
in three years. It was then arranged that Deut. 
xxviii. should fall before the New-Year, and that 
the beginning of the cycle should come immediately 
after the Feast of Tabernacles. This arrangement 
has been retained by the Karaites and by modern 
congregations, leaving only slight traces of the tri- 
ennial cycle in the four special Sabbaths and in some 
of the passages read upon the festivals, which are 
frequently sections of the triennial cycle, and not of 
the annual one. It would further be of interest to 
consult the earlier lectionaries of the Chureh (which 
has borrowed its first and second lessons from the 
Jewish custom) to see how far they agree with the 
results already obtained for the triennial cycle. The 
Church father Chrysostom about 175 c.£. declared 
that it was customary to begin reading from Genesis 
during Lent, that is, in Nisan, thus showing that to 
the end of the second century the Church followed 
the Synagogue in commencing the reading of the 
Law at the beginning of the Jewish ecclesiastical 
New-Year. See also PARASHIYYOT; SIDRA. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Biichler, in J. Q. R. v. 420-468, vi. 1-73; E.N. 
Adler, ib. viii. 528-529; E. G. King, Journal of Theologicai 
Studies, Jan., 1904; I, Abrahams, tn J. Q. R. xvi. 579-583, 

J 


TRIER, ERNST JOHANNES: Danish edu. 
cator; born in Copenhagen Jan. 23, 1837; died at 
Vallekilde Dec. 29, 1898. He was graduated trom 
the University of Copenhagen (B.D. 1863), offici- 
ated for some time as teacher at Blaagaards Semi 
nary, and took part in the war with Germany (1864). 
In 1865 he became anardent adherent of Grundtvig, 
at whose initiative he founded (1866) at Vallekilde 
a high school which soon grew to be the foremost 
school of its kind in Denmark. It offers not 
only the ordinary high-school curriculum of studies, 
but also courses in navigation and in various 
branches of trade. It was the first Danish school in 
which the Swedish system of gymnastics was intro- 
duced. 

Of Trier’s memoirs, entitled “Fem og Tyve Aars 
Skolevirksomhed i Vallekilde,” only two volumes 
appeared (Copenhagen, 1890, 1894), his untimely 
death—brought on by overstudy—preventing him 
from completing the work. Trier was a convert to 
Christianity. 

BIBLLOGRAPHY: C. F, Bricka, Dansk Biografisk Lexicon. 

s. 


Trier 
Triest 


TRIER, FREDERIK JACOB: Danish phy- 
sician; born in Copenhagen June 14, 1831; died there 
May 17, 1898. He studied at the Metropolitan 
School and at the University of Copenhagen (M.D. 
1860). In the following year he published several 
clinical essays (of which “Uleus Duodeni” was the 
most noteworthy), and became editor of “Uge- 
skrift for Leger,” a medical journal, a position which 
he held until 1874. He was also for some years co- 
editor of “Nordisk Medicinsk Arkiv,” to which he 
contributed valuable medical papers. In 1881 his 
alma mater conferred upon him the title of professor. 
From 1874 till his death Trier was resident physi- 
cian of the clinical division of the Communal Hos- 
pital of Copenhagen, and he was president of the 
medical section of the International Congress of 
‘Physicians, held at Copenhagen in 1884. He was 
a member of the medical board of revisers of the 
“ Pharmacopea Danica ” (1889). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Carée and Selmer, Den Danske Laegestand, 

oa ed.; C. F. Bricka, Dansk Biografisk Levricon. C 

TRIER, HERMAN: Danish educator, writer, 
and politician; born in Copenhagen May 10, 1845. 
He received his early education at the Von West- 
enske Institut, later attending the University of 
Copenhagen, where he studied jurisprudence for a 
few years. In 1864 he took up the study of peda- 
gogics, in which field he has won international fame. 
In 1876 Trier began publishing a series of “ Kultur- 
Historiske Personligheder,” containing biographies 
and character studies of different authors. In the 
same year appeared his first work on pedagogics, 
“Pedagogikken som Videnskab,” which endeav- 
ored to establish for pedagogics a place among the 
abstract sciences. 

Since 1879 Trier, together with School-Inspector 
P. Voss of Christiania, has published “Vor Ung- 
dom,” a periodical devoted to pedagogics. From 
1892 to 1898 he published “ Pedagogiske Tids- og 
Stridssporgsmaal,” and in 1901 a valuable addition 
to the knowledge of the medieval history of Copen- 
hagen, entitled “Gaarden No, 8 Amagertorv.” In 
1884 he was elected a member of the Danish Folke- 
thing (House of Commons) for the first district of 
Copenhagen, and in 1898 he became a member of 
the board of aldermen of that city. 

8. F.C. 


TRIER, SALOMON MEYER: Danish phar- 
macist; born in Copenhagen in 1804; died there in 
Dec., 1888. He was graduated from the Copen- 
hagen College of Pharmacy in 1826, and was from 
1830 to 1856 the owner of a pharmacy in Lyngby, 
Zealand. From 1844 to 1866 Trier published 
“Archiv for Pharmacy,” and in 1868 he assisted in 
compiling the “ Pharmacopea Danica,” which is still 
in use in Denmark and Norway. 

s. PF. C. 


TRIER, SELIGMANN MEYER: Danish 
physician; born in Copenhagen June 7, 1800; died 
there Dec. 20, 1868. Hewastheson of poor parents, 
who destined him for a mercantile career. His un- 
usual brightness, however, attracted the attention 
of the family’s physician, Professor Herholdt, who 
took an interest in him and sent him to the Univer- 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


258 


sity of Copenhagen, where he studied medicine. He 
graduated in 18238, and in 1825 was appointed phy- 
sician for the Jewish poor, and shortly after assist- 
ant physician at the Royal Frederik’s Hospital in 
Copenhagen. In 1827 he obtained the degree of 
doctor of medicine from his alma mater. In 1828 
Trier’s attention was called to the French physician 
Laénnec’s great discoveries in the field of patholog- 
ical anatomy, and to his invention of the stethoscope 
for examination of the thorax. Trier devoted some 
time to the intimate study of these discoveries, and 
published in 1830 his “Anvisning til at Kjende 
Lunge og Hjxrtesy gdomme ved Perkussion og Mid- 
delbar Avskultation.” This work was translated 
into Swedish (Stockholm, 1831) by Elliot, and it 
was for a long time the only authentic Danish 
manual on stethoscopy. From 1831 to 1832 Trier was 
coeditor of “Samlinger til Kundskab om Kolera,” 
an instructive work on the symptoms and treatment 
of Asiatic cholera. In 1836 he was appointed a 
member of the Copenhagen board of health, an ap- 
pointment which, on account of his religion, caused 
a great deal of comment. In 1842, on the death of 
Prof, O. Bang, Trier became physician-in-chief of 
the Royal Frederik’s Hospital, a position he held for 
eighteen years. From 1848 to 1853 he assisted in 
the publication of “ Hospitals-Meddelelser,” a med- 
ical journal of prominence. In 1847 his alma mater 
couferred upon him the title of professor, and in 
1857 King Frederick VII. honored him with the title 
of “Ktatsraad.” ‘Trier was a member of the board 
of revisers of the “ Pharmacopea Danica ” (1863). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. F. Bricka, Dansk Biagrafist Lericon; 

Smith and Bladt, Den Danske Loegestand, 4th ed.; Erslew, 

Forfatter-Lexicon ; Itlustreret Tidende, v. 222. 

TRIESCH: City in Moravia. Its Jewish con-. 
gregation was most probably founded by exiles from 
IaLav shortly after 1426. In the latter city the 
Jews of Triesch transacted their business during the 
day, spending the night beyond the city limits, and 
returning home for the Sabbath. They dealt chiefly 
in wool, which they sold to the cloth-makers in 
Tglau. Joseph ben Moses, a disciple of Israel 
Isserlein of Marburg, mentions in his “Leket 
Yosher” (ed. J. Freimann, Berlin, 1904) a rabbin- 
ical scholar named Isaac of Triesch (1469), It may 
be, too, that Isaac of pws, mentioned in the letter 
of JonsaTHAN Lrvi Zion to the congregation of 
Frankfort-on-the-Main (1509) as having assisted 
him in his efforts to obtain from Emperor Maximil- 
ian the repeal of the confiscation of Hebrew books. 
(see PFEFFERKORN), was from Triesch, which the 
Jews called “ Trieschet ” or “ Tritsch,” and not from 
Triest (“ Monatsschrift,” 1900, p. 125). The grant 
of freedom of residence to the Jews of Austria in 
1848 reduced the congregation of Triesch consid- 
erably; and the national fanaticism of the Czech 
population deprived the Triesch Jews of their for- 
mer position in the commercial life of the town. 
On the other hand, Jews became prominent manu- 
facturers of cloth, furniture, and matches. 

Of the rabbis of the city the following are known: 
Mordecai Bet ha-Levi, a prolific cabalistic author 
whose numerous manuscripts were destroyed in the 
great conflagration of 1824. He composed for the 


259 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Trier 
Triest 


Oe ae 


Seventh of Adar a special service which is still in 
use. Eleazar Léw, author of “Shemen Rokeah,” was 
rabbiin Triesch about 1800 to 1810 and, after having 
officiated meanwhile at Ronsperg, again from 1812 
to 1820. He was a prolific author, and took an 
active part in the controversy on the Hamburg Tem- 
pel. Before his second term of office Moses SCHREIBER 
urged the candidacy of his own father-in-law, Akiba 
Ecer. Low was succeeded by Moscs Fricdenthal, 
Joseph Frankfurter, B. Friedmann (later in GRAT2), 
and Dr. M. L. Stern, the present (1905) incumbent, 
who has held office since 1885, Moses Joseph SPrRo 
was a native of Triesch. 

The congregation of Battelau belongs to the dis- 
trict of Triesch. The Jewsof Triesch number about 
300 in a total population of 5,000. The congrega- 
tion has numerous well-endowed foundations. 

D M. L. 8&8. 


TRIESCH, FRIEDRICH GUSTAV (pseu- 
donyms, Alex Hartmann, Paul Richter, H. 
Martin): Austrian dramatist; born at Vienna June 
16, 1845. Triesch studied sculpture for a time at 
the Akademie der Bildenden Kiinste, Vienna, but 
soon turned to literature. Lack of means forced 
him to follow mercantile pursuits fora short period, 
but the success of his second piece, the farce “ Lach- 
ende Erben ” (1867), caused him to devote all his 
time to playwriting. In 1868, in the prize competi- 
tion of the Hofburgtheater, Vienna, he obtained hon- 
orable mention and a production for his comedy 
“Im XIX. Jahrhundert,” and in 1877 two of his 
plays, “ Héhere Gesichtspunkte” and “ Die Wochen- 
chronik,” were similarly honored. Jn 1879 his com- 
edy “Neue Vertrige” won the first prize offered by 
the Munich Hoftheater; and in 1892 his drama 
“Ottilie” won the first prize in the competition insti- 
tuted by the Litterarisches Vermittlungsbureau of 
Hamburg, there being 883 competitors. 

Triesch is also the author of numerous poems and 
short stories and of the following plays: “ Amalie 
Welden,” comedy, 1865; “ Midchenherzen,” drama, 
1873; “Triume Sind Schiiume,” comedy, 1878; 
“Vorsicht,” comedy, 1876; “ Reine Liebe,” comedy, 
1877; “Anwalt,” drama, 1881; “ Hexenmeister,” 
comedy, 1884; “Nixe,” comedy, 1887; “Hand in 
Hand,” 1890; “Factotum Flitsch,” farce, 1892; 
“Liquidator,” farce, 1896; “Thr System,” farce, 
1898; “ Endlich Allein,” comedy, 1900. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Das Geistige Wien, i. 586-587. 


8. E. Ms. 


TRIEST: A commercial city and an important 
Seaport, situated at the head of the Adriatic; ethno- 
graphically Italian, but politically Austrian. Al- 
though no consecutive history of the Jews of Triest 
has ever been written, much information concerning 
them may be gleaned from unpublished documents 
Preserved in the municipal records. The city was 
Originally an insignificant town, and first gained 
Importance after it placed itself under Austrian con- 
trol in 1882. Even before that time, however, a 
small colony of Jews had settled there, and one of 
them, the city banker, was permitted to reside in 
the great square of the city. It appears, moreover, 
that certain banking establishments existed at 

Nest under the management of Jews from various 


parts of Italy, although the earliest Jewish inhab- 
jtants of the city seem to have been Germans, since the 
Ashkenazic ritual was adopted in the first synagogue. 
This building was situated in the most ancient por- 
tion of the ghetto at the head of the Via dei Capi- 
telli, where the structure traditionally regarded as 
the synagogue was stil] in existence thirty years 
ago. Strictly speaking, however, it has been many 
years since there has been a ghetto at Triest, as 
the Jews have always enjoyed exceptional favor 
there, being allowed to live in any part of the city 
and being exempt from wearing the Bapcr. With 
the growth of Triest the center of the Jewish quar- 
ter changed to what is now the Piazza delle Scuole 
Ebraiche, where an Ashkenazic synagogue was 
erected. This edifice, together with all the ancient 
records, was destroyed in a conflagration, and was 
subsequently rebuilt. A new synagogue, with the 
German ritual, was erected about 1787 to meet the 
requirements of the rapid growth of the community. 
This building, a magnificent structure for its time, 
is still standing. The first floor is now used as a 
synagogue by the Jews who have immigrated to 
Triest from Dalmatia and the East; they adopt the 
Sephardic ritual. A number of years later a syn- 
agogue was built especially for the Sephardim in 
a central part of the city on the site of an ancient 
cemetery in the Via del Monte, near the Talmud 
Torah (to which is annexed a Jewish public school) 
and the Jewish hospital. The oldest gravestones 
in this cemetery are between 140 and 150 years old, 
showing that the Jews must formerly have pos- 
sessed another burial-place. A new cemetery, re- 
cently enlarged, was opened about seventy-five years 
ago on a site allotted by the municipal government 
at some distance from the city and in the vicinity 
of the other cemeteries. Triest likewise has an 
orphan asylum, a convalescent home for aged in- 
valids, and many charitable societies, 
the principal one being the wealthy 
Fraternitaé delia Misericordia, while 
the Beneficenza Israelitica also dis-. 
burses large sums of money. The community has. 
recently acquired a site for a new temple, the plans 
for which are already in process of preparation. 

The Jewish population of Triest has recently been 
increased by ® large number of German and Hun- 
garian families, attracted thither by commercial! in- 
terests. Among the noted Jewish families of the 
city are the Parentes, Morpurgos, Hirschels, Salems, 
and Minerbis. Aaron Parente was president of the 
chamber of commerce of Triest, and was succeeded 
by his son Solomon, while Baron Elio Morpurgo and 
his son Mario have been presidents of the Austrian 
Lloyd. Caliman de Minerbi has been vice-podesta,, 
and the Hirschel family was received at court at a. 
time when the Jews of other cities were persecuted. 
and despised. At present Jews control the princi- 
pal banks and commercial institutions and the chief’ 
insurance companies. The rabbinate of Triest has. 
recently included such noted men as Formiggini, 
Levi, Treves, Castiglione, and Marco Tedeschi. 
The city ranks high in the history of Jewish liter-~ 
ature as the birthplace of Samuel David Luzzatto. 
and his cousin, the poetess Rahel Morpurgo; of 
Giuseppe Lazzaro Morpurgo, an economist and He- 


Institu- 
tions. 


Trieste 
Tripoli 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


260 


brew poet; of Saul Formiggini, who translated Dan- 
te’s “Inferno” into Hebrew; of Samuel Vita Zel- 
man, poet and author of the “ Yelid Kinnor”; of 
Moses Tedeschi, rabbi and author of “ Ho’il Mo- 
sheh” (a commentary on the entire Bible), of a dic- 
tionary of synonyms, and of other works; aud of 
Aaron Romanini and Vittorio Castiglione, Hebrew 
poets of high reputation, the latter being also the 
author of a number of literary, philosophical, and 
pedagogic works in Hebrew and Italian, and the 
present chief rabbi of Rome. The population of 
Triest is now (1905) 180,000, including 5,000 Jews. 

S. V. C. 


TRIESTE, GABRIEL: Italian merchant and 
philanthropist; born Dec. 24, 1784; died at Padua 
March 9, 1860. He was president of the Jewish 
community in Padua, Of his many benevolent 
foundations two call for special mention: viz., that 
of 24,000 Austrian lire for the promotion of art 
among young Jewish artists, and his prize of 1,000 
gulden, in 1850, for the publication of a history of 
the Jews. Trieste translated Troki’s “Hizzuk Emu- 
nah.” 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Joseph Wertheimer, in Jahrbuch fiir Israeti- 


ten, Vienna, 1861; Wurzbach, Biographisches Lexikon, s.v.3 
First, Bibi. Jud. s.v. F 
, 


TRILLINGER, ELIEZER BEN JOSEPH 
YOSPA (called also Eliezer Nin of Nikols- 
burg): Austrian rabbi; lived in the latter half of 
the seventeenth and at the beginning of the eight- 
eenth century; died at Wilna. The name “ Trillin- 
ger” is probably derived from “ Wassertriidingen,” 
called by the Jews “ Wassertrilling ” or “ Trilling.” 
Trillinger was active in several congregations. <At 
an advanced age he set out for Palestine, but on his 
way he fell ill at Wilna and, as stated above, died 
there. He was the author of “Mishnat Rabbi Eli- 
‘ezer,” derashot on the Pentateuch, published by his 
son Joseph Yospa at Frankfort-on-the-Oder in 1707 
(not 1717, as erroneously stated by some bibliograph- 
ical authors). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Azulai, Shem ha-Gedolim, i. 18b, No. 198; ii. 

2h, No. 249; Benjacob, Ozar ha-Sefarim, p. 385, No. 2535; 

Fiirst, Bibl. Jud. iii. 447; Michael, Or ha-Hayyim, No. 429; 


Zedner, Cat. Hebr. Books Brit. Mus. p. 222. 
D. S. Man. 


TRINITY: The fundamental dogma of Chris- 
tianity; the concept of the union in one God of 
Father, Son, and Holy Spirit as three infinite per- 
sons. It was the Nicene Council and even more 
especially the Athanasian Creed that first gave the 
dogma its definite formulation: “And the Catholick 
Faith is this: That we worship one God in Trinity, 
and Trinity in Unity; Neither confounding the Per- 
sons; nor dividing the Substance.” Equalization of 
the Son with the Father marks an innovation in the 
Pauline theology: “Yet to us there is one God, the 
Father, of whom are all things, and we unto him; 
and one Lord, Jesus Christ, through whom are all 
things, and we through him” (I Cor. viii. 6, R. V.), 
while in another passage the Holy Ghost is added 
(ib. xii. 8; comp. Titus ii. 18), thus rapidly develop- 
ing the concept of the Trinity (II Cor. xili. 14). 
Although the Judeo-Christian sect of the Exron- 
ITES protested against this apotheosis of Jesus 


(“Clementine Homilies,” xvi. 15), the great mass 
of Gentile Christians accepted it. 

The Holy Ghost as the third person of the Trinity 
could originate only on Gentile soil, since it was 
based on a linguisticerror. The “ Gospel According 

to the Hebrews,” which was once held 
The Holy in high esteem, especially in Ebionitie 
Ghost. circles, stillregards the term “ mother” 
as equivalent to “Holy Ghost” (Ori. 
gen, Commentary on John ii. 12; see Preuschen, 
“Antilegomena,” p. 4, Giessen, 1901; Heuneke, 
“Neutestamentliche Apokryphen,” p. 19, Tibin- 
gen, 1904), since in Aramaic, the language of this 
Gospel and possibly the original dialect of all 
the Gospels, the noun “ruha” (spirit) is feminine 
(comp. the Gnostic statement évreviev rad avadex67- 
vat pnrépa kai vidv; Ireneeus, “ Adversus Hereses,” i, 
271). The OpHiItes, furthermore, actually taught a 
trinity of father, son, and mother (Hilgenfeld, “ Ket- 
zergeschichte,” p. 255); and the fact that the Church 
father Hippolytus found among the Ophites the 
Assyrian doctrine of the trinity of the soul (Hilgen- 
feld, lc. p. 259) justifies the assumption of a kinship 
of the dogma of the Trinity with older concepts. 
The Manpz:ans also believe ruha to be the mother 
of the Messiah, though they regard them both as 
demons (Brandt, “ Die Mandiische Religion,” p. 124, 
Leipsic, 1889). The original trinity must, there- 
fore, have included a feminine being, since thus 
alone could the concept of ruha have been ob- 
tained, and only after this form of trinity had been 
accepted in Judeo-Christian circles could the Greek 
76 rvevtua be regarded as a person, although it then 
became masculine instead of feminine. Philo’sdoc- 
trine of the Logos is connected with this belief. 
God, who created His son in His own image (Gen. ii. 
7), thereby made Himself triform, so that He Him- 
self and the biform first Adam (= Logos = Jesus) 
constituted the first trinity. 

The controversies between the Christians and the 
Jews concerning the Trinity centered for the most 
part about the problem whether the writers of the 
Old Testament bore witness to it or not, the Jews 
naturally rejecting every proof brought forward by 
their opponents. The Jatter based their arguments 
on the Trisagion in Jsa. vi. 3, a proof which had 
been frequently offered since Eusebius and Gregory 

of Nazianzus. The convert Jacob 

Jewish Perez of Valentia (d. 1491) even found 
Objections. an allusion to the Trinity in the word 

“Blohim,” and Luther saw distinct 
traces of the doctrine in Gen. i. 1, 26; iii. 21; xi. 7, 
8,9; Num. vi. 22; II Sam. xxiii. 2; and Dan, vii. 
13. The Jewish polemics against this doctrine 
date almost from its very conception. Even in the 
Talmud, R. Simlai (8d cent.) declared, in refutation 
of the “heretics,” “The three words ‘ El,’ ‘ Elohim,’ 
and ‘Yuwas ’ (Josh. xxii. 22) connote oneandthesame 
person, asonemightsay, ‘King, Emperor, Augustus’” 
(Yer. Ber, ix. 12d), while elsewhere he substitutes 
the phrase “as if one should say, ‘ master, builder, 
and architect’ ” (22. 18a). There are, however, no 
other allusions to the Trinity in Talmudic literature, 
as has been rightly pointed out by Herford (“ Chris- 
tianity in Talmud and Midrash,” p. 395, London, 
1903), since the polemics of the rabbis of that period 


261 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Trieste 
Tripoli 


were directed chiefly against dualism (AYSSWT “hy?). 
Another polemic, which is noteworthy for its antiq- 
uity and its protagonists, was the disputation be- 
tween Pope Sylvester I. (814-335) and the Jew Noah 
(Migne, “ Patrologia Greca,” viii. 814). 

In the Middle Ages the nature of the Trinity was 
discussed in every one of the numerous disputations 
between Christians and Jews, the polemic of Abra- 
ham Roman (in his “Sela‘ ha-Mahaloket,” printed in 
the “ Milhemet Hobahi,” Constantinople, 1710) being 
especially bitter; while in his well-known disputa- 
tion Nahmanides wrote as follows: 


“Fra Pablo asked me in Gerona whether I believed in the 
Trinity [viv]. Isaid to him. * Whatisthe Trinity ? Do three 
great human bodies constitute the Divinity?’ *No:’ ‘Or are 
there three ethereal bodies, such as the souls, or are there three 
angels?’ ‘No!’ ‘Oris an object composed of three kinds of 
matter, as bodies are composed of the four elements?’ ‘No!’ 
‘What then is the Trinity?’ He said: ‘ Wisdom, will, and 
power’ [comp. the definition of Thomas Aquinas cited above]. 
Then I said: ‘I also acknowledge that God is wise and not fool- 
ish, that He has a will unchangeable, and that He is mighty 
and not weak. Butthe term ‘Trinity ’’ is decidedly erroneous; 
for wisdom is not accidental in the Creator, since He and His 
wisdom are one, He and His will are one, He and His power are 
one, so that wisdom, will, and power are one. Moreover, even 
were these things accidental in Him, that which is called God 
would not be three beings, but one being with these three acci- 
dental attributes.’ Our lord the king here quoted an analogy 
which the erring ones had taught him, saying that there are also 
three things in wine, namely, color, taste, and bouquet, yet it is 
still one thing. This is a decided error: for the redness, the 
taste, and the bouquet of the wine are distinct essences, each of 
them potentially self-existent; for there are red, white, and 
other colors, and the same statement holds true with regard to 
taste and bouquet. The redness, the taste, and the bouquet, 
moreover, are not the wine itself, but the thing which fills the 
vessel, and which is, therefore, a body with the three accidents. 
Following this course of argument, there would be four, since 
the enumeration should include God, His wisdom, His will, and 
His power, and these are four. You would even have to speak 
of five things; for He lives, and His life is a part of Him just as 
much as His wisdom. Thus the definition of God would be 
‘living, wise, endowed with will, and mighty’: the Divinity 
would therefore be fivefold in nature. All] this, however, is an 
evident error. Then Fra Pablo arose and said that he believed 
in the unity, which, none the less, included the Trinity, although 
this was an exceedingly deep mysterv, which even the angels 
and the princes of heaven could not comprehend. I arose and 
said: “It is evident that a person does not believe what he does 
not know: therefore the angels do not believe in the Trinity.’ 
His colleagues then bade him be silent” (** Mihemet Hobah,”’ 
p. 13a). 


The boldness of the Christian exegetes, who con- 
verted even the “Shema’‘,” the solemn confession of 
the Divine Unity, into a proof of the Trinity (Mai- 
monides, in “ Tehiyyat ha-Metim,” beginning), fur- 
nishes an explanation of the bitterness of the Jewish 
apologists. Joseph Kimhi assailed the doctrine of 
the Trinity first of all (“Milhemet Hobah,” p. 19a), 
refuting with weighty arguments the favorite proof 
based on Gen. xviii. 1-2, where Yuwna is described 
as first appearing alone to Abraham, who later be- 
holds two persons (comp. Abraham ibn Ezra’s com- 
mentary, ad loc.), Simeon ben Zemah Duran, who 
also refuted:the Trinitarian proofs, added: “The 
dogma itself is manifestly false, as I have shown by 
Philosophic deduction; and my present statements 
are made only with reference to their [the Chris- 
tians’] assertions, while the monk Nestor accepted 
Judaism for the very reason that he had refuted them” 
(“Milhemet Hobah,” p. 48b). Noteworthy among 
modern polemics against the Trinity is Joshua 
Segre’s critique (“ Zeit. fir Hebr. Bibl.” viii. 22). 


The Cabala, on the other hand, especially the 
Zohar, its fundamental work, was far less hostile to 
the dogma of the Trinity, since by its speculations 
regarding the father, the son, and the 
spirit it evolved a new trinity, and 
thus became dangerous to Judaism. 
Such terms as “matronita,” “body,” 
“ spirit,” occur frequently (e.g., “ Tazria‘,” ed. Polna, 
iii. 48b); so that Christians and converts like Knorr 
von Rosenroth, REvcHLIN, and Rrrrance. found 


In the 
Zohar. 


in the Zohar a confirmation of Christianity and es- 


pecially of the dogma of the Trinity (Jellinek, “ Die 


Kabbala,” p. 250, Leipsic, 1844 [trans]. of Franck’s 


“La Kabbale,” Paris, 1843]). Reuchlin sought on 
the basis of the Cabala the words “ Father, Son, and 
Holy Ghost” in the second word of the Pentateuch, 


as well asin Ps. cxviii. 22 (¢b. p. 10), while Johann 


Kemper, a convert, left in manuscript a work enti- 
tled “ Matteh Mosheh,” which treats in its third sec- 
tion of the harmony of the Zohar with the doctrine 
of the Trinity (Zettersteen, “ Verzeichniss der He- 
briischen und Aramiischen Handschriften zu Up- 
sala,” p. 16, Lund, 1900). The study of the Cabala 
led the Frankists to adopt Christianity ; but the Jews 
have always regarded the doctrine of the Trinity 
as one irreconcilable with the spirit of the Jewish 
religion and with monotheism. See CHRISTIANITY 
IN ITs RELATION TO JUDAISM; POLEMICS. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. C. Bauer, Die Christliche Lehre von der 

Dreicinigkeit, ete., 3 vols., Tubingen, 1841-43: H. Usener, 

Die Dreiheit, in Rheinisches Museum fiir Klassische Phi- 

lologie, lviii. 1-47, 

K. S. Kr. 

TRINQUETAILLE (Hebrew, y»bxpxpspy or 
weber): Suburb of Arles, Frauce, on the right 
bank of the Rhone. Its Jewish community was of 
much importance in the Middle Ages. Favorably 
received by the lords of Baux, the Jews lived peace- 
fully at Trinquetaille until 1800, when the town 
was incorporated with Arles, the two communities 
being likewise united. In 1849, however, the “ bay- 
lons” of Arles were obliged to request the provost 
to authorize them to separate from the Jews of 
Trinquetaille, who “refused to share in the commu- 
nal expenses.” A reference to the place occurs in 
Isaac ben Jacob Lattes, “Sha‘are Ziyyon,” pp. 72, 
75 (see “RR. E. J.” ix. 222). 

In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries Trin- 
quetaille was the home of many scholars, including 
the following: Meir ben Isaac, author of the “Sefer 
ha-‘Ezer,” in which he defended Alfasi against the 
attacks of Zerahiah ben Isaac ha-Levi Gerondi; Na- 
than ben Meir, author of a commentary on the Pen- 
tateuch and of the “Sha‘are Tefisah,” on illegal sei- 
zures; and ToDROS BEN MESHULLAM BEN DavIiD 
(Todros Todrosi). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Carmoly, Biographie des Israélites de Franee, 
p. 91: Gross, Gallia Judaica, pp. 246-248 ; idem, in Monats- 
schrift, 1878, p. 379: 1880, p. 61: Munk, Mélanges, pp. 358, 
438; Renan-Neubauer, Les Rabbins Francais, p. 515; idem, 
Les Ecrivains Juifs Francais, pp. 570-573 ; Renan, A ver- 
roes, pp. 69, 70,191; R. H. J. xii. 64: Steinschneider, Hebr. 
Uebers. pp. 62, 182, 285, 294; idem, Hebr. Bibl. x. 7" a 17, 
s. AS 


TRIPOLI (ancient Oea): Seaport on the north- 
ern coast of Africa; capital of the Turkish vilayet 
of the same name. Local tradition states that 
under the Fatimite dynasty in Egypt, Jews from the 


Tripoli 
Troki 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


262 


oasis of Pessato established the most ancient com- 
munity in Tripoli. Benjamin of Tudela, on the 
other hand, who traveled through northern Africa 
in the latter part of the twelfth century and visited 
Tunis and Alexandria, makes no mention of Trip- 
oli. When the Jews were exiled from Spain in 
1492, they avoided Tripoli, which wasthen a part of 
the dominions of Ferdinand the Cath- 
olic; nor did they settle there until it 
passed into the hands of Sultan Sulai- 
man the Magnificent in 1551. The 
surnames of the Jewish families of Tripoli show 
that Spanish Jews never resided in the city in con- 
siderable num- 
bers; for instead 
of bearing names 
like “Toledo,” 
“Carmona,” and 
“Tarragone,” 
they are called 
73 Arbib,” “ TIg- 
san,” “ Halefi,” 
“Racah,” “Ta- 
yar,” “Tamam,” 
etc. Moreover, 
the traveler Ben- 
jamin II. drew 
particular atten- 
tion to the fact 
that the family 
of Sylva was 
descended from 
Spanish Mara- 
nos who had 
come to the city 
at some un- 
known period. 
In 1667 Miguel 
CARDOSO, one of 
the most ardent 


Early 
History. 


disciples of 
Shabbethai Zebi, 
endeavored — to 


establish a Shab- 
bethaian sect at 
Tripoli, but was 
forced by the 
Jews to leave 
the city. 

In 1705 the Bey 
of Tunis made 
war upon Halil 
Pasha, governor of Tripoli, and threatened to put 
the inhabitants to the sword; but his camp was 
ravaged by an epidemic, and he was forced to re- 
treat. In memory of this event the local rabbis in- 
stituted a yearly festival on the 24th of Tebet, called 
“Purim Sherif,” or “Purim Kidebuni.” Ejighty- 
seven years later a corsair named Borghei attacked 
Ali Pasha Karamanli, the governor, and committed 
many atrocities in the city, burning at 
the stake the son of Abraham Halfon, 
the caid of the Tripolitan Jews. At 
the end of two years, however, Ka- 
ramanli sueceeded in expelling the invaders; and 


Special 
Purims. 


t 


Interior of a Bet Ha-Midrasb at Tripoli 
(From a painting by Israe) Gentz.) 


established the Purim Borghel, which falls on the 
29th of Tebet. See Purrms, SPECIAL. 

When Benjamin IL. visited Tripoli in 1850, he 
found there about 1,000 Jewish families, with eight 
synagogues and several Talmudic schools, while the 
Spiritual interests of the community were in the 
keeping of four rabbis. 

Tripoli has produced a number of rabbinical au- 
thors, the most important being the following: Sim- 
eon b. Labi, who flourished about 1509 and was the 
head of a local Talmudic school, besides being the 
author of a cabalistic commentary on Genesis enti- 
tled “ Ketem Paz” and of a hymn on Simeon b. Yo- 
hai; Abraham 
Halfon, who 
flourished in the 
latter part of 
the eighteenth 
century and 
wrote “Hayye 
Abraham” (Leg- 
horn, 1826), on 
the ritual laws 
of the Bible and 
the Talmud, in 
addition toa 
manuscript di- 
ary, still extant; 
Moses  Serussi, 
who flourished 
in the second 
half of the nine- 
teenth century 
and wrote the 
“ Wa-Yasheb 
Mosheh”; and 
Hayyim Cohen, 
author of “ Mil- 
lot ha-Melek,” 
“Leb Shomea‘,” 
“Zokrenu le- 
Hayyim,” re 
reb Pesah,” “ Al- 
lon Bakut,” 
“ Perush al-Seli- 
hot,” “ Na’awah 
Kodesh,” “ To- 
rat Hayyim,” 
“Perush Ho- 


sha‘anot,” and 
“Mikra Ko- 
desh.” 


The administration of the community, which pays 
an annual tax of 4,890 francs for exemption from 
military service, is in the hands of a chief rabbi 

(*“hakam bashi”), who is assisted by 

Rabbis and four judges. Since 1840 the following 
Scholars. chief rabbis have officiated at Tripoli: 
Jacob Memun (da. 1849), Shalom Tito, 

Moses Arbib, Elijah Ilazan (1874-88; appointed by 
a firman of the sultan Aziz and decorated with the 
Order of the Medjidie), Ezekiel Sasson (1897), David 
Kimhi (1897-1902), and the present incumbent, 
Shabbcthai Levi. The Jewsof Tripoli, who are char- 
acterized by many superstitious beliefs, now (1905) 


in commemoration of this deliverance the Jews | number 12.000 in 2 total population of 40,000. They 


263 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Tripoli 
Troki 


have many representatives in various mechanical and 
mercantile pursuits. They possess eighteen syna- 
gogues, eleven yeshibot, a society for the relief of 
the sick; also tvo schools maintained by the Alli- 
ance Israélite Universelle. 

A number of towns in the vicinity of Tripoli con- 
tain a considerable Jewish population, e.g., Amrum, 
1,000; Derne or Derna, 150; Garian, 300; Homs, 
300; Messilata, 350; Misserato, Idir, and Ma- 
atin, 400; Tajoorah, 200; Yiffren or Jebel, 1,000; 
Zanzbur, 60; Zawiel, 450; and Ziliten, 450. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Dezobry, Dictionnaire @ Histoire et de Gé- 

ographie ; Benjamin I1., Mas‘e Yisrael, p. 166; Franco, His- 

toire des Israélites ce Empire Ottaman, p. 121: Hazan, 

Ha-Ma‘alot li-Shelomoh, pp. 38, 116; Azulat, Shem. ha-Ge- 

dolim, s.v. Stmeon b. Labi; Bulletin de UV Alliance Israélite 

Universetle, 1885, 1889, 1990, 1903; Revue des Ecoles de U’ Al- 


liance Israélite Universelle, p pp. 81, 153, 358, 421, 428; R. E. 
J. xx. 73 et seq. 


S. M. Fr. 


TRISTRAM, HENRY BAKER: English 
clergyman, Biblical scholar, and traveler in Pales- 
tine; born May 11, 1822, at Eglingham, Northum- 
pberland. He was educated at Durham School and 
Oxford University, and took orders in 1845; but 
sickness compelled him to liveabroad. Heexplored 
the northern Sahara, and in 1858 paid his first visit 
to Palestine. In 1863 and in 1872 he again visited 
Palestine and spent a great deal of time there in 
making scientific observations and identifying Scrip- 
ture localities. In 1873 he made a similar tour into 
Moab. In 1879 he declined the offer of the Anglican 
bishopric of Jerusalem, made to him by the Earl of 
Beaconsfield. In 1881 he journeyed extensively in 
Palestine, the Lebanon, Mesopotamia, and Armenia. 
Since 1873 he has been canon residentiary of Durham. 

Among Tristram’s many publications those deal- 
ing with the Holy Land are: “The Land of Israel, 
a Journal of Travels with Reference to Its Physical 
History,” London, 1865 (many editions); “The Nat- 
ural History of the Bible” (¢b. 1867); “Land of 
Moab” (2b. 1874); “Pathways of Palestine” (2b. 
1882); “ The Fauna and Flora of Palestine” (2b. 1884) ; 
and “ Eastern Customs in Bible Lands” (7b. 1894). 


Men and Women of the Time, 1899; Who's 
Who, 1902. 
J. A. M. F. 


TRIWOSCH, JOSEPH ELIJAH: Russian 
Hebrew writer and poet; born at Wilna Jan. 18, 
1856; settled at Groduo as a teacher of Hebrew and 
Russian. His literary activity began in 1878, in 
which year he published in “ Ha-Lebanon” his first 
articles. Since then he has contributed to most of 
the Hebrew literary periodicals. With the excep- 
tion of his “ Dor Tahapukot ” (Warsaw, 1881), which 
describes the activity of the Russian Social-Demo- 
crats, all his novels, representing Jewish lifein Rus- 
sia, have been published in various periodicals. 
They are as follows: “Tohelet Nikzabah,” in “ Ha- 
Shahar,” viti., No. 12; “Bi-Mekom Zawwa’ah,” in 
“Ha-Karmel,” iv.; “Ha-Lito’i,” se . hoe Shahar,” 
x. » No. phism: a Shete ha-Se‘ippim,” in “ Ha-Asif,” 

77-629. Many of his poems likewise have been 
pubTiChed in * Ha-Shahar” and in other periodicals. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sokolow, Sefer Zikkaron, p. 46; Zeitlin, Bibl. 
Poat-Mendels. p. 398. 


Ww Rk. M. SEL, 


TROKI: District city in the government of 
Wilna, Russia. It was an important Jewish center 
in the fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth cen- 
turies; and there is a tradition, quoted by Fir- 
kKovich, that 330 out of the 483 Karaite families 
which Grand Duke Witold of Lithuania brought 
from the Crimea after his war with the Tatars, were 
settled in the new city of Troki, which was built 
expressly for them. The provisions of Witold’s 
charter of 1888 to the Jews of Lithuania applied to 
those of Trokialso. In describing Troki as it ap- 
peared in 1414 Gilbert de Lannua of Burgundy says: 
“In this city there live Germans, Lithuanians, Rus- 
sians, and a great number of Jews, each of these 
peoples using its own language.” 

Casimir IV. granted the Magdeburg Rights to the 
Karaites of Troki in 1441. The latter were to be 
subject to the jurisdiction of their own elder; and he 
in turn was to be responsible directly to the king or 
to judges appointed by the latter. Neither the way- 
wode nor the starost was to interfere in local mat- 
ters concerning only the Karaites. Lawsuits be- 
tween Karaites and Christians were to be decided by 
a tribunal composed of the Karaite elder and the 
waywode. These privileges were confirmed by Al- 
exander Jagellon in 1492. 

Toward the end of the fifteenth century the au- 
tonomy of the Jewish community in Troki was still 
further strengthened by a royal order (1485) direct- 
ing a separate levy and collection of taxes for its 
members. Individual Jews gained in influence 
through their growing commercial enterprises, as 
is shown by a series of contemporary documents. 

Thus in 1484 the customs duties of 
Fourteenth, Novogrudok were leased to the Troki 
Fifteenth, Jews llia Moiseyevich, Rubim Sako- 
and vich, Avram Danilovich, and. Eska 
Sixteenth Shelemovich; in 1486 those of Jito- 
Centuries. mir, Putivl, Kiev, and Vyshegorod 
were leased to Simsa Kravchik, Sadka, 
Shamak Danilovich, and Rizhka, Jews of Kiev and 
Troki; and in 1489 those of Troki were leased to the 
Jew Mikhail Danilovich, of whom mention occurs 
in a document of 1495 also. 

At the beginning of the sixteenth century the 
prosperity of the Troki Jews had declined consider- 
ably, and they petitioned King Sigismund for relief. 
In response the king issued the following decree, 
dated July, 1507: “In view of the impoverished 
condition of the Jews of Troki, and desiring to help 
them to regain the prosperity which they enjoyed 
under King Casimir, King Sigismund confirms to 
them their ancient privileges.” Suits between Jews 
were to be decided by the Jewish elder appointed 

by the waywode of Troki with the 

Decree of king’sconsent. Suits of Jews against 
1507. “Lithuanians, Russians, and others” 
were placed under the jurisdiction of 

the waywode or his vicegerent. The Jews of Troki 
were to pay taxes once a year on equal terms with 
the other citizens: and no other taxes were to be 
levied upon them. In emergencis, following an 
ancient practise, they were to cont™ibute according 
to their means, in common with the other citizens of 
Troki—Lithuanians. Russiaas, and Tatars—living 
in the Jewish porticn of the town. They were 


Troki 


further permitted to pasture thcir cattle and to 
gather hay on the meadows which Jews had used 
from olden times. They were exempted from all 
customs duties; and they were further permitted to 
travel unrestrictedly on the highways and rivers. 
They were also exempted from field-work and simi- 
lar tasks connected with the royal castle in Trokt. 
In 1514 the Troki Jews again petitioned the king 
for the confirmation of their ancient privileges; and 
in 1516 Sigismund ordered, “in response to the pe- 
tition of the inhabitants of Troki of the Roman, 
Greek-Catholic, and Jewish religions, in consequence 
of the great impoverishment of the city,” that semi- 
annual fairs be held at Troki, and that all merchants 
traveling from Kovno to Wilna, or vice versa, pass 
through Troki. In March, 1521, the Jewish elder 
of Troki, Mordecai Yeskovich, complained to the 
king that the waywode of Troki had quartered his 
servants in the Jewish houses contrary to previous 
usage, which permitted the quartering of officers and 
nobles in houses of the Jews only during the king's 
sojourn in thecity. The king’s decision was favor- 
able to the petitioners. In 1522 mention is made of 
the Jews of Troki as sharing the privileges granted 
to the Jews of Lithuania, and in 1529 as having 
paid their share of the tax of 1,000 kop groschen 
levied on all the Jews of Lithuania. A document 
of 1540 confirms the Troki Jew Batko Agrianovich 
in the possession of lands and of two lakes former- 
ly belonging to Boyar Yuri Stanislavovich. The 
Troki Jews are mentioned in 1551 as being exempt 
from the payment of the SEREBSZCzZYZNA; also 
in documents of 1552 and 1555. From a docu- 
ment of 1562 it appears that the salt monopoly of 
Troki was Jeased in that year to the Jew Yesko 
Mordukhayevich; and from one of 1563 it is evi- 
dent that the Jews of Troki paid a tax of 876 kop 
groschen imposed on the Jews of Lithuania. In- 
portant properties were at this time held by Jews of 
Troki, as is evidenced by a document of 1568, where- 
in the king confirms the Jew Zakharias Moizesho- 
vich in the possession of one of the castle properties, 
and by another of 1569, which refers to the sale of 
the “ Jewish castle” held by the Jew Ogron Mor- 
dukhayevich. The castle property included fields, 
forests, pastures, swamps, etc., as Is indicated by the 
bill of sale, which was signed by Ogron in Hebrew 
letters. 
Stephen Bathori included the Jews of Troki in 
the confirmation of ancient privileges granted to 
the Jews of Lithuania in 1576. In 


Under 1578 he reminded them of their arrears 
Stephen of taxes; and in 1579 he decreed that 
Bathori. the taxes imposed upon them should 


not exceed in amount those levied in 
the preceding reigns, and confirmed the privileges 
granted them by Sigismund in 1507. In 1579 Ba- 
thori found it necessary to adjust a suit originating 
in the commercial rivalry between the Christians, 
Jews, and Tatars of Troki and the Christian burgh- 
ers of Kovno. In 1582 the Jewish burghers of 
Troki, represented by their elder Alexander Isako- 
vich, made complaint to King Stephen Bathori 
against the waywode Stephen Koributovich, who 
had quartered his servants in Jewish houses during 
the king’s absence from the town. The complaint 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


264 


was sustained. In 1585 the Jews together with the 
Christians of Troki are mentioned in a lawsuit 
against the farmer of the customs duties, who had 
seized nerchandise belonging tothem. The difficulty 
seemingly arose in the abuse by the citizens of Troki 
of an old privilege exempting them from the pay- 
ment of customs duties. Four years later the Jews 
of Troki, through their elder Aaron Sholomovich, 
complained to King Sigismund that the burghers of 
Kovno prohibited them from trading freely in that 
city and confiscated their wares contrary to priv- 
ileges granted to the Jews by the Polish kings and 
Lithuanian grand dukes. In response to this peti- 
tion the king directed (March 28, 1589) that thie 
rights of the Jews of Troki be respected. In 1619 
reference is made in a legal document to the Jew 
Samuel Yakhimovich of Troki. 

In 1897 Troki had a total population of 2,390, of 
whom 818 were Rabbinites and 424 were Karaites. 
The Karaites, who enjoy full civic rights, are asa 
rule friendly to their Rabbinite neigh- 
bors, but live separate from them. 
Considerable antagonism arose be- 
tween these two classes in the reign 
of Nicholas [., largely through the action of Firko- 
vich. A law was passed prohibiting Rabbinites 
from residing in Troki; but this was repealed in the 
sixth decade of the nineteenth century. The Ka- 
raites still use their ancient Tatar dialect; but in 
their religious services according to the Sephardic 
ritual they employ Hebrew. In olden times the 
Karaites were granted 250 deciatines of land, which 
they are now permitted to use for farming purposes. 
Most of them are market-gardeners and truckers, 
and lease their meadows to the peasants. They are 
engaged also in retail trade and in handicrafts. The 
young Karaites, desiring broader opportunities, leave 
their native town to seek their fortunes elsewhere. 
Some of them enter the liberal professions or become 
government officials; and not a few have achieved 
notable success as merchants and manufacturers. 
Most of them remember their native town and con- 

tribute generously toward its commu- 


Present 
Day. 


The nal needs. Large numbers return to 
Troki Troki for the fall holy days. The 
Karaites. evening after Yom Kippur is cele- 


brated with great gaiety. A Karaite 
hakam was formerly stationed at Troki; but now 
there is only one for all the Russian Karaites: he 
resides at Eupatoria. The Karaites of Troki have 
their own shohet; but they employ the Rabbinite 
mohel. Troki has one Karaite school, in which re- 
ligious instruction is given to the children. The 
Rabbinites are for the most part merchants of small 
means, There are no very important industries in 
the place. 

Some of the carly Karaite settlers in Troki emi- 
grated to Lutsk in Volhynia and to [alicz in Galicia, 
and established Karaite communities in those towns. 
Sce JEw. Encyc. vii. 488, s.c. KARAITES. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Regesty it Nadpisi, s.v.: Russko-Vevreiski. 
Arkhir, vols. i. and ii., s.vir Khronika Voskhoda, 1900; 
Entziklopedicheski Slovar, xiv. 431-432; Harkavy, Altji- 
dische Denkmiiler aus der Krim, 1876. 

Ii. R. J. G. I. 


The Karaite community of Troki produced several 
important scholars, among them being the follow- 


265 


ing: Isaac ben Abraham Troki (16th cent.), author 

of the apologetic work “ Hizzuk Emunah”; Zerah 

Troki (17th cent.), for whom Joseph Solomon Del- 

medigo wrote his “Elim”; Ezra Troki (d. 1666), 

who wasa relative and pupil of the above-mentioned 

Zerah, and studied medicine under Delmedigo, later 

becoming physician to King John Casimir of Po- 

land; Abraham b. Samuel (second half 

Scholars. of 17th cent.), a judge of the Karaites 

of Troki, and reputed to have been 

a favorite of King John Sobieski. At that time 

Troki was recognized as the seat of authority for 

the Karaites of the surrounding towns of Posvol, 

Birzhi, Seltz, Shat, Zermer, Neustadt, and others; 

but the number of Karaites in Troki was apparently 

very small, In a decision of the Lithuanian council, 

or “ wa‘ad,” dated Zabludowo, 9th of Adar (March 7), 

1664, and relating to the adjustment of the rates of 

taxation (a matter in which the Karaites seem to have 

been dependent on the Rabbinites), the authority of 
the Karaites of Troki was recognized on the condi- 
tion that at the end of two years Troki should be 
found to have not less than ten Karaite “ ba‘ale bat- 
tim,” or heads of families. This amply disproves 

Firkovich’s statement that prior to the pestilence of 

1710, in which almost all of them perished, Troki had 

500 Karaite families. Since then Troki has been of 

little importance among the Karaites; and its name 

is seldom seen in the lists of subscribers to Karaite 
works. Gabriel Firkovich, son-in-law of Abraham 

Firkovich, was probably the last Karaite of Troki to 

attain any prominence. 

The Rabbinite community of Troki is likewise 
of little importance. Rabbi Zebi Hirsch, father of 
Samuel Salant of Jerusalem, was rabbi of Troki in 
the first half of the nineteenth century, and Benja- 
min Friedman, later rabbi of Antokol, a suburb of 
Wilna, occupied the Troki rabbinate from 1865 to 
1870. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY : Firkovich, Abne Zikkaron, pp. 251-254, Wilna; 
1871; First. Gesch. des Kardert. iti. 42, Leipsic, 1869: Mag- 
gid, Zur Geschichte und Genedlogie der Glinzburge, pp. 
207-210, St. Petersburg, 1899, 

H. R. P. Wi. 

TROKI: Karaite family deriving its name from 
the city of Troki, in the government of Wilna, Rus- 
sia. The more important members of the family are: 

Abraham ben Aaron Hazzan Troki: Karaite 
liturgical poet; lived at Troki in the sixteenth cen- 
tury. A liturgical poem of his, beginning with 
the words “793 ndiy vind saws, for the Sab- 
batical section “ Beshallah,” has been inserted in the 
Karaite Siddur (i. 815). It is possible that the nu- 
merous liturgical poems found there under the name 
“Abraham” without any other indication may also 
have been composed by Troki. — 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: First, Geseh. des Kardert. ili. 37; Gottlober, 
Bikkoret lc-Toledot ha-Karaim, p. 151, Wilna, 1865. 


Abraham ben Josiah ha-Shofet Troki: Karaite 
physician and scholar; born at Troki; died Dec., 
1688. He was physician to John III., Sobieski, and 
later to Grand Duke Sigismund II. Troki was 
the author of two medical works: one, in Hebrew, 
entitled “Ozar ha-‘Am,” and the other, in Latin, still 
extant in manuscript (St. Petersburg Cat., No. 732). 
According to Abraham Firkovich, Troki wrote also 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Troki 


which, after having translated it into Latin, he sold 

to the Dominican friars at Wilna. Simhah Luzki 

mentions two other works by Troki, “ Bet Abraham ” 
and “Pas Yeda,” both of which dealt with scientific 
subjects. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Furst, Gesch. des Kardiert. iii. 94; Gottlober, 
Bikkoret le-Toledot ha-Karwim, p. 151; Simhah Luzki, Orah 
Zaddikim,s.v. 2 and 5; Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, p. 29. Neu- 
bauer, Aus der Petersburger Bibliothek, p. 72. 

8. I. Br. 

Isaac ben Abraham Troki: Karaite polemical! 
writer; born at Troki 15388: died in the same 
city 1594. He was instructed in Bible and Hebrew 
literature by the Karaite scholar Zephaniah ben 
Mordecai, and in Latin and Polish literatures by 
Christian teachers. Moving in Christian circles, 
Troki was often called upon to take part in religious 
controversies; and this prompted him to study re- 
ligious philosophy and Christian theology and to 
acquaint himself with the tenets of the various 
Christian sects. In the course of his studies he be- 
came interested in the anti-Christian and anti-Jewish 
writings of his contemporaries and compatriots. 
Nicholas Paruta, Martin Czechowic, and Simon 
Budni. To refute the arguments of the writers. 
against the Jewish religion and to show the superi- 
ority of Judaism, Troki wrote his epoch-making 
“ Hizzuk Emunah.” 

This work is in two volumes, containing nincty- 
nine chapters in all. The author begins by demon- 
strating that Jesus was not the Messiah predicted by 

the Prophets. “This,” he says, “is 
His evident (1) from his pedigree, (2) from 

‘“¢AHizgzuk his acts, (8) from the period in which 

Emunah.” he lived, and (4) from the fact that 

during his lifetime the promises that 

related to the advent of the expected Messiah were 
not fulfilled.” His arguments on these points are 
as follows: (1) Jesus’ pedigree: Without discussing 
the question of the relationship of Joseph to David, 
which is more than doubtful, one may ask, What 
has Jesus to do with Joseph, who was not his father? 
(2) His acts: According to Matt. x. 34, Jesus said, 
“Think not that Iam come to make peace on earth: 
I came not to send peace, but asword. For I am 
come to set a man at varianceagainst his father, and 
the daughter against her mother, and the daughter- 
in-law against her mother-in-law.” On the other 
hand, Holy Writ attributes to the true and expected 
Messiah actions contrary to those of Jesus. (8) The 
period of his existence: It is evident that Jesus did 
not come at the time foretold by the Prophets; for 
they predicted the advent of the Messiah in the “ last 
days” (Isa. ii. 2). (4) The fulfilment of the Messianic 
promises: All the Prophets predicted that at the 
advent of the Messiah peace and justice would reign 
in the world, not only among men, but even amoung 
the animals; yet there is not one sincere Christian 
who would claim that this has been fulfilled. 

Among Troki’s objections to the divinity of Jesus 
the following may be mentioned: The Christian 
who opposes Judaism must believe that the Jews 
tormented and crucified Jesus either with his con- 
sent or against his will. If with his consent, then 
the Jews had ample sanction for what they did. 
Besides, if Jesus was really willing to meet such a 


& work in seven sections entitled “Masa ha-‘Am,” | fate, what cause was there for complaint and afflic- 


Troki . Ren Teye 
Troyes THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 266 
tion? And why did he pray in the manner related | “Dod Mordekai” of Mordecai ben Nissim. Simhah 


in Matt. xxvi. 39? On the other hand, if it be as- 
sumed that the crucifixion was against 
his will, how then can he be regarded 
as God—he, who was unable to resist 
the power of those who brought him 
to the cross? How could one who had not the 
power to save his own life be held as the Savior of 
all mankind (“ Hizzuk Emunah,” ch. x]vii.). “Inthe 
last chapter Troki quotes Rev. xxii. 18, and asks 
how Christians could consistently make changes of 
so glaring a nature; for the change of the Sabbath 
from the seventh to the first day of the week was 
not authorized by Jesus or by any of his disciples. 
Moreover, partaking of the blood and flesh of a 
strangled beast is a palpable infringement of the 
dictates of the Apostles. 

Troki died before completing his work, the index 
and preface to which were made by his pupil Jo- 
seph ben Mordecai Malinovski Troki. The “ Hizzuk 
Emunah” remained for many years in manuscript, 
and the text underwent many changes at the hands 
of the copyists. One rabbi went so far as to substi- 
tute for many of Troki’s philosophical arguments 
Talmudical sayings. The work was first published, 
with a Latin translation, by Wagenseil in his “Tela 
Ignea Satane” (Freiberg, 1681), and was reprinted 
in Amsterdam (1705), Jerusalem (1845), and Leipsic 
(1857). It was also translated into Judeo-German 
(Amsterdam, 1717), into English by Mocatta (London, 
1851), into German by David Deutsch (Sohran, 1865, 
2d ed. 1878, with the Hebrew text) and into Spanish, 
the last-mentioned translation being extant in manu- 
script. Through its Latin translation the “ Hizzuk 
Emunah ” became the object of passionate debates in 
Christian circles; and its arguments against Chris- 

tianity were used by all freethinkers, 

Editions Voltaire gives the following apprecia- 
and Trans- tion of it: “Il a rassemblé toutes les 

lations. difficultés que. les incrédules ont 

prodiguées depuis. Enfin les incré- 
dules les plus determinés n’ont presque rien allegué 
qui ne soit dans le Rempart de la Foi du rabbin 
Isaac” (“ Mélanges,” iii. 844). 

Simhah Luzki mentions two other works by Troki; 
namely, a treatise on the new moon, according to the 
“Gan ‘Eden” of Aaron the Younger, anda work, in 
the form of questions and answers, on the slaughter- 
ing of animals, also according to the “Gan ‘Eden.” 
Troki composed a)so liturgical poems, some of which 
have been inserted in the Karaite Siddur, 


Argu- 
ments. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Furst, Gesch. des Krardert. tii. 30 et seq.; Neu- 
bauer, Aus der Petersburger Bibliothek, p. 64; Geiger, 
Nachyelassene Seliriffen, pp. 178-224, Berlin, 1876; Gott- 
lober, Bikkoret le-Toledot ha-Karatim, p. 184; Gritz, 
Gesch. ix. 490: Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, p. 614, 

J. T. Br. 
Joseph ben Mordecai Malinovski Troki: 

Karaite scholar; lived at Troki in the sixteenth 

century; pupil of Isaac ben Abraham Troki, to 

whose * Hizzuk Emunah” he wrote the preface and 
the index. Joseph Troki was the author of: “ Ha- 

Elef Leka” (Amsterdam, c. 1626), a prayer consist- 

ing of 1,000 words, each beginning with the letter 

mn; “Kizzur ‘Inyan Shehitah ” (Vienna, 1880), on the 
laws concerning the slaughtering of animals accord- 
ing to Elijah Bashyazt, published together with the 


Luzki attributes also to Troki: “Sefer Minhagim,” 

on the ritual customs of the Karaites; “ Perush ‘al 

Hakdamat Azulah,” a commentary on the prayer 

“Azulah”;acommentary on the ten Karaite articles 

of faith ; and “ Perush ‘al ‘Inyan ha-‘Arayot,” on the 

laws of incest according to Elijah Bashyazi. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY : First, Gesch. des Karilert. iii. 37; idem, Bibl, 
Jud. iii, 448 5 Simhah Moses Luzki, Orah Zaddikim, s.v. BD; 
Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 1509. 

Solomon ben Aaron Troki: Karaite scholar; 
lived at Troki in the seventeenth and eighteenth cen- 
turies. He was a relative of Mordecai ben Nissim, 
author of the “ Dod Mordekai,” whom he surpassed 
in knowledge both of rabbinical literature and of 
secular science, of which latter he made use in his 
writings. Troki was the author of: “ Migdal ‘Oz,” 
a polemical work, in seven chapters, against Chris- 
tianity ; “ Rak we-Tob,” a controversy between Ka- 
raites and Rabbinites, in the form of questions and 
answers; “Lehem Se‘orim,” in two volumes, each 
containing five chapters, on the differences between 
the Karaites and the Rabbinites; “ Appiryon,” a re- 
ligious code in two volumes, the first, entitled “ Re- 
haba‘am ben Shelomoh,” giving the Karaite view of 
the Mosaic precepts, and the second, entitled 
“Yarabe‘am ben Nebat,” refuting the Christian dog- 
mas. Troki displayed in the last-named work, which 
is extant in manuscript (St. Petersburg Cat., Nos. 
754, 755), a wide knowledge of rabbinical literature. 
He enumerates the Lithuanian scholars of his time 
and gives a list of the Karaite works in the posses- 
sion of Joseph Delmedigo. One chapter is devoted 
to pedagogy and the religious customs of Karaites in 
Poland. Troki was the author of another work, 
also bearing the title “ Appiryon,” in which he an- 
swers in concise form the questions of the minister 
of the government of Sweden as to the origin of 
Karaism and as to the points in which it differs from 
Rabbinism. It is divided into twenty-four short 
chapters, in which all the ceremonial laws of the 
Karaites are passed inreview. The “ Appiryon” has 
been published by Neubauer in his “ Aus der Peters- | 
burger Bibliothek ” (p. 79, Leipsic, 1866). 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Farst, Gesch. des Kartiert. iii. 80 et seq.3 

Gottlober, Bikkoret le-Toledot ha-Kara’in, p. 201. 

Zerah ben Nathan Troki: Karaite scholar; 
born at Troki 1580. He addressed to Joseph Del- 
medigo twelve questions on mathematics, astron- 
omy, angelology, Cabala, etc. The auswers to 
these questions, together with seventy mathemat- 
ical paradoxes, form the subject of Delmedigo’s 
“Elim,” which work the Karaites attribute to Troki. 
Troki’s letters to Joseph Delmedigo and to Meir 
of Metz, with whom the Karaite scholar became 
acquainted, were published by Abraham Geiger 
under the title “ Miktab Ahuz ” in his “ Melo Chofna- 
jim.” Troki composed several liturgical poems, 
two of which have been inserted in the Karaite 
Siddur (i, 402; iv., end). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: First, Geseh. des Kartiert. iii. 28; Gottlober, 
Bikkoret le-Toledat ha-Kara’im, p. 165; Geiger, Melo Hof: 
nayim, Introduction, p. Xxxvii. 

Ss. I. Br. 

TROP: Judxo-German term for tropes, the 
shart musical cadences, called “distinctions ” in the 


267 


Church plain-song, which are the traditional vocal 
interpretation of the accents in the CANTILLATION 
of the Hebrew Scriptures, See also ACCENTS IN 
HEBREW. 

di Bla C: 


TROY, N. Y.: City and the capital of Renssel- 
ner county in the state of New York; situated on 
the east bank of the Hudson River six miles above 
Albany. Although it was settled in 1787, no au- 
thentic record is found of a Jewish inhabitant until 
about 1842, when Emanuel Marks of Albany, now 
(1905) a retired merchant, established business rela- 
tions with some of the people of Troy and, being 
pleased with their public spirit and progressiveness, 
settled in that city. He was followed in 1843 by 
Herman Levy and family, and in 1845 by Charles 
Wolf. 

In Sept., 1851, Emanuel Gratz, who also had set- 
tled in Troy, undertook the task of organizing a 
congregation. He rented two rooms, one for men and 
one for women, in the old Wotkyns Block on Con- 
gress street, and engaged a certain Koénigsberg as 
cantor for the holy days, thereafter officiating himself. 
In 1853, the membership having increased to eight- 
een, he organized a permanent congregation under 
the name “Anshe Chased.” A hall was hired in 
Wotkyns Block and furnished in the Orthodox style. 
Jn 1855 dissensions arose among the members, and 
many withdrew, leaving in the old congregation 
but eight members, not sufficient fora quorum. The 
seceding members organized acongregation of their 
own. 

In 1857 Aaron Ksensky made Troy his home, and 
became active in Jewish matters. Seeing the use- 
lessness of two congregations, he at once took steps 
to reunite them. At a meeting, lasting almost an 
entire day, harmony was restored, and a congrega- 
tion was organized under the name “ Berith Shaloin ” 
(Covenant of Peace). This congregation in 1870 
erected on the corner of Third and Division streets 
a synagogue which is known as the Third Street. 
Temple. About this time some members adhering 
to the Orthodox doctrine withdrew and formed a 
congregation known as “Beth Israel Bickur Cho- 
lim”; they now (1905) worship in a hall at No. 8 
State street. In 1873 another Orthodox congregation 
came into existence under the name “Sharah Tephi- 
lah”: it has erected a synagogue on Division street. 

The following orders have lodges in Troy: B’nai 
B’rith, Free Sons of Israel, Kether shel Barzel, 
B'rith Abraham, and Sons of Benjamin. The fol- 
lowing Jewish charitable organizations cxist in the 
community: Sisterhood of the Third Street Temple, 
the Hebrew Shelter Society, the Ladies’ Hebrew 
Aid Society, and the Ladies’ Hebrew Benevolent 
Society. 

J. L. Lor. 

TROYES (Hebrew, weyny or yyy): Capital 
of the department of Aube, France. It contained 
a Jewish population as early as the tenth century, 
as is clear from aresponsum addressed to the com- 
munity of Troyes about the year 1000 by Judah 
ben Meir (“Sire Léontin”) and Eliezer ben Judah 
(or, more probably, Eliezer the Great, pupil of R. 
Gershom). Another “teshubah,” sent to the same 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Troki 
Troyes 


community by Joseph ben Samuel Bonfils of Limoges 
in the early part of the cleventh century, shows that 
at that time the Jews of Troyes, with the sanction of 
the counts of Champagne, who regarded them as an 
important source of revenue, owned vineyards and 
other real estate. At the end of the twelfth century 
and at the beginning of the thirteenth the counts of 
Champagne and the King of France entered into an 
agreement by which the contracting parties bound 
themselves to surrender to each other all Jews who 
should quit the domains of the one and settle in the 
territories of the other. In 1204 all rights over 
the Jews who settled in Ervy were waived by the 
Seigneur d’Ervy in favor of Countess Blanche of 
Troyes; and in 1222 Thibaud, Count of Champagne, 
acknowledged the receipt for 160 livres given by the 
Jews of the city to Jacob, “Master of the Jews of 
Troyes.” 

In March, 1288, the Jewish inhabitants of Troyes 
were accused of aritual murder; and on April 24 of 
the same year the tribunal of the Inquisition con- 
demmned to the stake thirteen Jews, whose names, 
according to the elegy of Jacob ben Judah on the 
auto da fé, were as follows: Isaac Chatelain, with 
his wife, two sons, and daughter-in-law, Samson 
Kadmon, Solomon or Salamin ben Vivant, Baruch 
d’Avirey or Baruch Tob ‘Elem (Bonfils), Simeon of 
Chatillon, Jonah or “le Beau Colon,” Isaac Cohen, 
Hayyim of Brinon (department of Yonne) or “le 
Maitre de Brinon,” and Hayyim of Chaource (depart- 
ment of Aube). In 1298 Vivant of Troyes was one 
of the Jews subsidized by the treasury as an admin- 
istrator for the Jews of France. 

The Jewish revenues from the bailiwick of Troyes 
indicate that at this time the Jews were very numer- 
ous throughout the country; for in 13801 their total 
income amounted to 1,000 livres. Prosperity reigned 
among them; and the seigniors of the country and 
the ecclesiastical dignitaries when financially em- 
barrassed applied to them forassistance. The Jews 
were expelled from Troyes in 1306, but returned in 
great numbers in 1315. The “Document sur les 
Juifs du Barrois” contains the names of some who 
settled at Troyes during the years 1821 to 1823: 
Maistre Deuaye, Bonjuyf son of Bonjuyf, Bonne 
Vie and Domim his son, Terine, and Haquinet. In 
1379 the family of Isaac Lyon of Troyes obtained as 
a special favor permission to reside in Burgundy. 
Toward the close of the fourteenth century Abra- 
ham of Treves, son of Mattithiah, and Johanan of 
Treves lived at Troyes. At the present day (1905) 
the Jewish community contains about forty families. 

A Hebrew school of great importance, directed by 
the highest rabbinical authorities and attended by 
numerous students from various lands, especially 
Germany and France, flourished at Troyes in the 
twelfth century. Several synods whose ordinances 
were adopted in foreign countries assembled at 
Troyes about 1160. 

Among the most noted scholars of the city were 
Rasnr and his chief disciples, Simhah of Vitry, 
Judah ben Nathan (7%), Joseph ben Simeon Kara, 
Shemaiah and Judah ben Abraham, Samuel ben 
Meir (RaSHBaM), Jacob ben Meir (R. Tam), Joseph 
ben Moses, Isaac ben Hoshaiah ha-Levi, and Simeon 
the Tosatist (11th and 12th cents.), as well as Joseph 


Trumbull 
Tudela 


Hazzan ben Judah, and Menahem and his disciple 
Judah ben Hliezer (18th cent.). Troyes is men- 
tioned in “ Mordekai” on Git. ix., No. 446. The 
“Seder Troyes” (Troyes ritual) has been edited by 
Max Weiss in the “ Festschrift ” published in honor 
of Moses Bloch (Budapest, 1905). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Carré, Histoire Populaire de Troyes, p. 90; 
M. A. Gerson, Essai sur les Juifs de la Bourgogne, p. 42, 
Dijon, 1898; Gross, Gallia Judaica, pp. 223-243; Biblio- 
theque de VEcole de Chartes, 1849, p. 414; Laloue, Cartu- 
laire de V Abbaye de Saint-Loup de Troyes; Renan-Neu- 
bauer, Les Rabbins Francais, p. 475; R. EB. J. ii. 1993 ili. 
16, 212; xv. 240-259; xix. 252; xlix. 231; Simonnet, Juifs 
et Lombards, in Mémotres de l’ Académie des Sciences et 
Belles- Lettres de Dijon, 1865, p. 194. 

g, S. K. 

TRUMBULL, HENRY CLAY: American 
Christian Orientalist; born at Stonington, Conn., 
June 8, 1830; died at Philadelphia Dec. 8, 1908. 
He was educated at Williston Seminary, Mass., and 
took up Sunday-school work, becoming in 1858 
state missionary of the American Sunday-School As- 
sociation, and in 1865 the New England secretary of 
the American Sunday-Schvol Union. In 1875 he 
took charge of the “Sunday School Times,” which 
he made an organ of considerable influence, even in 
scholarly circles. In 1881 il] health caused him to 
travel. He visited Egypt, Arabia, and Syria, and 
during the journey he identified the site of Kadesh- 
barnea, on which he wrote a monograph (Phila- 
delphia, 1884). He wrote also “Studies in Oriental 
Social Life” (1894), dealing especially with the as- 
pects which threw light upon Biblical archeology ; 
and two works of considerable influence; namely, 
“The Blood Covenant” (New York, 1885), in which 
he laid down the theory, afterward developed by W. 
R. Smith, that sacrifice was a blood covenant; and 
“The Threshold Covenant ” (1896; see THRESIIOLD),. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Nat. Cyc. of American Biography, vol. ix. 

A. J. 

TRUMPET (“hazozerah”): In Shab. 36a (comp. 
Suk. 34a) it is noted that since the destruction of the 
Temple the names for the shofar and the trumpet 
had been confused. The same complaint may be 
made against the Septuagint, which generally ren- 
ders the Hebrew “shofar” by odam:yt, properly ap- 
plicable only to the hazozerah, and against the Eng- 
lish versions, which render it by “trumpet” or, still 
more incorrectly, by “cornet.” In the Hebrew text 
the distinction between SHOFAR and trumpet is well 
maintained, as may be seen from such passages as 
Ps. xeviii. 6 and I Chron. xv. 28, where “shofar” 
and “hazozerah” are mentioned side by side. 

In Num. x. 1 e¢ seg. two trumpets of beaten silver 
are ordered to be made, and, according to II Chron. 
v. 12, the number was increased in Solomon’s Tem- 
ple to 120; while, judging from the representation 
on the Arch of Titus, in the Herodian Temple the 
number was reduced to the original two. Besides 
the shofar, the trumpet is the only musical instru- 
ment of the Old Testament concerning whose shape 
there is absolute certainty, there being extant a de- 
tailed description of it in Josephus and representa- 
tions on the Arch of Titus and on a Bar Kokba 
coin. According to Josephus (“ Ant.” fii. 12, § 6), 
the trumpet was nearly a yard long and a little 
wider than a flute, with a slight expansion near the 
mouthpiece to catch the breath, and terminated in a 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


268: 


bell. This description tallies better with the repre- 
sentation on the Bar Kokba coin than with that of 
the two trumpets leaning against the table of show- 
bread on the Arch of Titus. 

The trumpet, like the shofar, was not so much an. 
instrument of music as one of “teru‘ah” (noise), 
that is, of alarm and for signaling. Its primary use 
was to give signals to the people and their chiefs to. 
assemble and to break camp (Num. x. 5 et seq., 9, 
where the manner of blowing is specified so as to 
indicate the different signals intended); also gen- 
erally to announce an important event and to aid in 
the joyous shouting of the people on festive occa- 
sions (II Kings xi. 14; Hos. v. 8; Ps. xeviii. 6, cl. 
3). But its chief use, at least in later times, was re- 
ligious; and it was therefore almost exclusively a 
priestly instrument (Num. x. 8, xxxi. 6; [I Chron. 
xili. 12, 14). It was sounded on New Moons; at the 
daily offerings; and during the pauses in the singing 
of the Psalms, when the people fell down and wor- 
shiped (Num. x. 10; II Chron. xxix. 26-28; Tamid 
vii. 3; comp. Ecclus. [Sirach] 1. 16 et seqg.; I Mace. 
iv. 40, v.33). Altogether from twenty-one to forty- 
eight trumpet-blasts are said to have been sounded 
daily in the Temple (Suk. 58b). The sound of the 
trumpet also accompanicd the joyous ceremony of 
water-drawing on the Feast of Tabernacles (7b. 51b) ; 
and a blast of trumpets announced the beginning and 
close of the Sabbath (2b. 58b; Shab. 85b). As the 
shofar was the instrument par excellence of New- 
Year’s Day, so was the trumpet that of solemn fast- 
days (R. H. 26b; Ta‘an. 15b, 16b). 

From Neh. xii. 41 and [ Chron, xv. 24 it has been 
inferred that there were seven trumpets in the Tem- 
ple orchestra (comp. Stade’s “Zeitschrift,” 1899, 
p. 829). . 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Adler and Casanowicz, Biblical A ntiquitiea, 

in Report of the U. S. National. Museum for 1896, p. 9173 

Brown, Musical Tistruments and Their Names, New York, 

1880; H. Grossmann, Musik und Musik-Inatrumente im 

Alten Testament, Giessen, 1908; Pfeiffer, Die Musik der 

Alten Hehbriier, 179; Psalms, in S. B.O. T. (Eng. ed.) p. 

220; Johann Weiss, Die Musikalischen Instrumente in den 

Heiligen Schriften Alten Testaments, Gratz, 1895. 


A. I. M. C. 
TRUMPETS, FEAST OF. See N—ew-Year. 


TRUSTS AND TRUSTEES: It has been 
shown under GUARDIAN AND WARD and under Com- 
MUNITY how the Jewish law took notice of the vari- 
ous powers and dutics of those to whom the prop- 
erty of orphan children or of the community was 
entrusted for management. Buta fiduciary relation 
might also be sustained toward other parties, as, for 
instance, a betrothed or married woman; and then 
the trustee was known as vbyy (lit. “a third man ”). 
There is, however, no wide development of the law 
of trusts, such as is found in modern, especially 
Anglo-American, law. 

The Mishnah (Ket. v. 8) puts the case of a hus- 
band who maintains his wife in food and clothing 
through a trustee, and prescribes the least amount 
of food, raiment, and pin-money which he must fur- 
nish annually. A much more important passage 
for this purpose, however, is Ket. vi. 7, which pre- 
sents a case like that of a trust for the separate 
use of a married woman under the English equity 
system: 


269 


— 


‘**When one puts money in the bands of a trustee for his 
daughter and she says, ‘I have full confidence in my husband,’ 
the trustee should nevertheless carry out the trust placed in him 
(that is, be should disregard her wish and invest the money in 
land for the daughter’s use]. Such is the opinion of R. Meir; 
while R. Jose says, even if the fleid bas been already bought 
and she is willing to sell it, it is sold right then. When does 
this apply ? In the case of an adult woman; but the wishes of 
‘an infant amount to nothing.” 


In the Taimud (Ket. 69b), on the basis of a baraita, 
the position of the sages is thus explained: A be- 
trothed damsel may not, according to R. Meir, turn 
the trust fund over to her betrothed. R. Jose says 
she may. Both, however, agree that, when actually 
married, the wife, if of age, may turn the fund over 
to her husband. Later authorities (see Bertinoro 
ad loc.) hold that the Halakah is with R. Meir. 

In Git. 64a a trustee (usps) is entrusted by the 
husband with a bill of divorcement, and a dispute 
arises between the husband and the trustee as to 
whether the bill was merely deposited with the lat- 
ter, or was given to him for delivery to the wife, to 
dissolve the marriage bond. Twoamoraim differ on 
the point whether the husband or the trustee should 
be credited in his assertion in such a case; but the 
question is broadened to apply to the more frequent 
case in which a bond or deed for money or property 
is deposited with a trustee for both parties to the 
instrument. The conclusion arrived at is that the 
word of the trustee must be taken, without any oath, 
against the assertion of either of the parties who 
appointed him; for by making him their trustee they 
have vouched for his truthfulness. It is so ruled in 
the codes; e.g., in Maimonides, “Yad,” Malweh, 
xv. 8; Shulhan ‘Aruk, Hoshen Mishpat, 56, 1. 

E. C. L. N. D. 


TRYPHON: 1. Son of Theudion; one of the 
four envoys sent by the Jews in 45 c.£. to petition 
Emperor Claudius that the high-priestly vestments 
might remain in the possession of the Jews (Jose- 
phus, “Ant.” xx. 1, §§ 1-2; see also DOROTHEUS). 


2. See TARFON. 
S. S. 


TSCHERNIGOFF. See CHERNIGOV. 


TUBAL-CAIN: Brother of Jabal and Jubal, 
sons of Lamech, who appear to have been the origi- 
nators of several industries and arts. The correct- 
ness of the Masoretic text Gmay mem wands wd) 
of Gen. iv. 21-22, describing Tubal-cain, is in dis- 
pute. Holzinger and Gunkel maintain that pod 
was a marginal gloss to wan, and that, as in verses 
20 and 21, there stood before +5 originally 7A NI 
‘38. This would give Tubal-cain a position in metal 
industries comparable with those of his brothers in 
their Hines. The Septuagint, however, omits any 
equivalent of pp. This fact is noted by Dillmann, 
Wellhausen, and others, who think that “Tubal” 
originally stood alone, and }\p, being a later addition, 
was translated “smith.” 

Tubal is identified (by Dillmann, Schrader, and 
Delitzsch) with the Assyrian Tobal, a people living 
southeast of the Black Sea, and known in later his- 
tory as the Aryan people, the Tibareni, with whom 
Phenicia (Ezek. xxvii. 18) traded for articles of 
bronze (A. V. “brass”). This fact would seem to 
point to the correctness of the view that “Tubal ” 


Kr. 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Trumbull 
Tudela 


originally stood alone and that the bearer of that 
name was the progenitor of a people whose chief 
industry was the production of vessels, instruments, 


and other objects of bronze and iron. 
E. G. H. I. M. P. 


As stated above, the Septuagint text calls the in- 
ventor “ Tobel” (“Tubal”). An apocryphal tradition 
adds “ Kainan ” to the name (“ The Book of the Bee,” 
ed. Budge, ch. xix.). This variance of tradition con- 
tinues in later times. Philo of Byblus (in Eusebius, 
“Preparatio Evangelica,” i. 10) names two broth- 
ers as the inventors, one of whom was called 
“Chrysor” (xypvowc, perhaps from yn). These 
brothers discovered enchantment and sorcery as 
well as the art of working in iron (comp. wn and 
wr: also wma and pwn), and invented rafts and 
various fishing-implements. 


E. G. I. S. Kr. 
TUBERCULOSIS. Sec CoNsuMPTION. 
TUCHMANN, JULES: French folklorist; 


born in Paris March 28, 1880; died there Feb. 28, 
1901. Privately educated, he devoted his whole life 
to investigating the traces of supernaturalism in 
traditional beliefs. The results of some of his in- 
vestigations appeared in a remarkable series of arti- 
cles on “The Evil Eye” (“La Fascination ”) which 
ran through the whole ten volumes of the folk-lore 
journal “Melusine.” While nominally devoted to 
this subject, however, the monograph deals with all 
kindred topics, as, for example, witches and witch- 
craft, folk-medicine, etc. It is perhaps the most 
thorough investigation of any single branch of folk- 
lore. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Melusine, x. 8, April, 1901. J 
8. 
TUDELA cab, xsvon ; ancient Tutela): 
The oldest and most important Jewish community 
in the former kingdom of Navarre. When Alfonso 
the Valiant captured the city from the Moors in 1114 
it contained a large number of Jews. As they were 
mentioned after the Moors and the Christians in the 
“fuero” granted them in 1115 by the conqueror, and 
suspecting that their safety was threatened, the Jews 
decided to emigrate; and only at the special request 
of Alfonso and on his promise that they should be 
granted municipal rights similar to those of Najera, 
did they consent to remain, As they continued to 
suffer much from the hatred of the Christians, they 
declared to the king that they would be obliged to 
leave the city if these abuses were not checked; 
whereupon Sancho the Wise in 1170 confirmed all the 
rights which Alfonso had granted them. For their 
greater security he even assigned to them the for- 
tress as a residence and freed them from the tax 
on merchandise (“lezta ”). He permitted them freely 
to sell their houses located in their former Juderia, 
and allowed them to establish a cemetery outside the 
city. He also showed tolerance in his regulation of 
their legal status (comp. Kayserling, 
Jewish  “Gesch. der Juden in Spanien,” i. 197). 
Body-Phy- Like his grandfather, who had for his 
sicians. body-physicians the Jews Don Joseph 
and Don Moses Aben Samuel, Sancho 
also had a Jewish physician, named Solomon, to 
whom he not only granted baronial rights in the 


Tudela 
Tunis 


whole kingdom, but also gave farm- and vine-lands 
in two villages near Tudela. Further, in 1193.a few 
months before his death, he granted Solomon also 
proprietary rights in the bath located in front of 
the Albazares gate. 

In Feb., 1285, Tudela was the scene of a rebellion 
against the government, when many Jews were 
wounded and several were sacrificed to the rage of 
the populace. Peace was restored only through a 
treaty between King Theobald I. and the city coun- 
cil (Kayserling, é.¢. pp. 200 e¢ seq.). The shepherd 
persecutions of 1821 really beganin Tudela. About 
30,000 rapacious murderers fell upon the Jews in 
Tudela, killing many of them. When, some time 
later, 500 (or, according to other accounts, 300) made 
another attempt to surprise the Jews, they were 
overcome by a knight who lay in wait for them. 
Out of gratitude to Providence for their escape from 
this danger the wealthier Jews endeavored to alle- 
viate the condition of their coreligionists who had 
suffered from the persecutions. They collected 
grain and oil in storehouses, and supported poor 
Jews therefrom for a period of three years. In the 
great persecution of 1328, during which 6,000 
Jews perished in Navarre, those of Tudela did not 
escape. 

The Jews of Tudela followed the most varying 
occupations ; they traded in grain, wool, cloth, and 
other wares. There wereamong them tanners, who 
were obliged to pay 35 sueldos a year to the king 

for the use of their tannery, which 


Special wassituated onthe Ebro; and the Jew- 
Market- ish shoemakers and gold- and silver- 
Place. workers had their shops in a special 


market-place, for which in the year 
1269 they paid to Theobald II. 1,365 sueldos. They 
had also their own “ motalafia,” or gagers’ bureau, 
where their weights and measures were subjected to 
official inspection. They engaged in money-lend- 
ing also, while some of them—D. Joseph and D. 
Ezmel de Ablitas, for example—had large commer- 
cial houses. The farming of the taxes likewise was 
in their hands. Solomon and Jacob Baco and Ezmel 
Falaquera were tax-farmers, and Nathan Gabai was 
chief farmer of the taxes. 

As in the other cities of Spain, in Tudela the Jews 
lived in a separate quarter (“ Juderia”), which was 
located in the fortified part of the city, where were 
also the large synagogue (repaired in 1401) and sev- 
eral smaller ones, They had their own magistrates, 
comprising two presidents and twenty representa- 
tives (“regidoros”), who drew up new statutes, in- 
flicted penalties, excluded from membership in tlie 
community, and pronounced the ban. [nb 13859 the 
Jews of Tudela petitioned D. Luis, brother and rep- 
resentative of King Charles II., that they might be 
allowed to punish those Jews who violated their re- 
ligious regulations. Inastatutedrawn upin March, 
13638, by the representatives of the community it was 
decided to deal energetically with denunciators and 
slanderers. This statute was publicly read in all 
the synagogues on the Day of Atonement; and in 


1400 it was renewed for a period of forty years: 


(the statute is given in Kayserling, /.¢. pp. 206 e¢ 
seq.). The Jews of Tudela, whose 500 families had 
by 1863 diminished to 270, were greatly oppressed 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


270 


by the taxes imposed on them by the king. These 
in 1846 and the following years had amounted to 
2,000 livres annually, and in 1375 to 3,882 livres: 
in addition, the Jews had to pay subsidies from 
time to time. In consequence of the war with 
Castile and owing to the ravages of the plague in 
1379 and 1380, the community contiuued to decrease 
in numbers till in 1886 there were scarcely 200 
Jewish families in the city, and these were so poor 
that the taxes could not be colected from them. 

In 1498 King John, urged by the sovereigns of 
Castile, issued an edict to the effect that all Jews 

must either be baptized or leave the 

Baptism or country. In Tudela 180 families re- 

Exile. ceived baptism, many of them emigra. 

ting a few years later to France. The 

Maranos, or secret Jews, were subjected to scorn, 

their names being published ina great roll called 

“Ta Manta” and exposed in the nave of the cathe- 
dral at Tudela. 

Tudela was the birthplace or residence of several 
Jewish scholars, the most famous of whom was the 
traveler known as BENJAMIN OF TUDELA, the ac- 
count of whose travels was translated into several 
languages. The cabalist Abraham Abulafia passed 
his youth in Tudela; and Hayyim ben Samuel, au- 
thor of the “Zeror ha-Hayyim,” Shem-Tob ben 
Isaac Shaprut, the philosopher and apologist, and 
several members of the learned Minin family were 
born in the city. The following rabbis of Tudela 
are known: Joel ibn Shu‘aib, author of sermons and 
Bible commentaries ; Hasdai ben Solomon, a contem- 
porary of Isaac ben Sheshet; and R. Astruc. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: José Yanguas y Miranda, Historia de Na- 
varra, San Sebastian, 1882; idem, Diccionario de Antigue- 
dades de Navarra, Pamplona, 1842: Rios, Hist. ii. 28, 50, 173, 
291, 453; ii. 191, 328%: Kayserling, Gesch. der Juden th Spa- 
nien, i.3 Jacobs, Sources, Nos. 1569, 1619, 1629, 165], 1659. 

- M. K. 


TUGENDHOLD, JACOB: Russian educator 
and author; born in Breslau 1791; died at Warsaw 
April 20, 1871. Realizing that education was one 
of the best means for improving the condition of 
the Jews in Poland and Lithuania, he founded at 
Warsaw in 1819 a school for Jewish children, where 
the instruction was given according to the most 
modern principles of pedagogy and was not limited 
to purely Jewish subjects. In carrying out this 
plan Tugendhold had to overcome many obstacles 
which the conservative “melammedim” put in his 
way. In 1820 he was appointed by the Russian 
government censor of all the Jewish publications 
that appeared in Warsaw; and when the rabbinical 
school was established in that city, in 18538, Tugend- 
hold was made director of the institution, which 
post he held until the school was closed in 1862. 

Tugendhold was active not only as an educator 
but also as a communal worker. It was due to him 
that the Warsaw Home for Aged and Invalid 
Jews wus built; and he was instrumentai also in es- 
tablishing a number of other benevolent institutions 
in that city. Fora number of years he served as 
president of the Warsaw kahal. 

Tugendhold’s literary works include the follow- 
ing: “Book of Errors” (in Polish, Warsaw, 1830), 
a work, written with the assistance of Dr. Stern, 
which points out more than 900 errorsin L. Chiarini’s 


271 


work on the Hebrew language; an answer to the 
work “Sposob na Zydow ” (2d, 1881); “Obrana Iz- 
raclitow ” (¢b. 1881), a translation into Polish of 
Manasseh ben Israel's “ Vindicie Judzeorum,” a de- 
fense against the blood accusation ; * Fedon,” a trans- 
lation of Moses Mendelssohn’s “Phidon”; “Ben 
Yakkir” (2d. 1824), a text-book on the fundamental 
principles of the Jewish faith; “Pierwsza Wskrzes- 
zona Mysl o Jstniemu Boga” (7b. 1840), a translation 
into Polish of Solomon Cohen’s poem “ Hazzalat 
Abram me-Ur Kasdim”; “Kosht Imre Emet we- 
Shalom” (Polish title, “Wskasawki Prawdy ”; 20, 
1844), a collection of passages from ancient and 
modern Jewish writings, showing Judaism in its 
relation to other religions; “ Behinat ‘Olam,” a trans- 
Jation of Bedersi’s work on the vanity and instability 
of all that is worldly. 

Tugendhold wrote also “Marnot” (7b. 1851), a 
drama in three parts, and contributed extensively to 
many Polish and German periodicals of his time. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zeitlin, in Maggid Mishneh, 1872, pp. 59-61 ; 


idem, Bibl. Post-Mendels. p. 400; Den, 1872, No. 21. 
S, i, Go. 


TUGENDHOLD, WOLF: Russian educator 
and author; brotherof Jacob Tugendhold. He was 
teacher in the rabbinical school of Wilna and also 
censor of all the Jewish publications that appeared 
in that city. Of his writings the following are the 
most important: “Der Denunciant,” a story of Jew- 
ish Jife in Poland based partly upon his brother’s 
drama; “Stimmender Feiernden Menge” (Warsaw, 
1841), a translation of Lebensohn’s “Kol Hamon 
Hogeg,” which was made on the occasion of the 
celebration of the betrothal of the heir to the Rus- 
sian throne; and a eulogy on the life and works of 
the Hebrew writer M. A. Gtinzberg. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zeitlin, in Maggid Mishneh, 1845; idem, 


Bibl. Post-Mendels, pp. 26, 193, 352, 
s J. Go, 


TULL, EDMUND: Hungarian artist; born at 
Szekesfejervar 1870. He was educated at Buda- 
pest, Milan, and Paris, being in the last-named city 
a pupil of J. P. Laurens and of B. Constant. His 
first work, “The Cathedral of Notre Dame,” attracted 
attention at the exposition in Budapest in 1896, 
while his etchings are especially valued in London 
and Vienna. His best-known works are: “ Peasant 
Mowing,” “A Lane in Dort,” and “The Island of 
Capri,” in the historical art museum of Budapest; 
and “The Smithy,” owned by Archduchess Isabella. 

8. L. V. 


TUNIS: Formerly one of the Barbary States of 
North Africa, but since 1881 a dependency of France; 
situated between latitude 81° and 37° north, and lon- 
gitude 8° and 11° east, and bounded north and north- 
east by the Mediterranean, southeast by Tripoli, 
south and southwest by the desert of Sahara, and 
west by Algeria. A tradition is current among the 
descendants of the first Jewish settlers, traces of 
whom are still to be found among the nomadic 
Mussulman tribes of Drid, Henansha, and Khumir, 
that their ancestors settled in that part of North 
Africa long before the destruction of the First Tem- 
ple. Though this is unfounded, the presence of 
Jews there at the appearance of Christianity is at- 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Tudela 
Tunis 


tested by the Jewish monument found by Prud- 
homme at Hammam al-Latif in 1883 (see “ Mémoires 
de l’Académie des Inscriptions ct Belles-Lettres,” 
1883; “ Revue Archcologique,” March 
and April, 1883; "RR. E. J.” 1886). 
After the dissolution of the Jewish 
state a great number of Jews was sent 
by Titus to Mauritania, and many of them settled in 
Tunis. These settlers were engaged in agriculture, 
cattle-raising, and trades. They were divided into 
clans, or tribes, governed by their respective heads, 
and had to pay the Romans a capitation-tax of 2 


In Roman 
Times. 


Tunisian Jewess. 
(Fron a photograph.) 


shekels. Under the dominion of the Romans and 
(after 429) of the fairly tolerant Vandals, the Jewish 
inhabitants of Tunis increased and prospered tosuch 
a degree that African Church councils deemed it nec- 
essary to enact restrictive lawsagainst them. After 
the overthrow of the Vandals by Belisarius (534), 
Justinian issued his edict of persecution, in which 
the Jews were classed with the Arians and heathens 
(“ Novella,” xxxvii.). 

In the seventh century the Jewish population was 


‘Tunis 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


272 


largely augmented by Spanish immigrants, who, 
fleeing from the persecutions of the Visigothic king 
Sisebut and his successors, escaped to Mauritania 
and settled in the Byzantine cities. These settlers, 
according to the Arabic historians, mingled with the 
Berber population and converted many powerful 
tribes, which continued to profess Judaism until the 
reign of the founder of the Idriside dynasty. Al- 
Kairuwani relates that at the time of the conquest 
of Hippo Zaritus (Bizerta) by Hasan in 698 the gov- 
ernor of that district wasa Jew. When Tunis came 
under the dominion of the Arabs, or of the Arabian 
califate of Bagdad, another influx of Arab Jews into 
Tunis took place. Like all other Jews in Moham- 
medan countries, those of Tunis were subject to the 
ordinance of OMAR. 

In 788, when Imam Idris proclaimed Maurita- 
nia’s' independence of the califate of Bagdad, the 
Tunisian Jews joined his army under the leadership 
of their chief, 
Benjamin ben 
Joshaphat ben 
Abiezer. They 
soon withdrew, 
however; __ pri- 
marily, because 
they were loath 
to fight against. 
their coreligion- 
ists of other 
parts of Mauri- 
tania, who re- 
mained faithful 
to the califate of 
Bagdad; and 
secondarily, be- 
cause of some 
indignities com- 
mitted by Idris 
against Jew- 
esses, The vic- 
torious Idris 
avenged this de- 
fection by at- 
tacking the Jews in their cities. After an unsuc- 
cessful resistance peace was concluded, accord- 
ing to the terms of which the Jews were required to 
pay a capitation-tax and to provide a certain num- 
ber of virgins annually for Idris’ harem. The Jew- 
ish tribe ‘Ubaid Allah preferred to 
migrate to the East rather than to sub- 
mit to Idris; according to a tradition, 
the Jews of the island of Gerba are 
the descendants of that tribe. In 798 Imam Idris 
was poisoned at the command of Harun al-Rashid 
(it is said, by the governor’s physician Shamma, 
probably a Jew), and about 800 the Aghlabite dy- 
nasty was established. Under the rule of this dy- 
nasty, Which lasted until 909, the situation of the 
Jews in Tunis was very favorable. As of old, Bi- 
zerta had a Jewish governor, and the political influ- 
ence of the Jews made itself felt in the administration 
of the country. Especially prosperousat that time 
was the community of Karrwan, which was estab- 
lished soon after the foundation of that city by ‘Ukba 
ibn Nafi', in the year 670, 


Under 
Islam. 


Interior of the Great Synagogue at Tunis. 
(From a photograph.) 


A period of reaction set in with the accession of the 
Zirite Al-Mu‘izz (1016-62), who persecuted all heter- 
odox sects, as well as the Jews. The persecution 
was especially detrimental to the prosperity of the 
Kairwan community, and members thereof began 
to emigrate to the city of Tunis, which speedily 
gained in population and in commercial] importance. 

The accession of the Almohade dynasty to the 
throne of the Maghreb provinces in 1146 proved very 
disastrous to the Jews of Tunis. In pursuance of a 
fanciful belief, of which there is no trace in Moslem 
tradition, the first Almohade, ‘Abd al-Mu’min, 
claimed that Mohammed had permitted the Jews 
free exercise of their religion for only five hundred 
years, and had declared that if, after that period, the 
Messiah had not come, they were to be forced to em- 
brace Islam. Accordingly Jews as well as Chris- 
tians were compelled either to embrace Islam or to 
leave the country. ‘Abd al-Mu’min’s successors 
pursued the 
same course, and 
their severe 
measures re- 
sulted either in 
emigration or in 
forcible conver- 
sions. Soon be- 
coming = suspi- 
cious of the sin- 
ccrity of the new 
converts, the Al- 
mohades  com- 
pelled them to 
wear a. special 
garb, witha yel- 
low cloth for 
a head-covering. 

The _intellec- 
tualstatus ofthe 
Tunisian Jews 
at that time was 
on a level with 
their —_ political 
situation. Mai- 
monides, who, while on his way to Egypt, sojourned 
soine time in the island of Gerba and other Jocalities, 
expressed himself, in a letter addressed to his son, 
in the following terms: 


** Beware of the inhabitants of the West. of the country called 
Gerba, of the Barbary States. The intellect of these people is 
very dulland heavy. Asa rule, beware always 
Maimonides’ of the inhabitants of Africa, from Tunis to 
Opinion. Alexandria; and also of those who inhabit the 
Barbary coasts. In my opinion they are more 
ignorant than the rest of mankind, though they be attached to 
the belief in God. Heaven is my witness that they can be com- 
pared only to the Karaites, who possess no oral law. They 
evince no lucidity of spirit in their study of the Pentateuch, the 
Prophets, and the Talmud; not even when they discuss the 
haggadot and the laws, although there are among them rabbis 
and dayyanim. Witb regard to impure women they have the 
same beliefs and customs as the Bene Meos, a Mussulman tribe 
which inhabits the same country. They do not look upon the 
impure woman, and turn their eyes neither to her figure nor to 
her garments. Nordo they speak to her; and they even scrupie 
to tread on the ground touched by her feet. They do not eat 
the hinder part of slaughtered animals. In short, there is much 
to say about their ways and customs.”’ 


The Jews of Tunis at that time scrupulously ob- 
served most of the festivals, but did not celebrate 


273 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Tunis 


the second days; they entirely ignored the festival 
of Purim, although they observed that of Hanuk- 
kah. According to their statutes, a man who had 
lost two wives could marry only a widow; on the 
other hand, if a weman lost two husbands she was 
called a “husband-kilicr” and was not allowed to 
remarry. This prohibition included also a woman 
who had been twice divorced. Male twins were al- 
ways named Perez and Zerah; female twins, Sarah 
and Rebekah; a male and female, Isaac and Rebekah. 

Under the Hafsite dynasty, which was established 
in 1236, the condition of the Jews greatly improved. 
Besides Kairwan, there were at that time important 
communities in Mehdia, Kalaa, the island of Gerba, 

and the city of Tunis. Considered at 
Under the first as foreigners, the Jews were not 
Hafsites. permitted toscttlein theinterior of the 
last-named city, but had to live in a 
building called “ Funduk” ; later, however, a wealthy 
and humane Mussulman, Sidi Mahrez, who in 1159 
had rendered great 
services to the first 
Almohade, ‘Abd al- 
Mu’min, obtained for 
them the right to set- 
tle in a special quar- 
ter of the city proper. 
This quarter, called 
the “ Hira,” consti- 
tuted until 1857 the 
ghetto of Tunis; it 
was closed at night, 
In 1270, in conse- 
quence of the defeat 
of Saint Louis of 
France, who had un- 
dertaken a crusade 
aeainst Tunis, the 
citiesof Kairwan and 
Hammat were de- 
cClared holy; and the 
Jews were required 
either to leave them 
or to embrace Islam. 
From that year until 
the conquest of Tunis 
by France (1857), 
Jewsand Christians were forbidden to pass a night 
in either of these cities; and only by special per- 
mission of the governor were they allowed to enter 
them during the day. 

That the Jews of Tunis, during the fourteenth 
and fifteenth centuries, were treated more cruelly 
than those of the other Barbary States may be sur- 
mised from the fact that, while refugees from Spain 
and Portugal flocked to Algeria and Morocco, only 
a few chose tosettle in Tunis. Indeed, the Tunisian 
Jews had no rabbis or scholars worthy of mention, 
and had to consult those of Algeria or Morocco on 
the most ordinary religious questions. Their com- 
munal affairs were directed by a council, nominated 

by the government, the functions of 

Taxation. which consisted in the administration 
of justice among the Jews, and, more 

especially, in the collection of the Jewish taxes. 
Three kinds of taxes were imposed upon the Tuni- 


AII.—18 


Tunisian Jewess. 
(From a photograph.) 


sian Jews: (1) a communal tax, to which every 
member contributed according to his means; (2) a 
personal or capitation tax; and (8)a general tax, 
which was levied upon the Mohammedans also. In 
addition to these, every Jewish tradesman and indus- 
trial had to pay an annual tax to the gild to which 


Tunisian Jewesses. 
(From a photograph.) 


his trade or industry belonged. In spite of all these 
exactions, however, the commerce of the country 
was in Jewish hands, and even the government was 
compelled to have recourse to Jewish merchants for 
the exploitation of the various monopolies; after the 


Jewish Girls of Tunis. 
(From a photograph.) 


thirteenth century it adopted the policy of entrust- 
ing to a Jew the post of receiver of taxes, This 
functionary, who bore the title of “ caid,” served also 
as an intermediary between the government and the 
Jews, and his authority within the Jewish commu- 


Tunis 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


274 


nity was supreme. The members of the council of 
elders, as well as the rabbis, were nominated at his 
recommendation, and no rabbinical decision was valid 
unless approved by him. 

During the Spanish occupation of the Tunisian 
coasts (1585-74) the Jewish communities of Bizerta, 
Susa, Sfax, and other seaports suffered greatly at 

the hands of the conquerors; while 
Under the under the subsequent Turkish rule 
Spaniards. the Jews of Tunis enjoyed a fair 

amount of security, being practically 
guaranteed the free exercise of their religion, and 
liberty to administer their own affairs. They 
were, however, always exposed to the caprices of 
princes and to outbursts of popular fanaticism, 
Petty ofticials were allowed to impose upon them 
the most difficult drudgery without compensation. 
They were obliged to wear a special costume, consist- 
ing of a blue frock without collar or ordinary sleeves 
(loose linen 
sleeves being 
substituted), 
wide linen draw- 
ers, black ship- 
pers, and asmall 
black skull-cap; 
stockings might 
be worn in win- 
ter only. They 
might ride only 
on asses or 
mules, and were 
not permitted to 
use a saddle. 

From the be- 
ginning of the 
eighteenth cen- 
tury the politic- 
al status of the 
Jews in Tunis 
steadily im- 
proved. This 
was due to the 
ever-increasing influence of the political agents 
of the European powers, who, while seeking to 
ameliorate the condition of the Christian residents, 
had to plead also the cause of the Jews, whom Mos- 
lem legislation classed with Christians. Joseph 
Azulai, who visited Tunis in 1772, described in 
glowing terms the influence at court of the caid 
Solomon Nataf. Forty-two years later the United 
States consul to Tunis, Mordecai M. Noah, gave the 
following account of the situation of the Tunisian 
Jews: 

** With all the apparent oppression, the Jews are the leading 
men; they are in Barbary the principal mechanics, they are at 
the head of the custom-house, they farm the revenues; the ex- 
portation of various articles, and the monopoly of various mer- 
chandise, are secured to them by purchase, they contro! the 
mint and regulate the coinage of money, they keep the bey’s 
jewels and valuable articles, and are his treasurers, secretaries, 
and interpreters ; the little known of arts, science, and medi- 
cine is confined to the Jews... . Ifa Jew commits a crime, tf 
the punishment affects his life, these people,’so national, always 
purchase his pardon: the disgrace of one affects the whole com- 
munity; they are ever in the presence of the bey, every min- 
ister has two or three Jewish agents, and when they unite to 


attain an object, it cannot be prevented. These people, then, 
whatever may be said of their oppression, possess a very con- 


Interior of the Great Synagogue at Tunis, Showing Ark of the Law, 
(From a photograph.) 


trolling influence, their friendship is worthy of being preserved 
by public functionaries, and their opposition is to be dreaded ” 
(** Travels in Europe and Africa,’’ p. 308, New York, 1819). 


During the long reign of Ahmad Bey the Jews 
enjoyed a period of great prosperity. His successor, 
Mohammed Bey, inaugurated his reign in 1855 by 
abolishing the drudgeries formerly imposed upon 
the Jews; the caid Joseph Scemama, with whom 
the bey was on very intimate terms, probably used 
his influence in behalf of his coreligionists. In 
the same year, however, Mohammed Bey, being 
very religious, caused the execution of a Jew named 
Batto Sfoz on a charge of blasphemy. This execu- 
tion aroused both Jews and Christians, 
and a deputation was sent to Napoleon 
III., asking him to interfere in their 
behalf. After two years of diplo- 
matic negotiations a man-of-war was sent to enforce 
the demands of the French government. Mohammed 
Bey yielded, and 
issued a consti- 
tution, accord- 
ing to which all 
Tunisians, With- 
out distinction 
of creed, were to 
enjoy equal 
rights. The fol- 
lowing articles 
of this constitu- 
tion were of 
special interest 
to the Jews: 
(84) “No man- 
ner of duress 
will be imposed 
upon our Jewish 
subjects forcing 
them to change 
their faith, and 
they will not be 
hindered in the 
free observance 
of their religious rites. Their synagogues will 
be respected, and protected from insult.” (§ 6) 
“When a criminal court is to pronounce the pen- 
alty incurred by a Jew, Jewish assessors shall be 
attached to the said court.” The constitution was 
abrogated in 1864 in consequence of a revolution, 
which entailed great suffering on several Jewish 
communities, especially on that of Sfaxy; but the 
constant fear of foreign interference rendered the 
government very circumspect in its treatment of the 
Jews. Since 1881 Tunis has been a dependency of 
France; and the Jews now enjoy the same rights as 
their Mohammedan fellow citizens. 

The bulk of the Jewish population of the regency, 
which numbers about 50,000 souls, is found in the 
city of Tunis (about 30,000 in a total population of 

180,000). The Jews of that city are 

Population divided into two distinct communities: 
and Or- (1) the Tunsi, which comprises the de- 
ganization. scendants of the first settlers, and (2) 
the Grana (from “ Granada”), which in- 

cludes the descendants of the Spanish and Portu- 
guese exiles, and of Jews of Leghorn (“Gorneyim”) 


Moham- 
med Bey. 


275 


who settled there during the seventeenth and 
eighteenth centuries. At first, owing probably to 
their small numbers, the Spanish and Portuguese 
exiles mixed with the oid settlers; but toward the 
end of the sixteenth century they formed a separate 
congregation under the name “Kehal Gerush,” and 
worshiped in a reserved place in the Great Syna- 
gogue. The new congregation was greatly aug- 
mented by the arrival of Italian, or Leghorn, Jews, 
and by the middle of the seventeenth century it 
had its own synagogue and its own rabbis. The 
two congregations, however, were united in so 
far as both were under the jurisdiction of the caid, 
both  contribu- 
ting to the com- 
munal revenues 
derived from 
taxation on ar- 
ticles of con- 
sumption, more 
especially on 
meat and Pass- 
over bread. A 
complete separa- 
tion of the two 
congregations 
took place at the 
end of the seven- 
teenth century, 
when the Leg- 
horn Jews estab- 
lished butcher- 
shops of their 
own, refusing to 
pay the high tax 
on meat. This 
naturally — pro- 
voked bad feel- 
ings on the part 
of the Tunsi 
congregation, 
which now had 
to bear the whole 
burden of this 
tax. At last, in 
1741, the two 
congregations 
entered into an 
agreement = ac- 
cording to which 
the Tunsi was to 
pay two-thirds 
of the taxes and the Grana the remaining third. The 
Grana congregation remained under the authority of 
the caid until 1824, when Husain Bey officially rec- 
ognized its autonomy. 

The intellectual condition of the Tunisian Jews 
kept pace with their political progress. Even in 
the seventeenth century there were prominent rabbis 
and scholars in the city of Tunis and in Gerba. Tn 

the middle of that century a descend- 

Rabbis and ant of Zemah Duran settled at Tunis 
Scholars. and established a Talmud Torah which 
produced many Talmudic scholars. 

Isaac Lombroso, who ofticiated as chief rabbi of Tunis 
from about 1710 to 1752, was the author of a 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Jews of Tunis in Native Costume, 
(From a photograph.) 


Tunis 


one 


comnicntary, entitled “Zera’ Yizhak,” on different 
sections of the Talmud; this work, which appeared 
posthumously in 1768, is the only Hebrew book 
which has as yet been published in Tunis. Lom- 
broso’s suecessor as chicf rabbi was Mas‘ud Raphacl 
Alfasi, who, conjointly with his sons Hayyim and 
Solomon, published the “Mishba de-Rabuta” in 
Joseph Caro’s Shulban ‘Aruk (Leghorn, 1805). 
Among other rabbis of the eighteenth century were 
Nathan ben Abrahain Burgel, author of “Hek 
Natan,” novelhke and explanations on the mishnaic 
order Kodashim and the treatise Horayot, ete.; and 
Elijah Hai Vita Burgel, author of “ Migdanot. 
Natan,” novelle 
on various Tal- 
mudic treatises. 
The most promi- 
nent rabbis of 
the nineteenth 
century were: 
Joseph Burgel, 
author of “ Ze- 
ra‘ de- Yosef,” 
on the Tosafot; 
Isaac = =Tayyib, 
author of “ ‘Erek 
ha-Shulhan,” on 
the Shulhan 
‘Aruk, “ Huk- 
kot ha-Pesah,” 
on the Jaws of 
Passover, and 
“Waweha-'Am- 
mudim,” on the 
“Sefer Yere’im” 
of Eliezer of 
Metz; Judah 
Nijar, author of 
“Ohole  Yehu- 
dah,” on the 
Sifre, “Shebut 
Yehudah,” on 
the Mekilta, 
“Alfe Yehu- 
dah,” on the 
treatise Shebu- 
‘ot, “Mo'ade 
Adonai,” on the 
Semag, and 
“Simhat Yehu- 
dah,” on the 
small Talmudic 
treatises: Joshua Bases; Nathan Burgel; Samuel 
Sefag; Aaron ha-Kohen Mogadar; Abraham ha- 
Kohen Tanuji; Samuel Sefag; Abraham Hajjaj; 
Moses Faitusi; Nissim Marik; and Hai Bismut. 
The Tunisian rabbis possess full judicial power 
in all civil and commercial matters, and even in 
criminal cases if the crime committed is not one 
that calls for capital punishment. The community 
of Tunis possesses twenty-seven synagogues, among 
which the Great Synagogue of the Tunsi congrega- 
tion, and that of the Portuguese, are very large. 
The Jewish inhabitants of Tunis include some finan- 
ciers and a number of persons folowing liberal pro- 
fessions, but they are mostly engaged in commerce, 


Tunis 
Turin 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


276 


in petty traffic, and especially in brokerage. There 
is also a considerable number of persons who follow 
various handicrafts. 

The other communities of the regency of Tunis 
are: Bizerta, with a Jewish population of about 
600 persons; Gabés, with 500 Jews; Gerba, having 

4,500 Jews and six synagogues; Go- 

Other Com- letta, 400 Jews and one synagogue; 
munities. Keff, with 450 Jews, one synagogue; 
Mehdia, 100 Jews; Monastir, con- 

taining 500 Jews and one synagogue; Nabel, hav- 
ing 1,500 Jews; Porta Farina, 1,500 Jews; Ras 
el-Jabel, with 600 Jews and twosynagogues; Soli- 
man, 700 Jews; and Susa, with a Jewish popula- 
tion of 600 souls. Schools for children were estab- 
lished by the Alliance Israélite Universelle at Tunis, 
Mehdia, Susa, and several other places; special 
schools for Jews were established by the government 


wt Sfax and Gabés. The superior hygienic condi- 
tions prevailing among the Jews of Tunis, in com- 
parison with the other pationatities, caused great 
surprise to the French miitary physicians Testivint 
and Reinlinger. Instituting an inquiry into the 
number of deaths caused by tuberculosis among the 
various races of the regency, they found that from 
1894 to 1900 the denth-rate among the Mussalmans 
was 11.80 per 1.080 inhabitants; amone the Euro- 
peans, 5.18; and among the Jews only 0.75 (“ Revue 
d’Hy giéne,” xxii., No. 11). 
The Tunsi preserve many peculiar religious cus- 
toms which are not followed elsewhere. 
Religious Their ritual, especially for the divine 
Customs. service on festivals, differs from the 
Sephardic as well as from the Ashke- 
nazic. Some of the prayers are in Arabic. The 
first of every month the Yom Kippur Katan is cele- 


i 
4 
j 
‘ 
| 
i 
! 
; 
i 


JESWISTE CEMETERY 


(rein a photograph fa the possession of Dr. Maurice 


brated with great pomp, and the rabbis proclaim 
publicly full absolution from all sins. Passover 
cakes, as made in other countries, are wholly un- 
known to the Tunsi, but they use a peculiar method 
of their own in fashioning the unleavened dough 
into sticks, by joining the ends of which the cakes 
are made in the form of rings. 

The Tunsi pronounce Hebrew largely accord- 
ing to the phonetic rules of Arabic. No distinction 
is made between the long and short vowels; the 
“kamez” is always pronounced as “a.” The pro- 
nunciation of the “ zere ” resembles more the “ hirik,” 
while that of the “sezol” approaches the “ patah.” 
The 5 and the 3 are often confounded in pronuncia- 
tion. No distinction is made between the “shewa” 
quiescentand the “shewa” mobile. Very peculiar is 
their custom of separating the Sabbatical sections 
“ Mattot u-Mas‘e” at times when elsewhere they are 


os 


AT TINIS. 


Fislberc, New York.) 


read together, and vice versa, Contrary to the Maso- 
rah, the section Mishpatim is subdivided by the ‘Tunsi 
tuto two sections, the first bearing the title of “ Mish- 
patim,” and the second that of “ Im Kesef.” Likewise 
another order is adopted in reading the Haftarot. 
With regard to the examination of the lungsofslaugh- 
tered animals (“bedikah ”), the Tunsido not follow 
the regulations of Joseph Caro, but an older author- 
ity, whose prescriptions are less rigid. 

Brides of twelve or thirteen are uot uncommon 
among the Tunsi. The marriage ceremony is per- 
formed by a rabbi, and usually takes place in the 
synagogue, The bride and bridegroom are seated 
on chairs placed on a table, and a tallit covers the 
heads of both. Two witnesses stand onc on each side, 
while the officiating rabbi takes his position in front 
of the table, with the prayer-book in one hand and 
the cup of blessing in the other. It is customary 


277 


among the Tunsi women to appear every Friday in 
the cemetery with a small carthen jar containing 
slaked lime, and a brush, with which they clean and 
whitewash the tombstones of their relatives and 
friends. The cemetery is usually outside the city 
walls, and, not being ecucloscd, is frequently en- 
tered by animals; the tombs, which are built of 
brick and mortar, are fiat, and not more than six 
inches above the ground. Sce CARrriaGceE. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY : L. Addison, Lhe Present State of the Jcirs 
jn the Barhary States, 175; Morgan, storia degli Stati 
dU Algeri, Tunisi, Vripoli, e Moraceo, London, 17843 Marcus 
Fischer, Doledol Veshurun, Prague, Iti: D. Cazes, Exsai 
sur UFistoive des Israelites de Tuirisic, Paris, 1883; E, Mer- 
cier, Histoire de UC Afrique Septentrionale, i. 167, Paris, 
1888; Gratz, Gesch. v. 236 ct seq.: vi. 6, 9 et seg. Eliezer Ash- 
kenazi, in Ha-Lebanon, it. 181 et seq, iii. 6 et seq., iv. 75 et 
sei, ¥. 286 eb seq, Vi. 85 ct sey.; Freund, Vom Tinesischen 
Jiudenthum, in Yeshurun. iv. sv; Cognat, Israelites d 
Tunis, in Towr du Monde, 1898, ii. 98. 
J. I. Br. 
TUR, NAPHTALI WOLF: Russian Hebra- 
ist; bornat Wilna; died there May 29, 1885 (aecord- 
ing to Zeitlin, June, 1884). Tur settied in Warsaw, 
where he taught Hebrew and several modern lan- 
guages. Ife was a talented poet; but, owing to his 
untimely death, most of his productions remain 
unpublished. Of those which have been printed 
may be mentioned: “ Ha-Yobel” (in “ Ha-Asif,” i. 
1-16), a long poem in honor of Sir Moses Monte- 
fiore’s centenary; “Geberet ha-IIeshbon”; and “ El 
ha-Ishshah ” (¢, 11. 556-561). Several of his poems 
are published in Gottlober’s “ Ha-Boker Or.” 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Ha-Asif, ii. 1635 Zeitlin, Bibl. Post-Mendels. 


p. 400, 
S. M. SEL. 


TURIM. 


TURIN : Italian city on the River Po; formerly 
capital of the duchy of Savoy, and later of the 
kingdom of Sardinia; now (1905) the chief city of 
the province of Jike name. Jews were admitted to 
Turin in 1424, probably because they loaned money 
at a lower rate of interest than the Christians. The 
first Jew to settle with his family in the city in that 
year was Elia Alamandi. <A statute of Amadeus 
VIII., dated June 17, 1480, obliged the Jews of the 
duchy to wear a badge of red cloth on the shoulder, 
forbade them to live among Christians, and prohib- 
ited them from building new synagogues, besides im- 
posing other restrictions. The Jews were now com- 
pelled to live in the Via San Tommaso, near the 
so-called “Gamelotto.” About this time originated 
the treaty or agreement between the duke of Savoy 
and the Hebrews. It was made for ten years only, 
but was renewable; it guaranteed to the Jews free- 
dom of residence in Turin, and regulated their 
rights and privileges. Amadeus, besides, promul- 
gated a special decree forbidding Christians to kill, 
wound, or flog the Hebrew residents, or to disturb 
them in their religious worship or festivals. 

The reign of Emmanuel Philibert (1553-80) fell 
ina disastrous period forall the Italian Jews. Those 
of Piedmont alternately received concessions and 
suffered persecutions, according to the duke’s need 
Of money. On July 19, 1560, Emmanuel Philibert 
decreed the expulsion of all Jews from his domin- 
ions; but their own entreaties and the intercession 
made in their behalf by the Duchess Margherita 


Sce JACOB BEN ASHER. 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Tunis 
Turin 


secured for them a respite of four months. One 
of the duke’s councilors, Negron de Negriof Genoa, 
urged his master to renew the decree of expulsion 
and to insist upon the departure of the Jews within 
ten days. Fortunately, however, the 

Under Hm- kindly intervention of an official at 
manuel the ducal tribunal obtained the revo- 

Philibert. cation of the decree: and the duke 

made an agreement with the Jews under 
Which they were still permitted to inhabit Picdmont. 
Very soon after, however (Oct., 1566), Emmanuel 
Philibert again issucd a decree ordering the depar- 
ture of the Jews from his domains within a space of 
fifteen days unless they paid down 40,000 gold 
florins. The Jewsat once quitted his dominions, but 
on the payment of half the sum demanded they 
were permitted to return. They thea executed a 
new agreement under which they pledged them- 
sclves to pay a yearly tax of 1,500 gold florins. By 
another decree (Sept. 4, 1572) Emmanuel Philibert, 
at the request of Vitale Sacerdoti, introduced some 
favorable alterations into the statutes of Amadcus 
VIII. Among other things, the Jews were permitted 
to enjoy the right of “hazakah” aud of owning real 
estate. Simon, a brother of Sacerdoti, was sent by 
the duke in the same year to Constantinople to pro- 
pose the establishment of a consulate there. Em- 
manuel Philibert furthermore granted the Jews the 
right of assembling once a year (for religious pur- 
poses), and of owning a special piece of land asa 
cemetery. 

At Philibert’s death his son, Charles Emman- 
uel I., ascended the throne (1580-1680), Cardinal 
Borromeo of Milan urged him to expel the He- 
brews again from his dominions. He yielded, how- 
ever, to the entreaties of the latter, and made a 
new contract with them, allowing them to remain 
in the country on certain conditions. He also con- 
firmed the privileges granted them by his father, 
and placed them under the jurisdiction of a spe- 
cially appointed judge called the “conservatore.” 
The first “conservatore ” was the senator Gasparo 
Tesauro, Marquis of Fossiano. Charles Emmanuel 
also repealed the obligation, imposed on the Jews in 
1560, of paying a yearly sum of 25 scudi to the stu- 
dents of the university on St. Catherine’s Day. He 
twice renewed the decree forbidding Christians to 
molest the Jews or to offend them by disturbing 
their religious functions (Dec. 15, 1603, and Oct. 
20, 1610). In the first instance he also agreed, on 
condition of a donation of 60,000 scudi payable 
in twelve years beginning with 1604, that the Jews 
should engage unmolestedly in trade and commerce, 
and should not be more heavily taxed than other citi- 
zens. Further, he allowed them to lend on pledges, 
which had been forbidden them by Amadeus VIII. 

This was, however, regulated by spe- 
In the Sev- ciallaws. The tribunals were required 
enteenth to recognize the trustworthiness of the 

Century. books in which the Jews entered their 

contracts. Permission was further 
granted the Jews to meet twice a year to elect their 
leaders and to arrange for the payment of the tribute 
due the state. In order to raise this tribute the 
Jewish community was allowed to tax all Hebrews 
who came to reside within the limits of the state. 


Turin 
Turkey 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


278 


Physicians and surgeons were allowed to follow 
their professions, subject, however, to the consent 
of the Archbishop of Turin. Finally, he granted 
« full pardon forall crimes, offenses, and infractions 
of the law committed up to the day of publication 
of the decree on condition of the payment of 2,000 
ducats volunteered by certain members of the com- 
munity, namely, G. Lattes, M. Jarach, C. and S. 
Melle, and 8. Brisa, who were afterward exempted 
from wearing the distinctive badge. In Aug., 1612, 
a Jew named Leone Segre was murdered in the 
enclosure of the ghetto. The Jews accused of this 
deed were liberated on the payment of 50,000 “du- 
cantoni.” In 
1614 all sen- 
tences then be- 
ing served were 
remitted in con- 
sequence of the 
payment of 


18,000 “ducan- 
toni.” 
In 1618 the 


Jewish com- 
munity of Pied- 
mont was united 
with that of the 
city and terri- 
tory of Nizza. 
In 1626 the resi- 
dence of the 
Jews was 
changed, and 
the <listrict at 
that time called 
“San Giovanni 
ci Dio” was as- 
signet to thei. 
In 1640 Victor 
Amadeus I, at 
the request of 
M. Treves, I. 
Lattes, and A. 
Levi, confirmed 
all the rights 
and privileges 
granted to the 
Jews by his 
predecessors. 
At the instance 
of the Jewish community, which presented him 
with 3,300 lire, these privileges were further con- 
firmed by the Senate on the occasion of the mar- 
riage of Charles Emmanuel II. in 1662. In 1680, by 
an order of the regent, Madama Reale, dated Aug, 12, 
1679, the site of the ghetto was again changed, this 
time to the quarter of Beatus Amadeus; and here the 
Jews continued to dwell until 1828, in which year 
certain wealthy families obtained leave to reside be- 
yond the ghettolimits. In 1706 the Jewish cemetery 
situated near the arsenal was destroyed by the 
chances of war, and the Jews obtained leave to bury 
their dead in San Giovanni di Dio, abandoned in 1680 
(in 1782 this cemetery became part of the Vanchiglia 
district, near the River Po; and at length, in 1854, 
it was incorporated with the common cemetery). 


The Synagogue at Turin, Italy. 
(From a photograph.) 


The condition of the Jews of Piedmont was no 
better during the eighteenth century, owing to the 
intolerant spirit shown by the papal government. 
Indeed, their legal status became in some respects 
considerably worse. For instance, Victor Amadeus 

IJ. wished to deprive them of the 

In the power of acquiring landed property. 
Eighteenth He therefore enforced the constitu- 

Century. tions of the years 1723, 1729, and 1770, 

which, like so many of the ducal laws, 
were hostile to the interests of the Jews. <A certain 
Luigi Pisani of Jerusalem, formerly a rabbi, but 
later converted to Christianity, preached a sermon 
to the Jews of 
Turin on Feb. 7, 
1715, in the 
church of San 
Francesco di Pa- 
ola, to demon- 
strate to them 
“the blindness, 
error, and false- 
ness which en- 
veloped them.” 
In 1780 there 
were about 1,500 
Jews in Turin. 

The first indi- 
cations of the 
approach of 
better times for 
the Jews came 
with the French 
Revolution; but 
the provisional 
Austro-Russian- 
Piedmontese 
government 
(May, 1798) de- 
manded a strict- 
er observance of 
all the laws and 
regulations than 
had been exact- 
ed of the Jews 
before the Revo- 
lution, and sub- 
jected the en- 
tire community 
to heavy penal- 
ties for the slightest infraction. On the return 
of French domination, the Jews of Turin obtained 
from the imperial government equality with their 
French coreligionists; but upon the restoration the 
old restrictions soon came into force again. Jewish 
students were expelled from the schools; and the 
proprietary classes were allowed five years in which 
to sell their possessions. At length, by a decree 
dated March 6, 1816, Victor EmmanuclI, finally ex- 
empted the Jews from wearing a distinctive badge, 
and gave them full liberty to engage in trade, com- 
merce, and the useful arts. They were still ex- 


‘cluded, however, from the universities, from munic- 


ipal offices, and from the administration of works of 
charity. But better times were approaching. In 
1848 a pamphlet, entitled “ Dell’ Emancipazione 


279 


Civile deg’ Isracliti,” by the Marquis Massimo d’A- 
zeglio of Turin, later minister of the kingdom of 
Sardinia, appeared in Florence, and 
was followed by the statute of March 
4 of that year. On July 19, 1848, a 
law was passed declaring the equal- 
ity of Jews with other citizens. 

The following rabbis of note were natives of 
Turin: sixteenth century: Nethaneel ben Shab- 
bethai ha-Dani; seventeenth century: Joseph Calvo, 
Daniel ben Joseph Calvo, and Joseph ben Michael 
Ravenna; eighteenth century: Joshua Colon, Isaac 
Formiggini, Abraham Sanson ben Jacob ha-Levi 
Fubini, Michel Solomon Jonah, Gabriel Pontremoli, 
Jacob ben Joshua Benzion Segre, Abraham ben 
Judah Segre, Daniel Valabrega; nincteenth cen- 
tury: Abraham de Cologna, Felice Bachi, Elijah 
Aaron Lattes, Samuel Solomon Olper, Isaiah Foa 
Lelio della Torre, Sabbato Graziadio Treves, Giusep- 
pe Lattes, Samuel Ghiron, G, Foa, and G. Bolaffio. 

The Jews of Turin in 1901 numbered 5,700. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: M. Finzi, in Rivista Israelitica, i. 226 et seq.; 

Mortara, Indice, passim: G. Sacerdoti, in Vessillo Israelitico, 

1901, pp. 245 et seqg.; Volino, Condizioni Giuridiche Degli 

Tsraeliti in Piemonte Prima del”. Emanctpazione, Turin, 

1904; Joseph ha-Kohen, *E:mek ha- Baka, ed. Wiener, pp. 102, 

105, 126; RR. EB. J. v. 231, 

S. UG; 

TURKEY: Empire of southeastern Europe and 
western Asia. For present purposes Turkey is 
taken to mean that part of Europe which is directly 
under Ottoman rule, Asia Minor, the islands of the 
Archipelago, and Mesopotamia. Syria and Pat- 
ESTINE, although under the direct administration of 
the Porte, and ARABIA are considered as distinct 
countries, and have been so treated in THE JEWISH 
ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

Jews have lived in Turkey from very early times. 
Tradition says that there was a colony of them in 
Thessaly at the time of Alexander the Great; and 
later they are found scattered throughout the east- 
ern Roman empire (see ADRIANOPLE; BYZANTINE 
Emprre). The first Jewish colonyin Turkey proper 
was at Brusa, the original Ottoman capital. Ac- 
cording to one tradition, when Sultan Urkhan con- 
quered the city (1826) he drove out its former inhab- 
itants and repeopled it with Jews from Damascus 
and the Byzantine empire. These Jews received a 
firman permitting them to build a synagogue; and 
this edifice still exists, being the old- 
est in Turkey. The Jews lived in a 
separate quarter called “ Yahudi Ma- 
halessi.” Outside of Brusa they were 
allowed to live in any part of the country; and on 
payment of the “kharaj,” the capitation-tax re- 
quired of all non-Mosiem subjects (sce below), they 
might own land and houses in the city or country. 

Under Sultan Murad I. (1860-89) the Turks crossed 
over into Europe, and the Jews of Thrace and Thes- 
saly came under Ottoman dominion. The change 
Was a welcome one to them, as their new Moslem 
rulers treated them with much more toleration and 
justice than they had received from the Christian 
Byzantines. The Jewseven asked their cobelicvers 
from Brusa to come over and teach them Turkish, 
that they might the quicker adapt themselves to 
the new conditions, The Jewish community of 


Eman- 
cipation. 


Early 
History. 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Turin 
Turkey 


Adrianople began to flourish, and its yeshibah at- 
tracted pupils not only from all parts of Turkey, 
but also from Hungary, Poland, and 
Fourteenth Russia, The grand rabbi at Adria- 
and nople administered all the communities 
Fifteenth of Rumelia. About fifty years after 
Centuries. the conquest of Adrianoplea converted 
Jewish Moslem, Torlak Kiamal by 
name, took part in an insurrection of dervishes and 
preached communistic doctrines, for which he was 
hanged by Sultan Mohammed I. (1413-21). 

Sultan Murad IT. (1421-51) was favorably inclined 
toward the Jews; and with his reign began for them 
a period of prosperity which lasted for two centu- 
ries and which is unequaled in their history in any 
other country. Jews held influential positions at 
court; they engaged unrestrictedly in trade and 
commerce; they dressed and lived as they pleased; 
and they traveled at their pleasure in all parts of 
the country. Murad II. had a Jewish body-physi- 
cian, Ishak Pasha, entitled “ hakim bashi” (physician- 
in-chief), to whom the ruler granted a special firman 
exempting his family and descendants from all 
taxes. This was the beginning of a long line of 
Jewish physicians who obtained power and influ- 
ence atcourt. The same sultan created also an army 
corps of non-Moslems called “ gharibah ” (= “stran- 
gers”); and to this Jews also were admitted when 
they were unable to pay the kharaj. 

Murad’s successor, Mohammed the Conqueror 
(1451-81), issued three days after the conquest of 
Constantinople a proclamation inviting all former in- 
habitants to return to the city without fear. Jews 
were allowed to live freely in the new capital as 
well as in the other cities of theempire, Permission 
was granted them to build synagogues and schools 
and to engage in trade and commerce without re- 
strictions of any kind. The sultan invited Jews 
from the Morea to settle in Constantinople; and he 
employed Jewish soldiers. His minister of finance 
(“defter-dar”) was a Jewish physician named Ya‘- 
kub, and his body-physician was also a Jew, Moses 
Hamon, of Portuguese origin. The latter likewise 
received a firman from the sultan exempting his 
family and descendants from taxes. 

Jt was in this reign that the office of hakam bashi 
of Constantinople came to have so much importance. 

Moses CAPsaLt was the first to fill the 
Office position, being appointed thereto by 
of Hakam the sultan. He took his place in the 

Bashi. Turkish divan, or state council, beside 

the mufti, or chief of the Ulema, and 
above the Greek patriarch. He was the official 
representative of the Jews before the Turkish gov- 
ernment: he apportioned and collected their taxes, 
appointed rabbis, acted as judge, and administered 
the affairs of the Jewish communities generally. 
After Capsali the Jews themselves elected their chief 
rabbi, the government ratifying their choice as a 
mere matter of form. 

Another celebrated rabbi who lived during the 
reign of Mohammed the Great was Mordecai b. 
Eliezer ComtTrino. Karaites as well as Rabbinites 
studied under him. The former, although having 
been the most influential element among the Jews 
during the Byzantine empire, had now fallen into 


Turkey 


sucha state of ignorance that for a full century they 
had produced no author of repute aud had been 
obliged to turn to the Rabbinites for 


Comtino instruction. They were stirred to new 
and the life, however, by the increase in their 
Karaites. numbers through immigration from 


Poland and the Crinea, and by 
contact with the Rabbinites; and they used their new 
energy in disagreeing among themsclvcs, notably in 
regard to a reform in connection with the Sabbath 
light and about the old question of the calendar (sce 
Kanairres), Certain Rabbinites, therefore, partic- 
ularly Gedaliah ibn Yahya, thought the proper time 
had come to effect a reconciliation between the two 
parties, Mordecai Comtino spoke with respect of 
the Karaites; and the Karaites and Rabbinites who 
studicd under him acquired tolerance as well as 
knowledge. The Rabbinite teachers Enoch Saporta, 
Eliezer Capsali, and Elijah ba-Levi made their Ka- 
raite pupils promise not to speak disrespectfully of 
the Talmudic authorities, and to observe the Rab- 
binite festivals, On theother hand, the grand rabbi, 
Moses Capsali, was strongly opposed to any affilia- 
tion of the two parties, holding that Karaitcs ought 
not to be instructed in the Talmud, since they re- 
jected it. His successor, Elijah Mizrahi, was more 
tolerant, and used ali his influence to preserve 
friendly relations. The Karaite community, how- 
ever, became more and more isolated. Many of its 
members went to the Crimea; and those who were 
left lived in a separate quarter walled off from the 
rest of the Jews. 

The condition of the Jews in Turkey about the 
middle of the fifteenth century was so prosperous 
and in such contrast to the hardships endured by 

their fellow Israelites in Germany and 


Isaac Europe generally that Isaac Zarfati, 
Zartati’s a Jew who had settled in Turkey, was 
Letter. moved to send a circular letter to the 


Jewish communitics in Germany and 
Hungary inviting their members to emigrate to 
Turkey. The letteris preserved in the Bibliothéque 
Nationale at Paris (Ancien Fonds, No. 291). It 
gives a glowing description of the lot of Jews in 
Turkey (for its date see Gritz, “Gesch.” viii., note 
6G). Zarfati says: 

* Turkey is a land in which nothing is lacking. If you wish, 
all can go Well with you. Through Turkey you can safely reach 
the Holy Land. Is it not better to live under Moslems than 
under Christians ? Here you may wear the finest stuffs. Here 
every one may sit under his own vineand fig-tree. In Christen- 
doin, however, you may not venture to dress your children in 
red or blue without exposing them to the danger of being beaten 
biue or flayed red.”’ 

This letter caused an influx into Turkey of Ashke- 
nazic Jews, who soon became amalgamated with the 
earlier Jewish inhabitants. 

The greatest influx of Jews into Turkey, how- 
ever, occurred during the reign of Mohammed’s suc- 
cessor, Bayazid II. (1481-1512), after the expulsion 

of the Jews from Spain and Portugal. 

Effects of That ruler recognized the advantage 

Expulsion to his country of this accession of 
from Spain. wealth and industry, and made the 

Spanish fugitives welcome, issuing 
orders to his provincial governors to receive them 
hospitably. The sultan is said to have exclaimed 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


280 


thus at the Spanish monarch’s stupidity: “Ye cail 
Ferdinand a wise king—he who makes his land 
poor and ours rich!” The Jews supplied a want in 
the Turkishempire. The Turks were good soldiers, 
but were unsuccessful ag business men; and accord- 
ingly they left commercial occupations to other 
nationalities. ‘They distrusted their Christian sub- 
jects, however, on account of their sympathies with 
foreign powers; hence the Jews, who had no such 
sympathies, soon became the business agents of the 
country. Coming as they did from the persecutions 
of Europe, Mohammedan Turkey secmed to them a 
havenof refuge. The poet Samuel Usque compared 
it to the Red Sea. which the Lord divided for [ts 
people, and in the broad waters of which He drowned 
their troubles. The native Turkish Jews helped 
their persecuted brethren; and Moses Capsali levied 
a tax on the community of Constantinople, the pro- 
ceeds of which were applied toward freeing Spanish 
prisoners. 

The Spanish Jews settled chicfly in Constantino- 
ple, Salonica, Adrianople, Nicopolis, Jerusalem, Sa- 
fed, Damascus, and Egypt, andin Brusa, Tokat, and 
Amasia in Asia Minor. Smyrna was not settled by 
them until later. The Jewish population at Jerusa- 
lem increased from 70 families in 1488 to 1.500 at the 
beginning of the sixteenth century. That of Safed 
increased from 300 to 2,000 families and almost sur- 
passed Jerusalem in importance. Damascus hada 
Sephardic congregation of 500 families. Constanti- 
nople hada Jewish community of 30,000 individuals 
with forty-four synagogues. Bayazid allowed the 
Jews to live on the banks of the Golden Horn. 
Egypt, especially Cairo, reccived a large number of 
the exiles, who soon outnumbered the native Jews 
(sce Ecypt). The chief center of the Sephardic 
Jews, however, was Salonica, which became almost. 

a Spanish-Jewish city owing to the 

Sixteenth fact that the Spanish Jews soon out- 

Century. numbered their corcligionists of other 

nationalities and even the original na- 

tive inhabitants. Spanish became the ruling tongue; 
and its purity was maintained for about a century. 

The Jews introduced various arts and industries 
into the conntry. They instructed the Turks in the 
art of making powder, cannon, and other imple- 
ments of war, and thus became instruments of de- 
struction directed against their former persecutors. 
They distinguished themselves also as physicians 
and were used as interpretersand diplomatic agents. 
Salim J. (4312-20), the successor of Bayazid II., em- 
ployed a Jewish physician, Joseph Hamox. This 
ruler also was Kind to the Jews; and after the con- 
quest of Egypt (1517) he appointed Abraham de 
CasTRO to the position of master of the mint in that 
country. Salim changed the administrative system 
of the Jews in Egypt, and abolished the office of 
nagid. It is interesting to note that the Turkish 
Jews were in favor of the conquest of Egypt, where- 
as the orthodox Moslems opposed it. 

Sulaiman the Magnificent (1520-66), like his pred- 
ecessor Salim I., had a Jewish body-physician, 
Moses Hamon II., who accompanied his royal mas- 
ter on his campaigns. Turkey at this time was at 
the high-water mark of its power and influence and 
was feared and respected by the great powers of 


281 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Turkey 
Eurepe, Its Jews were correspondingly prosper- | the later intrigues of the French and the Venctian 
ous. They held positions of trust and honor, took | envoys were unable to deprive him. 


part in diplomatic negotiations, and had so much 
influence at court that foreign Chris- 


Under’ tian’ = ambassadors were frequently’ 
Sulaiman compclied to obtain favors through 
the Mag- them. Commerce was Jargcly in their 
nificent. hands; and they rivaled Venice in 


maritime trade. In Constantinople 
they owned beautiful houses and gardens on the 
shores of the Bosporus. In 1551 Nicolo Nicolai, 
chamberlain to the King of France, who aceompa- 
nied the French ambassador to Constantinople, 
described the Jews in Turkey as foilows: 


“ There are so many Jews throughout Turkey, and in Greece 
especially, that it is a great marvel and downright ineredible. 
They increase daily through the commerce, money-changing, 
and peddling which they carry on almost everywhere on land 
and on water; so that it may be said truly that the greater part 
of the commeree of the whole Orient is in their hands. In Con- 
stantinople they have the largest bazars and stores, with the 
best and most expensive wares of all kinds. In addition, one 
meets among them many skilled artists and mecbanicians, espe- 
cially among the Maranos, who some years ago were driven out 
of Spain and Portugal. These, with great harm and injury to 

Christendom, have tanght the Turks to make 


Nicolo implements of war. ... The said Jews have 
Nicolai’s also established a printing-press, which is a 
Account. wonderful thing to the Turks. They print 


books in Latin, Greek, Italian, Syriac, and He- 
brew; but in Turkish and Arabic they are hot allowed to print. 
Besides, they Know most languages ; so that they are employed 
as interpreters ” (“* Viaggi nella Turchia,”’ pp. 142-143, Venice, 
1580). 


Nicolai also mentions Hamon as “a person of great 
honor, great activity, great renown, and = great 
wealth.” 

If one recalls the warlike activity of the Turks at 
this time, when they were laying siege to Vienna and 
threatening to overrun Europe, the full significance 
of Nicolai’s allusion to the manufacture of imple- 
ments of war isevident. The Jews also had a more 
direct influence on the making of war and of peace 
through the diplomatic negotiations In which they 
took part. Moses Tamon influenced the sultan in 
favorof Donna Gracia MENDEsrA; and theruler sent 
an imperial messenger to Venice demanding that 
the authorities set her at liberty and allow her 
to proceed to Turkey. She and her nephew Don 
Joseph Nasr at onee took a prominent part in Jew- 
ish affairs in Turkey, Joseph, through his wide 
business connections among his fellow Maranos in 
the capitals of Europe, was able to furnish the sul- 
tan with confidential information as to what was 
taking place at the foreign courts; and he soon be- 
came a favorite counselor, The sultan was induced 
to take an interest in the fate of the Turkish Jewish 
prisoners at Ancona; and he wrote a haughty letter 
to Paul TY. demanding their release. In revenge 
for the fate of the other Jews at Ancona, the Turkish 
Jews, led by Donna Gracia and Joseph, endeavored 
to place an effective boycott upon the port of that 
city, and to transfer its trade to Ferrara; but the 
scheme fell through owing to lack of unity among 
its promoters. Joseph’s influence at court was fur- 
ther strengthened by the fact that he openly sup- 
ported the claims of Sulaiman’s son Salim to the 
throne at a time when the succession was doubtful. 
He thus won that prince’s lasting favor, of which all 


Sulaiman instituted for the benetit of the Jews 
the office of “kiahya” or Kaiya (N°Ip). It was 
the duty of this official to represent 
them at court and to defend them 
against injusticeand oppression. The 
first incumbent of the office, appointed 
by the sultan himself, was Shealticl There was the 
more need for such a defender, since the Jewsin the 
Turkish empire were coutinually being harassed 
by their Christian neighbors. In Amasia, in Asia 
Minor, the old accusation of ritual nourder was re- 
vived; and several Jews were slain, Larer, when 
their innocence had been established. the cadi in 
anger put to death some of the Greeks who had 
made the accusation. Another instance of the kind 
led Sulaiman to enact a law under which all future 
blood accusations should be tried before the sultan 
himself. 

Sulaiman conferred the city of Tiberias and its 
environs upon his favorite Joseph Nasi; and the 
latter at one time planned the foundation of a Jew- 
ish colony in Palestine. The walls of Tiberias were 
rebuilt, and Joseph invited Jews from Europe, even 
providing sinps for their transportation. Ii is not 
known how many responded to the call; but the 
scheme of a Jewish colony in Tiberias was not 
realized, and Joseph appears to have transferred his 
interest elsewhere. 

At the accession of Salim II. (1566) Joseph was 
created Duke of Naxos and of the Cyclades Islands; 
but he continued to reside at Constantinople, ap- 
pointing as his vicegerent for the islands a Spanish 
nobleman named Coronello. Thus In less than 100 
years after the Jews had been driven out of Spain a 
nobleman of that realm was in Jewish employ. In 

the year following Salim’s accession an 


Office of 
Kahiya. 


French Austrian embassy was commissioned 
Ships to call on Joseph Nasi and offer him 
Seized by afixed salary to secure his good graces. 
Joseph Inthe next year he received a firman 
Nasi. from the sultan empowering him to 


seize the cargoes of French ships in 
Turkish waters, to the amount of the debt which the 
French government had long owed to the Mendesia 
family and which both Sulaiman and Salim had un- 
successfully tried to collect for him, In 1569 he 
finally succeeded in reimbursing himself from car- 
goes seized in the port of Alexandria, France com- 
plaining and protesting in vain. Not more successful 
were the efforts of the French ambassador to under- 
mine Joseph’s position at the Turkish court (sce 
Nast, Joserr). A few years later Joseph succeeded 
in influencing the sultan to make war against Venice 
because of Cyprus. Joseph’s influence with the sul- 
tan was known to be such that even Christian rulers 
applied directly to him. Emperor Ferdinand of 
Austria addressed a letter to him, as did also Will- 
iam of Orange, the latter trying to induce him to 
declare waron Spain. This move, although favored 
by Don Joseph, was opposed by the grand vizier 
Mohammed Sokolli, who had long been his enemy. 
Joseph’s influence ceased at the death of Salim, 
when the rule of the grand viziers, beginning with 
Sokolli, commenced. 


Turkey 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


282 


Joseph Nasi’s place was taken by another Jew, 
Solomon ASHKENAZI, who, although remaining more 
in the background, and working through the grand 
viziers instead of coming directly in contact with 
the sultan, was even more influential than Jo- 
seph. Ashkenazi’s name is frequently mentioned 
in the diplomatic correspondence of the time be- 
tween the Porte and the other European courts. 
The war with Venice which had been begun by one 
Jew was terminated by another. Ashkenazi, who 
had been working in behalf of peace while hostil- 
ities were still in progress, was delegated by the 
Porte to arrange terms of peace and was sent to 
Venice for that purpose. The Venetians, distasteful 
as it was to them, were obliged to receive the Jew 
with all the honors due the ambassador of so power- 
ful a nation as Turkey. Ashkenazi was influential 
also in causing the choice of a king of Poland to fall 
on Henry of Anjou. He was likewise entrusted 
with the negotiations fora peace between Spain and 
Turkey. 

All the favor shown to individual Jews, however, 
did not affect the lot of the community as a whole, 
whose fate depended on the caprice of a despotic 
ruler. Sultan Murad III., for instance, on one oc- 

casion ordered the execution of ail the 
Sumptuary Jews in the empire merely because he 
Laws. was annoyed by the luxury which 
they displayed in their clothing. It 
was only after the intervention of Solomon Ash- 
kenazi and other influential Jews with the grand 
vizier, seconded by the payment of a large sum of 
money, that the order was changed into a law re- 
stricting dress. Thereafter Jews were required to 
wear a kind of cap instead of a turban, and to refrain 
from using silk in making their garments. 

Certain Jewesses became prominent about this 
time as physicians and intriguers. Esther Kiera 
was especially famous as the favorite of the Vene- 
tian sultana Baffa, wife of Murad III. and mother 
of Mohammed III. Turkish women of the harem 
have always exercised more influence than is com- 
monly attributed to them; and the Jewesses who 
were made welcome there in various capacities fre- 
quently acted as go-betweens, and indirectly influ- 
enced the actions of prominent men. Esther Kiera, 
through her position as an intimate of the sultana 
Baffa, became all-important in the diplomatic in- 
trigues of the time; and she carried on a traffic in 
army posts. She acquired great wealth, much of 
which was spent in helping her poor coreligionists 
and in furthering their literary efforts. Greed, how- 
ever, appears to have overmastered her discretion; 
and she met a tragicend. The Mendesia family pro- 
duced two women, Gracia MenDEsIA and her daugh- 
ter Reyna Nast, wife of Joseph Nasi, who did much 
for the Jews of Turkey. Another Jewess of impor- 
tance was the widow of Solomon Ashkenazi. She suc- 
ceeded in curing the young sultan Ahmad [. of the 
smallpox, after all other doctors had failed. A con- 
temporary of Esther Kiera in 1599 wrote a letter 
which accompanied a present from the sultan’s 
mother to the Queen of England. A translation 
of it may be found in Kayserling, “Die Jiidischen 
Frauen,” pp. 91-92. 

The prosperity enjoyed by the Jewsof Turkey in 


like Molko, saw visions and dreamed dreams. 


the sixteenth century led them to entertain hopes of 
the Messiah, and cabalistic doctrines spread rapidly. 
Especially prominent in promoting them were Judah 
Hay yat, Baruch of Benevento, Abraham b. Eliezer ha- 
Leviof Adrianople, Meir ibn Gabbai, and David ibn 
Abi Zimra (Franco, “ Histoire des Israélites de 1’ Em- 
pire Ottoman,” p. 52). In the early part of the cen- 
tury the appearance of that eccentric adventurer Da- 
vid Reubeni, who claimed to be an ambassador from 
an independent Jewish king in Arabia, sent to seek 
aid against the Turks, aroused hopes throughout the 
Jewish world that he was the precursor of the Mes- 
siah. Influenced by him, Solomon Motxo of Portu- 
gal began to have visions, and was moved in one of 
them to go to Turkey. In Salonica, oneof the chief 
seats of the Cabala in the empire, he feli in with the 
aged cabalist Joseph Ta1razak; and 
Messianic in Adrianople he inspired the young 
Hopes. Joseph Caro with cabalistic visions. 
Molko went also to Palestine and re- 
mained for some time in Safed, at that time a veri- 
table nest of cabalism. He proclaimed that the Mes- 
sianic period would begin in 1540(5800 4.m.). After 
Molko’s death (1582) the Jews of Safed still clung 
to their hope of the Messiah; and, in order to pre- 
pare the way for him, they attempted to introduce 
unity into Judaism by organizing arecognized Jew- 
ish tribunalor Sanhedrin. The plan, however, came 
to nothing, owing to the personal rivalry of the two 
leaders of the Safed and Jerusalem communities re- 
spectively, Jacob Beras and Levi b. Jacob Hants. 

After Berab’s death Joseph Caro became the lead- 
ing rabbi in Safed, having come to Palestine filled 
with the idea that he was destined to take a promi- 
nent part in preparing the way for the Messiah. He, 
But 
the visions and religious ecstasies of Molko and Caro 
were as nothing compared with the extravagances 
of the cabalistic leaders who succeeded them. In 
the Jast three decades of the sixteenth century Safed 
and all Galilee became the scene of excesses of re- 
ligious demoniacs, conjurers, and miracle-workers; 
and cabalistic notions spread thence throughout Tur- 
key and into Europe. This movement derived its 
impulse principally from two men, Isaac LuRIA 
and his disciple Hayyim VitTan. The former com- 
muned with departed spirits, talked with animals 
and angels, and developed a peculiar theory con- 
cerning the origin and quality of souls and their 
migrations. The Zohar was placed on a level with 
the Talmud and the Bible. 

The prosperous condition of the Jews in Turkey 
during this period was not a deep-rooted one. It 
did not rest on fixed laws or conditions, but de- 
pended wholly on the caprice of individual rulers. 
Furthermore, the standard of. civilization through- 
out Turkey was very low, and the masses were 
illiterate. In addition there was no unity among 
the Jews themselves. They had come to Turkey 
from many lands, bringing with them their own 
customs and opinions, to which they clung te- 
naciously, and had founded separate congregations. 
And with the waning of Turkish power even 
their superficial prosperity vanished. Ahmad L., 
who came to the throne in the early years of the sev- 
enteenth century, was, it is true, favorably disposed 


283 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Turkey 


i SSS 


toward the Jews, having been cured of smallpox by 
a Jewess (see above): and he imprisoned certain 
Jesuits for trying to convert them. 


Seven- But under Murad IV. (1623-40) the 
teenth Jews of Jerusalem were persecuted by 
Century. an Arab who had purchased the gov- 


ernorship of that city from the gov- 
ernor of the province; and in the time of [brahim I. 
(1640-49) there was a massacre of Ashkenazic Jews 
who were expecting the Messiah in the year 1648, 
and who had probably provoked the Moslems by 
their demonstrations and meetings. The war with 
Venice in the first year of this sultan’s reign inter- 
rupted commerce and caused many Jews to remove 
to Smyrna, where they could carry on their trade un- 
disturbed. In 1660, under Mohammed IV. (1649-87), 
Safed was destroyed by the Arabs; in the same year 
there was a fire in Constantinoplein which the Jews 
suffered severe loss. Under the same sultan Jews 
from Frankfort-on-the-Main settled in Constanti- 
nople; but thecolony did not prosper. It wasalso dur- 
ing this reign that the pseudo-Messiah SHABBETHAI 
ZEB caused such an upheavalin Judaism. Itis char- 
acteristic of the Turkish attitude toward the Jews, 
and in striking contrast with the attitude of Euro- 
pean powers, that no steps were taken to punish the 
Jews who took partin the agitation. Shabbethai Zebi 
was ohne of the few pseudo-Messiahs who have left 
sects behind them. The chief seat of his followers 
is at Salonica. They arecalled “ Dénmeh ” (a Turk- 
ish word signifying “apostates”) or 
“Ma’aminim.” There are three sub- 
sects, whose devotions are separate and 
secret. The firstis that of the Ismirlis 
or Smyrnians, who shave their chins; the second is 
composed of the followers of Jacob Querido, a 
reputed son of Shabbethai, who shave their heads, 
but not their ching; and the third, the members of 
which shave neither the chin nor the head, consists 
of followers of Othman Baba, who in the eighteenth 
century tried to reconcile the first two sects. The 
Doinmeh resemble the Moslemsand outwardly prac- 
tise their customs, even going to the mosques on 
Fridays. Their own meeting-houses, or “kals,” are 
secret, and connect with their dwelling-houses by 
interior passages. They are very respectable and 
prosperous, and are said to have no poor among 
them (see Donen; J. T. Bent, “A Peculiar Peo- 
ple,” in “ Longman’s Magazine,” xi. 24-36). 

Michel Febre, a Capuchin monk who lived in 
Turkey for eighteen years and who published an 
account of his experiences there and in other lands, 
has given adescription of the Jews in Turkey in the 
middle of the seventeenth century. He says(“ Thé- 
tre de la Turquie,” in “R. E, J.” xx. 97 ef seq.): 


The 
Dénmeh. 


“There are two classes of Jews in Turkey, viz., natives. or 
original inhabitants of the country, and strangers, so called be- 
eause their ancestors came from Spain and 

Michel Portugal. The former, like the Christians, 
Febre’s De- wear colored turbans, and are only to be dis- 
scription. tinguished from them by their shoes, which 
are black or violet, while those of the Chris- 

tians are red or yellow. The second class wear a ridiculous 
heud-dress, like a brimless Spanish hat. They have separate 
cemeteries and Go not agree with Jews of the other class on 
certain tenets of religion. Both elasses are found in large num- 
bers in most of the cities belonging to the grand seignior, 
especially in commercial towns such as Smyrna, Aleppo, Cairo, 


Thessalonica, ete. They are mainly occupied as bankers, noney- 
changers, and usurers; in buying old things and, after mending 
them, selling them as new ; as employees in the custom-houses, 
as intermediaries in bargains, and as doctors, chemists, and in- 
terpreters. ... They are so skilful and industrious that they 
make themselves useful to every one; and there will not be 
found any family of importance among the Turks and the for- 
eign merchants which bas not in its employ a Jew, either to 
estimate merchandise and to judge of its value, to act as inter- 
preter, or to give advice on everything that takes place.” 
Febre also comments on the filth which he noticed 
in the Jewish houses. 

The history of the Jews in Turkey in the cight- 
eeuth century is principally a very brief chronicle 

of misfortunes. One name stands out 

Eighteenth against the dark background—that of 

Century. Daniel de Fonsrca, who was chief 

court physician and played a certain 

political réle. Ile is mentioned by Voltaire, who 

speaks of him as an acquaintance whom he esteemed 

highly. Fonseca was concerned in the negotiations 
with Charles XIJ. of Sweden. 

In 1702 a law was passed forbidding Jews to wear 
yellow slippers and ordaining that in future they 
should wear only black coverings for the feet and 
head. In1728the Jews living near the Baluk Bazar, 
or fish-market, were obliged to sell their houses to 
Moslems and to move away so as not to defile the 
neighboring mosque by their presence. In 1756 one 
of the most terrible fires that Constantinople has 
ever experienced broke out in the Jewish quarter 
and devastated the city; in the following year the 
sumptuary laws against the Jews were renewed; 
and in the next year an earthquake destroyed 2,000 
Jewish houses in Safed. 

In the beginning of the eighteenth century a col- 
ony of Turkish Jews settled in Vienna. Their posi- 

tion was established in the Treaty of 


Turkish Passarowitz (1718) between Turkey 
Colony at and the German empire, which made 
Vienna. it possible for the inhabitants of one 


country to live in and to receive the 
protection of the government of the other, and vice 
versa. Many Turkish Jews took advantage of this 
treaty to live in Vienna, which was forbidden to 
native Austrian Jews. Consequently the latter ob- 
tained passports allowing them to live inVienna as 
Turkish subjects (see AUSTRIA). 

The destruction of the janizaries in the early part 
of the nineteenth century (1826) was a great boon 
to the Jews; for this lawless corps of soldiery had 

long been such a terror to them that 

The the word “ janissaro ” was (and still is) 
Janizaries. uscd by Jewish mothers to frighten 
their disobedient children. The word 

“janizary ” (Turkish, “yenicheri”) was applied to 
soldiers recruited from Christians who as children 
had been taken away from their parents and 
brought up in the Mohammedan faith. The corps 
was first instituted in the middle of the fourteenth 
century. No Jews appear ever to have been forced 
into this service; but they suffered most from the 
excesses of this unruly military body. Nearly 
every great fire in Constantinople started in the 
Jewish quarter, being lighted by greedy janizaries, 
who then pretended to help to quench the flames, 
while in reality they plundered the houses. The 
rabbinical responsa from the sixteenth to the nine- 


Turkey 


teenth century are full of cases submitted to Jewish 
tribunals concerning the outrages, assassinations, 
and robberies of which the Jews were victims at the 
hands of these soldiers, both in Constantinople and 
in the provinces. Nevertheless certain wealthy 
Jews, under imperial authorization, held the posi- 
tion of banker to this corps. They were called 
“ojak baziriani,” “sarraf bashi,” “ojak sarrafi,” or 
“shapchi bashi.” The best-known Jews who eccu- 
picd this post were Judah Rosanes, Metr Ajiman, 
Jacob Ajiman, and Baruch Ajiman, in the cighteenth 
century, and Isaiah Ajiman atid Behor Carmona, 
at the beginning of the ninetccnth century. The 
Jews of the lowest classes at times fraternized with 
the janizarics in their drunken debauches; and on 
the day of their destruction many janizaries sought 
refuge in Jewish houses. 

The low grade of civilization existing throughout 
Turkey since the beginning of the wars with Russia 
inthe eighteenth century seriously affected the status 
of the Jews, who were in a miserabie condition until 
toward the end of the nineteenth century, When the 
fruit of the labor expended by the Alliance Israélite 
Universelle for their enlightenment began to be vis- 


ible. The masses are still very ignorant; and in 
the large cities they live in cramped, 
In the dirty quarters. Their sufferings are 


Nineteenth due not to the legal discriminations 
Century. against them, but to the general cco- 
nomic condition of the country and 

to the poverty and ignorance caused by the des- 
potic rule of centuries. The attitude of the gov- 
ernment is uniformly kind; and prompt punish- 
ment follows attacks on the Jews. Thus repar- 
ative acts on the part of the government followed 
the events that caused the Damascus AFFAIR in 
1840; the abduction of a Jewish girl at Haifa in 
1864; the extortions of the governors of Bagdad, 
Larissa, and Salonica in 1866; the troubles in Janina 
in 1872; and those in Smyrna in 1878. In 1875, 
through the intervention of the Alliance, the Jews 
in the region of Diarbekr were proteeted from moles- 
tation by surrounding Kurds. In the same year in 
Khania the Alliance brought about the appointment 
of a representative of the Jews in the general council 
of the island; and again in 1882 the threatened elec- 
toral rights of the Jews were safeguarded. In 1883 
the sultan publicly expressed his sympathy for 
the fate of the Jews of other countries and declared 
his satisfaction at the presence cf Jewish officials in 
the Ottoman administration. That same year, when 
a fire devastated the Jewish quarter at Haskeui, in 
Constantinople, the sultan subscribed £T1,000 for the 
relief of those who had been left homeless, and placed 
certain barracks at their disposal. In 1887 the minister 
plenipotentiary from the United States to Turkey was 
a Jew, Oscar 8S. Straus. When Straus was replaced 
by Solomon Hirsch, the grand vizier in his address 
of welcome to the latter said (see “ Allg. Zeit. des 
Jud.” Aug. 15, 1889): “I can not conceal the satis- 
faction it gives me to see that forasecond time your 
country has called a son of Isracl to this eminent 
position. We have learned to know and esteem 
your coreligionists in our country, which they serve 
with distinction.” Straus was again minister from 
1897 to 1900. The Jews have been loyal sup- 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


SSS SS rn i 


284 


porters of the government. In the war of 1885, al- 
though not admitted to the army, they gave pecu- 
niary and other aid. In <Adrianople 150 wagons 
were placed by them at the disposal of the govern- 
ment for the transpertation of ammunition; and in 
the war of 1897 the Jews of Constantinople contrib- 
uted 50,000 piasters to the army fund. 

On the failure, in 1866, of a Belgian firm, Baron 
de Hursem acquired from the sultan concessions for 
the construction of railways in Turkey; and it was 
owing to his enterprise that theimportant line con- 
necting Constantinople with the rest of Europe was 
eartied through. 

The Turkish government discriminates against 
forelen Jews visiting Palestine; and they are not 
allowed to stay in the Holy Land longer than three 
months. The question of Jewish immigration to 
Turkey came to the front in 1882, when the good 
offices of the United States were invoked in obtain- 
ing permission for Russian Jews to settle in Turkey, 
In 1885 the Lubrowsky brothers, two American citi- 
zens, were expelled from Safed because they were 
Jews. The United States government at once pro- 
tested; but no permanent settlement of the ques- 
tion was arrived at. In1888 the Porte declared that 
foreign Jews could not remain in Palestine longer 
than three months, whereupon the governments of 
the United States, Great Britain, and France sent 
notes protesting against such discrimination against 
creed and race. The Turkish government then an- 
nounced that the restriction applied only to Jews 
arriving in Palestine in numbers, the political effects 
of colonization there being feared. Various protests 
have since been made at different times and by dit- 
ferent governments, but the rule remains in force, 
and foreign Jews are not allowed to remain in the 
Holy Land longer than three months. 

In 1895 the further question arose whether foreign 
Jews might hold real estate in Jerusalem, and the 
Porte decided it in the negative. 

On the subject of Zionism, Dr. Theodor HERz1L 
had several long interviews with the sultan in May, 
1901 (see also ZIONISM). 

Accusations of ritual murder were frequent dur- 
ing the nineteenth century, hardly an interval of 
more than two or three years passing 
in which a disturbance on that score 
was not created in some part of the 
country. So late as 1908 there was a 
serious outbreak in Smyrna. The Ottoman govern- 
ment has always been quick to punish the guilty. 
The law made in the sixteenth century by Sulaiman 
the Magnificent in this connection has already been 
noticed. In 1633 a plot to injure certain Jews by 
the same accusation was discovered by the grand 
vizier, and the offenders were summarily punished 
by the sultan. In 1840 an outbreak in Damascus 
(see Damascts AFFAIR) caused so serious a massacre 
of the Jewish inhabitants that the attention of the 
outside world was attracted to the sufferings of the 
Jews. <A committee composed of Moses Montefiore, 
Isaac Adolphe Crémieux, and Salomon Munk jour- 
neyed to the Orient and insisted on reparation to the 
injured. This event, by revealing to the Western 
world the miserable condition of the Jews in Tur- 
key, led to the foundation of the ALLIANCE Israk- 


Blood Ac- 
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TURKISII JEWS O¥ THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 
(From Nicolo Nicolai’s ‘‘ Viaggi nella Turchia,”? Venice, 1580.) 


Turkey 


LITE UNIVERSELLE. This society, through its 
schools—especially its manual-training and agricul- 
tural schools, which prepare their pupils for occupa- 
tions other than those connected with the handling 
of money—has done much and is doing more to ele- 
vate the Turkish Jews. The names of the Hirsch 
and Rothschild families as well as that of Sir Moses 
Montefiore will be forever associated with the work 
of improving the condition of the Jews in Turkey. 
With influence and money and through philan- 
thropic foundations they have ably seconded the 
work of the Alliance. At different times cholera, 
fire, and famine have reduced the Turkish Jews to 
the utmost misery, which their Western coreligion- 
ists have done their best to alleviate. The Jews in 
Asia Minor were affected also by the Armenian troub- 
les in the latter part of the nineteenth century; and 
a rabbi was killed in Keui Sanjak on the Little 
Zab. 

The flourishing period of Jewish literature in 
Turkey was in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, 

after the arrival of the Spanish exiles, 
Literature. though before thistime, also, the Turk- 

ish Jewry had not been without its 
literary and scientific men. Printing-presses and 
Talmud schools were established; and an active cor- 
respondence with Europe was maintained. Moses 
Capsali and his successor, Elijah Mizrahi, were both 
Talmudists of highrank. Thelatter wasnoted also as 
amathematician for hiscommentary on Euclid’s “ Ele- 
ments,” as well as for his independent work “Sefer 
Ha-Mispar.” Mordecai Comtino wrote a Bible com- 
mentary entitled “ Keter Torah,” and commentaries 
on the mathematical and grammatical works of Ibn 
Ezra and others, and on the logical works of Aris- 
totle and Maimonides. Elijah Capsali, in Candia, 
a nephew of the hakam bashi, wrote in Hebrew a 
history of the Turkish dynasties (1523), and his cor- 
respondence, entitled “Sefer No‘am,” is of histor- 
ical value concerning the disputes between Italian, 
Greek, and Turkish rabbis, Another contributor to 
historical literature was Samuel Shullam from Spain, 
who edited Abraham Zacuto’s “ Yuhasin” (1566) and 
wrote a continuation of Abu al-Faraj’s “ Historia 
Dynastiarum.” Solomon Algazi wrote a compen- 
dium of chronology; and Perahyah and Daniel 
Cohen (father and son) in Salonica, and Issachar 
ibn Susan in Safed, published mathematical and 
astronomical works.. Karaite literature was repre- 
sented by Elijah Bashyazi and Caleb b. Elijah 
Afendopolo. 

Especially eminent as Talmudic authorities were 
Levi b. Habib (son of Jacob b. Habib of Salonica, 
author of “‘En Ya‘akob”) and Jacob Berab, the dis- 
pute between whom, noticed above, causing the lead- 
ing rabbinical writers to take sides with one or the 
other. Moses Alashkar, the synagogal poet, defended 
Habib, while Moses b. Joseph Trani, the ethical and 
homiletic writer, took up the cudgels in behalf of 
Berab, Traniwrote a collection of ethical treatises 
entitled “Bet Elohim,” and a commentary on Mai- 
monides’ “ Mishneh Torah.” Hisson, Joseph Trani, 
was also prominent in this field. Other Talmudic 
scholars were: Davidibn Abi Zimra, who wrote exe- 
getic, cabalistic, and methodological works; Samuel 
Sedillo of Egypt; and his namesake in Safed, who 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


286 


wrote acommentary on the Palestinian Talmud. Col- 
lections of responsa were made by David ha-Kohen, 
David b. Solomon Vital, Samuel of 


Talmud- Medina, Joseph b. David ibn Leb, Jo- 
ists. seph Taitazak, Eliezer Shim ‘oni, E]i- 


jah ibn Hayyim, Isaac Adarbi, Solo- 
mon b. Abraham ha-Kohen, Solomon Levi, Jacob b. 
Abraham Castro, Joseph ibn Ezra, Joseph Pardo, 
Abraham di Boton, Mordecai Kala‘i, Hayyim Shab- 
bethai, Elijah Alfandari, Elijah ha-Kohen, Benjamin 
b. Metalia, and Bezaleel Ashkenazi of Egypt. 

Commentaries on different books of the Old Testa- 
ment were written by Jacob Berab, David ibn Abi 
Zimra, Joseph Taitazak, Isaac b. Solomon ha-Kohen, 
Joseph Zarfati, Moses Najara, Meir Arama, Samuel 
Laniado, Moses Alshech, and Samuel Valerio. Moses 
b. Elijah Pobian published a translation of the Bible 
into modern Greek (1576); and a Persian translation 
was made by Jacob Tawus, who appears to have 
been brought from Persia to Constantinople by Moses 
Hamon. Moses Almosnino, a celebrated preacher in 
Salonica, wrote articles on philosophy and astron- 
omy, a commentary on the Bible, a collection of 
sermons, and a description of Constantinople enti- 
tled “Extremos y Grandezas de Constantinople.” 
Poetry, also, flourished. The most important He- 
brew poet of Turkey and of the century was Israel 
b. Moses Najara of Damascus, who is represented in 
the ritual of Jewish congregations everywhere. 

The more distinguished cabalistic writers were: 
Moses Cordovero, Solomon Alkabiz, Moses Galante 
and his sons, Elijah di Vidas, Moses Alshech, Moses 

Basula, and, most celebrated of all, 

Cabalistic Isaac Luria and Hayyim Vital. The 

Writers. leading representative of the Halakah 

was Joseph Caro, whose Shulhan 

‘Aruk, the only really great work published on 

Turkish soil, marked an epoch in the history of 
Judaism. 

Jewish literature in Turkey declined somewhat 
after the sixteenth century. The best-known writers 
of the seventeenth were Joseph Delmedigo, Joseph 
Cattawi, and Solomon Ayllon; of the eighteenth, 
Jacob Culi, Abraham of Toledo, and Jacob Vitas, 
who wrote in Judeo-Spanish. A large number of 
Talmudic works appeared in the eighteenth century 
(sce Franco, /.c. pp. 124 et seg.). Many rabbinical 
works in Hebrew were published during the nine- 
teenth century also; but the Judo-Spanish litera- 
ture underwent a change, becoming more popular in 
style and incliding translations of novels, biogra- 
phies of eminent men, histories, scientific works, 
etc. (see list in Franco, J.¢. pp. 270 eé seg.). A 
certain amount of Hebrew literature has been pub- 
lished in Turkey by Protestant missionary societies 
(Franco, f.¢. p. 276). 

The only important Jewish writer in Turkish 
was Haji Ishak Effendi, who became converted to 
Islam and was in the service of the Ottoman govern- 
ment as professor of mathematics and interpreter. 

The total number of Jews in Turkey, including 
Syria, Palestine, and Tripoli, is estimated at 468,- 
688 (“Bulletin de |’ Alliance Israélite Universelle,” 
1904, p. 168). Of these, 188,896 (including the 
Jewsof Constantinople) are in Europe. Theaccom- 
panying table No. I. (compiled from Cuinet, “La 


287 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Turkey 


i 
TABLE No. II.—Continaed. 
(Asterisks denote cities that have Alliance schools.) 


Turquie d’Asie,” Paris, 1892) shows the distribution 
of Jews in Asiatic Turkey, Syria, and Palestine, ac- 
cording to vilayets, sanjaks, and mutes- 


Distribu- sarifats or mutessarifliks. Table No. 
tion II. shows the Jewish population ac- 
of Jews. cording tocities, and the schools of the 


Alliance Israélite Universelle. Where 
the two tables do not agree the figures in No. II. 
should be given the preference, as the Jews for vari- 
ous reasons (¢.9., the fear of increased taxation) are 
disinclined to give correct figures to a representative 
of the government (“Bulletin de l’Alliance,” 1904, 
p. 164). In the tables, names are spelled as in the 
authorities cited. 


TaBLE No. I. 


an aan 


Jewish 


| 


| 
TURKEY 1N EvRope.| Jewish 


Jewish | 
Vilayet. | Sanjak. Popu- Vilayet. Sanjak. Popu- 
! lation, | lation. 
AVE». os os awe sade cee No ‘Diarbekr. ‘Arghana... 409 
Jews. || [Diarbekr... 284 
Aleppo... Alepno..... 19,265 iMardin..... 580 
‘Marash..... 365 | Erzerum ./Erzerum.... 6 
HATS caesuiese 36/ |/Konia....|/Adalia..... 424 
Angora... Angora.... 6 Burbur..... 45 
Cvesarea. | ‘Hamid- 20) 
Kir Sbehr. | Abad. 
Yuzgat .... cal |Konia...... 70 
Bagdad ..) Bagdad ....] 52,200 'Nigdeh .. 41 
BN Alb sensi DOO: MEA WOW =| a0 oe eh eaas NO 
|Kerbela.... S00 || retul- Jews. 
Bassora..;Amaysa.,... 9) 1} Aziz. 
iIBassora....| 2,050 |:Mosul....;Mosul...... 6.000 
Muntetilk .. SS LS, Soe ee ee : No 
WETS 5 calsace t FaOOO ||" Jews. 
Beirut...) NOV Cire. oe 20). 637 Smyrna...|Aidin...... 2,024 
Balk acces pi) He (Denizli. 
Beirut ..... 3, LOU | Mentec he... 423 
Latakia. sr ‘Sarukhan..| 1,939 
| PGND ss 33401 1,102 || ‘Smiyrna....{ 18,180 
Bithisvcxcpcladasewdassesdy ING Syria...../Hamuah. 
| Jews. | Hauran. 
Brusa..../Brusa...... | 2, eUl || Ma‘an. 
‘Ertoghrul ..| a3 Sham-i-| 5,380 
Kara Hissar Sherif (Da- 

Sahib. mascus). 
‘Karassi.....) 501 ||Trebi-iGumush- 40 
[KUTAYa..... 10]: gzond. | Khana. | 

Castamu-! Bolu. | |Lazistan ...: 40 
ni. Castamuni . 8 || iSamsun....; 230 
Kangheri. | |Trebizond.. 110 
[Sinope ..... GT NVaiisawis Pua aaraacnte 300 
Constanti- (Asiatic) ...| 5,670 \Bigha (eap.; 2,062 
nople. || Darda- 
Crete..... Tee a2 || | nelles) 
‘Khania... 525 || lIsmid...... 2,500 
‘Lassethi .. 38 i iJerusalem..| 39,866 
‘Rethymo. . sl || Alias ee 50 
bi ' 


TURKEY IN Evurops.| Jewish 
| Popu- 
City. | jation. 
Le ae ue | 
*Adrianople ........ 17,000 | 
BN ICO Gann arse Soh oreo 50 | 
Baba-Eskl.......... 40 
CAMNNOVES 5 ace oa 70 
Caraferia .........- 500 
COStOTID views en adon 1,600 
CateTiMa..céadsisas 80 
CAVA cata dna 2.000 
*Constantinople... 63,000 
_Dedeas MCN: Keceaas ue 200 
*Demotika....-...5. | 906 
Djumbala.......... 175 
DOWAW vciicues oases ve 
DPA 2232 inne 380 
MEST: tka ede atvnes 185 
GAIN DOlis cas p0 Ss bes 1,200 


Tas.LE No. II. 


(Asterisks denote cities that have Alliance schools.) 


Primary. ~ “Stina || aupsaes: 
Boys Girls. | Boys. | Girls. 
359 O08 33 19 
1,338 1,861 45 66 
159 


No. of Nowb! Pupils in Aliant Schools. in Alliance Schools. 


| Popu- 
City. lation. 
Gumuljina ......- i =. 1,200 
Istip.........6. wie 500 
*¥JANINA......cc ee eas 4,000 
Rigjalivias caasieoes 50 
*Kirklisseh ......... 1,000 
Loule Burgas..... 350 
*Monastir .......68 6.000 
Mustapha Pasha...; 1,700 
Nevrokop.......... 110 
Ouzun Pe 9 ae 200 
PLeVeZA.... eee eee 2K) 
Prichtina ...... 060. | 300 
*Rodosto..........-.) 2,100 
¥*Salonica.......2-6 | 40,000 
*8erres ..... sees 2,000 
* STITH uso cw a bancens 1,200 
Souffli .........005- 25 
Strumnitza........ 650 
TCHOTIU ....600e808% 900 
TUSKIDiecsanu sete 1,700 
Yenibazar ......... 130 
Yenije Vardar..... 60) 
Yevgueli.......... 60 
TOtalSiccecs tes oats 188,896 
TURKEY IN ASIA. ; 
City. | 
Archipelago: | | 
*CHIOS......2.00005 | 350 | 
COS e666) ea ees 108 
Mitylene......... 100 
*Rhodes........ «| 4,000 
Venedos.......... 4 
Asia Minor: 
Adalia...... ie GS 203 
Adil Djevas...... 7 
Adramit......eee- | 20) 
PA TAIN oi geese ice 08 3,200 
Aintab ......6000! R57 
Ak-Issar.......5- | 427 
ATE is Seah aware ios 300 
Alashehir........ 339 
*ATEPpO.... eee | 10,000 
Alexandretta..... 42 
Amadia.........- | 1,900 
ANGOLA... eee ees | 800) 
Antioch.........> 266 
Ardjesh.........- | 60 
Ar@hana ......-- 405 
Bahkesser ear 73 
Baindir.......... 100 
Bairamitch......; 170 
Bazdoghan...... 14 
Biridjick......... 45 
Boudroun ....... 45 
FBPUSA. cee cee eaee 3,02 
*Cassaba.....+ vee] 1,150 
Castamuni....... 8 
*Dardanetles......| 2,900 
Deirmendjik..... 30 
Denizli .......... 50 
Diarbekr....... 3s 280 
Elbab-Djebul .... 38 
Elback ......+... 1,600 
Endemish ........ 310 
Erdeck ......0005 300 
Ertoghrul....... ' 53 
Erzerum ......-- 6 
FEski Shehir,..... 100 
Ghevas........, : 300 
Ghevash......... 59 
Hamid Abad..... 20 
Hehkiari........ ; 4,000 
Hermasti........ 80 
TSINCH x t4cahaceees 100 
Ismid.........05- 2,500 
eae H -sasspte 68 
kilis . eee “47 
Konia.. teiuaty weit tte nm 
Rilay access ooecss 100 
Lampsaki.......- ly 
Lazistan ........ 40 
*Magnesia........ 1.700 
Makri......se008- 300 
Maras ...ceeeeee 211 
Mardin... ... cee. as0 


Primary. 
Boys. | Girls. 
172 185 
806 Gk 
150 
136 
3,028 


3} 2,807 


241 


267 


336 
85 


161 


191 


128 


1i2 


108 


| 


No. of Pupils in Alliance Schools. 


Ce eet 


Apprentice. 
Boys. | Girls. 
3 


| 
| 50 300 
| 
[a Asa 
3 
5 
10 5 
18 9 
7 2 


Turkey THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 288 


Besides these schools, the Alliance has charge of 
the following: the Talmud Torahs of Adrianople 
and Damascus, numbering respectively 1,082 and 
| | No. of Pupils in Alliance Schools. | 771 pupils; the Talmud Torah of Smyrna; the 


| 
TREEY Jewish , : . 
TURKEY IN‘ASIA. Primary. | Apprentice. schools Revka-Nurial and Aaron Saleh, numbering 


TaBLE No. Il.—Continued. 
(Asterisks denote cities that have Alliance schools.) 


Popu- 
City. | jation feces Witensen ree lag 500 pupils, in Bagdad: and the common school 
| baat pao ig Paea in Smyrna, numbering 255 pupils. The Alliance 

Mazilen. si0sa5s4% BO] | has also agricultural schools, which, together with 

ee Nuts 7 the industrial ones, offer the most hopeful outlook 

Menemen........| 287 for the Jews of Turkey. 7 

Se re aaa e The Sephardim have held themselves more aloof 

NAZI. eisen a via sir , 400 from the original Jewish inhabitants of the country, 

Perens eee | ane and have preserved many of the customs which they 

Perghri.......... 37 brought with them from Spain. The 

ST ae rors Charac- chief seat of the Sephardic Jews is at 

TONS). saxesce< 305 teristics. Salonica; but they predominate in the 

Bohies NOTA a fe other cities of western Turkey. Be- 

Shemdinan......} 200 sides these Jews of foreign descent there are the 

Sate eigen! ms original Jewish inhabitants of the country, called in 
*SMYTDA......605. 25,500 | 262 291 32 30 Palestine “ Musta‘ribin,” and also the “ Maghrabin, ” 

Aaa sanieek or Jews of northern Africa. In the eastern part of the 

TUVYs cccaia eee 1,450 Turkish empire, in the vilayets of Van and Mosul, 

rea ab tev an are Jews who are said to be descendants of the As- 

[elute ee 367 syrian captivesand of those brought back from Pal- 

To estine by the Armenian king Tigranes III. They 

Crete: are hardly distinguishable from the other inhabitants 
PENN a8 «Bethe ae of the country except by the long curls that they 
Lassetht s..20:00 38 | wear hanging over the temples (Cuinet, J.c. ii. 654). 

hice: venti e Of the 5,000 Jews in the vilayet of Van, only 360 

Ali Gharbi....... 250 adhere to their ancient faith, the rest having adopted 

Be ee: ane the religion of the Armenians. 

Arbela...........! 1,500 The language spoken by the Jews in Turkey is 
‘ae 4 40,000 | 404 170 14 ar mainly a mixture of Spanish and Hebrew, in which 
pata eee | 650 bas | the former is the predominating element. ‘The Ash- 

Ce eae a re | kenazic Jews speak a Judeo-German 

Chatra sn iceseass | 150 | Language. jargon. For about a century after 

Dee, gen | | their arrival in Turkey the Spanish 

Fuloucja......... 60 exiles preserved their mother tongue in its original 

Fe? Catia 1200 purity. Gonsalvo de Illescas, a Spanish writer of 

HOV sie vesv nies | _ 250 the sixteenth century, says that he met Jews in Sa- 

peste el Boy | lonica who spoke Castilian with as pure an accent 

Hitivscas aur 60 | as his own. In later years, however, through the 

Sac nea 2.000 | intermixture of words from Hebrew and other 

Keuy Sanjak..... | 250 | tongues, the language degenerated into a jargon (see 

aaa oe on | JUDZO-SPANISH). For some unknown reason, con- 

Koufri aaa 1,000 | trary to their practise in most lands, the Jews bave 

Mendeli..........| 400 | | been slow to learn the official language of the coun- 

Mosul... 6.ee602] 2,000 | | try, which is Turkish. Even in the schools founded 

OUR Tuer a | | by the Alliance a knowledge of French was at first 

pores Sere ay | | held to be more important. Of late years, however, 

Samara.........| 250 | the Jews have become alive to the fact that through 

SEMAWA «64.652 | 50 | | their ignorance of the official language they have 

Suleimaniel ..... | 2,000 ee: . 7 ta 

Gilesting and Sena. | been crowded out of governmental positions by 
vomit fegaeee’ss fu Greeks and Armenians; and an earnest effort is being 
Pec ee | “Bayt oan | iss | 19 6 made to spread the knowledge of Turkish. The 
Farr renee | $8 ae bi | ge | ib Jews do not appear to have the same antipathy to 
ignite al, AIO ae eek Ts Arabic; and in Aleppo, Syria, and Mesopotamia, or 
ee eee | aed ay a. south of the linguistic line dividing Turkish and 
Jaffa. | 3tso0 | a8 | 1° a Arabic, the Jews ordinarily speak the latter, al- 
*Jerusalem......../ 40,000) svt | | though Hebrew also is used. In the vilayet of 
he i : | Van the Jews use an Aramaic dialect. The Jews 
Peo ois 6,870 90) : ee are called “ Yahudi” by the Turks, or, with more 
FONE) vcseeec| | AO 110 respect, “ Musavi” = “descendants of Moses.” A 
*Tiberias ......... 5.72 140 290 a term of contempt which is very commonly applied 
Totals ........ ..| 210,983} 3,715 | 2,481 | 166 | 87 to them is “tchifut ” = “mean,” “avaricious.” 


, The Jews have in the main been well treated by 


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Types 


the Turkish government; and, as compared with 
their coreligionists in European countries generally, 
have been subjected to few restrictions 
Legal as regards dress and residence. To- 
Status of day they enjoy the same privileges as 
the Jews. all “rayahs,” 7¢.e., non-Moslem sub- 
jects, whose official position was estab- 
lished in the laws of the “tanzimet” (reform). 
These were contained in the hatti-sherif of Gul- 
Haneh of 18389 and the hatti-humayun of 1856, both 
issued by the sultan Abd-ul-Mejid. The former 
placed rayahs and Moslems on an equal footing, 
guaranteeing them inviolability of person and prop- 
erty. This edict was confirmed and the privileges 
granted to non-Moslems were increased by the hatti- 
humayun, which assured to all subjects of the sul- 
tan, irrespective of creed, the following rights: (1) 
security of life, honor, and property; (2) civil equal- 
ity; (8) admission to civil and military service; (4) 
liberty of religious worship and public instruction ; 
(5) equal taxation ; (6) equality on the witness-stand ; 
(7) special and mixed courts; and (8) representation 
in provincial and communal councils and in the su- 
preme councils of justice. This edict also admits 
the principle of exemption from military service 
among non-Moslems on the payment of a fixed tax; 
and this is the system at present in vogue, non- 
Moslems not being admitted tothe army and paying 
instead a tax known as “ bedel-i-askerieh ” (see be- 
low). 

After the Damascus Arratr in 1840 the sultan 
issued a special firman defining the position of the 
Jews and protecting them from calumnious accusa- 
tions. Sultan Abd-ul-Aziz issued a similar firman 
in 1866 for a similar cause (Franco, “ Histoire des 
Israélites de ]’Empire Ottoman,” p. 222). 

The constitution of 1876 proclaimed the equality 
of all Ottomans before the law, and adinitted them 
to public office. Thus in the national assembly of 
1877 three of the deputies were Jews; there were two 
Jews in the senate, and two in the council of state; 
and the secretary of the council was also a Jew. 
This parliament, however, was adjourned sine die 
before the world was able to discover what a 
Turkish parliament could accomplish. 

At the time of the Armenian troubles more re- 
forms and privileges were granted to the sultan’s 
non-Moslem subjects, without, however, materially 
affecting their position. It is not from the nature 
of the laws but from the method of their execution 
that the Jews in Turkey suffer; and in this partic- 
ular they fare no worse than all the other classes of 
the population. 

As regards taxation, it may be remarked that 
originally the kharaj (see above) was a ransom ex- 
acted according to Mohammedan law from conquered 
peoples who refused to accept Islam and hence were 
Hable to death. Later it came to be regarded asa 
compensation for exemption from military service. 
The jews of Brusa were the first to pay the tax. 
The tax-paying Jews were distributed into three 
classes according to property: those of the first class 
paid 40 drams of silver; those of the second, 20; and 
those of the third, 10 (a dram at that time was wortn 
a little over 5 cents), The “hakam bashi,” or chief 
rabbi, the “millet-cha’ush,” or secular agent of the 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


290 


—_ __. 


community, the “hakam cha’ush,” or rabbinical rep- 
resentative, the officiating ministers, teachers, the 
public slaughterer, and a few families specially fa- 
vored by the state, were exempt from the tax. It 
was collected by the millet-cha‘ush; 
and as it was discovered that the sta- 
tistical lists were not trustworthy, ow- 
ing to the fact that the rich Jews sometimes paid 
the tax for toe poor, the Jewish tax-gatherers were 
required to take an oath on a scroll of the Law be- 
fore delivering the taxes collected by them. 

At the end of the sixteenth century the signitica- 
tion of the term “kharaj” was extended to include 
twelve different taxes; so that to be exempt from 
the kharaj was to be exempt from all taxes. The 
twelve taxes, paid by Jews and Christians alike, 
were the following: (1) “saliane,” or annual levy; 
(2) “ ordu-akchesi,” or army-tax ; (3) “resim-kismet,” 
or heritage-tax; (4) “cherahor-akchesi,” or impe- 
rial pasturage-tax; (5) “kaza-akchesi,” or tax for 
maintaining the residence of the governor; (6) 

“kassab-akchesi,” or meat-tax; (7) 
Amplifica- “chair-akchesi,” or  bird-tax; (8) 


Taxation. 


tion of “ral-akchesi,” a tax payable by the 
the Term community collectively; (9) “bedel- 
‘“* Kharaj.” kharaj,” or “bashi-kharaj,” tax for 


exemption from military service; (10) 
“ jelb-akchesi,” tax for the support of the imperial 
flocks; (11) tax for the support of the imperial cou- 
riers; and (12) tax to supply the sultan with furs, 
Besides these levies the kharaj included certain serv- 
ices to the number of seven, exemption from which 
might be purchased. These were: work on the 
fortifications, public buildings, roads, etc.; sentry 
duty, etc. ; and the quartering of new recruits. The 
promulgation of the hatti-sherif of 1839 abolished 
the kharaj in principle, although the tax survived in 
fact as compensation for non-performance of mili- 
tary duty, until the issue of the hatti-humayun. 
The admission of rayahs into the army as ordained 
hy this edict presented so many difficulties that a 
new device was invented: every rayah purchased 
exemption from military duty by paying the bedel-i- 
askerich (see above) instead of the old kharaj. 
The ravahs of Constantinople—Jews and Christians 
alike—were exempt from this tax. In the prov- 
inces tlie tax was collected by the “mukhtar,” or 
collector for the rabbinate. 

In its turn the bedel was modified; and to-day 
the rayahs throughout the empire (Constantinople 
excepted) pay in place of the old kharaj two annual 
taxes, namely: (1) the “ bedel-i-askerich,” which 
amounts to about $1.68 for every male between the 
years of twenty and sixty; and (2) the “darbieh,” or 
“vyol-parasi” (road-tax), which averages about 76 
ceuts for every male between the same years. In 
addition the Jews pay communal taxes, 

In the year 1864 the Jews of Constantinople, at 
the request of the government, drew up a constitu- 

tion which was approved by Sultan 

Present Abd-ul-Aziz May 5, 1865. This pro- 

Admin- vided for three councils: (1) a “mej- 

istration. lis-‘umumi,” or national assembly, to 

be composed of eighty members; (2) 4 
“mejlis-jismani,” or temporal council, of seven lay 
members; and (8) a “mejlis-ruhani,” or spiritual 


291 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


council, of nine rabbis. The grand rabbi at Con- 
stantinople has no authority over the other grand 
rabbis of the empire, merely representing them be- 
fore the Porte and transmitting to them commiuni- 
cations from the government. It should be stated 
that beginning with the reign of Sultan Mahmud 

IT. (1808-39) the spiritual chief chosen by the Jews 

has received the imperial sanction before entering 

upon his duties. The first rabbi to be elected in 
this way was Abraham Levy (1835), who was in- 
stalled in office with much pomp and ceremony. 

His successor, Samuel Hayyim, was removed by 

the government after a year of office because he 

was a foreigner. Since that time there have been 
five hakam bashis(see CONSTANTINOPLE). The pres- 
ent chief rabbi, Moses ha-Levi, bears the title 

“kaimakam ” (= “locum tenens”). 

The judicial authority is in the hands of a bet din 
of three members, who adjudicate civil and religious 
cases, but may not pronounce sentence of capital 
punishment. In the provinces the rabbi or a mem- 
ber of the bet din represents the community before 
the governor of the province. There are hakam 
bashis also at Adrianople and Salonica in Europe 
and at Aleppo, Bagdad, Beirut, Jerusalem, and 
Smyrna in Asia. See ARABIA; BULGARIA; 
Eeypr; PabLesTINE; Rumania; Servia; Syria; 
and special articles on the cities of these countries 
and of Turkey. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: R. Andree, Zur Volliskunde der Juden, Bie- 
lefeld and Leipsic, 1881; P. Baudin, Les Israélites de Con- 
stantinople ; Bulletin de 0 Alliance Israélite, passim ; V. 
Cuinet, La Turquie d’ Asie, Paris, 1892; idem, Syrie, Liban 
et Palestine, Paris, 1896-1901; Pulido Fernandez, Los 
Israelitas Espafioles, Madrid, 1904; M. Franco, Essai sur 
UV Histoire des Israélites de CEmpire Ottoman, Paris, 1897; 
Frankl, The Jews in the ast, transit. by P. Beaton, London, 
1859: L. M. G. Garnett, The Women of Turkey, ib. 1893: 
Gritz, Gesch. Index; J. von Hammer-Purgstall. Gesch. des 
Oxmanischen Reiches, passim; M. A. Levy, Don, Joseph 
Nasi, Breslau, 1859; I, Loeb, La Situation des Israélites en 
Turquie, Paris, 1877; Nicolo Nicolai, Viaggi nella Turchia, 
Venice, 1850. 


J. M. W. M. 


TURTELTAUB, WILHELM: Austrian phy- 
sician and poet; born at Rzeszow, Galicia, March 
25, 1816. At the age of twelve he wrote a comedy 
in imitation of Kotzebue’s “Sorgen Ohne Noth.” 
In 1830 he entered the University of Vienna to study 
medicine (M.D. 1840), collaborating at the same time 
on the “ Zuschauer,” “ Wanderer,” and “Sammiler.” 
From 1841 he practised his profession in his native 
town. In 1835 his first work, “ Wiener Fresko-Skiz- 
zen,” was published; and his one-act comedy “ Der 
Nachtwandler bei Tage” was produced with success 
at the Leopoldstiidter Theater. At this time he 
made the acquaintance of Saphir, who induced him 
to contribute to his periodical “ Der Humorist.” In 
1837 his “Nur Eine Lést den Zauberspruch” was 
played in Vienna and various other cities of Austria, 
and in Germany also, His “Der Abenteuerer” and 
“Der Jugendfreund” were produced at the Hofburg 
Theater, Vienna. In 1859 Turteltaub edited the 
“Wiener Volksbiine.” 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Der Jitdische Plutarch; Wurzbach, Bio- 
graphisches Lexikon. g 


TURTLE-DOVE. See Dove. 
TUS, JACOB. See Tawvus. 


Turkey 
Types 


TUSHIYYAH (lit. “sound Knowledge”): Pub- 
lishing establishment founded in Warsaw in 1896, 
which, though a private enterprise, is in reality a 
IIebrew publication society striving to further the 
development and spread of Neo-II[ebrew literature. 
Its founder, BEN-AVIGDOR, Who was also one of the 
founders of the older and similar concern, the AHIA- 
SAF, was its first editor, and M. Balascher was his 
associate in the business management. The present 
(1905) editors are Ben-Avigdor and 8. L. Gordon 
(born in Lida, government of Wilna, 1866). The 
Tushiyyah’s program is given in its subtitle: “The 
editing of good and useful books in the Hebrew 
language for the spread of knowledge and for the 
teaching of morality and civilization among Jewish 
youth; also scientific books in all branches of litera- 
ture.” Tt has published, cither in the original or in 
translations, numerous novels, biographies, poems, 
and historical and miscellaneous works, and has 
contributed much to the revival of Hcbrew litera- 
ture in its latest phases. It has provided Hebrew 
teachers with the most popular text-books for the 
elementary teaching of Hebrew according to modern 
methods, and has also done much to encourage tal- 
ented Hebrew writers. Among the authors whose 
works have been published by the Tushiyyah are: 
Frischman, Bernfeld, Brainin, Ludvipol, Slouschz, 
Taviov, Berdyczewski, and Rabinowitz. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Lippe, Billiographisches Lexicon, ii. 32, 379- 

384, Vienna, 1899; R. BE. J. 1902, passini. 

H. R. P. Wt. 

TYCHSEN, OLAUS GERHARD: Christian 
Hebraist and Orientalist; born at Tondern in Sles- 
wick, Denmark, Dec. 14, 1784; died at Rostock, 
Germany, Dec. 30, 1815. He studied rabbinics at 
the University of Halle, and journeyed through 
Germany and Denmark in the years 1759 and 1760 
on a fruitless mission for the conversion of the Jews, 
giving rise to an unscemly altercation by a conver- 
sionist sermon in the Altona synagogue. In the lat- 
ter year he was called to the newly founded Univer- 
sity of Bitzow, Mecklenburg, and remained there as 
professor of Oriental languages till the university 
ceased to exist (1789), when he became chief libra- 
rian and director of the museum at Rostock. Be- 
sides many works on Arabic and Syriac archeology 
and philology, he published “Bitzowische Neben- 
stunden” (6 vols., Wismar, 1766-69), containing a 
large amount of material regarding the text of the 
Old Testament, derived mainly from Jewish com- 
mentators like Rashi and from the older versions, as 
the Septuagint and Targum. He claimed the ability 
to speak “the Talmudic language,” and in a special 
monograph denied the authenticity of the Macca- 
bean and other Jewish coins. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hartmann, Oluf Gerhard Tychsen, Bremen, 


1818-20; Broekhaus Konversations-Lexikon; MeClintock 
and Strong, Cyc. 8.v. 


T. J. 

TYPES, ANTHROPOLOGICAL: Correlated 
norms of racial qualities. Individuals who present 
an interrelation between the color of the hair and 
that of the eyes are considered typical representa- 
tives of their race. In the blond races fair hair is 
generally accompanied by blue eyes; in brunette 
races brown or black hair is generally accompanied 


Types 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


292 


by dark eyes. The former are considcred anthro- 
pologically blond types; the latter, brunette types. 
Individuals who do not exhibit such an interrelation 
of the color of the hair and cyes, having dark hair 
with blue eyes and vice versa, are called mixed 
types. Owing to the preponderance of dark hair 
and eyes among the Jews (see Eye; ILArr), anthro- 
pologists have counted them among the races of a 
brunette ty pe. 

From extensive investigations of the color of the 
hair and eyes of the school-children in Germany, 
Virchow has shown that the Jews have not main- 
tained their type in as pure a state as has been gen- 
erally supposed. Of 75,377 Jewish children exam- 
ined, only 46.88 per cent were brunettes having both 
dark hair and dark eyes; 11.17 per cent were blonds 
having light hair and light-colored eyes; and 42 
per cent were of the mixed type having cither dark 
hair with fair eyes, or vice versa, In Austria, ac- 
cording to Schimmer, 32 to 47 per cent (according to 
the province) of the Jewish children are pure bru- 
nettes, and 8 to 14 per cent are pure blonds. In 
Bulgaria, Wateft has found that only 49.57 per cent 
of Jewish children are brunettes, while 8.71 are 
blonds and 41.72 are of mixed type; and even in 
North Africa, where the dark type predominates 
among the Jews, 76.40 per cent are bruncttes, 4.62 
per cent are blonds, and 18.98 per cent are of mixed 


type. 


TYPES OF PIGMENTATION IN JEWS OF VARIOUS 
COUNTRIES. 
, Type (per cent). |i 
Nativity. s3| 2 | 3 = g Observer. 
ao | S| oe |Fe 
a & a= 
Galician Jews: | 
Men in New York.....'! 43.93 | 13.12 | 42.95 | 305 Fishberg. 
Women in New York.) 50.82 | 16.39 | 32.79 | 122 | Fishberg. 
Polish: 
Men in New York..... 53.63 | 9.52 | 36.83 | 315 \wishberg. 
Women in New York.| 50.00] 5.36 | 44.64 | 56 | Fishberg. 
Men in Poland........ 57.92 | 0,55 | 41.53 | 183 | Elkind. 
Women in Poland ....| 58.50] 8.50 | 33.00 | 118 Pacoe. 
Lithuanian and White- 
Russian : | 
Men in New York..... 53.09 | 8.73 ) 38.18 | 275 | Fishberg. 
Women in New York../ 53.00 | 12.00 | 85.00 | 100 | Fishberg. 
Men in Lithuania..... | 63.06 | 10.19 | 26.75 | 814 | Yakowenko, 
Talko-Hryn- 
. cewicz. 
Women in Lithuania..; 74.00} 6.00 | 20.00 | 100 | Yakowenko. 
Little-Russian : | 
Men in New York...../ 49.31 | 7.31 | 48.38 | 219 | Fishberg. 
Women in New York..| 55.41] 8.11 | 36.49 74 | Fishberg. 


Men in Little Russia..| 51.30 | 16.20 


Women in Little Rus- 68.60 | 6.90 
sia. 


34.00 | 869 Talko - Hryn- 
| eewicz. 
24.80 | 799! Talko - Hryn- 
cewicz. 


Rumanian: 
Men in New York..... 46.67 | 10.66 | 42.67 | 150 | Fishberg. 
Wonien in New York..| 50.00 | 18.64 | 36.36 | 44 | Fishberg. 
Hungarian : 
Men in New York.....} 45.71 | 12.14 , 42.15 | 140 | Fishberg. 
Women in New York..| 61.54] 5.18 | 33.33 | 39) Fishberg. 
United States: 
Men in New York..... 50.81] 8.87 | 40.32 | 124 | Fishberg. 


Among Jewish adults anthropological investiga- 
tion has shown that the brunette type is not in the 
majority. From the accompanying table it will be 
observed that the percentage of brunettes is only 43 
among the Galician Jews, while it reaches as high 
as 74 per cent among Lithuanian Jewesses. Blonds 


are very rare among the Jews of Russian Poland; 
but among other classes they are encountered quite 
often. Among the Little-Russian Jews the propor- 
tion reaches 16 per cent. The mixed types are 
everywhere found in the proportion of from 30 to 
4) per cent of all the individuals examined. 

The origin of the blond and mixed types among 
the Jews has been a favorite topic of discussion for 
many anthropologists. Some have maintained that 

they are the product of intermixture 

Origin of with the indigenous peoples of the 
Blond European countries in which the Jews 
and Mixed have lived; others show that even 

Types. among Jews who do not live among 

blond races, as, for instance, those of 
Syria, Tunis, Morocco, and Algiers, many blonds 
are met with. It is also shown that if intermixture 
with northern European races were the origin of the 
blond Jews, the countries whose non-Jewish popu- 
lations present the largest percentage of blonds, 
as Prussia, Lithuania, etc , should have the largest 
proportion of Jewish blonds also. On the other 
hand, in the south and the east of Europe, where 
the Gentiles are darker, more Jewish brunettes and 
fewer bionds should be found. That this is not the 
case is shown by the following figures, taken from 
Virchow’s census of the color of the hair and eyes 
of school-children in Germany: 


‘ | Per Cent of 
Per Cent of Bionds. | Rraunettes: 
Province : ae 
me " Chris- aoa Chris- 
Jews tians. Jews. aris: 
a | — ic 
PHUSSIB casee sive oes 11.23 39.7 43.34 14.05 
HO@S8G.. gv acdand sen ens NG beg 31. 53 41.50 13.22 
BOGGU asc ict at hese eat 10.32 24.34 41,95 2] 18 
Bavariacass aan nees 10,38 20.36 39.45 21.10 
Alsace-Lorraine...... 13.51 18.44 | 34,59 95,21 
aM, 0 5) Settee Soe FOS © 


- ee — 


These figures show in a striking manner that in 
the provinces of Germany where the percentage of 
brunettes is smallest among the Christian popula- 
tion—in Prussia, for instance, only 14.05 per cent— 
the Jews have 42.34 per cent of brunettes; while in 
Alsace-Lorraine and Bavaria, where the Christians 
show 25.21 and 21.1 per cent of brunettes respect- 
ively, the Jews have only 34.59 and 39.45 per cent 
respectively of such. This is further confirmed by 
the following figures (from the works of Virchow 
and Schimmer) showing the distribution of Jewish 
pure blond and brunette types in Germany and 
Austria: 


Germany Austria 

(Virchow). (Schimmer). 

, 4 ; of 

Province, o4| of Province. o4]| of 

Sew fat oO hw ie QO 

3 & | = o | =f = 4 

mH = Pra = = a Py 3 

ee : 

Sil@SAs caw a veins 8.20 { 49.53 || Bohemia ........| 8.29 | 46.87 
Pomerania....... 8.85 | 50.58 |! Lower Austria...} 8.69 | 46.16 
Brandenburg......{ 9.64 | 47.39 || Moravia.......... , 43.13 
East and West || Bukowina,.,....| 13.55 | 35.21 
Prusstal saccades 11.61 | 43.04 | Galicia ..........| 13.97 | 82.91 


POSEN 0553 6s e000 12.39 | 39.22 | 


It is evident from these figures that the farther 
one goes south and cast in Europe, the smaller is the 


293 


percentage of brunettes encountered among the 
Jews and the larger the percentage of blonds. With 
the non-Jewish population the reverse is the fact. 
Most of the blonds are found in Prussia, Pomerania, 
Sleswick - Holstein, Hanover, Westphalia, etc., 
while farther east, reaching to Posen, Silesia, Bohe- 

mia, Moravia, Upper and Lower Aus- 


Distribu- tria, Bukowina, and Galicia, the per- 
tion centage of pure blonds decreases 
of Blonds. and that of brunettes increases. It is 


also noteworthy, as has been pointed 
out by Virchow, that in localities where, owing to 
religious and social prejudices, the Jews have lived 
for centuries in strict isolation from other races, and 
presumably have not intermarried with their Gentile 
neighbors, the proportion of blond typcs is larger 
than in the Prussian provinces, where they have not 
been socially isolated, but, on the contrary, have 
entered into general social intercourse with the non- 
Jewish inhabitants. 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Here the largest proportion of | 


Types 


served that the Jews with fair eyes measure on the 
average 1.644 meters, and those with dark eyes 1.617 
meters only. Butall these conclusions are based on 
a small number of cases, and other investiga- 
tions tend to disprove them. In Baden, Otto Ammon 
found norelation between blond hair, blue eyes, and 
dolichocephalism, while in Poland, Elkind noticed 
that Jews with dark hair and eyes were taller than 
those with fair hair and light eyes, which phenom- 
ena are the reverse of those in the so-called Aryan 
type. Similar results were obtained by Fishberg in 
his observations of the immigrant Jews in New 
York. The darker Jews had practically the same 
head-form (cephalic index 81.97) as the blond-haired 
(82.85). The same was the case with tall Jews as 
compared with those of short stature: the cranio- 
metrical lines were about the same. Indeed, Jews . 
with fair hair and eyes were taller than those with 
dark hair and eyes. 

Fishberg concludes from all the statistics gathered 


B 


COMPOSITE PORTRAITS OF TEN BOYS OF THE JEWS’ FREE SCHOOL, LONDON. 
A is the composite portrait of five boys, B of another five, and C a composite of A and B. 
(From the ‘‘ Journal of the Anthropological Institute.’’) 


brunettes is found among the German and Austrian 
Jews. But it must be mentioned that in Algiers, 
Tunis, and Morocco, where the indigenous popula- 
tion is of a dark type, the Jews also are darker. 

It has been suggested that the blond type among 
the Jews is due to intermixture with the so-called 
Aryan, or north-European, races, in proof of which 
the following argument has been advanced: The 
Aryan type is known to consist in the combination 
of blond hair, blue eyes, tall stature, and dolicho- 
cephalism or long-headedness. Among the Galician 
Jews, Majer and Kopernicki found that while 
among the brunette Jews 6.2 per cent are dolicho- 
cephalic, 20 per cent of the blond Jews of the same 
section are so. This has been repeatedly cited as 
evidencing a relation between blondness and long- 
headedness among the Jews in Galicia, and is 
thought to be due to Teutonic intermixture. In 
Odessa, Pantukhof (“ Proc. Russian Anthropological 
Society,” pp. 26-30, St. Petersburg, 1889) has found 
that the Jews who have dark hair and eyes are of 
short stature, while those who have fair eyes and 
hair are taller. In Caucasia the same author has ob- 


by him that the ideal Aryan type is not to be ob- 
served among the Jews. On the contrary, the rule 
appears to be that tall persons have darker hair and 
eyes, and that a smaller percentage of them are 
dolichocephalic; while Jews of short stature are of 
fairer complexion and include a larger percentage of 
dolichocephalic persons, This tends to exclude 
the hypothesis that Aryan influence is the cause of 
the Jewish blond type; but it tends to confirm the 
theory of admixture from the Slavonian type. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY : M. Fishberg, Materials for the Physical An- 
thropology of the Eastern European Jews, in Annals of 
the New York Academy of Sciences, 1903; 8. Wateff, An- 
thropologische Beobachtungen der Farbe der Augen, der 
Haare und der Haut beiden Schulkindern von den Titrken, 
Pomaken, Tataren, Armenier, Griechen und Juden in 
Bulgarien, in Correspondenzhlatt der Deutschen Gesell- 
schaft ftir Anthropologie, 1903, xxxiy., Nos. 7, 8. See also 
EYE and HAIR. : 


J. M. Fr. 


What is popularly known as “the Jewish type” is 
nota correlation of definite anthropological measures 
or characteristics, but consists principally in a pecul- 
jar expression of face, which is immediately and un- 
mistakably recognized as “ Jewish ” in a large num- 


Types 
Typography 


ber of cases of persons of the Jewish race. It has 
been observed that children in New York, Gentile 
as well as Jewish, can unerringly distinguish be- 
tween Jew and Gentile, whether juvenile or adult, 
The negroes of the Gold Coast are said to differenti- 
ate the two types of Europeans with equal exacti- 
tude, saying “here come two whites and a Jew,” 
instead of “here come three whites” (Andree, “Zur 
Volkskunde der Juden,” p. 38). Yet when taken 
together in large numbers, a considerable proportion 
of Jews fail to betray their racial provenience. In 
collective photographs of Jewish school-children and 
inmates of institutions it has been found that while 
about 53 per cent of the subjects can be more or 
less certainly identified as Jews by their facial ex- 
pression, the remaining 47 per cent fail 10 show 
any distinctive feature which would definitely 
mark them as Semites, though if compared with 
Gentiles of the same class they could probably be 
differentiated. It has also been remarked that per- 
sons who do not have the Jewish expression in their 
youth acquire it more and more as they grow from 
middle toold age. Although Jewesses appear to be 


more variable in appearance than Jews, they seem | 


to show the type in its greatest purity when they 
actually are Jewish in features. 

The precise nature of this Jewishness is very dif- 
ficult to determine with any degree of certainty or 


accuracy. Evidently it is not in any 
Expres- one feature, for whenever any single 
sion. trait, such as the shape of the nose or 


the brilliancy of the eyes, is assumed 

to be characteristic, the very next example is liable 
to disprove the validity of the test. The sole at- 
tempt to obtain any scientific discrimination of the 
Jewish expression was made by F. Galton and Jo- 
seph Jacobs in 1885, by means of composite portrai- 
ture. In their experiments Jewish boys of the 
Jewish Free School, London, were selected as being 
typically Jewish in appearance, and full-face and 
profile photographs were first taken on a uniform 
scale, and then superimposed on a single plate, so 
that the eyes and mouth in each case fell upon the 
same spots on the plate. By this means all the vary- 
ing traits and features blurred out, while the com- 
mon characteristics were emphasized and became 
stronger. The results were given in “The Photo- 
graphic News,” April, 1885, and in “ The Journal of 
the Anthropological Institute,” 1885. The full-face 
composite here given is made up of (a) that of five 
Jewish lads, (@) that of another five, and (c) one of 
(4) and (4), thus giving the summary of the char- 
acteristic features of ten typically Jewish boys. 
The result is remarkably Jewish in appearance, and 
it will be found that this character is given by the 
eyebrows, eyes, nose, and lips, while the position 
and contour of the cheek-bone also serve to deter- 
mine it. The eyebrows are generally well-defined, 
somewhat bushy toward the nose, and 

Composite tapering off toward the extremities, 

Portraits. Thecyes themselvesare generally bril- 

liant, both lidsare heavy and bulging, 

and it seems to be the main characteristic of the 
Jewish eye that the upper lid covers a larger pro- 
portion of the pupil than among other persons. This 
may serve to give a sort of nervous, furtive look to 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


294 


the eyes, which, when the pupils are small and set 
close together with semistrabismus, gives keenness 
to some Jewish eyes. The lymph-sac beneath the eye 
is generally fuller and more prominent than among 
non-Jews. The high cheek-bone gives as a rule the 
hollow cheek that adds to the Jewish expression, 
while the nose in full face can be discerned only by 
the flexibility of the nostrils, the chief Jewish char- 
acteristic of this organ (sce Nose). The upper lip 
is gencrally short, and the lower projects, giving a 
somewhat sensual appearance tothe face. Thechin 
almost invariably recedes from the lip, leaving an 
indentation beneath it in the great majority of in- 
stances. The ears of many Jewish persons project, 
and in boys increase the impression of Jewishness. 

With growth, as already noted, the Jewish ex- 
pression becomes even more marked. Jn males this 
may be due to the appearance of the mustache and 
beard, and it is frequently found that 
the mustache is somewhat sparse, a 
rather bare portion intervening be- 
tween the tuft under the nostril and the mustache 
proper. The beard is in some cases comparatively 
thick and in others luxuriant, curling, and part- 
ing naturally. It is to be observed that some Jew- 
ish faces have almost all of these stigmata. The min- 
lature of Spinoza (Jew. Encyc. xi. 512) shows the 
brilliant and sensitive eye, the conspicuous nostril, 
and the thick underlip. That of Benfey (2d. iii. 16) 
has the projecting ears, the thick underlip, and the 
conspicuous ale of the nose, while the lymphi-sac is 
well developed and the pupil of the eye is nearly 
half hidden by the upper lid. The same character- 
istic will be seen in the portrait of Moses Berlin (2d. 
iii. 80), which has, in addition, the marked eye- 
brows and the curved nostril. 

Besides all these details, there is something in the 
whole formation of the face which is generally 
found inthe Jewish type. Asa rule, the face is oval 
in shape, especially in the best type of Jewesses, 
and if regarded in profile, it is distinctly convex, 
the nose being, as it were, an appendix to the ellip- 
soid. It is rare indeed that a Jew is found with a 
prognathous jaw. 

Notwithstanding the similarity of expression 
found in large measure among all Jews, there are a 
number of distinctions which enable a close observer 
to distinguish between various subtypes of the 
Jew. Close attention to Talmudic study, combined 
with the peculiar work of the sweat-shop, produced 
in eastern Europe what is known as “the ghetto 
bend.” ‘The need for wearing phylacteriecs on the 
forehead while the head is covered has led in many 
instances to the hat being worn upon the back of 
the head. These two characteristics often enable 
observers to identify Jews from eastern Europe, 
even before their faces are seen. Among them, too, 
it has been claimed, various subdivisions can be dis- 
cerned, consisting mainly in differences in the pro- 
jection of the check-bones, the formation of the 
eyelids, and the thickness of the lips. It has even 
been held by those who believe in a strong ad- 
mixture from surrounding nations that there is a 

lavonic, Mongoloid, and Armenioid type of the 
Jew, due to admixture of Slavic, Tatar, or Arme- 
nian blood. Luschan indeed professes to regard 


Adults. 


From photographs by B, Hellmich. New York, 


J,¥.. Vol XIL Copyright. 1905, hy Fank & Wagnalls Company, 


THE JEWISH TYPE. 


Composite PoRTRAIT OF TEN JEWISH Laps, NEW YorRK. 


(A= composite of a! a? a* ata’ B=composite of b! b? b* b* b®. C=co-composite of A and B,) 


Hosted by Google 


295 


the last-named as the original source of the Jewish 
race. 

Numbers of Jews are found, on the other hand, 
who possess none of the characteristics here noted, 
and yet are recognizable as Jews. Thisis especially 
true of the Little-Russians, who apparently resem- 
bie their Gentile neighbors in every facial character- 
istic, but are differentiated from them by some sub- 
tile nuance which distinguishes themas Semites. It 
is seemingly some social quality which stamps their 
features as distinctly Jewish. This is confirmed by 
the interesting fact that Jews who mix much with 
the outer world seem to lose their Jewish quality. 
This was the case with Karl Marx, HaL&vy the 
musician (MEYERBEER was remarkably Jewish), Sir 
Julian GoLpsmID, Sir John Smon (in whom there 
was a mixture of Gentile blood), Sir David Sa.o- 
MONS, and RUBINSTEIN. Twoillustrious living Ital- 
ians, Lomproso and LuzzatTri1, would scarcely be 
taken for Jews; and even the late Theodor HERZL 
was not distinctively Jewish, all observers drawing 
attention to his resemblance to the Assyrian rather 
than to the Jewish type. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY : Jacobs, Jewish Statistics, pp. Xxxii.-xKxXxiv. 


TYPOGRAPHY: The art of printing. The 
invention of printing was welcomed by the Jews as 
“the art of writing with many pens.” From the 
time of the earlier printers reference is made to their 
craft as “holy work” (“‘Abodat ha-Kodesh”). It 
may here be treated under the two headings of his- 
tory and characteristics. 

I. History: The history of Hebrew printing is 
divided into five stages, of which only a sketch can 


THE JEWISH 


T 
ENCYCLOPEDIA Te postAphy 


Jews made use of the art for Hebrew printing, as the 
conditions in Germany did not admit of their doing 
so there; and all the Hebrew printing of the fifteenth 
century was done in the Italian and Iberian penin- 
sulas, where about 100 works were produced before 
1500. Hebrew printing began in Italy ; 
Incunab- aud apart from Reggio di Calabria, 
ula. where the first printed book was 
produced in 1475, and Rome, where 
possibly the earliest Hebrew press was set up, print- 
ing was centered about Mantua, where it began in 
1477, In the same year Ferrara and Bologna 
started printing. The chief printer family of Italy 
was that of the Soncrnos, which besides working at 
Mantua printed at Casale-Maggiore, Soncino, 
Brescia, Naples, and Barca. Bible, Talmud, and 
ritual, halakic, and ethical works naturally formed 
the chief subjects of printing in these early days. 
In Spain, Hebrew printing began at Guadalajara in 
1482, went three years later to Ixar, and finished at 
Zamora, while in Portugal it began at Faro in 1487, 
went to Lisbon in 1489, and finished at Leiria in 
1792. The total number of books printed in Spain 
and Portugal amounted to only 17. The early types 
were rough in form; but the presswork for the most 
part was excellent, and the ink and paper were of 
very enduring quality. Owing to the work of the 
censor and the persecution of the Jews, the early 
productions of the Hebrew presses of Italy and the 
Iberian Peninsula are extremely rare, one-fifth of 
them being unique (for further particulars see In- 
CUNABULA). 
II. (1500-42): This period is distinguished by the 
spread of Jewish presses to the Turkish and Holy 


be attempted in this place, many of the details being i Romanempires. In Constantinople, Hebrew print- 


,. Pap pmragpn td pis Shin na 

' Ship pbnay prov Seaso rho! 
ey oparbrotin SP 990) oshin ,” 
mh ben ms pore Pat 


FROM THE TRACTATE BABA : nea A, SONCINO, pb. 


already treated under the names of prominent print- 
ers or presses. The five stages of Hebrew typog- 
raphy are as follows: I., 1475-1500, incunabula in 
southern Europe; II., 1500-42, spread to north and 
east; III., 1542-1627, supremacy of Venice; IV., 
1627-17382, hegemony of Amsterdam; V., 1732- 
1900, modern period, in which Frankfort, Vienna, 
and, more recently, Wilna and Warsaw have come 
to the front. For the most part Hebrew printing 
has been done by Jews, but the printing of Bibles 
has been undertaken also by Christian ty pographers, 
especially at the university towns of Europe. These 
productions, for lack of space, are for the most part 
to be neglected in the following sketch. 

I. (1475-1500): It was twenty years before the 


ing was introduced by David Nahmias and his son 
Samuel about 1508; and they were joined in the year 
1530 by Gershon Soncino, whose work was taken 
up after his death by his son Eleazar (see Con- 
STANTINOPLE— TYPOGRAPHY). Gershon Soncino put 
into type the first Karaite work printed (Bashyazi’s 
“Adderet Eliyahu”) in 1581. In Salonica, Don 
Judah Gedaliah printed about 30 Hebrew works from 
1500 onward, mainly Bibles, and Gershon Soncino, the 
Wandering Jew of carly Hebrew ty- 
pography, joined his kinsman Moses 
Soncino, who had already produced 3 
works there (1526-27) ; Gershon printed 
the Aragon Mahzor (1529) and Kimhi’s “Shora- 
shim” (1538). The prints of both these Turkish cities 


Second 
Period. 


Typography 


were not of a very high order. The works selected, 
however, were important for their rarity and literary 
charaeter. The type of Salonica imitates the Span- 
ish Rashi type. 

Turning to Germany, the first Jewish press was 
set up in Prague by Gershon ben Solomon Cohen, 
who founded in that city a family of Hebrew print- 
ers, known commonly as “the Gersonides.” He 


began printing in 1513 with a prayer-book, and 
during the period under review confined himself al- 
most exclusively to this class of publications, with 
which he supplied Jewish Germany and Poland. 
He was joined about 1518 by Hayyim ben David 
Schwartz, who played in northern Europe the same 
wandering réle the Soncinos assumed in the south. 
From 1514 to 1526 he worked at Prague, but in 1530 


he was found at Oels in Silesia, printing a Penta- 
teuch with the Megillot and Haftarot. He trans- 
ferred his activity to the southwest at Augsburg, 
where in 1533 he published Rashi on the Pentateuch 
and Megillot, the next year a Haggadah, in 1536 a 
letter-writer and German prayer-book, and in 1540 
an edition of the Turim, followed by rimed Judzo- 
German versions of Kings (1548) and Samuel (1544). 


In 1544 he moved to Ichenhausen, between Augs- | 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


FROM TRACTATE ‘ERUBIN, PRINTED BY B 


296 


burg and Ulm, and finally settled in 1546 at Hed- 
dernheim, where he published a few works. At 
Augsburg, 1544, the convert Paulus Emilius printed 
a Judxo-German Pentateuch. Three works of this 
period are known to have been printed at Cracow, 
the first of them, in 1584, a commentary of Israel 
Isserlein on “Sha‘are Durah” with elaborately dec- 
orated title-page. 


& 


ITP oho IN Sorp YH) 


% Spa He mee, ie eg es 
soy foory ly sey ky 


OMBERG, VENICE, 15721. 


Other towns of Germany also printed Hebrew 
works during this period, but they were mainly 
portions of the Biblical books, mostly editions of the 
Psalms, produced by Christian printers for Chris- 
tian professors, as at Cologne (1518), Wittenberg 
(1521 onward), Mayence (1523), Worms (1529), 
and Leipsic (1538). To these should be added 
Thomas Anshelm’s edition of the Psalms at Tt- 


FROM THE FIRST ILLUSTRATED PRINTED HAGGADAH, PRAGUE, 1526. 


bingen in 1512. It was followed by his edition of 
Kimhi’s grammar at Hagenau, 1519. With these 
may be mentioned the Paris printers of the sixteenth 
century (from 1508 onward), who produced gram- 
mars and Bibles (see Parts). 

Returning to the earlier home of Hebrew print- 
ing, a considerable number of towns in Italy had 
Hebrew presses early in the sixteenth century, 
mainly through the activity of Gershon Soncino, 


From ‘* Seder aanietie: Buvandare: 
1739. 


From ‘Seder Tefillot,” Verona, 
1648, 


From ‘** Koh Tebareku,”” 
Leghorn, 1653. 


2) Age 
: san on 


From ** Tefillot Ma‘ariv,”? Sulzbach, 1736. From Pentateuch, Constantinople or Saloniea, 1516. 


SPECIMENS OF SMALL FORMAT. 


Typography 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


298 


who is found in Fano (1515), Pesaro (1517), Or- 
tona (1519), and Rimini (1521); other presses were 
temporarily worked in Trino, Genoa, and Rome, 
the last under Elijah Levitra. In Bologna nine 
works were produced between 1537 and 1541, main- 


ae ae mh at 


“< 


= oan oe 


From the “ Wikkuah ”’ Printed by Sebastian Minster, 
Basel, 1539. 


ly prayer-books and responsa, Above all, this 
period is distinguished in Italy by the foundation 
and continuance of the Venetian press under the 
guidance of Daniel BomBerc, a Dutchman from 
Antwerp. Ilis thirty-five years’ ac- 
tivity from 1015 to 1549 was in a 
ineasure epoch-making for Hebrew 
typography. His productions shared 
in all the excellence of the Venice press, and in- 
cluded the first rabbinic Bible in 1517, the first com- 
plete edition of the Babylonian Talmud in 1520 
(its pagination is followed at the present day), a 
large number of editions of the Bible in whole or 
part, several grammatical, lexicographic, and mid- 
rashie works, seven commentaries on the Penta- 
teuch, six responsa collections, philosophical and 
ethical writings, and several rituals, including a 
Tefillah anda Mahzor according to the Spanish rite, 
one according to the Greek rite (Mahzor Romania), 
and a IXaraite one. Finally, reference should be 
made to the university press of Basel, where the 
Frobens produced Hebrew works in a remarkably 
clear type, with the letters slanting to the left, 
somewhat after the manner of the carly Mantua 
editions. Froben began in 1516 with an edition of 
the Psalms, and produced many of the works of Eli- 
jah Levita and Sebastian Minster. Altogether 
Schwab (in “ Incunables Orientaux,” pp. 49-128) enu- 
merates about 430 works produced between 1500 and 
1540. Allowing for omissions by him, not more than 
600 works were produced between 1475 and 1540. 
III. (1542-1627): Thethird period is distinguished 
by the activity of the censor, which lasted for two 
centuries or more in southern and eastern Europe. 
The principle of regulating the books to be read 
by the faithful, and even by the unfaithful, was 
inaugurated by the Roman Curia in 1542, though 
the first carrying out of it was with the burning of 
the Talmud in 1554. But even previous to that date 
Jews had taken precautions to remove all cause of 
offense. About 1542 Meir Katzenellenbogen cen- 
sored the selihot of the German rite, and Schwartz 


Daniel 
Bomberg. 


adopted his changes in the edition which he pub- 
Hshed at Heddernheim in 1546. 
Resuming the history of the Italian presses, that 
of Venice first engagesattention. Bomberg was not 
allowed to havea monopoly of Hebrew 
Third printing, which had been found to be 
Period. exceptionally profitable. Other Chris- 
Supremacy tians came into the field, especially 
of Venice. Marco Antonio Giustiniani, who pro- 
duced twenty-five works between 1548 
and 1552. Another compctitor arose in the person of 
Aloisio BRAGADINI, who began printing in 1550, In 
the competition both parties appealed to Rome; and 
their disputes brought about the burning of the 
Talmud in 1554 at Ferrara, and the strict enforce- 
ment of the censorship, even in Venice, the presses 
of which stopped printing Hebrew books for eight 
years. Similar competition appears to have taken 
place with regard to the Hebrew typesetters whom 
these Christian printers were obliged to employ. 
Cornelius ADELKIND and his son, German Jews of 


yin nee 


Ae 


From Pentateuch, Sabbionetta, 1557. 


Padua, first worked with Bomberg, and then were 
taken over by Farri (1544), and they appear to have 
also worked for both Bragadini and Giustiniani. 
There was a whole body of learned press-revisers. 
Among them should be mentioned Jacob b. Hayyim, 


299 


the editor of the rabbinic Bible, and Meir Katzenel- 
lenbogen, who helped to edit Maimonides’ “ Yad ” 
(1550). When Venice ceased for atime to issue He- 
brew books, printing was taken up in Ferrara (1551- 
15907) by Abraham Usque, who printed the “ Conso- 
lagam” of his brother Samuel Usque (1553), In 


Sabbionetta (1551-59) Tobias Foa printed about 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Typography 


Reverting to Venice, printing was resumed in 
1564 by Giovanni de Gara, who took up the work 
of Bomberg, and between 1564 and 1569 produced 
more than 100 different works, making use of Chris- 
tian as well as Jewish typesetters, among the latter 
being Leon of Modena in the years 1595-1601. 
Besides Gara there were Grippo, Georgio de Cavalli, 


FROM A SELIHAH, HEDDERNHEIM, 1546, 


twenty works, among them a very correct edition 
of the Targum on the Pentateuch, employing the 
ubiquitous Adelkind to print a fine edition of the 
“Moreh” and an edition of the Talmud in parts, 
only one of which is extant. The Sabbionetta types 
are said to have gone back to Venice when the Braga- 
dinis resumed work. In Cremona a Hebrew press 
was set up in 1556 by Vincentio Conti, who issued 
altogether forty-two works up to 1560, including 


and the Zanetti family, but none of them could com- 
pete with the activity of the Bragadinis, which was 
resumed about the same time. They made use of 
Samuel Archevolti and Leon of Modena among their 
typesetters. It is worthy of mention that several 
important works appeared at Venice from printing 
establishments which can not be identified, inclu- 
ding the editio princeps of the Shulhan ‘Aruk (1565). 
A few works were printed at Rome (1546-81) by 


FROM THE HUTTER BIBLE, HAMBURG, 1587, SHOWING HOLLOW SERVILE LETTERS. 


the first edition of the Zohar, 2,000 copies of which 
were saved with difficulty from the fires of the In- 
quisition. His first edition of Menahem Zioni’s 


commentary was not so fortunate; notwithstanding | 


that it had received the license of the censor, it was 
burnt. About thirty-three works were produced 
during this period at Riva di Trento by Joseph 
Ottolenghi under the auspices of Cardinal Madruz, 
whose titular hat appears upon the title-pages of the 
volumes, 


Antonio Bladao and Francesco Zanetti, and a couple 
of works in Verona by Francesco delle Donne. 
The greatest activity in Italy outside Venice was 
that carricd on at Mantna by the Rufenellis, who 
employed Joseph Ashkenazi and Meir Sofer, both 
from Padua, as their chief typesetters, Theiractiv- 
ity was followed by that of Ephraim b. David of 
Padua and Moses b. Katricl of Prague, both work- 
ing in the last decade of the sixteenth century, the 
latter for the publishers Norzibrothers. Altogether 


Typography 


Zunz enumerates seventy-three works produced at 
Mantua during the third period, including a “Se- 
fer Yezirah,” “Tanhuma,” Aboab’s “Menorat ha- 
Ma’or,” and an edition of Abot in Italian. 

During this period the Hebrew press of Basel 
received new light in the advent from IJtaly of Israel 
b. Daniel Sifroni, one of those wandering master 
workmen who, like Soncino and Schwartz, charac- 

terized the early history of Hebrew 
Froben and printing. Through his workmanship 


Wielen nea: a number of important works were 
produced by Froben of Basel between 

1578 and 1584, including a Babylonian Talmud, Isaac 

Nathan’s Concordance, and the “‘Ir Gibborim,” 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


300 


excerpts from the Bible; and in 1663 Henrik Géde 
printed similar extracts. In 1734 Marius Fogh (who 
later became city magistrate of Odense) published 
an edition of Isaac Abravanel’s commentary on Gen. 
xlix, This work, which bore the imprint of the 
Copenhagen publishing-house of I. C. Rothe, was 
for sale as late as 1893. Christian Nold’s concord- 
ance of the Bible appeared in 1679 from the press 
of Corfitz Luft in Copenhagen, and the solid quarto 
volume, containing 1,210 pages, gives evidence of 
the author’s diligence, as well as of the printer’s 
skill and care. A Lutheran pastor, Lauritz Petersen, 
in Nyk6ébing on the island of Falster, published 
in 1640 a new Hebrew versification of the Song of 


FROM A COMMENTARY ON SONG OF SONGS, SAFED, 1578. 


whose publisher in Prague, finding that he could 
not lave printing done as well there as by Sifroni, 
sent it to the latterin Basel, In the year 1083-84 
Sifroni was working for Froben at Freiburg-im- 
Breisgau, where he printed several Judseo-German 
works, including the Five Megillot with glossary in 
red ink; he printed also an edition of Benjamin 
of Tudela’s “Travels.” Froben’s success, like that 
of Bomberg, induced other Christian printers to join 
in competition, as Guarin (for whom Sifroni also 
worked), Beber, and especially Conrad Waldkirch, 
who from 1598 on published a Great Tetillah, an 
‘Aruk, an Alfasi in octavo, and “Synagogue Music 
and Songs” by Elijah b. Moses Loans, who was for 
atime Waldkirch’s corrector for the press. Morde- 
cai b. Jacob of Prossnitz, who, as shown below, 
had had a large printing experience in the east of 
Europe, also assisted Waldkirch in 1622. After his 
departure the Basel Hebrew prints became scarcer, 
and were confined mainly to the productions of the 
Buxtorfs, while only sporadic Hebrew works were 
produced at Altdorf, Bern, and Zurich (where, 
however, one of the finest specimens of Hebrew 
printing had been produced in the Judseo-German 
“Yosippon” of 1546). Reference may be here made 
to prints of Paulus Fagiusat Constance in 1643-44, 
mainly with Judeo-German or Latin translations. 
Altogether the total number of Hebrew works pro- 
duced in Switzerland was not more than fifty. 

The history of the Hebrew press in Denmark de- 
serves treatment in fuller detail, as it has been re- 
cently investigated by Simonsen. In 1598 Heinrich 
Waldkirch imported some inferior Hebrew type to 
Copenhagen from Wittenberg; but nothing of im- 
portance was printed during the following three 
decades. In 1631 Solomon Sartor published some 


Solomon, intended as a wedding-present for the 
son of King Christian TY. and his bride Magdalena 
SibyHa. This work, which was entitled “Canticum 
Yanticorum Salomonis,” consisted of Hebrew verse 
with Danish translation, and with various melodies 
added; it was printed by Melchior Martzau. Sam- 
uel ben Isaac of Schwerin published in 1787 some 
Talmudic annotations entitled “Minhat Shemu’el,” 
printed by the Copenhagen firm cf Thicle, but 
showing evidence of lack of skill. 

To revert to Switzerland, Fagius printed a number 
of Biblical, grammatical, and polemical works at 


‘en >: : 


% ale wpa pes ae 


> Np Sy mand 


From a eRe on Pirke Achat! Chanaw , 1589. 


Isny, with the help of Elijah Levita, who produced 
there the * Tishbi,” “ Meturgeman,” and “ Bahur,” be- 
sides a German translation of the “ Sefer 
Fagius and ha-Middot” in 1542, which is now very 
Hene. rare. Another Christian printer who 

is mentioned throughout this period is * 
Hans Jacob Hene, who produced about thirty Jew- 
ish works in Hebrew at Hanau (1610-30). He ca- 


301 


tered more to the students of the Talmud and Ha- 
lakah, producing three responsa collections, three 
commentaries on the Talmud, the Tur and Shulhan 
‘Aruk, and three somewhat similar codes, as well 
as a number of Judeo-German folk editions like 
the “Zuchtspicgel” or the “ Brandspiegel ” (1626), 
and the “ Weiberbuch” of Benjamin Aaron Solnik. 
Among his typesetters were a couple of the Ulmas, 
of the Ginzburg family, and Mordecai b. Jacob 
Prossnitz, who has already been mentioned. Hene’s 
type is distinguished by its clearness, and by the 
peculiar fourm of the “ shin” in the so-called “ Weiber- 
deutsch.” Other isolated appearances of Hebrew 
works at Tannhausen (1594), Thiengen (1660), 
anil Hergerswiese did not add much to German 
Jewish typography in this period. 

Meantime, in eastern Europe, the Gersonides con- 
tinued their activity at Prague, especially in the 
printing of ritual works; but they suffered from the 
competition of the Bak family, who introduced from 
Italy certain improvements from the year 1605 on- 


| Sale coypriot | 
| bpp 6 wid : 


FROM 


ward. Among the typesetters at Prague in this 
period was the Jewess Giitel (daughter of Lob 
Setzer), who set up a work in 1627. At Prague 
almost for the first time is found the practise of rabbis 
issuing their responsa from the local presses. The 
decoration employed by the Prague press of this 
period was often somewhat elaborate. Besides the 
illustrated Haggadah of 1526, the title-page of the 
Tur of 1540 ts quite elaborate and includes the arms 
of Prague. 

In Cracow Isaac ben Aaron of Prossnitz revived 
the Hebrew press in 1569, and produced a number 
of Talmudic and cabalistic works from that time to 
his death in 1614, when his sons succeeded to his 
business, He was assisted by Samuel Bohn, who 
brought from Venice the Italian methods and title- 

page designs, which were used up to 

Cracow and about 1580. [le produced, besides the 

Lublin. Jerusalem and Babylonian Talmuds, 

two editions of the Midrash Rabbot, 

the “ Yalkut Shim ‘oni ” (1596), and several works of 

Moses Isserles and Solomon Luria, besides the “ Yu- 

hasin,” “Shalshelet ha-Kabbalah,” and “ Yosippon.” 

Isaac b. Aaron for a time ran a press in his native 

city of Prossnitz, where from 1602 to 1605 ne pub- 
lished four works. 

Lublin competed with Cracow for the eastern 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Typography 


trade from 1556 onward, when an edition of the 
tractate Shebu‘ot appeared in the formercity. Its 
printers were mainly of the Jaffe family; Kalony- 
mus Abraham (1562-1600) was followed by his son 
Zebi (1602 onward), who made use of the services of 
the above-mentioned Mordecai b. Jacob of Prossnitz, 
The prints of the Jaffes were mainly productions of 
local rabbis and Judeo-German works. During the 
plague which ravaged Lublin in 1592 Kalonymus 
Jaffe moved his printing establishment to Bistro- 
vich, whence he issued a Haggadah with Abrava- 
nel’s commentary. 

It should perhaps be added that at Antwerp and 
Leyden in this period Biblical works by Christian 
printers appeared, at the former place by the cele- 
brated Christopher Plantin, who got his type from 
Bomberg’s workshop. 

IV. (1627-1732): This period is opened and dom- 
inated by the foundation of the press at Amster- 
dam, the rich and cultured Maranos of the Dutch 
capital devoting their wealth, commercial connec- 


i sow nbn 619 TPN 
eS 10D se 2 


**KEHILLOT YA‘AKOB,”’ VENICE, 1599, 


tions, and independent position to the material de- 
velopment of Hebrew literature in book form. For 
nearly a century after its foundation Amsterdam 
supplied the whole of Teutonic Europe with Hebrew 
books; and the term “ Defus Amsterdam ” was used 
to denote type of special excellence even though 
cast elsewhere, just as the term “ Italic ” was applied 
to certain type cast not only in Italy but in other 
countries. The first two presses were set up in the 
year 1627, one under Daniel de Fonseca, the other 
under Manasseh ben Israel, who in the following 
twenty years printed more than sixty works, many 
of them his own, with an excellent edition of the 
Mishnah without vowels, and, charac- 

Fourth  teristically enough, a reprint of Al- 
Period. moli’s “Pitron Halomot” (1637). The 
Hegemony work in later times was mainly done 
of Am- by his two sons, Hayyim and Samuel. 
sterdam. Toward the latter part of Manasseh 
ben Israel’s career as a printer an im- 

portant competitor arose inthe person of Immanuel 
Benveniste, who in the twenty years 1641-60 pro- 
duced prayer-books, a Midrash Rabbah, an Alfasi, 
and the Shulhan ‘Aruk, mostly decorated with 
elaborate titles supported by columns, which be- 
came the model for all Europe. He was followed 
by the firm of Gumpel & Levi (1648-60). Par- 


Typography 


ticular interest attaches to the name of Urt PHOEBUS 
HA-LEVI, an apprentice of Benveniste’s who was in 
business in Amsterdam on his own account from 1658 
to 1689. He was the medium through which the 
Amsterdam methods of printing were transferred 
to Zolkiev between 1692 and 1695. His productions, 
though in the Amsterdam style, were generally 
of a less costly and elegant. nature, and he appears 
to have printed prayer-books, Mahzors, calendars, 
and Judzo-German works for the popular mar- 
ket. Just as Uri Phoebus worked for the Ger- 


man Jews, so Athias contemporaneously published 
ritual works for the Spanish Jews, who demanded 


soe eh) p 
prysy prise jy 
*n b> ape ¢ 
Spy Lprpy pt 
Hropeonn 210 O 
pypy mde 
pos obs fan qh 8 
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THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


802 


uprisings in 1648-56 were employed by Christian 
printers of that city, as A]bertus Magnus, Christoph 
von Ganghel, the Steen brothers, and Bostius, the 
last-named of whom produced the great Mishnah of 
Surenhusius (1698-1708). A most curious phenom- 
enon is presented by Moses ben Abraham, a Chris- 
tian of Nikolsburg, who was converted to Judaism, 
and who printed several works between 1690 and 
1694, Abraham, the son of another proselyte named 
Jacob, was an engraver who helped to decorate the 
Passover Haggadah of 1695, printed by Kosman 
Emrich, who produced several important works be- 
tween 1692 and 1714. 


Se 


FROM A PASSOVER Re TH Anareniiie, 1608. 


usually a much higher grade of printing, paper, and 
binding than did their poorer German coreligion- 
ists (1660-83). Athias’ editions of the Bible, and 
especially of the Pentateuch, for which he had 
Leusden’s help, are especially tine; and the edition 
of Maimonides’ “ Yad ” which his son and successor, 
Immanuel, published in 1703, isa noteworthy piece 
of printing. <A third member of the Athias family 
printed in Amsterdam as late as 1739-40. 

The Sephardic community of Amsterdam had also 
the services of Abraham de Castro Tartas (1663-95), 


who had learned his business under the Ben Israels. | 


He printed, chiefly, works in Spanish and Portu- 
guese, and in the decoration of his titles was fond 
of using scenes from the life of David. A number 
of Poles who fied to Amsterdam from the Cossack 


Less important presses at the beginning of this 
period were erected in Amsterdam by Moses Cou- 
tinho, Isaac de Cordova,. Moses Dias, and the firm 
of Soto & Brando. Members of the Maarssen fam- 
ily are also tobe reckoned among the more pro- 
ductive Hebrew printers of Amsterdam. Jacob, 
Joseph, David, and Mahrim Maarssen produced 
many works between 1695 and 1740, among them 
reproductions of cursive writing. The last-named 
settled later at Frankfort-on-the-Main. 
By this time the Hebrew press at 
Amsterdam had become  eutircly 
dominated by mercantile considera- 
tions, and was represented by the publishing- and 
printing-houses of Solomon ben Joseph Proops, 
whose printed catalogue “ Appiryon Shelomoh,” 1730 


The 
Proopses. 


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PAGE FROM THE “ MIKRA’0T GEDOLOT,” AMSTERDAM, 1724. 


Typography 


(the first known of its kind), shows works pub- 
lished by him to be mainly rituals and a few re- 
sponsa, two editions of the “‘En Ya‘akob,” the “ Ho- 
bot ha-Lebabot,” and the “ Menorat ha-Ma’or,” two 
editions of the Zohar (1715), and the Judezo-German 
“Ma’asehbuch.” Proops was evidently adapting 
himself to the popular taste from 1697 onward. The 
house established by him continued to exist down 
to the middle of the nineteenth century, Joseph and 
Jacob and Abraham being members thereof from 1734 
until about 1780. They were followed by Solomon 
ben Abraham Proops in 1799, while a David ben 
Jacob Proops, the last of the family, died in 1849, 
and his widow sold the business to I. Levisson. 

Mention should be made here of the two Ashke- 
nazic Dayyanim of Amsterdam, who added printing 
to their juridical accomplishments, Joseph Dayyan 
from 1719 to 17387, and Moses Frankfurter from 1720 
to 1743; the latter produced between the years 1724 
and 1728 the best-known edition of the rabbinic 
Bible. The only other Amsterdam printer whom it 
is necessary to mention is Solomon London (ec. 1721), 
on account of his later connection with Frank fort- 
on-the- Main. 

Resuming the history of the Prague press during 


opr ibper 7 


é 


'P. 


this period, the Bak family continued its activity, 
especially in printing a number of Judzo-German 
works, mostly without supplying the place or the 
date of publication. Many local folk-songs in Ger- 
man now exist only in these productions, One of 
the productions of this firm, a Mahzor, the first 


From a Pentateuch, Amsterdam, 1726. 


volume of which appeared in Prague in 1679, was 
finished in Wekelsdorf by the production of the 
second volume in 1680. 

Another offshoot of the Prague press was that of 
Wilhermsdorf, which was founded in 1669 in order 
to take advantage of the paper-mills erected there 
by Count von Hohenlohe. The first printer there 
was Isaac Cohen, one of the Gersonides who printed 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


ious 


> Prop 'p793.027 TYE 


304 


two works there in poor style in 1691. He was fol- 
lowed in 1712 by Israel ben Meir of Prague, who 
soid out to Hirsch ben Hayyim of Firth. Among 
the 150 productions of these presses may be men- 
tioned a list of post-offices, markets, and fairs com- 
piled by the printer Hirsch ben Hayyim and printed 
in 1724. 

In Prague itself the Baks found a serious coni- 
petitor in Moses Cohen Zedek, founder of the Katz 
family of typographers; this competition lasted for 
nearly a century, the two houses combining in 1784 
as the firm of Bak & Katz. 

Cracow during this period is distinguished by the 
new press of Menahem (Nahum) Meisels, which con- 
tinued for about forty years from 1631 onward, pro- 
ducing a considerable number of Talmudic and cab- 
alistic works, including such productions of the local 
rabbis, as the “ Hiddushe Agadot” of Samuct Edels; 
this was put up in type by Judah Cohen of Prague, 
and corrected by Isaac of Brisk. The year 1648, so 
fatal to the Jews of Slavonic lands, was epoch-ma- 
king for both Cracow and Lublin. At the latter place 
afew works appeared from 1665 onward, mainly 
from the press of Samuel Kalmanka (1673-83) of the 
Jaffe family. 


9937 0933 OPp7 OND 


fs 


FROM BACHARACH’S “ HAWWOT YAIR,” FRANKFORT-ON-THE-MAIN, 1699. 


This period is especially distinguished by the rise 
of the Jewish Hebrew press in Germany, chiefly in 
five centers: (1) Frankfort-on-the-Main, (2) Sulz- 
bach, (8) Dessau, (4) Hamburg, and (5) Dyhernfurth. 
For various reasons presses were erected also in 

the vicinity of each of these centers. 

Germany. InFrankfort-on-the-Main the mu- 
nicipal law prohibited any Jew from 

erecting a printing-press, so that, notwithstanding 
its large and wealthy Jewish population, the earliest 
Hebrew productions of this city came from Chris- 
tian printers, especially Christian Wist, who pro- 
duced a Bible in 1677, and an edition of the “ Haw wot 
Yair” in 1699. Then came the press of Blasius Ilsner, 
who began printing Hebrew in 1682, and produced 
the “Kuhbuch” of Moses Wallich in 1687, in which 
year he produced also part of a German Pentateuch 
as well asa standard edition of the Yalkut. This 
last was published by the bookseller Seligmann 
Reis. Besides other Christian printers like Andreas 
and Nicholas Weinmann, Johann Koelner produced 
a number of Hebrew works during the twenty years 
1708-27, including the continuation of an edition of 
the Talmud begun at Amsterdam and finished at 
Frank fort-on-the-Main (1720-23); it is probable that 


305 


the type was brought from Amsterdam. An at- 
tempt of Koelner to produce 1,700 copies of an Al- 
fasi by means of a lottery failed, though an edition 
was produced in Amsterdam four years later. Many 
of the typesetters of Amsterdam and Frankfort 
about this period frequently alternated their resi- 
dence and activity between the two cities. In 1727 
few Hebrew books were produced at Frankfort-on- 
the-Main. In connection with the Frankfort book 
market a number of presses in the neighborhood 
turned out Hebrew books, in Hanau as early as 
1674. The book entitled “Tam we-Yashar” was 
printed there, with Frankfort as its place of publica- 
tion. From 1708 onward Bashuysen produced a 
series of books, including Abravanel on the Penta- 
teuch (1710), which was issued by Reis of Frank fort. 
Among his workmen were David Baer of Zolkiev, 
who had worked at Amsterdam, and Menahem 
Maneli of Wilmersdorf. Bashuysen sold his rights 


to Bousang Cie) who continued producing He- 
brew works till 1725, 

Homburg was also one of the feeding- presses for 

Its press was pos- 


Frankfort, from 1711 to 1750. 


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sessed from 1737 on by Aaron of Dessau, an inhabit- 
ant of the Frankfort Judengasse, who produced 
among other works two editions of the “ Hiddushim ” 
of Maharam Schiff (1745). Seligmann Reis, who had 
learned printing in Amsterdam, started another press 
in Offenbach (1714-20), mostly for Judso-German 
pamphlets, including a few romances like the “ Artus 
Hoof,” “ Floris and Blanchefleur,” and “The Seven 
Wise Masters.” In opposition to Reis was Israel 
Moses, working under the Christian printer De 
Launoy from 1719 to 1724 and for himself till as late 
as 1743. 

The history of the Sulzbach Hebrew press is some- 
what remarkable. On May 12, 1664, one Abraham 


Lichtenthaler received permission to found a print-. 


ing-press at Sulzbach. He began to print in 1667 
Knorr von Rosenroth’s “ Kabbala De- 
nudata,” a work which was for the 
Christian world the chief source of 
information as to the Cabala. This appears to have 
attracted to Sulzbach Isaac Cohen Gersonides, who 
produced in the year 1669 a couple of Judseo-Ger- 
man works, “Leb Tob” and “Shebet Yehudah,” 
from the press of Lichtenthaler, Nothing followed 
XII. —20 


Sulzbach. 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


ue op xeoy mwen 


Typography 


these first productions till the “ Kabbala Denudata ” 
was finished in 1684, when Knorr determined to have 
an edition of the Zohar printed at Sulzbach, and 
for that purpose had one Moses Bloch cut Hebrew 
letters, with which the Zohar was printed in a rather 
elementary fashion. This attracted attention to 
Sulzbach as a printing-place; and an imperfect 
edition of the Talmud was printed in 1694 by Bloch 
and his son (the latter succeeded Bloch). The com- 
petition of the Amsterdam edition of 1697-99 pre- 
vented its completion. One of the most curious pro- 
ductions of the Sulzbach press was a Purim parody, 
which was issued anonymously in 1695. Bloch was 
followed by Aaron Frankel, son of one of the exiles 
of Vienna, aud founder of the Frankel-Arnstein fam- 
ily, having worked at the office of Bloch as early as 
1685. He set up his press in 1699, his first produc- 
tion being a Mahzor and part of the Talmud; and 
his son Meshullam carried on the press for forty 
years from 1724 to 1767. One hundred and four- 
teen productions of the Sulzbach press have been 
enumerated up to 1782. 

Firth also commenced in this period its remarka- 


**SHE’ELOT U-TESHUBOT”’ OF EYBESCHtTZ, CARLSRUHE, 1773, 


ble activity as a producer of Hebrew works, more 
distinguished perhaps for quantity than quality. 
Beginning in 1691 just as the Wilmersdorf press 
gave up, Joseph Shneior established a press at Firth, 
which produced about thirty works during the next 

eight vears. Most of his typesetters 
Firth and lad come from Prague. An opposi- 
Hamburg. tion press was set up later (1694, 1699) 

by Zebi Hirsch ha-Levi and his son-in- 
law Mordecai Model. This was one of the presses 
which had asa typesetter a woman, Reichel, daugh- 
ter of Isaac Jutels of Wilmersdorf. The former 
press was continued in 1712 by Samuel Bonfed, son 
of Joseph Shneior, together with Abraham Bing 
(1722-24); the firm lasted till 17380. 

Similar presses were founded at Dessau by Moses 
Bonem (1696), and at Kéthen in 1707-18 by Israel 
ben Abraham, the proselyte, who had previously 
worked at Amsterdam, Offenbach, and Neuwied. 
Israel) then transferred his press to Jessnitz, where 
he worked till about 1726, at which date he removed 
it to Wandsbeck, near Hamburg, staying there till 
1788, when he wandered to Neuwied and back to 
Jessnitz (1789-44) together with his sons Abraham 


Typography 


and Tobias. Another proselyte. Moses ben Abra- 
ham, had printed Hebrew in Halle (1709-14). 

The earliest production of the Hebrew press of 
Hamburg was a remarkable edition of a Hebrew 
Bible, set up by a Christian, Elias Hutter, and hav- 
ing the servile letters distinguished by hollow type, 
so as to bring out more Clearly the radical letters. 
Hutter was followed by two Christians: (1) George 
Ravelin, who printed a Pentateuch with Targum 
and Haftarot in 1668; and (2) Thomas Rose, who 
from 1686 to 1715 printed several Jewish books and 
who wassucceeded by his son Johann Rose up to 1721. 
In the neighboring city of Altona Samuel Poppart 
of Coblenz started printing in 1720, mainly ritual 
matters; and he was followed by Ephraim Heksher 
in 1732 and Aaron Cohen of Berlin in 1735. 

Finally more to the east Shabbethai Bass estab- 
lished at Dyhernfurth in 1689 a printing-press cs- 
pecially devoted to meeting the wants of the Breslau 
book market, which had hitherto been dependent 
upon Amsterdam or Prague. For the 
varying history of his press, which 
lasted till 1718, see his biography 
(JEW. Encyc. ii. 583). It was sold 
by Shabbethai’s son Joseph to his son-in-law Issachar 
Cohen for 5,000 thalers, who carried it on till 
1729, when he 
died, his wife 
then continuing 
the business. 

Hebrew works 
were early print- 
ed at Frank- 
fort-on-the- 
Oder, by two 
Christians, Hart- 
mann Brothers, 
from 1595 to 
1596, who pro- 
duced Bibles, 
and Eichhorn, 
who printed 
the “ Musar Has- 
kel” of Hai 
Gaon in 1597. Their work was continued in the next 
century by Professor Beckmann in 1681, and Michael 
Gottschek, who produced, at the cost of Baermann 
Halberstade, an edition of the Babylonian Talmud 
in 1698 to supply the loss of the Talmuds during the 
Cossack outbreaks. A second edition of this Tal- 
mud was produced by Gottschek in company with 
Jablonski at Berlin, who had purchased a Hebrew 
set of types in 1697. They began work in 1699, and 
produceda Pentateuch witha Rashbam in 1705, and 
the aforesaid Talmud in 1715-21. One of his chief 
ty pesetters was Baruch Buchbinder, who afterward 
printed in Prausnitz. Other Hebrew books were 
produced by Nathan Neumark (1720-26), in whose 
employ Aaron Cohen, afterward at Altona, learned 
to set type. 

In this period a beginning of Hebrew typography 
was made also in the British Isles, by Samuel Clarke 
at OXFORD about 1667, and by Thomas Ilive (1714- 
1718) in Lonpon, both Christian printers. 

To return to the south of Europe: the Venice press 
was carried on by a succession of the Bragadinis: 


Dy hern- 
furth. 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


da ES RR BO ORE 
From **Sefer Hokmat ha-Mishkan, 


306 


Aloisio II. (1625-28), Geralamo (1655-64), and Aloisic 
IfI. (1697-1710). Among the Jewish sctters or cor- 
rectors for the press employed by the Bragadinis 
may be mentioned Leo de Modena, Moses Zacuto, 
Menahem Habib, Moses Hayyim of Jerusalem, and 
Solomon Altaras. The chief competitor of the Bra- 
gadinis was Vendramini, from 1631 onward; but the 
opposition of Amsterdam reduced the activity of the 
Venetian press toward the end of the seventeenth 
century, while Leghorn began to cater to the 
printing of the Oriental Jews about 1650, when Jed- 
idiah Gabbai produced the “azharot” of Solomon 
ibn Gabirol. IJlis chief production was a Yalkut in 
1660, after which he removed to Florence and finally 
settled in Smyrna, where his son Abraham printed 
from 1659 to 1680 with the aid of Samuel Valenci 
from Venice. Abrahaimn’s productions include a few 
Ladino works in Hebrew characters, among the 
earliest of the kind. In Constantinople a family of 
printers named Franco—Solomon (1689), Abraham 
(1641-83), and Abraham (1709-20)—proeduced a num- 
ber of casuistic works. Among their typesetters 
was Solomon of Zatanof (1648), who had escaped the 
Cossack outbreaks. The pause from 1683 to 1710 
was broken by two Poles from Amsterdam, Jonah 
of Lemberg and Naphtali of Wilna. Jonah of Lem- 
berg printed a 
few of his works 
at Ortakeul, 
near Constanti- 
nople, and final- 
ly settled at 
Smyrna. 

With the year 
1732 the detailed 
history of ITe- 
brew ty pogra- 
phy must cease. 
It would be im- 
possible to fol- 
Wl dee ey -low in minute 

A890 The 7 O28. , detail the spread 

” Leghorn, 1772. of Hebrew 
presses through- 

out the world during the last 160 years. The 
date 1782 is also epoch-making in the history of 
Hebrew bibliography, as up to that date the great 
work of Johann Christoph Wo Lr, amplified and 


From Moses Eidlitz’s **Meleket ha-Heshbon,”’ Prague, 1775. 


corrected by Steinschneider in his “ Bodleian Cat- 
alogue,” givesa complete account of the personnel of 
the Hebrew press, both Jewish and Christian. The 
list of these printers given by Steinschneider is of 


ase ie, oe re tine oe Nate Renee 


Azan De ake e435: * ON? 


FROM em SIDDUR HEGYON LEB, 3 KONIGSBERG, 1845, 


yn mine 


Zone are Seay clash iad 


38 (555pm3) a 
Hepd owIBE NS OIF qbbae 


FROM PENTATEUCH, VIENNA, 1809. 


Typography 


considerable importance, both for identifying un- 
known or imperfect works of the earlier period, and 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


as affording information of persons learned in | 
Hebrew lore who utilized it only as typesetters or | 


correctors for the press. 


Many, if not most, of the 


more distinguished families of recent date have been 
connected with these masters of printing, whose 
names are thus of importance for pedigree purposes 


(see PEDIGRER). 


list is here reprinted in shortened form. 


List OF PRINTERS To 17382. 


For these reasons Steinschneider’s 


Name. Place. Date. | 
AOBVONG Sas sie sarc ee DEER eeseeee.| Alsterdam....| 1708, 6 | 
Aaron b. Aaron Kohen. veaeeseees| AMsterdam....| 1697 
Aaron b. Abraham............+.. TIADAN Siac mrs 1122 
a da Costa Abendana b. Sam-| Amsterdaun....| 1726, 30 
Rane (Hezekiah) Credo.......... Amsterdam....} 1726 
Aaron b. (Hayyim) David Levi...) Zolkiev........ 16, 18, 21, : 
| 
Aaron b. David Witmund........ | Aimsterdaim....} 1659-64 — 
Aaron b. Elijah Kohen of Ham-; Hamburg..... 1714-15, 32 
burg. Offenbach, ....| 1716 | 
Suizbach...... Wii 
Frankfort - on -| 1719 
the-Oder. | 
Je@S8tit tha via at 1724 
eDline ss sacies 1724-26 
Wandsbeck ...] 1720 
AMON 50 saads 133 
Aaron (Shneor Zalman) b. Gabriel] Amsterdam....} 1721 
ARTO DAMON, seicrer sas cna ewne ts Constantinople) 14235 
Auron b. Isaac (Drucker) b. Aaron} Prossnitz...... Se Po ry 
2, 12-1 
13-19 . 
Aaron bh. Isaac Sofer.... ec ce cease Amsterdam....} 17138 
Aaron D. Jacod LeViis sites cis ncas Dyhernfurth ..;| 1689 
Aaron b. Jacob Senior. .....s 000s Amsterdam... .| 1659 
Aaron Jaffe b. Israel ........... EU aaa pa eetera 1702 
ARTUR POOH. ase cts tines se ueehe es oe 1576-77 
Aaron b. Manasseh Ephraim..,...| Amsterdam... 1661 
Aaron D. MEIN aia scccesisa ons ceeen PYAL UC 64 35 206 1705-13 
Aaron b. Moses Krumenau.,..... Cracow ....... 1608 —9, 10- 
ee 17-18 
Aaron Rodrigues-Mendes.........|/ Amsterdam.. 1728, 30 | 
Aaron b. Selig of Glogau......... BOP, dcatsvces 1709 
Dyhernfurthb ..| 1718 
Berlinic ds. 502 vers 
Aimsterdam....| 1726 
Aaron b. Shabbethai.........0.00: Ainsterdam....| 1728-24 
Aaron b. Uri Lipmann.,....... oy Mere aren ey 1700-13 
ADS BD BOLOMOM A cs ncdandeeds oa oe Bagel ow bites 1609 
Abba-Mari of Vienna............. Prague -| 1628 
Anvele by JOdah Jina saastaaae PRIPUG:. skins 1706, 10 
Abigdor b. Eliezer Ashkenazi,...| Constantinople] 1547 
Abigdor b. Eliezer Kohen........ PYaRe..icve ys 1614 i! 
Abigdor b, Uisrae]) Joseph....... CraGOW ....208 1638-40, 43, || 
48 | 
Abigdor bh. Samuel b. Moses Ezra.! Cracow....... 1619 
yo TT A de on ee Amsterdain....| 1708 | 
Abraham b. Aaron ....ceceeees ; Prague........ 1674 (?) 
Abraham b. Abigdor .........008 A oe es ae 1530 | 
Abraham Aboahb, Sr..........e08. YONI | aaieaaave 1590 
ADranenr APORD: AP. 5.6 eon obace: VONCC i ccc cia 1655, 57, 59,. 
60, 69 
Abraham b. Abraham............ | Adrianople (?) 
Abraham Abudient@..,...++..e00 | Constantinople} 1654 
Abratantl thi ARTA. cecedesesees | Salonica....... 1595 
| Venice........ 1599 
Abraham b. Alexander..........- ie foie) cena es 1606 
Abraham Algazi b, Simeon....... Constantinople} 1711 
Abraham Algazi b. Solomon...... Smyrna.. 1659 
Abraham Alkabizi hacen ble Kien es Constantinople 1516 
Abraham AIKaras .......ccccee eee | Daimaseus..... 1605-6 
Abraham Altschul b. Jacob....... | Frankfort - on -| 1697-99 
the-Oder. 
Abraham Amnon b. Jacob Israel..| Leghorn...... 1633-54 
Abraham Arama b. Isaac......... / Saloniea.......| 1520 
Abraham ibn Ashkara Zarfati b.| Pesaro.........| 1511 
Samuel. 
Abraham. Bassa of Jerusalem.....}| Amsterdam....| 1722 
Abraham Benveniste b. Aaron....! Venice........ 1546 
Abraham b. Bezalel of Posen..... | Taine ee: 1622-26, 30, 
33-34, 45, 46 
Abraham di Boton b. Aaron...... Smyrna.......| 1500, 71, 7 
Abraham (Hezekiah) Brandon} Amsterdatm....} (d. 1725) 
ibn Yakkar. 


Abrabam ‘Breit b. Moses.........! 


Amsterdam.... 


1650 


Name. 


Abraham Broda b. Elijah of 
Prague. 
Abraham Cassel... 
Abraham (‘‘Senior’’) Coronel. . 
Abraham Dandosa.........eeeeee 
Abraham b. David Gojetein.. 


Abraham b. David Nahman...... 


eeceeves eooeseaar 


Abraham b. David Posner........ 
Abraham b. Dob (Baer) of Lissa.. 


308 


Place. Date. 
Sulzbach...... 115 
Wilmersdorf...) 116 
Suasburg so... inl 
Amsterdam.. | 166], 67 
+] Constantinople 1313 
CRACOW op cceas 1586, 
Prague.. ..| 1608 
Saloniea....... Ne 13, 24, 
Constantinopte! 1711 
Wilmersdorf,.) 1683 


Ainsterdal. . ; Ol 
Abraham Dorheim b. Moses! Frankfort-on-| 1719 
Dorheim. the-Main. 
Abraham b. Eliezer Braunschweig| Hanau........} 1610, 17 
Basel ......... 1918-19 
Abraham b. Eliezer Kohen.......| Cracow .....,. 1589 
Abraham ». Eliezer Kohen.......| Wilmersdorf... eu ie 90, 
i 12-2: 
Sulzbach...... he -1712 
Abraham b. Eliezer Rédelsheim..| Cracow ....... 16 
Abraham ibn EZra ....... cece eee alonica....... et 
Abraham Facon (?)...........05: Napiles.........| 1492 
Abraham Faraji b. Meir..........| Salonica......./ 1493-04 
Abraham de Fonseca............. Amsterdam... .) 1627 _ 
Abrahain ben (ibn) Garton b.! Reggio........ 1475 
Isaac, 
Abraham Gedaliah...............| Leghorn...... 1650-37 
AbDrvraANamM GEL... cccceecsenenees Saloniea......- 1651-55 
Abraham Haber-Tob b. "Solomon.. Venice........1 1595, 99, 
oe ie 10 
oy, 40, 42, 
43 
Leghorn ...... 1650-54 
Abraham HaveZ............0e0..., Amsterdam.,..| Lect 
Abraham b. Hayylim............. Pesaro.........) LAT 
Ferrara....... L479 
Bologna....... 1482 
Soncino,...... 1485 
Abraham Hiayyim of Fano........ Ferrara -...... 1693 
Abraham Hayyon b. Solomon b.| Constantinople! 1578-79 
Abrabam. 
Abraham Hurwitz b. Isatah...... Auisterdaim... | 1728, 29 
Abraham Hurwitz b. Judah (Lib) | 
Deborles Levi. 
Abraham b. Isaac Ashkenazi.....) Safed .........) 1a7rT-79, 87 
Abraham b. Isaac b. David....... TRAE ccecunsnaes 1490 
Abraham b. Israel...............0- CYACOW ....0-, 1617, 18 
Abraham b. Israe! Menahem....,| Lublin........ 1di8 
Offenbach,..... 1729 
Abraham b. Israel b. Moses....... Neuwied...... 1135-37 
: JOSSNITZ.....0. 1739-40 
Abraham b. Issachar Kohen (Kaz); Wilmersdorf... 1679, 82 
Gersoni of Prague. Sulzbach...... 1684 
} TABU. ioe Ce 88, 90- 
Abraham b. Jacob................| Hanau........ 1726 
Abraham b. Jacob Levi........... Amsterdami....) 1726, a 
Abraham (Israel) b. Jacob (Kop-) Frankfort-on-, 1705, 9, 11- 
pel) of Vienna. the-Oder. 2 
Abraham Jedidiah de ance | 
Abraham b. Jekuthiel............ Hanau......-.. 1715, 47 
Abrahain b. Jekuthiel Kohen.. evogd MATA Nee cae ae 14, 23- 
Abraham b. Joseph....... ey Lublin ....; ...| LdT71-72 
Abraham b. Joseph.. ‘ Humiburg..... 1690 
Abraham b. Joseph Manusseh.. Constantinople! 1732 
Abraham b. Joshua Sezze. Venite........ 1696 
Abraham b. Joshua of W: Orns. ...| Amsterdam....} 1643-48, 45- 
46 
Abraham b. Judah ............... Frankfort - on -} 1697-99 
the-Oder. 
Abraham b. Judah (Loeb)........| Goustantinople| 1710, 12, 16- 
34 
Abraham b. Judah’b, Nisan. 
Abraham b. Kalonymus Reumold.| Prague........ tee 
| Abraham Kara............0.6- Salonica....... 1587 
Venice........ 1589 
Mantua....... 1589-90 
Abraham Landau b. Jacob.......) Naples........ ' 1491-92 
Abraham Laniado.,....... als Sigs alt, RELIES otrealeeoes 1608 
Abraham (Xohen) de Lara........ Almsterdam....| 1691 
Abraham Lichtenthaler.......... Sulzbach...... 1697 
Abraham Luria ...........- vi as ol SRN ate Sa ate | 1723 
Abraham Mendes-Lindo...... ....) Amsterdam....| 1725 
Abraham b. Meshuillam of Mo-| Mantua..... 1558-60 
dena, 
Abraham Molko b. Joseph........ Salonica ...... 7 
Abraham b. Mordecai Kohen.....} Amsterdam....| 1661 
Abraham b. Moses (Schedel)..... Prague....s++ 1602-4 
Abraham b. Moses Goslar........| Wandsbeck ...| 1738 
Abraham b. Moses Kohen........| Bologna.......| 1588 
Abrahain b. Moses Nathan........| Amsterdam....| 1700 


309 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Name. 


Abraham b. Nahbinan Koher.... 
Abraham b. Nathan 
Abrahain ibn Nathan b. Hayyim 
of Salonica. 
Abraham Netto b. Joseph 
Abraham (Hai) Ortona b. David.. 
Abrahant [bn ParTedes. «6 ¢ecas ess 
Abraham Pereira b. Elijah....... 
ADEA POP Sec vat Ga ceed t egos 
Abraham Pescarol b. khalonymus. 


see ee aennsrevreet 


Abraham ibn Phorni ae 
Abraham Porto......... isslaial aisiareotl 


Abraham Porto b. Jehiel......... 
Abrahain b. Reuben Abi Saglo,.. 
Abraham Reyna 
Abraham Rosanes b. Meir.... ... 
ADPATAIY SACOM Jcceass oes cee 
Abraham b. Solomon Levi 
Abraham b. Samuel b, 
Levi. 
Abraham b. Samuel Kohen 
Abraham b. Selig Of GlUgaul. isi 4s 


eee re ere ene ewe eet 


=p eee eee 


David 


eee reee 


Abraham Selzer b. Aaron of Minsk 


yasennce 1 ion shane aay 
Abraham b. Shemariab 
Abraham Snoshan.......c.ecceeee 
Abraham de Silva b, Selomon.... 


eee ree eee ae 


Abraham b. Simeon Friedburg... 
Abrabam b. Simeon Kolin....---- 
Abraham SONUNQ. cece eee eee 
Abraham Talinid Sefardi 
Abraham Uzziel b. Baruch 
Abratiattih VON WePrd..s. cer ee ne ees 
Abraham ibn Ya‘ish b. Joseph.... 


ee 


eneeeee 


Abraham ibn Yakkar b. Jacob 
Hananiah, 

Abraham Yerushalmi 
Tob 1) 

Abraham Zalah b. Shabbethai.. 

Abrahait zarfati. IS OREO sali hewe 

Abraham b. Zebi 

Abraham b. Zebi. Sash heb edie n- a SD ache 

Abraham ‘(Hayyim) 'b. Zebi 
(Hirsch), 

Abrahatn b. Zebi of Cracow...... 


(bo. Yom- 


Abraham b. Zebi (Hirsch) Kohen 


Abraham b. Zeeb (Wolf) Levi.... 
Adelkind (Brothers)..... 


eee eeeran 


Adelkind (Cornelius b. Baruch).. 


Adelkind (Daniel b. Cornelio).... 
Akiba b. Uri (Phoebus)...... 
Alexander b. Ezekiel.... 
Alexander b. Hayyim 


eeeees eee 


‘Ashke- 


nazi. 

Alexander (Siisskind) b. Kalony- 
mus 

BaenaeE (Sender) b. Meir Kas- 
sewitZ. 

Antunes (Antones?), Aaron...... 

Aryeh (Loeb) b. Gershon Wiener. 


- Aryeh (Judah Loeb) Krochmal b. 
Menahem. 

Aryeh (Judah) Sabibi b. David. 

Aryeh (Loeb) b. Saul b. Joshua... 

Aryeh Sofer b. Hayyim.... 

Aryeh b. Solomon Hayyim... 

Aryeh (Loeb) b. Solomon Kohen 
of Przemysl. 

ye ‘Guda Loeb) Te’omim b. 


Aal 
Aryeh, “tipeb) b. Zeeb (Wolf) 


eeseteos 


Levi. 
Asher (Amschel).......-cseeeeeees 


Place. 


Lublin 
Arnsterdam.... 
Constantinople 


VO@NICE...ceaes 
Verona..... ids 
Constantinople 
Constantinople 
Amsterdam.... 
Venice, Cre- 
mona. 
Venice.... 
VONICBs iiceaesd 


evar 


VeTONa.. ss e+e 
Venice .....s., 


Constantinople} ° 


Constantinople 
betas Sit cine Sa 


Be@cliniss« t3o03 
Offenbach. ... 
Wilmersdort.. 


Dyhernfurth ..) 


Wanudsbeck ,.. 
Homburg 


1544, 65 
1565 


1563, 64, 65, 


% A] 


A 
ie) 
~~ 
we 


Frankfert -on -| 17 


the-Oder, 
Prague... 
Salonica....... 
Constantinople 
Constantinople 
Constantinople 


e#eane 


Venice........ | 1672, 78, 1728 


Amsterdam. . 

Pravue, scene 
PANO. cca0034 
Constantinople} 


1 On be As eae ite 
Constantinople 


Salonica...... ] 


Venice. cisves 
Constantinople 


Venice......05 
Amsterdam.... 


Amsterdam.... 


Amsterdam.... 
Cracow 
Frankfort -on - 
the-Oder. 
Amsterdam... 


Venice........ 1: 


Venice........ 


Sabbionetta aes 


aaeaeee 


Prague.. 
Prague... 


Amsterdam..., 
Prague..... 


Amsterdam.... 
Frankfort - on- 
the-Oder. 


Amsterdam.... 
BOT veesekes 
Bologna....... 
ZOLKICV... sacee 
Frankfort - on- 

the-Main (?). 
Amsterdam.... 


eer e ee eee ree eee 


| 1717 
1534 


1589-40 


«| 1728 


4] 1713 


1697 
el ne 


1512 


J 599- 1606 


1649 (2) 
725-32 
1641, 43 


| 16 663 
Ns 99 


1593-54 
ee 


11616. 17 
1700, 2, 4 


.| 1718-19 


1717-21 (257) 


L227 


ae 
1106 

1537-40 
709 


~. 


1710 
1686, 99 
1700 


Name. 


Asher (Anschel) Altschiiler b. 


Naphtali Herzel, 
Asher (Anschel) b. Eliezer........ 


Asher (Anschel) b. Elijah........ 

Asher (Anschel) b. Gershon Kohen 

Asher (Selig) Hurwitz b. Isaac 
Levi. 

Asher (Selig) b. Isaac of Dubno.. 

Asher (Selig) b. Isaac Kohen..... 


| Asher (Anschel) b. Meir Prostitz. 


Asher Minz b. Perez........ im beees 
Asher (Anschel) b. Moses 
Asher Parentio (Parenz) b. Jacob. 
Asher Tiktin b. Menahem........ 
Astrue de Toulon b. Jacob........ 
Athias, Abraham b. Raphael Hez- 
ekiah. 
Athias, Immanuel b. Joseph...... 
Athias, Josepu b. Abrabam.,..... 
FAV TAD ao d.aeiais ara ee acere ¢ Seats 
AZATIAW Talinid ss siesscccedcce tase evar 
Azriel b. Joseph (bo. Jacob Gun- 
zenhauser) Ashkenazi. 
Azriel b. Moses 


ereem wee 


Azriel b. Moses Schedel 
Azriel Perahyah Kohen 
Azriel ben Solomon Diena.. 
Baer (b. Meshullam 
Mirls ?) of Posen. 
Baerle Rappa......... Pash or a 


eevee sennane 


Zalinan 


Baermann b, Judah Lima Levi 


of Essen. 
Bak (Israel b. Joseph b. Judah).. 


Bak (Jacob [II.] b. Judah),....... 
Bak (Joseph [1.] b. Jacob)........ 


Bak (Joseph [II.] b. Judah)....... 

Bak (Judah [I.] b. Jaeob) 

Bak (Judah [II.] b.Moses b.Jacob) 

Bak (Moses [1.] b. Jacob b. Ju- 
dah). 

Bak (Moses ben Judah) 

esta (Yom-Tob Lipman b. Moses b. 


cob). 
mie Teoh (I.) b. Gershon Wahl.. 


Barucheiiee viedo einnteee ER CBEG 
Baruch Bloch b. Jacob...........- 
Baruch Buchbinder of Wilna..... 


Baruch b. Eliezer Kohen 
Baruch of Frankfort-on-the-Oder. 


Baruch b. Joseph b. Baruch...... 
Baruch of Korez 
Baruch b. Lipmann Wiener...... 
Baruch (Bendet) b. Nathan...... 


Baruch b. Simhah Kalman,...... 
Baruch b. Simhah Levi........... 
Baruch b, SOMO. oc iewcissce se. 
Baruch UsZiel. «oss corse ge sa vines 
Baschwitz (Meir b. Zebi Hirsch). 


Baschwitz (Zebi Hirsch b. Meir).. 


Bat-Sheba (Abraham Joseph).... 

Bat-Sheba (Abraham b. Matta- 
thiah). 

Bat-Sheba eMartttilatt) 3 

Bella Hurwitz Leyvi.. 

Benjamin ( Benusch) 

Benjamin (Wolf) b. Aaron Eliezer 
Worms of Durlach. 

Benjamin b. Aaron Polacco...... 


eewevteone 
eoeranene 


eee eeeee 


Benjamin b. Abraham......-..... 


Typography 


Place. 


Prossnitz...... 
Prague......-. 


Amsterdam.... 


Amsterdam.... 


Prague........| L 


Lublin.. 


ewecene 


Sulzbach. Lhe x 
Amsterdam.,.... 
INGDIES iis. 7-5 56% 

Cracow . 


eereee 


ed 


C onstantinople| | 
Amsterdam.. 


Amsterdam.... 
Atisterdat.... 
Bologna Pe ee 


rime 


eee e ares 


eae etree eee earn 


Amsterdam... : 
Sabbionetta (4 ) 
Ber UN sase.ansrea 


Frankfort - on - 
the-Main. 


PTAQUG 44 6005s 


Lublin.... 
PYAL UE. 6 oe care 
PYARUC 60 ds 


eee 


PYVALUE.. CFG ee 


Prague....s+0. 


Date. 


16038 
1604, 11-17, 
rack 


li 08 al 


1700-9 
1658-85 
1537-38 


1648 
1491, 92 


W716 

1726 
1602-9, 13 
1703 
1510-51 
1716-17 


1718 
1697-99, 1721 


1686, 89, 90, 
91, 95 
1648, 73-96 
1680 

1623, 23-24, 
ae 29,57-00, 


1673-96, 79, 
84, S86 
1620-60, 61- 
69 


Prague........{ 1705, 6, 8, 13- 
20 

PFALUC. cceuss 1686, 97, 1716 

Prague......5 1697 

Prague Seren ret 1713-18, 25 

PUP wacnswmee 1723-24 

Venice....-...| 1598, 99 


Prague....sso- 


Berol 


are rpneeee 


VENICE... eee 
Frankfort -on - 
the-Oder. 


LeEGNOTY 45.5: 
CP TACOW s cases 
Amsterdam. ve 
WOVE Gveasaas 
Sulzbach...... 
Venice...... ie 


Amsterdam. oe 


eeee 


1605; 7, 9, 12- 
i5 
1517 


ite 15, 1% 
579 
705 


1657 
1637 
1726-27 
1727-38 
729 


Ferrara.... D 
Jessnitz.. Fabia ute 1731-32 
BOPON ica cars 1736 
Berlin.........} 1701, 3, 9 
Frankfort-on-| 1708 
the-Oder, 
Dyhernfurth ..| 1719, 20 
Hanan (?)..... 1722 
Saloniea....... 1592-1605 
Verori..seos.s| 159k 
Saloniea....... 1605, 5-6 
Saloniea. 
Prague. 
Lemberg (?)..| 1728 
Frankfort -on -| 1712-16 
the-Main. 
Venice....e...| 1719, 21 
Mantua.......} 1724, 27 
Venice,....... a 28, 29, 30, 


CTACOW eenseee 


4, 58 
1638-39, 40 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Typography 
Name. Place. | Date. 
Benjamin (Samuel) b. Abraham... Lublin........ 1574-75, 76 
Benjamin (Wolf) b. Abrabam Ku- Wilmersdorf ..| 1677 
hen Hinfeld. 
Benjamin (Wolf) b. Asher (An- Amsterdam...,) 1692, 95-96, 
sehel). | OF, 1703 
Benjamin Diaz Patto b. Jacob,...) Amsterdam...) 1645 
Benjamin (Zeeb Woif) b. Elijah..; Frankfort -on-, 1680, 97- 
the-Oder. 
Benjamin b. Elijah Levi..... .-»-) Offenbach. 
Benjamin Galmidi.......... ..ee.| Alsterdam....; 1631-33 
Benjamin (Kohen) Gersoni...... Prague........| 1624 
Benjamin (Shneor) Godinez...... Amsterdam.,..| Li87-88 
Benjamin (Zeeb Wolf) b. Jacob of, Prague........ | 1689 
Ofen, 
Benjamin b. Jehiel (Michael) of} Amsterdam...., 1702 
Kalisz. 
Benjamin b. Jekuthiel...... évvees| HANAI....6.55} L624 
BHenjattin AL IOUAK 5 wis eres da vac Amsterdam.. 1708-10 
Benjamin b. Joseph d’Arignano,.; Rome,......... 1546 
Benjamin b. Joseph of Berlin.. Berle: csv ses | 1711-12, 17 
Benjamin (Wolf) b. Moses Dayyan Amsterdam 1722, 23, 24, 
Frankfurter. 20, 27, 30 
Benjamin b. Moses b. Mattithiah! Venice........ 161 
b. Benjamin. 
Benjamin b. Naphtali Moses...... Offenbach...., | 1716 
Benjatnin (Saul) de Rubeis....... Ferrara ....... 1554 
Benjamin b. Solomon Cantoris,...| Lublin........ 1624, 87 
Cracow .issi0. 1646 
Benjamin (Zeeb) b. Solomon Ko-}| Berlin......... 1712 
hea of Zolkiev. 
Benjamin Wolf b. Joseph Isaac...}| Amsterdam 1724-29 
Benjamin Wolf of Lemberg...... PLAQUE, 6 eis 1614 
Benveniste, or Benbeniste (Im-} Amsterdam.... 1641-59 
manuel). 
Benzion Zarfati (Gallus)...... .--| Venice, 1606-7 
Bezaleel b. Abraham..........06. baby 0 eee eee | 1614 
Bing (Abraham b. Isuac)......... PHVtHA <5 aclsene 1722-24 
Bloch (Moses b. Uri Schraga)....| Sulzbach...... 1684-93 
Bonfed, Shneor b. Joseph b. Zal-| Furth......... 122-24, 
man Shnecr. 28, 29 
Caleb Hazzan b. Joseph .. gacgte|, SMV TNG asa 3.ais 1730 
Yaleb b. Judah Magia‘’............ Constantinople| 1726-37 
Canpillas (Yom-Tob b. Moses) .. Constantinople! 1711 
Salonica....... 1713-24, 29 
Castro- (Crasto-) Tartas (David b.. Amsterdam....| 1660-95 


Abraham). 

Custro-Tartas (Jacob b. Abraham). 

Christfels, Phil. Ernest (Mordecai 
b. Moses of Illenfeld). 

Civioal Brome rseiss csi bees cesses 

Conat (Abraham b. Solomon)..... 

Conat (Estellina). 

Concio (Conzio 7), Abraham b. Jo- 
seph. 

Cordova (Abraham b. Jacob) 

Cordova (Isaac Hezekiah b. Jacob 
Hayyim). 

Cordova (Jacob Hayyim b. Moses 
Raphael). 


Cordova (Moses b. Isaac de)...... 

Daniel Pereira b. Abraham 

David b. Aaron Judah Levi of 
Pinsk. 

David Aboab b, Samuel........... 

David b. Abraham (Azubib ¢ Aso- 
yey 7). 

David Abravanel-Dormido........ 

David Altaras b. Solomon........ 

David BUueno......... cece eens 

David Bueno b. Raphael Hayyim. 


David de Cazeres.......... 
David b. Elasah Levi.............- 
David b. Eliezer Levi of Darlipstadt 


David b. Elijah (Casti)............ 
Pavid b. Elijah b. David...... Sait 
David Fernandez (b. David)...... 
David Ginz b. Solomon.... 
David GrUunhut.....-.see00. 
David b. Hayyim Hazzan.. 
David b. Isaac Kohen............- 
David b. Isaac of Oltensoss....... 
David b. Issachar (Dob Baer of 
Zolkiey).° 


eoeeeaenese 


#eeaucas 


David Jonah Jonathan......... F 
David Jonah Joseph Muskatels. . ae 


Amsterdam.... 
Wilmersdorf.. 


Venice.......- 
Mantua 


EniOrl 3) carwano 


Amsterdam.... 
Amsterdam... 
Hamburg 
Amsterdam.... 


Wilmersdorf.. 


Amsterdam.... 
Amsterdaim.... 
Amsterdam.... 


1664-65, 69 
1713 


"1 1710-14 


1662-64, 64, 
65, 66, 67- 
69, 75, 78, SL 3 
1683, 92-93, 
98-99, LT701- 
3, 14 

1641-42 

1729, 31 

1685 


Venice........ | 1702 


Salonica....... 


1578-86 (877) 


Amsterdam..... 1642 
Venice ....... | 1675-1718 | 
| Leghorn. 
Venice........} 1704-5, 6, 7, 
77s 16. 20> 
21, +) 
Amsterdam....| 1661 
PNR eters ee 489 
Amsterdam.... ee 28, 30, 
Constantinople) 1574, 75, 86 
Salonica....... 1713-21, 29 
Amsterdam....| 1715, 26 
Offenbach..... VW17 
Gg stag iced boa 1712 
Smyrna....... | 1729-41 
Amsterdam....| 1644 
PUTER eiccc eevee 
Zolkiey ....... 1694, 96 
Bertin.........| 1699, 1701, 
os a be 
Amsterdam..../ 1700, 1, 5 
Hanau........| 1710 
Zolkiey........ LV21 
O@lSi ce ces cous | 1530 
Prague........ 1705-6 


ya fh ep 


Name. 


David Jonab b. Shabbethai Jo- 
nah. 

David b. Judah (Loeb) of Cra- 
cow. 

Pavid: RONEN. oseseegek ev eeawkaws 

David de Lida b. Pethahiah b. Da- 
vid. 

David of Maarsen.... 

David Maza b. Aaron.......... ar 


David b. Menahem Kohen.,...... 
David b. Moses of Rheindorf...,.. 


David Nordlingen, 
Duvid Nunez-Torres woe eee oe ee enee 


David Peppe b. Abraham 

David Pizzighetton b. E ee ae 

David Portaleone b. Moses.. 

David Portero 

eth Provencal b, Abraham 
David (Naphtali! di Rieti b. Hana- 
niah. 

David de ia Rocea, 

David b. Samuel Kohen 

David b. Shemaiah Saugers....... 


ee 


eee ene eee wee eee 


aoe ee eee ew ee eee 


Pe ee ee 


David de Silva b. Hezekiah.,..... 
David (Israel) del Soto.........008. 
David b. Uri (Phoebus)... 2.26.56. 
David. Valensi. os 3454 cdc cds ceca ees 
David ibn Yahva b. Joseph........ 
Davie b. Yom-Tob Deuz 
Eleazar (Enoch) Altschul 


Samar ee ees 


Eleazar b. David..... jst veces ' 
Eleazar b. lsaac Levl 


+eeae 


een eenaestewmene 


Eleazar b. Moses Kohen 
Eleazar b, Shabbethai Balgid.. 
Eleazar Sussmann b. Isaac... 


Elhanan (Jacob) Archevolti b. 
Samuel. 

Elhanan b. Naphtali......eesseoe. 

Eliakim (Goetz) b. Israel.......... 

Elinkim by dato. ocendecscocs as 


Eliakim (Goetz) b. Mordecai. 

Eliezer (Leser) b. Abraham...... 

Eliezer (ibn) Alantansi b. Abra- 
ham. 

Eliezer b. Benjamin of Prossnitz. 


Eliezer of Braunschweig.......... 
Eliezer Darli 
Eliezer (Lasi) b. David Emrich... 
Eliezer (Leser) Floersheim 


eeeoeneeer err ees eoee 


eeheeee 


Eliezer b. Hayyim..... 
Eliezer Hayyut b. Isaac........... 
Eliezer b. Isaac AshkenaZi..,..... 


Eliezer b. Isaac Jacob of Lublin.. 
Eliezer b. Isaac b. Naphtali....... 
Eliezer b. Isaac of Prague........ 
Eliezer (Hayyim) b. Isaiah Nizza. 
Eliezer (Leser) b. Israel Levi 
BHegzer Was os cen staceas sass es 
Eliezer b. Jacob ; 
Eliezer b. Joseph of Lisk........ ae 


aeete 


seer eee eee ee epewewes 


Eliezer b. Joshua Nehemiah...... 

Kliezer Kohen...... Se a selape shale ite 

Eliezer Liebermann b. "Alex- 
ander Bingen. 

Eliezer Liebermann b. Yiftah 
Levi. 

Eliezer Lipmann Ob. IJssachar 
Kohen Hannover. 

Eliezer b, Meshullam........se085 

Eliezer b. Meshullam of Lublin... 

Eliezer b. Mordecai Reckendorf. . 

Eliezer Provencal b. Abraham b. 
David. 

Eliezer b. Samuel....... ivaeai a ecanas 

Eliezer (Leser) Shuk 


Ce ee 


Fliezer ibn Shoshan b. David. 


HileZer SUDMG se oye ease ashe « 


Eliezer Todros 
Eliezer Toledano...........-.065 , 


 eeent ae 


* 
lA Re SA Se PA ee a NL i ee RTS 


ee 


Place. 


Salonica.... 


Lublin. 


Frankfort - on - 
the-Main. 
Alnsterdam... . 
Mantua... 
Salonica....+.: 
Hanau... 
Frankfort - on - 
the-Main. 
CYEMONG. &.s0.0 
Amsterdam.... 


eneee 


Venice, oi.eaa 
Venice........ 
Manti..isaisss 
Pesaro.. 
YORICE iis. awes 
Mantua. 


Venice........ 
Amsterdam.... 
Frankfort - on - 
the-Main. 
Amsterdam.... 
Amsterdam... 
Amsterdam... 
Zolkiev 
Leghorn 
Constantinople 
Amsterdaim.... 
PRASUG. fs c054s 


eee nee 


Cracow 

Frankfort -on- 
the-Oder. 

| Amsterdam... . 

ae 


eee er we 


Amsterdam.... 
Homburg 
Amsterdam..., 


Jessnitz..... 
TXaM ss ikeccagccd 


Cracow 
FProganitz 5.425 
Sabbionetta.. 
Salonica..... 3 
Amsterdam... 
Frank fort - on - - 
the-Main. 


Frankfort -on fs 
the-Oder. 
Consta ntinople 


@tauteven 


Wilmersdorf. 
Lublin 


eeareene 


Amsterdam.... 
| Mantua,, 

| Constantinople 
i Wilmersdort.. 
Frankfort - on - 

the-Oder. 

Wandsbeck... 
Cracow 
Hanau.....-8- 


poner 


efeseeone 


Amsterdam.... 


Amsterdam.... 
Frankfort-on - 
the-Oder. 
pe attains 
Page nates. 
Prague. ..css 
Offenbach..,.. 
Mantua....... 
Soncino....... 
Frankfort - on- 
the-Main. 


WETICE:  oriae 
| Salonica....... 
t TISDOW 4 eda 


Constantinople) 1509 


Liz7 


1664, 66 
1705-15 (?) 
1650-57 
1509 
1649-53 
1686, LT05- 
6 


1596 
1686 


tae 705 


| 1724-26 


1487-90 


"| 1692 
1707, 8, 9 


1610 
1614, 15 
lvaz 


aa 76, 86 
1avi~ 79, 87 


eae 5, TT 
1680-81 
1732 
1598-94 
71a 


1710 


1490 
1690-1700 


1718 
1532-33 
1489-92 


311 


Name. 


Eliezer Treves b. Naphtali Hirz... 


Eliezer Zarfati b. Elijah. 

Elijah Aboab 

Elijah b. Abraham 
Jacob Levi. 

Elijah b. Azriel Wilna............ 


or epr eee eee eee eh 


(Israel) b. 


Elijah Belin b. Moses (Joseph).... 

Bad Galnnidhes vicse ces ed. Rca 

Elijah (Menahem) Halfan b. Abba 
Mari. 

Elijah b. Isaac Sebleifer.......... 

ae b. Stet eon ie 


Elijah Mi- 
chael. 
Elijah Levi b. Benjamin.......... 


Bli ah: LOVibe.. soars vac tee ge on eens 


(Judah de) Leon b. 


Elijah b. Moses b. Abraham Abinu 


Elijah Rabbah b. Menahem....... 

BAM: RAlCCOsc va s.acdap aa seas yaa 

Elijah b, Simeon Oettingen....... 

Elijah VelOSinus......ccesreccsees 

Elijah Ziinzburger b. Seligman 
(Selikmann) b. Moses Simeon 
Ulma. 

Elijah Zur b. Samuel Zuri........ 

Elimelech b. David Melamed 
of Cracow. 

Elishama Sifroni b. Israel........ 


Ella (bat Moses ben Abraham 7?).. 


Ella bat Hayyimi.s ics sccceeeenes 

ENG é0 cas midabacnaalnianased wale oe 

Enoch wb. Issachar (Baermann) 
Levi. 


Ephraim Bueno (ben Joseph)..... 


Ephraim KOhen.... scscivegeces nee 
Ephraim Melli b. Mordecai....... 
Ephraim b. Pesach of Miedzyboz. 
Ephraim (Zalman) b. Solomon 

Reinbach (Rheinbach 7) of Lis- 


sa. 
Esther, widow of Elijah Handali. 
EZe@kiel Bb: JAC. cseke veaasace en 
Ezekiel (Moses) b. Jacob..,....... 
Ezekiel b. Moses Gabbai.......... 


Ezra Alchadib bh. Solomon.....--. 
Ezra b. Mordecai Kohen.......... 


Fon {Nathanial ses cess se cowed con 
Foa (Tobia b. Eliezer)............ 
Fonseca (Daniel de) .......ceceeee 
Franco (Abraham b. Solomon)... 
Franco (SOlOmMOn)........eeeeeee 
Frosch, Christian, of Augsburg... 


Fundam (ISeae) is ss ide civccstuece 
Gabbai (Abraham b. Jedidiah)... 


Gabbali (Tsa@ac)....csccacsvsccoves 
Gabbai (Jedidiah b. Isaac),...... 
Gabriel Levi of Vratislavia....... 


Gabriel Strassburg b. Aaron...... 
Gad Conian b. Israel............-- 


Gamaliel b. Eliakim (GO6tz) of Hamburg .. 


Lissa. 

Gedaliah (Don Judah) ........... 
Gedaliah Cordovero b. Moses..... 
Gedaliah b. Solomon Lipsebtitz... 
Gela (Gella) 
Gershon AshkenaZi.........2.000 
Gershon b. Hayyim David Levi... 
Gershon Hefez b. Kalonymus.. 


eee ee eee epe ee ere eee 


Gershon Poper (or Popper)....... Ba 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Typography 
| H 
Place. | Date, Name. Place. Date. 
MMTION acs Sess 1538 Gershon Wiener b, Naphtali Hirsch| Frankfort -on-| 1690, 96, 98, 
Thiengen......) 1560 the-Oder. 17 00, 3, 5 
7, 8, 14, 
Amsterdam....| 1644-45 21,2 : 
Frankfort- on -| 1711-12 Berlin......... 1702, 3, 9 
the-Oder. Gumpel Kohen b. Jacob Hannover! Amsterdam..,.| 1712 
Amsterdam... .| 1690 Guinprich b. Abraham............ Amsterdam....| 1717, 21, 25, 
Frankfort - on -} 1704-18 26, 27, 
the-Main. Gitel bat Judah Loeb b. Alexan-| Prague........j; 1627 
Homburg..... 1738 der Kohen. 
Hamburg..... 1663 Haehnde) (Elhanan) b. Hayyim; Amsterdam....| 1711, 18 
Constantinople) 174 Drucker. 
Venice........ 1551 Haliez (Johannes).. sl dicae'e'st ¥a:t CTACOW.< 6340 e% 1538-39 
HalicZ (Paul) cscs se seaancatocee Cracow ....... 1540 
Prague........| 1612 Halicz (Samuel b. Hayyim). cawies Cracow ....... 1534 
VOTON gins clea 1649 Hananiah b. Eliezer ha-Shimeoni| Constantinople! 1513 
Amsterdam..,.| 1697 Sustin. Satonica....... 1521 
Hanau........ 1611-14 Hananiah Finzi............ce0ee. Venice........ 1587 
Basel ......... 1622 Hananiah b. Jacob Saul..... ..---| Salonica ...... 1719 
HAHEI yo vlen ane 1623-30 Hananiah ibn Yakkar............| Constantinople) 1513, 78 
Amsterdam....| 1659, 66 Hananiah Marun............e0008 Mantua........) 1623-24 
Hananiah ibn Sikri (Sacecari ?) b.| Amsterdam....} 1715 
Constantinople; 15038, 9 Isaiah. 
Venice........ 1525, 29, 32, Hayyim b. Abraham...........0.. Constantinople) 1719 
, 45, Hayyim Alfandari...... ania a Ski Constantinople} 1717 
dy Ortakeui...... 17419 
Frankfort -on-| 1704-8 Hayyim Alscheich b. Moses...... Venice........ 1601, 3, 5, 7 
the-Oder. Hayyim Alton b. Moses.......... Venice........ 1522-23, 27 
Venice ........ 1604-5 Hayvim Altschul b. Mordecai| Dessau........ 1696-99 
Salonica....... 1529 (Gumpel) of Prague. Dybernfurth ..| 1703 
PUPLU pais eas 1692 . Amsterdam....; 1708, 9, 10, 
Amsterdam....| 1664 10-12, 17- 
Hanau........ 1615-17 18, 23, 23, 
24, 26, 32 
Hayyim Casino,..........cceeeees Constantinople; 1719 
Constantinople| 1537 Hayyim Cesarini (Casirino) b.| Constantinople} 1519 
Berns s..aewes 1705 Shabbethai. 
Hayyim b. David Kohen.......... Constantinople) 1537 
Mantua.,....../ 1593 Venice........ 1546 
Venice. ..e.ss: 1596, 1601 Hayyim b. Ephraim (Gumprecht)! Berlin......... 1712, 17 
Mantua........| 161 g' of Dessau. Kéthen........ 1717 
Frankfort - on -| 1699-1700 Jessnitz....... 1719 
the-Oder Berlin.......0. i 4 (?) 
LUD x68 eoe 1556 Prague........ te 30) 
Prague... cece es 1602 Sulzbach...... 
Bern sacudaare 1709 Hayyim (Jedidiah) ibn Ezra..... Saloniva....... tt 
Frankfort - on -! 1712 Hayyim Gatigno b. Samuel.......| Cremona....,.} 1558-60 
the-Oder. | Hayyim b. Hayyim............... Wilmersdorf . “| AT, 17, 19 
Amsterdam....| 1626-28, 30, Hayyim Hazzan b. David Hazzan Constantinople 177 
"| 48, 50, 52, Hayyim b. Isaac b. Hayyim..... Lublin........ 1556-67 
-64 Hayyim b. Isaac Levi Ashke- Naples........ 1486 
Mantua........ 1589-90 nazi. 
Mantua.. ..| 1563 Hayyim b. Israel............ ....| Amsterdam....; 1709 
Frankfort - on -| 1681 Hayyim b. Issachar b. Israel...... Prague..... ...| 1623-24 
the-Main. Hayyim b. Jacob Drucker........ Amsterdam... .| 1680-1724 
Adrianople,...| 1555 Hayyim b. Jacob of Hamelburg..| Amsterdam....! 1670 
Mantua........| 1676 Hayyim b. Jacob (Gel Jikels) Prague..... ...| 1603-4 
Lublin (?) ....| 1678 Kohen 
Amsterdam... .| 1699 Hayyim. (Mordecai) WJOSEDN sie) Giawiaaeedaneee 1407 
Hayyim b. Joseph Kohen....... ..| Prague........| 1891, 1705-6 
Hayyim b. Judab.............. ...| Lublin........; 1648 
Constantinople! 1566 Prague........ 1657, 62-63, 
Amsterdam....| 1695 7D 
Prague......-.] 1590 Hayyim b. Judah (Loeb)..... ....| Prague........ 1689, 91, 94, 
CLaCOW veces ve ee 93- ae 97 ,1705- 
Venice........ 1608-9 Hayyim b. Judah (Loeb)....... ..| AMmsterdam....| 1695 
Dyhernfurth..;) 1712, 18, 15, Hayyim b. Katriel of Cracow..... Prague....... 1686 
19, 20, 26 Dyhernfurth ..| 1689, 90, 91, 
Amsterdam....| 1702-15 93, 96, 99 
Sabbionetta....| 1531-59 Berlin.........} 1708-5, 9, 14, 
Amsterdam... .| 1627 17 
Constantinople’) 1640-83 Frankfort -on-} 1717 
Constantinople) 1638-40 the-Oder. 
Frankfort - on -; 1711 Hayyim Katschigi b. Jacob.. Constantinople] 1732 
the-Main. Hayyim Kimbib. Jacob........... Constantinople] 1714 
Amsterdam....) 1728-24 Hayyim TigWliNOloss occa eves aess Amsterdam....| 1702 
Smyrna....... 1657-75 Hayyim (Shalom) Ma‘ ali Kohen b. Constantinople| 1719-20 
Constantinople) 1662 Benjamin. 
Venice........ | 1397 Hayyim b. Moses Menahem (Man)| Amsterdam... .| 1725-26, 26, 
Leghorn ...... 1650-57 Danziger Danzig. 39-40 
Frankfort -on-} 1723 Hayyim (Selig) b. Nathaniel,.....) ccc. ccceeceees 1697 
the-Oder. Hayyim b. Samuel Ashkenazi.....; Constantinople] 1561-62 
Soncino....... 1484 Hayyim ibn Saruk...............; Venice......6- 1566, 74 
Constantinopie} 1719, 20 Hayyim b. Simhah Ashkenazi Levil Basel.......... 1609 
1687 Hayyim b. Solomon Austerlitz...., Prague........ 1601 
Hayyim Tawil b. Moses........... Constantinople; 1715-18 
! Lisbon. Hayyim b. Zebi (Hirsch) Kohen of; Dyhernfurth .. ae 13, 15 
-Salonica.......| 1515-35 Kalisz. Hanau........ 
Venice......5. 1587, 88 Hayyim b. Zeeb (Wolf) Levi......| Amsterdam 1674-76, 85 
Venice........ 1616 Hene (Coelius) of Basel........... Prague........ 1624 
Halle..s2.%4008 1709-10 Hezekiah Fand......csecccceecces Venice........ 1574-75 
Cracow .......} 1646-47 Hezekiah Montro........cceeeeees Venice ....... 477 
Zolkiev ....... 1730 Hirsch (Zebi) b. Hayyim.......... Wilmersdorf ..] 1712-38 
Venice........ 1627 FUL i ese 1739-49 
Prague.-..+. ..1 1610, 11 Hirz, Gener Eliezer Vindob....... Amsterdam 1712 


312 


Typography THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
Name. Place. Date. | | Name. Place: Date. 
ote) i 4 | PS i 
Hirz Levi Rofe.......... states ...| Amsterdam....) 1721, 25, 26, | Isaac b. Judah Kohen Wahl of Amsterdam....) 1685-87 
' 27-68 Janospol. | 
Hiyya Meir b. David.............. Venice........ 1519-22 Isaac b. Kalonymus of Bilgoraj... Jessnitz.. 1720 
Hivya Pisa... cee eee eee eee Veni. ocaciecns! 174 Isaac (Fisak) b. Kalonymus Kohen Dy hernfurth . . 1725-26, ea 
Hosea Cividal b. Raphael ore Venice. .....06. 1593-94 [sate RASPOlA soa a4 sins wes aanes Constantinople ree sf] 
TIMTHANUO od es did sisi cere 6 wae Zamora ....66. JAGZ Isaac Katzenellenbogen b. Abra- Ansterdam....: 1686 
Immannel ibn Atthar CAttar).. Almsterdam....; 1686 ham. 
Iminanuel b. Gabriel Gallichi..... Muantua....... : 1558-60 Isaac (Kohen) de Lara b, Abraham Amsterdam....' 1699- 170 
Immanuel Henriquez b. Joshua..| Aimsterdain....) 1730, 32 Isaac (Joshua) de Lattes........... Rome@......... 1546 
ISAAC... eee eee a hasta ea eel Na ance Lublin..... tee 16 Si [Stac: LeONs adc scernesweee ets oe .. Venice........ 1605 
Isaae b. Aaron.. cakes) PLOGuers.ve0ss ; 160 Constantinople 1618 
Isaac b. Aaron of Prostitz. Sauna Cracow ites of 1389- 1612 . Venice....... .' 1630 
Prossnitz..... i 1602-9 Isaac ha-Levi b. Jacob... .. se eee .| Venice........ 1635, 52 
Isaac b. Aaron Samuel,...........) Prague wo... ee 610 Isaac Luria b. Moses........ eee Venice....ceee 12 
Isaac b. Abigdor Levi............. ROME csc eccccat LOTS Isaac MAnhler......+-eseeeeeeeeens | Pragne........) 1600 
Isaac ADOaD......ce cece cee aceeeee Venice........ 1590 Isaac Marquez di Paz...... Gicantes | Amsterdam..../ 1706 
Isaac Aboab b. David.............| Amosterdam....; 1626-27 [Tsaac Masia .... ce cee eee eee ee | Tannhausen.. | 1594 
Isane Aboab b. Mattithiah. Isaac b. Meir Ashkenazi enue ator Amsterdam... | 1695 
Isaae b. Abraham..........00000- Lublin,....... 1574-76 Tsaac b. Menahem............006. , Cracow .....6. 15 34 
Isaac b. Abraham Ashkenazi.....| Lublin........ j5o7 Isaac (Fisak) b. Menahem (Zoret) Cracow ....... 1638-40, 48 
Isane b. Abraham Ashkenazi..... Damascus..... 1606 . Lublin. 
Isaac b. Abraham Kohen of Me-| Lublin........! 1646 Isaac b. Meshullam Posen........ | Cracow — (No-| 1591 
Servilz. vidvor). 
Isaac Alfandari b. Abraham......! Constantinople ie 16-20 Isaac Montalto b. Elijah.......... Amsterdam..,.) 1637 
Tsaace Alnaqua...........e ecu Venice........ 648° Isaac b. Moses Eckendorf......... | Basel ...... .».| 1599 
Isaac b. Aryeh (Loeb) Dayyan Amsterdain..,. es Isauc (Kisak) b. Moses Grillingen., Wilmersdorf. .| 1732 
b. Isaac. FUT ia vsecas 1 1738-45 
Isaac b. Asher (Ensel = Anschel)| Wandsbeck....; 1732 Isaac (Eisak) b. Naphtali Diden-) Wilmersdorf ..| 1726 
of Nerol. hofen. 
Isaac Bassan b. Samuel........... Venice.,......) 1560 Isaac b. Naphtali (Hirz) Kohen...| Amsterdam....| 1710, 23-24, 
Isanc Benveniste b. Joseph........| Hamburg ..... ee 32 
Amsterdam... .) {715 Isane Nehemiah.......ceceeeeveee Amsterdam....| 1627 
_ Isaac Bingen b. Samuel....... coset DUBIN oxi eens! 1646 Isaac Norzi b. Samuel,...........! Mantua........, 1598 
Venice........$ 1bad Isaae Nufiez b. David.,........06. Amsterdam... | 1664 
Isaac. (Eisak) Bresnitz Levi.......{ Prague........ 1623 Isaac Pacifieo b. Asher............ Venice........| 1712-15 
Isaac Bueno de Mesguita b, Jo-| Amsterdam.... 1718 Isaae (Lopez) Pereira b. Moses....) Amsterdam....) 1726, 29 
seph. Isaac della Pinia b. Abraham.....; Amsterdam....| 1712 
Isauc CANSINO.... ccc cee eee eee ee Amsterdam....) 1685 Isaac Rabbino b. Abraham........ ' Mantua........) 1718 
Isaac Cavallino "p. Eliezer Pata-| Venice........ | 1624 Isaac Sasportas b. Jacob..........: Amsterdam....| 1685 
vini of Mantua. Isaac b. S@lig.. cc. cece cee ee eee ees | Frankfort-on - 1725, 27, 29 
Isaac Diaz b. Abraham........... Amsterdam..../ 1719 the-Oder. 
Isaac (Eisak) b. Elia of Rogasen..| Frankfort-on- 1725, 29 Isaac Simeon b. Judah (Loeb) of Frankfort -on-| 1697 
the-Oder. Hee hin gen. the-Main. 
Isaac (Eisak) b. Elia of Tarli..... Ses Wi Isaac b. Simeon Samuel Levi... Hanau........ ae 11-14, 
the-Oder. 2 
Isaac b. Eliakim of Bingen....... | Amsterdam.... 1643-44 Isaac h. Solomon (Gumt ?)....... | Constantinople 1411 
Isaac (Kisak) Eliezer (Lipman)...; Hamburg...... | 1690 Isaac b. Solomon (Zalman)....... Dyhernfurth..| 1695, 96 
Isaac (Fisak) Eliezer b. Isaac of} Lublin........) 1567-68, 70- | Frankfort -on -) 1698, — 1708, 
Prague. 73 i the-Oder. 13, 17, 18, 
Isaac (Jucob) b. Eliezer of Prostitz}| Lublin......... 1616, 26, 39, | 26 
a 46 | Isaac b. Solomon b. Israel......... : Wilmersdorf,.) 17380 
Isaac (Eisak) b. Elijah of Berlin..| Amsterdam....| 1706 Isaac Spira b. Nathan............- | Lublin........! 1597 
Isaac b. Elijah of Brzesc.......... Cracow .......} 1631 | Isaac Sullam (Salem ?) b. Joseph... Mantua........, 1563, 65 
Isaac (Meir) Fraenkel Teomim... Amsterdam... .| 1676-738 Venice..... ..., 1568, 1687 
Isaac Gail... cece see es nia te ila Salonica.......| 1594 Isaac Tausk b. Selig...........0e- | Prague......../ 1708, 6, 10, 
TAA GERSHON bas casas Geneon ewes Venice........ 1587-1615 18-19, 5, 
Tsaac GOrshon....e see eees Mead | DET Die sies 1706 28, 35-36 
Isaac b. Gershon of Torbin..... .o.} Cracow .......) 1628 Isaac Treves b. Gershon.......... Venice........) 1568, 78, 83, 
Isaac b. Hayyim of Cracow....... Cracow (7) 8d 
Lublin (7) ....] 16- Isaac Tschelebi b. Elia Polichrono| Venice........{ 1630 
Prajrue (%) Isaac (Elijah) b. Uri Kohen ..) Prague........ ; 1621 
Isaac b. Hayyim of Cracow.......| Wandsbeck . 121-30 Isaac (Eisak) b. Zebi ( Hirsch), Jessnitz. 
Berlin...... oo] 1733 Levi of Kalisz. 
Amsterdam... .| 1739 | Isaiah ANAW............0eee Ree | Basel ......... 1610 
Dessatl.....eee 1742 ; Isaiah ASNKENAZI.. 065 cc ccceneaens Constantinople) 1719 
Isaac b. Hayyim Hazzan........ Constantinople| 1550 | Isaiah h. Isaac b. Isaiah of Woidi-) Frankfort-on -, 1717 
Isaac b. Hayyim b. Isaac Kohen| Prague........ 1655 slaw. the-Oder. 
b. Simson. Fyank fort - on -| 1687 Kétben.......| 1717 
the-Main. JESSNitZ...... ; 1719-20 
Isaac Hazzan b. Joseph........... Venice........| 1567 Isaiah b. Meir Bunzlau........0. CYACOW .. 6.00! 1594 
Isaac R. Hoescheis (i.é., b. Joshua)| Cracow ....... 1571 | Isaiah b. Moses of Sniatyn........ | Constantinople; W11 
Isaac Hurwitz Levi b. Meshullam.; Frankfort - on-| 1677, 80 Isaiah Parnas b. Elasar (Eliezer)... Venice oo. 1529, 31-32 
the-Oder. Isaiah di Trani b. Joseph......... | C ‘onstantinople’ 1641 
Prague........ PE88-94, 95 Ishmael Marono.........e8eee coe) Venice.......e 1601 
Frankfort - on -| 1697-99 Israel b. Abraham................ | KOthen . 717 
the-Oder. | Jessnitz.. eis 1719-26 
Prague........| 1703-6, 10 Wandsbeeck ...) 1726-383 
Isaac Hurwitz Levi b. Moses Hay-| Hamburg...... 1700-1 | JessnitZ......- 1139-44 
yim. : .| Israel] Altschul b. Solomon......../ Prague........ i 1613, 20 
Isaae b. Isaiah Jehiel..... .e.eos-}| Constantinople! 1654 |) Jsrael ASHKenaZi- wc. eee ee eee | Pisaur | 
Isaac ISTACL . 0.6... see e eee receeees CracOW ....... 596 Israel b. Fliakim (Goetz)......... | Venice..... vee 1704-5 
Isaac b. Jacob b. Isaac............} Venice........ 1695, 96, Israel b. Hayyim Bunzlau........ ' Amsterdam....| 1688 
VOU, 2, 5, Israel b. Jedidiah of Leipnik...... Lublin........ 1619 
Isaac Jafe b. Israet............66- Berlin... ae Va) | Israel Kohen b. Joseph........... Lubdjin........ 1556, 
Isaac Jafe b. Samuel..............| Vemice........ 1597-1606 Israel D. M@ir.....000ececerssccees Wilmersdorf ../ 1712 
Isaac Jare b. David...........00e Mantua........| 1718-28 Israel b, MOSES.....ceeeeeeeeeeee| DOSSAN........ 1696 
Isaac Je@SHULUN......... cece eee ee Smyrna.......| 1659 Frankfort - on-, 1700 
Isaac (Eisak) b. Jonathan of Posen| Lublin......../ 1595 the-Oder. 
Isaac (Eisak) b. Joseph (b. Isaac b.| Jessnitz.......| 1724, 26 Dessaul......../ 1704 
Isaiah) Dyhernfurth ..! 1725 Israel b. Moses b. Abraham.......| Offenbach.....; 1719-83 
Wandsbeck....| 1727-82 Homburg ..... 1734 
Isaac (Selig) b. Judah Budin.....| Dyhernfurth ..| 1692 Neuwied......| 1735-36 
Zolkiev.....++.| 1693 Offenbach.....; 1737 
Isaac b. Judah (Loeb) Jiidels Ko-| Wilmersdorf ..| 1670-90 | Jessnitz....... 1739 
hen. Sulzbach. Israel b. Moses b. Abraham Abinu} Amsterdam....} 1694 
Isaac b. Judah Kohen (Kaz)......! Prague........! 1648 Israel b. Moses of Berlin......,...! Berlin.........1 1027 


313 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Typography 
§ 
Name. Place. Date. | | Name. Place. Date. 
Israel Sifroni b. Daniel........... | Sabbionetta ij; Jacob b. Isaac Levi...............| Wenice........ 1678, 82, 90 
| Basel vc i ossaes 1578-81, 83 : 90-91, 
| Freiburg...,.. | 1583-84 Jacob b. Isaac Levi...........066. Amsterdam....| 1688 
| Venice........ 1588, 1604 Jacob ISTAC].... eee ccc cece eee n eee | Mayence (? ye 1584 
Israel Zarfati of Milhau..........-. | Constantinople| 1418 Jacob b. Issachar (Dob) Cantor...i Zolkiev ....... 1718 
Issachar (Baer) b, Aaron b. Isaac; Cracow ....... 1619 Jacob JOSHurull......cccccscceeees Amsterdam....| 1660 
Drucker. Jacob bh, Joel Levi... ec cece eee | Amsterdam... 1701 
Issachar (Baer) b. Abraham of, | Dessaul........ 704 Jacob b. Joseph. 
Kalisz. Jacob (Hai) b. Joseph (Hai) Ko- Venice........ 1693, 96, 98, 
Issachar (Baer) b. Eliezer of Min-| Amsterdam....|1685, 88, hen. 1702, 4, 4, 
den. 92-1703, 11 12-15 
Issachar (Dob Baer) b. Gershon, Frankfort-on -| 1727-72 Jacob b. Judah Noah Kohen Nor-! Amsterdam....| 1640 
Wiener. | the-Oder. den. | 
Issachar (Baer) Hazzan.........- PAP UGs sk aacion 1609-10 Jacob b. Judah Shneor............ Amsterdam....) 1683 
Issachar (Dob Baer) b. Isaac.. | hubs e500 1680-8 L Jacob (Koppel) Kohen............ Amsterdam....) 1715 
Issachar (Baer) b. Issachar Kohen 1) PUT 05.4 58% 1691 Offenbach..... 1718 
PRaARUG Ac<sas 1692, 95, Jacob Kohen della Man.,......... FONICO ness i054 1616 
1718-19 JACOD AUN ion saiesiva sean oawaa aids Constantinople! 1719, 27, 28, 
Issachar (Dob Baer) b. Judah} Amsterdatn....| 1725-26, 27, |! 3] 
(Loeb). 30, 38 | Jacob Landati........ssesvseeeees Naples .....-.. 1487 
Issachar (Baer) b. Natban Ko-| Dyhernfurth . .| 1718-83 Jacob (Koppel) Levi...........05- Sulzbach......; 1700 
hen, Jacob Levi of Taraseon....... vee.| Mantua........; Ante 1480 
Issachar Perlbefter.....ceceeeeeee Prague........) 1687 Jacob Lubemila............c0000e Amsterdam..../ 1728 
Issachar b. (Abi Esri) Selke....... Frankfort -on-| 16 97-99, Jacob Lugzat b. Tsaac....... eee ee Cracow ....... 1569 
the-Oder. 170 Jacob Marcaria.........65. Sacuteuass Riva di Trento} 1558-62 
Berlin... sea 1712," 14-15, |! Jaecov b. Meir... ssclseceeee ee Lublin........ 1598-99 
\7 Jacob b. Meir H6lischau.......... CracOW ....... 1608, 17 
Prague.. Og Jacob Mendez da Costa.........5- Wandsbeck ...| 1733 
Frankfort - on-| 1727, 29 Jacob de M@ZA..... ccc cece e cee nees Amsterdam....! 1705 
the-Oder. Jacob b. Mordecai....... cscs eeees Atmsterdam....| 1708 
Jabez (Solomon b. Isaac b. Jo-| Adrianople....| 1544 Jacob b. Mordecai b. Jacob....... Prague........ 1597 
seph b. Hayyim). Salonica....,..} 1555 Jacob b. Moses......seeeee sarod Amsterdam....; 1696 
Constantinople ae , i3- |) Jacob (Zebi) b. Moses.........0055 Wilmersdorf .. ee 
7, ~ 
Jabez Joseph b. Isaac............ Adrianople.... 1534 26-38 
Salonica....... 1463-72, 73- EU Misses tend 1691-97, 17 24- 
15, +6- 26, 38 
Jacob b. Aaron Ashkenazi........] Venice........ 1704 Sulzbach...... 1690-1712, 29 
Jacob (Koppel) b. (Hayyimn ?)....| Offenbach..... 1718 Jacob b. Moses Bohemus.......... Lublin........ 1506, 59, 66 
Jacob b. Abigdor LeVi............ Rome.......-. 1518 Jacob b. Moses Drucker.......... Amsterdam....| 1600 
"ridin. «2.023% 1525 Jacob b. Moses Kohen........cees ' Hanau........ 1710-11 
Jacob Aboab b. Abraham,........ Venice........ 1669, 82, 83 Jacob (Eliezer) b. Moses Lesers of, CYACOW ....00- 1640 
Jacob Abvab b. Joseph......-+... Veniee@siiisens 1708, 11 Wilna. 
Jacob b. Abraham.,...:..¢raeeraall veesteaulen anaes 1665-72 Jacob b. Moses Levi.......-00e0-: Amsterdam....| 1690, 95, 9 
Jacob b. Abraham AshkenaZzi.....]| Damascus. 1606 99, 1702-3, 
Jacob b. Abraham Ashkenazi of] C ‘onstantinople 1648, 52, 54 4, 6, d- 10, 
Ziwatow. 11- 42,14, 15, 
Jacob b. Abraham Ger............ Amsterdam... .| 1708--9, 9, 12, | 24 2s, 30, 39 
13, 15, 21, '| Jacob b. Moses Levi Josbel....... Venice........ 1643, 47-45, 
22, 25, 28, 57, 61, 67 
30 Jacob b. Moses-Loeb PizKer...... Prague........ 1609 
Jacob b. Abraham Israel Ger..... Amsterdam.,...| 1664 Jacob b, Moses of Posen.,.....2.. Dessau........ 1693 
Jacob b. Abraham of Jerusalem..| Coustantinople| 1719-20 Jacob b. Naphtalic..cs cece eeu e eee Cracow ....05. 1576-817 
Jacob b. Abraham of Leipnik..... CPECOW vaste! 1618 Jacob b. Naphtali......... eee eee FUP vaata sees 17:23 
LA ogee Bae 1627, 33-85 Wilmersdorf ..| 1728-29, 30 - 
Jaccb b. Abraham of Lublin...... NDING since is 1618-20, Pen Suizbach...... 1 175 
27, 33 (357) Fiirth......... 1757, 69 
Jacob b. Abraham Moses,......... Amsterdam....! 166] Jacob b. Naphtali (Hirsch)....... Atusterdam..../ 1688 
Jacob b. Abraham Polak.......... HUSEL As eerxean (1598, 99, Dyhernfurth ..| 1691, 93 
1600, : Jacob b. Naphtali Kohen of Gazolo} Sabb:onetta,..| 1531 
Jacob b. Abraham of Rowno...... Berlinns.; +2354 1726 Mantua........| 1556, 57-60, 
Jacob b. Abrahain Tininger.......| Basel......... 599 60-62 
Jacob Alfandari b. Hayyim....... Constantinople) 1670-71 Jacob (Koppel) b. Napktali} Amsterdam... .! 1726, 30 
Jacob AlVarez-Soto.....ccceeeeees Amsterdam... .) 1708-10 (Hirsch) Pas. 
JaCOD CANIS 2) 6000+ s000s ear mess MEN CB sc aac 1621 Jacob ibn Phorna b. David....... Constantinople} 1710, 11, 18, 
Jacob Anverbach b. Isaac Reis of} Sulzbach..,... 1716-17 14 
Vienna. Jacob (Jokew) b, Phinehas iiecs JessnitZ....... 1722-26 
Jacob Baruch b. Samuel Baruch..| Venice........ 1656 Jacob (Israel) de la Pinia.. ..| Amsterdam....| 1664, 69 
JacOD Basch...cccsecccccccevevens PYASUC.. 3 i650% 1627 Jacob Rewal......ccssseeecaeeees Constantinople 1718 
Jacob Bassan b. Abraham........ Amsterdam... .| 1725 Jacob Rodriguez Guadeloupe b.| Amsterdam... .| 1663-64, 69, 
JACOD BibAS vnc sec sce vos es keene Constantinople 1715-16 Abraham. 6Y 
JaCOD BYOda..... 6. cece cece tenes Giessen ....... 14 JacOb SAVdun.......ceseeeece vues Venice........ 1648 
TJacod Carillon ccc davscs as hegre wae Amsterdam....| 1644 Jacob b. Samuel....... cc. cece eee Alsterdam....| 1718 
Jacob Castelo..... ccc. cc eee ee eee Amsterdam....| 1661-64 Jacob b. Samuel] (Sanwel)........ BUTI 64 695: 1722 
Jacob b. David (Gutrath)......... Lpplitt..<ce.ss 1556, 59, 67, Jacob b. Samuel of Lemberg...... Amsterdain....| 1697 
8, 78 Jacob Saraval b. Joshua Nehemiah] Venice........ 1640, 45 
Jacob b. Eliakim Ashkenazi...... Bil s.5.005 1574-76 Jacod SASpOrtas..... cc cee c esse eee Amsterdam... .| 1651, 53 
Jacob (Zebi) b. Eliezer........... Dessau........] 1698 Jacob (Israel) Shalom b. Samuel..| Venice........ 1709 
Berlities sowas os 1699 Jacob Sibuyah ............. eeanen? Smyrna....... 1730, 58 
Jacob b. Eliezer Levi............. Venice........ 1566 Jacod b. SOLOMON... . cc ccc cee eens Arasterdain.,..| 1732 
Jacob b. Enoch b. Abraham b.! Jessnitz....... 17220 Jacob Stabnitz Levi.............. Prague........ 1607 
Moses Melammed. Jacob Sullaim..... db deiatecgratamaseece ars Venice@........ 1614 
Jacob Florentin........... cena ee Salonica....... 12 JACOD FADUYG cc as seocwecd cad ewes SHYING. ...6 65 1731 
Jacob (Hai) Florez b. Abrabam...} Leghorn...... 1650 Jacob Treves ». Mattathias of Prague........ 1614-15 
VENICE si000% 1651 Worms. 
Jacob Gabbai..... ire EReee Constantinople} 1640-43 Jacob b. Uzziel Solomon.......... Salonica....... 1709 
Jacob Of Haag......cccccsacccvees Amsterdam....| 1728, 30 Jacob Wimpfen b. Eliezer Wimp-| Amsterdam... .| 1689 
Jacob Haber Tob............0005- Mantua........| 1718-23 fen. 
Jacob ibn Hason........... Peretz Salonica.,..... 1732 Jacob ibn YakKar ........ 5... eee SE areca 1511 
Jacob b. Hayyim............0005- Venice........ 1520 Jacob b. Zein... cece eee .eeeee| Wilmersdorf . .| 1689-90 
Jacob b. Hayyim..........0 eee eee Cone eam nople 1711 JACOD Di ZOD oc ccs eack.ce cv eaew ad os Lublin........ 1637 
Jacob b. Hayyim b. Jacob Erb-| Amsterdam.. 1+00-26, 32 Amsterdam 1641, 43 
ich. Verona........ 1649 
Facet Hazkuni b. Abraham....... Amsterdam....| 1694, 1726 Constantinople} 1654 
Jacob b. Hillel of Lublin.......... | Prague.....06: 1675 Cracow ....... 1670 
Jacob b. Isaac GomeZ............- WOTON Aion sea 1650 Jacob b, Zebi of Fiirth............ Sulzbach...... 1715 


Typography 


Name. 


Jaffe (Hayyim b. Kolonymus).. 

Jaffe (Joseph [I.] b. Kalonymus) . 

Jaffe (Joseph [IL] b. Zebi Hirsch 
Kalmankes). 

Jaffe (Kalonymus [I.])........ on 


Jaffe (Kalonymus [If.] b. Zebi 
Hirsch Kalmankes)}. 

Jaffe (Zebi b. [Abraham Kalman- 
kes] Kalonymus). 

Jaffe, Sarah, daughter of Kalony- 
mus (ii.). 

Jaffe (Solomon or Zalman b. Jacob 
Kalmankes) of Torbin. 

Jedidiah Kohen b. Aryeh Judah 


Loeb. 

Jehiel (Michael b. Judah Loeb of 
Zolkiev). 

Jehie) (Michael) b. Abraham Zal- 
man Shammash. 


Jehiel b. Asher Kohen...........: 
Jehiel Ashkenazi......... age ae 
Jehiel (Michael) b. Baruch....... 
Jehiel Elia Hatael .ccvecssseewseas 
Jeniel Bb, Jecian cca. coos 2440 

Jehiel b. Jekuthie! Kohen Rapa... 

Jehiel Luria Ashkenazi........... 
Jehiel (Fishel) b. Menahem Levi 


Ashkenazi. 
Jehiel de Monteles b. Solomon... 
Jehiel b. Solomon of Verona,..... 
J ae (Michael) Stern Kohen b. 
olf. 


Jehiel Teshubah .- 
Jehiel Treves b. David of Galingen 
Jehiel b. Zebi Hirsch............4- 
Jekuthiei b. Asher... ... Pere Rees 
Jekuthiel Blitz........ ie saeawhas 
Jekuthiel b. David....... cece 
Jekuthiel b. Isaac Dan ..........- 
Jekuthiel (Stiisskind) b. ‘Tsaae of 
Pinezow. 


Jekuthiel (Zalman) b. Katriel of 
Satanow. 
Jekuthiel b. Moses Kohen........ 


eeeecere 


Jekuthiel (Kofman) Sanego..... 
Jekuthiel b. SOlOMMON..... ceases 
Jeremiah (Aryeh Loeb) b. Samuel 


Jeroham b. Menahem of Slonin.. 
Jesse AlNOHs. vs sacgs sa asevgienss 
Joab b. Baruch of Piatelli (?)..... 
Joel b. Aaron of Fiirth............ 
Joel b. Aaron Levi...... Spe ctoen 
JOEL D. PHOCDUSL cstv rwcecseeeee’s 
Johanan b. Aaron Isaac.......... 
Johanan Durante....... wa eRemaneers 
Jchanan of MeseritZ......... Ga was 


Jsyohanan Treves.. 
Jonah Abravanel...... 


Jonah b. isaac of Strim.........+. 
Jonah b. Jacob Ashkenazi. 


ev npene 


Jonah b. Judah of Prague........ 
Jonah CHIAVLS sess cisees vas eeeey 
Jonah b. Moses Polak... ig _ahareneee 


el (?) ee eeowevntesr 
Joseph (Jekuthiel Kofman Wahi). 
Joseph (Venturin b. David)...... 


Joseph (Maestro) ........... Pere 
Joseph b. ADraham........ceeeee- 


Joseph b. Abraham Benjamin 
Zeeb. 

Joseph b. Abraham of Jerusalem. 

Joseph b. Alexander Siisskind.. 


Joseph Algazi....... ify 2 hanwacater 
Joseph al-Kala‘i....... cece eee ee 
Joseph Alnaqua b. Abraham...... 


Joseph (Joseph) Alvalensi b. Abra- 
ham. 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


uc 


Venice .....-. 
Prague eeaepeee 
Venice ...cees. 


Prague........ 


Amsterdam.... 
Amsterdam.... 


| Amsterdam.... 
‘ Amsterduin.... 


Constantinople 
Salonica 
Constantinople 
Venice@......-. 


eerrene 


Place. 
EDD ws 4 40 As | 1572-96 
LBubliniisaaces | 1572-Td 
LUG sisa90 | 1633 
LUBA «yaa eons | 4556-97 
Bistrowitz ....| 1092 
Teubliei ose cee. 1635-46 
EUs 2549450) Latte 20s Sey 
| 1604-28, 48 
Lublin........ 1665 
Lublin vcaaes 1665-85 
Constantinople) 1732 
Zolkiev........| 1718 
Wilmersdorf..| 167 
Prague........ 1674, 78 
Weckelsdorf ..) 1686, 89, 92 
Cracow ....... 1583 
Constantinople, 1546-47 
Prague..,....., 1675 
PISHUY oboe 1509-18 
Cracow ....... 1587 
Venice........ 1544-47 
Venice........| 1601 
Smyrma....... 1730-31 
Constantinople) 1734, 86 
Venice........ 588 
Bologna ...... 1537-40 
Frankfort - on -' 1713 
the-Main. 
Hanau....... »| 1715 
Venice........) 1640 
Offenbach..... 1717 
Amsterdam....! 1703, 9 
Salonica..... ..| 1587 
Amsterdam....! 1659, 60, 61 
Prague...cese- 1597-1618 
Prague........} 1512, 15, 18 
Frankfort - on -| 1726 
the-Main. 
Offenbach.....} 1714-26 
Constantinople} 1654 
Frankfort -on -| 1702 
the-Oder 
Venice........ 1600 
CracOW saecec 574 
Firth. os caanss 1694, 98, 
1722 
Amsterdam 1697 
Smyrna....... 1660 
Venice.... 1665 
PUP. 540.04 ..| 1692-93 
Lublin.......- 1598-99 
Wandsbeck ...| 1727 
Amsterdam....| 1713 
Venice........| 1578 
Frankfort - on -} 1697-99 
the-Oder. 
Venice....... .) 1545 
Amsterdam....| 1628, 30, 48, 
50, 52 
Wandsbeck....) 1731 
Constantinople) 1712-42 
Ortakiewai....} 1717-19 
Amsterdaim....| 1721 
Smyrna.......] 1729-41 
Prague.,...... 1608, 10 
Venice..... ...| 1666 
Amsterdam....| 1727, 


1522 
1676, 78 


Name. 


Joseph (ibn) Alzaig, the elder.... 


Joseph Alzaig b. Isaac, the young- 


er. 
Joseph Amaragi b. Moses......... 
Joseph b. Asher of Prague..... ese 
Joseph Askaloni b. Isaac.......... 


Joseph b. Benjamin Hayyim Levi. 
JOSCDIE Bibas) 5 Secs caceretineceus 
Joseph Caravita b, Abraham...... 


Joseph (Simel) Cividal b. Asher..! 


Joseph Crasnik of Rakow......... 
DOSED AL CLASIOS  o0 teu cues wines ss 
Joseph ibn Danan b. Jacob....... 
JOSE DIED: DAR el cae pcs awa ae ors 
Joseph b. Eliakim b. Naphtali... 

Joseph b. Eliezer Halfan.......... 
Joseph b. Eliezer Hazzan of Posen 
Joseph Elkeser b. Benjamin ...... 
Joseph b. Ephraim (Hungarus).. 


Joseph Epstein b. Benjamin Zeeb, 


Wolf Levi. 
Joseph Esobi b. Judah b. Solomon 
Joseph Falcon b. Solomon Zalman 


, Joseph Franco Serrano........ee- 


JOSEDD Pursti sss oc ia ine Sicare sae 
Joseph Ganbalies.sssccassecans es 
Joseph b. Gershon of Torbin...... 
Joseph (Iseppo) GOa............-. 
Joseph ibn Hasan b. Solomon..... 
Joseph b. Hayyim Gumpels....... 


Joseph b. Hayyim Kaddish........ 


Joseph HaZZan......cesesvscenaes 

Joseph bd. IMManuel Kohen....... 

Joseph b. Isaac b. Isaiah Woidi- 
slaw. 


Joseph b. Isaac b. Jehiel...... iris 
Joseph b. Isaac Kohen...... aniseed 


Joseph b. Israel.. 
Joseph b. Israel (b. 2) Hirsch... 
Joseph b. Issachar Baer........... 
Joseph ibn Jacob,........... ewe 
Joseph ibn Jacob Ashkenazi. eae 
Joseph ibn Jacob Braunschweig. . 
Joseph b. Jacob Kohen........... 


Joseph ibn Jakkar.......ccseseeee 
Joseph b. Jekuthiel Zalman . $isaes 
Joseph (Jospe) b. Joseph But Levi 
Joseph b. Joshua (Hoeschel) Ko- 


hen 
Fenn (Jospe) b. Judah......... 


Joseph Kabizi b. Ayyid........... 
Joseph Khalfon.....cccacceeces 

JOSEPH KONE 6. Si cie dass Secs x bes 
Joseph b. Kutlel.....ccscccseovses 


Joseph de Leon b. Solomon Israel. 
Joseph b. Manasseh b. Israel...... 


J ogep (Solomon) b. Mendel Plotz- 
ers. 
Joseph b. Meshullam Phoebus 
Hazzan. 
Joseph Metatron........sesesevves 
Joseph b. Michael Nehemiah...... 
Joseph Molcho..... tr ee ceeee 
Joseph b. Mordecai Gershon...... 
Joseph b. Mordecai Kohen.. : 
Joseph b. Moses Levi of Hamburg. 


Joseph b. Moses Revizi (Rachizi ?) 
Joseph Mubhar Sefardi........... 
Joseph b. Naphtali (Treves ?)...- 


Joseph b. Naphtali of Konskawola 


| Joseph b. Nathan...... Wale soba fees 


Joseph NiSSiM.....cc-scceesareens 

Joseph de Noves b. ‘J udah b. Sam- 
uel. 

Joseph Oberlaender...... 

Joseph Ottolengo..........0.0. ae 

JOSEGDN: PATIO .11.456%46 fawersecaswas 

Joseph (Solomon) Pinia,......... 


: Place. 


314 


Date. 
| 


Constantinople. 1648 


Constantinople, 1511 


Salonica....... | 1653 

Prague........: , 1674-75 

Belve dere, 1593-94, 97- 
(Kuru Ches-, 98 


me) 
VGTONdiess icc. 1650 
Constantinople 1505-22 
Bologua....... | 1482 
VONICE 6 c25 004 1665 
Page: ics ds-5004 1732 
Salonica....... 1322 
Venice........ 1615, 17-19 
CTRGOW 35 cess ' 1587-88 
Venice.......- 1606 
ML ee ae 1602 
BSE less ois-aaes ' 1602 
Berlin (?)..... 1699-1700 
DUB wes * Joti. 
Berllfis. cece L713 
Venice ..22555; | 1621 
Constantinople 1710 
Amsterdam...., 1680, 83 
Hambure..... 1716, 18 
Constantinople) 1512 
Lublin ......s. 1627, 30 
Padua..... ..-., 1640 
Salonica.......| 1732 
Frankfort -on -, 1677, 80, 86 
the-Oder. 
Pramiés.scives 1691-$2, 94- 
95, 1700-1 
Frankfort ~on-) 1688 
the-Main. 
Venice......../ 1566, 67 
Salonica....... 1517 
Dyhernfurth..|1696, 97, 
j 700, 3, 4-5, 
13, 16, 18, 
20 
Venice........ 1544 
Constantinople 1347 
Constantinople) 1518 
Prague........ 1691 
Prague........| 1616, 21 
LUBHIT vsi0005% 1618-20 
Naples........| 1487-90 
Basel e a eseneaae 1609 
Venice........ 1657, 59-60, 
6], 75, 85, 
1709, 12-15 
Schenhausen..| 1544 
Berlin.....,...| 1715 
Prague. 
Offenbach.....| 1721 
THUG Ds soceess 1598-99 
Constantinople} 1515 
Lisbon........ 1491 
Constantinople} 1509 
Dessau.....-..| 1698 
Venice..... ts aris 93, 
Amsterdam.... ada 47, 
Cracow .......| 1642-44 
Frankfort-on-| 1701-2 
the-Oder. 
Salonica. 
Hamburg.....| 1711 
Venice........| 1589 
Cracow .......| L571 
Amsterdam.,...| 1708 
Amsterdam....! 1692-93, 99, 
1702, 3-6, 
1l, 14, 16, 
18-19, 26, 
30 
Venice.......- 1528-29 
Constantinople! 1509 
Zurich. ..%+03+2| 1558 
Thiengen...... 1560 
Amsterdam....| 1648 
Detheroc ack 1726 
Ferrara ..| 1698 
Venice......+- 1605 
Venice........ 1701 
Riva di Trenta) 1558-60 
Vente: cases 1597-1606 


Leghorn .......! 1637 


315 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Typography 
[ 
Name. Place. Date. | | Name. Place Date, 
Joseph iby PIS cssas ocguargennns Naples ........ 1492 ‘+ Judah (Loeb) b. Isaac Jidels Ko-} ..........- »...| 1619-20, 20, 
Joseph Porjes b. Judah Loeb..... Amsterdam....| 1709 | hen (Kaz). 22, 23, 24° 
Joseoh SaMesa. veiw sa es wes eae Venice........ L587 I 28 
Joseph (b.7) (Moses) b. Samson ..| Venice.....--- | 1598 if Judtabb; Isaae GOV 5 x1. c0res 365% Mantua.. 1623 
Joseph b. Samuel Levi...........- Constantinople 1546-47 |. Judah b. Isaae Levi Ashkenazi....| Venice........ 1544-47, 48 
Joseph ibn Saruk b. Hayyimn... Venice...s.50% 1591, 1607-8 Mantua 1561 
JOSEDN Sasi ys cal eace sea esaaees Constantinople, 1726 { Judah (Loeb) b. Isaac of Tikotin..| Lublin........ 1619 
Joseph Sason b. Aaron of Gallip-; Venice........ 1618 |. Judah b. Israel Samuel Kohen....| Prossnitz......; 1603 
oli. ~ || Judah b. Issachar Kohen. . Wilmersdorf. .| 1673-75 
Joseph Sason b. Jacob..........5. Venice........) 1584, 98-1600 | Judah (Loeb) b. Jacob of Prostitz.| Lublin........ 1602-5, 9, 11, 
Joseph b. Shabbethai Bass........ Dyhernfurth ..) J707-18 | 8, 14, 
JOSEDT, SHAUIE ois ikeda teacovsene}  ses-okedes Ceres 1550-73 ’ Judah (Loeb) b. Jacob Wandsbeck! Hamburg,.....| 1686, 88, 90 
Joseph ibn Shoshan,.........+6e- Constantinople, 1520-22 | of Krotoschin. 
Joseph Sid b. [saac.....eeereeeeee Salonica....... ) 1529, 35 : Judah (Loeb) b. Joel b. Eliezer. | ......-. see eees VW24 
Joseph D. SIMCON. «0... bass eens Amsterdam....| 1717 | Judah (Loeb) b. Joel Levi........ Amsterdam....; 1698 
Joseph (Dob Baer) b. Solomon....; Dyhernfurth..! 1713, 15, 17, |i Judah b. Joseph) Josbel Wetzlar, Offenbach au 1720 
19 - Judah (Loeb) b. Joseph.......... Wilmersdorf..| 1671, 73-74, 
Joseph b. Solomon b. Isaiah Nizza’ Venice........ U1, 12 80, 81 ~ 82, 
Joseph (Sofer) b. Solomon Levi...) Cracow ..,....| 1597-98 85 - 86, 88- 
sce ney im) Strasburg b. Bologna....... | 1482 90 
Aar : | Judah (Loeb) b. Joseph.......... Cracow .......; 1592, 94, 99 
Jesouli Ciaees Trier Kohen...... Frankfort -on -| 1690-1715 : Judah (Loeb) b. Joseph....,....- Berlin........- 1699-1700 
the-Main. | Judah b. Joseph Levi......... ....{ Constantinople] 1716 
Joseph Trillinger b. Eliezer.......| c.csesesaueee nol kee Judah b. Joseph Obadiah......... Constantinople} 1666 
Joseph Weble b. Solomon........ Pen earn 1685-87 Judah (Aryeh Loeb) b. Joseph; Frankfort -on -| 1713 
Zolkiev.. .| 1693-96 Samuel. the-Main. 
Berlin: 344946 a 1699, 1700,17 |! Judah (Loeb) b. Judah DOPEEI 9 Almsterdam.. A 
Joseph of Witzenhausen..........| Amsterdam....; 1644, 47- 48, Judah (Loeb) b. Judah Kohen.. Lublin «..acc+> 626-85 
68 — nu » 185 Judah Karo b. Joseph.........56. Salonica....... 1597 
} POAt: Judah (Loeb) Klesmer b. Wolf....| Berlin......... 1701, 7 
Joseph ibn Yahyah b. Tam......, Constantinople! 1542, "93 Judah (Loeb) b. Zebi of Janow.. Jessnitz.......) 1722-23 
Joseph b. Zalman Shneor......... Path os ccee ccs i Le 691-92, 98 Judah Lapapa b. Tsaae............| Smyrna....... 167 
Joseph b. (Solomon) Zalman of, Amsterdam....| 1726, 27, 29 Judah Luria b. Johanan.......... Amsterdam 1700-10 
Wilna. | Judah (Aryeh Loeb) of Lublin....}/ Cracow ....... 1571 
Joseph Zarlall,-vavcisevouisies Amsterdam....| 1698, 1702 Judah (Aryeh Loeb) Maeler b. Jo-| Amsterdam... .| 1663 
Joseph Zarfati b. Judah of Zatat.. LOI. vcs e4% 1618 | seph. 
Joseph Zarfati b. Samuel......... Venice...... v«| 1525 Judah di Medina b. Moses Sustin.) Salonica.,..... 1614 
Joseph (Josbel) b. Zebi..........- Offenbach..... 1716-19 Judah (Loeb) b. Meir............. Hamburg......| 1687 
Joshua (Ethanan)  b. Abraham] Venice........ 1730 Judah (Loeb) b. Menahem........ Dyhernfurth ..| 1719 
Joseph. | Judah (Loeb) b. Menahem Nahum| Prague........ 1686 
Joshua Falk of Lissa..............| Frankfort -on-) 1697-99 Kaz. 
the-Oder. Judah: AT MOON Ase s22 ih eccce tues] Seieieade ee nese 1595-1648 
Sosa D.. ISTAEL. x cece. ssa se tenes Enlil sevice 1619-28 Judah (Loeb) b. Mordecai Gumpel Amsterdam.,...| 1 631-32, 
Joshua (Gershon) Levi........... Mantua........ | 1672 37, 40, 42, 
Joshua b. Meir Levi of Schwer-| Wilmersdorf.. 1727 | 43— 46, 53, 
senz. 58, 61-64 
Joshua b. Michael of Sezze......./ Mantua........, 1718-32 ‘| Judah (Loeb) b. Mordecai b. Ju-| Dyhernfurth ..| 171 
Joshua Ga BUVA ae ssicssiaseesenes Amsterdam...,.) 1666-67 dah. 
Joshua Sin (7). Judah (Saltaro) b. Moses de Fano.| Venice....,.,...| 1602 
Joshua (Hoeschel) b. Solomon Ko-; Offenbach..... 1719 spire (Loeb) b. Moses Jacob of} Prague........ oe 13, 18, 
hen. ei é 
Jdsbha SOMING <aseta rence enters Constantinople} 1717, 19 Judah (Loeb) b. Moses Schedel...| Prague........{ 1602, 3, 4, 5, 
Joshua (Falk) b. Zalman of Wisc-| Constantinople: 1710-11 6-7, 8, 9,18 
nowicz. '| Judah (Aryeh Loeb) b. Naphtali) Amsterdam....} 1690 
Joshua Zarfati (Gallus)........... Amsterdam.... 1658-59, 66 (Hirsch). 
Josiah b. Abigdor of Kalisz....... Beritic vsics once "1699, 1700 Judah b. Nathan of Cracow....... Cremona...... 1565 
Josiah Mizrahi.S.i0iccassa ears’ Constantinople 1711 Judah (Loeb) NikOISPuressoscec.s] cece cvevevewews 1700 (?) 
Judah (Loeb) b. Aaron of Prague} Prague..,...... 1691, 95, Judah PereZ..c.scesse: asceese-e-} Venice..,.....| 1706-11 
LPO. Ly. Fe. 1 Dd aR PSO oy-cns cates accede Pesaro........ 1505 
10 Judah: HOSANEs 04 cence ecws ene. Constantinople} 1719 
Judah (Loeb) b. Abrahain....... CraCOW ....00. eee Judah (Loeb) b. Sara........0060- Amsterdam....! 1701 
Judah Abudienti.......ceeeeeeeee Amsterdam....) 167 Judah Sason b. Joseph..........-. Constantinople| 1514, 15, 16 
Judah Albelda b. Moses....... oes| VORICEs .airias | 1600- 1, 2 Judah (Loeb) Schnapper.........- Frankfort -on-| 171 
Judah b. Alexander Kohen....... Prague........| 1602, 3-4, 5, | the-Main. 
6, 9-10, 10, || Judah (Gur Aryeh) b. Shalom....| Naples........ 1492 
11, 138, 14, Judah Shamu......... idatedan ate Veniece........ 1665 
35, || Judah b. Simbah.......sseeseeees Cracow ....... 1592-93 
Lublin..... .»» 1630, 39 Judah (Loeb Rofe) b. Simeon . Frankfort - on -| 1677 
Cracow .....+- 1631 the-Main. 
Judah b, Alexander Levi of) Frankfort-on-) 1697 Judah b. Solomon Kohen Lip-| Lublin........ 1622 (17-?) 
Worms. the-Main., schiitz. 
Judah (Loeb) b. Asher Anschel) Prague .-»| 1669 Judah ibn Ya‘ish..............08. Venice........| 1705 
Abigdor. Cracow .......| 1670 Kalonymus b. Isaac b. Isaiah of] Prossnitz...... 1711 
Judah (Loeb) b. Baruch Wahl....| Dyhernfurth..| 1726 Woidislaw. Dyhernfurth ..| 1712, 13, 15, 
Judah Bassan b. Samuel......-... Verona........, 1650 , 20, 2 
Judah b. Benjamin Zeeb..........| Prague........ 1688 Frankfort - on -| 1717 
Frankfort -on -| 1691 | the-Oder. 
the-Oder. Kalonymus b. Isaac of Zloczow...| Dyhernfurth ..| 1708 
Judah of Berlin..................| Amsterdam....| 1682 Kalonymus (Kalman) b. Judah] Constantinople] 1719, 20 
DURA ATE a. 505 decent kee cllaboeds Mantua........| 1672, 94-95 | Asbkenazi. 
Judah (Lewa) b. David .......... Prague.......- [ 1615 Kalonymus (Kalman) b. Judah| Amsterdam....} 1721 
Judah b. David b. Judah......... Cracow ....... 1644 (Loeb) Kalisch. 
Judah b. David (Isaac Saekel) Levi} Berlin......... li Kalonymus b. Zebi (Hirsch) Kohen) Dyhernfurth..} 1703, 5, 7, 
of Firth. | |b. Kalonymus. 12-13, 19 
Judah b. David Reuben.......... V@HICE 2 cc08 5 1661 Katriel b. Jekuthiel Zalman of} Constantinople} 1648 
Judah b. Eleazar Lubemila.......| ...-..e-eeeeeee | 1603 Satanow. 
Judah (Selig) b. Eliezer Lipman) Zolkiev...,.... | 1721, 33 | Katriel b. Zebi Szidlower.........| Cracow .......| 1638-38, 42 
Kohen of Zolkiey. Lublin..... ...| 1645 
Judah (Loeb) Ginzburg. Cracow ..... ..| 1666, 70 
Judah b. Hananiah Cae OTNG Constantinople 1732 | BZ iccscssevvesyedccvaneesecassea] PIAQUC ccs es 1682, 85, 89, 
Judah HaZZan ........eeeeeeeeees Smyrna....... i} 1730 92-95, 98- 
Judah (Loeb) Hurwitz Levi of} Sulzbach...... | 1688 1700, 2, 6 
Prague. . ll Kass eaeessievews fussed depareess PRES ss 1687-1726, 35 
Judah by Isaat... cicecciest seeetese Prague...,,...| 1660, 62 i} Kaz ‘(Aaron b, Israel) .........-. | Frankfort-on -| 1677, 80 
Judah (Loeb) b. Isaac Brzese.. Amsterdam....| 1713 | the-Oder. 
Judah (Loeb) b. Isaac Joel........' Amsterdam....| 1712 Prague........| 1695 


Typography 


Name. 


Kaz (Bezaieel b. Mordecai)....... 


Kaz (David b. Aaron b. Israel)... 

Kaz (Geronim b. Solomon) 

Kaz (Gershon [IL.] Israel) 

Kaz (Gershon [III.] b. Joseph Be- 
zaleel). 


Kaz (Israel b. Judah [Loeb] ). 

Kaz (Judah b. Gershon).......... 
Kaz (Judah b. Jacob) 
Kaz (Mordecai b. Gershon) 
Kaz (Mordecai [I1.] b. Gershon).. 


eooeecaece 


evesecenn 


eves eevrosneese 


Kaz (Moses b. Gershon) ..... sees. 
Kaz (Moses [II.] b. Joseph Beza- 
leel). 


Kaz (Pesah b. Mordecai)... - 
Kaz (Samuel b. Mordecai). NSP ethwece 
Kaz (Soiomon [I.] b. Gershon).. 


Kaz (Solomon [III.] b. Gershon). 
Kaz (Solomon [II.] b. Mordecai). 


Kaz Gershon (J.).......ceeeeecees 


Klessner (Georg) cf Leipsic...... . 
Koffman b. Asher of Lubin....... 
Kosmann Emrich b. Elijah Cleve.. 


Lemberger (Abraham b. Simeon 
Heide). 

Leon-Templo (Isaac b. Solomon 
Judah), 

Leon-Teinplo (Solomon)......... ' 


Leon-Templo (Solomon Judah 
Jephae) b. Jacob). 

Levi han iado (and Isaac Lania- 
do 

Levi b. Stisschen..... 

Levi Tilio 

Licht (JoWann)......-.-cee cece eC 

Lima b. Naphtali of Fiirth........ 

Lipmann b. Abrahaum............. 


eeeereeseereceoenrereeraeeee 


Mahalalel b. Menahem Isaae Levi 

Mahrim b. (Moses) Jacob Maurs- 
sen. 

Mahrim b. Jacob b. Moses Levi... 


Manasseh b. Israél...........e000. 
Manassebh (Jacob) b. Judah Levi 
of Lubemil. 
Manasseh Kazin b. Solomon...... 
Marg@alita (AGrON).... cc cece eee eee 
Masus b. Alexander.......... eee 
Meir bs ASNOP is esees nsaeases 
Meir De DAVIG asic dasccikedslns cs 


Meir b. David b. Benjamin....... 
Meir b. David of Kulk........ or 


Meir b. Eliezer Lipman Kaz (Ko- 
hen). 


Meir b. Ephraim........secevesees 
Meir Epstein b. Jacob Levi...... 
Meir Friedburg..........0c00. Satae 
Meir Gans b. Menahem........ 
att (Menahem) Habib b. I 0- 


seph. 
Meir Heilbronn (Heilpron) b. 
Moses. 
Meir b. Isaac of Loktseh.......... 
Meir b. Jacob Koppel....cee-caece 
Meir b. Joseph (Jospe) Kohen of 
Hamburg. 
Meir b. ci aan neem cere 
Meir Melli. . 


Meir b. Naphtali oer Boe 


Meir Oettingen................06. 


THE JEWISH 
Place Date. 
Prague ..! 1569, 78, 85- 
0 (92: r) 
Prague.....e0% 1701, 3.5 
Prague.......- 1526 
Pragmue....... 1509 
Prague........ + 1586, 89, 95- 
' 96, 1600, 
i & 9.10 
Pragzue.......- | 1652 (7) 
Pragrule....... | 1541 
Prague........ | 1624 
Prague........) 1529-80 
Prague........ os 20, 28, 
| 
Prague........ ' 1533-34, 35, 
30, 40, 41, 
49-50, 56 
Prague........ 1592 -94, 99- 
1635 De 47 (?) 


Prague.. » 1556-69 
Prague........ 1369, 78 
Prague.......,{ 1529, 30, 33- 
34, 35, 36, 40) 
Prague.....5 1569. 80-81, 
83 ~ 88, 90, 
92-94 
Prague........| 1515, 18, 22, 
26, 29, 30, 
41 
JessnitZ....... 1720 


Constantinople, 1711 
Alnsterdam.... oe 92- 


Prague..... vee fo 12, 138- 
Amsterdam....! 1726 
Amsterdam... ae ae 27, 30, 


Amsterdam.. 1807-99, 1703 
Venice........ 1602 
Venice........ 1657 
Amsterdam..../ 1701 
Constantinople) 1652 
Hamburg..... 7 1715 
Amstercain....! 1711 


Frankfort - on | 1688 
the-Main. 
1718, 24 


Mantua........ 
Ainsterdam....| 1710, 15, 20 


Amsterdam... .} 1726-29, 30, 
30, 39-40, 46 
Aimsterdam....} 1626-40 
Cracow ....... 1590 
Venice........ ' 1599-1600 
Halle ........./ 1711 
Amsterdam...., 1730 
Verona........ | 1647 
VONICC ica -0ee | 1565, 74 
Prawue....... | J512, 15, 18, 
| 22, 26, 29 
Hamburg..... 1714, 20 
Lublin........) 1627 
Cracow ....... 1642-44 
Prossnitz...... Wi 
Frankfort -on-j| 1717 
the-Oder. | 
Dyhernfurth. .| 1718-20 
Mantua...... cae 63- 
Prague........ 1415, 18, 22 
Hanau........ | 1.19 
Prague........| 1647 (?) 
Venice........| 1657 
Cremona......| 1557-58 
Mantua........} 1563 
Sulzbach...... 1702 
Hamourg......} 1711 
Offenbach..... 1717 
Prague........} 1680 
Venice........ 1617-19 
Lublin........ 1568 
Prague........, 1691 
Frankfort -on -| 1698 
the-Oder. 
Prague...... ae 1709, 18, 14, 
_ 35-36 
Offenbvbach..... re 


ENCYCLOPEDIA 


er 


Name, | 


Meir Oppenheim b. Abraham b.' 

Baer. 
Meir: ParenZe. so enciw ee scd a ee eekks | 
Meir b. Pethatiian.............. ee! 
Metr Rofe b, Hivya Rofe..........; 
Meir ibn schangi 
Meir b. Selig of. Kalisch........... 
Meir b. Shalom........cc cece cece 


Meir b. Wolf Scliwab............- 

Meir (ibn) Yahya b. Joseph 

Meir b. Zechariah...........- 00. 

Meisel(s) (Judah Loeb b, Simhah 
Bonen). 

Meisels (Menahem)............... 


eoeeee 


Meisels (Tchernah bat Menahem). 
Menahem b. Aaron Polaceo....... 


Menahein b. Abraham Kohen..... 

Menahem (Mannes) b. Abraham 
Kohen of Glogau. 

Menahem b. Abraham of Mo- 
dena. 

Menahem Azariah.............085 

Menahem (Mendel) b. Bezaleel of 
Luolin. 

Menahem (Mendel) Bloch b. Moses 


Menahem Crispin.......cccecceees 

Menahem Dayyan..........cec0e- 

Menahein (Man) b. Fliezer... 

Menahem (Jacob) b. Eliezer J udah 
Ashkenazi. 

Menahem (Mandel) Griinhut b. 
David. 

Menahem (Mendel) b. (Bar) 
Hirsehel. 


Menahem (Man) b. Isaac (Jacob) 
of Prague. 


Menahem Mendel b. Isaac Levi... 

Menahem (Mendel) b. Israel Ko- 
hen Jaroslaw of Lemberg. 

Menahem b. Jacob of Cracow .... 

Menahem (Man) b. Jacob Jeku- 
thiel, 

Menahem b. (Noah) Jacob Kohen 
of Norden. | 

Menahem Jaife b. Isaac.......... 


Menahem (Manuscb) b. Judah.... 


Menahem b. Meir Wilna.......... 

Menahem Mendel Korchiman b. 
Samuel Kohen. 

Menahem b. Moses Israel......... 


Menahem (Mendel) b. Nathan| 
Eisenstadt. 

Menahem de Rossi b. AZariah.... 

Menahem b. Samuel Esra......... : 

Menahem (Man) b. Solomon Levi.! 


Menahem Stummer Kohen.. 

Menahem Trinki b. David........! 

Menahem (Manle b. Judah Loeb); 
of Wilmersdorf. 


Meshullam (Phoebus) b. Aaron 


Hayyat. 
Meshullam (Zalman) b. Aaron b.! 


Mesbullam (Zalman) b. Abraham 
Berech Pinkerie. 


Meshullam Ashkenazi........ aes 
Meshullam Bassan.......... ekeeack 
Meshullam Cusi.. PPE ee re 
Meshuliam Cusi Levi. beh areudaas wees 


Meshullam (Phoebus) b. Elijah.. 
Meshuillam Gentile b. Moses....., 


316 


Place. Date. 


Frankfort-on- 1697 


the-Main. 
Veniee........ 1545-73 
Lublin. ......., 1643 
Venice. ...---. i 1657 
Constantinople) | 1586 
Halle .........; 1710 
Lublin........ 1568 
Lublin........ 681 
Amsterdam....! 1722-24 
Fano.......... 506 
VEDIC. esivaes 1639-61 
Lublin........' L648 
CFrACOW oes. Saceas 1663-7 
Lublin.....-.- | 1623-27 
Cracow ....... 1631-59 
Cracow ......./ 1638-89, 46 
Venice........; 1704-4, 8, 11, 
12, 19, 28, 
30, 60 
VENICC 4% 2496 | 1648 
Frankfort - on -; 1694 
the-Main 
Bologna....... 1537-40 
| 
Venice........ i 1589 
Lublin........ a 72, 80- 
Frankfort - on -| 1713 
the-Main. 
Salonica....... | 1709 
Constantinople 1525 
Amsterdam... | 1699 
Venice......... 1606 
Hanau,........ 1717 
Prague.,... ...: 1689-90, 92, 
| 101 
Berhiviss even dus | 1703 
Prague........ 714, 20, 28, 
Prague.. ..| 1668 
Wilmersdorf... 1671, V8-74, 
ROL S 
Sulzbach,..... 1684-88 
Dyhernfurth ..| 1689-90, 93 
Cracow ......- 1587-88. 
Amsterdain.,..; 1690 
Venice........ 1712 
Wandsbeck . 1732 
Altona......-- 1735 
Amsterdam....| 1649, 76 
Venice........ 1631 
Constantinople} 1648 
Venice......., 1657 
Hanau........ 1712 
Sulzbach...... 1716-17 
Firth ......... 1723-2 
Offenbach.....| 1729 
Homburg......| 1734 
Amsterdam....| 1663, 69 
Frankfort - on -| 1701-2 
the-Oder. 
Prague........ 1549-80 
Ferrara ....ee, 1595 
Prague........ 1705 
Mantua........ 1565 
pe ade aceta A 614 
Amsterdam..,.: 1724-27, 32, 
33, 38-3 
Prague........] 1686-90 
VeniC@s sacsa%% 1622 
Dyhernfurth. .| 1690-91 
Sulzbach...... Ji0t 
Hanan........ 1710-12 
Wilmersdorf. .| 1718-14 
Berlin......... 1716-17 
Frankfort - on -| 1717 
the-Oder. y 
Frankfort-on -| 1708, 12, 29, 
the-Oder. 29 
Sulzbach,...,. 


1716-17, 22, 
67 (? 


Amsterdam... 1688, 84-85, 


5 

Venice....... .| 1700, 4 
Venice........ 1685 
Venice........ 1587 
Piove di Sacco.| 1475 
Venice........ 1614 
Frankfort -on -| 1709, 11-12, 

the-Oder. 29, 32 
Mantua........! 1673 


317 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Typography 
Name. Place. Date. Name, Place. Date. 
Meshullam (Phoebus Pia Frankfort -on -| 1708, 5, 8, |. Moses (ibn Yakkar) Brandon...../ Amsterdam....| 1708-10 
Hurwitz. the-Oder. | 11-12, 13, ( Moses Carilo. co... cc ccc eee eee Smyrna....... 1659 
| |) Moses Coréos...... ccc. eee eee eens Veniece........ a 1606 (7) 
Meshullam Hurwitz Levi.........] Prague........ ! 1647, 63 Moses b. Daniei of Kohatyn...... ZOKiev.., _ 1693 
Wilmersdorf. 7 1671, 73 | Moses b. David.......... veesevees| Almsterdam.. | 1723 
Frankfort - on- 1677 Moses Diaz Bb. [saii@... cece cece | cece eet e cee n eee: | 1406-18157) 
the-Oder. / Moses Dorheim ...... ceca eeeess Frankfort -on -, 1719, 23 
Sulzbach...... 1685-96 (7) | the-Main. 
Meshuliam (Phoebus) b. Isaac....| Amsterdam... [1 171 | Moses b. Eliezer......... ree Venice........ | 1614 
Meshullam (Kofmiann) b. Shem Venice........ 1585- 46, 49, | Moses b. Fliezer...,.. cc. cece ee eee Cracow .......; 1640 
jah. ) Oe i Moses b. Eliezer of Wilna......... Lublin,....... 1622 
Meshullatn b. Solomon .......... Lublin........ 1556, 59,66 |, Moses b. Ezra..... cece eee ee vees| CYACOW .,..... lay 
Meshullam Sullam (Salem?) b.| Mantua........! 1589-90 | Moses Facilino b. Samuel iis Constantinople ett 
Isaac. Moses Falcon b. Samuel.......... Salonica....... 1719-29, 32 
Michael b. Abraham...........0. Berlin......... 1699-1700 Moses Frankfurter .. ccc cece ee cee Amsterdam 1721 
Michael Diaz Mucatto..........- Leghorn........ 1650-52, do- | Moses Gabbai.......... see eee eens Venice........ 1578 
af ; Moses Gabbai..........0..0e, »| Saloniea....... 1658 
Michael G'acon (7)........eeeeee Constantinople, 1132 | Moses Gifrut.......cscccceeeeeees Smyrna....... 1780, 58, 64 
Michael Hanau b. Solomon...... Frankfort - on -| 1717, 20 | Moses Gomez Mesquita b. Isaac..| Amsterdam.... 1707-8 
the-Main. ' Moses Habib ........cccecceseeces Naples... . 1488 
Michael b. Hayyiin Talmesingen.| Fiirth......... » Li27 ; Moses Hagiz........ Saraital\ ieee .| Venice........ | 1703-4 
Michael b. Yorn-Tob Koben..... Salonica .| 1782 14 Amsterdam... 1708-14 
Mordecai .....cccs eevee ce cee eee Verona........ 1647 |’ Wandsbeck. .. 1726-38 
Mordecai b. Abraham of Posen...| Offenbach.....; 1718 : Moses b. Halifah Sa‘adia........./ Venice........ lit 
Mordecai b. Abrabam Teimer of Dyhernfurth ..| 1715 | Moses Halimi b.Solomon........ .| Constantinople 1518 
Zolkiev. Amsterdam... .| 1717-18, 20. |! Moses Hamon b. Joseph.......... Constantinople 1515, 16, 46 
Mordecai Alfandari b. Shabbethai. Constantinople es 23 ' Moses Hausen b. Joseph Moses...) Sulzbach...... 1684-85, 88 
Mordecai of Ansbach............ RU. ovcsaet alae 692-93, 1701 || FUL cocoate l7vl 
Mordecai ibn ‘Atthar b. Reuben...| Atnsterdam....! 1721 Moses (David) Hausen b. Zalman.| Venice na 7 1704-5 
Mordecai Azulai b. Moses........ Amsterdam... ./ ee 97 Moses (David ‘Tebele) b. Hayyim| W andsbeck ..., 1723 
Mordeeai b. Baruch of Tivoli.; Venice....... “ae 38% Koethen. | 
Mordecai b. Benjamin Zeeb of, Prague........ 1657 Moses b. Hayyim of Tikotin...... Offenbach. . : 1722 
Cracow. CTracow .,...-- 1670 Moses Heilprin b. Phinehas....... Ainsterdam..... 1650, 62 
Mordecai b. David............00% Prague........ | 1512 | Moses Hock b. Isaac............-.| Prague..... Th 1694 
Mordecai (Gumpel) b. Eleazar Frankfort -on-, 1698 
Hendels. | the-Oder. | 
Mordecai Gener Baermann Hal-} Amsterdam... -| 1V12 Berlin.......... 1699-1701 
herstadt. | | Prague ' 1710, 18-20 
Mordecai b. Jacob of Prostitg ....[ Lublin........ | 1596,1602- | Moses b. [saac...... ccc cece eee eee Naples ........ 1492 
| Prague..... Gece 1608, 9 Moses b, Isaac... ...seee eee ee ....| Constantinople, 1716-17, 19 
Hanau,.......] 1610 | Salonica....... , 1719, 31 
Basel ......... 1622 | Moses b. Isaiah b. Isaac.. Cracow . ., Loud 
Hanau,....... 1623-25 | Moses b. Israel (Isser) Lasar Cra- Lublin........ _ 1636 
Mordecai (Baer) Jakerl........, Prague........) 1005 ; cow. CravoW ....... 1646 
Mordecai b. Jehiel Michael Slawa-; Frankfort - on-| 1690 | Moses b. Issachar (Baermann); Amisterduain... 12 26, 26- 
tich. the-Oder. ' Wink. j 24,80, 32 -33, 
Mordeeai b, Joseph Judah Wahl..| Basel .......-. 16]1-12 | 39-40 
Mordeeai (Gumpel) b. Judah Loeb] Amsterdam....) 1648-50, 50- |. Moses b. Jacob Gelhaar of Prague, Prague........ 1614-10, 18, 
(bo. Mordecai) Polak, ol, 53, 5b, |! 1 4, Heeas 
58, 60-64, || : PU, 2 
66, 67, T0- |. Moses b. Jacob Maarsen Levi of; Altona........ _1T28 
71, 88, 89 | Amsterdam. Hamburg......! 1741 
Mordecai b. Moses Levl.......... Basel ......... 1580 : Rédelheim,....| 1753 
Mordeeai b. Muses Menahem Na-) Berlin......... I708 | Frankfort- on -| 175 
hum. Prague......../ 1705-6, 9- the-Main. 
10 | Metz.......... 1764 
Mordecai b. Naphtali..........+-.| Basel ........./ 1612 ’ Moses bh. Jacob of Shutzk..........|/ Jessmitz....... Vit 
Mordecai b. Naphtali Hirz........| Fiirth......... 1692 | Moses Jaffe.....cseccceseccceseces| WENICE......., 1645 
Aisterdam....) 102 | Moses b. Jonah Gamburg.........) Frankfort-on -) 1722-28 
Mordecai b. Reuben Basla...,..../ Soncino...... .| 1489 |  the-Main. 
Mordecai Saul b. Samuel Saul....| Venice...... ».| L607 | Moses b. Joseph..... Rr eae iy. | LALDIIN s s.3.4 00 1642, 48 
Mordecai b. Shabbethai....... .eee! Basel ......e0- 1598, 1618-19 || Moses b. Joseph.......seeee sevens | Amsterdam....| 16%) 
Mordecai b. Simhah..,.......... Venice........| 1576 i Moses b. Joseph Aryeh......... Venice........ 1606 
Mordecai Sofer of Prague........| Prague........} 1512 | Moses b. Joseph (b. Isaac Isaiah. Prossnitz.. west 
Mordeeai b. Solomon..... Seaeaes Amsterdam....| 1732 of Woidislaw). Dy hernfurth ..| 1719 
Moses (b.... 2)... eee eee eee tans MUM s caasie's 1646 Jessnitz....... 1720-26 
Moses (Moses b. Moses ’)........., Cracow ..... ,-| 1586, 92-938 Dyhernfurth ..| 1726 
Moses b. (Aaron?) of wolkiev.....| Zolkiev........| 1718 Wandsbeck....| 1727, 28 
Moses b, Aaron Ashkenazi..... Constantinople} 1652 Moses b. Joseph Emden..........; Amsterdam... .} 198 
Moses b. Aaron Kohen of ‘Wit-| Amsterdam....| 1727 | Moses b. Judah (Loeb) Cleve.....) Jessnitz....... 1722 
mund. Moses b. Judah of Emden........ Amsterdam....| 1718 
Moses b. Aaron of Worms........| Amsterdam..,.| 1600, 58, 56- | Moses (Menahem Nahum) b. Ju-) Lublin........ 1648 
57, 58, 61- dah (Loeb) Kaz. Prague.i cave e 1657, 60, 62, 
63, 64 - 66, 74-75, 7 
70-71, 80 Weckelsdorf.,| 1682, 86, 90, 
Moses b. Abraham Abinu.........{ Amsterdam..,.| 1686, 87, 90- i! BAPG Hs cece vs aces cag “92, 94, 
‘ 
Halle.. 1709-14 Pragie.......- : 1705-6 (7) 
Moses b. Abraham Kohen........, Wilmersdorf.. +| 121-33, a = Mone Kala‘i b. Mattithiah b. Sam-) Venice.........| 1899-1600 
WO, OU, Dew ne 
Moses b. Abraham of Leipnik ....' Lublin........ 1619 Moses Kalaz (KhallazZ).......-..6- Constantinople! 1536-37 
Moses b. Abraham Nathan...... Lublin........] 1636 (?) | Meses b. Kalman Speier. .....cees! Frankfort -on-; 1721 
Moses Abulafia......... cece eae Venice.......- 1587 | ~— the-Main 
Moses b, Alexander Levi........ Basel ........-| 1610 Moses Levi Ashkenazi of Modena. Constantinople: 1509 
Moses Alfalas..........06- vesaet es! VOTNCESoicace es 1598-1600 Moses Levi Hazzan............ FOTHCO si cae’s oa] : 1598 
MoseS AIAPas......... cee eee ees Venice........ 1619 Moses Levi Muja..........-.eceee VeOniCO cries a 1675-78 
Moses (Nathaniel) Altschul b. Frankfort - on -| 1697-99 Moses Mahbub b. Maimon..... Constantinople| 1520-22, 42 
Aaron Freund of Prague. the-Oder. Moses Maguro b. Daniel..... ceva kl VORTOB S65 00 6a 1693, 94, 96 
Moses Amarillo b. Solomon...... Salonica......- 1719, 2% Moses di Medina b. Samnel....... Salonica....... | 1593-1615 
Moses (Isaac) b. Assher....,.....| Prague........| 1668, 167 rt Moses di Medina b. Shemaiah..... Mantua.. | 1648 
Moses b. Asher Kohen of Halle...) Jessnitz.......) 1725 Moses (Yom-Tob Lipmann)b.Men-) Dyher nfurth ..| 1693 
Moses (Simeon) Basilia b. Shab-| Verona........| 1602 ahem (Man) b. Isaac Jacob. Sulzbach...... | 1888 
bethai. ee Mendez Coutinho b. Abra-| Amsterdam....{ 1695,99-1711 
Moses Belmonte....-....eceeceee Amsterdam....{ 1644-45 
Moses Benveniste........ veecaes| Venice..... oo | L647 | Moses b. Meshullam (Zalman)| .........eeeeee 1727 
Moses Ben-Zion........+-.e0-- ...) Mantua........! 1667 Moses ibn Minir.......... ccociecal VOU cess yaes 1598 


Typography PilE 
a ed ee 
Name. Place. Date. 
Moses Minz Levi b. Asher......... Amsterdam....) 1713 
Moses Minz Levi b. Isaac Mena-| Venice....... .| 1601 
hem b. Moses. 
Moses hereto) b. eet .eeet Atmsterdam....) lV 
Moses ‘l, SIOSCS 5 260% gsccasaweesens CTACOW cusses 1594, 96, 99 
Moses b. Moses.........5. ..eee| Wilmersdorf...) 1726-28 
Moses b. Moses Meir Kohen. Spa biase Lublin......../ 1591 
Moses b. Nathan Hamelburg.. Amsterdam,..., 1644, 49 
Moses (Raphael) Ottolenghi ‘.| Amsterdam....| 1712 
Samuel David. 
Moses Parnas b, Pleazar.......... Constantinople nt 47- 
r) oO 
Moses Pereira..... LENIN ea REE ee Amsterdam....| 1688 
Moses PROTO: nn nisa euecite eels Fass Smyrna.......) 173 
Moses Pinto Delgado............. Amsterdam....| L644 
Moses Pokivindsccsca ess yet elagan Constantinople! 1581 
Moses (Aryeh) Pa TA Ake ane Berit. «adn. es] 1715 
Moses :Principals.ass.oja0ecesees VENICE + 54.c055-< 1617 
Moses Sachs b. Simeon of Posen..} Frankfort-on-| 1705 
the-Oder. 
Moses Snertels............ceceeees Prague........| 1606, 11 
Moses b. Samuel (Sanvel)........ Hamburg ....., 1690 
Moses b. Samuel Kohen of Brzese.| Amsterdam....) 1709 
Muses b. Saul Pauer.......... eee TARTS vapeur 1571-72 
Mises Schegel sac cob dae cregsoune cs PRALUEL 66 issue | 1a85-1605 
Roses SOUME. oxsalevras ve vee ine awe Constantinople 1522 
Moses Shabbethai b. Hayyim Sab-| Salonica.......! 1651 
bata. 
Moses b, Shabbethai of Loktsch...| Prague.....,. ~ beta 
Moses b. Shneor (Zalinan) Kohen. Amsterdam....! 1707 
Berlinen ccves se Pei 
Moses ibn Shoshan. .....--.e00. ..| Sabbionetta,...! 1554-55 
Roses SHNCON san ccc i5 6a es non »eeee}| Salonica.......) 1621 
Moses b. Simeon .......ccceveeses Amsterdain..../ 1687 
Moses b. Simeon (b.) Anschel Her- Wilmersdorf . .) 1671-78 
zel’s Pane, ooccc00 | 1686 
Moses b. § Simhah Bonem..... den | PODOBBAILS cocetcure 1696-1701, 4 
AOSSTIES o5 ea vie 1720 
Moses SOLOMON... . 2... ccc eenececs CYACOW 14.0 asso. 3642 
Moses b. solomon Ashikenazi..... VOUIGe .es.emaids 413 
Moses b. Solomon LEV... cece eee | Anisterdain....! J669 
Moses Spira b. Jacob..........008- | Frankfort-on-) 1¢19 
the-Main, | 
Moses Pairmnteicay occa cede eeuss Smyrna. secs! io 
Moses THitGis «co vakes waeeoens oe Venice...-...- 1606 
Moses Tausk b. Phinehas Shohet .} Dyhernfurth ..! 1696, 97 
Beri ccscue's | 1699, 1705, 
| 9, 14-15, 17 
Frankfort - on -| 1724-25, 38 
the-Oder. 
Moses Trinco Leyi of Morea...... Venice..,..... | 1620 
Moses Utizb. Eliezer..........05- Prague....+.«.! GLO, 12 
Moses (Hai) Venturin b. Jo-| Venice........ | 1707 
seph. re 
Moses of Vienna ......0e i aneel PLASC ss oo nes | 1623 
Moses Waag..... eda cary ante wees aes Frankfort-on-) 17i1-12 
the-Main. 
Moses Weisswasser b. Katriel....| Mantua........) 1589, 93 


Moses: WISCH, ci3atdvicwedeen sid wie 


Moses b. Zachariah Kohen Corfu.. 


Moses Zacut0.....00. seeded Pests 
Moses (Havyim) Zalach...e.ssee. 
Moses Zarfati di Gerona........6- 
MOSOS De. ZOD 205 oa coentean ry we ce 


Moses b. Zebi Kalonymus of Hal- 
herstadt. 

Moses b. Zerah Ashkenazl........ 

Nahman b. Jacob of Lublin....... 

Nahman b. Jehiel of Dessau...... 

Nahmias (David ibn) 

Ni ihmias (Samuel b. David)...... 


eee eee ee eee 


Nant) BORG: pace ees irowad 

Naphtadi (7) teehee ne teee haere 

Naphtali b. Aaron Ashkenazi. pasont 

Naphtali Altschul b. Tobiah...... 

Naphtali (Herzel) Altschiiler b. 
{Jaeob) Ascher Anschel b. Naph- 
tali Herzel. 

Naphtali Ashkenazi b. Joseph.... 


Neues (Hirsch) b. Azriel Wil- 


Naphtali (Hirseh) b. Jacob........ 

Naphtali (Zebi) b. Jacob .......... 

Naphtali (Zebi) b. Jacob Levi of 
Gnesen. 

Naphtali (Hirz} b. Judah Lima of 
Essen. 


PRODUC. ss 04.i0% | 
Cracow 
PLALUCs. o008 as 


or eeee 


Frankfort - on - 
the-Main. 
Venice......6. 


Venice....c.e- 
Mantua........ 
Venice........ 
Amsterdain.... 
Dyhernfurth.. 
Amsterdam.... 


Constantinople) 
LUBA sacecees 
Jessnitz....... 
Constantinople 
Constantinople: 


Amsterdam.. 
Lublin 
Venice .....ac. I 


PAGUC. <.4005%% 


Salonica....... 
Venice ........ 
Constantinople 


Amsterdam... 
Veniceé.... 
Berhifisss wesate 


Sulzbach...... 


1995-97 


«588 


1605-6, 9, 10, 
14, 18, 21- 29 
1704 


foe 49, 51, 


15O8- a! 
1503-11, 11- 
oe 

1669 

1648 

1704-5 


| 1593-94, 98 


1629, 49 


1596-97 
1601-2 
1510-11 


| 1683-85 
6 


u 


1715 
1615-17 


ra a Fe he rr PS a Lal 


— ae 


JEWISI ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Name. 


Naphtali (Hirsch) b. Moses of Go- 
jetein. 

Naphtali (Zebi Hirsch) b. Moses 
Tobiah (Gutmann). 

Naphtali (Hirsch) Pappenheim...! 


Naphtali b. Samuel Heida...... 
Naphtali SchwarzZ..-.....s.sereere 
Naphtali (Hirz) b. Simson Langlos 


Nathan Auerbach b. Moses of Wis- 
niez. 

Nathan b. David Levi.......... ne 

Nathan b. Gershon Ashkenazi. . on 


Nathan Gota (Gutta 7) b. Isaac b. 
Abraham. 

Nathan b. Isaac Friedburg. 

Nathan (Feitel) b. Judah..... iene 

Nathan Michelbachb b. Eliezer.... 

Nathan (Pheibel) b. Moses........ 


Nathan b. Moses Petlitzer........ 
Nathan de Salo....ceresseeee nae 
Nathan: b. Samels i icc sceccec aad 
Nathan (Nata) b. Samuel......... 
Nathan (Nata) b. Simeon of Posen. 
Nathan b. Solomon AshKenazi.... 
Nathanael Halfan b. Perez....... | 
Nathaneel b. Judah... .is..0.ccnaes 
Nathanael b. Levi of Jerusalen.... 
Nehemiah b. Abraham............ 
Neumark (Nathan b. Loeb)....... 
Neumark, Moses (or Judah Loeb). 
Nicolai (Christian)..........-e006- 


Nissim , ASG] i 6 keke ccdasatanees 
Nissim Halfan b. Abba-Mari...... 
Nissim b. Hayyim AshkKenazi..... 
Nissim (David) b. Moses.......... 
Nissim ibn Shoshan........-... an% 


Nissim Vileisit.....seesss 
Noah Casirino........6. baw abt eaten 
Noah b. Hezekiahias: coscesccaree. 
NOaD B SaAMUClicsectceaasesavees 
Obadiab Maron and Jehiel d’Italia 
Obadiah Sabhakh.......c0ecccsceas 
Obadiah b. Zachariah,........eee. 
Paulus of Prague... cece ee eee aee 
Pelta (= Paltai) of Meseritz...... 


Perugia (Joshua b. Judah Samuel) 
Perugia (Judah Samimel)........., 
Perugia (Judah Samuel).......... 


ed 


Perngin, LOWS Of (707 .cacesvaiaes 


Pethahiah(Moses)b, Joseph of Ofen 
Phinehas Db. BHAKIMs os cess ce ee as 
Phinehas Heilpron b. Judah of 

Neuerscdorf. 
Phoebus b. Menahem b. Phoebus .} 
Pinve DAL WOIE.. 6 ices cs cows vr 
Polyenron Db. TRkeCG cdaGaaaecsi ss H 
Proops (SOMOMON) se sni4ssea dese 
Proops Hits .626.Audade venues rest 
Pugil (Johann Kaspar)........... 


Rahamim Halfon....... 
BRaphaelissccy 
Raphael Abbas b, Joshua......... 
Raphael Altschul b. Mordecai. 
Gumpel of Prague. 
Raphael Hayyim Supino (Sopine *) 
Raphael (Hayyim) d’Italia.. 
Raphael b. Moses b. fsaac Judah.. 
Raphael di Palasios b. Joshua.. 
Raphael b. Solomon of Lithuania. 
Raphael b. Samuel... s.cccessseccs 


eoveravrese Sea eeaeeone 


Raphael de Silva b. Solomon...... 

Raphael Talmi b. Immanuel of 
Forli. 

RAONREL TPOVES .c.c65285b0n-e tees 

Rebecca bat Isaac b. Judah Jideis 

Reichel bat Isaac b. Judah Jiidels. 


Reis (Hirz b. Seligmann)..,...... 
Reis (Isaac Eisak b. Hirz).. 


*eoaees 


Reis (Seligmann b. Hirz)......... 


318 


Place. Date. 
Prague.......+! 1095 
Cracow .......| 1625 
Amsterdam... +| 1650, ns 56- 
PLAQUE ic 5s.0is- 1635, 82, 86 
Lublin........ 15 568. 
Frankfort-on -} 1692 

the-Oder. 
Wilmersdorf ..| 1726-27 
Altona........ 732 
Lublin.agataes 1614 
Frankfort -on -; 1699 
the-Main. 
Venice.......-; 1629-80 
Cracow .......| 1598 
Amsterdam... .| 1700-10 
Basel,. .| 1612 
Frankfort - ~On- 1702 
the-Oder. 
Cracow 2vc4« 50 1569-71 
Ferrara ..,.. tow dere 
Amsterdain....| 1726 
Lg h hy de pope aaa 1722-27 
Lublin......-.| 1623-27 
Venice... a wate oun. 1605 
i he ot 9 Deere Rae 1525 
cb iolk bc eee er eae 1623-27 
Naples.......- ot ee 
Amsterdam... 721-27 (267) 
Berhtiv..escsc% i 19-26 
BeVlinisiecckse > 1699-1703 (?) 
Frankfort - on -} 1699 
the-Main. 
HaNRW i s05 54 1712 
Venice........ 1545 
Constantinople] 1732 
VOniG «and a 1719 
wee hee suai Loot. 99, 
1601, 8-4, 5 
Erowid 1643 
Mantua.. 1658 
PYAQUCs ieee 1675 
TAUB iss cueee 1623-27 
Mantua.. 1672 
Constantinople 1578 
Venice ....eess 1549 
Helmstaadt.. 1580 
Frankfort - on- 1697-99 
see 
Mantua.. .| 1648 
Mantua.. .} 1622-26 
Mantua.. 1657, 59, 61, 
672, Oe 
Mantua..... 1667-72, 95, 
Fa ag 
Prague..... 1586, 90-92 
Amsterdam.. 1706, 10 
Tinsel. Lsauk eek 1602 
Offenbach,.... Wee 
Beriiisaastcas 1717 


Corsten anonle 1726-37 


Amsterdam....| 1704-34 

Amsterda mm... ..| 1784-1849 

Frankfort - on -!| 1704 
the-Main. 


Venice........| 1711 
Hague........ 15{8-19 
Amsterdam....! 1709 
Porth cess ees 1691-92 
Leghorn..... ..| 1651-52 
Mantua........) 1724 
Cracow .......} 1667, 70 


Amsterdam.... 17 14-16 


ere 692 

Frankfort - on -| 1683 
the-Oder. 

Venice........| 1636 
Bologna.......} 1537-40 
Constantinople! 1711 
Wilmersdort ..! 1677 
Wilmersdorf ..| 1677,79,80,82 
Sulzbach,.....{ 1691 
Firth .........| 1692-99, 1701 
Offenbach.....| 1715 


Frankfort -on -| 1687 


the-Main. 


Frankfort - on -| 1687, 1706-11 
the-Main. 
Homburg .....| 1711-12 


Offenbach ....! 1714-19, 21 


319 


Name. : 


Reuben b. Eliakim of Mayence... 


Reuben Fiirst (Ferst) b. Nethaneel: 
Reuben b. Isaac Levi Breidenbach! 

(Breitenbach). 
Reyna (Donna).. 


ee rp eee eeeezreeenee 


Roizel (wife of Fishel).. 
Saadia b. Abigdor b. Ehezer Kohen'! 
Saadia Angel b. Samuel.......... 


eee w heen 


Sandia Db. David ...5 ccc esses 
Saadia Kohen b. Zalman..... 
Samson b. Aaron Isaac... 
Samson Habillo 
Samson Hanau b. Solomon... 
Samson Melli b. Mordecai..... ee 
Samson b. Moses... 


a il 
eeeeve 
id 
eevee ene os 


eee eae enaa 


eeereeerneanevne 


Samson Sanguine b. Michael...... 
Samson Tarnigrod b. Hayyim.... 


Samuel b. . . ? (of the family of 
Isaiah b. Samuel Levi). 
Samuel Abravanel eae : 
Samuel AmMAtO...... 
Samuel Archevolti.. 
Semuel b. Aryeh (Loeb) Levi of 
Posen. 
Samuel b. Asher Levi 
Samuel ibn Ashkara Zarfati.... 
Samuel Baruch and Jacob Baruch 
Samuel Bergel b. Judah cea 
Samuel Bloch b. Jacob .........65 


aeee 


ee een tw nee 


BGiel AIBB coasce vd Cee te ee an 
Samuel di Campos...... a eee 
Samuel Cases b. Moses........... 
Samuel di Cazeres...... aeereeGa? 
Samuel b. David Gumpel......... 
Samuel ibn Deisus..... a toawcthec 
BATE! VPESIE wi aise e eh os ieee 
Samuel (Sanwel) b. Eliakim b,j 
Meir. | 
Samuel b. ElKanah....... esas ant 
Samuel Furth (sa nieas preceding 2) 
Samuel (Don) G’acon.. ee ey 
Samuel FRADE DC roresch seatnats very ot 
Samuel Hagiz........ ene hantg ta ui 
Samuel bh. Hayyim......... Reese] 
Saliuel Hazzan .....505 Sicdidin at 
Srmuel Heida b. Josephot Hamburg 
Samuel b. Hezekiab Levi........ . 


Samuel Hurwitz b. Meshuilain 
(Zalman) b. Joseph Levi a 
Prague. 


Samuel b. Isaac Boehm........... 


Samuel (Sanwel) b. Jacob (of 
Lissa). 
Samuel b. Jacob Levi Brandeis... 


Samuel (Sauwel) b. Jacob Poppiez 


Samuel b. Jerahmeel,............ 
Samuel (Zebi Hirsch) b. Joel Sirks 
Samuel b, Jonab (Askeri 7) of 
Salonica. 

Samuel b. Joseph.......- 
Samuel b. Judah. 
Samuel b, ducal Shammash.... 
Samuel Katzenellenbogwen........ 
Samuel Kolodro....... 


heer ewe 


Samuel Levi...... 
Samuel Levi ibn Hakim. ere 


ee) 


Samuel Magreso...... ; 26 whee 
Samuel Mantino b. Jacob.. ie assole adele 
Samuel Marquez b. Solomon...... 
Samuel di Medina b. Shemailab... 


Samuel Meisel . 
Samuel b. Miehael.. 
Samuel b. Mordecai "Ashkenazi ‘of 

Przemysl. | 


eee ree eee eee eet ans 


he ree sere 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Place. 


.| Amsterdam.... 


ert nee eure 


Frankfort -on -. 
the-Main, 


—— 


Date. 


1644, 46-47, 
47-53, 56, 
58, 61-63, 
70-1, 78 


BOrAvendss vs ae 1706 
Frankfort - on -! 1725, 29 

the-Oder. 
Constantinople, 1593-94 
Kuru Techesh-| 1597-98 

me. 
Cracow........! 1586 
Prague. «: .| 1614 
Salonica..... Leos 29, 
Venice.... ...) 1623 
Leghorn ......! 1655 

| Lublin.........} 1686? 
Venice ........° 1654 
Homburg .....| 1724-25 
Mantua.... | 1676 
Daft... 225 531 1618 -20, 23- 
27 

Verona........ 1650 
Frankfort -on-' 1691 

tne-Oder. 
Lublin.........| 1646 

{ 

Amsterdam... .| 1650-52 
Constantinople, 1728 
Venice........ 1564- 1602 
Amsterdatm...,! Hohe 7-8, 8, 
Prague........: 1512 
Ferrara........) 1901-52 
Venice..... wee) 1656 
Sulzbach......; 1712 
Zolkiev........! 1695 
Saloniea. 1597 
Arnsterdain....) 1685 
Mantua........ | 1559 
Amsterdam....| 1659 


| Jal5, 18 


1506, 97, 98 


"| 1631 (7), 39- 


40, 1737 
1712 
1714 


Barthes ayo bacas | Lact 25, 26 
Hanait 1.003% -| 1719 

Pity vetevaens mes 
VeniCe......25 | 1645 
VOHIVE: 655.01. , 1595-98 
Homburg..,...' 1712 
Venice. ..| 1648 
Berlin.........! L706 
WAPIGS cea Sac 1482 


Wihbnersdorf... 
Frankfort - on -! 
the-Oder. 


Cremona..... 
Padua 
Venice........ 
Cracow...... 
Hamburg...... 


or hr eee eee 


Furthi:<, 


| 
Wilmersdorf...) 


Wiltiersdort... 
Lublin ‘ 
Wilmersdorf.. 
Cracow... 


enter 


Alusterdam.... | 


: 1681-82 


Amsterdam.... 


Armsterdaim.... 
Venice Mae Lak 


Venice ....... .| 


INEEPILOSS vce a eee 
Mantlia........ 
Cracow ie: seas 
Constantinople 


Constantinople 


Venite........ 
Amsterdam.,... 
hae ig «rea 
Mantua....... 
PYAPUBR ica 45 
Venice. 
CraGOW 5265508 


peeerne 


t 


1670, 73-74 
1677, 80, 86, 
80, 91-1701, 
5, 11, 13 
1556 

1562 


! 1565-67 
.; 1569-81 


1686, 87, 88, 
90 
1691~92, 93- 


1713 
1563 
1492 


| 1546 
| 1709, 14-16 
1647 


.| 1648 


1614-15 
Wl 
1612 


a 


Typography 
Name. Place. Date. 

Samuel (Joseph) b. Mordecai Gras-) Cracow........{1595-96, 

mark. 1601-6 
Samuel b. Moses Frankfurter.....' Amsterdam... .!1731 
Samuel b. Moses Levi.............{ Sa@lonica..,..,. (1563 
Samuel b. Moses Levi............./ Amsterdam.... 1648-51, 52 
Samuel b. Moses Benienesa; Salonica......./1709, 13, 22 
Samivel be MUS. casos neseas wal AIDUTU: d5-5-c0c5- [Le 
Samuel Norzi b. Isaac............| Mantua....... . 1589-90 
samuel b, Peranyalic.ccscccs esses! oot segasaseenes Less 
NIG) BIBL 5 5.0 ine dieets cee seca Amsterdam... . | L666-6 
Samuel Poppert...... aaa gate s.eee| Altona., : 1727-30 
Samuel Rikomin..... segs B4iea the Constantinople 1511-13 


Samuel Rodrigues-Mendes....... 

Samuel Rosa b. Isaac Baruch... 

Samuel b. Samuel de Roma....... 

Samuel Schwab b. Joseph of Gtinz- 
burg. 

Samuel Shalom 
Lepanto. 

Samuel Teixeira... 


Sedjelmessi of 


Samuel Valensi....... 
Sainuel (Oppenheim) of Vienna... 
Samuel Zarfati..,......600000, 
Samuel b. Zeeb Wolf b. Ephraim 
Fische] of Lemberg. 
Sarah. bat Jaco .45<ca~ ads onsets 
Saul Belgrad b. Joseph of Udine.. 
Saul b. Benjamin b. Isaae........! 
Saul of Frankfert-on-the-Oder... 


tee ewe nen anne 


Saul (Simeon) b. Judah Levi.,.... 
Schwarz (Hayyim b. David)...... 


Selig b. Abraham Levi........ 
Selig (Abi ‘Ezri) b. Solomon of 
Venice. 


Seligmann Ulma bh. Moses Sim- 
eon. 
Shabbethai (7)..... 
Sligbbethyt Bass. cs. os ces es wes 
Shabbethai b. Mordecai of Posen 
Shalom b. David Moses........... 
Shalom Galliago b. Joseph of Sa- 
lonica. 
Shalom b. Gershon of Horodlo.... 
Shalom (Schechna) b. Nahum Kai- 
danower. 
Shalom (Mann) Stoks..........0053 
SHemarial. bi. ARTO ke ceases 
Shemariah b. Jacob of Grodno... 
SHIOTIN 1] GY ga5 3) asa dicla sieie cha See Fees 
Shem- Tob 10. MINIT «2s 
Sheim- Tob ibn Polkar b. Moses... 
Shneor Falcon b. Judah... 


seer ee enews 


ee eueae 


Shneor (Zalman) b. Israel Baruch, 
Biechower. 

Shneor (Zalman) b. Jonathan ko- 
hen of Posen. 

Simeon Almosnino.. 

Simeon Altschul b. Asher Ansehel 
Herzels. 

Simeon Altschiler b. Judah (Loeb ); 

Simeon CWVolf) b. Asher koben, 
Ashkenazi of Frankfort. | 

Simeon Blunsa Ashkenazi 

Simeon (Wolf) Brandeis b. Jacob. 


sere ewes 


Simeon Cofio (Copio 7)............ 
Simeon b. Isaac Cracow .......... | 
Simeon b. Judah Jeseph.. 
Simeon eee kKohen 
Sinners Labi. cia(asetees 


eee naee 


oar reer ® 


hath 


Simeon b. Naphtali Hirz.......... 
Simeon Raner of Danzig 
Simecn Rodefi.... 
simeon Treves 


tear eoabee sere 


erercee ee eee & 


Simeon Witzenbausen b, Joseph.. 


1726 
1664-66 
jl4nts 

115, 26, 33- 
34 


1596 


_ 178, 82, 85- 
RT. 88, 95, 
17723. 26 

1657-59 


Amsterdam... 
Amsterdam... . 
Naples ........ 
Amsterdam... . 
VEONICO 5 ciacuc: 


Amsterdam... 


wt ti hg 6 Et: eee 


Fatih eave wy a aanenet (LG 
Rome. gaia se 1547 
Amster dam. ... L097, 98 
Prague........ (1603-15 
Venice.........! 1606, 17 

BARES eS 11643, 
Frankfort - -on 11712 
the-Oder. 
Lablini.c... <..| l6is3y. a 


Prague .c.cess L015, 18, 22, 
26 
2) | ea FE 
Augsburg. . eee 1533-43 
Iehenhausen ,.|1544-45 
Heduernheim.. Lod6 
Amsterdam... ./ L697 
Dyhernfurth . “]1692- 95 
Frankfort-on-1697-99 4 
the-Oder. Veh, 6 . 
Berlin........./ 1005, § 
Frank fort.- on -' ry 13, 2), 
the-Gider. a A 
Hana een ie a 16 
Venice ........ 1605 
Ainsterdaim..../ 1679, 80, 82 
Dyhernfurth .. JOS0217 18 
Haset 35-2 22a 
Pragne........ 1608 
Amsterdam... [1627 
LUD hiss. ve ice! 104-3 
Wilmersdorf . .| li 116 
Jessnitz....... i ival 
Offenbach..... 
Cracow......-. jhe 589, 98 
Amsterdain... ol : i | 


Salonica...... 
Constantimopie)} st io 


. | Constantinople; 151 ] 


Constantinople 1560 
Venice, .(1a67 
Auisterdam.... | LO&3-87 
Amsterdam... ./1698, 1701, % 
Venice ...... | Loa87-88 
PrMeHues, 64.545 (Le8 
Prague ......6. 107 
Cracow....... | 1646-47 
Venice ........ [1696 
Frankfort - on -: 1693 
the-Oder. 

Venice ........) 1592 
Cracow... Si byYe: 
Amsterdam... W700 
OCTACOWisk sa jos4 
Veniee.ss«+3-+| 1645 


Cremona......|1465 
Frankfort - on -}1709-18 
the-Main. 
Offenbach..,../1779 
\nisterdam,.. .}1708, 11-15 
Amsterdam... .! 1683 
Smyrna... 1660 
Frankfort -on-) 1719 
the-Main. 
Amsterdam... 
Frankfort - on - 
the-Main. 


1679 
1680-84, 91 


Typography 


Name. 


Simhah b. Isaac... 


eat hewn et ennseeee 


Sinai Kimhi b. Hayyim........... 
SOLGMIOL vesaw cows nek 
Solomon (hb. 

Solomon Paadt b. “Aaron. Isaac 

(Sakel) of Norden. 

Solomon b, Aaron Levi of Cracow. 
Solomon Abrabalia (Abravalia)... 
Solomon DA DrANAM . fcclave ae eo 
Solomon b. Abraham of Moravia.. 
Solomon ibn Alkabiz b. Moses Levi 
SOLOMIGHY AITATAR Sc s.6n5-id on mes woes 
Sclomon Altaras b. Dayid......... 


pean ereteeneee 


Solomon Aptrod b. David..,...... 


Solomon (Zalman) Ashkenazi..... 
Solomon Barzillai b. Moses....... 
Solomon (Zalman) b. Bonfet (Bon- 
fed) Shneor. 

Solomon Bueno b. JACOD,.......6. 
Solomon Cavaliero (or Cavallero). 
RolOMOMW Ds. DAV seo. cc woe eos eae s 
Solomon Dels b. Simeon .......... 
Solomon b. Eliezer Kohen........ 
Solomon b. Ephraim Kohen.,..... 
Solomon ibn Ezra b. Moses,....... 
Solomon (Zalman) Furrth,........ 
SOlOMON GADDAL oc. 2 swec ane ween 
Solomon (Hayyim) Haber-Tob.. 

Solomon b. Hiihnle Naske......... 
Solomon (Zalman) Hanatt........ 
Solomon b. Isaac Kohen Ashkenazi 
Solomon b. Isaac of Lishon....... 


Solomon b. Jacob Judah of Nor- 
den (1). 

Solomon Jonah............ wetaets 

Solomon b. Joseph Kohen 

Solomon (Zalman) b. Joshua Ash- 
kenazi. 

Solomon b. Judah Loeb........... 

Solomon (Zalman) b. Judah Loeb. 

Solomon (Zalman) b. Kalman ko- 
hen, 

Solomon ibn Koryat...... ‘ 
Solomon (Zalinan) of Lemberg. . 


seer eee 


eeenvstee 


Solomon London,...... en Bea.csive-wite “eyue 
Solomon Luria... .......c.0 0c ee eee 
Solomon Luzzatto dD. Abraham.. 

Solomon Mar David.......+. Ba arate 


Soloinon b. Mazzal-Tob 
Solomon (Zalman) b. Mattithiah. 


Soloman. hs Meiices ederetiaieae ts | 
Solomon (Zalman) b. Meir Levi of; 


Schwersenz, 
Solomon b. Mordecali........ee8e 
Solomon (Zalman) b. Mordecai. sy 


Solomon b. Moses Abraham....... 
Solomon t. Moses Ashkenazi...... 
Solomon (Zalman) b. Moses Frank- 
furter. 

Solomon b. Moses Hazzan........ 
Solomon b. Moses Levi...,.....60. 
Solomon ibn Mubhar....... badass 
Soiomon ibn Nabmias b. David.. 


Solomon Nissim .......-.eeeee. ebvaalf 


Solomon Norzi b. Samuel......... 
Solomon Oliveyra............ sees 
Solomon b. Perez Bonfoi Zarfati.. 


Solomon b. Samuel Levi.......... 
Solomon (Zalman) b. Samuel 
Steina-Kopf of Prague. 
Solomon (Hai) Saraval b. Nehe- 
miah. 
Solomon ibn Shoshan b. Samuel... 
Solomon Tobyana........ 
Solomon b. Todros............006, 
Solomon Trani b. Moses.......... 
Solomon Usque.......csececesvees 
Solomon (Don) Walid b. Judah... ‘ 
Solomon Wehle b. Moses........ ie 
Solomon ibn Yakkar 


een eeune 


ebevateveupeeea 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Place. | Date. 


Cracow ....... 
Basel ..... Mee 1602, 8 
Constantinople) Voki 
st Sorel 1662 
Salonieca.......) 1621 
Hamburg ..... | 1692 
Cracow .......| 1648 
Salonica....... 1520 
Mantua........| 1361 
LAD hina ose 1571 
Guadalajara...; 1482 
Venice. esvneae 163: 
Venice ..,.-.+- es 18, 19, 
Frankfort - on -| 1722-30 
the-Main. 
Amsterdam....| 1730 
Mantua........j 1a65 
PUP: con coun ee 1729, 30 
Cremona...... 1576 
Salonica.......} 1582-33 
Venice........ 1600 
Frankfort - on -| 1697 
the-Main. 
Lt Dlity s.so.0.5%0% 1635 
Amsterdam....| 1708 
Smyrna.. »| 1857-74 
W iimersdor f. 673-74 
Constantinople 1662 
Venice ..,..... 1599 
Prague... .| 1620 
Frankfort - on - 1692-1714, 
the-Main. (17 7) 
Pee ICE So aac 1597 
Nome.........{ 146 
Venice .c.ciees 1684 
Amsterdam....| 1719 
Amsterdam....} 1640, 42 
Venice........ 1666 
Prague ........| 1598 
Prague ........| 1693 
PYAWiles, <o5«%3 1725 


Wilmersdorf .. 
Frankfort - on - 
the-Main. 


Leghorn......} 1650 
Verniee..cciss.s) LG 
Amsterdam....| 1709-14 
Frankfort -on-| 1714-25 
tbe-AMain. 
Offenbach and| 1716-20 
Hanan. 
Amsterdam... .| 1731-35 
b VENICGss sania 1607 
Venice ........ 1567 
Venice........ 1599 
Constantinople] 1518-49 
Berlin.......+- 1/05, 6, 8, 
3, 15 
PACU 2s ecca x 1587-88 
JessnitZ....... 1720-23 
Constantinople} 1710 
Frankfort -on -| 1708 
the-Oder. | 
Amsterdam.,...| 1717-18 
Prague... 1718 (?) 
Dyhernfurth . ree 
Amsterdam.... EB 24, 26, 
Venice......... Vil 
Amsterdam....| 1663, 76 
Constantinople] 1642-43 
Venice....,...| 1599 
Venice........ 1667 
Mantua........| 1598 
Amsterdam....| 1680, 8 
Soncino....... 1484 
Naples........ 1490, 92 
Prague........| 1512, 15, 22 
Sulzbach...... 3 
Venice...... 1667 
Salonica..... ..| 1580, 82 
Amsterdam... .| 1685 
Amsterdam....| 1662(?) 
Venice..... ...| 1629-30 
Constantinople] 1561 


Venice........| 152 


ZOLKiev .....-, 


1588, 97-98 


1688-89 
1699-1700 


Li 702-4 


Constantinople! 1522 


Name. | 
| 


Solomon Yerushalmi b. Mena- 
hem. 

Solomon Zalmati b. Maimon,..... 

Solomon b. Zebi Lokatscher....... 


Soncino (Moses b. . . ?) ws. eee 
Soneino, Eliezer b. Gershon 
Soneino, Gershon b. Moses.,...... 


eeetue 


Soncino, Israel Nathan b. Samuel 
b. Moses. 

Soncino, Joshua Solomon b., Israel 
Nathan. 

Soncino, Solomon b. Moses,...... 

Tobiah b. Abraham Kohen........ 


Uri (Phoebus) b, Aaron Witmund 
Levi. 


Uri (Phoebus) b. Abraham Barmes 


Uri b. Abraham Kohen........... 
Uri (Phoebus) b. Joseph.........- 


Uri b. Moses.......... 9 a Open Kes 

Uri (Shragga Phoebus) b. Solomon 
(Zalman). 

Usque (Abraham)........+.ss.00. 

Veile bat Moses Schienker of Firth 

Vittorja Eliano... 


seer vreterreeeres 


Weelin (Sebald), 


Yahya b. Abraham ibn Hama Fas. 
Yom-Tob b. Michael Kohen....... 
Yom-Tob Modighano b. Samuel.. 
Yom-Tob Zikri b. Rafael......... 
Yom-Tob Zarfati b. Perez......:. 


AN CWA contend peace rata areca aren ees 
Zadok b. Abraham of Meseritz.... 


Zebi (Hirsch) b. Aaron Hayyat... 


Zebi (Hirsch) b. (Jacob) Abraham 

Zebi (Hirsch) b. Abraham of 
Wronek. 

Zebi (Hirsch) b. Elijah b. Baer 
Lubeck. 


Zebi (Hirsch) b. Falk Kohen Ktm- 
melbrod. 
Zebi (Hirsch) b. Gershon......... 


Zebi (Hirsch) b. Isaac Levi....... 


Zebi b. Isaac Of OStrog....ceeecces 
Zebi b, Isaac of Posen......seeee: 
BEDLG, JACOD ene aeccceee een ear me 


Zebi (Hirsch) b. Joseph Levi...... 


Zebi (Hirsch) b. Josiah Crasnik.. 
Zebi (Hirsch) b, Kalonymus Ko. O- 
hen of Kalisz. 


Zebi Levi Hazzan.........., Piet 
Zebi (Hirsch) Liberls Sofer.. 
Zebi (Hirsch) b. Meir of Janow.. 

Zebi (Hirsch) b. Meir of Kossowitz 
Zebi (Hirsch) Minz Levi b. Asher. 
Zebi b. Moses.. 
Zebi (Hirsch) b. Moses Frankfort. 
Zebi b. Shalom. , site 
Zebi (Hirseh) b. Tobiah... sadgeattes 


eee erreeres eee eer reee 


Place. Date. 
Salonica......| 1551 
Sabbionetta,..! 1554 
TRAE cos aouees 1490 
Dyhernfurth,.,} 1700, 2 
Berlin.........] 1708 
Salonica 1526-27 
Constantinople 1534-47 
Soncino....... 1488-90 
Breseia.......: 1491-94 
IBAPCO cask oa 1496-97 
PANO sig: 500s 1503, 
P@SAP0.... +00 1507-20 
WAVOs<.careasel © 516 
OTLOUDA Ges a ess 1518, 19 
Ril aes5 545 1521-26 
Constantinople} 1530-33 
Salonica....... 1532-33 
Soncino....... 1483 
Casal Maggiore] 1486 
Soncino...... 1483-88 
Naples...... ,»} 1490-92 
Soncinod....... 490 
Wilmersdorf...| 1714, 16-18, 

21, 29-30 
Sulzbach,..... 1741 
PRP waists 1745 
Anisterdam..,.| 1645-48, 56, 

58-89 
Zolkiey........ 1692-95 
Alsterdam..,. m 80, 82, 

RG 
Almsterdam....; 1698 
Amsterdam... . 172 28, 24, 26. 


Atmsterdam.... 
Cracow..... 


650 
a 18-40, 43, 


Ferrara. so. sase- 1358-5 
Wilmersdorf .. 27 
Cremona...... i 58, 58- 
Venice........ ie 65, 66, 
Rome.. ~ | 1578, SL 
Frankfort - on - 1709 
the-Main. 
Venice ........) 1b? 
Salonica.......| 1717 
Salonica.......| 172% 
Constantinople) 1519 
Naples........) 1489 
VetC@us i saes 1667 
Frankfort - on -| 1697-99, 
the-Octer. 1702, 5-8, 
11-18, 138, 
20, 24, 25 
Frankfort - on -; 1714 
the-Oder. 
CTACOW 22.0954 1642-43 
Amsterdam... .| 1700-1 
Prague... ; Seat] 1691-92 
Dessau, . 1696 
Frankfort - on - 1697-99 
the-Oder. 
Berasediseccs 1699, 1700 
Prague,...cess 1705-6, 25 
WUT seis eu 1692 
Amsterdam... .| 1700 Fin 10 
Amsterdam....! 1717-18, 23, 
26, 28, 30, 
33, 38-39 
CraCOW ......- 15¢6-77 
UBUD. 5 Gawker 1622 
LUD ss é.i-2-<s 1685 
PUPtD cox casas 1691-94, 99, 
1701 
Lablin,.. pass < 1687 
Dyhernfurth ..: 1691, 96 
Frankfort - on -| 1697-99 
the-Oder. 
Dyhernfurth... | 1700-1 
Venice........} 1598 
Prague........ 1707 
Jessnitz ...... 1720, 21, 22 
Prague........| L713 
Amsterdam... .] 1725-26, 26 
RABIN Zico. 1622 
Amsterdam....) L701 
Cracow ...... .| 1642-44 
Lublin ........! 1623-27 


321 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Typography 
Name. Place. Date. Name Place. | Date. 
Samael ~ pie Se eee ee ache | ee eral ee eer 
Zeeb (Wolf) b. Aryeh (Loeb) b.! Amsterdam....| 1724 PICHUOL eat eile na seuk S4eeaareee Frankfort - on "| 1597 
Isaac. the-Oder. 
Zeeb (Wolf) hb. Isaac Josels.. «ot MOTROOTE Vac5.26 | i 1638-39 Ellinger CI EG Dhabi etssionttaacwies | Leipsic .. al 1672 
PROT WAST CV Vig a ad oho ea pha Arusterdain....| 1655-87 BI ZOV AT sc xcsuta hae ee e bate ee eee | Levden ....... 1 1680-384 
Zeeb (Wolf) b. Meshullam........ 1 ERM EES oc0 9:95. 09 17OZ-3, 12, Episcopus (NICOL)... 06. e cee eee eee Bagel aaUettlcele aes | 1536, 37, 47- 
16-17 1d, 56, 63 
Zeeb (Wolf) b. Mordecai.......... | CraGow 24444 7: ' 1658-40, 43, PE PDCUIAN Ais s.5:6 Genesis Sea ene Leyden ....... | 1621 
| 48 Facciotto or Fazot de Montecchio| Rome......... hts 
Zeeb (Wolf) b. Samuels... ..5 esas | Amsterdam....| 1698 (Gioy., Giac). | 
Fagius (Paul.)iccccseccceeses ences | ISNY....+....5. 1541-42 
en a tie 0 i Constantinople] 1543-44 
: Farri (Messer Zuane or Giov anni)| Venice......., 1544 
List OF CHRISTIAN PRINTERS. Filippon(o), Filipponi (Filotarsi).; Mantua........ 1563-64, 68 
Filippone (Franecesco)............ i Mantua........ 1561-63 
PROM cet yee he teen scenes 94s! FOP Dengan 11 4098 
UP ABDI a tace iad atau Cb aate we iaaree ...-.| Hamburg..... 1596 
Name. Place. Date. 1) Freben (AmDros.)........e ccc e eae Basel .......8. 1578-81 
; Freiburg......! 1583-84 
: il Frohben (Hieron.)........... seoees| Bas@l ......... | 1531, 36-63 
Alberti (Idzardus)..........0.005. Franeker...... | 1642 (| Froben (Jo. ([.])..... 0... cece noes Basel ......... i ISLU-27 (32) 
Albrizzi (Hier.) 0.0... ce cece eee Venice ........ 107 (?) || Puldins (Mart.).............ece ee. Leipsie ........ (1712 
Ambrosini (Christoforo) ......... Venice ........ 1667, 71-74 | Fyner (Comrad)........cceeeeceees Esslingen.... | 1475, 77 
Andreae (Jo. Pho)... cece ee eee Frankfort - on -| 1716 Ganghel (Christoph. van)........ Almsterdam....; 1683 
the-Main, Gura, Garra (di, dei)............. Venice,....... 1564-1608 
Andreae (Matth.)....... 0c. cee ee Frankfort -on-) V707-12 (10) 
the-Oder. Gardoni CAlessandro)..........6. Venice........ 1 1577-78 
ANALEACKSE. ose e sn owedasaieen Heidelberg ....| 15st Giustiniani, Justiniani (Bern)....! Venice........ | 1498 
Ansbelin (THOM. ........ ee. eee eee Tubingen..... 1512-14 Giustinian., Justiniani (Mareo An-| Veniee........ 1544-52 
Hagenau...... 1518-19 tonio). 
Bakenhoffer (Jo. Phil.).........-, Copenhagen ..: 3606 GOCDCIUS.. cakouad neon eer tank eae Augsburg. 1680-83 
Baron (Jo. Zach}... ces cee eens Leyden ......, 1658 Gottschalk (Mich.)...........c000. Frankfort -on -) 1693-1734 
Baroni (Ander) ...... cece cee Venice ........ 1692 the-Oder. 
Basbuysen (H. 0. P.).. sc ccc eee Hanau 1709-12 Gourmont (Ae@GId.)....... cece eee Paris, 24a | 1520-29 
Bauernfeld (Jae.)......cc cee cee ee JONBie 4 veccica'e as 1678 GYOSS (JO. ACL)... cece cece cece wees Hanau........ 1 1714-15 
Beausang (Jo. Jac.)...............| Hanau 1715-19 Gruler (Peter)......0... 0.00 cece eee Tannhausen...! 1594 
BCDC seg fecal eh eee cies Basel ......... 1534-95 Grumbergius (J). ccs. cece eeeeees Wittenberg... .) 1521 
Beckmann (Joh. Christ.)......... Frankfort - on -| S607 Grymin (Sigismund), Medicus....} Augsburg... 1520 
the-Oder. Gryphius (Frane.)....... eee cece ee PATIS vicacaneces 1532 
Bladk (Laut \accseciweesdaases os Amsterdam ...; 1676-78 Gryphius (Nebast.).....c cee cece eee Lyons......... 1528-30 
Bladao (Maestro Anton. B. de, Rome......... 1524, 46-47 Grypho (Giov., JoN.)..........0.. Venice........: 1564-67 
Asula). . Guarin (Thom.). 2.0... ccc cece es Basel.......... | a8 
Blaise CVHOM.)} occ cee ce eee eee Parishsiaacaec! 1622 Gyselaar, Gijselaar (Joh.)........ Franeker...... 1690 
Blawve UW Malice. svarcvkda das Seine Amsterdam 1676-78 HAalMaCET.)ecsks hg ees sec hdeewees Amsterdam....} 1701 
Bomberg (Daniel).............885 Venice ........ 1516-48 Hamm (Gn. WY CLES. Voce stiaskesosieue oct Helimstedt..... 1702- 
Bona (PomenitO)......cccceeeees Venice ........ 1678 Harper (Thom.)......-..ceceeeeee London.. 1643 
Boom, Bau Goh.) ...... eee cee |; Amisterdain,...| 1705 Hartmann (Joach. and Frid.)..... Frankfort - on -| 1595-96 
Borstius (Gerhard and Jacob)....; Amsterdam..../ 1698-1703 the-Oder. . 
Bravadintss es pea vcvensas viawe wens Fenice ........ 664 Hayes (JO ecicswusnctcnav sedans Cambridge....} 1685 
Bragadini (Aluise, Aloyse)....... Venice........ ve 63 Heinscheit, Henscheid (Anton).. ge Rica en on-' 1711-19 
)~75 e-Main. 
Bragadini (Aluise [II.], Aloyse)..| Venice........ 1624-30, 39- || Henekel (Mart.).........0..0 eee Wittenber e.. | 1609 
| Hene (Hans, Jacob)........6e.06- Hanau.. el 1610-14 
Bragadini (Aluise [IIT.]).......... Venice........ 1697-98, 1710 Hering (JOon.)......ccceesecccwees Frankfort - on - - 1727 
Bragadini. Bragadino............ Venice........ 1550-1800 the-Oder. = | 7 
Bragadini (Giacomo, Jacob)...... VeEniCe o0.0s 505s 1639-50 HOLEI 2 JON eats xidacecse eo hens sso sleek artiet 1825 
Bragadini (Girolamo, Gerolimo,} Venice........ 1639-50, 55- Hoogenhtiysen (Cornel.).......... Amsterdam 7)1 
Hieronym. ). 64, 67 Hutter (Etias)....... ee cece eee Hamburg .| 1586-87 
Bragadini (Juan, Zuan, Giovan.,| Venice........ 1579-1614 Nuremberg... .| 1599-1602 
Johann.). (157) live (Thom.)... ieeeaiseesaesd| HONGON sis cove. 1714-17 
Bragadini (Lorenzo, Laurent.)....| Venice...... os ee 39- |; Ilsnerus (Blasius).. satan ane aieaens PEON on -} 1682 
a the-Main. 
Bragadini (Nicol.).......... eared Venice........ 1639-50 Imberti (Zuane, Gioy., Joh.)... Venice........ 1451-56 
Bragadini (Pietro)........ se. eeee Venice........ 1614-30, 39- Isingrinius (Mich.)........008 veee} Basel...... cece 1584-35 
49 Jablonski (Dan. Ern.)............ Berlin......... 1697 
Bragadini (Vicenzio [I.], Vineent.); Venice........ 1639-419 Mets (sl ae ConA be Pees Liibeck.,...... 1 
Bragadini (Vicenzio [II.])........ Venice..... «> | 1697-98 Jaeger (Heredes JOS.).......0000. Gustrow ...... 164 
Brand (Justin. jc ices han verae nes Leipsic.....,.. 1683-86 JONSSON EADY Js suidices ccc sccecses Leipsie........ 1683 
Brandenburger.........-.eseeeeee Leipsic........ 1712 JANSSON (ION. Joss a disk ee nce scseee ss Amsterdam... .{ 1683 
Brandmiiller (J0.)......cceeee eee Basel ......... 1691 Siete NMAC a ipo wet 6 4:0 o's alae ace lare GY 1B sti Pw aeens 1628-45 
Breitkopf (Bernh. Christ.)........ Leipsic........ 1725 Juilleron (Nicol.)..... ry ae Lyons......... 1622 
Brion (ADtOD).......-cceeeeeceeee TRAV A tok nase 1557-58 Justinianus (Aug.)....... Seawas .{ Paris 
Brocario (Bul. d@).... cece eccaee Complutum 1514-17 Juvenis (Martin)..........0008% 34 PRLISS: iuucsaes 1552-54, 59, 
Brucello (Frane.)........ceceeeeee Venice........ 1544 63, 68, 69, 74 
AION ocho cote st See ee eans Venice...... ..| 1619-22, 22- }} Kelmer (G.)..........-ceeceeeees ..| Wittenberg....] 1615 
41 RUNS NIC. i 4 doen hciaiawsnirwey tes Rostock ....... 1637 
Calleoni, Caleoni (Anton)......... Venice........ 1642-57 Kirchner (Christ.) ........00 cece Leipsic........ OF 
Capballoni, sick cisess seek casueca 1d | eae ape 1583 Knebel (Jo. Henr.)..........0000- Berlin......... 1699 
Cavalli, Caballi (Zorzo)...........| Venice........ 1565-68 Koelmer (JOD)... ..cceeeceeveenees Frankfort - on -| 1708-27 
Christiani (Wilm.)..........0.500 Leyden ....... j633 ; the-Main. 
ClUCUS (NOS). cvs ican one veenee is Wittenberg 1525, 29 Koenig (JOn.)...... cece ee eeceees -Basel.......... 1662, 75 
Collegium Italorum..........+66- Paris ......0005 1539 Koenig (Lud.).....-..006- pedevsew)|, BASE] cess Gexats 1618-32, 48 
COMMOCNMUSsi0c.ccdsss ses bbe cedead Heidelberg... .; 1599-1616 KOPMClOls:4.20 sve sea deues cesawe ds Augsburg..... 1680-83 
Conti (Vicenz., Vincent.)......... Cremona...... 1556-61, 65- Kurzius (Joh.) of Gross-Glogau..| Cracow........ 15389 
66, 67 Lacquehay (JOD.)...... cece eeeees PATIS secs ee tes 1629 
Sabbionetta...| 1567 Launoy (Bonaventura de)........ Offenbach.....| 1719-24 
Cramosius (Sebast.)......-.00ce08 Paris .........- 1632 Laurentius (Henr.)......-..+.+00-. Amsterdam....| 1630-32, 34- 
Cratander (ADCY.).......0eeceeaes Basel ......... 1531 35 
Crati(Zacnhs i covey Geran ses Wittenberg... .| 1586-87 Lotther (Melchior)...........5.005 Leipsic........ 1533 
CTALO. (JO. ses ta at iaassGeaw eens Wittenberg ...| 1563-76, 82 Luchtmans (Jord.)..........-.066- Leyden........] 1685 
CrivelNari (Gaspar)... .....seeeeee Padua .......- 1622-23 Lucius (Jac.)....... cece eee Qawex Helmstedt..... 1580 
Crivellari (Giulio, Julius)......... Padua .......- 1640 Hamburg......{ 1587 
Decker (G@.)... cc eevee cee ccceeees Basel ......... 1660 Madruz (Christofolo)............. Riva. 
Donne (Franceseo delle)......+66- Verona 1594-95 Magnus (AlDertus)...cecccceeeees Amsterdam... .] 1687-88 
Doriguzzi (Zuane, Joh.).......... Venice........ 1670, 85 Maire (Job.).........ceeceees .....] Leyden........| 1621, 22, 37, 
Draconi (Christoph. )........+6.6++ Cremona...... L576 50 
Dreunen (Meinardus)...... woes! Utrecht........! 1665 Martinelli (Giov., Jos.}.....2..+.+' Vemnice........ 1636-42, 56 


XII.—21 


322 


PEDIA —_ 
ISH ENCYCLO presses 
THE JEW 1732 many of the tivity 
. om ; : aap ac : 
hy V. (1782-1900): oe continued ae for ex- 
Typograp | | Date. lready referred . day. Thatot wr vorkshop of 
Place. a resen oe 740 in the v n- 
—_—— ; nto the p ife in 1 nae Vy a num 
Name. 1640 sae began a new lif earn Ce Dy: their 
9 Copenhagen... 1680 ample, " Meldola; and he w nda market for SO 
DOE yeseeaainiee: Frankfort on 2133 Abraham inters, who fou rbary States, s 
ehi —_ rt rl Ba : 
fartzan (Me we eeeee Frankfo . f Hebrew p nd the ‘] Gor §10 
Ma (Henr.)........ chius).... he-Main 559-63 bero ; Levant a inters like Carlo 
Moeller eneeinnany Euete Paris cs “1600-63 roducts in the hristian printers li = und it worth 
en een eniaaaeieS nice........ o p ris 9) fo a 
Be DE TUS seater ae 8, hoc earnest a 62 much so eer Sree Falerno valine and cain 
More Hee ee ome ae ria’ and 10 . ducing ‘ erio 
Monee Br evde Ooi (1779) ete in pro kets. This p ; 
Morrhius ( GO.).vcceee ape Seen ttear hile to comp thern mai ctivity o 
ia | eee ‘1710-19 whi he sou ‘kable a 
Nisselius ( age trae aaa phe ‘ for th remat ‘ the 
Ge alle...... ira . orks nae f the : ‘in 
fore couanien Lire 18D 12, 15 oe the oe Rodethoim, ae whilo 
Peaeabine (Geshe eae Cee Mantua..... a ers a Heidenheim a the ritual. . have 
aa Ree sae Bee eae eet Wolf (n editions of ‘ankfort market, t 
penen! ai Ca ast ep ae |1652- rell-known e the Fran ; hroughou 
Secor ae seers sala.... 6 we ° for ‘7¢ ns th 
Basiuaty (Laur. Pe etaaee aoe Cae Seaenneee 330-57 originally ee ee ee many 
Paull ee Sui ane hee _ ee been used by - the Tefillah 2 fir Hebr. aa, 
Pau PMT) ss eeseeseaeasea oma rorld ; an 02 (“ Zeit. sed by the 
Petrus aa Fase Fomcacaa yee 1566 67 the w itions by 19 ikewise markec t 
Pieters yee ae ary een pee. 82 as ao edaony P d was likew arlsruhe, a 
ce Cento penaies bets conus Nese = 99). This perio printing at © beginning 
Plantinu ene caters Veni ae as Vv. : ; of Hebrew oe printers b 8! alm 
Presigao (Comino) oe Romie verre B88 ee egis of lg ater under Wilhe ‘h 
r Te tee ontanne): ICO sees 597 nder in 1755, and lat t Hirse 
oe Bee theses Paar “15 0-1615, first u Herald in be ? till 1782 tha 
Propagand LO pee aes Franeker. .... 1590. ith Johann was not ti e allowed to 
aE Car 0. dhe aa hoice widen... | 21-22 Wi 766 It 2 were a 
Badacas Caan We ; Ley 11638, 48 ‘from 1766. r-in-law ‘ks. They 
Radaeus lus (Franc.)....... m.... 1638. 4 Lotte is brothe itual works. . 
ener Geter teg | Lote rom om by fora works The 
ye a toe aa Ha Niiesg sts “09 a printing-press, David Marx. known. 
Re SCN Santon ee ee nee starta p din 1814 by this press are ; 
Rehte (Day. Pred.0000.000000 a 165759, 60 vere follower rints from rorthy for the 
ei are ae ameeiere oe, | ae Deus 1700, 11, 15- Us ut 61 Hebrew P especially notew ; ting in the 
Rew gO enone: e bane cneusae abo riod is : sbrew print ted 
Rhamba ( oe ee Ham 386-1709 ut the pe of Heb : cquainte 
Boson, mon oF how). Hamburg... ga 52 . and snes cepa lived who w ce ee Hoe 
Ros eet tent li Veronae.. o.c6| 9-18 Yl St pe difficu eed 
ore Verona., "1609- here mo : | hat Hebrew 
ee ie TODEVA... cae. 538-51 ds w somew no : 
Rossi Francesco d ee | Londons...) 156040 a ee ee aes ape lea Russian 
at ee ntua ase act tha Vv constit id- 
Rouviere The yi (Ae eae Man eiasae for the fac istricts now ill past the m 
Roycroft hemanns: yet es Ven- Mantua... | = vr +o in the dis r ttlement ti p : ave for 
Runner Rateatke (Messe v6 1683 " printing he Pale of Se hough they ha f 
Rufinelli, Veewte Wiabeae » 1586-8 land and the entury, tho number o 
nelli (Tommas., Thom)... Cae anion le Pola ighteenth cen argest 
Rute ‘ie Can es Hamburg... 1586-8 dle of Ho nee contained the ie acquainted 
SU es Oe RR Biren te anes 159 ne past 200 y umber of | the Coun- 
; ee et Strasburg... ms he pe reatest n : om : 
Bio (Jon) II ieee Wore ee aes 1201, 10 ae and the oe old Polish seas rigid control 
eet Re ee yehen ae es 94 with Hebrew. Lands kepta aoa Hebrew books, 
Benneae OP.) eevee nen nr.)... <3 hausen, . . [1593- he Four duction f copy- 
Sehall bate Nis (Joh. Henr. -oee) Tann berg... 1615 cil of th ver the pro da kind o : 
Schoenners RR ne ane | Witten {L583 0 ich it securec mmunica- 
eae ann : Darntidives ‘ologne.... x ; which ning exco : ; 
Selfisch oe sens Seah haute Solingen Seees 70 Russia. et t by ee having its se 
ir eeee eo euedn Strasburg...... 110 inting work: a 
Seer Goh) ie one Ne etad, Berlin... ee P anybody ee of geet 
Stark (Seb. BD erccccececeeeeee] Amster. 1328, 39-46 pobaion. Tie fea any dep neat p mainly 
SZ RSE fee ete pan b robation. ce Oo ts were 
teen (Caspar) ea nheca ae Paris 1554, 5 p chan yarke r 
Stephanus me eee ee oo destroy ae and ee Lublin, ge eu 
oe EiniiGh one in these acue, Cracow, ill after 
BUR CRO. Lis aesei eas tekbes Satter, 557 ae di by Seu It was not till | -95) that 
apnea Heredes).... | __ the Diecast eae 63, supplie the-Oder. titions (1772 : 
eae | Venice ee "OB, TB? Frank fort-on- dof the three par blished in Russia. 
htc es eed 4 , ‘ ay oO * . 
Vaesberge hee Matai 1 41 FA roublous perl n to be esta f the printing 
Vedelago (Dome Venice.... 1642-1705, | ¢ resses bega s be made o ia (not yet, 
oni VENOPRUR poze: 2882 Venice........ 1651, 58, ae local_p ay here perhap wt Eupatoria ( eine 
Vendramini, bg iN Cenk otk eer ne 1643-5 Mention m ‘YY llah (1784) Russian 
ni.. @... 8 Tefi : f{ the t 
eee Jvicaseoviniys oe A845 of the Karaite Tefilla ie 
BHUCOSO eteaeenrtiays ia 583 within f the Krime two or 
Vieceri (Fra BD nl aman ehh Ee Re ees 8 612 however, that o made to 
By ABE oerescane gl seu iio anaes 1598-1612 ; owed by lso be in con- 
vit (Ant. ie . ? Jakob) ap sae te | Basel........ 1701 pire), foll . 2ference may a itz (1760-67) In r 
Voliet, rene (nae ies ase ess = rnstorda i, 1683-88 year. and re ited at Olexni idism. Soonafte 
at ata Sa eS | sone oone J ? = n . Sl . FAS 
Waldkire aK VEO URtbicesets setts | Utrec t -on -|1709 orks pri ‘ sof Ha 77), and wa 
; A MEWS oe kfort three w inning 1777), 
Water (Gil gear eaeeeas | Fran Main. ; : ith the beg in Koretz ( 1782), 
Water (Jo. RNG ot cl ccnsade eee aes 1663 nection w : had begun mm ae Warsaw ( t 
Weimmann he) ohare adam is, printing Dvor)ne 788), and a 
Mee eeserss sala... 661 is, p Novy 1783), 
Pe Se eae seep atti ; Lelosie... oii 170% Biloeed eee a. SORTER me 
Wittigan Goo ugh dena teiae : at Polonnoye ( ithuania for he privilege 
Wittigau a: eto ale S aie ag 1564 66 at t k (1786-91). Li f its own by t i Pp B aruch 
t (JO. )reeeee is-/ Venice...... Zz : Oo os to é 
ur ianetti, Zanetius (Chris - |1596, 97-1606 Pore rinting-press _ Augustus dno 
Zanetti, Gianetti, Z Beer N eRe 1578, 80-81 tained a p King Stanislaus ing-office at Gro jon 
mete (Daniel). seseessssesee Veniee s0.s00 1606-9" erauled 2 stablished a Cae third partitio 
Zanetti SERCO rex oxigen sete peul Se iaticts . iM, whoe ement a 
Fae (Matteo). an Giov., Jo.) Magdevare., iaTl72 eet After the settl 
cmap Zanetto ae Mussel... Venice........ 1696 in 1789. 
Zeiiler (Frid.) es Jordans)...» al eae yo 
Ziletti Ei ieee "| Derecht...... 
Re a 
Zyl] hel 


4erm °9 


323 


sian printing-offices sprang up, which will be found 
in the list on pages 828 and 330. They continued to 
increase during the nineteenth century till Nicholas 
J. in 1845 passed.a law restricting all Hebrew printing 
to two establishments, one at Wilna, the other at 
Slavuta. Kd6nigsberg, Johannisberg, Lyck, 
Memel, Eydtkuhnen, and other cities of East 
Prussia suppled the Russian requirements. This 
practically gave a monopoly of the Russian market 
to the firm of Romm, which had moved from Grodno 
to Wilnain 1799. Butit maintained connection with 
Grodno, producing in 1835 a well-known edition of 
the Talmud which bears the imprint “Wilna and 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Typography 


the business was bought by Dela Torre. The monop- 
oly being given up, J. Schlesinger assumed the 
work ; he devoted himself especially to rituals also for 
the outlying colonies of Jews, producing a Siddur for 
the Yemen Jews, a Mahzor for the Algerian Jews, 
and other rituals for northern Africa; the Catalo- 
nian and Aragonian congregations of Salonica also 
had their rituals printed at Vienna. Other Austrian 
and Hungarian presses were at Lemberg, Cracow 
(Joseph Fischer), Presburg (Alkualai), Paks, 
Przemysl, Lublin, ete. J. 
Mention has already been made of the begin- 
nings of Oriental typography in the city of Con- 


ih Bs 


SNOI SS: ny 


FROM THE HEIDENHEIM MAHZOR, RODELHEIM, 1832, 


Grodno.” The Romms down to the present duy con- 
tinue to be the most extensive Hebrew printers in 
Russia; but of recent years the Warsaw publishing 
firms “ Tushiyyah ” and “ Ahiasaf *® produce perhaps 
even to a larger extent than the Wilna firm. 
Mention may be made hereof the Austrian presses 
in the nineteenth century, which have been very pro- 
ductive, especially those of Vienna, 
where Anton von Scumip obtained 
from 1800 onward the monopoly for 
the Austrian empire, and as a consequence pro- 
duced about 250 Hebrew works, including a re- 
print of the Mendelssohn Bible and many Jewish 
prayer-books, besides the periodical “ Bikkure ha- 
‘Ittim.” He was succeeded by his son, from whom 


Austria. 


stantinople. Toward theend of the sixteenth cen- 
tury Donna Reyna Mendesia founded what might 
be called a private printing-press at Belvedere or 
Kuru Chesme (1593). The next century the Franco 
family, probably from Venice, also established a 
printing-press there, and was followed by Joseph 
b. Jacob of Solowitz (near Lemberg), who estab- 
lished at Constantinople in 1717 a press which 
existed to the end of the century. He was fol- 
lowed by a Jewish printer from 
Venice, Isaac de Castro (1764-1845), 
who settled at Constantinople in 1806; 
his press is carried on by his son Elia de Castro, 
who is still the official printer of the Ottoman ein- 
pire. Both the English and the Scotch missions. 


Oriental. 


Typography 


to the Jews published Hebrew works at Constanti- 
nople. 
Together with Constantinople should be mentioned 
Salonica, where Judah Gedaliah began printing in 
1512, and was followed by Solomon Jabez (1516) 
and Abraham Bat-Sheba (1592). Hebrew printing 


i ontop’ SDP prpp - aig 2 #899 ses. 
- putprobps orm pep pocpra Sboap proee 
/ Prpiip ‘on PDE? crys, , por CuNshy 
, mo prep “op i peep yy Erase oe 
Ope poe Crore Sb pyep) ‘an py 
pra eptop, cise ‘urea pep for pnp | 
**Sha‘are Kedushshah,” Aleppo, 1866. 


From Hayyim Vital’s 


was also conducted here by a convert, Abraham ha- 
Ger. Intheeighteenth century the firms of Nahman 
(1709-89), Miranda (17380), Falcon (1785), and Kala‘i 
(1764) supplied the Orient with ritual and halakic 
works. But all these firms were outlived by an 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


324 


| Griffith, the printer of the English Mission, and B. 


Tatikian, an Armenian, also printed Hebrew works 
at Smyrna. A single work was printed at Cairo in 
1740. Hebrew printing has also been undertaken at 
Alexandria since 1875 by one Faraj Hayyim Miz- 
rahi, 

Israel Bak, who had reestablished the Safed He- 
brew press, and was probably connected with the 
Bak family of Prague, moved to Jerusalem in 
1841 and printed there for nearly forty years, up 
to 1878. Quite a number of presses 
which deserve enumeration have been 
set up inthe Holy City; viz., those of 
Israel Bak (1841) and hisson Nisan; Joe] Moses Solo- 
mon (1863); Elijah Moses Hai Sassoon (1864); Israel 
Dob FreMKIN (1871), the editor of the journal “ Ha- 
bazzelet”; Isaac Goscinny (1876); Elhanan Tenen- 
baum (1879 90); Isaac b. Jacob Hirschensohn 
(1880) and his suceessors; Samuel Levi Zuckermann 
(1882); Moses Perez (1884); Abraham Moses Luncz 
(1885), known for his annual publications “ Luah 
Erez Yisrael” and “ Yerushalayim”; Eliezer ben 
Judah, called Perlemann, director of the journal 


Jerusalem. 


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DNA NTN Sy NPY OTD WIP IND) TMNT NNW MMT TN ny 
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TID VON DID ANN. PPT P39 WIVDI WMO YW Ip AND Ww INIT 


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TPN onwaw Mpa omw and nos CNET TOM RY ANN *D /YHO apy Np ymodys 
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TY OND INN A TS Lepr nna Nx Sat amo ame 8d1 . ON END] ow NON 
hyo DUNT a Ton Wwe Powe TT m9 poy dam. arven yo Sues en nee nwa 
Swe TPM ooOTIOD Myy MNT INTO syo? . Os XN AND SYR We IM ID9 MN yo Wed 


FrRoM ‘‘SEFER HA-‘IBBUR,”’ PRINTED BY FILIPOWSK!, LONDON, 1833. 


Amsterdam printer, Bezaleel ha-Levi, who settled at 
Salonica in 1741, and in whose name the publication 
of Hebrew and Ladino books and periodicals still con- 
tinues. The Jabez family printed at Adrianople be- 
fore establishing its press at Salonica; the Hebrew 
printing annals of this town had a lapse until 1888, 
when a literary society entitled Doreshe Huaskalah 
published some Hebrew pamphlets, and the official 
printing-press of the vilayet printed some He- 
brew books. 

From Salonica printing passed to Safed in Pales- 
tine, where Abraham Ashkenazi established in 1588 
a branch of his brother Eleazar’s Salonica house. 
According to some, the Shulhan ‘Aruk was first 
printed there. In the ninetcenth century a member 
of the Bak family printed at Safed (1831~41), and 
from 1864 to 1884 Israel Dob Beer also printed 
there. So too at Damascus one of the Bat-Shebas 
brought a press from Constantinople in 1706 and 
printed for a time. In Smyrna Hebrew printing 
began in 1660 with Abraham b. Jedidiah Gabbai; 
and no less than thirteen other establishments have 
from time to time been founded. One of them, that 
of Jonah Ashkenazi, lasted from 1781 to 1863. E. 


“Hashkafah,” originally “Ha-Zebi”; J. Nahum 
Lewi (1887); Adelmann and Meyuhas (1887); 
Lilienthal (1895); Meir Blumenthal (1897) ; Sonnen- 
feld & Blumenthal (1897); Loeb Kahana (1899); A. 
M. Goldberg (1901); and Moses A. Azriel (1901). 
One of the Jerusalem printers, Elijah Sassoon, 
moved hisestablishment to Aleppo in 1866. About 
the same time printing began in Bagdad under 
Mordecai & Co., who recently have had the con- 
petition of Judah Moses Joshua and Solomon Be- 
kor Hussain. At Beirut the firm of Selim Mann 
started printing in 1902. Reverting to the countries 
formerly under Turkish rule, it. may be mentioned 
that Hebrew and Ladino books have been printed at 
Belgrade since 1814 at the national printing estab- 
lishment by members of the Alkala‘i family. Later 
Jewish printing-houses are those of Eleazar Rako- 
witz and Samuel Horowitz (1881). In Sarajevo 
Hebrew printing began in 1875; and another firm, 
that of Daniel Kashon, started in 1898. At Sofia 
there have been no less than four printing-presses 
since 1893, the last that of Joseph Puason (1901), 
probably from Constantinople. Also at Rustchuk, 
since 1894, members of the Alkala‘i family have 


ar 


: 5) ‘tor os rr 1895) bh 6 yn ren ee mA fe wen ate yom on 
ph Rie wien thr ep pie bo. bo olga rh ering neh prom fiber fio ae : 
poh ft pate Hemp fiersen Seong ano Se: tne aca peep pine. ph pon 
oon: frapon Bh ered “he papcra Sy sph eng fa wp og ® re 
ferry pie Sstligs tae 
: as 1 mwy. Tex pea prone 
-oRmiro Pana pre yx ope) oon prin 
Boog. mas 3 syn wri pene (0) 
> MeD Tay oem wey spent jeer 


> we re “ON ON. Nee. bid ae wuy' 


ye ee ara Saray 
; Rcied oes oy 


PROM Baws Piste nye. “1868, 


eS pee e se 139 poe Tk 


ay Taw 539 oN wea soni “AD SAB CAND IN <mpny wee emo 


¢ Ww TP mpm ov “rT ag op m3 oe my pyn ow? 


a ” os) abiy mney OneE ADSM DVD apa vale coe 
: ss ae ,* , = ApPen yp 5 


FROM SZOLD’S COMMENTARY ON JOB, BALTIMORE, 1886. 


ee ie 33° sp 3 srynbr AND) inrpan AWAD 5 q)031 po eyren 3 mbp paps “nn nny oe 
See FAN sox tan o> orn onan sw ews eh pa wr : IMToAAw 3 we 


SF 
+ 


peel 


Typography 


printed, whileat Philippopolis the Pardo Brothers 
started their press in 1898 before moving it to Safed. 
Altogether in the Levant about eighteen cities have 
had 121 Hebrew printing establishments between 
150+and 1905. Their productions have been mainly 
rituals, responsa of local rabbis, and Cabala; the 
type has been mostly Rashi, and the result has not 
been very artistic. 
J. M. Fr. 


In the English-speaking lands Hebrew printing 
proceeded slowly among the Jews. In England, for 
exalnple, after a few Hebrew books had been printed 
by Christian printers the ALEXANDERS began their 
series of prayer-books about 1770, 
which have continued to be reissued 

and down to the present day; they were 
the United succeeded by the VALENTINES. The 

States. firm of Wertheimer, Lea & Co. printed 

most of the Jewish Hebrew produc- 
tions of England till recently, including the first 
edition of the popular authorized prayer-book, 
of which 100,000 copics have been issued. The 
Clarendon Press, however, has during the last thirty 
years printed many works on rabbinic subjects, and 


England 


- 


YS-OIIND 

Arey nee 

TO RUTETIO RT 
wR Spy SS 


i amipat, by 
8 0 ay pron 


"ang: pit 


Spm piper. 


From Rabinowicz's ** Catalogue Merzbacher,”’’ Munich, 1888. 


has been followed by the Pitt Press of Cambridge, ° 


which issued especially the Mishnah edition by 
W. H. Lowe and the “ Pirke Abot” of C. Taylor. 

In the British colonies only sporadic works have 
been published at Bombay and Aden, where the 
Yemen Jews have recently been printing a few of 
their manuscripts in oblong format. The use of 
Hebrew type in the Australian and African colonies 
appears to be confined to newspapers. The same 
applies to the French colonies in North Africa, 
though various productions have appeared at Al- 
giers, Tunis, and Oran. 

In the United States Hebrew printing was even 
later in appearance. Apart froma reprint at Phila- 
delphia in 1814 of Athias’ unpointed Bible, and Lee- 
ser’s reprint of the Van der Hooght Bible in 1849, the 
first Hebrew book printed in America was “ Abne 
Yehoshua‘,” by Joshua Falk, at New York in 1860. 
The chief production of the Hebrew press of the 
United States hitherto has been the commentary on 
Job by B. Szold, printed by I. Friedenwald at Balti- 
more; but since the emigration from Russia and 
Rumania large numbers of occasional works have been 
produced at New York, Philadelphia, and Chi- 
cago. In the first-named city the productions of the 
press of A, H. Rosenberg are voluminous, 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


326 


A great deal of very good Hebrew printing, how- 
ever, is done by non-Jewish printers, and often at 


Bee uk 


From ‘* Zimrot Yisrae},”” Aden, 1891. 


university presses, where the Christian theologians 
who devote their attention torabbinic. print their 


“ppines. 2 pki psy ele i) 939 2 337. oe 3) 


ap D ” + fo a” 4] Oe a> ’ 4 pe ; Y fr sy “ p 6 a . dimen . 4 ré opr gg fi ‘ > 


a 3n25, opt onD. TING $2 er hes aren rer 89 . 


Ee: 
% gp 

ee 

rr 

UD & Sac 

ae 2 a 
Ne 

Xue 


) oTIMIG [MIS PPA BD v2 wey p29 HVA 


FROM W. H. LOWE’s “' THE MISHNA,”? CAMBRIDGE, 1883. 


FROM THE “SSTRINSCHNEIDER FESTSCHRIET,”? LEIPSIC, 1896. 


PROT em py 45 


le ee Th eo py 2 


FROM SCHORR’S “SEFER Ha-‘ItTIM,”? CRACOW, 1902. 


ees . (rm) | (Ro 5 Le Pa be baie ae nee 


FROM SCHECHTER’S “ MINRASH HA-GADOL,” VIENNA, 1902. 


Typography 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


328 


i 


lucubrations. In addition, presses that make a 
special business of Oriental printing, like those of 
Drugulin of Leipsic and Brill of Leyden, also pro- 
duce Hebrew works, the former having printed the 
well-known Polychrome Bible edited by Professor 
Haupt and published at Baltimore. By a special 
process the various sources of the Biblical books in 
this edition are distinguished by different colors, not 
of the type, but of the paper upon which the sections 
are printed. The various Bible societies have also 
produced some tine specimens of Hebrew printing, 
the chief being the so-called Letteris Bible, having 
the Authorized Version at the side, printed at 
Vienna; and the Ginsburg Bible, printed by the court 
printer Karl Fromme in Vienna. The Masorah, also 
edited by Ginsburg, is another fine piece of Hebrew 
printing by Fromme; while one of the best Hebrew 
prints is the fifth edition of the translation into He- 
brew of the New Testament, by Franz Delitzsch, 
printed by Trowitsch & Co. of Berlin. 

The following is a list (extending from the intro- 
duetion of printing to the present day) of towns at 
which Hebrew presses are known to have existed, 
those places in which only Christian printers have 
been concerned, mainly in issuing Biblical editions, 
are set in italics. As far as possible, dates have 
been given for the first publication of Hebrew at the 
different localities. Where this was effected by 
Christian printers the date is marked with an 
asterisk. The letters “J. KE.” within parentheses 
following the names of towns indicate that spe- 
cial articles are given in THe JEwisH ENcyCLo- 
PEDIA upon the typography of such towns. Ina 
number of instances special monographs have been 
written upon the typography of various places, and 
these are cited together with their references. The 
remaining towns are mentioned by Steinschneider 
in his “Jiidische Typographie,” in) Ersch and 
Gruber, “Enecye.” (section ii., part 28, pp. 21-94), 
or by Zedner and Harkavy. Ina few instances the 
entries from Zedner may refer to publication rather 
than to printing. 


HEBREW PRESSES. 


AGENE. vias acceces 189- BOGE baswie tease 1805 
Adrianople...... 1554-33 Beirut .......... 1839, 1902 
Da ere eee rere 1835 Belgrade........ 13841 
Alcala (Complu- Berdycheyv...... 1798 
UU) facet cveacs 1514 Bergamo........ 1599 
Aleppo........4. 1866 Berlin.........-. *1699 
AjJexandria (No- BON aisles 1555 ? 
Ammon)...... 1875 Bistrovitz....... 1592 
Algiers .......... 1855 Blizurka........ 1806-7 
Altdorfi........ 1674 Boguslav........ 1809- 
Altona.......... Vi27 et seg. Bologna ........ 1482-83 
Grunwald, Hamburys Bombay ........ 1856 
Deutsche Judea; Stein- Bonne. ccccssees 1537-41 
schneider, Zeitschrift Boston.......... *1735 
fiir Geseh. der Juden in Bremen.......0- 1672 
Deutsehtana, i. 1-5. Breseia 2.0.2... 1491-94 
Amsterduin...... 1627 et seq. Breslau.......... 1719 


Andover, Mass. 


Brann, Volkskalender, 1890. 


Antwerp ....... 1566-90 Breznitza. 
Augsbure....... 1514-43 Brilon w.ccc cues 1862 
Steinschneider, Zeitschrift Brody. 

fiir Geschichte derJuden Brooklyn.......- 1893 

in Deutschland, i. 1-5, Briinn ......... 1799 
Avignon ........ - 1765 Brunswick...... 1838 
Bagdad.......... 1657, 1867 Brussels..,...... 1841 
Baltimore. Bueharest....... 1860 
Bamberg....... . 1887 Budapest........ 1823 
BareO dea vate duds 1496-97 Buenos Ayres... 1891 
B81 ccaseacess 1516 Byelaya Tserkov 1817- 


CAIN fick ck and ens 1740 
Caleutta......... 1844 
Cambridge...... *1685 


Hebr. Bibl. i., il. 


Carpentras, 
Casal-Maggiore.. 1486 
CASSEL... cece eee 1807 
Chicago. 
Chieri........... 1627-29 
Cincinnati....... 1857 
Cleveland. 
CIEVES 26.6 ce eee Viv 
Cologine....c.... 1518, 53-63 
Colomea. 
Constanece...... 1543-44 
Constantinople 

Gl Escala 1503-86 
Copenhagen.... 1628 
CORN ouiiece sess 1829 
Coéthen........5- 1708 


Freudenthal, Aus der Hei- 
mat Moses Mendels- 


sohns. 
Cracow (J. E.).. 15380-1670 
Cremona......-. 1556-60 


De Rossi, Annali TLTypo- 
graphici, 1808. 


Czernowitz...... 1856 
Damaseus....... 1605-6 
Danzig........6. 1849 


Darmstadt....... 1822 

Dessau (J. B.)... 1696 
Freudenthal, tux der Hei- 
mat Moses Mendels- 


sohns, 
Dorpat.......... 1804 
Drogobuzh. 
Dubno.........6: 1794 
Dubrovna....... 1802-4 
Dyhernfurth (J. 
En aioe 1689 


Brann, in Monatsschrift, 
1896. 
Edinburgh....... 1857 


Erlangen....... 1593 
Esslingen........ 1475 
Eupatoria....... 1734 
Eydtkuhnen. 

BANOS «24 casos 1563-16 
Faro (J. E.)..... 1487 


Ferrara (J. E.).. 1477 
De Rossi, De Typographia 
Hehreo-Ferrariensi, 
Parma, 1780. 
Florence......... 3736 
Fraieker......- 1597-1681 
Frankfort-on-the- 

Main (J. B.)... 1512 
Frankfort-on-the- 

Oder (J. BE.) ... V551¢?),1677- 
Freiburg ........ 1583-84 
FUP es Livawahs 1691-1730 

Steinschneider, Hebr. Bibl. 

xviii. 114 et seq. 
* 


GalatZ........0.. 
Geismar.......06 1649 
GENEVA. ce ceees 1554 
Genoa..........- 1516 
Giessen.......... 1705, 14 
GlOGau..... ees 1840 
G6ritZ... ec. eee 1852 
Gotha........... 1702 
GOttinger...... 1742 
Grodno.......... 1788- 


Guadalajara..... 1482 
Glistrow.......0+ 1634 
Hagenau........ 1515 
Hague........... 1779- 


Halberstadt...... 1839 


Hanlehccskeeer ess 17B0--19 
Freudentbal. tis der Het- 
mat Muses Mendels- 
sohns. 
Hamburg ....... 1587- 
Grunwald, Hamburgs 
Deutsche Juden, pp. 153. 
) 1610-30 
serene 1708-25 
Hanover......... {840 
Heddernheim... 1546 
Heidelberg. .vee. L585 
Helmsteadt. 
Hergeswiese ? 
Homburg........ 1714-50 
Hrubieszow..... 1819 
Husiatyn., 
Ichenhausen..... 1544 
Steinschneider, Hehr. Bibi, 
xil. 125, Suppl.: idem, Cat. 
Badl. No. 361, 


Hanau..,. 


Inowrazlaw. 

Isny........ wees. L41-42 
TO 0s 6.4 Sieben 1485-95 
JASSV... cece eee 1843 
Jastowitz....... #1898 
PONG sea0 ee OA 1675 
Jerusalem....... 1846 
Jessnitz.......,. 1719-26 


Freudenthal, Ans der Hei- 
mat Moses Meinudels- 
sohnse. 

Johannesburg. . *1897 
Johannisberg.... 1835 


JozefOv......6.5. 1826 
Kaleo. (a5 diasa8 1734 
Kalios.........6 1809-10 
Kearny (N. J.) .. 1904 
TAC bok eee eke 1709 
Kishinef......... 1883 
Kones........06- 1797- 
Konigsberg...... 1159 
Kopust........4. {Ris 
KoretZ.......00-. 1776- 
Koslov (see Eu- 
patoria). 
Kremenetz...... 1805- 
Krotoschin...... 1837 
KD isd ieeeesay 1796 
Kuru Chesme... 1597 
DQ is alec chia 1805 
Laszow.......... ‘1815 
Leghorn......... 1650- 
Leipsi¢......... 1588- 
Lefria.........5- 1492-94 
Lemberg........ 1810 
Leyden......... 1528-1756 
LiDalie «cass GA FTO 
Lisbon..........- 1489 -92 
PASSR og cera Ate rdcare 1824 


Lewin, Geschichte der Ju- 
den tn Lissa, pp. 153-154, 
Pinne, 1904. 

London (J. E.)..*1711- 
Ltiheck......... 1630 
Lublin (J. E.)... 1350, 56-74 

Friedberg, Zur Geschichte 
der Hehrdischen Typo- 
graphie tn Lublin, Cra- 
cow, 1890. 


Lunéville....... 1798- 
DY OR pei e¥ a aan ks 1859 
LYONS. ce cee 1426 
Madras......... 1819 
Madrid. 
Magdeburg...... 1607 
Mannheim....... 1856 
1476-80 


1513-14 
| 1580-1699 
Zunz, Z. G. pp. 249-260. 
Marburg. 
Mayence........ 1523- 
Mecklenburg.... 1724 


Mantua (J. E.). 


TON} 


FROM PENTATEUCH, LUBLIN, 1897. 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


330 


Typography 
Medzhibozh..... 1817-18 
Memel........00s L361 
Me@UZ 5.55 bavaceus 1765 


Carmoly, Rerue Orientale, 
lit. 209 et seq., 283 Ef seq. 


Mezhirich....... 1809 
Mezkirof........ 1790-95 
Milan........... 1620 
Minkovsk........ 1790-1808 
Minneapolis, 

Minn. 

MIlSKi bed eaaus 1807- 
Moghilef-on-the- 

Dnieper....... 1825 
Moghilef-on-the- 

Dniester....... 1798- 
Miiuthausen. 
Mainichiw.cc..e. 1860 
Munkacz. 

Nagy-Surany ....* 
Naples.........6 1486-92 
Neuhof (Novy- 

DVOPr) .cceeeeee 1782-96 
Neuwied........ 1736-49 
New York....... 1860 
Newark 
Nikolsburg...... 1767 
Nuremberg .... 1599 
OdESSA... 6. cee ee 1845- 
OCIS coe seat 1530-35 


Steinschneider, Cat. Boal. 
No, S06. 
Ofen (see Buda- 


pest). 
Offenbach....... 14 
Olexnitz......... 1760-67 
OVA do case seals 1856 
Ortakol.......... 1717-19 
OVUGNY 2 b245 Saoes 1519- 
OStPOZ... ce eee 1794-96 
Oxfordiecccccces 1655 
PACUAks Se saehece 1562-1640 
Paks. 

( #75 

Pari Wik 
PATH cx bch cas 1805 
Pasewalk. 


Pesaro (J. E.)... 1907-27 
Philadelphia....*18l4 
Philippopolis.... 1898 


Piotrkow........ L877- 
Piove di Sacco 

(J 7 FE.) care voae 1475 
PISQ ace fee aes 1816 
Pittshurg........ * 
Podbrejetz....... 1796-1803 
Podgorze. 
Polonnoye...... 1783-91 
Pontefraet.,... 1810 
POrtZ kiss eicwas 1786-91 
Posen........... 1859 
Prague.......... j512 

Zunz, Z. G. pp. 261-303. 
Presburg........ 1839 
Prossnitz (Pross- 

[A ae 1602-5 


Weisse, in Notizblatt der 
Gesellschaft des Acker- 
baus, 1856, pp. 56 et seq. 

Przemysl........ 
Radawel (Radzi- 


wilof)......... 1844-25 
Reggio.......... 1475 
TRIG rect coat es 1852 


Rimini (J. E.)... 1521-26 
Riva di Trento 
©) Dn 0) Dera 1358-62 
Carmoly. Revue Orientale;: 
Steinschneider, Hehr. 
Bibl. vii, 113-114. 
Rédelheim...... 1757 
Carmoly, l.c. fii. 303. 
Rome (J. E.)..... 1518,  46- 
at 


Rastock......... 1637 
Rotterdam....... 1857 
Rustchuk........ 1894 
Sabbionetta...... 1551-59 
De Rossi, clrnales Typo- 
graphici, 1806. 


Sadagora........ 189- 
Safed............ 1563-87, 1664 
St. Louis. 

St. Petersburg... 1818- 
Salingiaci....... 1515-1655 
Salonica...... +e 1515 


San Francisco 
Sarajevo......... 1875 


Sensburg. 
sentheim. 
Shanghat....... 1851 
Shklov ........0- 1783 
Slankowitz...... 1807 
Slavuta.....eeceee 1792-96 
SMYYNA.......665 1657 
SONA cy teases 18938 
Solingen. 
Soncino (J. E.).. 1483-90 
Sorvi........e0-- 1764 
StAdG...veeivans 1808 
Stettim ..... 02... 1861 
Strasburg. ..... 1591 
Stuttgart ....... 1724 
Sudzilkov....... 1798-1836 
Sulzbach........ 1684- 
Weinberg, Die Hebréti- 


sche Druekeret tr Nulz- 


Dach, 1669-1841, Frank- 
fort, 1904. 

Suwalki ........ 186t- 

Sziget. 

Tannhausen.... 1593 

Perles, in Monatsschrift 

(1876), xiv. 350 et seq. 

Tarnopol........ Isis 

TATNOV a. ieses5< 3860 

Thiengen....... 1560 


Wiener, in Monatsschrift, 
xii. 273 ef seq. 


Thorn. 

TrieSt........00. 1858 
TING saasaceaten 1325 
Tiibingen.....-- 1512 
TUNIS: 66.80 e244 1768 
PUT syncs Haas 1526 
TurkoO...... eae 1763 
Ungvar .......- 1464 
Upsala. ....ccee 1655 
Utrecht ........ 1657 
Venice ......-.5- *1517-36, 64 
Verona... eee 1594-1650 
Vienna,......... 1827 
Waitzen ........ * 1892 
Wandsbeck ..... 1709 


Grunwald, amburgs 
Deutsche Juden. 


Warsaw......... 17 96- 
Wekelsdorf..... 1600 
Wengrov........ 1/94- 
Wilky (Kovno). .*1895-1901 
Wilmersdorf.... 1670-1736 
Freimann, Die Annatlen 


der Druckereit in Wil- 
mersdorf, in Berliner’s 
Festschrift. 
Wilna..........- 1799- 
Wittenberg .... 1321-87 
Bauch, in Monatsschrift, 
1904. 


Worms......... . 1529 
Wirzburg..... . 1821 
Yaroslav. 

ZAMOMLA.... eee 1482-87 
LASIAV ese cwneen 1807 
Zhitomir........ 1804-5 
ZOIkiev ..... 665. 1693- 
Zullichau ........ 1728- 
Zurich ......... 1546 


II. Characteristics: There are in all four 
chief forms in which Hebrew letters are printed: 
the square; the Rashi; the Weiberteutsch, so called 
because it was used for the “Ze’enah u-Re’enah” 
read by women; and finally the cursive, imitating 
the handwriting used for business and other corre- 

spondence. The first three appeared 

Form as early as the beginning of Hebrew 

of Letters. typography (see INCUNABULA); the 
fourth, only in theeighteenth century, 

mainly in books on businesstraining, writing-booksin 
this character being produced at Amsterdam in 1715. 

One of the cliaracteristics of Hebrew printing from 
its beginning was the different sizes in which the 
characters were printed, the Tur of Piove di Sacco, 
1475, already showing three forms. This is attrib- 
uted to the commentatorial character of rabbinic 
literature, the commentary naturally being printed 
in a smaller type than the text, and the supercom- 
mentary in a still smaller one, and the index to both 
ina yet more minute type. Such a difference of ty pes 
soon led to the arrangement by which the text was 
printed in the center, with the commentaries in 
concentric arrangement around it, This plan has been 
employed with increasing elaboration; and in the 
last rabbinic Bibie printed by the firm of Schrif- 
riesser at Warsaw no less than thirty-two commen- 
taries are included, many of which are on a single 
page. In the beginning this arrangement sim- 
ply followed that of the ordinary medieval manu- 
scripts in which commentaries occurred. To fill 
spaces that would otherwise remain empty recourse 
was had to the use of letters of greater width, the 
so-called “littere dilatibiles”; but in early prints the 
first letter of the following word was often inserted in- 
stead. Sheet-marks and pagination were only grad- 
ually introduced; they were almost invariably in He- 
brew letters printed on the recto only; each second 
page was numbered, the reference to the two sides 
(pages) of the sheet being by alef, bet, nowadays 
represented by a, b; ¢e.g., B. KB. 10b; R. H. 1%a ([saiah 
Berlin tried to introduce the full point and colon, but 
without much success). The pagination of the Tal- 
mud was established by Bomberg, the arrangement 
of whose pages has been followed in all subsequent 
editions. Vowel-points and accents occur for the 
most part only in Bibles and prayer-books, and 
divisions of chapter and verse in the Bible only 
rarely till later times, 

The paper of the early printsis generally good ; that 
of the eighteenth century usually the opposite; the 

issues of Fiirth, Cracow, and Rédel- 

Paper and heim are generally distinguished by 
Format. their foxy paper. White paper was 
generally used, but the Oppenheimer 

collection contained fifty-seven volumes on blue, 
seven on green, two on yellow, and a Hagga- 
dah on red paper. Rubrics are printed in red in 
a work issued at Freiburg in 1584. Amsterdam 
printers sometimes print red on white; Deinard at 
Newark on varicolored paper. Large-paper edi- 
tions occur rather frequently, and parchment was 
used for special copies, the Oppenheimer collection 
having fifty-one of these, and many of the copies of 
the Bologna Tefillah of 1537 being printed on that 
material, though one on excellent paper is to be 


331 
found jin the Sulzberger collection at New York. 
All kinds of format occur from the earliest times, 
but the folio and quarto were chiefly used, the oc- 
tavo and duodecimo being employed mainly in 
prayer-books. In the Oppenheimer collection the 
proportions of the various sizes were as follows: 
1,005 
Palisecg ee onted Beta tu 1,240 330 
Strange to say, one of the most bulky of Hebrew 
hooks was also one of the earliest, Avicenna’s 
“Canon,” with 826 folio pages; this, however, is 
now far exceeded by the Babli with its 2,947 pages 
in one volume (Berdychev, 1894). 

The Leghorn prints were at times in oblong form, 
while the recent Aden productions are of the same 
form, but with the longer side at the back. For vari- 
ations of the T1TLE-PacGEs see JEw. ENcYC. xii. 154, 
and for ornamentations see the article PRINTERS’ 
Marks. To those mentioned in the latter article the 
following may be added: Ashkenazi (Safed, 1587), 
lion with two 
tails; Bat-Sheba 
(Salonica), half 
lion, half eagle; 
Mayer hen Jacob 
(Venice), ele- 
phant; Conti 
(Cremona), 
shield, angel, 
eagle; Abra- 
ham b. David 
(Talmud Torah, 
Salonica, 1719), 
three crowns; 
Koelner (Frank- 
fort-on-the- 
Main), imperial 
eagle; De Lan- 
noy (Offenbach), nest of bird with flowers; Aaron 
Lipman (Sulzbach), tree, crab, fish, and serpent: 
Shabbethai Bass (Dyhernfurth), two bars of music. 

The idea of representing the title-page of a book 
as a door with portals appears to have attracted 
Jewish as well as other printers. The fashion ap- 
pears to have been started at Venice about 1521, 
whence it spread to Constantinople. Bomberg used 
two pillars in his “Miklol” of 1545, and this was 
imitated at Cracow and Lublin. These pillars are 
often supported by, or support, figures, draped or 
undraped, as in the “Toze’ot Hayyim” of Cracow 
(e, 1593). A Mahzor of Cracow (1619) has a flying 
angel of death, while the Pirke R. Eliezer of Con- 
stantinople (1640) has a centaur and siren, The tree 
with the shield of David supported by two lions ap- 
pears first in the Sabbionetta prints, and is imitated 
by other symbolic figures, as the eagle in the Am- 
sterdam Selihot of 1677. These decorations of the 
title-page led later to illustrations within the work 

itself, the first of these being in the 


eowmweens eevee 


ms 7T2 pa 


Colophon “ Mashal ha-Kadmoni,” Soncino, 1491. 
and The “ Yosippon” and other works of 


Title-Page. a historical character were favorite re- 

ceptacles for rather crude illustrations 
of this kind, as were also the Passover Haggadot. in 
Which even maps of the Holy Land were printed 
(see HAGGADAR),. 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


SMR OMW TTS TPT Yop OSS TION 20 
mu) Cows W2ip Moy mw isoee mins Aw 
Senin soe “aayns tony tas 
IND. “D ANMS MRD AIT yes yas we NMS 
mynoad Skmeta eqns “sbA INT Syms 
SO TITNS DTN EN “yb; rites easton Oxpray 
“iy booty Sepops xeon J2e0 oY 3s 
mos sop Sstiems ambos mans bens mS" 


From the Letteris Bible, Vienna, 1892. 


Typography 


The place and date of printing, as also the name of 
the printer, were generally expressed in COLOPHONS, 
but in later times were also placed on the title-page. 
The day of the week is often indicated by refer. 
ences to Biblical texts, having in view the lucky 
character of Tuesday as a beginning day (sec 
WEEK). Thedate isalso often made known by a text 
(see CHRONOGRAM). The omission of letters in these 
dates often leads to confusion (Zunz, “ Datenbe-. 
stimmungen,” in “G.8S.” i.); and the place of publi- 
cation does not always coincide with that of printing. 
Even the place of printing bas sometimes to be 
checked, as frequently German printers attempted 
to claim the style and authority of Amsterdam, and 
those of Fiirth passed themselves off as coming 
from Sulzbach. The place of printing was sometimes 
omitted in order to evade the censor. 

Information is often given ia these colophous as 
to the size of the office and the number of persons 
engaged therein and the character of their work. 

In the Jarger 
offices there 
would be a 
master printer 
(“batal mad- 
pis”), who was 
sometimes iden- 
tical with the 
proprietor of 
the oflice (* ba‘al 
ha-defus”). The 
actual printer 
was called. 
“madpis,” or 
“sometimes “ me- 
hokek.” The 
master printer 
was occasional- 
ly assisted by a manager or factor (“mizib ‘al ha- 
defus ”). peu these there was a compositor 
(“mezaref” or “mesadder”), first mentioned in the 
“QLeshon Limmudim” of Constantine- 
ple (1542). Many of these compositors 
were Christians, as in the workshop 
of Juan di Gara, or at Frankfort-on-the-Main, or 
sometimes even proselytes to Judaism (sce above). 
Finally, good proof-readers or correctors for the 
press were always indispensable. They were called 
“maggihim.” Notwithstanding their help, a list of 
errata was often necessary, one of the earliest oceur- 
ring ina German Mahzor produced’ at Salonica in 
1563. 

Up tothe nineteenth century all work wasnaturally 
hand-work, and printing was comparatively slow. 
It took nearly a whole year for the Soncinos to print 
off 688 folio pages, while sixty years later Gius- 
tiniani printed 190 pages of Maimonides’ letters in 
seven days. 

For the injury done to the correctness of the text 
by the censors before and even after printing, see 
CreNsoRSHIP OF HEBREW Books. The existence of 
censors in Italy. Germany, and Poland rendered the 
works printed previous to 1554 (the date of the 
Ferrara conference on this subject) of especial value 
for the text, though care was taken by the Jews 
themselves before that date not to offend Chris- 


Printers. 


Typography 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


332 


tian prejudices too much by printing the more out- 
spoken passages. Ina measure Jews had theirown 
censorship in the form of APPROBATIONS (“ haska- 
mot”), without which in the seventeenth and eight- 
eenth centuries no book was considered altogether 
respectable. These approbations were sometimes ac- 
companied by special privileges, as when the rabbis 
of Venice issued a decree against apy one buying a 
certain book except from the printer; and the par- 
nasim of Amsterdam had the right of inflicting a 
fine for the infringement of the copyright of any 
one whom they favored. In the case of the Frank- 
fort Talmud imperial permission: was found neces- 
sary to produce it. 

Of the cost of printing in early times little is 
known. The “Ye- 
zer Tob” of Venice 
(1597-1606) cost a 
thousand florins to 
print, while the 
thirty-six pages of 
the “Zore la Nefash” 
(?) of Venice (1619) 
cost as much as 
twenty-five ducats. 
Joseph Witzenhau- 
sen got four thalers 
a sheet for the Ju- 
dxo-German transla- 
tion of the Bible pub- 
lished by Athias. In 
the early days 300 
copies of a work were 
sufficient. This num- 
ber of the Psalms 
with Kimhi (1477) 
was printed; so, too, 
of the “Yafek Ra- 
zon,” while of the 
“'Torat Hesed” only 
200 came into exist- 
ence. For the meth- 
ods adopted in selling 
books see the article 
Book-TRADE. 

Turning tothe technical side of Hebrew printing, it 
has to be remarked that in the justification of Hebrew, 
wide spacing is to be preferred, and that the vowels 
and accents have to be justified ina 
separate line after the consonants have 
been sect up. The wide spacing is 
rendered necessary by the fact that 
hyphens can not be used in ordinary 
Hebrew printing, though in modern works this use 
is creeping in. To fill out spaces, as mentioned 
above, the extended letters, “alef,” “he,” “het,” 
“Jamed,” “mem.” and “taw,” are used. 

In ordinary Hebrew printing “the compositor be- 
gius as he does with English, by setting the char- 
acters at the left hand of his copy, turning the nicks 
of his type inward to face the composing-rule, 
When the line has been spaced and justified . . . it 
is turned in the stick” (De Vinne, “ Modern Meth- 
ods of Book Composition,” p. 245, New York, 1904). 
The arrangement of cases for Hebrew varies in 


Technique 
of Hebrew 
Printing. 


Reon zee e 
et Coo 
stats ay 


Hebrew Upper and Lower Cases. 
(From Theodore L. De Vinne’s ‘‘ Modern Methods of Book Composition,’”” New York, 1904,} 


shows that generally adopted. The characters and 
points most used are in the lower case; accents, 
broad or extended letters, and Jetters with points 
are in the upper case. 

The dificulty of Ilebrew printing for persons not 
accustomed to the language Consists in the great 
similarity of some of the letters, as “he,” “het,” 
and “taw,” “dalet” and “resb,” “shin” and 
“sin,” and other letters only distinguished by a 
dot, representing the dagesh. Final “pe” and final 
“zade” also are sometimes confounded, while their 
hair-lines often tend to break oft during  press- 
work. The contrast of the shaded portions of the 
letters with the hair-lines is perhaps the most marked. 
ty pe-founder’s characteristic of Hebrew as compared 
with Roman type, in 
which hair-Jines are 
avoided as much as 
possible. The actu- 
al forms of the letters 
have changed little 
since the first appear- 
ance of matrices in 
Italy in the fifteenth 
century. The tend- 
ency is rather toward 
making the letters 
smaller in size and 
squarer. Some of the 
most beautiful type 
of this kind is that 
of Filipowski. It is 
said that compositors 
unfamiliar with He- 
brew tend to set type 
more accurately, 
though more slowly, 
owing to the extra 
care they devote to 
following copy. Few 
ordinary printing es- 
tablishments have 
Hebrew type, and on 
the rare occasions 
when it is necessary 
to use it it is customary to borrow it from an estab- 
lishment with a more varied outfit of types, or to 
have the type set up in such an establishment, the 
Whole matter cast, and transferred bodily as a sin- 
gle typeinto the text. Christian printers handle only 
the square Ietter, Rashi and cursive always being set 
up by Jewish ty pesetters. 

With regard to the works which have been 
turned out. by Hebrew printers during the last 450 
years, it would be interesting to determine approxi- 
mately their numberand character. During the first 

quarter of the century in which incu- 


sia ours 
for poi — 


Produc-  nabula were produced (1475-1500) 100 
tivity of Hebrew works were issued, at the rate 
Hebrew of four perannum. During the next 
Presses. forty years (1500-40) about 440 were 


issued (M. Schwab, in “Les Incuna- 
bles Orientaux,” enumerates 480 up to this period) 
averaging eleven per annum. During the next two 
periods from 1540 to 1732 a rough estimate would 


different offices, but the accompanying illustration {| give the number of works at 6,605; namely, Bibles, 


333 


710; Targum, 70; Talmud, 590; ritual, 1,000; anon- 
ymous, 350; Judeo-German, 385; and works of spe- 
cifie authors, 3,500—an average of about thirty- 
three works issued per annum. During the 160 
years since the last-mentioned date the production 
has rapidly increased, but it is difficult to determine 
the exact numbers. Some indication can be ob- 
tained by the gradually increased number of Hebrew 
works inentioned in the various sources as follows 


sibliographer, Date. Hebrew Books. 
l. Shabbethai Bass.....,.....! 1680 2,200 
oy: RAR EOI CE ees x one OSS Saws 1693 1,948 
Si okt WOE nce ceep aan 53% ! 1738 2,832 
Ae mR OLIIEN. ae Gectadauateeacenatecetioand | 1790 oon 
5. Oppenheimer .... eee a 1826 | ‘eel 
6. Steinse. hneider, ebr. ls See’ sis 

Binh eas carirass pees i eee 2,004 
7. Steimschneider.....accaceee 1860 D202 
He NURSE. cchis sesencas eens | 1863 9,360 
O; ZOCNGP ssi caharonceearencus | 1867 5,220 
10. Benjacob Snelson 14,978 

manuscripts and refer- > | 1880 ~ really about 
PTCOS)) .caseis eaves eae | 6,500 
11. Lippe (vols. i. and ii.) ..... | 1880-89 1,210 
1%... Veit StPSQlen. iccencaateuns | 1894 11,100 
TS. ZEW, sacs hea agirere a wee ed 1895 3,648 
14. Lippe (vol. iii., addenda).. |! 1899 878 
15. Wiener (to “tet’’) ........ 1904 4,575 


Wiencr’s list promises to run to 17,000. If one 
may judge from the numbers given by him, and 
take account of the fact that the average recorded 
by Steinschneider bet ween 1860 and 1880, about 100 
perannum, is at best only a minimum, having been 

recently largely increased, there 

Number can be no doubt that 20,000 volumes 
of Hebrew have been produced during the last 

Works. period. This is confirmed by the fact 

that the Asiatic Museum of St. Peters- 
burg, containing the largest Hebrew collection in 
the wor)d, has no less than 30,000 volumes, of which 


— $$ 
ee ee a eee 


| 
Classes. Zedner. | TE peamer, | Chazano- 

Ap er at eee Se = ! 

te PR ae rs nk oan cede es 1,260 ) | 

% Bible Commentaries...,........06.- a10 > | 794 
hak ELITR ogre a on Sa ached en wa Wack Maneele 384 730 J | 

4, Talmud Commentaries,........... 700 202 
5 RIMM GOOEY. oie s:euia ie a0 bes 2.0ce Sane vines 272 
Gi OUGS sac ocincin nhs 1 OPeeae Ree UR ALTAR 1,260 447 
7. Code Commentaries............00- Pre 386 
Hy NOVGLIN 8 ves ae Kaane omens eames 520 644 
9. FROSHOURS oo eci snes Pee odd Whence iat ri 
TO ABT EG 2 os5050020 35h Saca ey etercaie 3,200 

11. Midrash and Yalkut..........c000 150 380 
126 SOriNnGUS ..cVintas aa cedssaciaaeneds 450 | eV 
Lae POR BE, oortkca Sean peees een wus ite 460 533 
14. Grammar and Dictionaries,....... 450 588 
15. History, Archeology, and Memoirs. 320 1,231 
16. Geography and Travels in Palestine esta 292 
i. POCTYY, CYItCISMN. «os 052084 Ae teat v4 585 
TH BeLONGe sy od coacas ca Sida oad e eave «8 180 2 
1%. Theology and Polemies,........... | 690 449 
2 BES es ona arctan do pean anatnahany Qua dle esas out 430 
2), Mawedhonal cave vend cyan ieee cate re 265 
eke MLCGUOL shes. nie? pers ale ah Siete a ia Ws. 0 whe 510 
23. Periodicais,Newspapers, Catalogues: Wtien 648 
24, VAGGIS 2 dincks dee Abc hae mete aed | rene 900 


5,000 are written in Judxwo-German and Yiddish. 
The Jerusalem National Library (founded by Cha- 
zanowicz)in 1962 had 22,2383 volumes, 10,900 of them 
Hebrew (“Ha-Meliz,” 1902, No. 259). The British 
Museum in 1867 had nearly the same number. It 
would be of interest to compare the classes under 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Typography 


which these various works are included, with the 
relative number of volumes contained in these two 
collections (see preceding table), 

Tt would be still more interesting to determine the 
actual works and editions of them which go to make 
up the 20,000 or so separate works which have been 
produced by the Hebrew presses up to the end 
of the nineteenth century. Unfortunately Hebrew 
bibliography is not in sucha state that this could 
be done with any approach to accuracy, but a con- 
siderable number of subject lists have been made 
from which a close approximation can be given for 
the various branches. The sources from which lists 
are derived vary in thoroughness, mainly according 
to their date. Information from Reland, or the old 
Oppenheim catalogue of 1826, naturally does not vie 
with points ascertained from Steinschneider or 8. 
Wiener, but such as it is, the following list will 
serve both as an indication of the topics treated of 
in Hebrew literature and as a guide to the sources in 
which the fullest accountat present known is given, 
Occasionally the lists include sections of works 
which should not strictly be counted, as this leads 
to duplication, and besides some of the entries in- 
clude also manuscripts. On the other hand, these 
items probably do not more than compensate for the 
omissions in the older lists. In some few instances 
no actual enumeration is accessible, and in these 
cases the number given by the Chazanowicz collec- 
tion has been repeated as being the closest approxi- 
mation that can now be offered. Altogether about 
15,380 works are thus accounted for out of the 
18,000 or 20,000 Hebrew works and editions that 
have been produced. 


| 
Subject. No. | Source. 
Nocti 24] eile ies ete Sg 
Ls EDOLOS. 52%. :6 epee lesen | British Museum Catalogue. 
POWSIOE 2 ih eciee a 220 
Complete......... 115 
WITCishhy. cgsxe's : 
Pentateuch....... 17 
Prophets.........- 6 
Hagiographa.. 13 
Pentateuch Parts. 15 
Megillot Parts. 10 
Psalms........05. ii 
Prophets, addi- L | 
tional. 
Apocrypha... 12 | 
II. Bible Commentaries|...... | Reland, ** Analecta Rabbi- 
| nica.” 
Complete Bible...) 11) 
Pentateuch....... 214 | 
PLOPHEUS. ces hecae- 39 | 
Hagiographa...... 62 | 
Supercommenta- 65 | 
ries. | 
MORPHOL ...c4204045 106 | 
Miseellaneous....{ 145 | 
PATRUM S| cana 10; 
| HN Dedede 7 1 1 een a 172 | Zedner and Van Straalen. 
1V. Talmud Gommenta-, 106 | Jellinek, ‘* Kontres.”’ 
ries on Separate) 
Tractates. 
V. Methodology. | 
Indexes.........-. ! 9! Jellinek, “* Kontres.”” 
Hermeneuties.....; 287 | Jellinek, Kontres.’ 
VI. COGS: Moats eadeeay i 310} Steinsehneider, a sat, Bodl.” 
VII. Code Commentaries; 185 | Steinse hneider, Cat. Bodl.”’ 
Maimonides...... | 207 | Jelinek, * Kontres ha-Ram- 
| bam.”’ 
On the 613 Com-; 171 | Jellinek, “‘Kontres Taryag.”" . 
mandments. 

VIII. Novellz............/ 298 | Benjacob,s.v.““Hiddushim.” 
Poskinn. sc s:15 p00. 47 | Oppenheim. 
NAMECS,....ceeeees 93 | Jellinek, ‘‘Kontres Mazkir.”’ 

IX. Responsa...........} 611 Merzbacher, ‘“Ohel Abra- 
ham,” 1888, 


Typosraphy 
Tyre 


Subject. 


Ke LEU LY scence ses 


1,544 | Zedner and Van Straalen. 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


No. Source. 


Tehinnot.......... 128 | Oppenheim. 
Selihot............ 97 | Oppenheim. 
Haggadah........ 898 |S. Wiener, ‘* Oster-Hagga- 
dah,’’ St. Petersburg, 1902. 
XI, Midrash............ 213 | Jelinek, ‘“‘Kontres Mid- 
rash.” 
XII. Sermomns............ 587 | Chazanowicz. 
BuUrlals iiss occcads 123 Jellinek, **Kontres ba-Mas- 
ped.” 
XIII. Cabala........cce0- 104} Bartolocci. 
XIV. Grammar and Dic-| 588 | Chazanowicz. 
tionaries. 
Lexicons......... 59 | Wolf. 
Grammar........ 424 |Steinschneider, ‘Bibl. 
Hand.” 
XV. History, Archeol- 
ogy, and Mem- 
oirs. 
History..... ee 317 |Steinsechneider, “Ge- 


Tombstone In- 
scriptions. 


schichts-Litteratur der 
Juden,”’ 1905. 

JEW. ENCYC. iti. 641-642, s.v. 
** Cemeteries.”’ 


Takkanot......... 17 | Steinschneider, *‘ Hebr. 

Bibl.’ vi. 16. 

XVI. Geography.......... 118 | Zunz, “G. s.” 
Palestine......... 154 | Steinschneider, in Lunez’s 


** Luah,”? 1872, 


XVII. Poetry, Criticism...| 585 Chazanowicz. 
Occasional Poetry} 207 | Benjacob, s.v. “* Shirim.”’ 


Letters........... 142 | Benjacob, s.v. °° Iggerot.”’ 

Tales........0006. 150 | Benjacob, s.v. ‘* Ma’assim.”” 

Rhetoric.......... a6. Oppenheiin. 

Purim and Paro- 28 | Steinschneider, in ** Monats- 
dies. sehrift,’’? 1903. 


Purim Parodies... 57 Steinschneider, in ** Letter- 
Drama, Original.. 52 Berliner, **Yesod ‘Olam,”’ p. 
xlii. 
XVIII. Science............. 260 | Chazanowicz. 
Mathematics......| 271 | Steinsehneider, ** Mathema- 


tik bei den Juden”’’ (to 


1650). 
Medicine......... 46 | Benjacob, s.v. ** Refu’ah.”’ 
Astronomy....... 80 Bartolocci. 
Chronology ...... 27 | Bartolocci. 
Calendar......... T7 | Zeitlin, in Gurland’s “Lu- 
| ah,** 1882 
XIX. Theology and Po-| 449; Chazanowicz. 

lemies. 
Anti-Christian Po- “Bibliotheca Ju- 

lemics. daica Anti-Christiana,”” 
Future Life....... E. Abbot, “Literature of 


44 | 
| Future Life,’ 189]. 


Karaitica.........! 51 { Deinard (MS. list). 
Hasidica ......... i 307 
KX. Bthiesc5 ceca 34 | Stein, “Ethik des Talmuds.”’ 
Wills, Ethical..... 60 # branes. in “J. Q RY 
Philosophy....... ri Oppenheim. 
Proverbs....... ..| 184] Bernstein, ** Livres Parémi- 
ologiques,’? Warsaw, 1900. 
XXI. Educational........ 265 Chazanowicz. 
XXII. Fiction. ......... : d10 | Chazanowicz. 
XXIII. Periodicals. 
Hebrew........ ..| 1991 
Yiddish........ F 191 
LAGI DO seasons ees 53 
Almanacs........ 58 | Benjacob, &.v. ** Luhot.” 
Catalogues ...... 46 | Zedner. 
XXIV. Yiddish............ 311) Wiener, ‘* Yiddish Litera- 
ture,’’ p. 99. . 
Judzo-German . 385 Steinschneider, **Sera- 
peum,”’ 1848. 
XXV. Ladino......... weee| 164 Kayserling, ** Bibl. Esp.- 
Port.-Jud.”’ 
XXVI. Translations, Mod-| 152 | Jew. ENCYC. 8.v. 
ern. 


In addition to the examples of Hebrew printing 
which are given as illustrations in the present ar- 


ticle (all of them being derived from the Sulzberger 
collection in the Jewish Theological Seminary of 
America in New York city), the volumes of Tur 
JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA contain a larger number of 
reproductions of Hebrew typography than have 
ever yet been brought together, a list of which, in 
order of place of publication, may fitly conclude 
this account. 


; Jew. 
Where Printed Date Title. Encye 
iv. P, 
Alcala........-. 1514 | Bible Polyglot .............- "iti, 139 
Altdorf......... 1644 Title- “page of ‘Sefer Nizza-: 
MG os Sick? Go Wal ocd wrgse Waa es xii. 158 
Amsterdam....| 1666 | Title-page of Shabbethaian 
ges [2 4: Oe ga ee | xii. 156 
Amsterdam.....| 1679 | Title-page of Bible......... i Xdi. 155 
Amsterdam ,...| 1701 “Serer RaAgiel oo. .cccscasas 336 
Amsterdam,....; 1726 Picart, title-page of Penta-: 
PONO iae sas cnt Cosas oa. | xX. 29 
Amsterdam....!| 1787 * Me’ah Berakot’’.....,......3 iii. 8 
Alnsterdain ....) 0 sees Title-page of miniature Sid-! 
ARIS cplteidiy ieitie wee Bed oka’ Xi. 156 
Amsterdam....| .... Title-page of Bible ......... | xii. 157 
Basel .......... | 1534 | Minster Bible............... | ix. 113 
Berlin.......... | 1702 | Jacob b. Asher, Tur Orah, 
PRAY 5 oie cake swe yeni | v. lol 
Bologna........| 1477 | Psalms with Kimhi.......... iii. 156. 
Bologna.... ree 1482 | Psalms with Pentateueh..... | Git, 157 
Bologna........; 15388 | “ Tefillot Latini” ........... i iti. 299 
Brescia ........ / 1491 | Immanuel b. Solomon, “ Me-: 
DABDEROG. . 2 cece ees sania leea | vi. 565. 
Brescia ........ 1 Lee Me M2 5 ea | i 158 
Budapest....... 1903 Karaite Siddur,............- | x. 17 
Constantinople.}| 1512 | Midrash Tillim.............6! iv. 241 
Constantinople.| 1517 | Moses ibn Tibbon, transla-! 
tion of Maimonides’ ** Sefer 
| |) HiteMGPWOHE”... sce ese a es vi. 547 
Constantinople.| 1520 | Bahya b. Asher, * Kad ha- 
| | ETI aii so 353. a oh Oa Sees iv. 243 
Constantinople.| 1032 | Elijah Mizrahi, ‘* Mispar,”’ 
fr WHOM sg 60s as tao od 0 ew 0's v. 43 
Constantinople.! 1620 | Midrash Eleh Ezkerah....... wilt, 577 
Cracow ........ | 15¢L | Mahzor (Judeo-German)...| iv. 330 
CLacCOw oe cal, oes Printer’s mark of Isaac b. 
| Aaron of Prossnitz........ x. 200 
Peo | 1771 POFIOGICOI eo. ns chase cewess ix. 605 
Fano........06: | 1508 | Hai Gaon, **Musar Haskel’’.} v. 340 
Fano....... .... 1506 | Judah ha-Levi, ** Cuzari’’...| vii. 349 
FAN. baiees dd 1516 =| Jacob b. Asher, ** Arba’ Tu- 
A, | yea ten ree ar iii. 643 
FATTO... ccs eee DES 1) POUTREARCH goes osc receeees v. 345 
Ferrara ........ 1555 | HasdaiCrescas,“*Or Adonai’) vy. 37 
Genoa.......... | 1612 | Title-page of ‘* Shefa‘ Tal*’...{ xii. 154 
Guadalajara....; 1482 | David Kiinhi’s Commentary 
' on the Prophets....... woes] Vi. 108 
Homberg - vor - | 
der-Hohe...., 1136 | Schiff, *‘ Hiddushe Halakot *) xi. 99 
ISNY seeker atccas 1541 Elijah Levita, “'Tishbi’’?....jviii. 47 
PX OD og ta aoe 1485 | Jacob b. Asher, Orah Hay- 
| WIN Vectnaatedensyawaaies vii. 18 
Lisbon ......... 1489 | Abudarham.............0055 viii. 103 
Lisbon. ........ 1489 | Nahmanides, Commentary on 
| the Pentateuch............ | ix. 89 
London ........ TSE): AMMANACS aces echoed oe eusnucd i. 428 
Lublin.......... 1590 | Mordecai Jaffe, ** Lebushim **| vii. 59 
VCK is sid aces 1863 | Periodicals..............066: ' ix. 610 
Mantua......... 1405 | ** Yosippon”’.. 2.0.0... eee ee vii. 261 
Mantua.........| 1476 | Jacob b. Asher, Tur Orah'’ 
Hay YIM coed nes ch Sees oneres| iv. 205 
Mantua.........| Before | Levi b. Gershon, Commen-' 
1480 VAT Vico tncasietare nee eres | iv. 173 
Mantua.........| Before | Levi b. Gershon, Commen- 
1480 tary on the Pentateuch....'viii. 27 
Mantua......... 1561 | ‘ Tetillot Vulgar” .......... iv. 172 
Naples.......... 1487 =| Kimhi, Commentary......... X. 247 
Naples.......... 1488 | Abraham ibn Ezra, Commen-, 
tary on the Pentateuch....! vi. 423. 
Naples.......... 1489 | Bahya’s “Hobot ha-Leba-j 
DOL. ietecaia ene tenae ae ii. 449 
Naples......- ...| 1489 | Kalonymus, ‘* Eben Bohan”’.| vii. 427 
New York...... 1899 | Periodicals ..........600 006s ix. 609 
Paris in. v5 voces 1543 | Stephanus Bible............. ix. 538 
Paris .........5. 1807 | Sanhedrin Prayers .......... xi. 47 
Pesaro.......... 1512 | Soneino, ** Sefer Yehoshua‘”’} iii. 321 
Piove di Sacco..{ 1475 | Jacob b. Asher, * Arba‘ Tu- 
hid 1G agente eer ie epee Ie vii. 29 
Prague . 1525 | MahZ0r assictenisesseaeeees Vili. 267 
Prague ......... 15626 | Hagg@aduh................... vi. 147 
Prague... 1526 | Haggadah................... x. 167 
Reggio......... 1475 | Rashi, Commentary on the 
Bibl@.i2 343 saske atatee anes x. 329 
Rédelheim... 1868 | Siddur...................... x. LWW 
Rome.......... 1480) | CC APUK “ revcsapsat nia paseee: jx. 181 
Rome.......... 1480 | ““Moreh Nebukim”’......... ix. 79 
Rome......s00-- 1480 | “Semag’”’.................-. ix. 69 
Sabbionetta....| 1559 | Talmud..........-......265- xii. 21 
Salonica........ 1522 | Isaae Araima, **‘AKedat Yiz- 
hak ? ese apwtaee sss ey eatas v. 581 
Soncino........| 1484 | Solomon ibn Gabirol, ** Mib- : 
har ha-Peninim”’ ele 5 eR vi. 531 
Soncino........ 1485 ; ** ‘Ikkari IRE is Ses wae Sa es het xi, 465 
Soncino........ 1485 | Mabhzor .......ccceeeeeee eens Vili. 265 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Typography 
Tyre 


335 
adalat deal teal cee aie Oh a eres 
ee rae ee ee a : | Jew. 
Where Printed. | Date. Title. “ | Eneye. 
v:. OP. 
Soncino........ ‘Before | Title-page of an unknown 
1500 edition of the Talmud.....; xii. 18 
Venice......... 1517 | Bomberg Bible.............. | iii, 160 
Venice .....s0ee] 1520 | Bomberg Talmud........... rx Le 
VEDICG 5 .cy cess 1522 | Title-page of Bomberg Tal-! 
! Y  SE asta radon ats ie ap oteeed | xii. 152 
VENI at oispie mies | 1626 | Bomberg Talmud........... ' iii, 301 
VODIGG ss :cacec i: | 1564 | Gershon b. Solomon, *‘ Sefer 
Sha‘ar ha-Shamayim’’.....) fii. 645 
VONIGR oh ten cues | 1547 | Caro, Shulhan ‘Aruk........ iii. 587 
VOUICO.. ccscerios 1694 | “*She’elot u-Teshubot’’....../ xi. 635 
Venice ......... ah cls Title-page of Ritual......... i xii. 414 
VIGNNA...6eveee 1901 Period ital s isic cask eats mice sea ix. 615 
WAT vin ecru 1865 | Title-page of Bible.......... xii. 157 
WDE ceiicad acu 1880 | Shulhan ‘Aruk............. xii. 529 
WAREENVE als’ disasa ate 1884 | Romm Talmud............. xii. 22 
BON aa et sacks 1546 | “ Yosippon” = (Judseo-Ger-| 
WIRD) Gacy sie iee Mew tie dante oe Vii. 263 


| 
i 


—_—_—____—__ 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Cassel and Steinschneider, Jiidische Typo- 
graphie, in Ersch and Gruber, Encye. section fi., part 28, 
pp. 21-94, on which the above account is founded; De Rossi, 
Annales Hebreeo-Typographici, Parma, 1795; Schwab, 
Les Ineunables Orientauxr., Paris, 1888; Harkavy, in Cat. of 
Book Exposition, part viii. (in Russian), St. Petersburg, 1894 ; 
Simonsen, Hebraisk Bogtryk, Copenhagen, 1901; Theodore 
L. De Vinne, Modern Methods of Book Composition, p. 246, 
New York, 1904; Ebrard, <Ausstellung Hebrdischer Buch- 
adrucke, 2d ed., Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1902; Steinschneider, 
Cat. Badl. cols. 2813-3108. 

J. 


TYRE: Principal city of Phenicia. By “the 
strong city Tyre,” mentioned in Josh. xix. 29 and 
II Sam. xxiv, 7 as marking the frontier of Israel 
(Asher), is evidently meant not the main city, but 
an outpost in the mountains protecting the road to 
it and to the coast (the Septuagint furnishes in 
Joshua an interesting variant, making that point a 
“fountain ” in place of a “city ”). 

Tyre is first beard of under King Hiram, who 
furnished to his friends David (II Sam. v. 11) and 
Solomon (I Kings v. 1), for their building operations, 
wood from Mount Lebanon and skilled working men 

(“Sidonians,” 7b. v. 6), for which aid 


Under she received not only payment in grain 
King Hi- (7). v.11), but also land concessions 
ram. in Galilee (7). ix. 11). Solomon's chief 


architect, Hiram, also, was a Tyrian 
(tb, vii. 13=JI Chron, iv. 11). Tyrian ships in Solo- 
mon’s service sailed even from the ports on the Red 
Sea (#b. 1x. 27-28). 

Tyre became immensely rich (Zech. ix. 8) by her 
commerce (Isa. xxiii, 2-8; comp. the elaborate de- 
scription in Ezek. xxvii.); and the curses of the 
Prophets refer especially to its flourishing slave- 
trade (Amos i. 9; Joel iii.4). Tyrian merchants— 
if the term “ Tyrians” did not include all Phenicians 
at that period—furnished the timber for Ezra’s 
Temple also (Ezra tii. 7), and “brought fish and all 
manner of ware” to Jerusalem (Neh. xiii. 16). 

Ps, xlv. 2, Ixxxiil, 7, and Ixxxvii. 4 treat the city 
as representative of all Phenicia; elsewhere, how- 
ever, the Tyrians and the Zidonians are identified in 
a way which seems to indicate that “ Zidonians ” was 
‘he earlier name for the Phenicians (comp. I Kings 
v.6; Judges xviii. 7; Isa. xxiii. 2; and the Homeric 
use). “Ethbaal king of the Zidonians,” the father of 
Jezebel (I Kings xvi. 81), is identical with Ithobalos 
of Tyre (Josephus, “ Ant.” viii, 18, § 2), who, how- 
ever, may have possessed both cities. This earlier 
usage dates from a time when Zidon was preponder- 


ating among the Phenician cities (comp. the reference 
in Gen. x. 15 to Sidon, the first-born of Canaan; Tyre 
is not even mentioned in verse 18 of the same 
chapter). 

Zidon always claimed that Tyre was merely a later 
colony. However, the Egyptian inscriptions of the 
eighteenth and nineteenth dynasties, which hardly 
mention Zidon, seem to show that even then Tyre 
(“Sa-ru,” “Sa-ra”) predominated (W. M. Miller, 
“Asien und Europa,” p. 185), although in the El- 
Amarna tablets (ed. Winckler, Nos. 149-156) King 
Abimilki of “Surri” scems to have been inferior to 
his adversary, Zimrida of Ziduna. This predomi- 

nance of Tyre is shown also in the 

Its Pre- fact that the greatest Phenician col- 
dominance. ony, Carthage, claimed to have been 

founded from Tyre (probably much 
before the problematic date assumed by the Greeks, 
2.¢é., 826 or 814 B.c.). (Isa. xxiii. 1, 6, 10 does not 
necessarily imply Tyrian colonization of Tarshish, 
but only flourishing intercourse with that remote 
country.) 

Josephus (¢.¢.) givesa list of ten Tyrian kings from 
969 (Hiram!) to 774 (for some kings of Surru in later 
Assyrian time see Delitzsch, “ Wo Lag das Paradies?” 
p. 284). The long siege by the Assyrians, reported by 
the local historian Menander (in Josephus, /.c. ix. 14) 
to have taken place under Shalmaneser (IV.), is by 
modern critics considered as a confusion of several 
Assyrian attacks under Sennacherib, Esarhaddon, 
and especially Assurbanipal (see Winckler, “ Alto- 
rientalische Forschungen,” 2d ed., ii. 65). Finally, 
Tyre submitted to Assyria, but kept always her own 
kings (comp. Jer, xxv. 22, xxvii. 3; Ezek. xx viii. 2), 
as also under Persian rule. A naval battle against 
the Egyptian king Apries (Herodotus, ii. 161) seems 
to indicate that this independence sought to main- 

tain itself against the two rivals 

Stormed by Egypt and Babylonia, but Nebuchad- 

Alexander nezzar (comp. Ezek. xxvi. 7) obtained, 

the Great. after asiege of thirteen years, a certain 

submission in 574 B.c. Alexander the 

Great (882) first stormed the island-city after build- 

ing a large dam across the shallow strait; and he 
sold 30,000 inhabitants as slaves. 

Nevertheless, the city soon regained great im- 
portance. It enjoyed a certain liberty until Augus- 
tus, and under the Romans was the most populous 
of the Phenician cities (frequently mentioned in the 
New Testament). During the Crusades it was im- 
portant owing both to its unusually strong fortifica- 
tions and to its factories of glass, sugar, ete. The 
Christians under Baldwin il. took it in 1124and held 
it to 1291 (Frederick Barbarossa was buried in the 
cathedral in 1190). The place degenerated after- 
ward into a miserable village, especially after the 
Shi‘itic sect of the Matawilah had taken possession of 
it; now Str has from 5,000 to 6,000 inhabitants. 

The name seems to have meant “rock”; the Greek 
form “Tyros” suggests to some Semitists the pres- 
ervation of the earlier “2” for “gs.” The earlier 
Latin form was “Sar(rja.” Now a peninsula by 
the accretion of sand to Alexauder’s dam, the city 
was originally an island (Ezek. xxvii. 3, 4) of lim- 
ited space (how much of its former area has now 
been submersed by the sea is a subject of dispute), 


Tyria ; 
U-Ba le-Ziyyon 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


336 


so that the large population was crowded together 
in very high houses. Nevertheless it contained a 
large and magnificent temple of Mel- 


Its kart (comp. IT Mace. iv. 18 on games 
Temple. held every fifth year in honor of Her- 
cules). The local female divinity was 

Astarte. On the mainland was a considerable city, 


Paletyrus, which seems to have had the earlier name 
“Usii” (so El-Amarna tablets; comp. “ Otu” in the 
hicrogly phics, Assyrian, “ Usu”; Talmudic, * Usha,” 
which, however, may be another city); from this 
place, before the Roman time, Tyre was provided 
with water, The island had two harbors: one tothe 
north; the other, now sanded, to the south. Strabo 
(xvi. 228) reports that the purple-factories filled the 
island with an unpleasant smeli from the crushed 
shells of which the purple was made. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: R. Pietsehmann, Gesch. der Phdnizier, pp. 
61 ef seqg., Leipsic, 1889; FP. Jeremias, Tyrus Dis zur Zeit 
Nehukadnezars; Winckler, Altorientalische Forsehungen, 
11.65: Prasek, Forsehungen zur Geschichte des Altertums, 
11.21. See ulso PHENICIA. . 

E. G. HL. W. M. M. 


TYRIA or TIREH: City of Asia Minor, sixty 
miles from Smyrna, Its Jewish community is of 
ancient date, the earliest members having arrived at 
Tyria before the Spanish expulsion; but catastro- 
phes have reduced the Jewish population to insig- 
nificant proportions. Since 1825 the laws of the 
community have been modeled on those of Smyrna; 
and from the same year until 1882 the conamunity 
obtained its revenue by means of assessments, al- 
though its income is now derived from the salt-tax, 
poll-tax, giffs, and rents. Most of the Jews of 
Tyria, who came originally from Constantinople, 
Brusa, Salonica, and Smyrna, and who speak Turk- 
ish, Greek, and Judéo-Spanish, live in a narrow 
ghetto, while some of them have their residences 
among adherents of other creeds. The community 
possesses three synagogues, the latest of which was 
erected in 1887; and there are a number of benevo- 
lent societies, including one for the burial of the 
poor. The cemetery contains a number of ancient 
gravestones, one of the oldest being that of Jehiel 
Caro, who died in 1488. The Talmud Torah at 
Tyria was converted in 1895 into a school con- 
trolled by the Alliance Israélite Universelle. 

The list of the chief rabbis of the city includes 
Hayyim Benveniste (author of the “ Keneset ha- 
Gedolah” and later rabbi at Smyrna), Benjamin 
Lapapa (whose wife died in 1694), Hayyim Danon, 
David Garguir, Hayyim Isaac Jaffe, Isaac Aria, 
Moses Capeluto, Abraham Sasson, Moses bar Siman 
Tob, Hay yim Beja, and the present (1905) rabbi, Nis- 
sim Joseph Lahana. It is noteworthy, however, that 
in the series of “haskhabot” recited on the eve of 
Yom Kippur for the repose of the souls of rabhis the 
name of Rabbi Lapapa is preceded by the names of 
Mattathias ben Rey, Joseph Galante, Issachar Abu- 
lafia, Solomon Mutevili, and Israel Obadiah, the 
last-named being followed by Abraham Sasson, al- 
though no fixed order and no definite dates are 
assigned them. The rabbi and physician Moses 
Abbas and Rabbi Elisha Gallico, both of them pred- 
ecessors of the rabbis mentioned above, are also 
noteworthy. 

The Jews of Tyria number about 1,600 in a total 


population of 20,000. In commerce and in industry 
they have displayed much activity, exporting rai- 
sins, cereals, silk, aud cotton, and imporung mer- 
chandise from Europe, while nearly every trade 
numbers Jews among its craftsmen. The govern- 
ment service likewise is open to Jews, Hayyim 
Jeremiah Danon, who built a Talmud Torah in 1837 
and an asylum for the poor in the following year, 
held a governmental appointment as cashier from 
1828 to 1845; while Behor Danon was municipal 
physician from 1895 to 1904. Formerly the govern- 
ment tithes were collected by Jews, 
D, A. GA. 


TYRNAU or TERNAVA (Hungarian, Nagy- 
Szombath): Manufacturing town of western Eun- 
gary. It was thesceneof two martyrdoms of Jews: 
the first, in 1494, when fourteen men and two wom- 
en gave up their innocent lives, as a manuscript 
dirge of the Cracow community recounts; the sec- 
ond, when the revenge and hatred of the citizens of 
Tyrnau were aroused against the Jews at the time 
that the inroads of the Turks terrified Hungary. 
The burning of the Jews at POstne in 1529 was fol- 
lowed by similar acts in the communities near Tyr- 
nau. Still, the latter city did not succeed until ten 
years later in getting rid of the Jews within its lim- 
its. In 1536 a three-year-old boy of Tyrnau was 
found dead, whereupon the citizens, who were in- 
triguing against the Jews, accused them of having 
murdered the child. King Ferdinand I. tried in 
vain to pacify the angry citizens: the Jews that 
were suspected were cxecuted; and on the request 
of the city authorities Ferdinand banished (Feb. 
19, 1589) forever the remaining ones (this decree 
was confirmed by Leopold J. in 1686). Jews were 
strictly forbidden to set foot within the city or the 
territory belonging to it; and those who even un- 
wittingly violated the order were severely punished. 

In 1717, when a subject of Count Kaunitz was 
punished, the count, wishing to put an end cence for 
all to these proceedings of the city, did his utmost 
to secure the annulment of the charter of Ferdinand 
I.; but he succeeded only so far as to bring about 
the execution of an agreement between the city of 
Tyrnau and the Jews, the latter being represented 
by Simeon Michel, an ancestor of the German poet 
Heinrich Heine. Under this agreement the Jews 
renounced all claims that might be brought either 
by themselves or by their landlords against the city 
on account of their former imprisonment, while the 
city promised to alow Jews to passthrough Tyrnau 
on payment of a certain toll. Though the agree- 
ment was supposed to be made for all time, Maria 
Theresa annulled it, and the Jews were again ex- 
cluded from Tyrnau. 

King Joseph IT. allowed them to settle in the 
city (March 31, 1783); and from that time the once 
famous Jewish community of Tyrnau again began 
to flourish, See Issac TyRNAU. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Kohn, Die Gesch. der Juden in Ungarn, i. 
441; Schudt, Jiidische Merckwiirdigkeiten, i.; Alex. Biich- 
ler, in Egyenliség, xvi.. No. 6: idem, History of the Jeu's 
in Budapest (in Hungarian), pp. 95-97: David Kaufmann. 
Aus Heinrich Heine’s Ahnensaal, p. 220. 


s A. Bt. 


TYROL: Crownland of Austria. The earliest 
documents referring to its Jews date from the 


337 


beginning of the fourteenth century. The state- 
ment, found in the “ Privilegium Ecclesie 8. Ste- 
phani” in Rendena,Hormayr, * Gesch. Tirols,” 1808, 
document 231), according to which Charlemagne 
overcame certain Jewish owners of castles in 800, 
can not be credited. In the fourteenth century 
Jews settled at Bozen, Meran, Riva, Rovereto, and 
in the episcopal cities of Brixen and Trent, as 
merchants, money-lenders, and mint- avd tax-farm- 
ers. Isaac, “Judeus de Luncz (Lienz)” is men- 
tioned (Aug. 16, 1808) as farmer of the mint at 
Meran. In 1318 the Jew Nikolaus of Bozen_ re- 
eeived in fief from King Heinrich of Carinthia a 
house and garden in that city. According to the ac- 
counts of the monk Goswin and others, the Jews of 
Tyrol were bitterly persecuted in the fourteenth 
century at the time of the Black Death, when they 
were accused of poisoning the wells. 

There were no general statutes for the Jews of 
Tyrol; but to individuals a number of grants of 
privileges were made, many beiug quite important; 
noteworthy among them was the liberal decree, 
containing twenty-seven clauses, issued at Martin- 
mas, 1403, by Bishop Ulrich II. of Brixen, in favor 
of the Jews Isaac, son of Gansmann, and _ his 
brother-in-law Samuel. Still more liberal was the 
decree, granted May 1, 1431, by Duke Frederick 
With the Empty Pocket, to the Jews Mendlein, 
Simeon, and Rubein. Frederick’s son Sigmund had 
the Jew Seligman in his employ as surgeon, Sig- 
mund’s reign was marked by the imposition of the 
first Jews’ tax in Tyrol and by the notorious trial 
for ritual murder on account of Simon oF TRENT. 
A similar occurrence is connected with the names 
of Anderle of Rinn near INNsBRUCK, and of Ursula 
of Llienz. 

In 1475, while the events at Trent were still fresh 
in memory, twenty-one peasants of Lienz testified 
that 6n Good Friday, 1442, Ursula, the four-year- 
old daughter of Thomas Péck of Lienz, had been 
murdered for ritual purposes by the few Jews of 
that city; and in consequence of this testimony the 
alleged murderers, two Jews, two Jewesses, and their 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Ty 


ria 
righ Ba le-Ziyyon 


| 
accomplice, a Christian woman, were executed after 


ee 5 stn ce a 


9 


om mat y 


a short trial and excruciating tortures. On Jan. 
1520, the Landtag issued a decree expelling all Jews 
from Tyrol. Soon after, however, Jews were again 
living at Bozen, Riva, and Nori; but they were for- 
bidden to peddle, and were required to wear a badge 
and to pay a personal tax. This tax was reduced 
in 1573, on the complaint of one Abraham, spokes- 
man for the Jews of Tyrol. Jews first settled at 
INNSBRUCK in 1578. 

In the seventeenth century important privileges 
were granted to several Jews of Tyrol, especially 
to the descendants of Solomon of Bassano. In con- 
sequence of the attempt of Maria Theresa to expel 
all Jews from Tyrol in 1748, their numbers decreased 
so rapidiy that by the end of the eighteenth century 
only cight Jewish families, tolerated under Joseph 
II., were living at Innsbruck ‘and Bozen. While 
Tyrol was under Bavarian rule (1806-14) the edict 
issued by the king in 1818 granted to the Jews an 
assured legalstatus. Theancient rights of the Jews 
of Tyrol were confirmed by Austria in 1817, when 
Tyrol was again taken by that country, though the 
laws prohibiting the acquisition of real estate and 
the holding of public offices, as well as those against 
new settlers, remained in foree. Still, there was a 
Jewish postmaster at Bozen at the end of the eight- 
eenth century; Jews acted as purveyors to the Aus- 
trian army in the Napoleonic wars; and they took 
an especially prominent part in supporting the re- 
volt of Andreas Hofer in Tyrol in 1809, 

There is no legally recognized Jewish community 
in Tyrol, its Jews being subject to the community 
at Tohenems (Vorarlberg) in virtue of the law of 
1890. Several Jews of Hohenems, as Schwarz of 
Bozen, have achieved distinction in industrial under- 
takings, notably in the building of railroads, and as 
brewers and bankers. Jews are now (1905) living in 
Tyrol only at INNsBRUcK, Bozen, Meran, and TRENT. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Tanzer, Gesch. der Juden in Tirol und Vor- 

arlberg, 1903, vol. i.; Scherer, Rechtsverhiltnisse der Juden 

in den Dewutsch-Oesterreichischen Liindern, pp. 572 et seq., 


Leipsic, 1901. ‘ 
Ss, A. TA, 


U 


U-BA LE-ZIYYOWN (“And the Redeemer shall 
come to Zion”: Isa. lix, 20): Opening words of the 
closing prayer of the daily morning service, before 
which one should not leave the synagogue (Shulhan 
‘Aruk, Orah Hayyim, 132), The prayer consists of 
a series of texts. in which are included the KEDUSH- 
SHAH following the lesson, with its Aramaic par- 
aphrase (comp. Sotah 49a), and two brief, ancient 
prayers embodying an aspiration for enlightenment 


through that and other studies. It is always pre- 
ceded immediately or closely by ASHRE (Ps. cxlv.; 
Ps. xx. intervening on ordinary week-days), and it 
is repeated in such association before the afternoon 
prayer on Sabbaths and festivals, and before Ne‘T- 
LAH on the Day of Atonement. 


“U-Ba le-Ziyyon” is not chanted at length; the 


greater portion is read in an undertone after the 
The 


hazzan has intoned the introductory Jines. 


U-BA LE-ZIYYON 


mf Adagio molto tranquillo. 


(ee ipa Seo any ia 
Soe Sates ee 
- ba le -Ziy - yon 


ae 


U-Ba le-Ziyyon 
‘Ukzin ' : 


EE Se a Ses ee 
oe ee aie at =< “he ——E Gu iecenniet 


—==__ 
fe - sha‘ be - Ya - ‘a - kob Seats 
pa —# — 
Ge SS 
=a 3g. 
v 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


338 


—— ee 
_#@ 


ne - ‘um A - do - - nai. 


= Eero ee — = 


a eg ——— ies 

do - - - = nai a, u - de- 
—_@———_-» a r) SS ee nara oot mene Si one 
2S SS 

- sher sam - be - lo ya - 

a en 

Vass = —-~—— Sosa es (=~ 
ee ge —— = Seema ame = —— 

- - shu mi - pi - - : ka, zar - ‘& - 


chant for these, in the ritual of the Ashkenazim, is 
founded on the prayer-motive of the Sabbath after- 
noon service (see Music, SYNAGOGAL); but in the 
tradition of the Sephardim there is employed a spe- 
cial chant, of which a variant is used for Ps. xvi., 
recited shortly afterward, at the expiration of Sab- 
bath. It is this melody which is here transcribed. 
In the frequent repetition of a short phrase, and the 
modification of it to fit the text, if reproduces the 
chief pecnliarity of the worship-music traceable to 
i Spanish source earlier than 1492. 
A. F. L. C. 


UGEDA, SAMUEL BEN ISRAEL DE: Pal- 
estinian commentator and preacher, born at Safed 
in the first quarter of the sixteenth century. His 
name, Uceda, oviginally was derived from the town 
of that name in the archbishopric of Toledo. He 
was a pupil of Isaac Luria and Hayyim Vital, with 
whom he studied Cabala, and became rabbi and 
preacher in Safed and, later, in Constantinople. 
Samuel was the author of the following works: 
“Tggeret Shemu’el,” commentary and supercom- 
mentary on the Book of Ruth (published in 1557; 
together with the text and the commentary of Rashi, 


ze - ra‘ 


Zar -‘'‘a - ka, a - 


Kuru Chesme, 1597; Amsterdam, 1712; Zolkiev, 
1800); “Lehem Dim‘ah.” commentary on Lamenta- 
tions, with the text and the commentary of Rashi 
(Venice, 1600; Amsterdam, 1710, 1715); “ Midrash 
Shemu’el” (Venice, 1579, 1585, 1597; Cracow, 1594; 
Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1718). Tle last-named work 
was his chief one, and consisted of a detailed com- 
mentary on the Pirke Abot, with reference to the 
commentaries (at that time in manuscript) of Jonah 
Gerondi, Meir Abulafia, Samuel ben Meir, Menahem 
Me’iri, Samuel ibn Sid, Joseph ibn Nahmias, Baruch 
ibn Melek, Joseph ibn Susan, Mases Almosnino, and 
others, most of which have since been printed. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Conforte, Kore ha-Dorot, pp. 42a, 484; AZzu- 
lai, Shem ha-Gedolim, i. 172; De Rossi-Hamberger, Hist. 
Wirterb. p. 254; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl, p. 2494: Fiirst, 
Bibl. Jud. iti. 44. 

Ww. B. M. K. 
UFHAUSEN, SOLOMON ZEBI HIRSCH. 


See BRENZ, SAMUEL FRIEDRICH. 

UGOLINO, BLAISIO: Italian polyhistor; born 
at Venice about 1700. He is stated to have been a 
Jewish convert. and was certainly well acquainted 
with Talmudic literature. He is known for the 


| huge collection of treatises on Jewish antiquities, 


renee — are NN eT 


339 


written in Latin, which he brought together in his 
“Thesaurus Antiquifatum Sacrarum” (84 vols., 
Venice, 1744-69). In this work he reprinted most 
of the seventeenth-century treatises on Jewish an- 
tiquities by Bochart, Bonfrére, Buxtorf, Carpzov, 
Cellarius, Clavering, Deyling, Goodwin, Hottinger, 
Huet, Lowth, Opitz, Pfeiffer, Prideaux, Reland, 
Rhenferd, Saubertius, Selden, Sigonius, Spencer, 
Trigland, Van Til, Wagenseil, and Witsius, besides 
obtaining fresh contributors, and translating much 
himself from the Midrashim. The subjects treated 
are as follows: (@) Festivals, i. (3) General antig- 
uities, ii.-iv. (¢c) Geography, v.-vi. (d) Priests 
and temple, vii.-xii. (e) Midrashim, xiv.-xvii. (7°) 
Talmud, xvil.-xx. (gy) Ritual and synagogue, xxi. 
(hk) Sects and proselytes, xxii. (7) Gentile deities, 
xxiii. (j) Jewish law, xxiv.-xxvii. (4) Nuimis- 
matics, xxviii. (/) Costume, marriage, and medicine, 
XXix.-xxx. (m) Poetry and music, xxxi.-xxxil. (7) 
Death and burial, xxxiii. Biblical, Hebrew, author, 
and subject indexes are contained in vol. xxxiv. 

Ugolino himself translated the treatises Menahot 
and Zebahim (vol. xix.); Pesahim, Shekalim, Yoma, 
Sukkah, Rosh ha-Shanah, Ta‘anit, Megillah, Hagi- 
gah, Bezah, Mo‘ed Katan, Ma‘aserot, Ma‘aser Sheni, 
Hallah, Orlah, and Bikkurim (vols. xvii.-x viii.) ; 
Sifra, Sifre, and Tosefta (vols, xvii.-xix.); besides 
a part of Maimonides’ “Yad” and of Abraham 
Portaleone’s “Shilte ha-Gibborim. ” 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: McClintock and Strong, Cyc.; Steinschneider, 

Cat. Bodl. s.v. 

P, J. 

UJHELY (SATORALJA-UJHELY): City in 
the county of Zemplin, Hungary. Documents in its 
archives show that in 1734 Jews were living at 
Ujhely and that they were allowed to acquire real 
estate. Itis evident that the community was then 
increasing; for ten years later the Jews possessed a 
school which in 1829 received a bequest of 260,000 
guiden from Martin Raphael Kastenbaum, and which 
was thenceforth Known by his name. The oldest 
tombstone bears date of 1760, although the hebra 
kaddisha, with which was connected a hospital, was 
not established until 1772, its founder being an itin- 
erant rabbi named Naphtali Hirsch. The first hebra- 
book has a drawing on its title-page representing 
the last rites. 

A synagogue was built at Ujhely in 1790; and 
when it was demolished in 1887, to be replaced by 
anew house of worship, it was found to have eight 
subterranean chambers, which probably served as 
dungeons. The oldest document of the community 
is dated 1831, during the rabhinate of Moses Teitel- 
baum, of whom the story is told that Louis Kossuth, 
afterward leader of the Hungarian Revolution, when 
suffering from an infantile sickness, was brought to 
him, and that the rabbi blessed the child and, 
referring to the word “koshct” in Ps. Ix. 6 (ALY. 
4), prophesied his future greatness. Teitelbaum 
died in 1841, and was succeeded by his son Leopold, 
who, however, soon went to Marmaros-Sziget. Jere- 
miah Léw was then appointed rabbi of Ujhely. 
Low, who was one of the leaders of the Orthodox 
party, was succeeded by the present chief rabbi. 
Koloman Weisz, and the preacher Isidor Gold- 
berger. Michael Her_rrin, who acted as secretary 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


U-Ba le-Ziyyon 
‘Ukzin 


to Minister Szemere in 1848. was, prior to the Revo- 
ution, a teacher in the Jewish school of Ujhely. 

The Jews of the city now (1905) number 4,500 in 
a total population of 13,000. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Alvert Székely. Vjhelyi Zsiddk Torténete, in 

Magyarorsaiyg Varinequeéi és Varosat Gn manuscript). 

D. 

‘UKBA, MAR: [Exilarch at Bagdad in the first 
half of the tenth century; the second exilarch to die 
in banishment. When Kowien ZeprEK IT. was ap- 
pointed gaon of Pumbedita he became involved in a 
controversy with Mar ‘Ukba over the revenues from 
Khorasan; and the calif Al-Muktadir (908-932) was 
induced by Zedek’s friends to depose Mar ‘Ukha. 
Soon afterward (917) the latter left Bagdad for 
Karmisin (Kermanshah), but when the young calif 
went for the summer to his palace at Safran, Mar 
‘Ukba devised a scheme to win the royal favor 
by meeting Al-Muktadir’s secretary daily in his 
gardens and greeting him with the recitation of 
beautiful verses. These pleased the calif’s secretary 
so much that be wrote them down and showed them 
to his master, who in his turn was so delighted that 
he sent for Mar ‘Ukba, entered into conversation 
with him, and asked him to express a wish, where- 
upon the gaon requested that he might be reinstated. 
The calif granted this wish, and Mar ‘Ukba soon re- 
turned to Bagdad as exilarch. Kohen Zedek and 
his friends, however, again succeeded in securing 
his deposition and banishment from the country, 
whereupon he went to Africa, and was received 
with high honors at Kairwan as a descendant of the 
royal house. A sort of throne (“bimah”) was built 
for him in the synagogue, near the Ark of the Law, 
and he was always the third to read the “ parashah,” 
the scroll of the Law being brought to him in his 
seat. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Neubauer, M. J. C. ii. 78-79; Gratz, Gesch. 
v. 246-248, note 12; Halevi, Dorot ha-Rishonim, iii. 25 et 
seq.; Weiss, Dor, iv. 134 et seq. 


EB. C, Ss. O, 
UKRAINE. See Russta. 


‘UKZIN (“Stalks of Plants”): Name of a treatise 
of the Mishnah and the Tosefta, dealing chiefly with 
the conveyance of ritual impurity by means of the 
roots, stalks, and hulls of plants. In the Mishnah 
it is the twelfth and Jast treatise of the order Toho- 
rot; and it is also the last of the whole Mishnah. 
Maimonides says: “This treatise has been placed at 
the end because the impurity of stalks is not ex- 
plained in the Bible, and depends solely on the judg- 
ment of the Rabbis.” It is divided into three chap- 
ters, containing twenty-seven paragraphs inall. Its 
contents may be summarized as follows: 

Ch. i.: Difference between roots, stalks, and hulls 
in regard to impurity; wet roots become unclean 
sooner than dry ones (§§ 1-2); size of unclean stalks, 
certain roots that convey no impurity (§§ 3-4); stalks 
that have been cut from the fruit are clean; a stalk 
ot figs (fresh or dried), or any pods, carobs, gourds, 
or other portion ofa plant, conveysimpurity if when 
taken together with the body of the plant it is as 
large as an egg ($$ 5-6). 

Ch. ii.: Olives preserved with their leaves in 
liquor receive no impurity: kernels of fruit receive 
impurity ($8 1-2); pomegranates and melons that 


UVUliam 
Ulm 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


340 


have been partly crushed so that the remnant is 
smaller than an egg can not become unclean; all 
husks receive impurity. Rabbi Judah says: “An 
onion has three skins; the outermost never receives 
impurity; the innermost always receives impurity ; 
the middie one receives impurity when whole. but 
not when honeycombed ” ($8 38-4). What parts of 
garments and plants convey impurity ($$ 5-8); 
plants growing in the earth can not be unclean; 
laws relating to plants growing in vases ($$ 9-10). 

Ch. iii. ; Certain objects can become unclean only 
after they have once been wet ($§ 1-3); under what 
conditions dills, spices, pepper, unripe fruit, fish, 
milk, and honeycombs receive impurity ($$ 4-11). 
The Mishnah concludes with the following para- 
graphs (3 12) which are later additions: “ Rabbi 
Joshua ben Levi says, ‘The Holy One, blessed be 
He! will cause every righteous man to inherit 310 
worlds, as it is said: “To make those that love me 
inherit substance; and their treasuries I will fill 
[Prov. viii. 21, Hebr.; numerically the letters in 
the word ww (= “substance”) amount to 310].”’ 
Rabbi Simeon ben Halafta says, ‘The Holy One, 
blessed be Ele! found no other vessel capable of con- 
taining so much blessing for Israel as peace, as it is 
said: “The Lord will give strength unto his people; 
the Lord will bless his people with peace [Ps. xxix. 
11}.” 79) 

In the Tosefta likewise, ‘Ukzin is the last treatise. 
It is divided into three chapters, containing forty- 
two paragraphs in all. It includes no haggadic 
sayings. ‘Ukzin has no Gemara. 

B.C, S. LEp. 

ULAM. See TeMpLe in Rapsinicat LITERA- 
TURE, 

ULAMO, JACOB DANIEL. See OLmo. 


ULIF, GERSHON ASHKENAZI. See Asu- 
KENAZI, GERSIUON. 

ULLA (xy: called Rab ‘Ula in Ket. 65b and 
Kid. 31a): One of the leading halakic amoraim 
in Palestine during the latter part of the third and 
in the beginning of the fourth century. In his 
youth be studied under R. Eleazar IL. (Tos. to Hul. 
34a, 8.0. “Man Habraya ”); and he transmitted nine of 
his teacher’s halakic sayings, seven of which are con- 
tained in B. Kk. 11, end, one in ‘Er. 21b, and one in 
Ket. 74a. He was greatly respected for his learn- 
ing; and during his visits to Babylonia he seeins to 
have been invited frequently by the “resh galuta” 
to deliver halakic lectures (Ket. 65b; Kid. 31a; 
Shab. 157b). He traveled repeatedly to Babylonia; 
and on one of his journeys he was in danger of as- 
sassination by one of lis companions, saving his life 
only by condoning the murder of another (Ned. 22a). 

Ulla rendered important decisions regarding the 
benedictions and the calculation of the new moon, and 
was accustomed to promulgate his rulings in Baby- 
lonia when he went thither (Ber. 38b; R. H. 22b; Pes. 
53b, 104b). He was very strict in his interpretation 
of religious laws (Shab. 147a, 157b); and on one oc- 
casion, when he heard KR. Fluna nse an expression 
which he did not approve, he retorted, “ As vinegar 
to the teeth, and as smoke to the eves, so are the 
words of R. Huna,” applying to him the first half 
of Prov. x. 26 (Kid. 435b). Only in the presence 


of R. Nahman did Ua hesitate to pronounce his 
opinions, generally waiting until the former had 
departed (Git. 11b, 12a); although he frequently 
sought Nahman’s company (Ket. 53a), Of his con- 
temporaries with whom he engaged in controversies 
may be mentioned, besides R. Nahman, R. Abba 
(B. M. 11a), Abimi bar Papa, Hiyya bar Ammi (Ket. 
dea), and R. Judah (Hul. 68b, 70a); but his per- 
sonal friend, with whom he associated most fre- 
quently, was Rabbah bar bar Hana (Tosef., Haul. 

xxxiv. 1). 

In addition to the sayings of his teacher Eleazar, . 
Ulla transmitted those of R. Hoshaiah (Hul. 76a), 
Joshua ben Levi (2. 122a), R. Johanan (‘Er. 67b), 
Rab (Shab, 148b), and Simeon ben Lakish (Hag. 8b), 
while his own sayings were transmitted by R. Aha 
bar Adda (B. M. 117b), Hamnuna (Shab. 10b), Hiyya 
bar Abba (Hag. 25b), Hiyya bar Ami (Ber. 8a), Raba 
bar Hinena (Men. 380b), R. Hisda (Ber. 38b), Judah 
bar Ammi(M. K. 5b), and Joshua bar Abba (2d. 5b). 
Raba appears to have been his only son (Shab. 838b). 

Ulla dicd in Babylonia, before his teacher R. Elea- 
zar; but his remains were taken to Palestine for 
burial (Ket. 111a). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY : Heilprin, Seder ha-Dorot, pp. 229-230; Bacher, 

Ay. Bab. Amor., pp. 93-97. 

E, C. 5. O., 

ULLMANN, ALEXANDER DE ERENY: 
Hungarian deputy and political economist; born at 
Budapest Feb. 18, 1850; died there 1897; son of 
Karl Ullmann (b. 1809; d. 1880), founder of the 
first Hungarian insurance company, and vice-presi- 
dent of the Bank of Commerce at Pest. Ullmann was 
educated in Budapest and Vienna (LL.D. 1872), 
and was admitted to the bar in 1873. On the death 
of his father the family was elevated to the Hun- 
garian nobility. From 1884 to 1892 Ullmann repre- 
sented the electoral district of Also-Arpas in the 
Hungarian Parliament. 

In addition to numerous juridical and economic 
essays in the “ Pester Lloyd,” “ Bllendr,” and “ Neu- 
zeit,” Ullmann wrote the following works: “A 
Részvényes Kereseti Jogar6l” (Budapest, 1877), on 
the right of stockholders to institute Jegal proceed- 
ings; “A Kényszcregyezség Kérdéséhez ” (#6. 1879), 
on compulsory settlements; “Az Ipartérvény Re- 
vizidja” (2). 1880), on the revision of the industrial 
laws; “A Magyar Kereskedelmi és Iparkamarak 
Reformja” (2d. 1882), on the reform of the Hunga- 
rian board of trade and commerce; and “ Zsid6é Fele- 
kezeti Ugyek Rendezése” (db. 1888), on the legal 
regulation of Jewish affairs. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sturm, Ozsrdggtilési Almanach, 1887. 


8, L. V. 


ULLMANN, SHALOM: fMungarian Talmud- 
ist; flourished in the beginning of the nineteenth 
century; officiated as rabbi in Firth, and later at 
Boldogasszony (Frankirchen), a small place in the 
county of Wieselburg. He was the author of “ Dibre 
Rash” (1826), a work containing notes on various 


Talmudic treatises. 
S. A. KE. 


ULM: City and district of Wtrttemberg. As 
in many other German cities, there is in Ulm a leg- 
end that Jews lived there before the Christian era; 


341 


but the first historical evidence of a Jewish settle- 
ment is a tombstone dated 1243 and erected in mem- 
ory of Huknah, daughter of R. Solomon ha-Levi. 
The next oldest record is a declaration, issued by the 
city council of Ulm in 1274, which terms the Jewish 
community a privileged “ Darleihergenossenschaft ” 
(loan society), fully authorized to dispose of unre- 
deemed pledges. By the aid of a Jew the Bava- 
rians, who in the fourteenth century 
Thirteenth were at war with Austria, succeeded 
and in reducing the city (April 20, 1316); 
Fourteenth and eight years later (Nov. 19, 1824) 
Centuries. Louis the Bavarian pledged to the 
counts of Ottingen the state taxes 
pavable by the Jewsof Ulm. In like manner Charles 
IV. pawned the Jewish taxes of Ulm to Albrecht 
of Rechberg; and the Jews of the city thus found 
themselves compelled to collect: part of their taxes 
from their coreligionisis of Schelklingen and Ehin- 
gen. The Jews of the latter place, however, com- 
plained of this procedure; and on Aug. 1. 1548, the 
Jews of Ulm were officially reprimauded. The im- 
perial prefects of Swabia finally took them under 
their protection on condition that they paid their 
“Schutzgeld” (protection-money) promptly. The 
other fees which they gave for protection went to 
the city treasury of Ulm, and were used to defray 
the cost of new fortifications. 

About this time the Jews of Ulm were accused 
of poisoning the wells, and were persecuted by 
mobs, while the city council, on being called to ac- 
count by Count Helfenstein, declared itself power- 
Jess to check the rabble. The property of the vic- 
tims was attached by the city authorities; and on 

this occasion a letter from the Jewish 

Accused of community of Jerusalem, informing 

Well- the Jews of Ulm of the crucifixion of 

Poisoning. Jesus, is said to have been found (Niib- 

ling, “Die Judengemeinden des Mit- 

telalters,” p. 800, Ulm, 1896). On the career of the 

“Grossjuden ” Jécklin, who was animportant figure 

in Ulm during the latter half of the fourteenth cen- 
tury, sec Jew. Encye. vii. 19. 

The Jews of Ulm suffered much during the war- 
fare between their city and the kingdom of Wirt- 
temberg; for when Eberhard IIL, the Mild (1388— 
1417) ascended the throne of Wtirttemberg he asked 
the assistance of the empire in enforcing the laws 
which had been introduced to liquidate the Jewish 
debt. His request was granted: and Borziwoy of 
Swynar was appointed prefect. The Jews of Ulm 
realized that, so far as they were concerned, the 
intention was to annul their outstanding claims in 
order to defray the cost of the war and to cover the 
so-called “ Judenbrinde” (riots against the Jews) of 
the Swabian Bund in the county of Wiirttemberg ; 
consequently they either took their promissory notes 
to places of safety or else openly resisted these 
demands, and delayed payment. Consequently the 
proposed liquidation was postponed until Aug. 11, 
1392, when Wenceslaus issued an edict containing 
the following four clauses: 


(1) The city of Ulm is granted the privilege of admitting Jews 
and Jewesses. 

(2) One-half of the Jewish taxes is to be paid to the city, and 
the OPFERPFENNIG is to be paid during the week preceding 
Christmas. 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ulam 
Ulm 


(3) Jurisdiction in loan proceedings is vested solely in the 
supreme court of Ulin. 

(4) Fora period of ten years a large sum of money is to be 
paid the city by all the citizens of Ulm as well as by the Jews. 


There are no records extant showing the size of 
the Jewish community of Ulm at this period; but 
the frequency of the family names °~Ulma” and 
“Ullmann” points toa numerous cougregation. That 
it took high rank in spiritual affairs is 
evidenced by the fact that it possessed 


Importance 
i a yeshibah, over which R. Simelin pre- 


inn 


Spiritual sided. In addition to Simelin, there 
Affairs. were three other rabbis in Ulm; 
namely, Seligmann, Lafen, and Ger- 

shon. Simelin violated a regulation, issued by the 


community of Nuremberg, to which he had himself 
subscribed; and the result was a controversy which 
involved the entire congregation, Simelin and the 
leaders of the community finally brought the matter 
before Jacob Weil for adjudication; and the latter 
decided that Simelin should make a public retracta- 
tion of his utterances in three different communities, 
or suffer the penalty of excommunication. 

Nothing further is known of the spiritual life of 
the Jews of Ulmat this period; but their social con- 
dition steadily deteriorated. The following regula- 
tions (dated Nov. 24, 1395) from the so-called “ Red 
Book ” are extant: 


(1) The Jews must weigh on ‘* sworn money-scales”’ (‘* Geld- 
wage’) everything which they buy or sell. 
(2) From Palm Saturday until Euster Wednesday, as well as 
on Corpus Christi Day, all Jews must remain within the Jewish 
quarter ; transgressions of this ordinance will 
‘*Red Book” be punishable with a fine of five pounds heller. 
Regu- (3) Any discourtesy shown a Jew by a Chris- 
lations. tian will be punished twice as severely as if 
shown to another Christian, 
(4) A Jew may not lend money on a pledge unless he knows 
the debtor well. 
(5) No Jew may have a Christian servant in his bouse. 
(6) No inhabitants of Ulm other than Jews may engage in 
pawnbroking. 


As a result of a complaint lodged by the gold- 
smiths’ gild the following restrictions were imposed 
by the city council of Ulm: (1) No Jew may melt 
gold, silver, or other precious metals without the 
knowledge of the gild. (2) Jews may neither buy 
nor sell silver bullion in the city. (8) They are per- 
initted to trade only in pearls, gems, and uudamaged 
wares in gold and silver. On Sept. 30, 1421, the 
following laws were promulgated: (1) Christians 
may not be employed by Jews; (2) cattle purchased 
by Jews in the market, or meat sold by them, may 
be examined only by Christian butchers, and auni- 
mals may be slaughtered only in the courtyard of 
the synagogue; (3) Jewsare forbidden to touch pro- 
visions while purchasing them in the market. 

On May 15, 1422, the Jews of Ulm were prohibited 
from advancing loans on wool or cotton. In the 
middle of the fifteenth century they were accused 
of the ritual murder of a Swiss boy named Ludwig 
of Bruck at Ravensburg, near Ulm, in 1428. Until 
the end of this century nothing further is known 
concerning the Jewish community; but under Max 
imilian I. the city council compiained to the emperor 
of the residence of Jews in the city, and received 
from him a so-called “ Freibeitsbrief” authorizing 
their expulsion under the following conditions: (1) 


Ulm 
Unger 


The Jews were to be given the shortest time pos. 
sible in which to dispose of their movable prop- 


erty. (2) The proceeds of the sale 

Expulsion of the synagogue, cemetery, hospital, 
in the bath, dwelling-houses, and the like, 
Fifteenth together with their appurtenances, 
Century. were to accrue to Wolf of Asch, the 


prefect of Geislingen. (8) Al former 
privileges were to be annulled. (4) After the date 
of the expulsion every Jew remaining in the city 
was to be outlawed. This manifesto was published 
on Aug. 6, 1499; and after four days the imperial 
treasury sold to the city of Ulm for 5,000 gulden 
the real estate belonging to the Jews, the date of the 
expulsion being set for five months later. No Jews 
were again admitted to any town in the district of 
Ulm until 1526, when one was allowed to settle in 
Albeck, on condition that he charged interest at the 
rate of 1, and not 2, heller per guiden. In a short 
time this Jew succeeded in bringing coreligionists to 
the district, and the council of Ulm again com- 
plained to the emperor; whereupon, on July 18, 
1541, Charles V. issued a “ Freihcitsrecht” from Re- 
gensburg, containing the following clause: “This 
Jew is not permitted to borrow money. If he does 
so, he is Hable to a fine of 10 marks in gold; and the 
money, together with interest, shall go to the city of 
Ulm.” Further, a debtor was forbidden to waive 
his rights under the “ Freiheitsbrief” in favor of his 
crcditor; this rendered it impossible for the Jews 
to remain in the city. A second “ Freiheitsbrief” 
was issued by Ferdinand I. (Vienna, 
Jews March 28, 1561); and throughout the 
Again in seventeenth century Jews were found 
Ulm in the in the district of Ulm only during 
Sixteenth the Diets, as imperial or princely 
Century. envoys, or when traveling with safe- 
conducts, although occasionally they 
sojourned for some time in the city, and even had 
their own slaughter-houses. 

During the eighteenth century the condition of 
the Jews improved slightly. On Jan. 19, 1712, the 
council permitted them to attend the horse-markets 
on payment of 10 kreutzer per diein; but they were 
forbidden to peddle leather. In the middle of the 
eighteenth century, however (May 20, 1750), they re- 
ceived permission to attend all the fairs and to deal 
in wares of any kind. They were charged 1 gulden 
a dav for the privilege of staying in Ulm; and their 
safe-conducts cost § kreutzer per hour. At the out- 

break of the French war several Jews 

Eighteenth went to Ulm, among them being the 

and army contractors Kaulla of Hechingen, 

Nineteenth and Gumberz, manager of the Staat- 

Centuries. theaterin Ulm. When the condition 

of the Jews in Wiirttemberg was reg- 

ulated (1827) and civic equality was granted to them, 

the Diet of Ulm lodged an unavailing protest. Soon 

afterward the special taxes levied on Jews for pro- 
tection and the like were repealed. 

On Feb, 3, 1845, the Jews of Ulm organized di- 
vine services, Simon Einstein of Laupheim being 
chosen hazzan. In 1853 a Jewish cemetery was 
opened; on Sept. 12, 1873, a new synagogue was 
dedicated; and in 1888 Solomon Fried of Ratibor 
was called as rabbi. The Jews of Ulm now (1903) 


THE JEWISH DNCYCLOPEDIA 


342 


number 730 in a total population of about 43,000. 
They support four charitable organizations. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Depping, Juden tna MWittelalter, Stuttgart, 
1834: Haid. Um und Setn Gehiet. Ulm, 1786; Hassler. Die 
Ulmer Judengrabsteine, tb. L868: Nubling, Die Judenge- 
meinden des Mittelalters, ib. 1896 (strongly prejudiced 
against the Jews): Pressel, Geseh. der Jiden tai Ulin, ib. 
1873; idem, Ulmisehes Urhundenbuch. i. Stuttgart, 1873; 
Sehultes, Chronik. von Clim, Ulm, 8b; Veesenmeyer, F:ticas 
tiber den Ehematiyen Aufenthalt der Juden in Con, in 
Programm des Ulmer Gunorasiums, 1797 + Salfeld. Martyr- 
dlogium, s.v.3 Kohut, Geseh. der Deutschen Juden, s.v. 

D. 8. 0. 

ULMANN, ALBERT: American banker and 
author; born in New York city July 2, 1861; edu- 
cated in the public schools and at the College of the 

City of New York. In 1900 he became a@ member 

of the New York Stock Exchange firm of J. H. 

Sulzbacher. He is one of the founders and gov- 

ernors of the Judeans, and has been interested in 

the history of New York and of the Jews in that 
city. He has contributed to the “New York Times 

Saturday Review,” tothe “Saturday Evening Post,” 

and to other journals, and is the author of : “ Frederick 

Struther’s Romance” (New York, 1889); ‘“ Chaper- 

oned ” (2b. 1894); “A Landmark History of New 

York ” (4d. 1901); and “ New York’s Historical Sites, 

Landmarks, Monuments, and Tablets” (26. 1902). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: The American Jewish Year Book, 1904-3; 
Who's Who in America, 1903-35; Who's Who in New 
York City and State, 1905. 

A. FE. T. H. 


ULMANN, BENJAMIN: French historical 
painter; born at Blotzheim, Alsace, May 24, 1829; 
died at Paris Feb, 24, 1884. He studied atthe Ecole 
des Beaux-Arts under Drélling and Picot, and in 
1859 won the Prix de Rome. 

Of his paintings may be mentioned: “Sylla at 
the House of Marius” (1866; now in the Luxem- 
bourg Museum); “Patroclus and Amphidamas” 
(in the art gallery at Mans); “Junius Brutus” (in 
the museum at Melun); “Remorse”; “The Gitanos 
of Granada”; “The Bell-Ringers of Nuremberg ” 
and “The Lorelei” (exhibited at the Paris Salon, 1872) - 
“A Defeat”; “The Hour of Wailing”; and “The 
Deliverer of the Fatherland.” At the Paris Salons 
of 1859 and 1872 Ulmann’s exhibits won medals of 
the second and third class. In 1872 he was deco- 
rated with the cross of the Legion of Honor. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hans Wolfgang Singer, Allgemeines Kitinst- 
ler-Lexicon, Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1898; Clement and Hut- 
ton, Artists of the Nineteenth Century and Their Works, 
Boston, 1880; La Grande Eneyclopédie. 

s. Boe. 
ULMANN, SALOMON: French rabbi; born 
at Zabern, Alsace, Feb, 25, 1806; died at Paris May 

5, 1865. He commenced his rabbinical studies at 

Strasburg under Moise Bloch (better knownas Rabbi 

Mosche Utenheim), and was the first pupil enrolled 

at the initial competitive examination of candidates 

for the Ecole Centrale Rabbinique, inaugurated in 

July, 1880. He was also the first in his class at this 

institution to receive the diploma of chief rabbi. 

In 1884 he was appointed rabbi of Lauterbourg, 

Alsace; in 1844 he became chief rabbi of Nancy, in 

Lorraine; and in 1853 he succeeded Marchand Ennery 

as chief rabbi of the Central Consistory of the Israel- 

ites of France. 
Ulmann published a limited number of sermons 
and pastoral letters, and was the author also of 


343 


“Catéchisme, ou Eléments d’Instruction Religieuse 
et Morale a4 PUsage des Jeunes Israélites” (Stras- 
burg, 1845; 3d ed., Paris, 1871), which is considered 
a classic. 

The most important act in Ulmann’s rabbinical 
career was the organization of the Central Confer- 
ence of the Chief Rabbis of France, over whose de- 
liberations he presided at Paris in May, 1856. In 
that year Ulmann addressed a “Pastoral Letter to 
the Faithful of the Jewish Religion,” in which he 
set forth the result of the deliberations of the confer- 
enee, Which were as follows: (1) revision and abbre- 
Viation of the piyyutim; (2) the introduction of a 
regular system of preaching; (8) the introduction of 
the organ into synagogues; (4) the organization of 
religious instruction; (5) the institution of the rite 
of confirmation for the Jewish youth of both sexes; 
(6) a resolution for the transfer of the Ecole Centrale 
Rabbinique from Metz to Paris, 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Archives Israélites and Univers Israclite, 
May, 1865. 
S. J. Ka. 


UMAN. Sec HAIDAMACKS. 
UNCLEANNESS. Sce ARLUTION. 


UNGARISCH-JUDISCHE WOCHEN- 
SCHRIFT. Sce PERIODICALS. 


UNGARISCHE ISRAELIT, DER. 
PERIODICALS. 


UNGER, EPHRAIM SOLOMON: German 
educator and writer; born at Coswig-on-the-Elbe 
March 8, 1789; died Nov. 1, 1870. He studied phi- 
losophy, mathematics, and natural science at the 
University of Erfurt, and from 1810 to 1816 was 
privat-docent in mathematics and philosophy at 
the same institution. In 1820 he founded, together 
with his brother David, a schoo] for mathematics 
and modern languages, which fourteen years later 
was transformed into @ real-school. The school 
board offered him the directorship on condition that 
he embraced Christianity, but he refused to do 
‘so. He retained, however, the position of “ Ober- 
lehrer” until 1862, in which year he was _ pen- 
sioned. 

Unger was for many years a member of the city 
‘council of Erfurt. He was made an honorary citi- 
zen; and the King of Prussia conferred upon him 
the title of professor and decorated him with the 
Order of the Red Eagle in recognition of his serv- 
ices. Through his efforts the Jewish congregation 
of Erfurt was incorporated in 1812; and for many 
years he was its first overseer. Of his works the 
folowing may be mentioned: “ Handbuch der Mathe- 
matischen Analysis,” 4 vols. (Gotha, 1824-27); 
“ Abriss der Geschichte der ZahlenIchre von Pythag- 
oras bis Diophant ”; and “ Die Bedeutung der Zwei 
Biicher des Apollonius von den Berechnungen fiir 
die Geometrische Analysis.” 

g, W. Sa. 


UNGER, JOACHIM JACOB: Austrian rabbi; 
born at Homona, Hungary, Nov. 25, 1826; studied 
at. the University of Berlin (Ph.D. 1859), and was 
appointed rabbi of Tglau, Moravia, in 1860. -He is 
the author of several works, of which the following 
may be mentioned. “Hebrdische Philologie und 


See 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ulm 
Unger 


Biblische Exegese,” in “ Mannhetmer-Album,” Vi- 
cnna, 1864; “ Bemerkungen tiber die Phénicischen 
Opfertafeln von Marseille und Carthago,” in “ Zeit- 
schrift der Deutschen Morgenlindischen Gesell- 
schaft,” xxiv.; “Die Judenfrage in Preussen,” in 
“Neuzeit,” 1874; “Patriotisehe Casual- Reden,” 
[g¢lau, 1881 (2d ed. Prague, 1899): “ Dichtungen,” 
ao, 1885; “Fest- und Sabbath-Predigten,” Prague 
and Breslau, 1908. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Lippe, Biog. Ler. pp. 505-507, Vienna, 1881; 
Zeitiin, Bibl. Post-Mendels., p. 401. 
s. F. T. H. 


UNGER, JOSEPH: Austrian jurist and states- 
man; born in Vienna July 2, 1828. Having studied 
law at the university of his native city, he in 1850 
was appointed assistant librarian, and in 1852 privat- 
docent, at his alma mater. The following year he 
was called to Prague as assistant professor at the uni- 
versity, and in 1855 to Vienna in a similar capacity. 
In 1857 he was appointed professor of jurisprudence 
at the latter institution. In 1867 he was succes- 
sively elected 2 member of the Austrian Landtag 
and of the Reichsrath; but on account of ill health 
he had to resign in the following year. Appointed 
in 1869 by the Emperor of Austria a life-member of 
the House of Lords, he soon became the whip of the 
Liberal Party. Two years later he became minis- 
ter (without portfolio) in Prince Auersperg’s cabi- 
net, but resigned upon the prime minister’s defeat 
in 1879. In 1881 he was appointed president of 
the Reichsgericht (Supreme Court of Administra- 
tion). Unger is a convert to Christianity. 

Of Unger’s works the following may be men- 
tioned: “ Die Ehe in Ihrer Welthistorischen Entwick- 
lung” (Vienna, 1850); “Ueber Wissenschaftliche 
Behandlung des Oesterreichischen Gemeinen Privat- 
rechtes” (20. 1858); “Der Entwurf eines Biirger- 
lichen Gesetzbuches fiir das Koénigreich Sachsen ” 
(<b. 1853); “System des Oesterreichischen Allgemei- 
nen Privatrechts ” (Leipsic, 1856-64; vols. i. and ii., 
5th ed., 1892; vol. vi., 1894), a standard work on 
Austrian law, which established Unger’s reputa- 
tion; “Die Rechtliche Natur der Inhaberpapiere ” 
(Vienna, 1857); “ Der Revidierte Entwurf eines Biir- 
gerlichen Gesetzbuches fiir das KOnigreich Sachsen” 
(2b. 1861); “Zur Lésung der Ungarischen Frage” 
(28. 1861; written in collaboration with Fischhof, 
and published anonymously), a work advocating a 
dual monarchy for Austria and Hungary, its ap- 
pearance marking Unger’s entry upon a _ political 
career; “ Die Verlassenschaftsabhandlung in Oester- 
reich” (7b. 1865); “Zur Reform der Wiener Univer- 
sitit ” (2b. 1865); “Die Vertrage zu Gunsten Dritter” 
(Jena, 1869); “Schuldtibernahme” (Vienna, 1889); 
“Handeln auf Eigene Gefahr” (Jena, 1891); and 
“Handeln auf Fremde Gefahr” (2d. 1894). 
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Brockhaus Konversations-Lexikon; Meyers 

Konversations- Lexikon. 


8. F. T. i. 

UNGER, MANASSE: German art critic; 
born in Coswig-on-the-Elbe March 14, 1802; died at 
Berlin May 17, 1868. When he was only four years 
of age his parents moved to Erfurt, where he re- 
ceived his first instruction in the art of sketching, 
and where he also devoted himself to the study of 


Unicorn 
United States 


mathematics and architecture, later passing the state 
examination for architects in Berlin, In spite of 
this training, however, he decided to pursue an art- 
ist’s career. Supported by a government scholar- 
ship, he traveled through Italy, visiting Venice 
(1844), Florence, and Rome (1845), and returning in 
1846 to Berlin, where he resided until his death. 
During the Revolution of 1848 Unger was elected 
captain of the artists’ corps which protected the mu- 
seums. In 1852 he traveled through France, Bel- 
gium, and Holland, in which last-named country he 
discovered Rubens’ “Sacrifice of Abraham.” 

Unger produced no paintings of importance, only 
a few portraits painted by him being in existence; 
but his knowledge of the technique and individual- 
ity of many a great painter made it possible for him 
to restore old paintings and to become an art critic 
of note. He was the author of “Das Wesen der 
Malerei,” Leipsic, 1851; “Kritische Forschungen 
im Gebiete der Malerei Alter und Neuer Zeit,” Ber- 
lin, 1868; and “Kinstler und First,” an epos, 
published posthumously, Berlin, 1875. After the 
death of his parents Unger joined the Protestant 
Church. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Albert Pick, Ueber den Erfurter Maler und 
Kunstgelehrten Manasse Unger, Erfurt, 1890. 


S. F. T. H. 

UNICORN: Rendering in the Authorized Ver- 
sion of the Hebrew 0% or ON, following the Sep- 
tuagint and the Vulgate. Aquila and Saadia, on 
Job xxxix. 9, read “rhinoceros”; Bochart (“ Hiero- 
zoicon ”) and others, “oryx,” or “white antelope ”; 
Revised Version, “wild ox” (margin, “ox-ante- 
lope”). Theallusionsto the “re’em” as a wild, un- 
tamable animal of great strength and agility, with 
mighty horns (Job xxxix. 9-12; Ps. xxii. 21, xxix. 
6; Num. xxiii. 22, xxiv. 8; Deut. xxxili. 17; comp. 
Ps. xcii. 11), best fit the aurochs (Los primigentus). 
This view is supported by the Assyrian “rimu,” 
which is often used as a metaphor of strength, and 
is depicted as a powerful, fierce, wild, or mountain 
bull with large horns. The term evidently denotes 
from its connection some animal of the bovine or 
antelope class, perhaps the oryx (so LXX.). The 
oryx, as well as the wild bull and ox, is common in 
Palestine aud Syria; and aurochs’ teeth were found 
by Tristram on the flooring of an ancient cave in the 
Lebanon. 

The Talmud has for “re’em” x58 or xoras, 
which etymologically recalls the Arabic “ ghazal” 
(=“gazel”), but is said to be the name of an 
animal of such size that it could not eriter the ark of 
Noah, but had to be fastened thereto by its horn 
(Zeb. 1138b: comp. B. B. 74b; Shab. 107b; Yalkut 
Shim‘oni, ii. 97d, where it is said that the re’em 
touches the clouds). If the Talmud intended the 
urzila for the unicorn, it can not be identical with 
the one-horned ox which Adam is said to have offered 
as sacrifice (Hul. 60a and parallels), because the urzila 
isclassed among the animalsof the field that may not 
be offered for that purpose. The Tosefta on the 
passage in Zebahim explains the urzila as the buffalo. 

Again, in Hul. 59b is mentioned an animal called 
wap (perhaps shortened from “monoceros” or 
“ rhinoceros ”), which, “though it has only one horn, 
is allowed as food,” and is then explained as the 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


344 


“hart of the forest ‘Tlai ” ody 35 ND; comp. B. 
B. 16b).. The Talmud apparently thinks here of the 
antelope oryx, the mode of depicting which on Per- 
sian monuments gave rise to the belief by the an- 
cients(comp. Pliny, “ Historia Naturalis,” viii. 21, 30) 
in the existence of the unicorn (comp. “S. B. O.T.,” 
Psalms [Eng. transl.], p. 173). In Arabic like- 
wise “re’em” is applied to the leucoryx. The au- 
rochs is mentioned in the Talmud under the name 
735 Ww (= “ox of the plain”), in explanation of 
esa, the rendering of Xn (Deut. xiv. 5) by the 
Targum, which Rashi (Hul. 80a) cxplains as the 
“ox of the Lebanon.” It is classed among cattle 
(Kil. viii. 6), and is caught with slings (B. K. 11%a; 
comp. Isa. li. 20). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Tristram, Nat. Hist. p. 146; Lewysohn, Z. T. 
pp. 114, 126, 149; C. Cohen, Geseh. des Kinhorns, Berlin, 1896. 


E.G. H. I. M. ©. 

UNION OF AMERICAN HEBREW CON- 
GREGATIONS, THE: Association of American 
Jewish congregations composed chiefly of the Re- 
form element, and established largely through the 
persistent efforts, extending for a period of over 
twenty years, of Isaac M. Wisk. The initiative 
was taken by Moritz Loth, president of Wise’s con- 
gregation in Cincinnati, who, in his annual message 
of Oct. 10, 1872, recommended the appointment of a 
comniittce to act with committees from other local 
congregations for the purpose of calling a conven- 
tion for organization. The five Cincinnati congre- 
gations joined in a call, issued on March 80, 1878, in 
pursuance of which delegates from thirty-four con- 
gregations met in that city on July 8, 1873. “The 
Union of American Hebrew Congregations” was 
the official title adopted; and under that name the 
organization was subsequently incorporated pur- 
suant to the laws of Ohio. 

The objects of the organization are set forth in 
section 2 of the constitution : 


A.—To establish and maintain institutions for instruction in 
the higher branches of Hebrew literature and Jewish theology, 
with the necessary preparatory schools in such cities of those 
States as may hereafter be designated. 

B.—To provide means for the relief of Jews from political op- 
pression and unjust discrimination, and for rendering them aid 
for their intellectual elevation. 

C.—To promote religious instruction and encourage the study 
of the Scriptures and of the tenets and history of Judaism. 

All this, however, Without interfering in any manner whatso- 
ever with the worship, the schools, or any other of the congre- 
gational institutions. 

Under provision (A) the Hebrew Union College 
was called into existence by the first council, 
which met in Cleveland in July, 1874 (see HEBREW 
Union CoLueGce). Under (B) a Board of Delegates 
on Civil Rights has been created with its seat in 
Washington, D. C., Simon Wolf being its chairman. 
The objects provided for by (C) have been en- 
trusted to a Board of Managers on Synagogue and 
(Sabbath) School Extension, which body has charge 
of the work formerly carried on by the Hebrew 
Sabbath-School Union of America, which went out 
of existence in Jan., 1905. 

The presidents of the union have been Moritz Loth 
(1873-89); Julius Freiberg (1889-1903); and Samuel 
Woolner (since 1908); and Lipman Levy has been sec- 
retary from the beginning. The legislative body of 
the union, and its highest authority, is a council 


345 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Unicorn 
United States 


which meets biennially, the members of which are 
elected by the constituent congregations. In elect- 
ing these representatives there is no restriction as to 
sex. During the intervals between the meetings 
of the counci] the union is governed by an execn- 
tive board of thirty members elected by the 
council, This executive board in turn elects the 
Board of Governors of the Hebrew Union College, 
the Board of Delegates on Civil Rights, and the 
Board of Managers on Synagogue and (Sabbath) 
School Extension. At present (1905) the union is 
composed of 128 congregations with an aggregate 
contributing membership of 14,000. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: 3! Annual Reports of The Union of Ameri- 
can Hebrew Congregations; seventy-one volumes of manu- 
seript correspondence collected by Lipman Levy, secretary of 
The Union of American Hebrew Congregations ; The Ameri- 
can Israelite, 1854-1905; Die Deborah, 1855-1900; D. Philip- 
son and L. Grossman, Life and Writings of Isaac M. Wise, 
Cincinnati, 1900; Isaac M. Wise, Reminiscences, ib. 190L. 
le L. WI. 


UNION ISRAELITE. See PERIODICALS. 


UNION OF JEWISH LITERARY SOCIE- 
TIES: An association of societies founded in 1902 
in London, England, for the diffusion of Jewish lit- 
erature, history, and sociology, and for the coordi- 
nation of the work of Jewish literary societies. The 
organization grew out of a conference of Jewish Jit- 
erary societies convened by the North London Jew- 
ish Literary and Social Union, chief among whose 
objects was the study of Jewish literature, history, 
and sociology. Its first presideut was Israel Abra- 
hams, 

The wnion has constituent societies in many dis- 
tricts of the British empire. Lach reserves its com- 
plete local independence, and is inno way controlled 
by the central organization. The union, bowever, 
renders assistance to the constituent societies in many 
ways. It has published a directory of Anglo-Jewish 
lecturers, with a supplementary listof Jewish titter- 
ateurs resident abroad who have placed papers pre- 
pared by them at its disposal. It also provides lit- 
erary material and guidance for members of the 
constituent societies desirous of preparing lectures, 
and it lias arranged a number of illustrated lectures 
for their use. 

An important feature of the work of the union is 
its publications. In addition to a number of pam- 
phlets, it issues yearly, in time for the annual con- 
ference of constituent societies held in the month of 
June, the “Jewish Literary Annual,” which, besides 
supplying a record of the work of the union and its 
constituent societies during the previous year, con- 
tains the installation address of the retiring presi- 
dent and a selection of the papers read before the 
constituent societies during the preceding twelve 
months. Another feature is a bibliography of books, 
essays, etc., of Jewish interest published in English 
curing the year. 

The union has been instrumental in introducing 
the Jewish Chautauqua movement into England. 
It has also arranged with considerable success sum- 


mer gatherings at English seaside resorts. 
J A. M. H. 


UNITARIANISM: A denomination of the 
Christian Church which rejects the doctrine of the 


Trinity. One of the Protestant sects that developed 
out of the Reformation, it is found under various 
names, first in Poland in the second half of the six- 
teenth century, and a little later in Transylvania, 
where it still flourishes, although its modern center 
of gravity is England and the other English speaking 
countries, notably the United States. Exclusion 
from Protestant synods crystallized the Unitarians 
into a separate church in 1565. Among its promi- 
nent exponents may be mentioned the elder and the 
younger Socinus, who formulated its first theology ; 
Francis David, its first martyr; and Joseph Priestley, 
the English discoverer of oxygen. It also claims 
Milton, Locke, and Newton, and it owes much to 
James Martineau, who rationalized the crudities of 
Priestley’s theology, while Emerson gave it its 
transcendental touch and the writings of Channing 
and Theodore Parker furthered its propaganda. 

From its inception this sect has been divided into 
conservative and radical wings. In the former 
school the divinity of Jesus is rejected, but the 
miracles ascribed to him are accepted, and some re- 
gard him as preexistent and superangelic. Socinus 
insisted on his worship. In the new, or radical, 
wing of Unitarianism, Jesusis still sublimated above 
all humanity, while the cross, the symbol of the 
whole of Christianity, is accepted metaphorically as 
expressed in pvetry aud hymnal. The Lorp’s Sup- 
PER is observed as a commemoration, thus uniting 
Unitarianism with the whole Church. For about 
fifteen centuries, accordingly, Unitarianism has been 
historically linked with Christianity, from which it 
has never entirely broken away. The Apostles, the 
Church Fathers, and the Holy Roman Empire are 
its remote progenitors. More specifically, its pro- 
gressive steps may be traced from the Arian move- 
ment through Calvinism, Socinianism, Arminian- 
ism, Presbyterianism, and Congregationalism, the 
Hicksite Quakers and the Universalists occupying 
parallel places. Unitarianism has, therefore, been 
a development out of Trinitarianism. Gradually the 
Iioly Ghost was rarefied into an “influence,” and 
the Son of God was explained away as a figure of 
speech. The preponderating influence of the parent 
faith, however, still abides, and the Unitarians do 
not look upon the character of Jesus in the cold 
light of history. 

K, M. H. H. 


UNITED STATES: A federal republic of 
North America. The history and condition of the 
Jews in this territory—apart from Russia and 
Austria the largest concourse of Israelites under one 
government in the world—is treated, for conve- 
nience, under the following rubrics: 


. Successive Waves of Immifration. 

Separate Cities and States (in order of settiement or popu- 
lation) —New York, Newport, New England, Maryland, 
Pennsylvania, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, 
Virginia, West Virginia, Louisiana, Kentucky, Ten- 
nessee, Alabama, Mississippi, Florida, Texas, Michigan, 
Wisconsin, Ohio, Hlinois, Missouri, Kansas, Nebraska, 
Iowa, California, Oregon, Utah, Colorado, Montana, 
Washington, Idaho, North Dakota, and South Dakota. 

Jews in Their Relation to the Federal Government. 

Education. 

Philanthropy. 

. Religious Development. 

7. Military, Naval, and State Service. 


oe 


Ogi oo 


United States 


8. Civil and Political Rights. 

9. Science, Art, Literature, and the Learned Professions. 

10. Commerce and Industry. 

11. Social Condition. 

12. Russian Immigration. 

13. Statistics—Growth, Distribution, List of States and Cities 
with Population 1877 and 1905, Nationalities of Immi- 
grants, Occupations, Clothing Trade, Social Condition, 
Charity, Destitutes, Defectives and Delinquents, Syna- 
gogues, Institutions, Lodges, Periodicals, Distinguished 
Persons, Biostatics, Anthropology, 

1. Successive Waves of Immigration: Per- 
secution is the principal factor affecting Jewish immi- 
gration to the United States. The adventurous pio- 
neer, seeking new Jands from the desire to conquer 
obstacles and live a life untrammeled by the conven- 
tions of society, is less frequently found amoung the 
leaders of Jewish settlement in this country than the 
hardened victim of persecution—broken in almost 
everything but spirit and energy—in search of the 
opportunity merely to live in unmolested exercise of 
his faith. The effects of the events of European his- 
tory upon American development might be written 
almost entirely from the annals of Jewish immigra- 
tion. The first explorers and settlers of America 
came from Spain and Portugal; and Jews naturally 
followed in their wake when the Jnquisition made 
further residence in those countrics an impossibility. 
Naturally, also, following the lines of least resist- 
auce, the Jews went to those places 
where the languages were spoken with 
which they were familiar. Therefore 
the first traces of Jews are found in 
South and Central America and Mexi- 
co, whence they spread to the West 
Indices: and the changes in the map of Europe which 
are reflected in America during the seventeenth and 
eighteenth centuries caused the first settlements in 
the territory which is now the United States. 

The tolerance of Holland (practically the only 
Jewish refugein Europe in the sixteenth and seven- 
teenth centuries) was extended to her dominions in 
the New World, and resulted in laying the founda- 
tion of what has developed into the great New York 
community. By way of gratitude for the favors 
shown them, Jews effectively aided the Dutch in 
their resistance to foreign encroachment, especially 
in South America. From Spain, Portugal, and Hol- 
land, then, came most of the first settlers; and though 
the large majority were of Sephardic stock, a few 
Germans are also to be found among them. Eng- 
land, where until the beginning of the eighteenth 
century but few Jews dwelt, contributed but a small 
number to the effective settlements she was making 
on the seaboard of the mainland. Though the colony 
of Georgia had Jewish immigrants in large numbers 
from 1733 on, they came in ships from England only 
because passage to the New World could be pro- 
cured most readily from that country. 

The large numbers ot Germans who sought refuge 
from persecution in the freer air of Pennsylvania, 

during the eighteenth century, at- 


First Set- 
tlers from 
Spain and 
Portugal. 


The tracted Jewsas well. They settled not 
German only in thecoast towns, but made their 
Element. way into the interior, and before the 


close of the century they were to be 
found among those engaged in developing the western 
parts of the state. Similarly, the unhappy fate of 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


346 


Poland, dating from 1772, caused that state to send 
forth its quota of Jews to the United States, and the 
contribution of that country would be notable if 
only for the conimanding figure of Haym SaLomoy, 
The Napoleonic wars and the distress which they 
wrought, especiaily upou the South German princi- 
palities, once again caused a tide of German immi- 
gration to set toward the United States. The Jews 
joined this migratory movement beginning toward 
the end of the first quarter of the nineteenth cen- 
tury, and increased in numbers rapidly by reason of 
the events of 1848. From that time until 1870, when 
this phase of immigration lost its strength, they 
came in a steady stream, so that the Jewish popula- 
tion of the United States was quadrupled within 
the twenty years between 1850 and 1870. 

But none of the early migratory movements as- 
sumed the significance and volume of that from Russia 
and neighboring countries. Thisemigration, mainly 
from Russian Poland, began as far back as 1821, but 
did not become especially noteworthy until after the 
German iinmigration fell off in 1870. Though nearly 
50,000 Russian, Polish, Galician, and Rumanian Jews 
came to the United States during the succeeding dec- 
ade, it was not until the anti-Jewish uprisings in 
Russia, of the early eighties, that the emigration as- 
sumed extraordinary proportions. From Russia alone 
the emigration rose from an annual average of 4,100 

in the decade 1871-80 to an annual av- 

Russian erage of 20,700 in the decade 1881-90. 

Im- Additional measures of persecution in 
migration. Russia in the early nineties and con- 
tinuing to the present time have re- 
sulted in large increases in the emigration, England 
and the United States being the principal lands of 
refuge. The Rumanian persecutions, beginning in 
1900, also caused large numbers of Jews to seek ref- 
uge in the latter country. The total Jewish immi- 
gration to the United States, through the three main 
ports of entry, New York, Philadelphia, and Balti- 
more, from 1881 to Oct. 1, 1905, is stated to have 
been 996,908, although it is by no means certain that 
this number does not include Christians from Russia 
and Austria (see statistical section of this article for 
details). 

In considering the separate states of the Union in 
detail, the varying records of their Jewish inhabitants 
may be sketched in outline, reference being made 
for further particulars to the special articles devoted 
to each state in THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

2. Separate Cities and States: Asthe Jewsof 
the United States were destined to become more nu- 
merous, and consequently of more significance, in the 
state of New York than elsewhere, it were fitting on 
thisaccount to begin thissummary with the account 
of their settlement and development there. But there 
is a historical reason as well: the earliest docu- 
mentary evidence concerning the Jews in this coun- 
try relates to New York. Jewish connection with 
the Dutch colony of New Netherlands antedated by 
many years the beginnings of the migratory move- 
ment, for among the influential stockholders of the 
Dutch West India Company, founded in 1620, were 
anumber of Jews, Their influence upon the fortunes 
of this company from that time on was of consider- 
able importance. It would appear that Jews were 


347 


on the muster-rolls of soldiers and sailors sent out to 
the colony of New Amsterdain in 1652, and that they 
had engaged to serve for the term of one year. Their 
identity, however, has been lost. 

The first known Jewish settler in New Amster- 
dam was Jacob Barstmson, who arrived on July 8, 
1654, in the ship “Pear Tree.” He was followed in 
September of the same ycar by a party of twenty- 
three who had taken passage in the 
bark “Saint Catarina.” They proba- 
bly came from Braz, by way of 
Cubaand Jamaica, having been driven 
out when that country capitulated in 1654. The 
first authentic record of their arrival is obtained 
from the legal proceedings instituted against them, 
by the officers of the vessel, to procure the passage- 
money for which they had made themselves jointly 
liable. Some were unable to pay, and two were im- 
prisoned in consequence. Othersarrived while these 
proceedings were pending, much to the displeasure 
of Peter Stuyvesant, the Dutch governor of New 
Netherlands, who ordered them to leave the colony, 
and wrote to the directors of the Dutch West India 
Company asking authority for theirexclusion. The 
directors overruled Stuyvesant, and under date of 
April 26, 1655, instructed him that his attitude “ was 
unreasonable and unfair, especially because of the 
considerable loss sustained by the Jewsin the taking 
of Brazil, and also because of the large amount of 
capital which they have invested in the shares of 
thecompany.” They directed that “they [the Jews] 
shall have permission to sail to and trade in New 
Netherlands and to live and remain there.” Stuyve- 
sant carried out his instructions with no good grace, 
evaded them whenever possible, and put many ob- 
stacles jn the way of these early settlers. Further 
appeals to the directors of the company followed, 
resulting in the issuance of a reproof to Stuyvesant 
in March, 1656; theinstructions to him directed that 
the Jews should be permitted to enjoy all the civil 
and political rights in New Netherlands that were 
accorded them in Amsterdam, and they were to be 
allowed to hold real estate and to trade. But they 
were not to be employed in the public service, nor 
allowed toopen retail shops. This provision against 
engaging in retail trade had a marked effect upon 
their own future, as well as upon thatof the colony. 
It resulted in their engaging in foreign intercolonial 
trade, for which, because of their connections, they 
were peculiarly fitted. The part the Jews played 
as importers and exporters, and in the general field 
of colonial commerce, isaccordingly one of great sig- 
nificance. 

The most prominent figure among these pioneers 
of the New Amsterdam colony was Asser Levy; 
and it was due to his determined efforts that many of 
the political rights which the Jews en- 
joyed at this time were granted. In 
1655, among others, he sought enlist- 
ment in the militia; this was refused, 
and instead, he, with other Jews, was ordered to 
pay a tax because of their exemption. He declined 
to do this, and on Nov. 5, 1655, petitioned for 
leave to stand guard like other burghers of New 
Amsterdam. The petition being rejected, he ap- 
pealed to the higher authorities, and in 1657 suc- 


First Set- 
tlement. 


Asser 
Levy. 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


United States 


ceeded in obtaining certain burgher rights, and was 
permitted to perform guard duty like other citizens. 
He was the first Jew to own land in what are now 
known as Albany and New York city. His name 
figures constantly in the court records, and the liti- 
gation almost invariably resulted favorably to him. 
He appears to have amassed considerable wealth, 
and to have obtained the respect and esteem 
of the leading men of the town. Another of the 
prominent early settlers was Abraham de Lucena, 
who, with several others, in 1655 applied for per- 
mission to purchaseasite fora burial-ground. This 
was denied at the time, on the ground that there 
was no need for it, but was granted a year later. In 
June, 1658, the burgomasters declined to permit 
judgment in civil actions to be taken against. Jacob 
Barsimson, holding that “though defendant is ab- 
sent, yet nodcfault is entered against him, as he was 
summoned on his Sabbath.” This unusual instance 
of religious toleration foreshadowed a New York 
statute of two centuries later, which renders it a 
misdemeanor maliciously to serve any one with 
process on his Sabbath, or with process returnable 
on that day. When, in Oct., 1660, Asser Levy and 
Moses de Lucena were licensed as butchers, they 
were sworn “agreeably to the oath of the Jews” 

and were not to be compelled to kill any hogs. 
Upon the capture of the colony by the English in 
1664, the rights hitherto enjoyed by the Jews were 
not interfered with, and for twenty years they ap- 
pear to have lived much as before 


Under the British occupation, though with 
English = slight increase in their numbers. In 
Rule. 1672 Rabba Couty attained prom- 


inence by his appeal to the King’s 

Council, in England, from a decree passed against 
him by the courts of Jamaica, as a result of which 
one of his ships had been seized and declared for- 
feited. His appeal was successful and resulted in 
establishing the rights of Jews as British subjects, 
and his appears to be the first case in which a colo- 
nial grant of naturalization was recognized as valid. 
In 1685 the application of Saul Brown to trade at 
retail was denicd, as was also that of the Jews for 
liberty to exercise their religion publicly. That they 
did so privately in some definite place of worship 


| would appear from the fact that a map of New 


York, dated 1695, shows the location of a Jews’ 
svnagogue in Beaver street, also that Saul Brown 
was the minister, and that the congregation com- 
prised twenty families. Five ycars later the site of 
the synagogue was so well known that in a convey- 
ance of property the premises were referred to asa 
landmark. In 1710 the minister of the congregation, 
Abraham de Lucena, was. granted exemption from 
civil and military service by reason of his ministerial 
functions, and reference is made to the enjoyment 
of the same privileges by his predecessors. The 
minutes of the Congregation Shearith Israel of New 

York begin in 1729, when it was lo- 


Shearith cated in Mill street, and refer to ree- 
Israel.  ords dating back as faras1706. This 


congregation established on Mili street, 
in 1730, on a lot purchased two years before, the first 
synagogue in the United States. It would thus 
appear that the religious rights of these early Jewish 


United States THE JEWISH 


settlers had been secured in the beginning of the 
eighteenth century, and that they enjoyed also many 
political rights. Au act passed by the General As- 
sembly of New York on Nov. 15, 1727, provided that 
when the oath of abjuration was to be taken by any 
British subject professing the Jewish religion, the 
words “upon the true faith of a Christian” might 
be omitted. Three days later an act was passed 
naturalizing one Daniel Nufiez de Costa. <A bitter 
political controversy of the year 1737 resulted in the 
decision by the General Assembly that Jews should 
not be allowed to vote for members of that body. 

In 1740 Parliament passed a general act permit- 
ting foreign Jews to be naturalized in the colonies, 
Previous to this date, however, the New York Colo- 
nial Assembly had passed numerous special acts of 
naturalization, some of which were applicable to 
individuals only; others, more general in character, 
under which Jews could be naturalized without ta- 
king oath “upon the true faith of a Christian,” were 
also put upon the statute-book. Between this time 
and the Revolutionary war the Jewish community 
in this colony increased by slow stages, the principal 
immigrants coming from Spain, Portugal, and tbe 
West Indies. 

During the French and Indian war Jacob Franks 
was the royal agent, in association with a British 
syndicate, for provisioning the British forces in 
America; his dealings with the crown during this 
period exceeded £750,000 in value. 

Before and during the Revolutionary war the 
Jews had representatives of their faith upon both 
sides of the controversy, though the majority joined 

the colonia) side. On the Non-Impor- 


In the tation Agreement of 1769 the names 
Revo- of not less than five Jews are found; 
lution. this is also the case with respect to 


other agreements of a similar nature. 
The outbreak of the Revolutionary war dissolved the 
congregation in New York;and upon the eve of the 
British occupancy of the town the majority of the 
congregation, headed by Gershom Mendes SErxas, 
took all the belongings of the synagogue and re- 
moved to Philadelphia, where they established the 
first regular congregation, the Mickvé Israel, in 1782. 
The small number who remained in New York oc- 
casionally held services in the synagogue. At the 
close of the war most of the Jews who had gone to 
Philadelphia returned to New York, which was rap- 
idly becoming one of the most important commercial 
cities of the country. From this time on the com- 
munity grew slowly, so that by 1812 it is estimated 
there were not more than 500 Jews in New York. 
However, a number of Jewish soldiers participated 
in the War of 1812, and the prosperity of the commu- 
nity was ever on the increase. The great tide of 
emigration from Germany that set in toward the be- 
ginning of the first quarter of the nineteenth cen- 
tury brought with it many Jews. They were in 
sufficient numbers by 1825 to establish the first Ger- 
man Jewish congregation, During the next forty 
years the German congregations increased rapidly, 
so that by 1850 no less than ten had been organized. 
Charitable and relief organizations were established ; 
and a considerable number of Jews took part in the 
Mexican war and entered the public service. The 


ENCYCLOPEDIA 


348 


large influx which followed in the late forties and 
early fifties laid the foundation for the great com- 
munity which afterward developed. Previous to 
1881 the emigrants came for the most part from 
Germany, Bavaria, and Poiand. Since the latter 
date Russia, Rumania, and Galicia have furnished 
the greatest numbers. At the present time (1905) 
the Jewish population of the state of New York 
is estimated at 820,000. Jews are now represented 
in New York city in every walk of life, political, 
professional, commercial, and industrial. See NEw 
YORK. 

Though most of the earlier emigrants settled in 
New York city, a few wandered beyond its limits, 
some even as far as the confines of what now consti- 
tutes the state of PENNSYLVANIA. In 1661, when 

Albany was but a trading-post, Asser 


Up-State Levy, as noted above, owned real es- 
Set- tate there, but between that date and 
tlements. the carly years of the nineteenth cen- 


tury there are no records of any settlers 
in that town. They were not there in sufficient 
numbers to fornia congregation until 1888, and they 
had no rabbi until 1846. The present Jewish popu- 
lation is estimated at between 4,000 and 5,000. 

Buffalo attained prominence in 1825 through the 
scheme of Mordecai M. Noah to establish ARARAT 
asa city of refuge for the Jews, The corner-stone 
of the projected city was laid in one of the churches 
of Buffalo in that year; but, as is well known, this 
scheme attracted no settlers, and the first religious 
organization was not established until 1847. The 
number of Jews there increased gradually from that 
time, and any members of the Jewish community 
have held distinguished political office. The present 
Jewish population is estimated at 7,000. 

The first settlement of Jews in Syracuse proba- 
bly antedates 1839, and a permanent religious organ- 
ization was established in 1846, At the present 
time the number of Jews is estimated at 5,000. There 
are Jewish communities in at least fifty-two of the 
cities of the state of New York, and most of them 
have been established within the past twenty years. 

Next in historical importance to the settlement of 
New York city is that of Rhode Island, at New- 
port. Established by Roger Williams upon a basis 
of toleration for personsof all shades of religious be- 
lief, the Jews were among the first settlers. Though 
the earliest authentic reference to Jews at Newport. 
bears the date 1658, no doubt a few stragglers arrived 
as early as 1655. Fifteen Jewish families arrived in 
1658, bringing with them the first degrees of ma- 
sonry. They established a congregation almost im- 
mediately, and in 1684 had their rights to settle con- 
firmed by the General Assembly. There is record of 
the purchase of a burial-place in Feb., 1677. Be- 
tween 1740 and 1760 a number of enterprising Por- 
tuguese Jewish settlers from Spain, Portugal, and 
the West Indies arrived, and by their activity estab- 
lished Newport as the seat of the most extensive trade 
of the country. The most prominent of the settlers 
during this period were the Lopez, Rivera, Pollock, 
Hart, and Hays families. Aaron LOPEZ was one of 
the leading merchants of his time, and owned as 
many as thirty vessels, With the advent of Jacob 
Rodriguez Rivera, a native of Portugal, in 1745, the 


Gthe Besidet of heated Hates of Anni, 


2 
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tn Us Chom of the pesos helired Danial aratlay Aare Mjbrecie wer he Ubmvnced 
the artasies Dats of Uhett Miigedd rial am tate abet 
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Vaio, Prague, adangus tguelpialt 7dhie , geeat porternuntel trachon Jed 
aos leblack, better, wwe amet bl chnonlitedhhe Me teovk tf the oul ed Mlle 
ond Mdnirsirtbaildn, wetuia t, ft case eco tb de denilind of Says. fo 


sant fall of darn, you are gatos de goon Sedhirut anty suet tmiild twit 
aoronly lbeatin A pociiite tie waier of yl, ond the, the of crosmalaliy _ 
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Hosted by Google 


349 


manufacture of spermaceti was introduced in Amer- 
ica. In 1762 the erection of a synagogue was begun, 
and was completed and dedicated in 
the following year. From 1760 until 
the outbreak of the Revolution the 
Rev. Isaac Touro, who had come from 
Jamaica, was the rabbi of the congregation, In 1763 
there were between 60 and 70 Jewish families in New- 
port. The first Jewish sermon which was preached in 
America, and which has been published, wasdelivered 
in the Newport synagogue on May 28, 1773, by Rabbi 
Hayyim Isaac CarrreGAL. This was delivered in 
Spanish, and was afterward translated into English. 
Carregal was a most interesting personality ; he ap- 
pears to have come from Palestine, and was on terms 
of intimacy with Ezra Stiles, the president of Yale 
College. The first Jewish clubin America was formed 
in 1761 at Newport, with a membership limited to 
nine persons. Just before the outbreak of the Rev- 
olutionary war the Jewish population of Newport 
must have numbered nearly 1,000 souls. The war 
dispersed the community, which never regained its 
importance. The Jews for the most part espoused 
the colonial cause, and lost the greater part of their 
property when the town was captured by the Brit- 
ish. In 1790 the congregation presented an address 
to Washington on the occasion of his visit to the 
city. The letter of welcome is still preserved and 
is reproduced here by courtesy of the owner, Mr. 
Frederick Phillips, New York. Abraham Touro 
bequeathed a fund to the city of Newport to main- 
tain the synagogue as well as the cemetery; this 
fund is still in existence, though no representatives 
of the original families now live in the city, The 
present Jewish population is about 200. There are 
Jewish settlements likewise in Providence, Woon- 
socket, and Pawtucket. The entire Jewish pop- 
ulation of the state is estimated at 3,500. 

In Other Parts of New England there were 
probably occasional stray settlers in the seventeenth 
and eighteenth centuries, but the intolerance of the 
Puritans rendered im possible the establishment of any 
religious communities. An interesting personality 
is that of Judah Monis, who became a convert to 
Christianity and filled the chair of Hebrew in Har- 
vard College from 1722 until his death in 1764, 

Mention is found of a Jew in Connecticut under 
date of Nov. 9, 1659, and of anotherin 1670, The first 
Jewish family to settle in New Haven came in 1772, 
though a few individuals who had become converts 
to Christianity dwelt there a few years before. The 
first congregation was established about 1840, the 
congregants being members of about twenty Bava- 
rian families. From that date on the community 
increased by slow stages, and there are at the present 
time (1905) in New Haven about 5,500 Jewish in- 
habitants. There are Jewish settlements also in 
Bridgeport, Ansonia, Derby, Waterbury, New 
London, and Hartford. In the last-mentioued city 
there are about 2,000 Jewish inhabitants, the first 
congregation having been established in 1848. Since 
1891 a number of Jewish farmers have been settled 
in various parts of the state. The total Jewish 
population of the state is about 8,500. 

The earliest mention of a Jew in Massachusetts 
bears the date May 3, 1649, and there are references 


Aaron 
Lopez. 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


United States 


to Jews among the inhabitants of Boston in 1695 and 
1702; but they can be regarded only as stragglers, 
as no settlers made their homes in Massachusetts 
until the Revolutionary war drove the Jews from 
Newport. In 1777 Aaron Lopez and Jacob Rivera, with 
fifty-nine others, went from Newport to Leices- 
ter, and established themselves there; but this 
settlement did not survive the close of the war. A 
number of Jews, including the Hays family, settled 
at Boston before 1800. Of these Moses Michael Hays 
was the most important. In 1830a number of Alge- 
rian Jews went to Boston, but they soon disappeared. 
The history of the present community begins with 
the year 1840, when the first congregation was es- 
tablished, 

The Jewish immigrants to Vermont and New 
Hampshire have never been very numerous, though 
there are congregations in Burlington, Vt., and in 
Manchester, Portsmouth, and Nashua, N. H. 
The number of Jews at the present time (1905) in these 
two states does not exceed 2,000. Little of impor- 
tance can be said about the communal life of the Jews 
in New England, and their numbers increased but 
slowly untilafter the beginning of the great Russian 
emigration in 1882, when the overflow from New 
York as wellasthe emigration through Canada com- 
menced to stream into New England. It is estimated 
that the number of Jews now inhabiting the New 
England States is between 80,000 and 90,000, more 
than 60,000 of whom reside in Massachusetts alone. 

The opening up of the West and the resulting 
unprofitable nature of farming in New England 
drew away from this part of the United States many 
thrifty farmers, who abandoned their unfruitful 
fields for the more attractive opportunities in the 
Western States. Of interest in connection with this 
shifting of the population is the fact that many of 
these abandoned farms, especially in Connecticut, 
have been taken up by Russian Jews, who, princi- 
pally as dairy farmers, have added a new and useful 
element to the agricultural community. 

It would seem that only a few Jews found their 
way. to Maryland during the first half of the seven- 
teenth century, and that the first settlers of this 
colony came as individuals, and not in considerable 
numbers at any time, as was the case in New York, 
Newport, Savannah, and Charleston. To judge by 
the names alone it would appear that a few Jews 
were resident in Maryland from the earliest days of 
the colony. The most prominent figure, who was 
unquestionably a Jew, was a Dr. Jacob Lumprozo, 

who had arrived Jan. 24, 1656, and 

Jacob who, in 1658, was tried for blasphemy, 
Lumbrozo. but was released by reason of the gen- 
eral amnesty granted in honor of the 

accession of Richard Cromwell (March 38, 1658). 
Letters of denization were issued to Lumbrozo Sept. 
10, 1663. Besides practising medicine, he also 
owned a plantation, engaged in trade wifh the In- 
dians, and had active intercourse with London mer- 
chants, He was one of the earliest medical practi- 
tioners in the colony, and his career casts much light 
upon the history and nature of religious tolerance in 
Maryland. By thestrength of his personality he was 
able to disregard nearly all the laws which would 
have rendered his resideuce in the colony impossible, 


United States 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


350 


and he seems to have observed his faith even though 
this, under the laws, was forbidden. The unfavor- 
able environment rendered the admittance of Jews 
to Maryland difficult, and until the Constitution of 
1776 established the religious rights of all, few Jews 
settled in the colony. Beginning with the year 1797, 
by which time a considerable number of Jews had 
arrived there, the history of the Jews of Maryland 
is of special interest. By the terms of the Constitu- 
tion of 1776 none could hold office in the state who 
Was not a subseriber to the Christian religion. In 
the year just mentioncd Solomon ETtine aud Bar- 
nard GrAgTz, and others, presented a petition to the 
General Assembly at Annapolis asking to be placed 
upon the same footing with other citizens. This 
was the beginning of an agitation, lasting for a gen- 
eration, to establish the civil and polit- 
ical rights of the Jews. As this first 
effort failed it was renewed at almost 
every session of the Assembly until 
1818. During the succeeding seven 
years the Cohen family, which had 
come to Baltimore in 1803 from Rich- 
mond, Va., took an important part in 
the attempt to establish their rights as citizens. The 
most active member of the family in this struggle 
was Jacob I. CoHEN, who was ably assisted by Solo- 
mon Etting. Their persistent efforts met with suc- 
cess in 1825, when an Act of Assembly was passed 
removing the disabilities of the Jews; and in 1826 
both of the above-named were elected members of 
the city council. 

At the outbreak of the Civil war Maryland, al- 
though remaining in the Union, numbered among 
her citizens a large body of sympathizers with the 
Confederate cause. Owing to the pronounced anti- 
slavery attitude assumed by Rabbi David Ernnory, 
the conflict of opinion was especially severe among 
the Jews. For the most part the history of Mary- 
land is the history of Baltimore, where Jews 
had settled in small numbers prior to the Revolu- 
tion. The most prominent of these settlers was Ben- 
jamin Levy, who, in addition to being a prominent 
merchant, had the distinction of being appointed 
one of the committee to arrange the celebration in 
Baltimore of the adoption of the Declaration of In- 
dependence. The first cemetery was procured as 
early as 1786, and the beginnings of communal or. 
ganization date from 1826, although the congrega- 
tion was not regularly organized until 1838. The 
Jews of the city have participated to a considerable 
extent in the civic life of the town and state, and 
have taken some part in national affairs. A number 
have been members of the Assembly, and at the 
present time (1905) Isidor RAYNER is a United 
States senator. The Jewish population of Balti- 
more in 1902 was estimated at 25,000, and that of the 
twenty-three counties, including towns outside of 
Baltimore, at 1,500, making 26,500 the total Jewish 
population of the state. 

It is of record that Jews from New Amsterdam 
traded along the Delaware River as early as 1655. 
There were probably some settlers in the southeast- 
ern portion of the territory of which William Penn 
took possession in 1681. A very considerable num- 
ber of the early Pennsylvania colonists were Ger- 


Jacob [. 
Cohen and 
the Strug- 

gle for 

Religious 

Liberty. 


manu Jews. The first Jewish resident of PutLapEs- 
PHYA was Jonas Aaron, who was living there in 
1708. Another early pioneer and one of consider- 
able prominence was Isaac Miranda. He was the 
first to settle at LANCASTER, at which place, as 
also at Shaefferstown, there was an early Jewish 
immigration. Miranda became a convert to Chris- 
tianity and held several state offices. A number of 
Jews settled in Philadelphia in the first half of the 
eighteenth century, and became prominent in the 
life of the city. Among these were David Franks, 
Joseph Marks, and Sampson Levy. The Non-Im- 
portation Resolutions of 1765 contained the signa- 
tures of cight Jews, an indication of the importance 
of the Jewish community at this time. As early as 
1747 a number of persons held religious services in a 
small house in Sterling alley, and after- 
ward in Cherry alley—between Third 
and Fourth streets. They were mostly 
German and Polish Jews; and their 
differences as to the liturgy to be followed pre- 
vented, at the time, the formation of any regular 
congregation. Attempts, indeed, were made in 1761 
and 1773 to form one, but none was established 
until the influx of Jews from New York during 
the Revolutionary war, with the arrival of Ger- 
shom Mendes Seixas, gave the community sufficient 
strength to carry out this cherished object. A lot 
was purchased and asynagogue erected, the dedica- 
tion occurring in Sept., 1782. A number of Phila- 
delphia Jews served in the army of the Revolution ; 
and the inestimable services rendered by Haym Sat- 
OMON to Robert Morris in the finances of the Revo- 
lution make his name stand outas the most prominent 
character in American Jewry. The Congregation 
Mickvé Israel adopted the Sephardic ritual, and the 
most important minister of the congregation after 
Seixas was Isaac LEESER, who arrived in 1829. He 
was the leading Jewish minister of his time, and few 
others have left such an impress upon American 
Jewish affairs as he. As minister, teacher, organ- 
izer, translator of the Bible, editor, and publisher 
he was a man of indefatigable energy and rare abil- 
ity. Prominent also were members of the PHILLIPS 
family, chief among whom were Zalegman Phillips 
and Henry M. Phillips. The latter was one of the 
leading lawyers of Philadelphia, a politician of im- 

portance, and a member of the 35th 

Mickvé Congress. Leeser’s successor as min- 
Israel and ister of the Mickvé Israel congregation 

Rodeph_ was Sabato Morats, a native of Leg- 

Shalom. horn, Italy, who, from 1851 until his 

death in 1897, was a leading figure in 
American Jewish affairs. It was due to his efforts 
that a Jewish Theological Seminary was established 
in New York. 

The first German congregation was the Rodeph 
Shalom, which was organized in 1802, but which 
probably had meetings at an earlier date. The 
most prominent of its rabbis was Marcus Jastrow, 
who was succeeded by the present incumbent, 
Henry Berkowitz. The best-known cantor of this 
congregation was Jacob Frankel. During the Civil 
war he acted as chaplain of hospitals under the 
United States government. The first leading Re- 
form minister installed in Philadelphia was 


Philadel- 
phia. 


351 


Samuel 

been fo 

sian em 
Nextini 

was thai 
found in 
organized 

the first a 
were amor 
they arrive 
synagogue 
ferstown h. 
and a sy nage 
siderable nur 
ary war a Mm 
engaged in the 
sylvania lands 
were Jacob ans 
Gratz, Joseph 

There is an in 
burg, where Je 
as early as 1830, 
in Harrisburg, 
lished in 1851; an 
Reading. As el 
1882 largely inc 
Pennsylvania, and 
in at least fifty tc 
(1905) Jewish pop 
mated at 115,000, 
Philadelphia. 

The Jewish settle. 
from the very foun 
early history of Geor; 
the growth and devek 
life centering in that 
movement was Set On i 
Jews in the colony eve. 
17338, led his first banc 
which soon after became 
second vessel which rea 
land (on July 11, 1788) 


no less than forty Jewish 
arrival was unex pected, t 
welcomed them gladly, no. 
aware that the trustees ¢ 
had expressed some opposit 
settle there. These first sei 
and Portuguese extraction, 
their arrival others, who w 
Jews, also took up their resia 
bands of settlers received ec 
from Oglethorpe, and were 1 
of the most important comm. 
Many of their 
living in various parts of the 
male white child born in the 


United States. 


THWEDIA United States 


a regatioely that there were a few Jews in the 
Wa cobs "“collistrict of Mississippi before the close of 
~ communath century, but no congregation was 
: ~ aug wutil that of Natchez was established in 
e found 1. other congregation was organized before 
q most of tk present Jewish population of this state 
cer 4850, ®P < Atlante teed ee : | 
3 aye youls: nage byas a ewis population of about 3,000, 
st gwenty ded and mM e corliest congregation was established at 
a) nai Bri a ne most in 1874. 
total Jevstern States of the southern group none 
t wee _ Wish interests as Texas, and with the 
pers abe Jehimated av ;, John ment of no states other than Georgia 
: che Ca have Jews been so intimately associ- 
% Jews {here among the first of Austin’s colonists 
rated © ao then, and (Texas was still a part of Mexico; and 


y parter gra, who served in the Army of the Re- 
Ss 


ante, 8 ocke’s ch® ;tical 28, received 320 acres of land in Fort 
pyt : hous oo s derator his services. Many of the earlier 
of consci® “ plans © ined. from England. When Abraham C. 
pocke’s OP. giways ae 4o hatin Velasco in 1831 he found that sev- 
,olerad - pumbers > ie gyom bad preceded him. Between 1882 
Jews i «i the eX° powere number of Jews settled in the Nac- 
carol yefersed yving ¥G serving the government in civiland 
iii, are Saint Mad therejes. An unusually large number of 
entine a srooavl ary a gor imacted by the stirring events which 
1698, BOC i jowed ae ers” “exation of Texas to the Union, and 

A few oth saat “Je Bas WY Yin the military expeditions. Several 
yaised ae he ae ¢oot louston’s army in the Mexican war, 

for mem Jews set oat goo act at the storming of the Alamo in 
nent Lop " oF é ‘of tumber received land and property 

isi tio Jothing S GAL siered to the short-lived republic. 
Caroline a5, JO si Fort NVA, a native of Jamaica, came to 

on Nov: ~ and page osepl Sew Orleans in 1837, and during the 

000 acres ears jater 9 to ghirtwas prominently identified with 
poverty J 7 £3,0 vas ket the country. The real-estate 

acres © - ris lant ve SALVL he engaged in the early days 


yenasecand wide, He published a news- 


=. 

n 

Lands” Josep») ate sy 17, introduced the Order of Odd 
vice’ who 88, was elected to the legislature 


sat 
jand 1B ES aon ee ao m Harris county in 1847, and in 
\ikew!s engage 1 slopmentaid out the city of Waco. An- 
active ae eT aes of nent early pioneers was Henry 
large § sncie mee Jews france, who had seen service in 
of woe gonary wat a saes; 1 had gone to the United States 
Revo pound oF bot was Fraor a time in Rhode Island, but 
be : yowtion!® i: the Fi" 1840. In 1842 he made a con- 
See aime : “Gongresséton to settle a colony west of 
electe cial ; ima 1843 and 1846 he sent 5,000 
: ny Slenish provinces to Texas—a 
Jowis® _ yeld Ae o-tll emigration for that early 
comp tion. 1 by Ri and Castro county, in north- 
sets commaneet, st on Jperpetuate his name. On the 
mi peas ha the mato the Union David 8. Kauff- 
i eat a yeted a member of Congress and 
cha ;, Jewin 1851. The first congrega- 


veg Dut Moe : 
citys ee Sepa he jew Houston as early as 1854, 


6 T. 
sas ae eee . as an 1750, es au. Galveston and San An- 
Among the first immigrants v net st tly t ee was succor. Other important commu- 
o ’ ; 


was made welcome because of 
edge, and because he, with a 
brought sufficient wealth to the 
the immigrants to take up large 1 
congregation was organized as eal 


on if Waco. Capt. L. C. Harby 
- of tb In the defense of Galveston 
ec There are at present at least 


charleston hn Tnited us within the state, whose 


| ty} ; 
years later Abraham de Lyon, members eld 1P per On was established in Mich- 


“vineron” in Portugal, introduce 


United States 


a prominent part in the settlement and early history 
of the territory as Indian traders. The principal set- 
tlement has been at Detroit, where the first arrivals 
were from Germany, Since 1882 there has been a 
large influx of Russians, who have grown to be an 
important element of thecommunity. In 18838 a col- 
ony of Russian Jews was established near Bad Axe, 
which met with some success. Eleven towns have 
regularly organized congregations, and there are 
small communities in many other towns. After De- 
troit, the principal settlements are at Grand Rapids, 
Kalamazoo, Bay City, and Alpina. It is esti- 
mated that the Jewish population of the state num- 
bers 16,000. 

The first Jewish settler in the territory now com- 
prised within the state of Wisconsin was Jacob 
Franks, who went to Green Bay from Canada as 
early as 1792, and who two years later was granted 
by the Indians a tract of land on Devil River, about 
four miles from Fox River. He carried on an ex- 
tensive trade with the Indians. In 1805 he was 
known far and wide among them, and estab- 
lished a high reputation for integrity, fair dealing, 
and hospitality; he erected the first saw- and grist- 
mill ever put up in that region, and returned to 
Canada in the same year. Other traders followed 
in his wake, but none came in sufficient numbers to 
establish any congregation until shortly before the 
middle of the nineteenth century. The principal 
settlement was made in Milwaukee, where a con- 
gregation was organized in 1855. In 1900 there 
were congregations in ten other cities, and in 1905 
the total Jewish population of the state is estimated 
at 15,000. 

The important community of CINCINNATI, in Ohio, 
is the oldest west of the Alleghany Mountains. From 
the middle of the nineteenth century its Jewish com- 
munity has played a significant part in Jewish affairs 
in the United States. The Jewish pioneer of the Ohio 
Valley was Joseph Jonas, who went to Cincinnati 
from England in March, 181%. He attracted others 
from his native country a few years thereafter, and 
in 1819 they held the first Jewish service in the west- 
ern portion of the United States. Previous to 1830 
considerable additions to the community came from 
England, and in 1824 the first congregation was 
formed. Beginning with 1830, a large number of 
German Jews made their way to Cincinnati, and the 
first synagogue was erected in 1836. The community 
was of significance as early as 1850, and contained 
capable and public-spirited members. Isaac M. 
WIskE, who went to Cincinnati in 1854, and Max LIL- 
JENTHAL, who arrived in 1855, helped materially to 
enable Cincinnati to impress indelibly its individu- 
ality upon Judaism in America. These two men 
aided in making Cincinnati a center of Jewish cul- 
ture, and assisted in the development of a number of 
movements that were national in scope. Cincinnati 
is the seat of the Union of American Hebrew Con- 
gregations, the Central Conference of the Reform 
Rabbis of American Judaism, and the Hebrew Union 
College, and its graduates occupy many pulpits 
throughout the country. The Jews of Cincinnati 
have always shown great public spirit and have 
filled many local positions of trust, as well as state, 
judicial, and governmental offices. At the present 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


354 


time (1905) Julius Fleischman is the mayor of the 
city. Next in importance to Cincinnati is the com- 
munity of Cleveland, where Jews settled as early 
as 1887, and established a congregation in 1889. 
The history of the Jews in Ohio during the first half 
of the nineteenth century is confined to the cities 
just mentioned. After that date congregations 
grew up throughout the state. There are at the 
present time congregations in twenty other towns. 
About 1,000 Jews of Ohio saw service during the 
Civil war a number only exceeded by the Jewish 
contingent from New York. The present popula- 
tion of Ohio is given as 50,000. 

The largest community of Jews in America, out- 
side of New York and Philadelphia, is to be found in 
Chicago. It is probable that there were Jewish 
settlers in the Illinois territory when that country 
was still under French control. John Hays seems 
to have been the earliest Jewish pioneer, and he held 
the office of sheriff of St. Clair county from 1798 
to 1818, and was appointed collector of internal 
revenue for the territory by President Madison in 
1814, but no Jews appear to have followed in his 
footsteps until twenty years later. Considerable 
numbers of Jews found their way to the rising 
city Chicago previous to 1850, and the first con- 
gregation was organized in 1847. In 1842 a Jewish 
Colonization Society of New York sent Henry 
Meyer to select a tract in the vicinity of Chicago 
for a Jewish colony. He succeeded in attracting 
a considerable number of settlers, though only a 
few became farmers, the remainder removing for 
the most part to Chicago. After Chicago the next 
town to be settled by Jews was Peoria, and after 
the middle of the nineteenth century they settled 
in considerable numbers in most of the important 
towns in the state. Through the endeavors of 
B. Felsenthal, who went to Chicago in 1858, the 
Reform Congregation Sinai was established in 1861. 
He played an important part in the history of the 
development of the community. After the great 
fire of 1871 the community grew rapidly, and 
it has become one of the most prosperous in the 
country, its members being actively interested in 
the political life of the city and state. There are 
over fifty Jewish congregations in the city, and the 
population is estimated at 80,000. Someof the most 
important manufactories of the state are controlled 
by Jews. Samuel ALTSCHULER of Aurora was a 
Democratic nominee for governor in 1900, The 
Jewish community of Chicago has many notable 
educational establishments and relief institutions, 
and has furnished distinguished members to the 
legal profession, as well as renowned architects and 
musicians. Among its prominent rabbis, besides 
B. Felsenthal, have been Liebmann Adler and Emil 
G. Hirsch. The Jewish population of the state is 
estimated at 100,000. 

In the southern and northwestern group of states 
Missouri stands out in special prominence. SBe- 
tween Chicago and San Francisco there is no city 
in which Jews have settled where they have formed 
so prosperous a community as in St. Louis. The 
pioneer Jewish settler in the state was Wolf Bloch, 
a native of Bohemia, who is reported to have reached 
St. Louis as early as 1816. A few others followed 


355 


shortly thereafter, but their identity has been lost. 
They were not in sufficient numbers to hold services 
until 1886, and tn the following year the first congre- 
gation was established. Two other congregations 
were organized before 1870. During the Civil war 
Isidore Bush attained prominence as a delegate on 
the “ Unconditional Union Ticket ” to the convention 
which decided that Missouri should remain in the 
Union. St. Louis harbored a number of refugees 
from Chicago after the fire of 1871, and since that 
time has grown rapidly in numbers and wealth. 
Representatives of the community have attained 
distinction politically and commercially. Moses N. 
Sale has been judge of the circuit court, and Nathan 
Frank was clected to the Fifty-first Congress. Next 
in importance to thecommunity of St. Louis, whose 
numbers aggregate about 40,000, is that of Kansas 
City. The Jewish residents of the city number 
about 5,500. At St. Joseph Jews began to settle 
as early as 1830, and a congregation was organized 
nine years later. The Jewish population numbers 
1,200. There are congregations in eight other citics 
of the state, whose Jewish population, however, is 
estimated at 50,000. 

The first Jewish congregation in Kansas was 
established at Leavenworth in 1859; another was 
organized at Kansas City in 1870. Jews to the 
number of 8,000 are to be found in at least nine 
other towns of the state. 

The first Jewish settlement made in Nebraska 
was on the site of the present city of Omaha in 
1856, but it was not until ten years later that the 
first congregation was organized. ‘There is also a 
congregation at Lincoln, and communities in several 
smaller cities. The great bulk of the 3,800 Jews of 
the state live in Omaha. 

Jews are recorded as having lived in the river 
towns of Iowa, especially at Dubuque and Mc- 
Gregor, as early as 1847-48. These were the main 
shipping- and stopping-points for the far West, and 
attracted settlers on this account, As the popula- 
tion moved westward small Jewish communities also 
found their way to Davenport, Burlington, and 
Keokuk. The first congregation was established at 
Davenport in 1861, another at Keokuk in 1863, 
and that at Des Moines in 1878. The largest Jew- 
ish community is in the last-named city. There are 
Jewish communities in eleven other towns of the 
state, whose total Jewish population, however, does 
not exceed 5,000. 

The gold discoveries of 1849 on the Pacific Coast 
proved not less attractive to some Jews than to 
other adventurous spirits, and to such an extent 
that as early as 1850 two congregations were organ- 
ized in San Francisco. A striking characteristic 
of California Jewish migration is the cosmopolitan 
nature of its early Jewish population. Every 
country, even Australia, was represented among 
these pioneers. Another significant feature of the 
early settlement in California was the number of con- 
gregations which were organized in the fifties, 
when the gold fever was at its height, and which 
soon dwindled to insignificance, and during the 
course of the next ten or fifteen years passed out of 
existence. Noteworthy also is the high character of 
these early settlers, and the leading part they played 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


United States 


in consequence in the political as well as the com- 
mercial development of this new country. Among 
the most distinguished was Solomon 

Solomon HeyYDENFELD?T, who had gained prom- 

Hey- inence in Alabama before he came to 
denfeldt. California, where he attained the rare 
distinction of being elected chicf jus- 
tice of the state, a position which he held until his 
resignation in 1857. Subsequently he took a lead- 
ing part in the politics of the state. Henry A. 
Lyons was one of the first three justices of the Su- 
preme Court of California. A number of other Jews 
have occupied prominent political office; in the com- 
mercial world the Jews have been among the pioneers 
in the development of the state. Some of the lead- 
ing Jewish bankers of New York came from San 
Francisco, where Jews are still a decided power in 
financial and commercial undertakings. Nor have 
they failed to develop on cultural lines; and the 
name of Prrxorro is one of distinction in art and 
scholarship. Emma Wo.F is a distinguished au- 
thoress. M. H. De Young is proprietor of the “San 
Francisco Chronicle,” and Max C. Slossis prominent 
as one of the judges of the Superior Court of San 
Francisco. Julius Kahn represents the San Fran- 
cisco district in Congress, 

The two congregations already mentioned grew 
rapidly; at the present time (1905) there are four- 
teen congregations in all, and the Jewish popula- 
tion of the city is estimated at 17,000. There are 
other congregations at Sacramento, Los Angeles, 
and many other towns, making upa Jewish papula- 
tion for the state of 28,000. 

The overflow from California made its way into 
Oregon, where Jews were to be found as early as 
1850; the first congregation was established in Port- 
land in 1858. As in California, they played a prom- 
inent part from the very beginning in municipal and 
state politics. Solomon Hirscu was in 1889 ap- 
pointed minister to Turkey by President Harrison, 
he having previously made himself one of the Re- 
publican leaders of the state. Joseph Sion has 
the distinction of having been one of the few Jews 
who represented a state in the United States Senate 
(1898-1903). Others, notably D. Solis Cohen, have 
been active in local politics. There are smal] com- 
munities in various towns of the state, whose Jew- 
ish population numbers 6,000. 

Jews first settled in Utah in 1860, but there is no 
record of religious services before 1866. The first. 
congregation was established in Salt Lake City in 
1880. A few Jews have held important political 
office. The present population is estimated at 
1,000. | 

It would appear that there were a considerable 
number of Jewsamong the first settlers of Colorado. 
The principal community is that of Denver, where 
the congregation was established in 1874. One of 
the prominent philanthropic institutions of the city 
is the National Jewish Hospital for Consumptives, 
founded in 1890. Leadville is said to have estab- 
lished its congregation in 1864. Five other cities in 
Colorado have Jewish congregations, and the total 
Jewish population of the state numbers 5,800. 

The states of Montana, Washington, Idaho, 
and North and South Dakota have not failed to 


United States 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


356 


attract Jewish settlers, though for the most part they 
did not arrive previous to the Russian immigration. 

Jews have penetrated into every state and all the 
territories of the Union, so that at this time prac- 
tically no settlement of any significance in any part 
of the United States is without its Jewish commu- 
nity, small thoughitmay be. Certain phases in the 
development of the Jewish communities through- 
out the United States have been common to all. 
The high holy days have always brought them to- 

gether, often from far distant points, 
Character- for religious worship. These occa- 
istics of sional meetings soon resulted, when 
Congrega- the communities grew greater, in the 
tions. organization of congregations, which 
was often preceded, sometimes fol- 
lowed, by the purchase of a place of burial. 
As the communities grew the need for care of the 
sick and poverty-stricken resulted in the establish- 
ment of philanthropic institutions of various kinds. 
These were followed by the creation of various 
social oiganizations, many of which had beneficial 
features; and closely following in the wake of this 
development came the establishment, as prosperity 
became more enduring, of educational institutions; 
and practically no organized congregation ever 
failed to care for religious instruction. 

3. Relation to the Federal Government: 
The Damascus AFrarir of 1840 marks the real be- 
ginning of the diplomatic or international phase in 
the history of American Jews, though a reference to 
the services which Mordecai M. Noau rendered his 
country as consul at Tunis (1813-16) should not be 
omitted. The persecutions and tortures to which 
some of the most prominent Jews of Damascus had 
been subjected were reported to the Department of 
State at Washington by the United States consul at 
Damascus. Immediate instructions, under date of 
Aug. 14, 1840, were thereupon issued to John Glid- 
don, the United States consul at Alexandria, Egypt, 
by Secretary John Forsyth, in which he directed that 
all good offices and efforts be employed to display 
the active sympathy of the United States in the at- 
tempts that the governments of Europe were making 
to mitigate the horrors of these persecutions. Three 
days later David Porter, the United States minis- 
ter to Turkey, was instructed by Forsyth to do 
everything in his power at the Porte to alleviate 
the condition of the unfortunates. In both these 
communications the reasons for the intervention of 
the United States are based upon sentiments of jus- 
tice and humanity, no American citizens being in- 
volved; in the communication to Minister Porter 
stress was laid upon the peculiar propriety and right 
of the intervention of the United States, because its 
political and civil institutions make no distinction 
in favor of individuals by reason of race or creed, 
but treat all with absolute equality. 

Though it would appear that this action of the 
United States was taken without the solicitation of 

any Jews of this country, measures 

Damascus werealready on foot to display the feel- 
Affair. ing of the Jews at this time. Public 
meetings were held in August and Sep- 

tember, 1840, in New York, Philadelphia, and Rich- 
mond, participated in by both Christians and Jews, 


at which resolutions were passed asking the United 
States to intervene to procure justice for the ac- 
cused and the mitigation of their hardships, Among 
the leaders who were instrumental in calling these 
meetings were Jacob Ezckiel of Richmond, J. B. 
Kurscheedt and Theodore J. Seixas of New York, 
and Isaac Leeser and John Moss of Philadelphia. 
Considerabie correspondence passed between these 
leaders and the Department of State, in which the 
humanitarian attitude of the government and the 
nature of its intervention are fully disclosed (“ Publ. 
Am. Jew. Hist. Soc.” No. 8, p. 141; No. 9, p. 155; 
No. 10, p. 119). 

Ten years Jater the Jews of this country were con- 
cerned in the diplomatic relations with Switzerland. 
Almost simultaneously the negotiations assumed 
two phases: (a) respecting the ratification of a treaty 
in which lurked the possibility that American citi- 
zens who were not Christians might be discriminated 
against, and (8) concerning the actual discrimina- 
tion in Switzerland against American citizens, on 
the ground that they belonged to the Jewish faith. 

In Nov., 1850, A. Dudley Mann, the American rep- 
resentative, negotiated a treaty with the Swiss Con- 
federation, which was transmitted to the Senate on 
Feb. 13, 1851, by President Fillmore. At the same 
time the president sent a message in which he took 
exception to a part of the first article of the treaty, 
which specifically provided that Christians alone 
were to be entitled to the privileges guaranteed. 
An agitation against the ratification of the treaty 
was started by the Jewsas soon as its existence was 
learned of, and Daniel Webster, then secretary of 
state, and Senator Henry Clay at once (Feb., 1851) 
went on record as opposed to the objectionable 

clause of the treaty. The principal 

Swiss Dis- agents in stirring up the opposition 
abilities. were Isaac LEEsSER, David EINHORN, 
J. M. Cardozo of Charleston, 8. C., 

and Capt. Jonas P. Levy of New York. A move- 
ment was set on foot in this country shortly there- 
after (1852-53) to procure religious toleration 
abroad for American citizens generally; this was 
quite distinct from any movement started by the 
Jews, but greatly aided the latter. Asa result of 
this combined opposition the Senate declined to 
ratify the treaty. Senator Lewis Cass of Michigan 
figured largely in the opposition to it. He corre- 
sponded with Rev. Isaac Leeser and Captain Levy 
respecting it, delivered several notable speeches in 
the Senate against it in 1854, and presented a peti- 
tion on April 19, 1854, which had been signed by 
Jews of the United States at the instance of a com- 
mittee of New York Jews, of which Alexander J. 
Kursheedt was chairman. AS a result the treaty 
was amended by the Senate, and in itsamended form 
was ratified and proclaimed Nov. 9, 1855. But the 
amendment, though less objectionable in phraseol- 
ogy, retained the same connotation and rendered it 
possible, under its terms, for the Swiss cantons to 
discriminate against Jews in the manner they had 
adopted in 1851. Though unsuccessfulin preventing 
the ratification of the treaty, the agitation against 
it did not cease. Notwithstanding the treaty was 
proclaimed at the end of 1855, it would appear that 
this was not generally known until1857. Attention 


357 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


United States 


was drawn toit by the fact that one A. H. Gootman, 
an American citizen and a Jew, had received notice 
in 1856 to leave Chaux-de-Fonds, in Neuchatel, 
where he had transacted business for five years. Pub- 
lic meetings of protest were held during the year 1857, 
in Pittsburg, Indianapolis, Easton, Pa., Charleston, 
Baltimore, and elsewhere, and a vigorous opposi- 
tion was voiced by Isaac M. WIsEin his paper, “ The 
Israelite,” by David Einhorn in “Sinai,” and by 
Isaac Leeser in “The Occident.” A convention of 
Jews met in Baltimore in October, and a delega- 
tion appointed by this convention waited on Presi- 
dent Buchanan in the same month to protest against 
the treaty and request its abrogation; the president 
promised to take steps to accede to their request so 
far as layin his power. Numerous memorials were 
also transmitted to the president and the Senate. 
That this agitation attracted general attention is 
manifested by the fact that the newspapers through- 
out the country expressed vigorous opinions against 
the treaty. 

Though sporadic efforts to procure an alteration 
in the treaty and the establishmeut of the rights not 
only of American Jews but of the Jews of all nations 
in Switzerland continued to be made in the United 
States, the principal scene of negotiations shifted to 
the former country, and the principal actor was Theo- 
dore Fay, the American minister. Beginning in 
Aug., 1853 (“ U. 8. Ex. Doc.” xii. 3), when an Ameri- 
can citizen, the same Gootman referred to above, re- 
ceived orders from the authorities of Chaux-de- 
Fonds, canton of Neuchatel, to leave that canton 
on the ground that he wasa Jew, Fay, though at first 
disinclined to take any very energetic stand, finally 
became much interested in the subject of Swiss 
discrimination against Jews and kept up an active 
agitation until his recall in 1860. He succeeded in 
procuring permission for Gootman to remain, but 
only as an act of grace, not by right. The obstacle 
Fay had to attempt to overcome lay in the nature of 
the Swiss Confederation, which left to the cantons 
the regulation of the rights of domicil, the Federal 
Council having no control over the cantons in this 
respect. Fay was ably supported in his conten- 
tions by the secretaries of state Marcy and Lewis 
Cass, especially the latter. In the course of his 
negotiations Fay made an elaborate study of the 
Jewish question as it affected Switzerland, and in 
June, 1859, transmitted what he called his “ Israe}- 
ite Note” to the Federal Council. This isan exten- 
sive treatise explaining the American contention 
with much force, and embodying besides a general 
defense of the Jews. It was translated into German 
and French, was offered for sale by the Federal 
Council, received much notice in the Swiss news- 
papers, and caused the restrictions against Jews to 
be abolished in several cantons. In 1860 the execu- 
tive committee of the Board of Delegates of Ameri- 
can Israelites, of which MyerS. Isaacs was secretary, 
took steps to continue the agitation in America. 
Henry I. Hart, the president of the above-mentioned 
board, took up the matter with Secretary Seward 
shortly after he assumed office in 1861, and the sec- 
retary issued specific instructions to the new minis- 
ter to Switzerland, Fogg, to be no less active in 
his endeavor to establish the rights of American 


Jews than was his predecessor. The restrictions in 
the cantons were gradually abolished, and full civil 
rights were finally guaranteed to all Jews by the new 
Swiss Constitution of 1874. It may be added, how- 
ever, that the treaty of 1855 is still in force (1905; 
“Publ. Am. Jew. Hist. Soc.” No. 11, pp. 7 e¢ seq.). 

In 1867 Myer S. Isaucs, on behalf of the Board of 
Delegates of American Israelites, endeavored unsuc- 
cessfully to have the government take some steps to 
alleviate the condition of the Jews in Servia. In 

1882 Gen. Lew Wallace, United States 
Servia and minister to Turkey, moved by the 
Palestine. hardshipssuffered by Russiau refugees 

whom he found starving in the streets 
of Constantinople, called at the Foreign Office and 
received @ communication from the minister of 
foreign affairs in which the statement was made 
that Jews would be made welcome anywhere in 
Turkey except in Palestine. In 1884 he took vigor- 
ous action against the threatened expulsion from 
Jerusalem of sundry naturalized American Jews. In 
1887 and 1888 atteinpts were made by the Turkish 
government to limit the sojourn of American Jews 
in Jerusalem to one month—later extended to three 
months. This was earnestly opposed by the Ameri- 
can minister, Oscar 8. Straus, ably supported by 
Secretary Bayard, who contended that the United 
States, by reason of its Constitution, could not rec- 
ognize any distinction between American citizens 
in respect to their religion. By his exertions Straus 
successfully halted any steps to expel Ameri- 
can citizens who happened to be Jews (“U.S. For. 
Rel.” 1887, 1888, 1889). Secretaries Blaine, Gresham, 
and Hay repeatedly took a similar stand, and it 
would appear that rights of American citizens who 
are Jews have been carefully guarded in Turkey 
(“U. 8, For. Rel.” 1894, 1898, 1901). 

In 1868 atrocities perpetrated upon the Jews of 
Morocco Jed the Board of Delegates toask the inter- 
vention of the United States. Secretary Seward in- 
structed the United States consul at Tangier to use 
his good offices to further the mission of Sir Moses 
Montefiore, basing his act on the ground of common 
humanity. For two years the consul exerted him- 
self to carry out his instructions and met with some 
slight success. In 1878 the Board of Delegates re- 
newed its endeavors to have the government use its 
good offices in Morocco, and the consul at Tangier, 
F. A. Matthews, took earnest steps to alleviate the 
condition of the Jews whenever the opportunity 
arose during this and succeeding years. Adolph 
Sanger, on behalf of the Board of Delegates, in 1880 
sent out an agent, L. A. Cohen, to Morocco to re- 
portonconditionsthere. In March, 1881, the United 
States minister at Madrid, Lucius Fairchild, pro- 
ceeded to Morocco to investigate the condition of 
the Jews. He made a sympathetic and valuable re- 
port to the secretary of state, Blaine, in which he 
displayed an acute interest in the unfortunate con- 
ditions in that country, and did his utmost to allevi- 
ate them. 

Rumanian conditions, which have so vitally inter- 
ested the United States, first had attention drawn to 
them by the Board of Delegates in June, 1867, when 
the good offices of the United States in behalf of the 
persecuted Jews of Rumania were requested. In 


United States 


1870 B. F. Perxotro of New York was appointed 
consul-general to RUMANTA, and during the six years 
that he held office he exerted himself 

Rumanian to bring about an improvement in the 
Dis- condition of the Jews. In 1878 John 
abilities. A. Kasson, minister of the United 
States to Austria, in a despatch to 

the Department of State proposed as a condition 
preliminary to the recognition of Rumanian inde- 
pendence that the United States join with the Euro- 
pean powers in exacting from Rumania, at the Con- 
gress of Berlin, the recognition of the equal civil, 
commercial, and religious rights of all classes of 
her population, as also equal rights and protection 
under the treaty and under Rumanian laws, irre- 
spective of race or religious belief. In opening 
negotiations with Rumania in the following year, 
the recognition by that country of the rights of so- 
journ and trade of all classes of Americans irrespec- 


tive of race or creed was strongly emphasized, — 


as it was by Kasson about the same time with re- 
spect to Servia, The continued persecutions of the 
Jews of Rumania, her violations of the provisions 
of the Treaty of Berlin, and the greatly increased 
proportions which the Rumanian emigration to the 
United States assumed in consequence, as also the 
failure to conclude a naturalization convention be- 
tween the two countries, because Rumania would 
not recognize the rights of American citizens who 
were Jews, moved Secretary of State John Hay to 
address on Aug. li, 1902, identical instructions to 
the representatives of the United States in Russia, 
France, Germany, Great Britain, Italy, and Turkey 
upon the subject of Rumania’s attitude. In this 
note he drew attention to the consequences to the 
United States of the continued persecutions in Ru- 
mania—namely, the unnatural increase of immigra- 
tion from that country—and upon this based his right 
to remonstrate to the signatories to the Treaty of 
Berlin against the acts of the Rumanian government. 
Further, he sustained the right of the United States 
to ask the above-mentioned powers to intervene upon 
the strongest grounds of humanity. Acting upon 
the forcible instructions, the representatives of the 
United States presented this note to the government 
to which each wasaccredited. But beyond the aboli- 
tion of the OatrH Mors Jupatco (1904) and some 
slight diminution of the harshness of the persecu- 
tion, little has been accomptished, and Rumania con- 
tinues (1905) almost unrestrictedly to violate the 
treaty which established her as an independent 
nation, In 1905 Congress made provision for an 
American legation at Bucharest. 

The diplomatic correspondence between Russia and 
the United States involving Jews is of considerable 
bulk. Jt relates for the most part to the failure of 
Russia to recognize the validity of American pass- 

ports where Jews are involved, which 

Russian is the principal cause of difference be- 
Passports. tween the United States and Russia. 

Russia has constantly violated the pro- 
visions of her treaty of 1882 with the United States, 
which gives to the citizens of the two countries un- 
restricted rights of sojourn, travel, and protection. 
Until the persecutions in Russia assumed acute 
form, beginning with 1880, the correspondence be- 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


358 


tween the two countries was not of importance, 
though occasional earlier instances of discrimination 
by Russia against American citizens who were Jews 
had been vigorously protested against by the United 
States authorities. For the past twenty-five years 
the record is one of unceasing effort on the part of 
the United States to establish the rights of American 
citizens Who are Jews, aud of continued declination 
of Russia to live up to her treaty stipulations. The 
threatened expulsion from St. Petersburg of an 
American citizen named Pinkos, in 1850, was the 
occasion for the presentation of cnergetic notes of 
remonstrance by John W. Foster, the American 
minister to Russia. He acted not alone of his own 
responsibility, but was the recipient of specific in- 
structions from the secretary of state, William M. 
Evarts. In the course of one of Evarts’ \etters 
of instruction the attitude assumed by the United 
States was clearly set forth in the following terms: 
“In the view of this government the religion pro- 
fessed by one of its citizens has no relation to that 
citizen’s right to the protection of the United States ” 
(*“Am. Jewish Year Book,” 1904-5, p. 287). The 
first protests of Foster and Evarts, inasmuch as they 
brought forth no satisfactory replies, were suc- 
ceeded by others of the same tenor, in one of which 
Evarts stated “that we ask treaty treatment for 
our aggrieved citizens, not because they are Jews, 
but because they are Americans” (¢4, p. 290). All 
the answers of the Russian Foreign Office are based 
on the claim that the proscriptive laws against the 
Jews were in existence prior to the treaty of 1882, 
that they, therefore, must be assumed under the 
treaty, and, furthermore, that the Jewish question 
in Russia was complicated by economic and other 
difficulties. These views were answered in the able 
despatch of James Blaine, secretary of state, of July 
29,1881. This despatch covers in considerable de- 
tail the whole of the American contention, and is 
so forcibly put that subsequent consideration of the 
same subject by the Department of State has been 
unable to add much to it (“ For, Rel. U. 8.” 1881, p. 
1030). As continued remonstrances during subse- 
quent years led to no results, in 1893 the Depart- 
ment of State took the stand thatit could not acqui- 
esce in the action of Russian consuls in asking the 
religion of American citizens desiring to travel in 
Russia before granting a visé to their passports, 
and refusing Jews. ‘The government regarded this 
as the “assumption of a religious inquisitorial func- 
tion within our own borders, by a foreign agency, 
inamanner... repugnant to the national sense.” 
In 1895 this view was forcibly presented to the Rus- 
sian government by the American minister, Clifton 
R. Breckenridge, andin July of that year the Depart- 
ment of State took the attitude that a “continuance 


in such a course, after our views have been clearly 


but considerately made known, may trench upon 
the just limits of consideration ” (26. pp. 295, 297). 
But in spite of the presentation of the American 
contention in every possible light and with all pos- 
sible emphasis, Russia stubbornly refuses to ive up 
to her treaty obligations. 

In April, 1902, at the instance of Henry M. Gold- 
fogle, a member of Congress from New York, the 
House of Representatives passed a resolution calling 


859 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


United States 


upon the secretary of state to inform the House. 


“whether American citizens of the Jewish religious 
faith holding passports issued by this government 
are barred or excluded from entering the territory 
of the Empire of Russia,” and what action concern- 
ing the matter had been taken by the government. 
A few days later Secretary Hay replied, stating in 
brief what elferts had been made by the United 
States for the protection of American citizens in 
Russia, and added that though “begun many years 
ago... [they] have not been attended with cn- 
couraging success ” (74, pp. 301, 3802). 

In Jan., 1904, Goldfogle introduced another res- 
olution, requesting the president to resume nego- 
tiations with Russia looking to the recognition of 
the validity of American passports irrespective of 
the religion of the holder. This resolution gave rise 
to notable addresses on the part of a number of 
members of the House, and was passed, in substance, 
in April of that year (2d. pp. 804, 805). In conse- 
quence of this resolution the question of American 
passports was taken up anew by the Department of 
State during the summer of 1904. The Russian re- 
ply made at that time was to the effect that a com- 
mission had been created in 1908 to consider the re- 
vision of the passport regulations, and that the 
desires of the United States would be brought to the 
attention of that commission. In his annual mes- 
sage, Dec., 1904, President Roosevelt wrote vigor- 
ously against the Russian attitude, characterizing it 
as “unjust and irritating toward us.” In Feb., 1905, 
a committee of members of the Honse of Represent- 
atives was formed, with Wachter of Maryland 
as chairman, to urge further action by the Depart- 
ment of State. As yet nothing significant has been 
accomplished. 

The massacres at KisHiINeEF in April, 1903, 
aroused indignation throughout the United States. 
Though in response toa cable of inquiry sent by 

Secretary Hay to Ambassador McCor- 


Kishinef mick at St. Petersburg, asking if relief 
Petition. could be sent to the sufferers, the am- 


bassador stated that he was informed 
officially that there was no distress or want in south- 
western Russia, nevertheless mass-ineetings were 
held in almost every city of importance, and the com- 
ments in the newspapers portrayed the feelings of 
horror of the American people. A. practical turn 
was given by the collection of considerable sums to 
alleviate the misery of the unfortunates. In the 
hope that if the attention of the czar were directly 
brought to the plight of the Jews in his domin- 
ions their condition might be alleviated, the Inde- 
pendent Order of B’nai B’rith took measures to pre- 
pare a petition for transmittal to him. On June 15, 
1903, a committee of the order waited upon Secre- 
tary Hay and President Roosevelt, and presented a 
tentative draft of the petition. This having met 
with their approval, it was then circulated through- 
out the United States, and over 12,500 signatures of 
Christians aud Jews in all walks of life were ap- 
pended to it. On July 15 the American representa- 
tive at St. Petersburg was instructed to ask an audi- 
ence of the minister of foreign affairs in order to 
find out whether the petition, which was given in 
full in the despatch, would be received by the 


countries, irrespective of race or creed, 


minister to be put before the czar. The minister 
declined to receive it, and the bound copy with the 
signatures was placed by Secretary Hay in the ar- 
chives of the Department of State in Oct., 1903. 
Though the petition did not reach its destination, 
its words attained world-wide publicity, and its ob- 
ject was in a measure accomplished in this way 
(Adler, “ Voice of America on Kishineff,” 1904). 

Throughout the history of the United States the 
government has insisted with great force upon the 
equal treatment of all American citizens in foreign 
Further, it 
never has failed to intercede with foreign govern- 
ments on humanitarian grounds, whenever the op- 
portunity arose, in behalf of Jews who were being 
persecuted or of those to whom life was rendered 
precarious by inhuman proscriptive laws. A consid- 
erable number of Jews have held diplomatic posts, 
among the more prominent being Mordecai M. 
Noau, consul to Tunis, 1818-16; Edwin de Leon, 
consul-general to Egy pt, 1854; August Belmont, sec- 
retary of legation at The Hague, 1853-55, and minis- 
ter resident, 1855-58; Oscar S. StTRAwS, minister to 
Turkey, 1887-89, 1897-1900; Solomon Hrrscnu, min- 
ister to Turkey, 1889-92; B. F. Perxorro, consul 
to Bucharest, 1870-76; Simon Wo tr, consul-general 
to Egypt, 1881; Max Jupp, consul-general to Vienna, 
1893-97; and Lewis Einstein, third secretary of 
embassy at Paris, 1908, and London, 1905. 

4, Education: Early in the history of the first 
Jewish congregationin New York there was attached 
to the synagogue a school in which secular as well 
as Hebrew branches were taught. It was one of 


the earliest general schools in America; poor chil- 


dren reecived instruction gratis. Religious instrue- 
tion was established in connection with most of the 
carly synagogues. For ordinary secular education 
the Jews resorted, in large measure, to the schools 
and colleges. There was a Jewish matriculate at 
the University of Pennsylvania, for instance, as early 
as 1772. The older communities, however, be- 
fore the general establishment of the public-school 
system, frequently provided regular instruction in 
the seeular branches. These schools ordinarily were 
adjuncts of the religious schools maintained by the 
congregations. In Philadelphia as early as 1888 a 
gencral Sunday-school, quite irrespective of congre- 
gational organization, was established, largely 
through the instrumentality of Rebecca Gratz, who 
was its superintendent and president until 1864. This 
was the beginning of a movement, which has spread 
throughout the country, for the organization of 
educational work along lines quite independent of 
congregational activities. 

A similar school was organized in Charleston, 8. 
C., in the same year; in the following year, one in 
Richmond, Va.; in 1845 this movement spread to 
New York, being taken up first by the Hmanu-Fl 
Society, although the Shearith Israel congregation 
had started a Hebrew-school system as early as 1808. 
In 1848 the Hebrew Education Society was founded 
at Philadelphia—originaily a school for general in- 
struction in the ordinary branches up toand through 
the grammar-school grade, together with instruc- 
tion in Hebrew and in the Jewish religion. In 1864 
the Hebrew Free School Association was incorporated 


United States 


in New York; and throughout various states of the 
Union a movement gradually spread for the organi- 
zation of free religious schools which would bring 
into a common-school system children 
from the various congregations in each 
city. These were largely intended to 
supersede the private institutions that 
had hitherto existed. They were, in the main, 
carried on by volunteer teachers; and their distin- 
guishing feature was that the instruction was usu- 
ally conducted by native-born persons and in the 
Engtish language, as against the German teaching in 
the congregational schools. 

The whole trend of this educational work was 
toward the unification of the community and the 
broadening of the interests of the individual mem- 
bers, with a tendency to overcome the narrowness of 
thecongregational lifethathad prevailed. Withinthe 
last decade or so there has been a decided reaction; 
and religious schools and Sabbath-schools have been 
highly organized in connection with individual con- 
gregations. Particular stress is laid upon them by 
the congregations, which derive from them much of 
their communal strength. While many of the He- 
brew education societies and schools continue in ex- 
istence, they do not develop or flourish as might be 
expected; in fact, since 1882 they have largely 
taken upon themselves an entirely new function. 
With the sudden arrival in the United States of a 
large number of Russian Jews having no knowl- 
edge of the English language, and in many cases 
without any particular handicraft, there devolved 
upon the American Jewish community the neces- 
sity of providing, first, day- and night-schools for 
teaching English to the new arrivals, and, second, 

manual-training and technical schools. 

Technical These have been established in New 

Schools. York, Philadelphia, Chicago, and 

other cities, more or less with the aid 

of the Baron de Hirsch Fund. The most note- 

worthy of these educational institutions called into 

existence since the Russian immigration began is the 
Educational Alliance of New York. 

Until recently provision for higher education on 
specifically Jewish lines was not found practicable, 
though as early as 1840 the versatile and suggestive 
Mordecai M. Noau urged the formation of a Jewish 
college in the United States. His project met with 
no response. Nor was I. M. Wise more successful 
when in 1855 he endeavored to establish a theolog- 
ical college in Cincinnati under the name of “ Zion 
Collegiate Institute.” In 1867 the scholarly and 
enterprising Isaac Leeser, however, established Mai- 
monides College at Philadelphia. It was intended 
that general collegiate instruction should be provided 
there, though naturally the Jewish branches were to 
be given particular attention. A certain measure 
of cooperation with the University of Pennsylvania 
was planned, and the idea held in mind was that the 
college should serve as the capstone to the scheme 
of education builded by the Hebrew Education So- 
ciety. The college was, however, much ahead of the 
times, and after a few years of languishing life 
passed out of existence. Not until nearly twenty 
years thereafter was the first institution for the 
training of rabbis and teachers founded. This was 


Free 
Schools. 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


360 


the Hebrew Union College of Cincinnati, established 
in 1875 by the UNION oF AMERICAN HEBREW Con- 
GREGATIONS, an organization created at that time 
for the purpose, and mainly at the instance of I, M. 
Wise. The existence of the college has been contin- 
uous, and, though theoretically without partizan 
bias, it is practically the representative of the Re- 
form wing in America. Graduates from this insti- 
tution are to be found in charge of congregations 
in nearly every city of importance in the country. 
Rev. Dr. K. KoHLER is president (1905), and there 
is a faculty of ten professors and several instruct- 
ors. In 1886 there was established in New York 

the JEwisH THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY, 


Theolog- also for the training of rabbis and 
icalIn- teachers, and representing the Ortho- 
stitutions. dox wing of the community. The 


reorganization which this institution 
underwent in 1901-2 resulted in the calling of Dr. 
S. SCHECHTER to its presidency. At the same time 
it was richly endowed, and in 1903 took possession 
of a new building, the gift of Jacob H. ScHIFF. 
Its library, largely the gift of Judge Mayer Sutz- 
BERGER, contains one of the greatest collections 
of Hebraica. In 1893, through a trust vested by 
Hyman Gratz in the Mickvé Israel] congregation, 
Gratz College was founded in Philadelphia, which 
is devoted to the preparation of teachers for Jew- 
ish schools, practically occupying the place of a 
normal school. The largest sum ever made availa- 
ble for the promotion of Semitic investigation is that 
bequeathed in 1905 by Moses A. DRopsikE of Phila- 
delphia for the establishment of a Jewish college 
along broad lines, for instruction “in the Hebrew and 
cognate languages and their respective literatures, 
and in the rabbinical learning and literature.” The 
amount of this bequest is about $800,000. 

Throughout the United States there have been es- 
tablished in connection with the various congrega- 
tions, and also independently, Young Men’s Hebrew 
Associations and other societies which are to a certain 
extent educational in their character. They usually 
maintain small libraries and provide lecture-courses 
on secular and religious topics. In 1893 there was 
founded the Jewish Chautauqua Society, which has 
branches all over the country and bears the same re- 
lation to the regular schools and colleges as does the 
University Extension movement, as interpreted in 
America, to regular colleges for university work. 
The CouncIL oF JEWISH WOMEN has engaged toa 
considerable extent in educational work among its 
own members. In 1886 the Reform wing of Ameri- 
can Jewry organized at Cincinnatia HeBrew Sas- 
BATH-ScHooL Unton for the purpose of promoting 
uniformity and approved methods in Sabbath-school 
instruction. In 1900 there were in the United 
States 415 Jewish educational organizations, 291 of 
which were religious schools attached to congrega- 
tions, with 1,127 teachers and an attendance of about 
25,000 pupils. There were also 27 Jewish free 
schools, chiefly in large cities, with about 11,000 
pupils and 142 teachers. 

Three societies have been organized in the United 
States to issue Jewish publications—the first, in 
Philadelphia in 1845; the second, in New York in 
1873; and the third, in Philadelphia in 1888. This 


361 


last is a flourishing organization, and has issued 
many instructive and important works. Among the 
educational activities should also be 


Publica- mentioned the American Jewish His- 
tion Soci- torical Society, organized in 1892, 
eties and which in its twelve volumes of publi- 
Libraries. cations has made notable contributions 


to American Jewish history. Associ- 
ated with many of the schools are circulating and 
reference jibraries—notably .the Leeser Library of 
the Hebrew Education Society of Philadel phia—and 
there are several independent ones, the largest of 
which is the Aguilar Library in New York, founded 
in 1886. The Maimonides Library of the Independ- 
ent Order B’nai B'rith in New York was organized 
in 1851. The last two are now merged in the New 
York Public Library, which itself contains the lar- 
gest collection of Judaica and modern Hebraica in 
the country. The Order B’nai B’rith and many 
other orders and lodges did pioneer work in the 
education of their members and included lectures 
among the educational features. The various Zion- 
ist societies throughout the country make educa- 
tional work along Jewish lines one of their principal 
activities, 

5. Philanthropy: The measure of the American 
Jewry’s philanthropic activity is full to overflowing. 
From the beginning of direct aid of individual to 
individual, philanthropy has progressed until it 
now devotes a large part of its endeavor to prevent- 
ive work—the higher philanthropy—along the most 
approved scientific lines. In this the Jewish organi- 
zations have often been the pioneers, Dating from the 
days of the first arrivals, the ideal constantly main- 
tained has been that none of the Jewish poor should 
becomea charge upon the general community. 

The simple charity of the first settlers was soon 
superseded by the dispensing of collective funds 
through the congregations. But this did not take 
the place of the “personal service” of our time, 
since the care of a needy family by one more favor- 
ably situated is one of the commonest phenomena of 
the earlier days. Soon, as the population increased 
and its needs outgrew individual or even congrega- 
tional generosity, societies with specific objects were 
started. Some were established for the visitation of 
the sick and the burial of the dead; some, under con- 
gregational direction, for genera] charitable purposes ; 
others for the distribution of unleavened bread at 
Passover. Gradually hospitals for the care of the 
sick, asylums for orphans, and homes for the aged 
were established. At first a large measure of vol- 
unteer work lightened the burden of the commu- 
nity, but this, though never entirely superseded, 
has had to give way to professional and trained 
service. Similarly, the small societies of the early 
days found it advantageous to cooperate, resulting in 
the formation of the United Hebrew Charities, which 
took general charge of all philanthropic work ex- 
cept that of hospitals and orphan asylums. In re- 
cent times the problem has become so complex that 
in a number of cities al! of the charitable organiza- 
tions have been federated, and the funds collected 
from all sources distributed pro rata to the various 
constituent organizations. The first Jewish hospi- 
tal, the Mount Sinai, was established in 1852 in New 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


United States 


York, and the Independent Order B’nai B’rith Home 
for the Aged and Infirm in 1848 at the same place. 
The first orphan asylum was that of New Orleans. 
established in 1855, though one had been projected 
in New York as early as 1829. 

The Russian immigration, which has brought so 
many perplexing philanthropic and educational 
problems to the surface, has made itself felt in a 
particular degree on account of the necessity for 
the development of cooperative scientific philan- 
thropic methods. The federated associations referred 
to have been found necessary because of the increas- 
ing inadequacy of the simpler methods of the earlier 
days to cope with the new conditions, and because 
of the fact that relief, to be effective, must be ad- 
ministered not only from the standpoint of the poor, 
but with a view to the promotion of the best inter- 
ests of the community at large. Trained experts in 
this work have been developed, and in the larger 
cities the more extensive systems of relicf are under 
their direction, though they in turn are controlled 
by volunteer boards of trustees. Out of the condi- 
tions just noted has developed the National Confer- 
ence of Jewish Charities of the United States, organ- 
ized at Cincinnati in 1899, with thirty-eight relief 
organizations composing its membership, distributed 
throughout the country. Its seat is at Cincinnati, 
and the objects it furthers are the discussion of the 
problems of charity and the promotion of reforms in 
administration, with a view of accomplishing uni- 
formity ofaction and cooperation. Annual conferences 
for the reading and discussion of papers are held. 
The more or less mechanical methods by which relief 
must be distributed on the large scale now found 
necessary, with the element of personal sympathy 
largely eliminated, have, however, caused a reaction. 
In recent times societies, largely congregational, have 
been organized, whose object is the promotion of 
personal service in looking after the welfare of the 
unfortunate. See SISTERHOODS. 

The numerous fraternal orders, of which the B’nai 
B’rith (1843), the Free Sons of Israel (1849), the 
B'rith Abraham (1859), and the Sons of Benjamin 
(1877) are the most important, do a large measure of 
charitable and beneficial work. 

The inability of the Jews of the United States to 
bear the tremendous strain put upon their resources 
by the Russian immigration, prompted Baron de 
Hirsch in 1890 to come to their aid and to establish 
the Baron de Hirscw Funp ($2,400,000 originally ; 
since grown to $3,300,000), to be administered by a 

board of trustees named by him, Its 

Baron annual income, amounting to about 

de Hirsch $125,000, is expended in looking after 
Fund. the reception of immigrants, the pro- 
motion of English and mechanical 

education, and, through the Jewish Agicultural and 
Industrial Aid Society (1899), the encouragement of 
farming and the transfer of industries to rural com- 
munities. The last-mentioned branch of the Fund 
and its related organization, the Industrial Re- 
moval Office, receive large subventions also from the 
JEWISH COLONIZATION ASSOCIATION. A town and 
agricultural colony were founded at Woodbine, N. 
J., in 1891, followed by an agricultural and indus- 
trial school at the same place in 1894. Other colo- 


United States 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


362 


nies under the same direction have been established 
at Alliance, Carmel, and Rosenhayn in the same 
state. At the present time (1905) the total num- 
ber of colonies in New Jersey is about 2,500, but 
not more than half of the adults are engaged in 
farming and its related work. Industrial establish- 
ments have been introduced, and a large part of the 
several communities is employed in them. Other 
colonists have been aided in removing to New Eng- 
Jand, particularly to Connecticut, where about 600 
persons are now engaged in agricultural pursuits, 
mainly dairy-farming. Efforts at the establishment 
of agricultural colonies in various other parts of the 
country have been made, but they have almost in- 
variably been ultimate failures (see AGRICULTURAL 
COLONIES IN THE UNITED STATES). 

The National Farm School, established through 
the instrumentality of Dr. Joseph Krauskopf in 
1896, at Doylestown, Pa., aims to train boys for 
agricultural careers, and has met with some meas- 
ure of success. Its pupils number about forty. 
There are two charitable organizations with a na- 
tional field of activity, the AnLIANcE I[SRAELITE 
UNIVERSELLE, which bas had branches in the Uni- 
ted States since 1868 (eight in 1905), and the Jew- 
ish Hospital for Consumptives at Denver, Colo., 
founded in 1890. A noteworthy charity is that in- 
stituted in New York in 1890 by Nathan Straus for 
the distribution to the poor, at nominal cost, of 
milk carefully prepared in accordance with the 
most scientific hygienic principles. Similar insti- 
tutions have been aided by him in Philadelphia 
and Chicago. Statistical reports show a large re- 
duction in infant mortality asa result of this effi- 
cient remedial measure. 

6. Religious Development: As elsewhere, the 
religious life of the Jewsin the United States has been 
centered for the most part about the congregations. 
The lack of theological seminaries until a compara- 
tively late period necessitated that religious leaders 
should be brought from abroad. England, Ger- 
many, and to some extent Holland supplied the in- 
cumbents for pulpits in the earlier days. Natu- 
rally Germany furnished the large majority bet ween 
1840 and 1881, since which time, as in so much else, 
Russia has been predominant. Sephardim were at 
first in the majority, and organized the four earliest 
congregations inthe country; namely, those of New 
York, Newport, Savannah, and Philadelphia. As 
early as 1766 a translation of the prayers into Eng- 
lish by Isaac Prnto— probably the first English- 
Hebrew prayer-book ever issued—was published in 
New York. 

In Jamaica and in Canada there have always been 
more or less direct relations with England; but in 
the United States the entire religious life of the Jews 
has been especially characterized by the absence of 
dependence upon any European authority, as well 
as by the absence of any central authority in Amer- 
ica. Congregational autonomy has been emphasized, 
and is perhaps the most striking characteristic of 
American Jewish religious development. 

Prior to 1825 all the congregations followed the 
Orthodox ritual. In that year, however, a move- 
ment for ceremonial reform began in Charleston, 
whose congregation was made up almast exclusively 


of Sephardim. Meeting with some success at first, 
the movement soon languished, only to be re- 
vived upon a more enduring basis in 

Reform 1840. The Reform movement made 
Movement no headway until about the middle of 

Begun in thenineteenth century, when Isaac M. 
Charleston. Wise at Albany gave it consider- 

able standing. But little was accom- 
plished, however, until the arrival in the United 
States of David Einhorn and, later, Samuel Hirsch. 
Under the influence of these men and of other rabbis 
—principally from Germany—the trend toward al- 
terations in the liturgy and ritual set in very strongly 
about 1860. In 1869 attempts were made to formu- 
late the principles of Reform Judaism, followed by 
others in 1871 and 1885. But the large amount of 
autonomy common to all congregations and the ab- 
sence of any generally recognized authoritative head 
have rendered any acceptance of a program by all 
congregations impossible. As a consequence the 
Reform movement varies from the extremes of Sun- 
day services only, on the one hand, toaconservatism 
that lends its support to an Orthodox seminary, on 
the other. The reaction against excessive radical 
tendencies attained force about 1880, resulting in the 
formation of an intermediate or distinctly conserva- 
tive group. This wing has grown in importance 
and has been largely instrumental, in cooperation 
with the outspokenly Orthodox, in the reorganiza- 
tion of the Jewish Theological Seminary on a firm 
basis. One of the results of Reform was the intro- 
duction of changes in the prayer-ritual, culminating 
in the adoption by most congregations of a Union 
Prayer-Book jn 1895. This is not used universally, 
and individual idiosynerasy still shows a decided 
preference for other forms. 

An outgrowth of certain phases of the trend to- 
ward extreme liberalism was the society for Ethical 
Culture, founded in New York by Prof. Felix ADLER 
in 1876, and still claiming numerous adherents (see 
ETHICAL CULTURE, SOCIETY FOR). 

The Reform movement has not failed to arouse a 
vigorous opposition from the representatives of the 
Orthodox rite; chief among them, in the days of the 
inception of Reform, was Isaac LEESER, to whom 
Sabato Morais proved an able successor. In the 
main, holding that its principles, having been tried 
by time, needed no defense, the representatives of Or- 
thodoxy have supported their views with an intelli- 
gent perception of the needs of the new environment 
and conditions. The Orthodox seminary already 
referred to is to some extent the outgrowth of a de- 
sire effectively to counteract the inroads of Reform, 
as also to render a service in fitting the ancient 
forms to American conditions. The influx of Rus- 
sian Jews during the past twenty-five years has 
given to the Orthodox greatly increased strength, 
for the Reform movement has made but slight im- 
pression upon the Russian mind as yet. 

Indicative of a recognition that congregational 
autonomy is not free from a tendency to develop 
into a characterless individualism are the formation 
of the Union of American Hebrew (Reform) Congre- 
gations in 1878, and, more recently (1889), the estab- 
lishment of the Central Conference of American 
Rabbis. A recent development has been an agita- 


363 


tion for the calling of an American Jewish synod. 
Asa means of strengthening Orthodox Judaism a 
Union of Orthodox Jewish Congregations in the 
United States and Canada was formed in 1898, fol- 
Jowed by the creation of a similar organization, rep- 
resenting Russian Orthodoxy, in 1901. A Society 
of American Cantors was established in 1894. For 
further details see AMERICA, JUDAISM IN, and Rr- 
FORM JUDAISM. 

7. Military, Naval, and State Service: From 
the Dutch settlements in Brazil and other parts of 
South America 
the services ren- 
dered by the 
Jews to the 
states of their 
adoption or na- 
tivity have been 
largely in excess 
of their propor- 
tionate share. 
It is likely that 
afew of the 
more adventur- 
ous pioneers cn- 
gaged in con- 
flicts with the 
Indians, and, as 
already men- 
tioned, Asser 
Levy, as carly 
as 1655, claimed, 
on behalf of 
himself and his 
associates, the 
right to serve in 
Stuy vesant’s ex- 
pedition against 
the Swedes on 
the Delaware. 
instead of pay- 
ing a tax for ex- 
emption from 
military service. 
An occasional 
Jewish name ap- 
pears in the ros- 
ters of those 
Serving in the 
colonial expedi- 
tions against the 
French and In- 
dians, and one 
or perhaps two 
Jews were with 
Washington on 
his expedition 
across the Alleghanies in 1754, and were among the 
recipients of grants of land for their services. 

At the outbreak of the Revolutionary movement 
and before the formation of strong parties was 
brought about, the Jews were almost to a man sup- 
porters of the colonial contentions. Though number- 
ing only a bare 2,000 in a total population of 2,000,- 
000, they had developed large commercial interests in 
Newport, Philadelphia, Charleston, Savannah, and 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Monument Erected in Memory of the Jewish Soldiers Who Died in the Civil War, 
Cypress Hill Cemetery, Brooklyn, New York. 
(From a photograph.) 


United States 


New York. None the less, in all these cities they 
were ardent supporters of the various measures of 
non-importation designed to frustrate the British 
acts, and this in the face of the fact that they were 
greatly engaged in intercolonial and English trade 
and in some places, as in Philadelphia and Newport, 
were the largest ship-owners. At least eight Phila- 
delphia Jews were among the signers of the non-im- 
portation resolutions adopted in (hat city in 1765, and 
five subscribed to those of New York in 1769. When 
war actually broke out Jewish names occurred on 
the first rosters. 
Though no com- 
plete figures 
have been com- 
piled, it is prob- 
able that not less 
than 100 officers 
and men served 
at one time or an- 
other in the Rev- 
olutionary war. 
Noteworthy in 
this connection 
are the forty 
Jews among the 
sixty men who 
composed Capt. 
Richard Lush- 
ington’s com- 
pany of Charles- 
ton. Twenty- 
four officers have 
been counted, 
among the most 
distinguished 
ae being Lieut.- 
—— Col. David 8. 

| Franks, Lieut. 
Isaac §=6. FRANKS 
- (lieutenant-colo- 
nel of Pennsyl- 
vania militia, 
1794), and Ma- 
jor Benjamin 
Nones. The 
slight increase 
in the Jewish 
population — be- 
tween the close 
of the Revolu- 
tionary war and 
the outbreak of 
the War of 
1812, and the di- 
vided sentiments 
which prevailed 
during the latter war, render it likely that less than 
fifty Jews participated in it, and none appears 
to have gained special distinction. In the Mexican 
war about sixty Jews saw service, the most promi- 
nent being Major and Surgeon David de Leon, who 
twice received the thanks of Congress for gallantry, 
and who as surgeon-general of the Confederate ar- 
mies organized their medical departments. 

The effect of the increase of the Jewish popula- 


United States 


tion between 1848 and 1860 is shown in the military 
records of the Civil war. Between 7,000 and 8,000 
Jews, in all ranks, saw service on both sides of this 
terrible conflict, some with rare distinction.  In- 
cluded in this number are 9 generals, 18 colonels, 8 
lieutenant-colonels, 40 majors, 205 captains, 325 lieu- 
tenants, 48 adjutants, etc.,and 25 surgeons. In the 
recent Spanish-American war (1898) Jews formed a 
far greater proportion of the forces, and served with 
distinction. The numbersengaged were as follows: 
Officers: army, 32; navy, 27; non-commissioned offi- 
cers and men: army, 2,450; navy, 42. 

A considerable number of Jews have always been 
found in the regular army and navy. As officers the 
following have been conspicuous: Major Alfred 
MORDECAI (1804-87), expert on ordnance and explo- 
sives; Commodore Uriah P. Lkrvy (1792-1862), 
secured the abolition of corporal punishment in 
the navy; Capt. Levi M. Harpy (1793-1870) ; Capt. 
Adolph Manrrx (1848) ; Col. Charles H. LAUCHHEIMER 
(1859); and Capt. E. L. ZAuInski (retired 1894). 

From the days when Georgia was a colony and a 
Jew occupied the governor’s chair, and from those 
when Haym SaLomon not only sustained the weak 
credit of the Congress of the Revolution but out of 
his private purse supported some of the most promi- 
nent of the leaders of the time when, without his aid, 
the country would have been deprived of their serv- 
ices, down to the appointment in 1902 by President 
Roosevelt of Oscar 8. Straus to the position 
of successor to the late President Harrison as 
member of the Permanent Court of Arbitration at 
The Hague, there has been a full record of service. 

Though five Jews have been elected to the Senate 
(David L. YuLEE [1845-61]; Judah P. BENJAMIN 
[1852-61]; Benjamin F. Jonas [1879-85]; Joseph 
Stmon [1897-1903]; and Isidor Rayner [1905}]), it 
is a noteworthy fact that none of these has ever held 
a position of leadership in the Jewish community, 
and their selection has been made irrespective of any 
support from specifically Jewish sources. Nor has 
any, With the exception of Judah P. Benjamin, at- 
tained a position of leadership among his colleagues 
in the Senate. Benjamin’s services to the Confed- 
eracy as secretary of state after his resignation from 
the Senate, and his subsequent career in England 
stamp him as the foremost Jew of American birth. 
The House of Representatives has had about forty 
Jewish members, of whom four are serving at the 
present time. Henry M. GoLprocLs, representing 
a constituency made up largely of Jews, has dis- 
played an intelligent activity in promoting measures 
of specifically Jewish interest, and has taken a promi- 
nent part in the endeavor to compel Russia to rec- 
ognize American passports held by Jews. In 1904, 
moreover, both political parties adopted declarations 
in their platforms, pronouncing tn favor of the in- 
stitution of measures to insure the equal treatment 
and protection of all American citizens sojourning 
or traveling in foreign countries; and in his message 
to Congress of Dec., 1904, President Roosevelt spoke 
vigorously against the Russian attitude as affecting 
American Jewish citizens. Of Jews who have served 
their communities in the lesser offices, ranging from 
that of city alderman or councilman to the higher 
state positions, the numbers are so great that no ac- 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


364 


count is possible here. Yet space must be allowed 
for the mention of Judge Mayer SULZBERGER of 
Philadelphia, conspicuous among American Jews 
not only by reason of his exceptional learning, but 
also because of his activity in all fields of Jewish 
activity. 

Especially noteworthy also is the fact that the 
first statue presented to the United States, thereby 
originating Statuary Hall in the Capitolat Washing- 
ton, was the gift, in 1838, ofa Jew, Lieutenant, later 
Commodore, Uriah P. Levy. The statue is one of 
Thomas Jefferson, in bronze, and was executed by 
the French Jewish sculptor David d’ Angers, 

8. Civil and Political Rights: It was within 
the bounds of what soon became the United States 
that Jews for the first time in modern history were 
put upon a plane of absolute equality with other 
races. Rhode Island, founded by Roger Williams 
as a refuge for the persecuted of all forms of reli- 
gious beliefs, welcomed the Jews not less than 
others. For that reason the Jewish community in 
that colony attained prominence at an early date, and 
contributed largely to its development along com- 
mercial lines. New York, South Carolina, Pennsy1- 
vania, and Georgia gave the Jews a generous welcome 
as well, and attracted in consequence considerable 
Jewish communities at an early period of their re- 
spective histories. The unfavorable environment of 
Puritan New England, which actuated Roger Will- 
iams to establish his colony as a protest against the 
illiberal views which predominated in the adjoining 
colonies, rendered the establishment of any sort of 
Jewish community in their midst an impossibility. 
This was all the more remarkable since the earlier 
forms of government and laws were fashioned in a 
manner upon Old Testament lines. This was par- 
ticularly the case in Massachusetts (whose first. 
criminal code [1641] gave chapter and verse from 
the Bible as its authority), as also in Connecticut. 
The records of the colony of New Haven, founded 
in 1688, have a distinctly Old Testament character, 
and Biblical precedent is quoted for almostevery gov- 
ernmental act. One can form some opinion of the 
measure of Old Testament influence when one con- 
siders that in the code of colony laws adopted in 
New Haven in 1656 there are 107 references to the 
Old Testament to 29 to the New, and of the latter 
5 are of an ecclesiastical character. 

But Jews as individuals contributed little or 
nothing to direct the trend of the colonial legisla- 
tion of this early period. The few who arrived 
previous to the birth of liberal ideas during the 
period of the Revolution were coutented to be 
allowed the rare opportunity of living in unmolested 
exercise of their religion, and made no contest for 
political rights, though an occasional bold character, 
such as Asser LEVY and Rabba Couty, helped much 
to make it known that the heavens would not fall 
if a Jew were accorded certain political privileges. 
The participation of Jews in the control of the 
Dutch West India Company caused the extension of 
liberal political ideas to the colony of New Amster- 
dam, and they do not appear to have been seriously 
curtailed after the English occupation. Jews were 
naturalized occasionally in most of the colonies else- 
where than in New England; and in New York they 


365 


appear to have voted for state officials before 1737 
(see page 348). Under the Parliamentary Act of 
1740 foreigners who had been resident in the 
British colonies for a period of seven 
Naturali- years could be naturalized without 
zation Act taking the sacrament, merely an oath 
of 1740. of fidelity taken upon the Old Testa- 
ment being required. Before 1762 
there is record that thirty-five Jews availed them- 
selves of this privilege, and after that date many 
others must have taken the oath. Georgia, Rhode 
Island, and South Carolina placed no obstacles in the 
way of a Jew holding any office, though in most of 
the other colonies Jews were barred because of the 
necessity, on the assumption of office, of taking an 
oath either “upon the true faith of a Christian” or 
declaring a belief in the divine inspiration of the 
New Testament. Similarly, in the more illiberal 
colonies the right of suffrage was restricted to 
Christians, though it is likely that the restrictions 
were not severely enforced. 

Though the constitutions established during the 
Revolutionary period fixed no religious qualifications 
for the suffrage, except that of New Hampshite, they 
were far more stringent where the matter of holding 
oftice was concerned. AlIl but Rhode Island, New 
York, and South Carolina restricted office-holders 
to those professing the Christian religion, and this 
too in spite of the fact that the preambles to most of 
the constitutions proclaimed emphatically the rights 
to which man was by nature entitled. To men of 

logical mind, like Jefferson and Madison, this incon- 
-gistency was always a thorn in the flesh, and in 
their own state, Virginia, they soon began an agita- 
tion that culminated in 1785 in the passage of the 
Religious Freedom Act. This liberal movement 
was responsible for the guaranties embodied in the 
ordinance of 1787, which effectively insured for all 
time the fullest degree of civil and religious liberty 
in the territory northwest of the Ohio River. With- 
in a few months the same idea was written in the 
Constitution, which provides that “no religious test 
shall ever be required as a qualification to any pub- 
lic office or public trust under the United States” ; 
this clause, strengthened by the first amendment, 
“Congress shall make no law respecting an estab- 
lishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise 
thereof,” fixed the federal law and established the 
absolute equality of citizens of all creeds in all the 
territory over which the United States 

Principle of had control. Though there is no evi- 
Religious dence that Jews had any direct hand 
Liberty. in placing this fitting capstone to the 
constitutional structure, the influence 

exerted by the example of so commanding a figure 
as Haym Sa.omon, and the services rendered the 
United States by the Jewish soldiers in the field, 
probably played their part. In this connection may 
be mentioned the petition which Gershom Mendes 
Seixas, Simon Nathan Asher Myers, Barnard 
Gratz, and Haym Salomon, the mahamad of the 
Mickvé Israel synagogue of Philadelphia, on Dec. 
23, 1783, sent to the Council of Censors of Pennsyl- 
vania praying for the removal of the declaration of 
belief in the divine inspiration of both the Old and 
the New Testament as a qualification for member- 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


United States 


ship in the Pennsylvania assembly; and the letter 
which Jonas Phillips addressed to the Federal Con- 
vention, Sept. 7, 1787, requesting that it abolish the 
same qualification (“Publ. Am. Jew. Hist. Soc.” 
No. 2, p. 107). Before the close of the century there 
was great advance in conforming the state constitu- 
tions to the more liberal federal constitution. The 
spread of democratic ideas, started by the election 
of Jefferson to the presidency, which was char- 
acteristic of the first quarter of the nineteenth 
century, broke down the barriers of intolerance 
everywhere but in Maryland, and that state gave 
way just as the period was brought toa close. The 
effective work accomplished by the CoHEN and 
Ertine families in pushing through the “Jew Bill” 
after more than twenty-five years of agitation has 
already been referred to and can be found treated in 
detail in the article MARYLAND. It is the only in- 
stance in American history where the establishment 
of a fundamental constitutional principle can be 
credited directly to the specific labors of individual 
Jews. 

There have been numerous instances in which 
Jews have come in conflict with the universal Sun- 
day laws. In practically all cases the right of the 
state to enact Sunday laws as police regulations has 

been sustained. The statutory laws of 

Sunday New York and Indiana exempt one 

Laws. who observes some day of the week 
other than the first day and refrains 
from labor thereon, from suffering prosecution under 
the Sunday laws (“ Publ. Am. Jew. Hist. Soc.” No. 
11, p.101). In 19018. H. Bororsky, a member of the 
Massachusetts House of Representatives, introduced 
a bill exempting persons who observed the seventh 
day as Sabbath from any penalty for laboring on 
the first day. The bill passed the House, but was 
defeated in the Senate. That the Sunday laws in 
many cases inflict direct hardship upon large sec- 
tions of the Jewish community can not be denied, 
and any interpretation of them except as police 
regulations would undoubtedly be construed as in- 
fringements upon the religious liberty of the indi- 
vidual. A solution of the difficulty might be found 
in the general adoption of the New York and Indiana 
statutes, but there is as yet no indication of any 
movement to bring thisabout. In cases where Jews 
are interested parties or witnesses, objection has 
at times been raised against going to trial or 
giving testimony on the seventh day of the week, 
Occasionally a postponement has been allowed or 
a witness excused, but the prevailing attitude of the 
courts has been that where duties to one’s religion 
and to the state come in conflict the latter must pre- 
vail, The fact that there has been a general tend- 
ency on the part of even the higher courts to 
maintain that this isa Christian country, and that 
legislation which is in conflict with the doctrines of 
Christianity can not be allowed to prevail, has not 
failed to arouse decided opposition in many Jewish 
quarters. 

9. Science, Art, Literature, and the Learned 
Professions: Jews have been members of all the 
learned professions—principally the legal and 
medical—and they have contributed notably to the 
advancement of nearly all the sciences and of the fine 


United States 


arts. Many eminent physicians, medical writers, 
and professors in medical schools are Jews. There 
has been at: least one distinguished Hebrew sculptor, 
Moses E2ZEKIEL, and there are several others of rank, 
among whom Ephraim Kryser and Katherine M. 
Coben should be mentioned. Louis Lor is one of 
the leading painters of the country, and has done 
illustrating ofa high order; the Rosen- 

Jews thals of Philadelphia, father and son, 
Eminent in are distinguished as etchers and en- 
All De- gravers. Among other artists of note 
partments. are Toby Rosenthal, L. Dessar, E. C. 
Peixotto, Henry Mosler, and Albert E. 

Sterner; Leo Mielziner is both sculptor and portrait- 
painter. Ascaricaturists Henry Meyer and F. Opper 
have made theirmark. Bernard Berenson is one of the 
foremost living art-critics, and Charles Waldstein is 
one of the leading authorities on ancient art. Jews 
are also found as inventors, ¢g., Emil Berliner, in- 
ventor of the telephone-transmitter, and Louis E. 
and Max Levy, inventors of photoengraving proc- 
esses; as architects, such as Dankmar Adler of 
Chicago, and Arnold W. Brunner of New York; 
and as engineers, the most distinguished of whom 
is Mendes Cohen of Baltimore, one of the pioneer 
railroad-builders of the country, and at one time 
president of the American Society of Civil Engineers. 

Many Jews bold professorships in colleges: M. 
Bloomfield and J. H. Hollander at Johns Hopkins; 
Franz Boas, Richard GottheiJ, and E. R. A. Selig- 
man at Columbia; Morris Loeb at the University of 
New York; Morris Jastrow and Leo 8. Rowe at the 
University of Pennsylvania; Joseph Jastrow at the 
University of Wisconsin; Charles Grossat Harvard ; 
Ernst Freund at the University of Chicago; Jacques 
Loeb at the University of California; Isidor Loeb at 
the University of Missouri; while a much larger 
number are assistant professors or instructors. Si- 
mon FLEXNER is one of the leading pathologists, and 
is director of the Rockefeller Institute of Medical 
Research; and Franz Boas is eminent as an anthro- 
pologist. 

The most distinguished Jewish writer of poetry 
in the United States was Emma Lazarus; Michael 
Heilprin gained eminence as an editor and writer, as 
have Louis Heilprin asan encyclopedist, Angelo Heil- 
prin as a geologist, and Fabian Franklin as a mathe- 
matician; A. Cahan, Ezra 8S. Brudno, Annie Nathan 
Mayer, Mary Moss, and Emma Wolf are successful 
novelists; and Morris Rosenfeld is a gifted Yiddish 
poet. Martha Wolfenstein has written Jewish tales 
of rare literary charm. 

Of Jewish periodicals and newspapers published 
in the United States the number has been legion (see 
PERIODICALS). The wide distribution of the Jewish 
community and the marked division into the Ortho- 
dox and Reform camps have rendered impossible 
the establishment of one central organ for the Jews 
of the country, asin England. Weekly newspapers, 
largely of local interest, though containing much 
readable material upon general Jewish 
affairs, and making some pretense to 
produce articles of literary quality, are 
published in all the large cities. The 
first Jewish periodical published in the United 
States was “ The Jew,” issued at New York in 1823- 


News- 
papers. 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


366 


1825; and unquestionably the most significant was 
the “Occident,” published at Philadelphia by Isaac 
LEESER from 1848 to 69 (the last volume edited by 
Mayer SULZBERGER). ' 

Among the more important weeklies are “The 
American Israelite,” Cincinnati, 1854; “The Jew- 
ish Messenger,” New York, 1857-1902; “The He- 
brew,” San Francisco, 1863; “The American He- 
brew,” New York, 1879; “The Jewish Exponent,” 
Philadelphia, 1887; “The Reform Advocate,” 
Chicago, 1891; and “The Jewish Comment,” Bal- 
timore, 1895. At the present time three Jewish 
monthlies are issued: “The Menorah ” (1886), organ 
of the B'nai B’rith and the Jewish Chautauqua; 
“The Maccabean” (1901), the Zionist organ; and 
“The New Era Literary Magazine” (1903); all pub- 
lished at New York. The United Hebrew Charities 
of New York also publishes a magazine, “Jewish 
Charity,” devoted to sociological work, and there 
are numerous publications of a similar nature issued 
by other philanthropic organizations. 

Several periodicals have been published in Ger- 
man, and, since the Russian immigration, a number 
in Hebrew. All of these have been organs repre- 
senting specifically Jewish religious and literary in- 
terests. In this respect they have differed from the 
multitudinous issues of the Yiddish press which 
have seen the light since 1882, and which, though 
reflecting Jewish conditions, have in only a few in- 
stances had any religious cast; they have been more 
literary and scientific than religious. 

In music a number of Hebrews bave acquired a 
reputable position; and Fanny Bloomfield-Zeisler is 
one of the greatest of living pianists. Jews are 
prominent also as actors and as dramatic authors. 

Among actors of bygone times may 
Music and be mentioned Aaron J. Phillips, who 
the Stage. first appeared in New York at the 

Park Theater in 1815 and was a very 
successful comedian; Emanuel Judah, who first ap- 
peared in 1823; and Moses 8. Phillips, who acted at 
the Park Theater in 1827. Mordecai M. Noan, best 
known as journalist, politician, and diplomat, was 
also a dramatic author of considerable note. Other 
dramatists and authors were Samuel B. H. Judah 
(born in New York in 1790) and Jonas B. Phillips; 
and at the present time David BELAsco is a most suc- 
cessful playwright. The control of theatrical pro- 
ductions in this country is mainly in the hands of 
Jews at the present time. The introduction of 
opera into the United States was due largely to 
Lorenzo da Ponrr. Alfred Hertz now conducts 
at the Metropolitan Opera House, which is under 
the direction of Heinrich Conried. 

10. Commerce and Industry: In commerce 
Jews were notably important in the eighteenth cen- 
tury. In the early colonial period, more especially 
in Pennsylvania and in New York, many of the 
Jews traded with the Indians. The fact that the 
earliest settlers were men of means, and were Span- 
ish and Portuguese Jews who had relatives and 
friends settled throughout the Levant, gave them 
specially favorable opportunities for trading. Some 
were extensive ship-owners, as Aaron Lopez of 
Newport, who before the Revolutionary war had a 
fleet of thirty vessels; and David and Moses Franks 


367 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


United States 


of Philadelphia. Jews very early traded between 
the West India Islands and the North-American colo- 
nies, as well as with Amsterdam, Venice, etc. 

The Jewish immigrants who arrived in America 
during the nineteenth century were in the main poor 
people whocommencced trading in a small way, usu- 
ally by peddling, which, before the existence of 
railroads, was a favorite method of carrying mer- 
chandise into the country districts. By industry 
and frugality they laid the foundations of a consid- 
erable number of moderate fortunes. The Jews of 
New York became an integral part of that great 
trading community. 

The organization out of which grew the Stock 
Exchange of New York originated in an agreement 
in 1792 to buy and sell only on a definite commission ; 
and to this document were attached the signatures 

of four Jews. Since then Jews have 
Jews Act- been very active in the Stock Ex- 


ive in change and in banking circles, both 
Financial in New York and elsewhere. The 
Circles. great-grandson of Haym Salomon, 


William, is a factor of consequence in 
New York financial circles. Jacob H. Schiff and 
James Speyer are counted among the leading finan- 
ciersofthecountry. The Jewshavealso taken an im- 
portant part in controlling the cotton trade, and in 
large measure the clothing trade has been through- 
out its history in their hands (see below). They are 
likewise very prominent in the manufacture of 
cloaks and shirts, and more recently of cigars and 
jewelry. 

11. Social Condition: The social organization 
of the Jews resident in America has differed little 
from that in other countries. In the early colonial 
period the wealthier Hebrews seem to have taken 
part with their Christian fellow citizens in the or- 
ganization of dancing assemblies and other social 
functions, and clubs. Nevertheless, in the main, 
and without any compulsion, Jews preferred to live 
in close proximity to one another, a peculiarity 
which still prevails, 

At the time when little toleration was shown in 
other countries, there were in America many inter- 
changes of mutual good-will between Christians and 
Jews. Rabbi Hayyim Isaac Carregal was one of the 
close friends of Ezra Stiles, president of Yale Col- 
lege; and as early as 1711 the Jews of New York 
made a contribution of £3.12s. for the build- 

ing of a steeple on Trinity Church. 

Jews and Gershom Mendes Seixas, minister of 

Christians the Shearith Israel congregation, New 
Cooperate. York, was a trustee of Columbia Col- 

lege (1784-1815), although this organi- 

zation was under the Episcopal Church; and the 
Episcopal bishop of New York occasionally attended 
service in the synagogue. After 1848 there arrived 
a large number of Jews who could not speak the 
English language, and to them a certain odium at- 
tached on this account; but this seems gradually 
to have worn off. The general American public ex- 
hibited great sympathy for the Jews in 1840 at the 
time of the Damascus murders, in 1858-57 at the 
time of the Swiss troubles, and again in 1882, 1908, 
and 1905 on the occasion of the persecutionsin Russia. 
Hermann Ah)lwardat, on his visit to America in 1895, 


found the soil an unfavorable one for his anti-Semitic 
propaganda, and when he projected it was protected 
from violence by Jewish policemen. 

Though there is nothing corresponding to the 
anti-Semitic movements of continental Europe, an 
undoubted and extensive social prejudice against 
the Jews exists, which manifests itself in numerous 
petty though not insignificant ways, mainly in the 
Eastern States, where their numbers are greatest. It 
has assumed the form of excluding Jewish children 
from certain private schools, and their elders from 
clubs and some hotels. 

Very early the Jews in America began to form 
social organizations. A club was started in New- 
port as early as 1769; and social clubs—some com- 
prismg many members and possessed 
of magnificent properties—have becn 
established in many sections of the 
country. The development of He- 
brew social clubs has been larger in the United States 
than elsewhere. American Jews have also been 
especially given to the forming of secret orders, 
which, while they had primarily an educational and 
charitable purpose, had much social influence, and 
tended powerfully toward the continued association 
of Jews with one another when the hold of the 
synagogue upon them relaxed. These were supple- 
mented later by the formation of Young Men’s He- 
brew Associations, which, like the orders, partake 
to some extent of the nature of social organizations. 

A. Hl. F. 

12. Russian Immigration: Individual Rus- 
sian and Polish Jews, especially the latter, emigrated 
to the United States at the time of the American 
Revolution, among whom was Haym Salomon, one 
of the noblest examples of devotion to American lib- 
erty and a friend of Kosciusko. The Russian ukase 
of 1827 drafting Jewish boys at the age of twelve to 
military service (see Jew. Encyc. iii. 549b, 8,0, CAN- 
TONISTS), and that of 1845 extending the conscription 
to Russian Poland were the starting-points of emi- 
gration to England and thence to America. The 
epoch-making period of 1848 and the revolt in Po- 
land in 1868 were factors in increasing the emigra- 
tion of Jews from Russia. But the Russo-Jewish 
emigration en masse did not begin till 1881. Prior 
to that date it had been restricted almost entirely to 
the provinces lying about the Niemen and the Dina, 
and the emigrants were voluntary ones who desired 
to better their economic condition and to tempt for- 
tune elsewhere. 

With the anti-Jewish riots of April 27, 1881, at 
Yelizavetgrad, and the later riots in Kiev and other 
cities of South Russia, Jewish emigra- 
tion to the United States assumed an 
entirely different character, and re- 
ceived an impetus so remarkable as to 
create a new epoch in American Jewish history. The 
first group of the new class of immigrants, consisting 
of about 250 members of the Am ‘Olam Society 
(“Eternal People”), arrived in New York city July 
29, 1881; the third and last group of the same society 
arrived May 380, 1882, and was followed by streams 
of Russo-Jewish refugees. The immigration largely 
increased from 1892, and still more from 1901 (see 
MIGRATION). 


Hebrew 
Clubs. 


Emigra- 
tion. 


United States 


The forced emigration of the Russian Jews owing 
to their persecution by the Russian government 
evoked loud protests from prominent men in the 
United States, and much sympathy was expressed 
for the refugees. The most important meeting, 
convened by ex-President U. 5. Grant and seventy 
others, was held Feb. 1, 1882, at Chickering Hall, 
New York, and was presided over by the mayor, 
William R. Grace. In Philadelphia a similar meet- 
ing was held a fortnight later (Feb. 15) under the 
presidency of Mayor Samuel King; and through the 
efforts of Drexel, the banker, a fund of $25,000 for 
the relief of the refugees was collected. Indeed, 
funds in aid of the Russian Jews were raised in all 
the principal cities of America. The Hebrew Immi- 
grants Aid Society of the United States collected in 
1882 about $300,000, of which the Alliance Israélite 
Universelle of Paris contributed $40,000, the General 
Committee of Paris $20,000, the Berlin Committee 
$35,000, the Mansion House Committee of London 
$40,000, and the New York Russian Relief Fund 
(Jacob H. Schiff, treasurer) $57,000. Altogether the 
last-named fund amounted to about $70,000. In 
1883 about $60,000 more was collected, for the im- 
mediate relief of the Russian immigrants, and tem- 
porary quarters were built on Ward’s Island and 
at Greenpoint, L. J. About 3,000 immigrants were 
temporarily housed and maintained there until they 
found employment. 

Michael HeILpPRIn induced the various committees 
to colonize the immigrants; but nearly all such un- 
dertakings proved unsuccessful. The Jewish Ag- 
ricultural and Industrial Aid Society, however, 
reports for 1904 some improvement in this respect 
(“ American Hebrew,” March 17, 1905; see also JEw. 

Encyc. i. 256 et seg., 8.v. AGRICULTUR- 


Agricul- AL CoLONIks IN THE UNITED STATES). 
tural This society is endeavoring to extend 
Colonies. its work by starting small agricultural 


settlements at different points. Many 
farms in Connecticut and Massachusetts have passed 
into Jewish hands, and the number of Jewish farm- 
ers in the United States is now estimated at 12,000. 
Altogether the various committees and societies as- 
sisted probably 5 per cent of the total Jewish immi- 
grants. Of the remainder, some were dependent 
on relatives and friends; but a great majority, 
independent of any assistance, worked out their own 
destiny as did their countrymen who preceded them. 
The Hebrew Immigrants Aid Society of New 
York helps to find the relatives and friends of Jew- 
ish immigrants, and pleads for the discharge of de- 
tained immigrants. The society engages lawyers to 
defend cases of deportation. From Sept. 1, 1902, to 
Aug. 1, 1904, it appealed 217 cases, 128 of which 
were sustained and 89 dismissed. The cost of the 
appeals amounted to $1,305.78. The total income 
of the society for that period was $6,029.29. 
The Jewish pioneers from Russia and Poland be- 
came glaziers, cigar-makers, pedlers, 


Develop- small shopkeepers, and proprietors of 
ment of supplystoresfor pedlers. In the fifties 
Industry. there were about a dozen Russian 


Jews in New York engaged in various 
trades, as tobacco, jewelry, passementerie, millinery, 
hats and caps, and general dry-goods. During 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


368 


the sixties there were Russo-Jewish manufacturers 
of hoop-skirts, cloaks, and clothing. A few Rus- 
sian Jews were among the California pioneers, and 
achieved their successes not as miners, but as mer- 
chants, Others drifted to the South, especially to 
Charleston and New Orleans, where they prospered 
as business men, cotton-planters, and even as slave- 
owners. Some hecame importers and exporters of 
merchandise. Abraham Raffel, a native of Suwalki, 
exported agricultural machinery and windmills to 
Moscow in 1862. Moses Gardner, a native of Sherki 
(b. 1815; d. 1908 in New York), imported linen 
crashes and furs from Russia, making annual trips 
to St. Petersburg, Moscow, and Nijni-Novgorod for 
that purpose. Solomon Silberstein, a native of 
Grodno, arrived in New York in 1849, went to Cali- 
fornia in 1850, and prior to 1867 was engaged in the 


Name of Union. 


Total 
Membership. 


Approximate 
Percentage of | 
Russian Jews 


Amalgamated Waiters’ Union, No. 1, of <6 
Bakers’ Union (Brooklyn and Harlem).| 500 200 
Bill-Posters’ and Ushers’ Union...... 50 45 
Boys’ Waist Makers’ Union........+.. 200 60 
Brotherhood of Tailors, U. G. W. 


SSSR 


eee wore aseoseanaeeosrereeegeseovavete 


of 
Pants Makers’ Union, U. G. W. of A. 
Vest Makers’ Union .....-ccccseseees 
ae Pants Makers’ Union, U. G.W. 


$656 066 00 Orer8 8 88 6 8 ow Salata one 
10,000 
S:asse-e ie 8 reite 88 e:0 a cbse SAk ave) DIB ereie 


Gove eevesewoesoaneeetrseenee 


aoe eee emt sere ranervereurreseee 


ION be hesnwirenaycck oes tee ee 
Choristers’ Union ,......0cccsaesenees 
Cigarette Makers’ Union, Flat...... \ 
Cigarette Makers’ Union, Paper.... ( 
Cigarette Makers’ Union, Progres: 
sive Rolled (60 per cent BAIS xs 4 J | 
Clipping Sorters’ Union (girls)... 300 150 
Cloak and Suit Tailors’ Union........ 6, 
Cutters’ UNION... ccceeceeseeeeensree z 


R 
a s 


= 
wo 

Sot 
Ss 


= 
R 
S 


Hebrew Actors’ Protective Union .... 
Infant Shoemakers’ Union........... S 
Knitters’ Union, New York......... ( 200 170 

* Brooklyn.......... j 
Ladies’ Waist Makers’ Union......... 500 a | 
Ladies’ Wrapper Makers’ Union...... 300 270 | 
Mineral- las Bottlers’ and Drivers’ 


SEK SF 


Paper Box asi Union. .vareacess 
Purse and Bag Makers’ Union...,.... | 
Shirt Makers’ Union.............00005 
Suspender Makers, L. 9560 A. F. of L. t 
“Trimming Operators’ Union § | ' 
Theatrical Musical Union (about 1,000) | 
SOWS)sicervoissuvencaes ecae erie s } * 
Trunk Makers’ Union..............-- ie 
Typographical Union...........0.0065 450 112 75 
Variety Actors’ Union..............-. | 100 90 


TOCAIS.. oeic.s sesso teen be mesanes i 20,970 | 15,582 


Se 
Shot 
S SRLS 


* Joined non-Jewish unions. 


importation of furs from Alaska, then a Russian 
possession. Silberstein even ventured across Bering 
Strait to Kamchatka and Vladivostok to import 
merchandise to California. His business increased 
to such an extent that he chartered a special vessel 
to transport his goods; and it may be added that he 


369 


gave orders to the captain not to begin the voyage | 


ona Sabbath-day. Russian Jews were largely in- 
terested in the Alaskan Fur Company. 

Reuben Isaacs, a native of Suwalki, arrived in 
New York in 1849 and went to California in 1850. 
From 1868 he was engaged with his brother Israel 
in the exportation of kerosene oil to Japan. Later, 
under the firm name “R, Isaacs & Bro.,” they opened 
a branch at Yokohama and Kobé, Japan, and, as 
“The American Commercial Co.,” they established 
another at Manila, Philippine Islands. There are 
several American-Russian Jews now (1905) doing 
business with Japan. 

Up to the eighties the Russian Jews were princi- 
pally pedlers, shopkeepers, and manufacturers, but 
with the Jewish persecution in Russia many skilled 


ee 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


United States 


Total | Total Russian 


d es a and Po- 
Prisoners., JEWS. [Jick Jews 


th we 3 Oe tore mae ud 
i t , > 


Penal Institutions. 


Albany Penitentiary.. 700 4 l 
AD UNV si"), eh «Skee 1,100 36 | 8 
Blackwells Island Almshouse...| 2,170 7 | 3 
Blackwells Island Workhouse...{ 1,100 11 | s 
Clinton Pris0b oes <kes ser cue sn bc 900 25 13 
Elmira Reformatory.......0¢ ss» 1,450 99 18 
Kings County Prison........... 800 i | 3 
Sing Sing Prisopiascccocaccesas 1,600 v2 26 

TUN aec koh tava ernstecas 9,820 257 | 72 


. Radin gives the following figures for the New 
ior city prisons for the years 1902, 1903, and 
1904: 


Be tang 


] 
1902. 1908. | 1904. 
Penal Institutions. | 
Total | Total Russian Total | Total Russian Total Total Russian 
Prisoners.| Jews. Jews. j|Prisoners.; Jews. Jews, /|Prisoners.| Jews. Jews. 
} , 
| | 
Black wells Island Workhouse......| 1,930 | Be bh dadeas 1,800 48 
[Blackwells Island Workhouse dur-! | L. a Z 
1G THE VORP vansie~sasansdaeeana 17,745} | PAB OP ticavac ; [19,963] fill 4ateas {19,520} | [1,036] | about 600 
Brooklyn Disciplinary Training | 
BNO vib cae sek oars meses 225 TS be apace 240-250 IBS) t | asa darere | aia 21 3 
City Penitentiary........cccccreeee 630 | 47 {about 2 3, 580-620 45-50 | about 2/8 | 746 52 22 
House of Refuge...........0-02205- 850-900 | AF Sl ESA | 850-950 | 210-250 | ...... | 850 253 92 
TOMI ss nitty Sa dee AeT A Re em ood 430-450 | 5 US 7 ae ee er ee » 450-500 30-40 | wwceee | 1,880 153 60 


laborers were forced to emigrate to America. These 
were later organized into various unions; and many 
affiliated with the United Hebrew Trades of the 
state of New York, organized in 1889 by Morris Hill- 
quit and Joseph Barondess. The skilled Jewish 
laborers in New York city now number over 75,000, 
of whom two-thirds are Russian Jews. The United 
Hebrew Trades represent about 25,000, but in times 
of strikes they increase to 50,000, Abraham Lipp- 
man, secretary of the United Hebrew Trades, has 
furnished the above table on page 368, showing the 
various unions, their average memberships, and the 
number of Russo-Jewish members in Jan., 1905. 

Russo-Jewish skilled laborers are found elsewhere 
than in New York. In the silk-factories of New 
Jersey, in the machine-shops of Connecticut, and in 
the jewelry-factories of Rhode Island they are to be 
seen side by side with the best non-Jewish working 
men 

Russian Jews havealso helped to develop the real- 
estate market in the principal centers of the United 
States. In the city of New York they are among 
the largest operators; and they have built up 
Brownsville, a suburb of Brooklyn, and a consider- 
able part of the Bronx on the Harlem River. Russo- 
Jewish activity in every line of industry extends to 
all cities of the Union, but more particularly to 
New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Boston, Chi- 
cago, Pittsburg, and St. Louis. 

Criminal statistics show a low percentage of crime 
among the Russian Jews as compared with the gen- 
eral population. The report of Dr. A. M. Radin, 
Visiting chaplain of New York state prisons, for 
the year 1903 presents the following details concern- 
ing the Jewish prisoners: 

XIU, —24 


a 


The large percentage of Jewish boysin the House 
of Refuge on Randalls Island is accounted for by the 
existence of special sectarian protectories, which care 
for a large number of boys, while the Jews have no 
separate house of refuge. These statistics, from the 
densest and most crowded Jewish population in the 
Union, are the best evidence of the moral and law- 
abiding character of the Jews in general and of the 
Russo-Jewish immigrants in particular. Where the 
Jews are not so thickly congregated few if any are 
to be found in the prisons: in each of three of the 
penal institutions of the upper part of the state of 
New York, namely, the Syracuse Penitentiary, the 
Monroe County Penitentiary at Rochester, and the 
Erie County Penitentiary at Buffalo, there was in 
1903 only one Jew. 

The Russian Jews, even those who have neglected 
or have had no opportunity to study in Russia, learn 

the English language as soon as they 
Education. arrive in America; and some study 

the higher branches of English litera- 
ture. Their children almost without exception at- 
tend the public schools; and many avail themselves 
| of the education afforded in the high schools, the 
City College, and the Normal College, as well as the 
universities. More than 60 per cent of the students 
in these colleges are Russo-Jewish immigrants or the 
children of Russian Jews. The majority of the 
parents are poor; but they pinch themselves to 
keep their children in college rather than let them 
contribute to the support of the family. 

Among the Russian Jews in New York city there 
are about 400 physicians, 1,000 druggists, 300 den- 
tists, 400 lawyers, and 25 architects, besides many 
in other professions, particularly musicians and 


| 


| 
| 


United States 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


370 


composers of popular music. Biographies of the 
more prominent professional men will be found in 
the “ American Jewish Year Book for 5665.” Also 
many Russian Jews are clerks in the city departmen- 
tal offices; and a large number are teachers in the 
public schools. 

Since about 1885 the Russian Jews in America 
have created an amount of literature in Yiddish 
exceeding the productions of the same kind that have 
been published in Russia and elsewhere during the 
same period (see L. Wiener, “ A History of Yiddish 
Literature in the Nineteenth Century,” New York, 
1899). Six daily Yiddish newspapers are printed in 
the city of New York (circulation exceeding 100,000 
copies), Which inform the Jewish immigrants of the 
general topics of the day and serve by their ad vertise- 
ments as aids in securing employment. They serve 
also to help the immigrants in the reading of news- 
papers in English. Thereare, besides, 
the Hebrew weekly “ Ha-Leom” and 
other Yiddish and Hebrew periodicals. 
The Yiddish and Hebrew press is al- 
most exclusively in the hands of Russian Jews, 
who are well represented also among the reporters 
and journalists of the secular press (see Drachman, 
“Neo-Hebraic Literature in America,” in “Seventh 
Report of Jewish Theological Seminary Associa- 
tion,” New York, 1900). 

Russo-Jewish educational work in the city of New 
York is conducted by The Educational Alliance, 
of which David BLAUSTEIN is superintendent and 
Adolph M. Radin and Harris Masliausky are lec- 
turers. Others hold special classes in various 
branches of science and literature. Russian Jews 
are devoted frequenters of the public libraries, read- 
ing the best selected literature and but little fiction, 
Their principal literary societies are the OHOLE 
SHEM AssocraTion and MefizeSefat Eber. Among 
earlier literary societies were Doreshe Sefat Eber, 
founded in 1880 (issued “ Ha-Me’assef,” No. i., 1881); 
the Hebrew Literary Society of Chicago (issued 
“Keren Or,” 2 Nos., Chicago, 1889); Mefize Sifrut 
Yisrael be-Amerika (issued “Ner ha-Ma’arabi,” 
New York, 1895-97); and the Russian American He- 
brew Association, organized by Dr. A. Radin in 
1890. 

The first Russo-Jewish congregation, the Beth 
Hamidrash Hagodal, was organized in New York in 
1852. There are now more than 300 large and small 
congregations and hebras; also orders, lodges, and 
benevolent and charitable societies and institutions, 
foremost among which are the Beth Israel Hospital 
and the Gemiluth Hasadim Association. With re- 
gard to the synagogues it should be noted that the 
Russian Jew does not adopt Reform customs, but is 
strictly Orthodox. Short biographical sketches of 
their rabbis and cantors will be found in the “ Ameri- 
can Jewish Year Book for 5664.” 

The Russian Jew is quickly adapting himself to 
American life. According to Dr. M. Fishberg, 
Russo-Jewish immigrants improve in stature, chest- 
development, and muscular strength after their ar- 
rival. Their descendants, he says, are improving 
physically, morally, and intellectually under the 
favorable influence of American conditions. When 
called upon the Russian Jews in America do not 


Yiddish 
Press. 


hesitate to fight for the country which bas given 
them freedom, During the war with Spain the 
number of Russian Jews who enrolled as volunteers 
in the United States army was greater in proportion 
to their population than that of other foreigners. 
The regular army also has a goodly number of Rus- 
sian Jews in its ranks; and their bravery, energy, 
and power of endurance have frequently been 
praised by their officers, 

See also AGRICULTURAL COLONIES IN THE UNITED 
StAtrEsS; Drama, Yippisnh; Mie@rarion; New 
York: Russta, Emigration (where statistics are 
given). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY : History and Data: G. M. Price, Russki Yevrei 
v Amerikye (a review of events from 188i to 1891). xt. Peters- 
burg, 1893; Edward A. Steiner,in The Outlook (Sept. and 
Dec., 1902), xxii. 528; Eisenstein, in Publ. Am. Jew. Hist. 
Soe. No. 9; Maurice Fishberg, in American Monthly Re- 
view of Reviews (1902), xxvi, 315; A. Cahan, in Atlantic 
Monthly (July and Dee., 1898), 1xxx. 

Immigration: A. J. L. Hurwitz, Rumania wa-Amerika, 
p. 47, Berlin, 1874; Reports of Hebrew Kmigrant Aid So- 
ciety, New York, 1882 and 1883; B. F. Peixotte, What Shalt 
We Do with Our Immigration? New York, 1887; H.S. Morais, 
The Jews of Philadelphia, pp. 206-208, Philadelphia, 1894; 
Hisenstein, in Ha-Modia’ le Hadashim, pp. 21-229, New 
York, 1901; L. E. Levy, Russian Jewish Refugees ta Amer-~ 
tea, Philadelphia, 1895 (reprint from Simon Wolf, The Amer- 
ican Jew as Patriot, Soldier, and Citizen, pp. 44-504). 

Colonization: Menken, Report on the First Russian Jew- 
ish Colony in the United States, New York, 1882 (published 
by the Hebrew Emigrant Aid Society): Goldman, Coloniza- 
tion of Russian Refugees in the West, 1882 (published by 
the same society); Inaugural Report of Jewish Alliance of 
America, Philadelphia, 1891; William Stainsby, Zhe Jewish 
Colonies of South Jersey, Camden, N. J., 1901; The Amert- 
can Hele, April 10, 1908, and March 17, 1905 (on the work 
of the Removal Office); The Reform Advocate, Mareb 21 and 
April 4, 1903. 

Sanitation: Maurice Fishberg. Health aud Sanitation of 
the Immigrant Jewish Population of New York, 1893 (re- 
print from Wenorah, Aug. and Sept., 1902). 

Criminality: Adolph M. Radin, Report of Visiting Chap- 
lain, 1893; idem, Astre ont u-Barzel (in Hebrew and Ju- 
dwo-German), New York, 1893; Israel Davidson, in Jewish 
Charity, Nov., 1903, and Jan., 1904. 

Descriptive: Eisenstein, in Ha-Asif (1886). ti. 214-219; M. 
Weinberger, Ha-YVehudinm weha-YVehadut be-Newyorhk, 
New York, 1887; Adolphe Danziger .... New York Ghetto, 
in Jew. Chron. Aug. 9, 23, 30, and Sept. 6, 190L; A. H. Ford, 
in Pearsows Magazine, Sept., 1903; H. Hapgood, The Spirit 
of the Ghetto. New York, 1902; Ezra 8. Brudno, in The 
Worlt’s Work, vii. 4471, 4555; M.J. McKenna, Qur Brethren 
of the Tenement and the Ghetto, New York, 1899; Katherine 
Kaufman, In the New York Ghetto. in Munsey’s Magazine 
(1900), xxiii. 608-619; S. Rubinow, Heonomic Conditions of 
the Russian Jews in New York, in Voskhad, 1905, No. I, 
xxv. 121-146 (Russian); A. Tiraspolski, Jewish Immigrants 
tn the United States, in Voskhad, ib. No. 2, pp. 86-98; M. Z. 
Raisin, in Ha-Shiloah. vols. iv., v., vi., vit. 

Fiction: N. Bernstein, Jit the Gates of Israel, New York, 
1902; Abraham Cahan, The Imported Bridegroom, and 
Other Stories of the New York Ghetto, Boston and New 
York, 1898; idem, Yekl,a Tale of the New York Ghetto, 
1899; Bruno Lessing, Children of Men, New York, 1903; Ezra 
8S. Brudno, Zhe lrugitive, New York, 1904. 

J. D. E. 


H.R. 

13. Statistics: The growth of the Jewish popu- 
lation in the United States during the nineteenth cen- 
tury has been quite extraordinary. At the beginning 
of the century it probably did not number more than 
2,000 (800 in Charleston, 500 in New York, 150 in 
Philadelphia, and the remainder scattered through- 
out the rest of the original states). The population 
received accretions, mainly from England and Ger- 
many, up to 1848, when the number had increased to 
50,000. Then from the Teutonic lands there occurred 
a great immigration due to the failure of the Revolu- 
tion of 1848, and up to 1881 the immigrants probably 
numbered over 100,000; then the population was 
estimated at 230,257. During the twenty-five years 
1881-1905 very nearly 1,000,000 Jewish immigrants 
reached the United States, as follows: 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


United States 


gs Ac ete a 


371 
ivan eae Par 

Years. New York. | Be Baltimore. Totals. 
TRB wil eptiasae: | weaeaee) 2 wrieaus ; 62,022 
$885-98...... 404,101 36,390 18,677 459,168 
TB99... cee 29,088 1,649 1,463 32,209 
WOD.. cc eveae 53,687 3,870 2,439 59,996 
TOD iuinonsea 31 doe 2,203 1,348 41,548 
TOOS oc aateadas 54,594 2.475 1,566 58,685 
JOOS cae away 60,815 3,007 2,99 67,165 
THA se deecsas 89,442 5,810 6,606 101,358 
TOUR: kawaii 100,338 9,392 5,086 114,816 

Totals....| 830,017 64,696 40,173 996,908 


Against the extraordinary immigration must be 
counted a certain amount of emigration, including 
about one per cent who are deported, and a Jarge 
number of Russian Jews who suffer from nostalgia 
(“ American Hebrew,” May 15, 1904), but no complete 
figures are ascertainable with regard to the numbers 
thus returning. On the other hand, a considerable 
number of Jews, especially from England and Ger- 
many, travel above the steerage class; and the sta- 
tistics above given do not include persons who went 
through Canada. Allowing for the natural in- 
crease, the Jewish population can not at present be 
much below 1,700,000. 

The original 250,000 who were in the United 
States in 1877 would by natural increase have 
reached 400,000 by this time, and the 1,000,000 im- 
migrants that have poured in since then must have 
increased at least 200,000 if they are reckoned on a 
mean population of 400,000 immigrants during the 
last twenty-five years. The movement of popula- 
tion within the last thirty years may be estimated as 
follows: 


Native Immigrant , 

(1877). | (1881-1905}.| Totals. 
Numbers enumerated.... | 250,000 1,000,000 | 1,250,060 
Deaths .veees AOC oe Te 100,000 150,000 250,000 
Bittlibascacsacatodawae ees 250,000 850,000 600,000 
INGKCGSE i cckerhaedewiesea 150,680 200,000 390,000 
CAN oc seg tra laa iit aeonee Re 400,000 1,200,000 1,600,000 
Born in America,.....6- 300,000 300,000 650,000 


H 


The above is quite a conservative estimate. For 
example, the increase on the immigration reckoned 
at 1.02 per annum upon a mean population of 400,- 
000 would by geometrical progression for twenty- 
five years reach 1.66 (= 1.02 raised to the 25th 
power). This would imply an increase of 266,000 
yather than 200,000. Similarly, applying an in- 
crease raic of 1.02 to the 250,000 original inhabitants 
of 1877, it would increase to 1.78 (1.02 to the 28th 
power) during the twenty-eight intervening years, 
and would show an increase in numbers of nearly 
200,000 instead of the 150,000 estimated. If these 
figures were adopted, the total number for the 
United States at the present time (1905) would be 
1,700,000, of whom 750,000 would have been born 
in the country. 

The Jews are spread unequally throughout the 
United States. On the whole, their relative den- 
sity of population corresponds to that of the popu- 
Jation in general except as regards the North At- 
lantic States. A large proportion of them have 
landed on the Atlantic coast, and have for vari- 


ous reasons remained in the Eastern States. It is, 
however, a mistake to think that all immigrants re- 
main in the cities at which they land. 
Apart from the exertions of institu- 
tions like the Agricultural Aid and 
Removal Society, many immigrants of 
their own accord move inland. It is on record, for 
example, that of the 880,017 who reached New York 
during the years 1885-1905, 227,523 left the city dur- 
ing the year in which they arrived. The following 
table represents the distribution of Jews according 
to states, with the chief towns in each state, the 
population, and the dates of settlement so far as 
can be ascertained, according to the estimate of 1877 
and that made in the articles relating to the various 
states in THE JEwisnh ENcycLorepta, Both are esti- 
mates, and are therefore likely to be somewhat 
above the reality, but each is incomplete, and it is 
probable that the incompleteness counterbalances 
the overestimation. In a few instances names of 
towns and agricultural colonies in which Jews 
settled but no longer reside are given in parentheses: 


Distribu- 
tion. 


1877 1905. 
Alabama........ edie AS ees 2,045 7,000 
ATTN OV SS argo cs PCA ROC RORR INR ROUT 100 
TOSSCINCE 54.5530 4 cheese eekesareeenet ~anaees 100 
Birmingham...... ieee Gisab ac ee 20 1,400 
Claiborne (1840). 
Demopolis (1850)....csverecenneevess|  cereee 42 
TA: CLEA oi scary bake eaka ea cna ees teswee 56 
Hantsville (ASI) so evae kaos 6 as0i0 Cee Gee 72 137 
Mobile (1724) .....008¢ ‘gp eaaeee Deraas 36 
Montgomery (1832). ..seccscenres as 600 1,000 
Seima (1850)...... Shale eae Saree aon 200 250 
Sheffield (1884)........0c0e ‘Pa wahleke irene 3,000 
Tuscaloosa (1904) 60k piveinss eeOeee ad aig RNs 85 
Eniontows Cl840) vsssasts taxewneeses 76 50 
Alaska, 
Cape Nome, 
Dawson. 
PP UFO TIN oon, oh eS sed ieeint tek 48 
ALKOGAS ; ee4 ses eexesesagee| 1806 3,085 
COMGER 6 ice tess Ce WCREN VERNA aes ye 86 U4 
Fort Smith (1845)....... errs ree: 66 179 
Helena (1869)..,... ea dielenoatsat oe 180 120 
Hot Springs (1856)......506- ‘Stebens penian 150 
Jonesboro (1882)....... erPre ree erry Sparen 125 
Little Rock (1838) ..... SNWale cecal) — rae 1,000 
Pine Blufl (1849). ssdesrsceieeaceaeeen 250 425 
PERNT RAND, ciciwaes suc eok VaR anes A4 175 
California...... Oe re ee Saveur Gh 18,580 28,000 
Alameda. 
CRIGG., Mord < suteeed< Lendb estas ceteraes Aaa 64 
(Fiddletown, 1857). 
Folsom (1859)...... PT RY Pe 19 18 
(Grass: Valléy, 1806) ..5d6205%4 00 tases Ny 
(Jackson, 1856). 
{Jesu Maria, 1850), 
TOS ATISCIOS (1854) iisasiaccteaseasel — t00h50 2,000 
Marysville (1857).....seesccsecees ies 32 64 
(NOVAS, LROD) cay cocuesdteemen dered 43 
Oakland ia eccocacsaaceaaaksens i goa 22% 
Sacraments TB pvc gain eens ee var rr 45) 
Sat BErmmardings< io4.asesevesaaer nee 1338 50 
Sat DIOGO sdb bene een CERRERKET Dyes 110 
San Francisco (1849)...... 00. e eee 16,000 17,000 
Sa JOSE nrc bidcseeet ye stews cane be ds 265 B00 
(Shasta, 1857)...... Ree Teer eer 13 
(Sonora, 1852). 
Stockton (1851)......eceeee edad ads 200 320 
Colorado... c. 42. 6000s rt ae 422 5,800 
Colorado Springs (1898).,...6.c.+ee- eee 75 
(Cotopaxi (col. {, 1882). 
Cripple Creek....... cpa beepesaaeeres earns 150 
Denver (1858) .......06. Mieassaeure 260 4,000 
Leadville (1864) .....cceeese be areiaiave ‘ mania cua 225 
Pueblo (1899) wrens @#eseevteeoeoevpepeeevreeee ' espe 300 
Trinidad (1883) eennte @eeenuveeevseeaecee eae sees? 150 


United States 


Connecticut...,..... Ree ee tasted | 1,492 
AnsOnia...ccssees M cideate hanno beanies saree: 
Bridgeport. 

Chesterfield (co). 1882). 

Colchester (col. 1895) .......... a me eee 
Danbury (1904). 

Derby. 

Hartford (1843)... 0c ce eee cece eee] renee 
Meriden (1872). 

Montville (col. 1895). 

New Britain (1892).......... cee ee eee] pee oee 
New Haven (1770). .......cceseneees 1,000 
New LOndom........ccccecesceeceecs re ye 
Norwich (189?) si ccaud sh cow pe eee ts ey Abaca a tie 
WV ALOLDULY 6 isi siete 1G ae See eae 68 

Delaware........ ...... bose 585 
Wilmington (1819; 1860)........... 85 

District of Columbia........ ...-{ 1,508 
Washinelon ys iicasieien wii iiaced , 1,375 

PIOVIOd 2 ksavee eke dinn eae ee ee 772 
J aceon ve (1882)... eoataceed wise wevieaeve acts 130 
Key West ee@eteos eo*esoescereovoerne ev eon ee 50 
Pensacola aien ale as ace eiees bab ead 60 
Tampa.. Oe TORT OTT eT rere 30 

Georgia ......... Sioiwmieaseekael, “2404 
Albany (1876)...... wisiaearesets See ie aie 100 
Athens (1872)....... eg ion eect iA 110 
Atlanta (1846).............. pasate 525 
AUGUSTA... ecco bia die a en etale ohicsnlat ies 
Brunswick (1885}.......... eevueeacs aleted 
Columbus (1854). ......cccece ees ae 275 
Macon (1859)......... Reha we ees Os pen 350 
Rome (S71). ssa as eawswtens oe 46 
Savannah (1733) ....... ccc eee eee eee 603 

AGANOS + each drioe: See aes eas 85 
Boisé City ........6. Leese eines dada. cahenes 

Illinois...... ee ctn A eeoe ee eer 12,625 
Aurora (13861). 

Bloomington (1850)...,....0. cece eee 115 
Cairo (1894) oc cess conpiesaves Bisace 5v 
Chicago (1838)... 0... cece ees 10,000 
Danville Eee 

TOUCiiec nde Sint eh Oe eae eee ee a. <eealee ss 
Moline (1866)..... ....... Gobineau, 13 
Peoria (1847)...... Pe ns ee eer 400 
Pontiac (1856) vere kadnssuasiew wees 27 
Quincy (1850).........566 er eee re 500 
ROCK Island sss .c¢0 « accdeeas eta eee 
Springfield (D865) vies wa GaGa eee beens 150 

Indian Territory. 

Ardmore. 

Atoka eeovoenquauvveeeorvte gevovnses P@e@eosboe eet] i§seet¢¢#48 

Indiana ..... Fre dbsted are er ae 3,381 
Evansville (1840).......cescsescerves 3t 
Fort Wayne (1848)......cssecceeeees 275 
Gosben (1878) .........- Kotedesss Spree 125 
Indianapolis (1850).....-ccceeevevees aaa 
Kokomo (1896).........00. CVadeteeee| ~aehowe 
Lafayette (1849) ....... ee ee 225 
Ligonier (1864)......... bis Pen aetecteaaee ‘oa 
Logansport (1900)... ccc eceeeeoeeces 
MATION as a) vient ob Cae a ores Se toe wit 
Mount Vernon.......ccseuses pardiaredes skovarecave 
Muneie.......... Rive OMaS eRe ae satis Sa 
Peru (1870)... 2 eee ev aloia eee 65 
South Bend. 

Terre Haute (1890).........-. eae 100 
Wabash........ rece er Sok catvemew 

Towa es, eee eeorese oeeeave e 1,245 
Burlington (1902) .. stare ween aeks 121 
Council Bluffs. 

Davenport (1861).......... euduseaae 204 
Des Moines (1873) ..........- peeves 260 
Dubuque (1847)......... eueaataatecs 55 
Keokuk (1856)........ (ahead eowews aid 152 
McGregor (1847) .....-..60. eet ere. 24 
Sioux City (1884)... cece wee eo nes 48 
Kansas........ ..2-- eu 819 
(Beer-Sheba, 1882 [col. 7 in Hodge- 
man County). 
(Hebron, 1884; Gilead col. in Coman- 
ehe County, 1886). 
Kansas City. 
Leavenworth (1859) sii ieee dames 455 


(Leeser in Finney County. 1896). 


1,500 


3,500 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


(Montefiore [col.] in Pratt County, 
1884), 


Topeka (1885).......... ere eae 
(Touro (eol.J, 1886). 
Wichita. 


Kentucky........... a a etices 
Henderson (1879),...... gti sieat daa ices 
LEXINGtON .. wer ceeveee A ree 
Louisville (1814)........ sie neaee 
Owensboro (1863)..... cece evens seed 
Paducah (1865)........ ee et ae 


LOuiS1aNna... 4,2 cdewe sus bee c aes 
Alexandria (1864)..... ccc cee ees 
Bastrop (1874).. 
Baton Rouge (1884) Lie acata nition share is aiea 
Donaldsonville (1850)..........c eee 
Lake Charles. 

Monroe (1872)........066. beeeeates 

Morgan City (1870)... «2.6. wees eee aee 

New Orleans (1815).......ccccceeees 

Shreveport (1866) .......0.00. 

(Sicily Island hear Bayou Louis Col- 
ony, 1881). 


NIGING =<: a eed Sak ease cc chore nl 
Auburn (1897) Sits bide as awattetias 
Ban ngor eoonaerveoree neon waened oe eeaer toe 
Biddeford (1892). 
Lewiston.........ccceces Aislin aaa ee 
Portland. 

Rockland. 

Maryland...... bi baa Verweks oe 
Raitimore (1750).......... athaees 
Cumberland (1856)..,..... oi wines bale 


Double Trouble (col.). 

Ellicott City (col. near). 

Frostburg. 

Hagerstown (1898).......005 ae eels 


Massachusetts. .... 


Buston (1695)... ccc cee ee ec ce neone 
Brockton. ......0..- ree 
Cambridge. 

CHEISER is baesndas edd wows wee ewue paisa 
Fall River (1885)...... ccc cece cece eee 
Haverhill (1899)......... Rah dnc er 
13 (0) bce) (; Ser 
TPAWTONCC coo vaeawitcekb tees nae ee 
(Leicester, 1777). 


N@W Bedford... ceesneessceveveces 

North Adams. 

Pittstleld.... ccc ccesceccccccsecacs Exe 

Quincy. 

ROVCLre.... cece ee se orn eeees re 

Salem (1894)........ec008 re ee 

Springfield (1895)... .. 0. cece wees heat 

Worcester (1875)... 1. cae cacecceeees 

Michigan. 
Alpena (1870).. 
(Bad Axe, 1883 ; colony of farmers) . 
Battle Creek.. 


oeoaeeeoe @moeenee ve etree we 


eer eseecertoveseae 


es evoereaeseeeoaeaneseeast 


Bay City (1880) . estas eteaneaas eued 
Detroit (1848).........-. ee ee 
Grand Rapids (1871)........... dates 
Hancock .....sceccvcsecves S Gaeta oe 
Jackson ......+..- bic aa Sees 
Kalamazoo (1STS) aca laes ee: 
Lansing. 
Palestine (col., 1891, near Bad Axe) 
Port Huron (1893).......0.e0. rer eres 
SAGINAW... .cees EROS CENSOR SEW 
Minnesota... ........e scene eae 
Diithss.005 ies ierisewoeseuu sae ioe 
Minneapolis (1865).. eee ore 
St. Paul (1850) wpoeneoovesd eesnetcenoeoet or eoear 
(‘Taylor Falls, 1852). 
Mississippi........... patanee Pte 
Columbus (1872) ......----eceaeees es 
Jackson (1854)........c ccc ee cee ceens 
Meridian (1868)... ... ccc cece cw evans 
Natehez (1800)..........:5 A ae 
Port Gibson (1859).......ceeeeeveees 
Vicksburg (1843).. eae ease 
Woodville (1849)... er cee seoaavaucee 


1877. 


oreooete 


eoeeoe 


e@enanee 


seneoe 
@oueres 
eretae 


se aeee 


ars eeoe 


oveeere 


e@seseon 


372 


1905. 


58 
S 8 


S8e8 g SE S SEES xe 


b—_t 
ie 


-_ 
for) 
‘ a 
a 
oe 


# § 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Grand Forks. 
(Painted Woods, 1882, col. near Bis- 
marck). 


373 
1877 1905 
| 

Missouri....... Tree er 7,380 | 50,000 
Kansas City (1870). ....ccccseeeeneee 240 | 5,500 
St. Joseph (L800)... cece eee eee eens Fs 1.200 
St, Louis (1830)... ccc cee eee e eee ees 6,200! 40,000 

Montana....... ee ee 131 2,500 
Anaconda. | 
Bute (ASS) cieaaesktueeate says] ‘waaay | 250 
Helena (1872) .s.ciasawwcescnsetoes 112 

Nebraska........... Sobeds aera 222 | 3,800 
Lincoln (LS80) oo. c cece eee eens a 225 
Oman: (L800) ss. cksawan seuss cee eacees 66 3.300 

Nevada So Soe a * ee eee eee eee 780 : 300 
Goldfield. 

New Hampshire............... 150 1,000 
Manchester. 

NOSTAs os suk hwds Gas deed ees Seeeeli: Feeeeed 160 
New Castile (1693). 
Portsmouth (1785)... 0. ccc eee eee oer 290 —~C« 400 

New Jersey............ eS eve ws 5,593 | 40,000 
Allianee (@ol. 1882)........ 0. cee ee eS ee ee 512 
A aNLICCCILY iv scene Savenasataw Sead . “Saeeas 800 
Bayonne (806). cies ecieseesoes|  Seares 1.200 
Camden (1804)...... 0... ccc ee eee cee 29 | 500 
Carmel) (Cole TA82) Gckcutetieemeaaees |. - xearkes | 471 
Elizabeth (1850)........ ee ee re | 1,200 
Hoboken (1871)... 2... cc cece ce ene 600 | 1,000 
Jersey City (L870)... cc cee eee eee 450 | 6,000 
Lakewood. 

LONG Branehincncsiweressisavee wanes ‘ 5) 

Morristown. 

Newark (1848).......0..ccceeecenves 3,000 20,000 
New BrunswickK ......cscceeecneeene 73! 400 
Orange, | 

Passaic (18938) ......cccceeceee ewes 37 2,000 
Paterson (1849)... . eee cece ee eee Wa 427 6,000 
Perth Amboy. | 

PANG os os 24 eke Ae eee, hates 200 
Rosenhayn (col. 1882) ........e0 eee] cee eee 294 
WENION disk oo osace eaGhSasteegek 26 50! 1,500 
Woodbine (1891)... .. csc e ete e eee cee] — ceeeee 2,000 

New Mexico............ eee 108 | 800 
Albuquerque (1882)...... Pics aeeys: - eee 165 
Las Vegas (1878) ..... cece ecw eeee ee gare ee 250 
ROS WOLE tibia teeta base SGl, (dese ed 45 
Santa FE (1846)... cece ce ee ee ee eee 108 25 

New York. ........ ere 80,565 820,000 
Albany: (LOGI) 2 cise cher tenia caw 2,000 4,000 
Amsterdam (ISG) Sierra Sere eeeaul- \aawsK 250 
(** Ararat”? on Grand Island, Niagara 

Falls [1825], near Buffalo), 
Arverne. 
Bensonhurst. 
BinGhaAMtODs 662404 sieve eases) Slewss 250 
Brooklyn (1850) .... cee eee eee 13,000 | = 100,000 
Bulg: (182). cnet anes iadewes as 7 7,000 
Coney Island. 
Elmira (1801)......cccccesccerseeees 300 1,500 
PIUSHING 3s takes oie ceed ea ieaeaee med: | Wetde 25 
Gens Falls......cecceee ‘sun iideains 24 
Ithaca (1891) voc. ce ewe eect ee eee 53 100 
Kingston (1838)........ at eietewia eee 68 600 
Newoburen (1865) .......... cece cee 158 300 
New York (1654)....... ccc ce eee e eens 60,000 672,000 
Port Chester.......cesrccevccrrecesed crores 300 
Poughkeepsie, ...........cceceeeees | veeeee at) 
Rochester (1840)......... idea nas Ll | 5,000 
Schenectady (1856)..........00. ately osplveates 530 
Sharon Springs. 
Staten Island...... ner errr os er aa 730 
Syracuse (1889)... . cece eee eee eees ais iin 34 5,000 
Tannersville. 
TOV G70 tas setae Aen had ome oes 500 3,000 
CTtica. | 
(Wowarsing [Sholom] Agr. Col., UI- 

ster County, 1837). 
Yonkers (1882). 

North Carolina.............0065 820 6,000 
Asheville.........0. lider eebeneeeeel sane’ | 100 
Goldsboro (1883).....cccesseeccveens M47 125 
Raleigh (1870) .......-... enndaeuw 78 28 
Statesville (1883) .....ceeeeeseeeeeees ere 97 
Tarboro (1872). eet eGeanetoaastewoasetaeeead 54 100 
Wilmington (1852).....0---+eeee sees 200 1,500 

North Dakota.... 9 |. 


er ee ee 9 yr S/S ay SG i A A nt 
ela, ane ee 


a a 


ARTOU cack beige aeacceeewd Per eee 
Bellaire (1850)... . ccc cece ee eee eee 
Canton.....-. edie tat ee ciate re ade cntiee 
Cincinnati (1817) 
Circleville ..... 0 ...-eee. ae ines Katasets 
Cleveland (1887)... .. ccc eens eevceees 
COMMMNDUS 43:6 des 4a aed eae eed an ageeere & 
Dayton (1854) ..... 0008. er rene 
Hamilton RP BOB )cscinos casiia Bae w ee Wee 


eevee t crore neseevenr 


ee (TBE) caclovuteunetsettmas coat 
Portsmouth . op Web avi wimtasaes oni 
Springfield (1866). Lana aaa ree 
Toledo (1867)... .. 2. cee eee en beech 
Youngstown (1867). ....:esecacceees 


Oklahoma Territory. 
OKTADOMA CIEY. ce cece c eee ese eecee 


Oregon ......... ba 

(New Odessa, 1882 : ‘col. near Glen- 
dale, on Cal. and Oregon R. R.). 

Portland (1858) ...... ccs cece cence 


Pennsylvania........... ee ast 
Aaronsburg (1786). 
Allegheny. 

AILOON Ree kctiaaeut rs eases oss 
BraddocK......+ee08 Bawa wane ee nies 
Bradford. 

Doylestown (1894), 

Faston (1750)........05 bed asec eaters 
Frie. 
Harrisburg (1835).........+ whan 
Johnstown... ......++. ee rr thee 
Laneaster (1738) 
Sear (DUB) teeing exces eae 
Pittsburg (1804)..... 00... ecco acne 
Reading (L864)... 0... ecw eee ewes 
Schaefferstown (1782). 

Scranton (1862)... 0... cc eee eee ones 
Wilkesbarre (1848)...........0.c008- 
Williamsport ..... 20... cece ee eee eee 
York. 


Rhode Island ................8. 


Newport (1658). ...... ccc cece cence 
Pawtucket.......cccsecceece isd ad 
Providence (1878). 

Woonsocket (1892)... .. ccc cece ee 


South Carolina..... gre aya tec ee tah a 
Charleston (1695)........ owarcdeeek 
Columbia (1822). .......085 nr eee 
Darlington (1896)......... eens ae 
Plorence (1887) .......ce 50. or edlsie aeuaheed 
Orangeburg (1885)........ SC Leieeine 
Sumter (ES86) 4 vss veces hassa eens, 


South Dakota...............-6- 
(BethJebem-Yehudab, near Cré- 
mieux). 
(Crémieux Colony, 1882, Davison 
County, 14 miles from Mt. Vernon). 
Sioux Falls. 


Tennessee...........-.66- Steeslen 
Chattanooga (1881)...... 0068 ete ks 
Knoxville (1868) ...........0.- ere 
Memphis (1855)..........cceecees ve 
Nashville (1873)... .. cee cece eee eeeas 


Texas .. ; “ 
Austin (1866)........ ee reer 
Beaumont (1895). 

Castroville. 

Corsicana (1875). .... ccc eee esc eeees 
Dallas CUT 4 ve secasé eters eegececas 
El] Paso (1898). 2... 0. cee eee ama eee 
Fort Worth (1892),....... .-- 5-0. Se 
Gainesville (1882)...........6 oe 
Galveston (1837)... 0.0... ce eee eee 
Hallettsville isc bedava so seew beeuesscas 
HOEMPStOad.... cc cccccccnceccccvecece 
Houston (1844).........06. Se En 
Si Antonio (1854)... .. cc cee ee ec nes 


Toleseo (1831). 
Victoria (1876)... .. ccc cece eens eeee 
Waco (1869)... 


@eeseoaee?e: 


eevee oe tneoe seen teeeeun 


Salt Lake City (before 1881). ae 


United States 


sesees 


ereone 


eooeeene 


eorvonen 


eoereae 


enrene 


United States 


| 1877. 1905. 
_| 
| 
Vermont...... ee re ee eae 120 700 
Burlington (1885)... cc. cccccceseccee,  seeeas 450 
NPS UO seats eae eee Ore 2,506 15,000 
Alexnndria CESDS) us soap onrcursenass seen ° 110 
Charlottesville... cc... eee eee a aelie ee sete 91 
Lynchburg... .....eeeee done Saera weea eas dibarensye 140 
Newport News..... aeiowancdciteres ee pena 500 
Norfolk CPSU \ ooo wares beeen wee 500 1,200 
Petersburg (1863)....... Ecacareneatees 163 
Richmond CIBRO oie sis Seeks eo eanten 1,200 2,000 
Staunton..........- Leet ater eke tiks 45 
(Waterview Colony [1882] on the 
Rappahannock River). 
Washington...... aha ghiarg eee 145 2,800 
Seattle (1802) ....0... 0. cc ees Mita e as 56 
Spokane, 
Tacoma (1890).........- sen eididalnuntea ee ree 150 
West Virginia,...... 0.2... .005 511 1,500 
Charleston (1873) 0. ccc cece ener ee ees a 142 
Huntington (1887)........... prance ae ¢1 
PAarKersHULD. ctwaektiataatsaecaea))  adueds 150 
Wheeling (1849)... . cc. cece cee eee ould 400 
WASCONSIMS onesies ia te eed eeuies 2,559 15,000 
Appleton (1873)... ccc ce eceereeeees 143 162 
La Crosse (1856). ... 0... cece aes ae 106 
Madison.......... ite ueMewecenweel wetdese 60 
Milwaukee CTS 2 gana gas 3a yee 2,079 8,000 
Superior (1895). 
Wyoming __.... Sis engine ewer 40 


The accompanying map gives most of this infor- 
mation in graphic form, indicating the relative im- 
portance of towns by the size of the characters in 
which their names are printed, and indicating those 
towns in which Jews were settled before 1800 in red; 
those between 1801 and 1848 in purple; those from 
1849 to 1881 in green; and the remainder in black. 

It will be of interest to compare the distribution 
between 1877 and 1905 in the various geographical 
divisions: 


| Sse “ 
i 1877. 1905. 
Geographical Divisions. | ~~ 5 Nl = pie 
‘ er - | er 
No. Cent. Ko. cent, 
: fi Lad , mo sf) , » 
North Atlantic Division..! 116,017 | 50.6£ | 1,103,700 | 70.80 
south Atlantic Division..! 21,158 9,23 64.425 | 4.18 
South Central Division ..; 23,964 | 10,41 (12,085 3.98 
North Central Division..; 46.478 | 20.24 214,000 | V7 
Westerp Division,....... | 21,465 7 9.82 51,500 3.30 
——— ans ts Wes =| or eee 
POMS ts paxcsh oaks ; 220,082 | 99.84 | 1,558,710 | 99.98 


Owing to the enormous numbers that remain in 
New York and the vicinity, the North Atlantic Di- 
vision has greatly increased its quota during the last 
quarter ofa century. Nextto this, the greatest rela- 
tive increase has been in the North Central Division, 
from 46,478 to 277,000. The inerease in the Western 
States has not been relatively large, but from 21,465 
to 61,500 is by no means insignificant considering 
the difficulties and the expenses of transportation to 
the Pacifie coast. 
No materials exist for deciding upon the national- 
ities of the Jewish settlers in the United States as a 
whole, but for the immigration of 
National- the jast twenty years (1884-1905) the 
ities. countries from which the Jewish im- 
migrants have come have been noted, 
and the numbers and percentages, together with the 
percentages of the 10,015 of different nationalities of 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


374 


those applying to the United Hebrew Charities for 
aid during the year 1904-5, are as follows: 


$a 


| Per Cent 
Nationality. Numbers. ; Per Cent. Applying 
for Charity. 
RUSSIADS ..,.eeeeeeeeeeees| dO1,708 67,94 | 50.70 
AUSULiANs .... cece ccc eeeas 192,509 23.40 29.26 
Rumanians.......-...e66.| 4757 538 | 6.77 
Germans ......6- ng wae atrial 16,619 2,04 5.89 
PYONCD.ciwsewks saa ae ssa 45] 05 12 
Druifeh wc... ew eee s gtevele Seg 499 .06 21 
EN@iiSliasssiawwwna eaves 3,603 44 16 
(PUPS ic cies konaren ew sake 2,074 20 43 
SYriaMs......e6es- tah ete 3 facet, reae 
DA NCSiis saidiesiva ea cees eater 261 03 Saks 
Swiss......... eer rT At Seek .03 
Spanish ...,....- wdaa taceae 6 Keon 24 
NWeMCS, cee. ccees errs | 42) 05 038 
South-Americans......... 5 Wena 0d 
Bulgarians..... eens + 7 Perr nate 
GIOCKS oi s54454.cnes sca 12 ‘ : 
LOUUS 2 oy sn ex ies ach 6SLESS6 99.94 


These figures, which relate only to the immigrants 
arriving in New York, do not, of course, apply to 
the whole Jewish population, and especially leave 
out of account the English and German immigrants 
of superior social standing, whose numbers are not 
eounted in the immigration returns. Besides this, 
the offspring born on American soil for the last 
thirty years must by this time be at least one-third 
of the total number (see above). 

It will be observed that the Russian Jews who 
have arrived in the United States constitute only 
two-thirds of the Jewish immigration, nearly a quar- 
ter of it coming ‘rom Austria. The number of 
Jews from Denmark and Sweden seems rather large 
compared with the Jewish population of those coun- 
tries. The Turks include Jewish inhabitants of Asia 
Minor and Palestine, as well as of Constantinople and 
Salonica. 

It will also be observed that the Russian Jews 
apply for cliarity in somewhat smaller proportions 
than those of the numbers of arrivals of the same 
nationality, while the Austrian Jews apply in larger 
nuipbers, thus confirming the impression of the great- 
er “Judenelend ” of Galicia. Only 2.39 per cent of 
the applicants were American-born Jews. 

The actual figures for the chief occupations of 
88,827 Russian and Polish Jews and 24,221 Jewesses 
in New York, 1900, are: 


Males. | Females, 
Engaged in mannfacture of clothing...... 2,604 8,545 
Laborers (NOt SpeCifled)....cresseseeeseuse A(t | eae 
SONGS Saiala via guctesaeminn Lis pecaxin tee erd snes | AAs || eked 
CET KS AC COP VISE ag oe saees wa serene seo S49 Mtoe | weresk 
Hucksters and peddlers........ aT wats 4, ES a Ee 
Retail ETCHANIS sos occ dde eva tiene ae Sai DOIG So laweks 
MH LOSHEOIIO sc xe eubnd 060s oeE SENS eee ees 3,250 1,306 
Boot- and shoe-Mukers....c. eee psa Sil aie LAO: "| .asee< 
Carpenters and jOiInerS.........0.aes PacaeGes Dtepae | eas tee 
EROS re spate oe Mee ena he bbs wa eee net ed pace 
Hat- and cap-miakers,........6: Oe Ree AAS A wave 
Manufacturers and officials..........- ware Posie | eetien 
Tobacco and eigar operatives......sesereee 1 ee eal Me 
‘Teachers and professors in colle@es......0- 526 132 
Physicians and Sur@eons........e00s Saekes BUS: sees F 
CEP ORIEN 5 56 yaclgaa alada's 4a Oe Dees Baa Oe eS OR ase actece 
DOHUSTS neck 5 cia a4 854.5 kadegraetae eaeebee ‘ts "5 Mises 
ABRICINNS a scan yea ews ee tee aewe Late 403 1i4 
Electricians......... ie ee geht etn betes ga 139 wise ee 
Servants ANd WaltressesS..csccsseeseceseves| eepace 2,378 
Dressmakers eer ean aneeae twueeeae es as . eauesa 2,168 
ACTPOSSOES.. 0.0006. canes ipa Ceta URES GE AS ae eee 37 


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1 Sita Eo ca ete ea Sa a 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA, Vol. Xil 


INSET: Enlarged Map of North Atlantic States. 


Settlements during 1654-1800, indicated in Red; 1801-1848, in Brown ; 


1849-1881, in Green: 1882-1912, in Black. 


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SCALE OF MILES 
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* Gopsrizht. “y908, ‘by Ft Funk & & Wagualls LOGoAN. one York & London. iS 

The relative importance of the different communities is designated by the 
size of the type in which their names are printed; colonies in italics; com- 
munities no longer in existence in parenthesis. 


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375 


As with nationalities, it is impossible to give full 
details of the occupations of American Jews, but 
the Poles and Russians in New York 
are almost exclusively Jewish (there is 
only one Orthodox Greek church in 
the city), and their occupations are 
given in the Twelfth Census. 

It is possible to add to the above the occupations 
of the more recent Jewish immigrants, Out of 106,- 
236 (60,040 males, 41,196 females) who arrived from 
July 1, 1908, up to June 20, 1904, there were: 


Occupa- 
tions. 


TANGY Stciwrae de wisaata winks 16,426 Merchants and clerks... 3,464 
Carpenters.,.......066. 4,078 | Servants.........eeeese 9,292 
Butchers oo. cceecceveee 1,401 Professionals .......08: 843 
Bakers <jcseasa odd csues 1173 Miscellaneous.......... 672 
Painters and glaziers.. 1,970 Without occupation, 
SCAMSITESSES .... cee 2,468 chiefly wives and 
Shoemaker ........06- 2.763 children..........00. 38,485 
Other artisans......... 14,830 

Unskilled laborers..... 8,371 106,236 


It will be observed that the predominant industry 
of the Russian Jews is tailoring, and Jews in gen- 
eral have been more intimately connected with the 
clothing trade than with any other oc- 
cupation inthe Union. The history of 
this connection has been recently in- 
vestigated by J. E. Pope(“ The Cloth- 
ing Industry-in New York,” Columbia, Mo., 1905). 
Up to about 1840 the working classes mainly de- 
pended for their every-day clothing either on home- 
spun goods or on renovated second-hand garments. 
The trade in the latter was mainly iu the hands of the 
Jews, and this led to a connection with the clothing 
trade, justat the time when the sewing-machine made 
the ready-made trade possible. 

The Jews not alone made clothing, but it was 
they who first developed a system of distributing 
ready-made clothing, and it was due to them that 
clothes which were sold in the general stores up to 
about 1840 were deposited and distributed in cloth- 
ing stores almost entirely manipulated by Jews 
from that time onward. Outside of the jewelry 
trade the clothing trade was almost the sole oc- 
cupation of the Jews up to 1860, and many mer- 
chants and firms that afterward branched out as 
general merchants, as the Scligmans, Wormsers, and 
Seasongoods, began in the clothing industry, but 
were diverted from it by the Civil war, which sud- 
denly broke off the large trade with the South. 
Several of the Jewish tailoring establishments en- 
deavored to replace this business by supplying uni- 
forms forthe Federal soldiers, but other firms had to 
divert their attention to new lines of industry. On 
the cessation of hostilities very large demand8 for 
clothing arose from the million and a half men sud- 
denly released from their uniforms, and these were 
mainly supplied by Jewish tailors, who about this 
time appear to have introduced the contract system, 
letting out to subcontractors in the rural districts 
contracts for large consignments of clothing to be de- 
livered at the great centers, and thence distributed 
throughout the country. In this development of 
the tailoring industry, which lasted from about 1865 
to 1880, Jews became mainly the large contractors 
and distributors, but the actual work was done 
apart from the great centers of Jewish activity. 

The next stage seems to have restored the industry 


Clothing 
Trade. 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


United States 


to the urban districts by bringing the actual work 
of construction inside factories. This also was the 
direct work of Jews. A certain number of English 
Jews who had learned the tailoring business went 
to Boston in the seventies, and removed to New 
York in the early part of the eighties, introducing 
what is known as “the Boston system,” by which 
division of labor was widely extended in the tailor- 
ing trade. “Teams” of workmen turned out a 
single article af a much greater pace, and a single 
part of the work was learned more easily by new- 
comers. Russo-Jewish immigrants who arrived in 
large numbers at this time (1881 onward) had been 
incapacitated by their physique for any heavy work, 
and in some cases had begun the contract system of 
tailoring either in England or in Russia; they were, 
therefore, ready to take up tailoring work in the 
“sweat-shops ” as almost the sole means by which 
they could obtain a livelihood immediately on arrival. 
Their participation in the trade became greater and 
greater, till in New York, the center of it, they were 
predominant. In 1888, of 241 clothing manufac- 
turers in New York city 2384 were Jews. Whereas 
previous to 1880 the imports of ready-made clothing 
from Germany had been about 12,000,000 marks a 
vear, this was reduced by 1894 to less than 2,000,000. 
On the other hand, the clothing industry in 1880 
turncd out in the five chief centers goods to the 
amount of $157,518, 528, and in 1900 $311, 146,858, an 
increase of 97.22 per cent. By 1900 there were 8,266 
clothing establishments in New York city, employ- 
ing 90,950 workmen, with a capital of $78,387,849 
and an annual product of 8239,879,414 (Twelfth Cen- 
sus, Vili, 622). According to Professor Pope, “to 
the Jews more than to any other people belongs the 
credit for the magnificent development which the 
clothing industry has attained ” (2d. p. 298). 

The social condition of the American Jews, inclu- 
ding those of recent arrival, is eminently satisfac- 
tory. Notwithstanding the fact that the Jewish 
immigrant arrives with an average fortune of only 
$15, nothing is more remarkable than the speed with 
which he makes himself self-supporting. Even 

those who find it necessary to apply 

Social ontheir arrival to the charitable insti- 
Condition. tutions for some slight assistance, soon 
get on without it. Of 1,000 ap- 

plicants who thus applied to the United Hebrew 
Charities of New York in Oct., 1894, 602 never ap- 
plied again, and five years later only 67 families still 
remained on the books, to be reduced to 23 in Oct., 
1904 (Bernheimer, “Russian Jew,” p. 66, Philadel- 
phia, 1905). It is quite a mistake to think that the 
Jewish workman accepts much lower wages than 
his fellow workmen in the same industry. It is true 
that during the first rush into the clothing industries 
in the eighties the early comers were content to take 
almost starvation wages, but by the end of the cen- 
tury Jewish laborers working in men’s clothing 
factories were getting $11.36 per week as against 
$9.82 for American working men in general, while 
Jewish women working on women’s clothing were 
getting 35.86as against $5.46. While their wages 
are comparatively high, however, their rents are in- 
creased by their tendency to crowd together, so that 
the real conditions are probably not so favorable. 


United States 


Thus in Boston it has been observed that 39.65 per cent 
of the Russian Jews dweli in “poor and bad tene- 
ments,” whereas the Irish have only 27.15 per cent 
of this class, though the Italians have 56.23 per cent. 
So, too, in New York, of 1,795 Russo-Jewish families 
investigated by the Federation of Charities, 1,001 
had dark rooms, and only 158 had baths. Also in 
Philadelphia, in a Jewish population of 688 the aver- 
age number of persons to a room was 1.39, while 
in three Chicago districts the average was 1.26 per- 
sons per room (“ Tenement Conditions in Chicago,” 
p. 64). Theaverage number of personsto a Jewish 
house in Philadelphia was 9.17, as against 5.4 for the 
general population; of 75 houses, only 8 had bath- 
tubs. Similarly in Chicago, only 3.73 per cent of a 
population of 10,452 Jews had bathtubs. It should, 
however, be added that the Russian Jew uses the 
public baths, of which there are large numbers in 
the Jewish quarters. 

Regarding persons higher in the social scale, it is 
obviously difficult to obtain definite information. 
A careful estimate, however, was made in 1888 of 
the annual turnover of different classes of manufac- 
tures in New York, a list of which may be sub- 
joined as indicating the chief lines of commerce in 
which Jews are engaged (figures in parentheses give 
the number of employees): 


Manufacturers Of ClOtHING ..... cece cece eee tetas $55,000,000 
Jobbers Of JEWEITY....... cece eee c etc c tent ecceeeres 30,600,000 
Wholesale butchers (6,000)....... ised eeseeeecaeeer’ 20e000,000 
Dealers in wines, spirits, and beer ........ceeceeees 25,000,006 
Jobbers Of leaf tobacco... 2... cee cee e ete etre eens 15,000,000 
Manufacturers of cigars (8,000)... cc... cee eee eenere 15,000,000 
Manufacturers Of CIOAKS ....... 0: cece es eveetecaseeee 19,000,000 
Importers of diamonds........ 0.0... c. cc cece cece eee 12,000,000 
Dealers in leather and hideS...........cce eee cee eee 12,000,000 
Manufacturers of Overshirts...........cccee eee eeeeae 10,000,000 
Importers of Watches......... 0 ccc ccc ce ee cee ee tees 6,000,000 
Dealers in artificial flowers and feathers............ 6,000,000 
Importers and jobbers of fUrs..... cece eee eee eens 3,000,000 
Manufacturers of undergarments..........e0ceeerees 5,000,000 
Lace and embroidery importers..........ccseeeeceee 4,000,000 
Manufacturers of White shirts...............0c0000: 3,000,000 
Manufacturers Of Nats....... ccc ccc ee enc eee rece eenes 3,000,000 
Manufacturers Of CAPS ........ ccc cece cree ene ences 2,000,000 

$248,000,000 


Besides this, it was reckoned that the Jews of New 
York at that time had $150,000,000 worth of real 
estate, and that the Jewish bankers of the city had 
a capital of $100,000,000. These figures would have 
to be considerably increased, probably quadrupled, 
after the lapse of twenty years. As is pointed out 
above, the turnover of the clothing trade alone in 
New York was equal in 1900 to the total amount of 
the Jewish industrial output in 1888, while one 
Jewish banking-house, Kuhn, Loeb & Co., issued 
51,360,000,000 worth of bonds during the five years 
1900 to 1905, and represents financially railway com- 
panies controlling 22,200 miles of railroad and over 
$1,800,000,000 stock. 

In a list of 4,000 millionaires given by the “ World 
Almanac” for 1902, the Jewish names numbered 
114, somewhat over their proportion compared with 
their percentage in population, but somewhat under 
their proportion if the fact be taken into consider- 
ation that they are mostly residents of cities, where 
alone the very wealthy are to be found. The 
generally satisfactory condition of the immigrants 
within a few years after their arrival is perhaps best 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


376 


indicated by the fact that the twelve great Jewish 
charities of New York altogether dispense only 
$1,143,545 annually in a population of over 750,000, 
about $1.50 per head. Again, in Chicago only 
$150,000 per annum is spent jin charity upon a popu- 
lation of at Jeast 75,000, about 52 per head. 

It is, of course, impossible to give the full score 
of Jewish philanthropy in the United States, but a 
rough estimate may be derived from 
the expenditures of the chief federa- 
tions for charity found in several of 
the main centers of the Jewish population. To this 
may be added the expenditure of the twelve largest 
Jewish institutions of New York: 


Charity. 


New York (twelve largest institutions)............05 $1,143,545 
Philadelphia Federation...........ceccccccccceucvace 119,700 
Cincinnati Federation... ....ccccccc secre ccececceveece 29,622 
St. Louis Federation........c ccc cece cee sceecucveceneus 43,108 
Chicago Federation ..........0.cccccccccccccscecceees 148,000 
Boston Federation...... 2... cc cee cece ees secececeees 39,000 
Detroit Federation... .. cc ccc cece cece seen crea ecceeves 6,662 
Kansas City Federation. .... cc ccc cc cence cent ee cennves 4,508 
Cleveland FeGeration........cccccccrucencavecceceens 41,350 


In addition to these sums, donations by Jews were re- 
ported for the year 1904 to the amount of $3,049, 124, 
making a total of more than $5,000,000; or about 
$3 per head for charity and education. 

It is also of interest to indicate the causes which 
led 10,015 applicants to appeal to the United Hebrew 
Charities of New York during the year 1904-5: 


SICKNESS. ..... cece eee 3.229 | Transportation........... 360 
No male support........ 2,050 Release baggage or 
Lack of work.........-. 1,641 FAMILY 635 idciewa Coad es 12 
Insufficient earnings..... 781 | Lack of tools............. 43 
Physical defects.......... 178 | Shiftlessness...........++ 63 
Old age........... erete 471 | No cause............ 252 
Insanity of wage-earner.. 86 | Cause unknown......... 261 
Intemperance of wage- All other causes......... 504 
CAIMNOR cs505 i Sicha weird we ae 
Imprisonment of wage- TOG a7 2.2cohoeds 10,015 
CALC! ence oasesd late os 44 | 


The number of persons who are being punished 
for their crimes in the United States 
has not been ascertained; but the 
numbers of Jewish aliens who are in 
various institutions, as given in the 
report of the commissioner-general 
of immigration for the year ending 
June 30, 1904, are as follows: 


Destitutes, 

Defectives, 

and Delin- 
quents. 


; ; 
| Penal. 


Charitable. | Insane. All 
a | , aed ae 7 
‘ Per | | Per ; Per Per 
No. | cent., No | Cent. No. | cent,| No- cent 
SS >| [| | | 
Hebrews.,] 1,274 | 8.2 | 932 | 5 559 | 6.5 oe] 6.2 
| \ \ \ 


Considering that the Jewish immigrants are fully 
10 per cent of the total volume of immigration to 
the United States, this is an excellent showing, and 
considering that 1,000,000 have arrived in the last 
twenty-five years, the smallness of the numbers is 
still more remarkable. 

It should be observed that of the 559 Jews (484 
males, 75 females) found in penal institutions, 170 
were imprisoned for graver offenses, and 389 for mi- 
nor Offenses, whereas of the total number of immi- 
grant prisoners, 4,124 were for graver as against 
5,701 for minor offenses, Jews, as is well known, 


377 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


United States 


not being addicted to crimes of violence. Similarly, 
of the criminals reported to the Board of Magistrates 
of the City of New York for the year 1898, those 
from Russia formed 8.2 percent of the total number, 
whereas their proportion of the population was 11.2. 
In Philadelphia the Jewish inmates of the prisons 
were found in 1904 to be 2.7 per cent, 
Syna- whereas the percentage of Jews in the 
gogues and population was 7.7. 
- Institu- In some oc the early censuses of the 
tions. United States details of places of wor- 
ship were given for the different sects, 
and from these the following table was taken (ex- 
cepting the last line, which is from the returns 
made to W. B. Hackenburg): 


| 
Census. Synagogues. peconmoee: | Property. 
| —_—--—__-_-----~----—- 
BHO. ..ccssecevess 3 «| 8 3t1 | $ 418,000 
BOY, sikh ailerw aaa. wikis wi 34.412 1, 135.300 
TS Oceanseta es ect 152 73,265 5,153,234 
IS ibaa koteeew an 27. 12,546* 6,648.7 
siatt  PRA S 


* This enumeration is of membership, not -of accon accommodation. 


In 1905 the real property held by synagogues and 
Jewish charitable institutions in New York city, and 
which was exempted from taxation, was valued at 
$13,558, 100. 

For the present condition of affairs the following 
dataare given in the “ American Jewish Year Book,” 
5662: 


Congregations..... MeAeeeta evans ihgeweds Waneeue es 830 
THCOME OF-48 Li vanceaes ees ahead taken ie soies covevcese $1,233,12 
Reform congregations (Ce ee Fie) airew ake Cowes 
SCHOOIS..... ec eccceees dpe We ile BEONA ORWG RO GES OUT OD ie 421 
PUDISiserascisvgats Spiers Cae e A Oe peta Gaanee Saks 38,694 
Educational institutions and libraries.......... 006. ie 7 

Colleges for Hebrew studies......... ‘seve anerietarers 3 

Agricultural Sschools........cc cece rece cea eees 2 

Technical, industrial, or trade schools......... 13 

Societies conducting industrial classes...... .-. 16 

Societies conducting evening Classes........ .. 9 

Kindergartens ........ ccc cece cece ce tearence 11 

Kitchengardens...........ccceevees Nd eae ons 2 

Training schools for nurses..... i hGtireeaaanl ds hos 3 

DIDGariesiced orice tis ohn sade ons ack cease Sawes 19 
INCOME O20: hiete ese oes eku da was ews ws ww Cee Shas $160,456 
Charitable institutions....... ere led ere iaoesues taxa 500 
Income GC 243 cients ces cea ek eee bl ee ORS . $1,808,663 
Young Men’s Hebrew Associations basa Ghose verges sin babs 23 
Income of 10............20.. Melts bale Pen cuaeuees coveee $29,828 
Social clubS........0. Geishdanaotautace AM takes Sues aie as 1% 
Income of 33.,..... Medi vee laces ET ee eee ee $307,412 
OMOCr-ClUDS: as eiee i asteae pated Sees eae Berens 66 
Mutual benefit associations............. OR ee Ce, 63 
Income of 33......... Sowae sa ase ere Mayenne $36,784 
LOAN ASSOCIATIONS. 0... cece eee ce eee cee e eee e enone ‘i 22 
OUD OTS 5 bs00 siete sa Seine Neiaaheeee ss Serene: 52 
Zionist socteties.........5 Ae re eer eer er ere Serene ie 124 
Sections of Council of Jewish Women alcatel dale nsawete at ee 49 
LOO GCS sista ck cieess es Ke Dear ahe ue Maes Crew Gcintees is 954 


These results were reported from 503 places in 
thirty-seven out of the forty-seven states. There 
are now inthe United States about 1,000synagogues, 
to which may be added 314 houses of prayer used 
in the East Side of New York (“ Federation,” March, 
1904), making a total of 1,314, of which about 100 
use the so-called Reform ritual. Notwithstanding 
this comparatively large number of synagogues, 
certain districts of New York have 80 per cent of 
their Jewish inhabitants unaffiliated with any place 
of worship, though in Brooklyn the proportion has 
sunk to 83.8 per cent (“ Federation,” Oct., 1905). 


It is interesting to note the growth of the lodge 
system, of which the details given in the statistical 
publication of the American Hebrew Congregations 
of 1880 may be compared with those given in the 
“ American Jewish Year Book,” 5662: 


| lou l # | pa 
ee cece wh Axi =o 
| gai s | Cat 
| Peete 
BAL BTU a as ess 85 sae ese bo inne eae | 1880 | 7? 302 | 22,814 
| {900 a 317 
Independent Order Free Sons of Israel; 1880 a SG | 8,604 
| 1900 109 
Order Kesher Shel Barzel............ ' 1800 | 5 170 | 10,000 
| 1906 10 
Improved Order Free Sons of Israel. 1800 | 1 44 | 2,479 
Independent Order Sons of Benjamin 1900 + 188 
Order B’rith Abraham............... ie es at 


Miscellaneous: In i880 there were fifteen Jew- 
ish periodicals published in the United States; in 
1904 there were eighty-two, as well as thirteen year- 
books or occasional publications. Of the 14,443 
persons mentioned in “ Who’s Who in America,” 169 
were of Jewish race, about the proper proportion of 
the native Jews. 

Investigation has established that the fertility 
of the Jews in the United States is greater than 
that of other creeds and nationalities. Thus it 
was found by an investigation in New York that 
whereas the average number of children in Protes- 
tant families was 1.85 and in Roman Catholic 2.03, 
in Jewish families it was 2.54 (“ Federation,” New 
York, June, 1908, p. 34). Against all other expe- 
rience, it was found that Jewish families with domes- 
tics have a higher average of children than those 
without servants. This had been previously ob- 
served by J. 5. Billings (“Vital Statistics of the 
Jews of the United States,” p. 17). In one partic- 
ular ward of New York the Jewish families were 
superior in fecundity to all others, with an average 
of 2.9. There isclearly no race suicide among Jews. 

Besides being. very fecund, their marriage-rate is 
excessively high, because of the large proportion of 
nubile persons arriving in the United States, yet there 
is great inequality of the sexes owing to the fact that 
between the years 1884 and 1905 342,300 men have 
arrived, as compared With 221,247 women. It is said 
that intermarriage is occurring in order to supply the 
deficiency; yet of 9,668 New York Jewish families 
investigated by the Federation of Churches inter- 
marriage was reported in the case of only 78, less 
than one per cent. 

Some remarkable results have been reached as to 
the low death-rate of the Jews in the United States. 
In 1890 J. S. Billings investigated the 
death-rate of nearly 12,000 Jews, and 
found it as low as 7.11—in the Eastern 
States 6.29. In 1895 the death-rate of 
Russian Jews in Boston was only 6.09. These rates 
probably refer either to the well-nourished families 
investigated by Dr. Billings, or to the vigorous im- 
migrants of the most viable ages—between twenty- 
fiveand forty-five—among whom in an ordinary pop- 
ulation the death-rate would be even less. This is 
confirmed by the fact that while Russian Jews at 
Boston in 1895 had a death-rate of only 6.09, their 
children died onan average at the rate of 15.95. This 


Death- 
Rate. 


United States of Colombia 
Universities 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


378 | 


is about the normal death-rate in the most congested 
districts, and it would be safe to take the average 
death-rate of the Jews of the United States at 14, that 
for the whole population, In the year 1900 the death- 
rate of the ninth ward in Chicago (an almost entirely 
Jewish ward) was only 11.99, 

It has been observed that American Jews, even when 
immigrants, are taller than the average of the Jewish 
population of the countries whence they come, the 
average for New York city being 164.5 cm. as against 
162.0 cm. for Russia and Galicia (see SraruRE). 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Statistics of the Jews of the United States, 

New York, 1880; Alnual Reports of the Commissioner- 
General of Inmiyration, Washington, 1902-4; American 
Jewish Year Book, 1900-5; Annual Reports of United He- 
brew Charities, New York, 1885-1905; W. Laidlaw, in Jewish 
Charity, May, 1905; J. Markens, Hebrews in America, New 
York, 1888; J.8. Billings, Vital Statistics of the Jewish Race 
in the United States, in Eleventh Census Bulletin, No. 19, 
1890; Bernheimer, The Russicaa Jew, Philadelphia, 1905; F. 
A. Bushee, Ethiie Factors in the Population of Baston, 
New York, 1903; Hull House Maps and Papers, Boston, 
1895; T.J. Jones, Sociology of a New York City Bloch, New 
York, 1904; Jewish Colonies of New Jersey, Camden, 1901; 
M. H. Willett, Employment of Women in the Clothing 
Trade, New York, 1902; R. A. Woods, The City Wilderness, 
Boston, 1898; idem, Americans in Process, Boston, 1902; M. 
Fishberg, Materials for the anthropology of Western Jews, 
New York, 1905. ca 

UNITED STATES OF COLOMBIA. See 
SouTH AND CENTRAL AMERICA. 

UNITED SYNAGOGUE: A body composed 
of sixteen synagogues in London, England, consti- 
tuted in 1870 by Act of Parliament (33 and 84 Vic- 
toria, cap. 116). Originally the “city ” synagogues, 
as the Jewish places of worship within the borders 
of the city of London were called, were independent 
of one another, and each one had its own chief rabbi 
and charity organization. This led to considerable 
duplieation of charity. In 1802 Solomon Herschel} 
was appointed chicf rabbi of the Great and Hambro’ 
synagogues; and shortly after his accession to office 
he induced the three German congregations to come 
toanagreement for charitable purposes. This agree- 
ment continued in force until the year 1834, when a 
new compact was made and the scope of action was 
enlarged, The Great Synagogue agreed to contrib- 
ute one-half, and the Hambro’ and New synagogues 
one-quarter each, toward general and communal 
expenditure, both charitable and religious. 

The migration of Jews westward, however, made 
the continued force of thisagreement impracticable ; 
and the late Chief Rabbi N. M. Adler suggested an 
amalvamation of the three synagogues and the Cen- 
traland Bayswater synagogues in the western part 
of London. The project was taken up by Lionel 
I, Cohen, who energetically championed it; aud a 
union was agreed to April 19, 1868. The consoli- 
dation was further strengthened and Jegalized by 
the passing of an “ Act for Confirming a Scheme for 
the Charity Commissioners for the Jewish United 
Synagogues,” which received the royal assent July 
14, 1870. The Borough Synagogue, in the south 
of London, entered the union in 1873; and the North 
London Synagogue in 1878. The other nine syna- 
gogues have been built under the auspices of the Uni- 
ted Synagogue. The first secretary of the United 
Synagogue was Dr, A. Asher. Subsequently another 
act was passed for the definition of the rights of the 
chief rabbi and the bet din and of the powers of 
the chief rabbi. 


Each constituent synagogue controls its own sur- 
plus (if any), and pays 40 per cent of its income 
from seat rentals for communal purposes. In 1904 
a scheme providing for “Associate Synagogues” 
was adopted, whereby synagogues in poorer neigh- 
borhoods might enter the union without assuming 
all the burdens of the fully constituent synagogues. 
The first. synagogue to enter on such terms was the 
South-East London Synagogue. 

The United Synagogue is governed by a council 
constituted of: (@) life-members and certain officials; 
(5) the wardens of the constituent synagogues for 
the time being; (c) a certain number of represent- 
atives according to the number of members of 
the constituent synagogues, one in each case being 
the financial representative who acts as treasurer. 
The total number of members of the council is 150, 
Lord Rothschild is (1905) the president. 

J. I. L. B. 


UNIVERS ISRAELITE, L’. See Perrovicars. 


UNIVERSITIES: Places of higher and liberal 
learning, so called from the Latin word “univer- 
sitas,” signifying an association or a corporation. 
There are traditions of the connection of Jews with 
the medieval universities of Salcrno and Montpellier 
(sce MEDICINE) and with that of Oxrorp. No Jew- 
ish names are connected with the development either 
of the southern (Bologna) or the northern (Paris) 
type of university from the twelfth century onward. 
A degree or right to teach seems to have been re- 
garded as a feudal tenure; and the acceptance of a 
degree was always accompanied by payment of 
homage to the rector or councilor, Such homage 
involved the recital of Christian formulas, which 
Jews could not recite. Besides this the twenty- 
fourth canon of the Council of Basel (1484) distinctly 
prevented Jews from taking any academic degree. 

A. distinction, however, is to be made between the 
faculties of theology, philosophy, and law and that 
of medicine. Jews would naturally 
not study in the first of these, and 
they could scarcely work at medieval 
law, which was as much canonical as 
civil, while the philosophical faculty was mainly a 
development of the Christian metaphysics of Thomas 
Aquinas. But Jews appear to have studied, and even 
to have taught, in the medical faculty; thus, Elijah 
Delmecligo was professor of medicine at Padua at 
theend of the fifteenth century. Aslate as 1700 the 
universities of Rostock and Wittenberg counseled 
the Christians against employing Jewish physicians, 
who probably practised without taking a degree. 
Most of the Jewish doctors whose academic training 
can he traced received such training at Padua. 

With the revival of learning, scholars of Jewish 
birth, mainly those who accepted baptism, were 
utilized for the chairs of Hicbrew in the various uni- 
versities, as in the case of TREmELLIUS at Cam- 
bridge, ete. This practise was continued almost 
down to the present time, and spread to the whole 
circuit of the Semitic languages, in which Jews, 
from their proficiency in Hebrew, have a large op- 
portunity. 

In Holand rigid restrictions on university training ° 
do not seem to have existed, though there were few 


Medical 
Degrees. 


s 


379 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


United States of Colombia 
Universities 


names of Jewish students recorded till the nineteenth 
eentury. So, too, in Austria, the toleration edict of 
Joseph II. plainly declared that there was no ex- 
press law against the admittance of Jews into the 
Austrian universities; but the fact of its being thus 
mentioned is sufficient to indicate that the admission 
had either not taken place or was extremely rare, 
In France the Revolution opened the higher schools 
of learning tothe Jews; but in England they shared 
the disabilitics of all dissenters, and were prevented 
from taking degrees. Thus, Professor Sylvester, 
though second wrangler in the mathematical tripos 
at the University of Cambridge in 1887, did not ob- 
tain a degree there till 1872, after the passing of the 
University Test Act (1871), which was partly caused 
by the attainment of the senior wranglership by 
Numa Harroc in 1869. 

The Jews of the various German states were mostly 
debarred from participation in university education 
till the nineteenth century, though exceptions were 
occasionally made for Jewish medical students, In 
Prussia the first Jewish student ata 
university was Tobias Cohen, whom 
the Grand Elector allowed to study 
medicine at Frankfort-on-the-Oder in 1675. After 
the Mendelssohnian period many Jewish students 
began to attend the universities, but soon found that 
any university career was closed to them unless they 
were Willing to submit to baptism. The Prussian 
government has always regarded the universities 
as especially connected with the cultural side of 
the state organization and, therefore, as bound up 
with the interests of the Protestant Church. Hence, 
from the times of Ganz and Benfey down to those 
of Kronecker and Hirschfeld, the majority of 
capable students who desired to pursue a university 
career found it necessary to become baptized. In 
Austria a very similar state of affairs existed, as is 
shown by the cases of Mussafia and Biidinger. In 
the sixties and seventies no discrimination took 
place, but with the rise of anti-Semitism Jewish 
students suffered various disabilities which caused 
them to form special clubs (see ZIONISM), 

Notwithstanding these quasi-disabilities, Jewish 
students have thronged to the universities in excep- 
tional numbers, as can be seen from the accom- 
panying statistics. A comparison with the other 
creeds may perhaps best be made in Prussia, where 
the Protestants had 8.87, the Catholics 6.61, and the 
Jews 54.75 per 10,000 attending the universities in 
1902-8. In Austria the proportion of Jewish among 
other students indicates the same condition: 


Germany. 


NUMBER OF STUDENTS OF DIFFERENT FAITHS AT 
THE AUSTRIAN UNIVERSITIES IN 1902. 


i | 

| 
| Number, | Per Cent. 
L i 


nen 


~~ 
ée 


Catholic | 26,859 are 

MEEBO 2 ata icy stra Astint mew ESS ee Se! 1,466 | 4.4 

PROLOMA.< bola neiceeras aS eReEee ae | Lee 3.3 

POSIBN, 4 inta tee aeons CRS MS RAN Visas bio | 16.6 
\ Se 

EUUAIS 22455243 b cacy Ve pares | 84,829 100.0 


} 
| 


That the proportion in Prussia has not considera- 
bly increased during the last few years is borne out 


rrr ert Py 7 ree Ps lr emer lf oe 


by the detailed list of students attending the Prussian 
universities: 


NUMBER OF CHRISTIAN AND JEWISH STUDENTS IN 
THE Prusslan UNIVERSITIES. 


1886-87. 1899-1900. 
University. ‘hd | : 
Chris- : Chris- ited 
tians | ai tians. JOWe) 
Berlin ..cces ieee 8,975 880 4,44] 1,031 
BUN i a0eeeenwe cas LAT? 4} 1,889 55 
Breslatt.....ees re 1,09 222 1,380 212 
Gottingen..... e545 1,004 ‘i 1,238 22 
Greifswalde......... 986 15 768 12 
PLA eins 40440 eters pate 1,459 28 1,433 22 
Kiel saeindis ave beawe 508 4 822 18 
Konigsberg .......... 740 z 721 7 
MAP bute. 24.5, tacks: =e 896 22 1,079 23 
Academy at Miinster 483 ale 603 wee 
Lyceum Hosianum in 
Braunsberg........ 2) a a 46 : 
TOS vids Canes 12,345 1,313 14,420 1,465 


The numbers of Jews attending the Austrian uni- 
versities may also be given here: 


JEWISH STUDENTS AT THE AUSTRIAN UNIVERSITIES 
DuRING THE SUMMER OF 1902. 


Viena. .c.ccececcseaces 1,423 Lemberg ...ccecceceseee 4538 
GIA wien oo cans’ sesvees BE | CRACOW. .eeeseeseeeeee 190 
Tnnsbruck.........s cee 2 | Czermowitz ............ 207 
Prague (German)...... 348 oes 
Prague (Bobemian).... 70 Total..ccccceccseese 2729 


There are special conditions which would seem to 
prevent apy Jarge attendance of Jewish students at 
the Russian universities, their percentages being 
limited to 3 per cent of the whole body of students 
at Odessa and St. Petersburg, and 5 per cent in the 
Pale. Notwithstanding this, the history of the last 
twenty years shows that these proportions were 
largely exceeded, as can be seen from the following 
table: 

PERCENTAGE OF JEWISH STUDENTS To TOTAL 

NUMBER (Iussra). 


ge 


| \ 


University, 1880. 1899. 

St. Petersburg........ La Pbieabis te eeay 44 4.4 
NSC 225 Sad eGR BRT e ase bole Oo waa wes B.2 3.5 
CRACOSE i code wecasdnyans oaeuieuaes st ete 5.9 23:2 
CHEGAST esis iene fee tean Rage pane dawere 11.9 27.5 
WASANE vi a6 9¥4e 0 bp pitas tea ee se tele aia od 1.0 8.9 
BIBS 2 Aaah ato eet eee ead Weise Sirmacgieeu 15.2 17.9 
TOE DE Gere vas aehee sae es alee Cede cage eS 4.2 15.8 
Warsaw icceicece £5 AG x50 Cees Riis ne 11.6 16.8 
2 “POGISE vires dak 9% jon eee Keke Boab ek wet bee 5.4 
6.8 10.9 


To the above details it may be added that at Co- 
lumbia University, New York, in 1903, out of 900 
students whose creeds were in vestigated, 6.9 per cent 
declared themselves Jews, whereas no less than 1,900 
students out of the 2,100 of the College of the City 
of New York in 1908 were Jewish, and at the Nor- 
mal College of that city 75 per cent of its students 
were Jewish, 

For Prussia elaborate details are given by Thon 
and Ruppin, showing a distinct diversion of tend- 
ency from the medical to the juridical faculty. 
Thus in 1886-87 there were 185 students of law and 
698 of medicine, whereas in 1902-8 there were 459 
studying law, and only 369 studying medicine. The 


Unleavened Bread 
Urbino 


percentage of Jews among the law students remained 
practically the same at 9 per cent, whereas that of 
medical students declined from 19.6 to 15. In philo- 
sophical faculties a rise in numbers took place from 
246 in 1892-938 to 392 in 1902-8. In the latter year 
Jews formed 4.5 per cent of the students devoted to 
philosophy, 5.6 of mathematicians, 2.9 of economists, 
9. of pharmacy, and 26.9 of dentistry. 

The numbers of professors of the Jewish faith are 
rarely given authoritatively. Servi recorded that 
in Italy in 1867 there were seventeen Jewish pro- 
fessors at the Italian universities (“Statistica degli 

Israeliti,” p. 298). About 1880 it was 
Professors. said that there were six ordinary and 

twenty extraordinary professorships 
and twenty-nine readerships held by Jews at Berlin 
University, as compared with sixty-one, fifty-three, 
and fifty-seven respectively by Christians. Breslau 
records that there were seventy Jewish professors in 
German universities out of a total of 1,800, about 
the usual proportion (“Zur Judenfrage,” p. 17, Ber- 
lin, 1880). About the same time six of the 259 chairs 
inthe English universities were held by Jews. In 
1903 it was declared that the University of Munich 
had ninety-nine Catholic, eighty-seven Protestant, 
and seventeen Jewish professors and privat-docents ; 
Wiirzburg had thirty-eight Catholic, fifty Prot- 
estant, and one Jewish privat-docents; while Er- 
langen had twelve Catholic, fifty-three Protestant, 
and two Jewish professors (Bloch’s “ Wochen- 
schrift,” July 4, 1903). At Strasburg there were six 
Jewish professors (7b. Oct. 31, 1902). The only pro- 
fessing Jews who have ever held the rectorship of a 
Prussian university are Prof. Rosanes of Breslau 
aud Prof, Julius Bernstein of Halle. Lazarus was 
rector at Bern: Gomperz at Vienna; Halberg at 
Czernowitz; and Zucker in Prague. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jacobs, Jewish Statistics, p. 47; Ruppin, Ju- 


den cer Gegenwart, pp. 204-209; Thon and Ruppin, Der 


Anteil der Juden am Unterrichtswesen in Preussen, Ber- 
lin, 1908; Zeitschrift fiir Jtidische Statistik, passim, 1905. 
J. 


UNLEAVENED BREAD. See MaAzzau. 


UNNA, PAUL GERSON: German physician 
and dermatologist; born at Hamburg Sept. 8, 1850; 
son of Moritz Adolph Unna; educated at the uni- 
versities of Heidelberg, Leipsic, and Strasburg 
(M.D. 1875). He was severely wounded in the 
Franco-Prussian war,in which he served as a pri- 
vate. After graduation he became assistant to Wal- 
deyer at Strasburg, and in the following year he 
returned to Hamburg and established a practise. 
During 1877 he was assistant at the general hospital 
in that city. In 1881 he became interested in der- 
matology, and opened a private hospital forskin- 
diseases; and in 1884 he gave up his general practise 
and founded the well-known hospital for skin-dis- 
eases at Ejinisbtittel near Hamburg. This he en- 
larged in 1887 by adding a laboratory, which soon 
became the center for dermatological researches in 
Germany. 

Unna is an untiring worker; he has written over 
one hundred essays in all fields of medicine and 
many standard works on his specialty. In 1882 he 
founded the semimonthly “ Monatshefte fiir Prak- 
tische Dermatologie.” He is collaborator for der- 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


380 


matology on Eulenburg’s “ Realencyklopidie der 
Gesammten Heilkunde ”; on Baumgarten’s “ Jahres- 
bericht iiber die Fortschritte in der Lehre von 
den Pathogenen Mikroorganismen”; and on Vir- 
chow-Hirsch’s “Jahresbericht iiber die Fortschritte 
und Leistungen in der Medizin.” 

Among Unna’s publications may be mentioned: 
“Kuno Fischer und das Gewissen,” in “ Zeitschrift 
fiir Vélkerpsychologie und Sprachwissenschaft,” 
1875, ix.; “Anatomie der Haut,” in Ziemssen’s 
“Handbuch der Allgemeinen Therapie,” 1882; 
“ Histopathologie der Haut,” in supplement to Orth’s 
“Spezielle Pathologie,” 1894, and “ Allgemeine Ther- 
apie der Haut,” 1898. All three are standard works. 
He publishes the “ Histologischer Atlas zur Patho- 
logie der Haut,” and, together with Morris, Besnier, 
and Duhring, the “Internationaler Atlas Seltener 
Hautkrankheiten.” 


BIBLIOGRAPHY : Hirsch, Biog. Lex.; Pagel, Biog. Lex. 
g. iT 


UNTERFUHRER. 
NIES. 

UR: A locality mentioned four times in the Bible 
(Gen. xi. 28, 31; xv. 7; Neh. ix. 7) with the qualifi- 
cation Dw (= “of the Kasdim,” or Chaldees), 
and described as the original home of Abram. Mod- 
ern scholars, with few exceptions, are agreed that 
Ur is identical with the mound of ruins in southern 
Babylonia on the right bank of the Euphrates, 
known as Al-Mukair or Al-Mughair. This was 
an ancient seat of lunar worship; and it was 
dominant asa political center as early as 8000 B.c. 
Those scholars who incline to establish a connection 
between moon-worship (“Sin ” = “moon”) and the 
monotheism of Israel (“Sinai”) find a corroboration 
of their theory in the fact that Abram’s original home 
was the seat of the worship of Sin (comp. Jensen 
in “Zeitschrift fiir Assyriologie,” xi, 298 et seg.). 

E. G. H. 

URANIA: Daughterof Abraham the Precentor, 
of Worms, who herself acted as precentor in the 
women’s synagogue in that city before 1275. See 
SAGERIN. 

A. FLL. C. 

URBINO: Italian city; capital of the province 
of Pesaro e Urbino; originally the capital of the 
duchy of Urbino, and later a portion of the States of 
the Church. Jews seem to have resided in the city 
as early as the thirteenth century, Abraham Axpu- 
LAFIA having sojourned there; but existing docu- 
ments make no mention of them until the follow- 
ing century, in the first decades of which a certain 
Maestro Daniele went from Viterbo to Urbino, where 
he opened a loan-office. Toward the close of the 
same century his son Isaac received privileges from 
Count Antonio. During the following century the 
Urbino Jews increased in prosperity; but their gain 
in numbers was small. The privilege of lending 
money at interest was reserved to the descendants 
of Maestro Daniele. Other Jews who 
wished to establish themselves in the 
business were obliged to obtain per- 
mission from the rulers and the privi- 
leged families. In 1430 Sabbatuccio di Alleuzzo, a 
Jew of Recanati, was obliged to guarantee the pay- 


See MARRIAGE CEREMO- 


Maestro 
Daniele. 


381 


ment of a yearly tax of 500 scudi to these families 
before he was allowed to open a banking-house 
in Urbino. With these exceptions, the city con- 
tained only a few Jews, who were either physicians 
or were engaged in the humbler branches of trade. 

Until the beginning of the sixteenth century the 
Jews of Urbino were permitted to buy, hold, and 
sell real estate: to deal in metals and paper, and to 
follow the trades of tailoring and tanning; to reside 
in.a}l portions of the city; and to employ Christian 
servants. They were, however, subject to special 
taxation, for in addition to the ordinary taxes and 
the “impost of the Marches,” levied on all the Jews 
of those districts, the money-lenders paid a separate 
tax, though one of them, Solomon of Urbino, stood 
high in the favor of Duke Frederick. 

Toward the close of the fifteenth century and in 
the beginning of the sixteenth the Jews became the 
objects of popular persecution. In the year 1468 a 
Monte pit PIETA was established in opposition to 
them; but as it loaned money to the very poor only, 
and allowed but 4 florins every six months to each 
person, the Jews still maintained their banks, and 
at the end of the century they obtained from Guido 
Ubaldo a ratification of their former privileges. So 
great was their increase in numbers and influence, 
moreover, that in 1507 an effort was made to check 
them. The sale of pledges outside the city was for- 
bidden; and a committee was appointed to revise 
and limit their prerogatives. Then began the pro- 
mulgation of aseries of decrees against them, which, 
however, being issued merely to conciliate the papal 
see, produced little effect. On May 20, 1508, Duke 
Francesco Maria annulled ali the privileges granted 
by his predecessors, and forbade the Jews to acquire 
real estate or toact as bankers. Hecompelled them 
to restore without interest all pledges in their pos- 
session, to wear the BapGsE (which consisted of a 
yellow cap for men and a yellow veil for women), 
and to purchase food in the evening only. 

Shortly afterward the Jews, who then numbered 
about 500, were obliged to take up their abode in a 
separate quarter, known as the “Androne delle 
Giudei,” and were forbidden to employ Christians 
as servants, Despite these harsh measures, the 
Jewish bankers continued to prosper, 
increasing both in numbers and in in- 
fluence. At length, in 1512, the munici- 
pal council resumed the practise of 
borrowing money from them, and sometimes, as in 
1571, even pledged to them articles received from 
the monte di pieté. In 1598, however, a new de- 
cree was issued against lending money; but an edict 
published by the duke in the following year men- 
tions the Jews of Urbino, “ who conduct loan estab- 
lishments,” and laws enacted in the same year also 
allude to them. 

In 1529 Solomon Moko was brought from An- 
cona to Urbino by the duke, who sought to shield 
him from the consequences of a dispute in which 
this protégé had been involved in the market-place 
of Urbino. A Jew named Moses was for many 
years the municipal physician of Urbino; and the 
court of Guido Ubaldo contained many Jewish 
courtiers, who were treated as the equals of their 
Christian confréres, although they were so unpopu- 


The 
Ghetto. 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Unieavened Bread 
Urbino 


lar with the people that it became necessary to pro- 
mulgate special decrees for their protection (1549- 
1624). 

In 1556 Guido Ubaldo offered asylum in his ter- 
ritories, especially at Pesaro, to the Maranos who 
had fled from Ancona on account of the persecutions 
there, hoping thus to attract to Pesaro the commerce 
of the East. When, however, he saw that his hopes 
were vain, he expelled the refugees in June, 1558. 
For the same reason he welcomed the Jews banished 
from the Pontifical States in 1569, only to drive 
them out in March, 1570, at the instance of Pius V.; 
and when some ventured to return, he banished 
them a third time (Aug. 16, 1571). 

Urbino then entered upon a period of financial 
decay ; and the Jews began to leave the city. The 
condition of those who remained became worse and 
worse; and the taxes levied upon them were grad- 
ually discontinued. At length, through the abdica- 
tion of Francesco Maria II. della Rovere in 1627, 
the duchy of Urbino passed into the hands of the 
pope, thus precipitating the dissolution of the Jew- 
ish community. In1718the number of its members 
was reduced to 200, almost all being so sunk in pov- 
erty that they petitioned the pope to exempt them 
from contributing toward the payment of the debts 
of the Roman Jews, reminding him that on a former 
occasion, had he not extended aid to them, they 
would have been obliged to leave the city and seek 
their fortunes elsewhere. The history of the Jews 
of Urbino at that period was identical with that 
of their coreligionists throughout the Pontifical 
States. They obtained civic equality at the time of 
the French Revolution, but lost it at the restoration, 
receiving it again when the Marches were annexed 
to the kingdom of Italy (1866). The synagogue 
of Urbino was owned partly by Catholics until 1851, 
when it was acquired by the Jews, and, later, was 
restored and beautified. The decay of the community 
continued, however, until in the year 1870 there 
were but 181 Jews in the city, while in 1901 there 
were only 92. 

Among the noted rabbis of Urbino may be men- 
tioned the following: Solomon b, Abraham b. Solo- 
mon (15th and 16th cents.); Samuel b. 
Abraham Corcos, Ephraim Mahalaleel 
Porto, Zechariah b. Ephraim Porto, 
Solomon b. Moses Rocca, Jedidiah b. Hezekiah Saba‘ 
(17th cent.) ; Jedidiah Hayyim Guglielmi(18th cent.) ; 
Mattithiah Nissim b. Jacob Israel Terni (18th and 
19th cents.); and Isaac Joseph Cingoli (19th cent.). 


Rabbis. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Rava,in Hducatore Israelitd, 1870, p. 312; 
Vogelstein and Rieger, Gesch. der Juden in Rom, ii. 54, 108; 
Berliner’s Magazin, xvii, 229; Giidemann, Gesch. ii. 179; 
Gratz, Gesch. 2d ed., ix. 350 et seq.. 361 et seqg., 382; R. EB. J. 
xvi. 61 et seq., xx. 47 et seq.; Joseph ha-Kohen, ‘Emek ha- 
Baka, ed. Wiener, p. 108; Luzzatto, Banchieri Ebret in Ur- 
bino nel’ Eta Ducale. 


D. U. C. 


URBINO: Italian family, originating in the city 
of the same name. The following important mem- 
bers are cited in chronological order: 

Solomon d’Urbino: Lived at Urbino in the early 
part of the fourteenth century, where he enjoyed 
the favor of Duke Frederick, and wrote asmall work 
entitled “ Yefeh Nof.” 

Isaac Saba‘ d’Urbino: Son of Solomon d’Ur- 


Uri 
Uriel 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


382 


bino; mentioned by Moses Rieti in his * Mikdash 

Me‘at” (ed. Goldenthal, p. 106b). 

Solomon b. Abraham b. Solomon d’Urbino: 
Flourished in the latter part of the fifteenth century 
and at the beginning of the sixteenth. In 1500 he 
completed his “Ohel Mo‘ed,” a work on Hebrew 
synonyvins, Which he dedicated to his teacher Oba- 
diah. This book was printed at Venice in 1548, and 
reprinted by Willheimer with notes by Heidenheim 
and Dukes, Vienna, 1881; the “ Yetad ha-Ohel,” 
Isaac Berechiah Canton’s commentary on it, has re- 
mained in manuscript. 

Joseph Baruch b. Zechariah Jedidiah d’Ur- 
bino: Lived in the seventeenth century at Mantua, 
Modena, and Busseto. He was the auther of the 
“Mizmor Shir Yedidot u-Benot ha-Shir” (Mantua, 
1659), a collection of poems on various subjects. 
He gave his approbation to a decision of Hananiah 
Shullam (Modena, 1636), and made a Hebrew transla- 
tion of an Italian work on astronomy, which, how- 
ever, has not heen printed. He is probably identical 
with the Joseph Baruch d’Urbino who owned Codex 
Oxon. 911, and perhaps with Joseph Baruch b. Zera- 
hiah Urbino of Busscto, who possessed Codex Oxon. 
348. 

Moses Judah b. Isaac d’Urbino: Flourished 
at Ancona in the seventeenth century. He is men- 
tioned by Abraham Solomon Graziano in his annota- 
tions and novelle on the Shulhan ‘Aruk (iii. 808 of 
the manuscript). 

Jedidiah Zechariah @Urbino: Nephew of 
Jehiel Trabotti; lived at Pesaro in the eighteenth 
century. He was the author of a manuscript vol- 
ume of responsa; and a responsum of his is cited in 
the “Shemesh Zedakah ” (ii, 24) of Samson Morpurgo. 

Isaac @’Urbino: Son of Jedidiah d’Urbino; 
lived at Pesaro in the eighteenth century. Codex 
Montefiore 111 contains one of his letters (“J. Q. R.” 
xiv, 185). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Nepi-Ghirondi, Toledot Gedole Yisrael, pp. 
107, 177. 210, 333; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. eols. 15388, 2391; 
Mortara, Ziadiee, p. 67; Fiirst, Bibl. Jud. iii. 461. 

D. U. C. 

URI. See SWITZERLAND. 

URI BEN DAVID BEN MOSES (7"n5yp) : 
Great-grandson of Samuel Edets (MaHaRSHA); 
rabbi of Pollno, Lithuania, and chief rabbi of the 
district; flourished in the middle of the seventeenth 
century. He was the author of “Or Torah” (Lublin, 
1672), commentaries and sermons on the Pentateuch ; 
and he included in his work several “ peshatim ” by 
his great-grandfather. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 2692; Fuenn, 
Keneset Yisrael, p. 92; Sternberg, Gesch. der Juden in 


Polen, p. 183. 
E. C. Ss. 0. 


URI PHOEBUS BEN AARON HA-LEVI 
(known also as Uri Witzenhausen): Dutch printer; 
born at Amsterdam 1628; died there Jan. 27, 1715 
(not at Zolkiev mm 1718, as Steinschneider records) ; 
son of Aaron ha-Levi, hazzan at the Neweh Shalom 
Synagogue, Amsterdam, and grandson of Moses Uri 
ha-Levi, founder and first hakam of the Spanish- 
Portuguese congregation in that city. After having 
first worked as a typesetter for Immanuel Benve- 
niste, in whose establishment he printed Pappen- 
heim’s edition of the “Mishle Hakamim” in 1656, 


Phoebus opened an establishment of his own in 1658 
and carried on business as a printer till 1689. Ilis 
imprint was a ewer and two fishes. In the first 
year he printed several books, among them a prayer- 
book of the German ritual, The last work he issued 
was a Sephardic Mahzor, completed in 1689. Of more 
important works only two were printed by Phoebus, 
the Shulhan ‘Aruk, Hoshen Mishpat. with the 
commentary “Sifte Kohen ” of Shabbethai ha-Kohen 

(1663),and a Judao-German translation of the Bible 

by Jekuthiel Blitz, who worked as a corrector in 

Phoebus’ printing-house. In 1693 Phoebus opened 

a printing-house at Zolkiev, and there printed calen- 

dars and ritual and Judeeo-German works till 1705. 
It is doubtful whether Uri Phoebus was the 

author of the evening benediction in Judmo-German 

(Amsterdam, 1677) attributed to him; and he can 

scarcely have written the rare Spanish work “Me- 

moria Para os Siglos Futuros” (7. Kislew 10, 5471 

= Dec., 1710), which was printcd in Portuguese at 

the expense of Moses Levy Maduro under the title 

“Narracaé da Vinda dos Judeos Espanhoés a Am- 

sterdam ” (2), 1768), this version forming the basis of 

the Hebrew translation by Isaac ha-Kohen Belin- 
fante. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Ftrst, Bibl. Jud. tii. 95: Steinschneider, 
Hebr. Bibl. iti. 6: idem, Cat. Bodl. cols. 3061 ef seq.; Stein- 
sehneider and Cassel, Jiidisehe Diypographie, in Erseh and 
Gruber, Aineye. section ii., part 28, pp. 65-66; Hillesum, in 
Centraal Blad voor Tsraeliten in Nederland, 1900, No. 
13,599; Cardozo de Bethencourt, Aankomst der Jaden te 
Amaterdam, pp. 10 ef seq., Amsterdam, 1904; Kayserling, 
Bibl. Esp.-Port.-Jued. p. 59. 

J. M. SexL.—M. K. 

URI (ORI) BEN SIMEON: Scholar of the 
sixteenth century; born at Biel (NSe9) ; resided at 
Safed. He made an abstract of a manuscript of 
1537, giving a list of all the places said to contain 
the tombs of the Patriarchs, Prophets, Amoraim, 
and Tannaim, to which he added descriptive mate- 
rial gathered in the course of his extensive travels, 
as well as illustrations of various graves. To this 
work, which appeared in Venice in 1659 (2d ed. 
1699) under the title “Yihus ha-Abot,” was ap- 
pended a description of a calendar compiled by him 
in 1575, The entire work was translated into Latin 
by Hottinger under the title “Cippi Hebraici, Gene- 
alogia Patriarcharum ” (Heidelberg, 1659: 2d ed. 7. 
1662); and E. Carmoly later translated the book into 
French under the title “Jichus ha-Abot, ou Tom- 
beaux des Patriarches,” and published it in his 
“Ttinéraires de la Terre Sainte ” (* Halikot Erez Yis- 
racl”), together with a preface and twenty-seven 
illustrations from the first Venetian edition. The 
“Vihus ha-Abot” was rendered also into Jud:eo- 
German by an unknown translator, being published 
under the same title at Wilna in 1853. 

Uri ben Simeon was likewise the author of a cal- 
endar (“luah”) covering a period of forty years. 
This work, which first appeared in Venice (1575), 
was translated into Latin by Jacob Christmann of 
Heidelberg, in which city it was published in 1594. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zunz, in The [tinerary of Benjamin of Tu- 
dela, pp. 275-276, notes a and b:; E. Carmoly, [tinerairves de 
la Terre Sainte, pp. 419-496, Brussels. 1S40: Steinselneider, 
Cat. Bod. cols, 558, 815, 2693-2695; Benjacob. Czar ha-Nefa- 
rim, p. 221. 

E. Cc. S..0. 


URIAH, URIJAH.—1. Biblical Data: A 
Hittite; husband of Bath-sheba, and one of David’s 


383 


picked warriors. The scanty Biblical allusions to 
him are of value as illustrating the taboo under 
which warriors were constrained to abstain from 
sexual intercourse (II Sam. xi. 7-15; see Schwally, 
“Kriegsaltertiimer,” p. 48), through which circum- 
stance David’s plan to cover his illicit relations with 
Bath-sheba was frustrated. Sent back to camp, 
Uriah was placed, by David’s secret orders, “in the 
forefront of the hottest battle,” and fell at the siege 
of Rabbah. 

Josephus (“ Ant.” vii. 8, 81) adds many embellish- 

ments to the account of the death of Uriah, declar- 
ing that when the Ammonites made a sortie and re- 
pulsed the besiegers, Uriah remained on the field 
with a few others, exposing himself to danger more 
than all his comrades, and maintaining his position 
until the enemy had surrounded the little band of 
heroes and completely destroved them. 
——In Rabbinical Literature: The Rabbis, who 
naturally could not admit the existence of any flaw 
in David's character, regarded Uriah as the one at 
fault. They claimed that he had defied David, 
since, when the king commanded him to go home, 
he replied, “My lord Joab is encamped in the open 
fields,” thus disregarding the royal bidding (Shab. 
56a; Tos. to Kid. 48a, above). 

2. High priest during the reign of Ahaz. Ac- 
cording to Isa. viii. 2, he was taken as a faithful 
witness by Isaiah when the prophet married the 
mother of Maher-shalal-hash-baz. II Wings xvi. 
40-16 states that Ahaz sent Uriah the pattern of an 
_ altar seen by him at Damascus after the conquest of 
the city by Tiglath-pileser, directing the prophet to 
erect a similar one in the Temple, for the offering of 
certain sacrifices. In the list of high priests given 
in I Chron. v. 80-40 Uriah’s name does not occur, 
although it is interpolated in Josephus, “ Ant.” x. 
8, § 6. 

3. Son of Shemaiah of Kirjath-jearim; a prophet 
of the reign of Jehoiakim. Like Jeremiah, in foretell- 
ing the destruction of Jerusalem by the Assyrians 
he brought upon himself the anger of the king and 
the princes. In fear of death he fled to Egypt, 
whereupon Jehoiakim sent an embassy headed by 
Elnathan b. Achbor, which seized the prophet and 
brought him to Jerusalem, where he was beheaded 
by the express command of the king, his body being 
thrown into the graves of the common people (Jer. 
xxvi. 20-23). 

4. Son of Koz (Neh, iii. 4), probably of the sev- 
enth class of priests (comp. 1 Chron. xxiv. 10). On 
the fourth day after the return of the exiles to 
Jerusalem, his son Meremoth weighed the gold, sil- 
ver, and vessels brought back from Babylon (Ezra 
vill. 38). 

5. One of the men who stood at the right hand of 
Ezra while the latter read the Law to the people 
(Neh. viii. 4). 

E. G. H, S. O. 

URIEL: Name of an archangel. Of the four 
chief angels, MICHAEL, GABRIEL, RAPHAEL, and 
Uriel, who preside over the four quarters of the 
globe (Jensen, “ Kosmologie der Babylonier,” p. 168), 
and who are frequently grouped together, Uriel is 
generally, but not invariably, mentioned last, 
although in this quartet his name is frequently re- 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Uri 
Uriel 


placed by that of another angel, thus showing the 

diversity of his nature (e.g., Fanuel, Enoch, xl. 9; 

Aniel, Stiibe, “Jiidisch-Babylonische Zaubertexte,” 

p. 26, Halle, 1895; Nuriel, “Seder Gan ‘Eden we- 

Gebhinnom,” in Jellinek, “B. H.” iii. 188). He is 

likewise one of the seven archangels, being the prince 

of the angels and of Tartarus (Enoch, xx. 2, where 
his name is given first in the list of the angels). Ac- 
cording to Kautzsch (“ Apokry phen,” ii. 250), Lusken 

(“ Michael,” p. 36), and others, Uriel is the angel of 

thunder and earthquake, and is, moreover, the di- 

vine messenger who warns the son of Lamech of the - 

end of the world, and bids him hide (Enoch, x. 1-2); 

he appears in a like capacity in II Esd. iv., 

where he propounds three dificult problems to Ezra 

and instructs him. Of these problems the tirst was, 

“Weigh me the weight of the fire,” a demand 

closely connected in concept with the name “ Uriel” 

(Sx esa = “the fire of God”), for its derivation 

from Sein (= “light of God,” “ glory of God”; 

Kohut, “Angelologie,” p. 388) is erroneous, as is, 

consequently, the attempt to identify the angel with 

the Zoroastrian “Hvarenah” (= “ glory”). Thesec- 
ond question addressed to Ezra was concerned with 
the waters in the depths of the sea and above the 
firmament, and thus with the two “tehomot,” as 
well as with the underworld (Sheol, Hades), this 
being in entire harmony with Enoch, xx. and desig- 
nating Uriel as the archangel of fire and of GE- 

HENNA, where flame is the chief element. In the 

passage under consideration this same spirit also 

speaks of the wind. 

In medieval mysticism Uriel is represented as the 
source of the heat of the day in winter, and us the 
princely angel of Sunday, the first day of the weck, 
thus agreeing fully with the explanation of his na- 
ture already given. Later authorities, however, 
brought his name into association with WS (= 
“light ”), misled in part by the legend that Uriel in- 
structed (enlightened) Ezra. “Why is he called 
Uriel? On account of the Torah, the Prophets, and 
the Hagiographa, since through him God makes 
atonement and brings light to Israel” (Num. R. ii. 
10). Conforming to this view, subsequent writers 
identified him with Raphael, the revealer of secrets 
(Zunz, “S. P.” p. 476), and his name was written on 
amulets intended to “illumine” the soul for sacred 
studies (“Sefer Raziel,” p. 42b). Uriel is mentioned 
also in the magic papyri (Wessely, “ Griechischer 
Zauberpapyrus,” Index, Vienna, 1888; zdem, “ Neue 
Griechische Zauberpapyri,” Index, 25. 1893; Lusken, 
le. p. 71), and in Babylonian incantations (Sttibe, 
l.c. p. 23), while according to a French rabbi of the 
thirteenth century the repetition of Uriel’s name 
ten times in one breath in the morning brings good 
fortune for the day (Schwab, “ Vocabulaire de 
’Angélologie.” pp. 47, 804). On Uriel in the 
Piyyur see Zunz, d.¢., aud on accounts of him in 
Christian writings comp. Lusken, @.c. p. 114. See 
also RAPHAEL for data concerning the four angels 
as a group. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Kohut, Ueber die Jtidische Angelologie una 
Diimonologie in [hrer Abhdngivkett vom Parsismus, pp. 
33. et seqy., Leipsie, 1866; Lusken, Wichael. Index, Géttingen, 
1898; Sehwab, Vocabulaire de VAngéloloyie @ Apres les 


Manuserits Hébreux dela Bibliothéque Nationale, pp. 47, 
304, Paris, 1897. 
S, L. B. 


Uriel d’Acosta 
Urim and Thummim 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


384 


URIEL D’ACOSTA. See Acosta. 


URIEL VON GEMMINGEN. See PFEFFER- 
KORN: REUCHLIN. 


URIM AND THUMMIM.—Biblical Data: 
Objects connected with the breastplate of the high 
priest, and used as a kind of divine oracle. Since 
the days of the Alexandrian translators of the Old 
Testament it has been asserted that DOM) OMS 
mean “revelation and truth” (d%#/wore Kai azrea), 
or “lights and perfections” (gwrcopuol Kat teAedrTHTEF) ; 
the re7 er6rn¢ Kai didayy Of Symmachus (Jerome, “ per- 
fectio ct doctrina”; Field, “Hexapla” on Deut. 
xxxlii. 8); and the dwriepuot cai treAedoee of Aquila 
and Theodotion. The Vulgate has “doctrina [after 
Symmachus; Old Latin, “ostensio ” or “demonstra- 
tio”] et veritas.” There is, however, no foundation 
for such a view in the Bible itself. Ex. xxviii. 13- 
30 describes the high-priestly ephod and the breast- 
plate with the Urim and Thummim. It is called a 
“breastplate of judgment” (“hoshen ha-mishpat ”); 
it is four-square and double; and the twelve stones 
were not put inside the hoshen, but on the outside. 
Tt is related in Lev. viii. 7-8 that when, in compli- 
ance with the command in Ex. xxix. 1-37, Moses 
consecrated Aaron and his sons as priests, “He 
[Moses] put upon him [Aaron] the coat, and girded 

him with the girdle, and clothed him 

Biblical with the robe, and put the ephod upon 
References. him, and he girded him with the cun- 

ningly woven band [A. VY. “curious 
girdle” | of the ephod, and bound it unto him there- 
with. And he put the breastplate upon him: and 
in the breastplate he put the Urim and the Thum- 
mim.” Deut. xxxiii. 8 (R. V.)j, in the blessing of 
Moses, reads: “And of Levi he said: Thy Thum- 
mim and thy Urim are with thy godly one, whom 
thou didst prove at Massah, with whom thou 
didst strive at the waters of Meribah ” (see Steuer- 
nagel, “Deuteronomium,” p. 125, Gottingen, 1898; 
Bertholet, “Deuteronomium,” p. 106, Freiburg, 
1899; Driver, “Deuteronomy,” in “ International 
Critical Commentary,” p, 398, New York, 1895; 
Baudissin, “Gesch. des Alttestamentlichen Priester- 
thums,” p. 76). The most important passage is I 
Sam. xiv. 41, where Wellhausen and Driver have 
corrected the text, on the basis of the Septuagint, 
to read as follows: “And Saul said: Lord, God of 
Israel, why hast thou not answered thy servant this 
day? If this iniquity be in me orin Jonathan my 
son, Lord, God of Israel, give Urim; but if it be 
in thy people Israel, give Thummim. Then Jona- 
than and Saul were taken by lot; and the people 
escaped ” (Driver, “Notes on the Hebrew Text of 
the Books of Samuel,” p. 89, Oxford, 1890; Budde, 
“The Books of Samuel,” in Polychrome Bible, p. 63; 
H. P. Smith, “The Books of Samuel,” p. 122; Kirk- 
patrick, “The First Book of Samuel,” in “ The Cam- 
bridge Bible for Schools and Colleges,” 1891, p. 187). 

I Sam. xxviii, 3-6 mentions three methods of di- 
vine communication: (1) the dream-oracle, of which 
frequent mention is made also in Assyrian and 
Babylonian literature; (2) the oracle by means of 
the Urim (here, undoubtedly, an abbreviation for 
“Urim and Thummim ”); (8) the oracle by the word 
of the Prophets, found among all Semitic nations. 


The only other mention of actual consultation of 
YuHwH by means of the Urim and Thummim 
found in the Old Testament is in Num. xxvii. 
21. Eleazar was then high priest, and Moses was 
permitted by the Lord toaddress Himdirectly. But 
Joshua and his successors could speak to the Lord 
only through the mediation of the high priest and 
by means of the Urim and Thummim. It is quite 
probable that theage of Ezra and Nehemiah was no 
longer cognizant of the nature of the Urim and 
Thummim (Ezra ii. 63; Neh. vii. 65; see also I 
Macc. iv. 46, xiv. 41). Post-exilic Israel had neither 
the sacred breastplate nor the Urim and Thummim. 
Ezra ii. 68 tacitly contradicts the assertion of Jose- 
phus (“ Ant.” iii. 8, & 9, end) that the Urim and 
Thummim first failed in the Maccabean era (B. Niese, 
“Flavii Josephi Opera,” i. 202; see also Sotah ix. 
12: Tosef., Sotah, xiii. 2; Yer. Kid. iv. 1; Ryle, “ Ezra 
and Nehemiah,” p. 32). Ecclus. (Sirach) xxxiii. 3 
may possibly prove a knowledge of the tradition 
concerning the use of the Urim and Thummim; but 
it can not be inferred that answers were received at 
that time by means of them (V. Ryssel, in Kautzsch, 
“ Apokryphen,” p. 394). 

The Urimand Thummim are implied, also, where- 
ever in the earlier history of Israel mention is made 
of asking counsel of the Lord by means of the ephod 
(Josh, ix. 14; Judges i. 1-2; xx. 18 [rejected as a 
later gloss from 23, i. 1 by most commentators], 26- 
28; I Sam. x. 22; xiv. 8, 18, 86 ef seg.; xxii. 10, 
18; xxiii. 2, 4, 6, 9-12; xxviii. 6; xxx. 7 e¢ seg.; II 
Sam. ii. 1; v. 19, 23 e¢ seg.; xxi. 1. On the nature 
of the ephod see G. F. Moore, “Judges,” 1895, pp. 
380-399, where copious references and the literature 
are given; idem, “Ephod,” in Cheyne and Black, 
“Eneye. Bibl.”; and especially T. C. Foote, “The 
Ephod,” in “Jour. Bib. Lit.” [1902] xxi. 1-48). In 
all cases except I Sam, x. 22 and IT Sam. v. 23 e¢ 
seq., the answer is either “Yes” or “No.” It has 

been suggested by Riehm and others 

Answer that these two passages have under- 

“Yes” or gone cditorial changes. After the 

‘‘No.” death of David no instance is mep- 

tioned in the Old Testament of con- 

sulting the Lord by means of the Urim and Thum- 

mim or the ephod. This desuetude is undoubtedly 

occasioned by the growing influence of the Old 
Testament prophecy. 

The ancient, and most of the modern, explanations 
of these mysterious instruments through which 
YHWH communicated His will to His chosen people 
identify them with (@) stones in the high priest’s 
breastplate, (0) sacred dice, and (c) little images of 
Truth and Justice such as are found round the neck 
of the mummy of an Egyptian priest (see Muss- 
Arnolt, “The Urim and Thummim,” in “ Am. Jour. 
Semit. Lang.” July, 1900, pp. 199-204). The “ Tablets 
of Destiny ” which occur in the Assyro-Babylonian 
account of Creation and otherwise figure in Assyro- 
Babylonian conceptions suggest the correct ex plana- 
tion of the Hebrew Urim and Thummim. One of the 
functions ascribed to the Babylonian seer was to 
deliver oracles and to consult the god, whose an- 
swer waseither “ Yes” or “No.” Quite often the god 
sends to his people an “urtu,” a command to do, or 
not to do, something. “Urtu” belongs to the same 


385 


stem from which is derived “ertu,” the “terminus 
technicus” for “oracle.” The gods speak (“tamu, 
utammu”) to the priest the oracle which they re- 
veal; and the oracle is called “ the mysterious word, 
revelation.” Since God “at sundry timesand in divers 
manners spake in time past,” not only unto the 
fathers by the Prophets, but to all mankind in ways 
which it is now almost impossible to trace precisely, 
it is quite possible that the mythological account 
of the Tablets of Destiny and the Old Testament 
Urim and Thummim, both shaping the destiny of 
king and nation, revert to the same fountainhead 
and origin. Notwithstanding the fragmentary ac- 
count of Babylonian literature and the scanty report 
of Old Testament writers, some points common to 
‘both may yet be gathered. 

(1) According to Ex. xxviii. 30 and Lev. viii. 8, 
the Urim and Thummim rested within the breast- 
plate, that is, on the breast of the high 
priest; in the Babylonian account the 

nian Tablets of Destiny rested on the 

Accounts. breast of their possessor. Only so 

long as they were resting on the breast 

of the god in the case of the one nation, and on the 

breast of the high priest in that of the other, were 
they efficacious. 

(2) In the Babylonian accounts, only those gods 
who, in some way, were considered the messengers 
and mediators between the other gods and mankind 
were the lawful possessors of the Tablets of Des- 
tiny. In Israel the Urim and Thummim were en- 
trusted by Yuwr to Moses, and through him to the 
high priest as the representative of YHwa and as 
the mediator between God and the nation to whose 
decisions, through the Urim and Thummim, even 
kings bowed. 

(3) There is, to be sure, in the Babylonian records 
no statement as to the exact number of the Tablets 
of Destiny. Itis known that there were more than 
one; it may not be too hazardous to assume that 
there were only two, one lying on each breast: one 
revealing (or prognosticating 7?) good fortune; the 
other, misfortune. The Old Testament accounts of 
the Urim and Thummim indicate that there were 
only two objects (lots %). 

(4) Marduk, after he had torn the Tablets of Des- 
tiny from the breast of his dead foe, sealed them 
with his own seal. There may be a reminiscence of 
this in Ex. xxviii. 21. The use of twelve stones, 
one for each of the twelve tribes, in addition to the 
two lots (of stone), is perhaps of some significance in 
this connection. 

(5) Marduk, bearing on his breast the Tablets of 
Destiny, presided at the annual assembly of the 
gods, where the fate was determined and the lot 
was cast for kingandnation. It isthe general opin- 
ion that the Urim and Thummim were consulted 
only in cases where the safety of king or nation was 
concerned. 

In Israel the development of a strict monotheism 
necessarily modified the conception of the Urim and 
Thummim. No description of them is found in the 
Old Testament; they are mentioned as something 
familiar both to Moses and to the people—an in- 
heritance received from the time of their ancestors. 
The very fact that the Old Testament assumes that 


XIL.—25 


Babylo- 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Uriel d’Acosta 
Urim and Thummim 


Moses and the people were acquainted with the 
nature of the Urim and Thummim confirms the 
view that the Jatter were naturally connected with 
the functions of the high priest as the mediator 
between YuwH and His people. 

The etymology of BN and ODN, suggested by 
Zimmern and others, supports the explanation given 
here. The so-called plural ending of the two words 
expresses the “ pluralis intensivus,” plurals only in 
form, buf notin meaning. “Urim” may be connected 
not with WON =“curse, put under the ban,” as 
Schwally and others have held, but with the Baby- 

lonian “u’uru,” the infinitive of the 
Etymology “pi‘el” of “a’aru,” from which are de- 
of rived also the nouns “urtu” = “com- 
the Words. mand, order, decision” (usually of the 
gods) and “tertu” (originally with the 
same meaning). These words occur frequently in 
Assyro-Babylonian literature in sentences analogous 
inform to those in which “Urim and Thummim” 
are used in the Old Testament. The plural D8 
(“fires”) has no doubt had some influence in shaping 
the analogous form ON = “urtu.” pwn the pres- 
ent writer connects with the Assyrian “tamu,” pi‘el 
“tumimu,” verbal forms also belonging to the orac- 
ular language. “Urim and Thummim” correspond, 
then, to the Babylonian “urtu” and “tamitu,” the 
latter a synonym of “piristu” = “oracle, oracular 
decision [of the gods].” That the original meaning 
of the two words and their significance were known 
even at the time when the Old Testament records, in 
which they are mentioned, were written is exceed- 
ingly doubtful; that they were not known cither to 
the Greek translators or to the early Masorites is 
practically certain. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: In addition to works and articles mentioned in 
the hody of the article, Buxtorf, Flistoria Urim et Thummim, 
in his Kwercitationes, pp. 267 et seqg., and in Ugolini, The- 
saurus, Vol. xii.. Spencer, De Legibus Hebrworum Rituali- 
bus, 1685; Ludwig Diestel, Gesch. des Alten Testamentes in. 
ader Christlichen Kirche, Jena, 1869; idem, Urim, in Herzog- 
Haupt, Real-Encyc. xvi. 746 et sey., revised for 2d ed., xvi. 
226 el seq., by Kautzsch; Bahr, Symbolik, ti. 134-141; W. 
Robertson Smith, The Old Testament in the Jewish Chureh, 
2d ed., p. 292, London, 1895; Baudissin, Die Geschichte des 
Alttestamentlichen Priesterthums Untersucht, 1889, pp. 26, 
27, 140, 141; Benzinger, Arch. 1894, pp. 382, 407, 408; Winer, 
B. R.3d ed., ii. 643-648 ; Wittichen, in Schenkel’s Bibel-Lezxi- 
krone (1869), ii. 403; Steiner, ib. (1875) v. 851-853: G. Klaiber, 
Das Priesterliche Orakel der Israeliten, Stuttgart, 1865; 
Riehm, Handiwirterbuch, 2d ed., i. 914-918; Stade, Ge- 
schichte, 2d ed., i. 156, 471-473, 505-506, 517-518. Additional 
literature is found in Knobel, Der Prophetismus der He- 
briier, i. 5, No. 2; Hancock, The Urim and the Thammim, 
in Old Testament Student, March, 1884, iif. 252-256 (is quite 
unsatisfactory): Dosker, The Crim and Thummim, in Pres- 
byterian and Reformed Review, Oct., 1892, pp. 717-736 ; and 
in T. Witton Davies. Magic, Divination, and Demonology, 
1898. A very convenient summary is given by Kirkpatrick in 
The First Book of Samuel, pp. 217, 218, to which may be 
added the article Urim and Thummim, in Smith, Diction- 
ary of the Bible, iii, 1600-1606, London, 1893; A. R. 8. Ken- 
nedy, Urim and Thummim, in Hastings, Dict. Bible, iv. 
835-841, New York, 1902: and Paul Haupt, Babylonian Ele- 
ments in the Levitical Ritual, in Jour. Bib. Lit. 1900, xix, 


58, 72 et seq. W. M-A 


E. G. A. 
——In Rabbinical Literature: Tradition is 
unanimous in stating that the use of the Urim and 
Thummim ceased with the destruction of the First 
Temple, or, in other words, with the death of the 
Older Prophets; and they were among the five 
things lacking in the Second Temple (Sotah ix. 10 
[= 48b]; Yoma 2ib; Yer. Kid. 65b). Josephus 
states (“ Ant.” iii. 8, § 9) that “this oracle had been 
silent” for 200 years before his time, or from the days 


Orim and Thummim 
Usque 


of John Hyrcanus. The teachers of the Talmud, 
however, if their own statements may be believed, 
had never seen the Urim and Thummim, and re- 
garded them as the “great and holy name of God” 
written on the breastplate of the high priest (Targ. 
pseudo-Jonathan to Ex. xxviii, 30); and they ety- 
mologize “ Urim” as “those whose words give light,” 
while “Thummim” is explained as “those whose 
words are fulfilled ” (4.; Yoma73b; Yer. Yoma 44c). 

The oracle was consulted in the following manner: 
The high priest donned his cight garments, and the 
person for whom he sought an answer 
stood facing him, while he himself 

Con- turned toward God (2.e., the SHEKI- 
sultation. NAH). It was necessary that the ques- 
tion should be brief and that it should 
be pronounced, but not aloud; while the answer was 
@ repetition of the query, either in the affirmative or 
in the negative. Only one question might be asked 
at a time; if more than one were put, the first alone 
received a reply. The answer was given by the let- 
ters of the names of the tribes which were engraved 
upon the high priest’s breastplate (Yoma ‘3a, b; 
Yer, Yoma 44c; Sifre, Num. 141). If the question 
was not distinctly worded, the reply might be mis- 
understood, as in Judges xx. 18 e¢ seq. (Sheb. 35b; 
Yoma 73b). A decision by the oracle might be de- 
manded only by the king, or by the chief of the 
highest court, or by a prominent man within the 
community, such as a gencral of the army, and 
it might be sought only for the common weal 
(Yoma 7, end, 78a: “one anointed for war”; Targ. 
pseudo-Jonathan to Ex. xxviii. 80: “in case of 
need”). According to Targ. pseudo-Jouathan to 
Ex. xxviii., the breastplate was used to proclaim 
victory in battle. It was necessary that the high 
priest who questioned the oracle should be a man 
upon whoin the Shekinah rested (Yoma 78b). 

The characteristic feature of the Shekinah was 
radiance; and Josephus, who believed that God was 
present at every sacrifice, even when offered by 
Gentiles, states that the oracles were revealed 
through rays of light: 


Mode of 


‘** But as to those stones, which we told you before, the high 
priest bare on his shoulders... the one of them shined out 
when God was present at their sacrifices ... 
Relation bright rays darting out thence ; and being seen 
to the even by those tbat were most remote; which 
Shekinah. splendor yet was not before natural to the 
stone. ... Yet will I mention what is still 
more wonderful than this; for God declared beforehand, by 
those twelve stones which the high priest bare on his breast, and 
which were inserted into his breastplate, when they should be 
victorious in battle; for so great a splendor shone forth from 
them before the army began to march, that all the people were 
sensible of Goa’s being present for their assistance. Whence it 
came to pass that those Greeks who had a veneration for our 
laws, because they could not possibly contradict this, called that 
breastplate the Oracle’? (** Ant.”’ iii. 8, § 9, Whiston’s transl.). 


The Talmudic concept seems to have been iden- 
tical with the view of Josephus, holding that the re- 
ply of the Urim and Thummim was conveyed by 
rays of light. Two scholars of the third century, 
however, who had lost the vividness of the earlier 
concept, gave the explanation that those stones of 
the breastplate which contained the answer of the 
oracle either stood out from the others or formed 
themselves into groups (Yoma 73b). 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


386 


The division of the country was made according 
to the Urim and Thummimn, since the high priest, 
“filled with the Holy Spirit,” proclaimed the tribe 
to Which each division should belong. After this, 
lots were drawn from two urns, one containing the 
name of the tribe and the other that of the territory, 
and these were found to harmonize with the high 
priest’s announcement (B. B. 122a; Sanh. 16a; 
comp. Yer. Yoma 41b, below). Toenlarge the Holy 
City or the Temple court the orders of the king, of 
a prophet, and of the Urim and Thummim were 
necessary (Sheb. 2, 3, 16a; Yer. Sheb. 38d, below). 
In Yer. Sanh. 19b the question is propounded why 
the Urim and Thummim are needed when a prophet 
is present. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Winer, B. R. ii. 644-645: Hamburger, R. B. 

T. i. 1002-1004; Herzog-Plitt, Real-Encyc. xvi. 226-233: Has- 

tings, Dict. Bible, iv. 840-841; M. Duschak, Josephus Flavius 


und die Tradition, pp. 5-7, Vienna, 1864. 
Ww. B. L. B. 


URY, ADOLPHE (SIMON): Alsatian rabbi; 
born at Niederbronn, Lower Alsace, June 14, 1849. 
He was educated at the lyceum of Strasburg and 
the rabbinical seminary in Paris, receiving the de- 
grees of doctor and chief rabbi, his thesis being “ Les 
Arts et les Métiers chez les Anciens Juifs Selon la 
Bible et le Talmud.” In 1875 he was appointed 
rabbi cf Lauterburg, Lower Alsace, whence he was 
called ten years later to the rabbinate of Brumath, - 
succeeding Solomon Levy. In the following year 
he became professor of Bible exegesis and Jewish 
history at the rabbinical school which had been es- 
tablished at Strasburg; and when, in 1890, that in- 
stitution was closed for lack of funds, Ury was 
chosen chief rabbi of Lorraine, with his seat in Metz. 
In 1899 he became chief rabbi of Strasburg and 
Lower Alsace, which position he still (1905) holds, 

S. 


USAGE. See Custom. 
USHA. See Synop or UsHa. 


USISHKIN, MICHAEL: One of the leaders 
of the Russian Zionists; born in 18638 in Dubrovna, 
government of Moghilef (Mohilev), In 1871 he went 
with his parents to Moscow. He studied the Bible 
and Talmud in the heder till he was thirteen years 
old, and then passed successively through the pro- 
fessional and imperial technical schools, graduating 
from the latter in 1889 as an engineer. Since 1891 
he has resided in Yekaterinoslav. 

In addition to his secular instruction, Usishkin 
obtained a thorough Jewish education, and he has a 
good knowledge of the Neo-Hebrew literature. His 
public activity began while he was yet at school. He 
was one of the founders of the Bilu, the Jewish 
national students’ organization, which formed the 
first Jewish colony in Palestine (see JEw. ENcyc. 
i, 248b); afterward he was one of the organizers of 
the students’ Chovevei Zion and Bene Zion societies 
in Moscow. In 1887 he took part as delegate from 
Moscow in the Chovevei Zion conference at Drus- 
genik, government of Grodno; and in 1890 he was 
one of the founders of the Odessa Association for 
Aiding the Jewish Colonists in Palestine. After 
the Palestinian scheme had been transformed into 
the present political Zionist movement Usishkin be- 


387 


came one of the most ardent followers and collabora- 
tors of Herzl, with whom he began a correspondence 
in 1896; and since then he has been one of the most 
energetic propagandists of Zionism among the 
Russian Jews. Usishkin has taken part in all the 
Zionist congresses except the sixth, and is one of 
the members of the Zionist Actions-Comité. In 
1903 he was sent to Palestine by this committee and 
by the Chovevei Zion to purchase land for new colo- 
nies, and to organize the colonists and other Jews 
of Palestine. 

Usishkin is a strong opponent of the Uganda proj- 
ect, and stands at the head of the party in Zionism 
which believes that the regeneration of the Jewish 
people can be accomplished in Palestine alone. In 
the twenty-four years of his activity as a leader of 
the Zionist movement he has contributed to the 
Jewish magazines many articles on different ques- 
tions relating to Zionism; and his Jatest work is 
an account of the Zionist program, published by him 
in five languages (Hebrew, Yiddish, Russian, Ger- 
man, and English). See Zronism. 

H.R. S. Hu. 

USQUE: Family deriving its name from the 
Spanish city of Huesca (the ancient Osca; Hebr. 
TIPUAN), Where it originated, its members emigrating 
thence to Portugal, and finally to Italy, to escape 
the Inquisition. 

Abraham Usque: Italian printer; born at Lis- 
bon, where he was known as Duarte Pinel; son 
of Solomon Usque. Some time after 1548 he went 
to Ferrara, where he termed himself “ Abraham 
Usque,” and established a large printery, adopting 
as his imprint a globe with Isa. xl. 31 as the legend. 
His establishment published some Judeo-Spanish 
rituals and Portuguese works, and between 1551 
and 1557 it issued about twenty-eight Hebrew books, 
including an unpointed Hebrew Bible, all of these 
works being edited by Samucl Zarfati, Isaac al- 
Hakim, Menahem b. Moses Israel, and Baruch Uzziel. 

Usque’s principal work was the valuable Ferrara 
Bible, bearing the title “ Biblia en Lengua Espafiola 
Traducida Palabra por Palabra de la Verdad Hebra- 
yca por Muy Excelentes Letrados, Vista y Exami- 
nada por el Oficio de Ja Inquisicion. Con Privilegio 
del Ylustrissimo Sefior Duque de Ferrara.” This 
Bible, which isa revision of an earlier translation 
rather than a new version, was issued at the expense 
of the Spaniard Yom-Tob b. Levi Athias, who, 
asa Marano, assumed the name “Jeronimo de Var- 
gas.” Two slightly modified copies (not two 
editions) of this Bible were struck off, to be sub- 
mitted to the Inquisition, one of them being dedi- 
cated to Duke Ercole de Este, and the other, in- 
tended for the Jewish public, inscribed in honor of 
D. Gracia Nasi. New editions of the Ferrara Bible 
were published at Salonica in 1568, and at Amster- 
dam in 1611, 1680, 1646, 1661, 1695, etc. Before 
leaving Lisbon, Abraham Duarte Pinel published a 
“Latine Grammatice Compendium” and a “ Trac- 
tatus de Calendis” (Lisbon, 1548). 

The identity of Abraham Usqueand Duarte Pinel, 
as well as of Yom-Tob b. Levi Athias and Jeronimo 
de Vargas, was first shown by Isaac da Costa in his 
“Ysrael und die Volker” (German transl. by Mann, 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Urim and Thummim 
Usque 


p. 282). See Jew. Encyc. ii. 269b, s.v. Yom-Tos 

BEN LEvi ATHIAS. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: G. RB. de Rossi, De Typographia Hebrao 
Ferrariensi, ch. vi.; idem, Dizionario (German transl., p. 
324); Steinschneider, Hebr. Bibl, ii. 28; Kayserling, Sephar- 
dim, p. 140; idem, Bibl. Esp.-Port.-Jud. pp. 28, 107. 
Samuel Usque: Poet and historian; a near kins- 

man (but not a brother) of the printer Abraham 

Usque, whose contemporary he was at Ferrara, 

whence Samuel later went to Safed. No further 

details of his life are known, but he wasa man of 
high culture, and one of the most interesting figures 
among the Jewish writers of the middle of the six- 
teenth century. He was thoroughly versed in the 

Bible, wrote Portuguese correctly, understood Span- 

ish and Latin, and had a philosophical bent. 

To confirm the Maranos in their faith and to pre- 
vent apostasy from Judaism, Usque wrote in Por- 
tuguese “Consolacam as Tribulacoés de Ysrael” 
(Ferrara, 1553; 2d ed. Amsterdam, n.d.), a work on 
the trials and tribulations of the Jewish people, to- 
gether with the causes of their varioussorrows. This 
prose poem, which is dedicated to Gracia Mendesia, 
is divided into three dialogues between the patri- 
arch [cabo (Jacob), who is introduced as a shepherd 
lamenting the fate of his children Nwmeo (Nahum) 
and Zicareo (Zechariah). In the first two dialogues, 
the author narrates the history of the Israelites 
down to the destruction of the Second Temple, and 
describes their sufferings under the Roman rule, ba- 
sing his account on the Books of Maccabees and on 
Josephus. The work derives its importance, how- 
ever, and its martyrologic character from the third 
dialogue, which, in thirty-seven numbers, recounts 
the sufferings of the Jews to the author’s own time, 
and quotes the prophecies which were thereby ful- 
filed. The narrative begins with the persecution 
by Sisebut, which is followed by the story of the 
alleged desecrations of the hostin France and Spain; 
the sufferings of the Jews in Persia, Italy, England, 
and Germany ; the accusations against them in Spain 
and France; their persecution in Spain and Portugal; 
and the fortunes of those who were exiled from the 
last-named country. The story of these afflictions, 
most of them given in chronological order, concludes 
with words of consolation taken from the Bible. 

Usque’s chief sources for his history were Alfonso 
de Spina’s “ Fortalitium Fidei” (cited as “F. F.” or 
“FF. Fid.”), which he attacked, and also the “ Coro- 
nica de Espafia,” “Estorias de S. Denis de Franca” 
(ch. x.), “ Coronica Dos Emperadores e Dos Papas,” 
and other similar records. The abbreviations “ L. 
I. E. B.,” “E. B.,” and “V. M.” also occur fre- 
quently in Usque’s work. The first two are sup- 
posed by Isidor Loeb to stand for “ Liber Iehuda ibn 
Berga” (Verga), in which case they would denote 
the first edition of the “Shebet Yehudah ” of Judah 
ibn Verga. Gritz, however, thinks they connote 
“Tiber Efodi,” and he thus assumes that both Judah 
and Usgue, who generally agree, drew upon the 
“Zikron ha-Shemadot” of Profiat Duran. The ab- 
breviation “V. M.” is as yet unexplained. Usque’s 
“Consolacam” was frequently used by Joseph ha- 
Kohen, author of the “‘Emek ha-Baka.” 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: De Rossi-Hamberger, Hist. Worterb, pp. 324 et 


seq.; Rios, Estudios, pp. 496 ct seq.; Gratz, Gesch. viit. 408 et 
séq., ix. 346 et seq., Ixvii. ef seq.; Julius Steinschneider, FR. 


Usury 


Samuel Usque’s Trost Israel's in Setnen Tritbsalen. in 
Festschrift zum Zehnten Stiftungsfest des Akademischen 
Vereins fiir Jtidisehe Gesch. pp. 24-77, Berlin, 1893; Kayser- 
ling, Bibl, Esp.-Port.-.Jud. p. 107; R. BL Jd. xvi. 211 et seq., 
XVL. 270). 

Solomon Usque (Salusque; called by Barbosa 
Machado Seleuco Lusitano; Marano name, Du- 
arte Gomez): Poct and merchant; born in Portu- 
gal; lived at Ferrara, Venice, and Ancona in the 
middle of the sixteenth century; died after 1567. 
lig made a Spanish translation of the poems of Pe- 
trarch, entitled “Sonetos, Canciones, Madrigales y 
Sextinas de Grande Poeta y Orador Francisco Pe- 
trarcha: Primeira Parte” (Venice, 1567), and dedi- 
‘sated to Alexander Farnese, Prince of Parma and 
Piacenza. It was greatly admired by his contem- 
poraries for its artistic workmanship. Usque wrote 
also an Italian ode on the six days of Creation, dedi- 
cated to Cardinal Borromeo; and he collaborated 
with Lazaro Graziano in the composition of the 
Spanish drama “ Esther,” which was translated into 
Italian by Leon of Modena( Venice, 1619). He acted 
also as a business agent for Joseph Nasi, and en- 
joyed both his favor and that of Nasi’s mother-in- 
law, Gracia Mendesia. 

Another Solomon Usque (probably a native of 
Ifuesca, whence his name) was the father of the 
printer Abraham Usque; and a third was a typog- 
rapher at Constantinople in 1561. 

BIBLIOGRAPTLY: Barbosa Machado, Bibliotheca Lusitana, iii. 
Bil, 705; Wolf, Bibl. Hehr. iii. 300, 1025; iv. 973; De Rossi- 
Hamberger, Hist. Worterb. p. 324; Gratz, Gesch. ix., pp. xii. 
ef xeq.; Kayserling, Sephardim, pp. 141, 340; idem, Bibi. 
F’gp.-Port.-Jud. p. 107; Ersch and Gruber, Hneye. part ii., 
section 28, p. 30. - 

M. K. 


G. 

USURY : In modern language this term denotes 
arate of interest greater than that which the law or 
public opinion permits; but the Biblical law, in all 
dealings among Israclites, forbids all “increase ” of 
the debt by reason of lapse of time or forbearance, be 
the rate of interest high or low, while it does not 
impose any limit in dealings between Israelites and 
Gentiles. Hence in discussing Jewish law the 
words “interest” and “usury” may be used indis- 
criminately. 

There are three Biblical passages which forbid the 
taking of interest in the case of “brothers,” but 
which permit, or seemingly enjoin, it when the bor- 
rower is a Gentile, namely, Ex. xxii. 24; Lev. xxv. 
36, 37; Deut. xxiii. 20, 21. 

The Hebrew word for “ usury ” is “neshek,” mean- 
ing literally “abite,” from its painfulness to the debt- 
or; while in Lev. xxv. 36, 37 “increase” is the ren- 
dering of the Hebrew “ marbit” or “tarbit” which 
denotes the gain on the creditor’s side, and which 
in the later Hebrew becomes “ribbit.” Lending on 
usury or increase is classed by Ezekiel (xviii. 13, 17) 
among the worst of sins. See also Ps. xv., in which 
among the attributes of the righteous man is reck- 
oned the fact that he does not lend on usury. 

The Talmud (B. M. 61b) dwells on Ezek. xviii. 
13 (Hebr.): “He has Jent on usury; he has taken 
interest; he shall surely not live, having done all 
these abominations”; on the words with which the 
prohibition of usury in Lev. xxv. 36 closes: “Thou 
shalt be afraid of thy God”; and on the further 
words in which Ezekiel (/.c.) refers to the usurer: 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


388 


“He shall surcly suffer death; his blood is upon 
him”; hence the lender on interest is compared to 
the shedder of blood. 

The sages of the Mishnah knew full well that the 
forbearance of a debt causes a measurable loss. 
Thus the following case is put: A holds a demand 
on B for 1,000 zuzim payable by agreement in ten 

years; but two witnesses testify that 
Loss on &@ 2B had agreed to pay in thirty days. 
Debt. An alibi is proved against the wit- 
nesses: and they are condemned as 
“plotting witnesses” to pay the difference between 
1,000 zuzim payable in ten years and the same sum 
payable in thirty days (Mak. 1. 1). It often happens 
that money is paid toa husband in right of his wife, 
in which right he hasan estate for life or during cov- 
erture. In modern times the money might be in- 
vested, and the husband would draw the interest or 
dividends; but in all such cases the Mishnah says: 
“Let ground be bought and the husband receive the 
income!” The Babylonians, from whom the post- 
exilic Jews learned much in the way of legal terms 
and forms, were accustomed to charge interest at 
the rate of 20 per cent per annum. Nearly, if not 
quite, all of their contract tablets show this rate of 
increase. (The first allusion in the Babylonian Tal- 
mud to a rate of interest [B. B. 60a] is to one of 20 
per cent.) Yet with this knowledge, that the use 
of capital has a measurable value, and with the ex- 
ample of the Babylonians before them, the sages of 
the Mishnah not only do not mitigate the Scriptural 
injunction against interest, but carefully close many 
avenues of evasion, and forbid even all kinds of 
“moral usury.” 

The chapter on usury and increase (B. M. v.) com- 
mences thus: “ What is usury [“neshek”] and what 
is increase [“tarbit”]?”; but by the latter word it 
seems to refer only to the rabbinical enlargement 
of the antiusury law. The former mode of dealing 
is easily illustrated; e.g., “where one lends 4 denarii 

on a promise of the return of 5; or 

Usury and 2 bushels of wheat when 3 are to 
Increase. be returned”; but the latter, an in- 
erease In “fruits” (7.e., provisions 

which pass by quantity), is more complex and is 
put tbus: “A has bought from B a kor of wheat 
for 25 denarti (=zuzim), which is the market price: 
afterward, when wheat has gone up to 80 denarii, 
A says: ‘ Deliver to me the wheat which I bought 
from you, as I wish to sell it and buy wine with the 
proceeds.’ B answers: ‘Very well, your wheat is 
sold to me for 30 zuzim, and you have wine [as 
much as 30 zuzim will buy at the ruling market 
price] in my hands’; when in fact B has no wine 
in his possession.” Now the first deal, 7.e., B’s 
buying the wheat back ata higher price than he had 
sold it for, is not objectionable as usury but his 
agreeing to deliver a named quantity of wine which 
is then worth 30 zuzim, but which he does not own, 
at some future time, when he might have to buy it 
in the open market ata higher price, is not indeed 
Scriptural but is rabbinical usury. The reason is 
given: B, who owes A 80 zuzim, takes the risk of 
having to pay it later on in wine, which may cost him 
more than 80 zuzim, in order to gain forbearance 
for his debt. This rule forbids, on the ground of 


389 


usury, the sale of futures, made when the market 

price has not yet been fixed. 
Some kinds of partnership dealings also are forbid- 
den, because the partner without means is made to 
incur the risk of his time and labor 


Case of besides that of loss by accidents or de- 
Partner-  preciation, in consideration of the cap- 
ship. ital furnished by the other. For in- 


stance, one may not give one’s corn to 
a shopkeeper to sell at retail on half the profit over 
the wholesale price with which he is charged, nor 
may one give the shopkeeper money wherewith he 
may buy at wholesale and then sell on half the prof- 
its—because he runs the risk of fire and flood and 
robbery and of fall in price—unless he is paid wages 
for scHing. And so with the breeding of chickens 
or the feeding of calves or colts on half profit; 
though the rule does not apply to cows or other 
grown beasts which “earn their keep.” Comment- 
ing on B. M. v. 4, R. Judah (tanna of the 2d cent., 
pupil of Akiba) says (2. 68b) that a nominal 
compensation, say a siugle dry fig, given to 
the working member of the special partnership is 
sufficient toexempt it from the usury laws. In mod- 
ern Jewish practise this view has been followed. 
The contract between the moneyed man and the 
small trader is known as “shetar ‘iska”; and in the 
well-known scrivener’s handbook “ Nahalat Shib‘ah ” 
(Amsterdam, 1667) two forms of such an instrument 
are printed, which the compiler (Samuel ben David 
ha-Levi) follows up with an extract from an emi- 
nent rabbi of Lublin to this effect: “A man may 
say to his friend: ‘ Here are a hundred florins for 
thee in business [xppya]j, half profit and half loss. 
If thou shouldest say, “I have lost” or “IT have not 
earned any money,” thou must take a solemn oath 
to clear thyself.’ But he must give him wages for 
his trouble; however, anything [Winw $3] is enough 
for the purpose.” Such special partnerships date 
back a very considerable time; for 4,000 years ago 
they were fully regulated by King Hammurabi in 
sections 100-107 of his code of laws for Babylon, 
and it seems that in quite modern times they have 
been common, 

One may not give to an Israelite (money where- 
with) to buy @ certain quantity of corn before the 
market price (“sha‘ar”) is known; this restriction 
also is made in order that the man without means 
may not incur the risk of loss by higher prices in 
return for capital furnished. A landlord may lend 
to his metayers (tenants on shares) wheat for seed to 
be returned in kind, but not wheat forfood. A man 
should not say to his neighbor, “Give mea kor of 
wheat and I will return it at thrashing-time ”; but he 
may request such a loan “till my son comes home,” 
or “till I find the key ” (B. M. 75a). The reason is, 
that wheat might rise and the lender would profit. 
However, the Talmud abrogates this prohibition by 
allowing such a loan to be made when the borrower 
has some wheat of his own, though it be a much 
smaller quantity than that which he borrows. The 
Mishnah goes even so far as to forbid an exchange 
of work between neighboring farmers, where the 
later work is more laborious than the earlier, All 
these prohibitions are rabbinical only: that against 
a loan in kind might be called anti-Scriptural; for 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Usury 


the Bible, when it speaks of “usury of victuals” 
(Deut. xxiii. 29), contemplates a loan to be returned 
in kind, and forbids only the return of a greater 
quantity than that which was lent. 

Thelender should not lodge in the borrower’s house 
free of rent, norat less than the usualrent. The pur- 
chase-price must not be increased on account of delay 
in payment, such as an offer to sell a field at 1,000 

zuzim if paid now, but at 1,200 zuzim 

Possible in a year’s time; but in charging 

Evasions. rent the landlord may charge more 
when payable at the end of the year 

than when the rent is paid every month. It is im- 
proper for the seller of a field, after receiving part 
of the price, tosay, “ Bring me the rest of the money 
whenever you will and then take possession of your 
own”; for the income on the field would be interest 
on the deferred payment, and the purchaser is al- 
ready a partial owner. But, what may turn out to 
be much more oppressive, a man may lend a sum of 
money upon a field on the terms “If you do not re- 
turn me the money in three years, the field is mine”; 
and it actually becomes his. “Once Boethos, son of 
Zenon, did so under the advice of the learned ” (B. 
M. 68a), It may thus be seen that the legal ban 
upon interest led to forfeitures which might give to 
the moneyed nan more gain than even a high rate 
of interest. The mortgage in the English and Amer- 
ican form is just such a contract as Boethos used to 
impose on borrowers. This form was contrived be- 
cause the English law forbade loans upon interest; 
and in early times it was literally carried out, the 
land becoming the property of the mortgagee at 
once if the bond was not paid onthe day appointed. 

The Talmud and the codes distinguish between 
“fixed increase” (“ribbit kezuzah”) and the mere 
“dust [“abak”] of increase.” The Mishnah gives 
some instances of the latter; e.g., a man sends pres- 
ents to a well-to-do neighbor, expecting to obtain a 
loan from him. This is interest in advance. Or 
after he has repaid his loans, he sends 
presents, “because your money was 
idle in my hands.” Again, if A had 
not been in the habit of greeting B 
first, he should not do him this honor 
after he had obtained a loan from him; and, as the 
later authorities put it, if he was not in the habit of 
teaching B the Torah before the loan, he should not 
do it thereafter. 

One difference between usury under the letter of 
the Law and rabbinical increase is this: the former, 
when collected by the creditor, may be reclaimed by 
action, while the latter may not. R. Johanan, one 
of the Palestinian amoraim, insists that even “defi- 
nite usury,” such as is forbidden by the written law, 
can not be recovered legally. In this view he is 
supported (B. M. 61b) by others ou the grounds that 
in the Scriptural words quoted above the vengeance 
of Heaven is invoked upon the usurer, and that the 
rule that he who incurs the pain of death is not held 
to payment in a civil suit. The upshot of the dis- 
pute as laid down in the codes is this (Shulhan 
‘Aruk, Yoreh De‘ah, 161, 2): The rabbinical court 
will render judgment for the repayment of definite 
usury that has been collected, and will not enforce 
the judgment by levy on the lands or goods of the 


‘¢ Fixed ” 
and Other 
Increase. 


Osury 
Utah 


usurer’s property, but only by force against his 
body. 

When an Israelite lends money to a Gentile or 
to an “indwelling stranger” (a half-convert of for- 
eign blood), he may and should charge him interest; 
and when he borrows from such a person he should 
allow him interest. It is the opinion of Maimonides 
that for Jews to charge Gentiles interest is a positive 
command of the written law. [The reason for the 
non-prohibition of the receipt by a Jew of interest 
froma Gentile, and vice versa, is held by modern rab- 
bis to Jie in the fact that the Gentiles had at that time 
no law forbidding them to practise usury ; and that as 
they took interest from Jews, the Torah considered 
it equitable that Jews should take interest from 
Gentiles. Conditions changed when Gentile laws 
were enacted forbidding usury; and the modern 
Jew is not allowed by the Jewish religion to charge 
a Gentile a higher rate of interest than that fixed by 
the law of the land.—r, c.] The intervention of a 
Gentile may lead to an evasion of the law between 
Israelites. Forexample, one not standing in need of 
it has borrowed the money of a Gentile; the bor- 
rower lends it to another Israelite, he to pay the in- 
terest thereafter; this the first borrower may do 
only with the consent of the Gentile, if he will ac- 
cept the other Israelite as his debtor, but not on 
his own responsibility, although the first borrower 
would pay to the Gentile the same interest which he 
should receive from his brother Israelite (B. M. v. 6). 

In a baraita (2d. 71a) the other case is 

Case of a also put: “A lends money to a Gen- 

Gentile. tile; the latter needs it no longer, but 

meets an Israelite who does. If the 

Gentile is willing to lend him the money on interest, 

he may do so, remaining bound to A; but A must 

not be a party to the change of debtor.” However, 

it must have been easy to evade the usury law 

through the Gentile intermediary, even while main- 
taining these distinctions. 

The guilt of breaking a Scriptural command falls 
not on the lender alone, but on the borrower as well 
(on the supposition that the verb referring to usury 
in Deut. xxiii. 20, “tashshik,” stands in the caus- 
ative form); also on the surety for the borrower, 
the witnesses, and, according to some opinions, the 
scrivener. The latter participants violate the pre- 
cept “thou shalt not put a stumbling-block before 
the blind” (Lev. xix. 14). | 

Maimonides treats of interest in his “ Yad” (Mal- 
weh, ch. v.), following the Gemara and the responsa 
of the Geonim. He toacertain extent mitigates the 
usury law; mitigation had indeed become a necessity 
in his time, as the Jews no longer dwelt in com- 
pact farming settlements like those of Palestine and 
Babylonia in the days of the Mishnah and the Tal- 
mud, but had been forced to become traders, bro- 
kers, and money-lenders. He says (7b. ch. xiv.): 
“There are things resembling interest that are al- 
lowed; ¢.g.,& man may buy at a discount bonds be- 
longing to his neighbor; a man may give his neigh- 
bor a denarius, on condition that he lends 100 de- 
narii toa third person. A may give B a denarius 
to induce C to lend him (A) 100 denarii” (2. ch. 
xv.). Some things are allowed by law, but have 
been forbidden by the Rabbis as a cunning evasion. 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


390 


A says to B, “Lend me 100 zuzim.” B says, “I 
have no money, but I have wheat worth that sum, 
which I can lend you.” Then he buys the same 
wheat from him for 90 zuzim. He may afterward 
by law recover 100 zuzim because it is not even “ dust 
of interest.” Thus aman who has taken a field in 
pledge should not rent it back to the owner. But 
if such evasions are forbidden only by an appeal to 
the lender’s conscience, very little is left of the en- 
forceable law against usury. 

The Shulhan ‘Aruk treats of usury not in the 
fourth or juridical part, but in the Yoreh De‘ah, 
among moral and religious duties (§§ 159-177). 

While Maimonides would restrict the 

Views of lending of money to Gentiles within 

Maimoni- narrow limits, lest the lender should 
des and the acquire a passion for taking usury, 

Shulhan and practise it on his fellow Israel- 

‘Aruk. ites, this later standard declares it 

“allowable nowadays in all cases” 
(2b. §159). It allows also the money of orphans or of 
a poor- or a school-fund to be lent on terms which 
would be “rabbinical increase”; and if a guardian 
has improperly lent the money of his wards even at 
a fixed interest, the wards who have had the enjoy- 
ment of the income are not bound to restore it when 
they come of age. To save oneself in great need, 
however, one may borrow on interest (25. § 160). 
The relaxation on behalf of infants and charities 
was unavoidable; for in numerous countries the 
Jews were precluded from the old plan of investing 
funds in land, which alone was permitted by the 
Talmud. 

As a matter of jurisprudence it is found here (7. 
§ 160; Hoshen Mishpat, § 52) that when a bond pro- 
vides for principal and interest separately, it is en- 
forceable as to the former, but not as to the latter; 
but if both are cast up into one sum, the bond is 
void in toto. When interest, even suchas is forbid- 
den by the written law, is once paid, it is said 
(Yoreh De‘ah, § 161) that the courts may compel its 
restoration only by process of contempt (flogging 
until the defendant is willing to pay). When this 
power no longer rested with the Jewish courts, there 
was no remedy. If the lender died after he collected 
unlawful interest, it is here expressly said that 
his heirs are not even morally bound to make resti- 
tution. 

E. C. L. N. D. 
——Medieval Doctrine: The Church, basing itself 
upon a mistranslation of the text Luke vi. 35 inter- 
preted by the Vulgate “ Mutuum date, nihil inde spe- 
rantes,” but really meaning “lend, never despairing ” 
(see T. Reinach in “R. E. J.” xx. 147), declared any 
extra return upon a loan as against the divine law, 
and this prevented any mercantile use of capital by 
pious Christians. Asthe canon law did notapply to 
Jews, these were not liable to the ecclesiastical pun- 
ishments which were placed upon usurers by the 
popes, Alexander IIT. in 1179 having excommuni- 
cated all manifest usurers. Christian rulers gradually 
saw the advantage of having a class of men like the 
Jews who could supply capital for their use without 
being liable to excommunication, and the money 
trade of western Europe by this means fell into the 
hands of the Jews. They were freed from all compe- 


391 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Usur 
Utah” 


tition, and could therefore charge very high interest, 
and, indeed, were obliged to do so owing to the inse- 
cure tenure of their property. In almost every in- 
stance where large amounts were acquired by Jews 
through usurious transactions the property thus ac- 
quired fell either during their life or upon their death 
into the hands of the king. This happened to Aaron 
of Lincoln in England, Ezmel de Ablitasin Navarre, 
Helhiot de Vesoul in Provence, Benveniste de Porta 
in Aragon, etc. It was for this reason indeed that the 
kings supported the Jews, and even objected to their 
becoming Christians, because in that case they could 
not have forced from them money won by usury. 
Thus both in England and in France the kings de- 
manded to be compensated for every Jew converted. 
In the former country only in 1281 would the king 
give up his right to half the property of Jews who 
were converted. There was a continual conflict be- 
tween the papal and the royal authority on this sub- 
ject, and thus as early as 1146 the pope Eugenius de- 
clared all usury null and void, while the debtor was 
on a crusade, and Innocent XIII. made an indignant 
protest against usury, calling on all Christian princes 
to demand the return of the interest. Clement V. 
in 1311 protested against all civil law which per- 
mitted any form of usury by Christians. 

It was impossible to carry out the canonical re- 
strictions without stopping all progress in com- 
merce, and numerous expedients were adopted to 
avoid the canonical laws. Especially the Cahorsins 
and Lombards invented methods by which usury 
was disguised in the form of payment for possible 
loss and injury, payment for delay, and soon. The 
competition of these Italian usurers—they were called 
the “ pope’s usurers ”—rendered Jews less necessary 
to the kingsin France and England in the middle of 
the thirteenth century, and both Louis IX, (1254) 
and Edward I, (1275) attempted to influence the Jews 
to avoid usury, but without effect (see ENGLAND). 
No other means of livelihood was open to them. 

Very high interest was permitted the Jews in 
France under Philip Augustus, two deniers on the 
pound per week, or 48.3 per cent per annum, and 
King John in 1360 allowed this even to be doubled. 
In Sicily Frederick IL allowed 16 per cent in 1281. 

In Castile Alfonso X. allowed 25 per 

Amount of cent, while in Aragon the Cortes of 

Interest. Tarragona put 20 per cent as the maxi- 

mum, and this was reduced to 12 per 

cent in the year 1231. In Navarre Philip ITI. estab- 

lished 20 per cent (“5 for 6”) in 1330, while in Por- 

tugal Alfonso IV. (1350) fixed the maximum at 33} 
per cent. 

The enormously rapid increase of indebtedness due 
to this large interest caused ordinances to be passed 
to prevent interest being counted on interest, but 
without avail. Asan instance of the extent to which 
interest could grow, the abbot of St. Edmund in 
1173 borrowed about 40 marks from Benedict the 
Jew, and this had grown to £880 in seven years, 
though not entirely through interest (see Jacobs, 
“Jews of Angevin England,” p. 60). 

The loans were generally made upon PLEDGEs, 
which could not be sacred vessels of the Church, to 
pledge which was punished as early as 814 by confis- 
cation of goods. Almost all other objects could be 


pledged, and it became a problem whether when a 
Jew had the pledge he could claim usury as well. 
This applied when lands were pledged for loans, when 
it was claimed the land or the produce thereof was 
sufficient fo compensate for any loss of use of capital 
without further payment. Notwithstanding this the 
Jews claimed interest until both capital and interest 
were repaid. 

Later on in the Middle Ages the doctrine of Aris- 
totle that “money dves not breed” was referred to 
usury, and forms the basis of Shylock’s and Anto- 
nio’s contention in “The Merchant of Venice,” I,, 
ili., and the casuists of Roman law drew a distinc- 
tion between things consumable and fungible; that 
is, the use of which is exhausted by one using, and 
things which can be used over and over again. In- 
terest or usury was allowed for the latter, but not 
for the former class, to which money was supposed 
to belong, because every passing of coin was re- 
garded as a separate use. The lending of money 
with the expectation of any further return was still 
regarded as unnatural and disreputable, but in the 
later Middle Ages the Jews had been bereft of all 
capital, so that from the fifteenth century onward 
they are found mostly as dealers in second-hand 
clothing, rather than as usurers. Moreover a 
class of Christian merchants arose which evaded the 
canon law and Jent money on interest without any 
opposition. 

Notwithstanding this, the reputation of usurershas 
clung to the Jews even to modern times, though there 
is little evidence of their being more addicted to it 
than other persons who trade in money. In Russia 
the Christian “ kulak” is regarded as being much more 
stringent in his demands than the Jewish money- 
lender, though in Bukowina the latter has proved 
to be somewhat of a plague. The poverty. of the 
majority of Jews prevents them from any exten- 
sive addiction to this practise (see POVERTY). 

Die Nationaldkonomischen 
Grundsdtze der Kanonischen Lehre, 1863, pp. 8 et seq., 20 et 


seq.; Ashley, Hnglish Commerce, i. 152-154; Scherer, Rechts- 
verhdltnisse der Juden, pp. 185-196, 
J. 


UTAH: One of the Western States of the United 
States of America; admitted into the Union in 1896. 
Jews first settled in Utah about 1860, among the 
earliest comers being Isidor Morris, Nicholas S. 
Ransohoff, Samuel Kahn, Fred Auerbach, Louis 
Cohn, Aaron Greenewald, Ichel Watters, and Eman- 
uel Kahn. 

Religious services were first conducted in Salt 
Lake City during the fall holidays of 1866. 
In the course of a few years Congregation B’nai 
Israe] was established; and after its temporary dis- 
solution if was reorganized in 1880, Its officiating 
ministers have been: J. Kaiser, L. Strauss, Hyman 
G. Elkin, Moses P. Jacobson, Gustave H. Lowen- 
stein, Louis G. Reynolds, and the present (1905) in- 
cumbent, Charles J. Freund. Congregation Monte- 
fiore was organized March 20, 1899, and has occupied 
its present structure since 1903. Its officiating min- 
ister has been J. G. Brody. The Jewish Relief 
Society was organized in 1873 and reorganized in 
1888. TheCouncilof Jewish Women has a large act: 
ive section, mainly promoting the religious objects 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Endemann, 


Utrecht 
Uzziah 


of the organization. Benjamin F. Peixotto Lodge 
421 1.0. B. B. has been in existence since 1892, and 
at present has eighty members. 

The Jews of Utah have from the time of their ar- 
rival taken a leading part in the development of its 
intellectual and industrial welfare. During Utah’s 
existence as a state they have filled responsible gov- 
ernment positions. Among those who have held 
public office have been: Simon Bamberger, state 
senator and chairman of the Democratic State Cam- 
paign Committee; Harry 8. Joseph and Rudolph 
Kuchler, members of the state legislature; Joseph 
Oberndorfer, member of the board of education in 
Salt Lake City; Herman Bamberger, county com- 
missioner of Salt Lake county; and Louis Cobn, 
councilman in Salt Lake City. 

Besides those in Salt Lake City, the capital of the 
state, a few Jews are located in Ogden, Provo, 
Price, and Logan. The Jewish inhabitants of 
Utah number approximately 1,000 ina total popula- 
tion of about 277,000. 

A. C. J. F. 


UTRECHT: Province of the Netherlands, with 
its capital of the same name. Jews resided in 
Utrecht prior to the expulsion from Spain and Por- 
tugal. In 1424 they were banished from the city; 
and their synagogue was transformed into the 
Church of the Blessed Virgin Mary. They evidently 
soon returned; for in 1444 the city council issued an 
ordinance directing that they be tortured on the 
wheel, imprisoned, and expelled. The reason for 
this procedure can no longer be determined with 
certainty; but it was due either to the fact that the 
Jews had championed the claims of Wolravus of 
Meurs to the bishopric, or toallegations made against 
them of insulting Christianity both publicly and 
privately. The ordinance of expulsion was quickly 
repealed, however, by the council itself; and Jews 
were permitted to settle in the village of Maarsen, 
near the city. | 

As early as 1664 a distinction was drawn between 
the German and Portuguese communities; the for- 
mer consisting largely of the poorer classes, which 
earned a livelihood by peddling, while the Portu- 
guese engaged in extensivecommercial undertakings, 
and were wealthy and respected. An ordinance of 
Oct. 1, 1736, furthermore, gave the Portuguese the 
official right of residence in the province, and per- 
mitted them to conduct their business operations in 
the city itself. This privilege was renewed in 1777; 
and in 1789 it was extended to the German Jews 
on the condition that they assumed all communal 
duties. 

After the uprising of the patriots against William 
of Orange and his expulsion by the French, France 
declared the Jews citizens, and granted them all 
civic rights and liberties. In 1796 a convention of 
the most prominent Jews of Holland assembled at 
Utrecht, before which the new constitution was sol- 
emnly read. Its text was translated into Hebrew 
by Zebi Hirsch Meilfeld, and published under the 
title “ Dibre Negidim” (Utrecht, 1800). 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Koenen, Geschiedenis der Joden in Neder- 


land, Utrecht, 1843, See also NETHERLANDS and the bibliog- 


raphy there given. 
D. Ss. O. 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


392 


UZ (py): 1. Son of Aram, and grandson of 
Shem, according to Gen. x. 23; but I Chron. i. 17 
records him as a son of Shem. 

2. Eldest son of Nahor by Milcah; nephew of 
Abraham (Gen, xxii. 21; A. V. has “Huz”), 

3. One of the sons of Dishan, and grandson of 
Scir the Horite (¢). xxxvi. 28; I Chron. i. 42). 

4. Geographical name occurring three times in 
the Old Testament and connoting: (1) the native 
Jand of Job (Job i. 1); (2) a country northeast of 
Egypt, which it separated from Philistia, being one 
of the lands to which, at the command of Yuwu, 
Jeremiah gave the wine-cup of fury to drink (Jer. 
xxv. 20); and (8) a country comprising part of 
Edom, summoned to rejoice over the destruction of 
the Temple (Lam. iv, 21). | 

According to modern investigators, who regard. 
the names given in Genesis as geographical terms, 
the territory of Uz embraced the regions represented. 
by the names of the persons mentioned above; and 
in like manner the brief notices in Jeremiah and 
Lamentations agree with those concerning the na- 
tive country of Job’s friends, as well as with other 
data concerning the land in the first chapter of 
Job. According to verses 15 and 17 of that chapter, 
the country was first invaded by the Sabeans from 
the south, and later by the Chaldeans from the north, 
which implies that the district lay on the northern 
edge of the great Arabian desert. Eliphaz, one of 
the friends of Job, wasfrom Teman, a town of south- 
ern Edom; his companion, Bildad, came from Shuah 
(Gen, xxv. 2), which, according to the cuneiform 
inscriptions, lay south of Karkemesh (Carchemish); 
and Elihu was a native of Buz (comp. Jer. xxv. 
23; Gen. xxii. 21). According to the cuneiform 
inscriptions, Shalmaneser IT. received tribute from 
one Sasi, a son of the land of Uzza, from 859 to 
831 B.c.; and the Midrash also identifies the name 
of Uz with the country, making Job a contemporary 
of Abraham (Yalk. Shim‘oni, cii. 2; Gen. R. lvii. 3). 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Kautzsch, in Riehm’s Handworterbuch, s.v.; 

Delitzsch, Wo Lag das Paradies? p. 259. 

E.G, H, 8, O. 

UZES (ps or D™NN): Town of France, in the 
department of Gard, about 15 miles north-northeast 
of Nimes. Jews were settled there as early as the 
fifth century. St. Ferréol, Bishop of Uzés, admitted. 
them to his table and enjoyed their friendship. On 
this account complaint was made of him to King 
Childebert, whereupon the bishop changed his atti- 
tude toward the Jews, compelling all those who 
would not leave Uzés to become Christians. After 
his death (581) many who had received baptism re- 
turned to Judaism (“Gallia Christiana,” vi. 613: 
Dom Vaisséte, “ Histoire Générale de Languedoc,” i. 
274, 545). Before the French Revolution there were 
seven Jewish famtiies at Uzés, comprising forty-six 
individuals, who later settled either at Nimes or at 
Pont-Saint-Esprit. Toward the end of the nine- 
teenth century there was only one Jewish inhabitant 
in Uzés, namely, A. Mossé, an attorney. He was 
mayor of the town for several years (see Kahn, 
“Notice sur les Israélites de Nimes,” p. 81). 

Among the scholars of Uzés were: the anonymous 
compiler (18th cent.) of the Talmudic collection 
mentioned in Steinschneider, “Cat. Bodl.” No. 2348; 


393 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Utrecht 
Uzziah 


Samuel ben Judah, Gabriel of Milhaua, and Dor 
Dieulosal (“R. E. J.” xiiii. 247). 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gross, Gallia Judaica, pp. 23, 24. 
8. S. K. 
UZIEL: Family name occurring principally 
among the Sephardim in Spain, where it is found as 
early as the fifteenth century. After the expulsion 


of the Jews from Spain and Portugal, the Uziels | 


were scattered throughout northern Africa, Italy, 
and the Levant. The following are the more im- 
portant members of the family: 

Hayyim ben Abraham Uziel: Scholar and 
author of Spanish extraction; flourished in the Jat- 
ter half of the sixteenth century in Greece and Asia 
Minor. He wrote “Mekor Hayyim” (3 vols., 
Smyrna, n.d.), an ethical work in Judeo-Spanish, 

D. S. O. 

Isaac b. Abraham Uziel: Spanish physician 
and poet; born at Fez; died in Amsterdam April 1, 
1622. At one time he held the position of rabbi at 
Oran; but Jate in life he left that city to settle in 
Amsterdam, where he opened a Talmudical school 
which counted among its pupils Manassek ben Israel. 
Dissatisfied with the laxity in religious matters which 
he noticed among many members of the Sephardic 
community, Uziel delivered a series of lectures which 
led to the foundation of a new congregation under 
the name of “Neweh Shalom.” In 1610, at the 
death of Judah Vega, the first rabbi of the new con- 
gregation, Uziel was called to the rabbinate. Uziel 
was the author of a Hebrew grammar, “ Ma‘arneh 
Lashon,” edited by his pupil Isaac Nehemiah at 
Amsterdam in 1627 (2d ed. 1710). He left also in 
manuscript many Hebrew and Spanish poems (“ Li- 
bros Poeticos en Declaracion de ‘Todos los Equivocos 
de las Sagradas Letras ”); these are highly praised by 
De Barrios, who represents the author as a great 
poet, an able musician, and a distinguished mathe- 
matician. Joseph Serrano dedicated a poem to Uziel; 
it is inserted in the “Temime Derek.” 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Koenen, Geschiedenis der Joden in Neder- 
land, pp. 144, 428, Jellinek, in Orient, Lit. viii. 264, 276; 
Kayserling, Geschichte der Juden in Portugal, p. 285; idem, 
Bibl. Esp.-Port.-Jud. p. 107; Steinschneider, Cat. Budl. s.v.; 
Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, p. 646. 

G. I. Br. 

Jacob Uziel: Physician and poet of the seven- 
teenth century; died at Zante 1630. He was of 
Spanish extraction, but emigrated to Italy at an 
early age, and settled in Venice, where he became 
famous for his medical skill. He was the author 
of “Dawid ” (Venice, 1624), an epic poem in twelve 
cantos, written in Italian. 

Joseph Uziel: Italian scholarand rabbi; died at. 
Ferrara 1572. He was a pupil of Isaac Aboab of 
Castile, and left a responsum, which is included in 
the collection of Joseph di Trani (i. 39). 

Judah Uziel: Italian scholar of the sixteenth 
century; born in Spaip: died, probably at Venice, 
in 1634. He was the author of sixteen sermons on 
the Pentateuch, which were published under the 
title “Bet ha-‘Uzzieli” (Venice, 1663-4). 

Samuel Uziel: Talmudist and scholar of the 
seventeenth century; rabbiof Leghorn. Heis men- 
tioned in a responsum in the collection “-Mayim 
Rabbim ” (ii. 52) of Raphael Meldola. 

Samuel ben Joseph Uziel: Rabbi and physi- 


cian of Spanish extraction; lived in the sixteenth 
and seventeenth centuries. He officiated as rabbi at 
Salonica, where he also practised medicine. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider, Cat. Boal. cols, 1148, 1876; 
Mortara, Jiddice, p. 67; Nepi-Ghirondi, Zoledot Gedole Yis- 
rael, p. 179; Conforte, Kore ha-Dorot, ed. Cassel, p. 45a; 
Jacobs, Sources, p. 200; Kayserling, Gesch. der Juden in 
Portugal, pp. 285, 294, idem, Bibl. Esp.-Port.-Jud. pp. 106, 
107; Benjaceb, Ozar ha-Sefarim, p. 3523 Zedner, Cat. Hebr. 
Books Brit. Mus. p. 384; First, Bibl. Jud. iii. 462-463. 
D. S. O. 


UZZA, UZZAH (sry, mt): 1.—Biblical Data: 
Son of Abinadab. Together with his brother Ahio, 
he drove the new cart on which was placed the Ark 
of the Covenant when, accompanied by David and 
all the house of Isracl, it was brought from Abina- 
dab’s house at Gibeah to Jerusalem. When they 
came to the thrashing-floor of Nachon, the oxen 
which drew the cart stumbled, and Uzza took hold 
of the Ark to steady it; whereupon he was slain by 
God “‘al ha-shal” (= “for his error”), David, in 
memory of the event, called the place “ Perez- 
uzzah” (II Sam. vi. 8-8; I Chron. xiii. 7-11, where 
the thrashing-floor is called “Chidon”; comp. the 
commentaries of Budde, Lohr, and Nowack, ad loc.). 
In Rabbinical Literature: The Rabbis made 
various attempts to explain and palliate the death of 
Uzza. By an “argumentum a majore ad minus” 
proof is offered that if the Ark could bear those 
who bore it, so much the more could it bear itself. 
By not perceiving this, and thinking that the Ark 
might be prevented from falling by stopping the 
oxen, Uzza had brought death on himself. WR. Jo- 
hanan thought that “‘al ha-shal” implied that he 
had died asaresult of his act, while R. Eleazar drew 
from “shal” the inference that Uzza had eased 
himself near the Ark. He was, nevertheless, to 
share in the world to come: for it isexpressly stated 
that he died “by” the Ark; and as the latter be- 
longed to eternity, Uzza in like manner must be im- 
mortal (Sotah 35a; Yalk., I Sam. 148, ed. Wilna, 
1898). 

2. Grandson of Ehud, and a member of the tribe 
of Benjamin (I Chron. viii. 7). 

3. Head of a family of Nethinim who returned 
to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel (Ezra ii. 49; Neh. 
vii. 51). 

4, Garden attached to the royal palace. Accord- 
ing to Stade, “Gesch. des Volkes Israel,” i. 569, ii. 
679, “Uzza” should be corrected to “ Uzziah,” thus 
implying that the garden had been laid out by the 
king. It apparently contained a tomb in which 
Manasseh and his son Amon were buried (II Kings 
xxi. 18, 26). 

E. G. H. S. O. 


UZZIAH (my, way): 1. Son of Amaziah; 
called also Azariah (comp. II Kings xv. 1, 18, 80). 
He was king of Judah, and began to rule, at the 
age of sixteen, in the twenty-seventh year of the 
reignof Jeroboam II. The Kings record (7b. xv. 2) 
states that his reign extended through fifty-two 
years (788-737 B.c.), and that he was righteous as 
his father had been, though he did not takeaway the 
high places, but allowed the people to sacrifice and 
burn incense at them. II Chron. xxvi. relates how 
Uzziah conquered the Philistines and the Arabians, 
and received tribute trom the Ammonites; liow he 


Uzziel 
Valencia 


refortified his country, reorganized and reequipped 
his army, and personally engaged in agricultural 
pursuits. His success as king, administrator, and 
commander-in-chief of the army made him ruler 
over the largest realm of Judah since the disruption 
of the kingdom. His power and authority over the 
peoples of this realm help to explain to a certain 
extent the political situation in the reign of Judah’s 
later kings, and probably also in 739, when Tiglath- 
pileser ITI. conquered nineteen districts in northern 
Syria which had belonged to Uzziah (Azri-ia-u). 
Uzziah’s strength became his weakness; for he 
attempted to usurp the power of the priesthood in 
burning incense in the Temple of Yuown. While in 
the act he was smitten with leprosy; and he was 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


subsequently forced to dwellin a leper’s house until | 


the day of his death (IL Chron. xxvi. 21). While he 
was in this condition Jotham, his son, ruled in his 
stead. The total number of years, fifty-two, attrib- 
uted to Uzziah’s reign include the period from his 
accession to his death. 

BE. G. H. I. M. P. 

UZZIEL (Sxory) : 1. Sonof Kohath and brother 
of Amram (Ex. vi. 18; [ Chron. vi. 2). He was the 
father of Mishael, Elzaphan, and Zithri (Ex. vi. 22). 
The first two, at the bidding of Moses, carried from 
the Tabernacle the bodies of Nadab and Abihu, their 
sousins (Lev. x. 4). Elzaphan, moreover, was chief 


394 


of the family of the Kohathites during the wandering 
in the wilderness (Num. iii. 30). Another son of 
Uzziel, named Amminadab, was one of the Levite 
chiefs selected to carry the Ark of the Covenant to 
the tent which David had pitched for it in Zion (I 
Chron. xv. 10). Two other sons of Uzziel were 
named respectively Micah and Jesiah (2). xxiii. 20). 
His descendants were termed “ Uzzielites” (Num. 
iti. 27; I Chron. xxvi, 28). 

2. A Simeonite; son of Ishi; one of the chiefs 
who, during the reign of King Hezekiah, passed 
over the Jordan, annihilated the remnants of the 
Amalekites, and settled in their territory around 
Mount Seir (I Chron. iv. 41-48). 

3. One of the eponymous heroes of the tribe of 
Benjamin, described as one of the five sons of Bela 
(2b. vii. 7). 

4 (Called also Azareel). Son of Heman. He 
belonged to the eleventh order of those who were 
chosen by lot to serve as singers in leading the wor- 
ship in the Temple during the reign of David (I 
Chron. xxv. 4, 18). 

5. Son of Jeduthun; one of those who were 
chosen to resanctify the Temple during the reign of 
Hezekiah (II Chron. xxix, 14). 

6. A goldsmith who repaired part of the walls of 
Jerusalem under Nehemiah (Neh. iii. 8). 


E. G. H. S. O, 


V 


VAEZ: Prominent family of Lisbon, whose fore- 
most members, the four brothers Immanuel, Pedro, 
Ayres, and Salvador, resided in Portugal as Maranos 
during the sixteenth century. 

Abraham Vaez: Hakam of the Portuguese con- 
gregation in Bayonne during the latter half of the 
seventeenth century. He was the author of a work 
on Jewish ritual laws entitled “Arbol de Vidas,” to 
which was appended a lengthy treatise on rituals by 
Abraham Rodriguez Faro (Amsterdam, 1692). He 
wrote also several sermons on the Pentateuch, and 
a number of ethical treatises, which were collected 
under the title “ Discursos Predicables y Avisos Es- 
pirituales” and published, at the expense of his son 
Jacob Vaez, by Isaac Aboab (Amsterdam, 1710), 
who himself wrote a long introduction. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: First, Bihl. Jud. iti. 465; Kayserling, Bibl. 

Esp.-Port.-Jud. pp. 107-108. 

Ayres Vaez: Physician to John III. of Portu- 
gal; brother of Immanuel Vaez; died at Rome about 
the middle of the sixteenth century. At the request 
of the King of Fez, with whom John, however, was 
not on terms of amity, Vaez was sent to Africa, where 
he succeeded in curing the monarch of a dangerous 
illness. Upon his return to Lisbon, Vaez devoted 
himself to the study of astronomy and astrology. 
In consequence of predicting to the king and queen 
the death of one of their children, a prediction which 
was fulfilled, he lost the royal favor. Thinking to 
regain the King’s confidence, Vaez declared, in the 
course of a discussion, that astrology was an unre- 
liable mode of divination, and that its practise was 


foolish and irreligious, The king, who had recently 
read a treatise expressing similar views, delivered 
Vaez to the Inquisition, charging him with being 
a heretic andasecret Jew. Vaez was ordered to de- 
fend himself before the inquisitors, and later to en- 
gage in a disputation with the theologian Sorao; 
but Capodiferro, the papal nuncio, succeeded in 
removing him from the jurisdiction of the Inquisi- 
tion, and sent him to Rome to be tried by the Curia, 
Pope Paul, who was himself a heliever in astrology, 
not only set Vaez at liberty, but even issued a bull 
(June 6, 1541) protecting the entire Vaez family, as 
well as the Jawyers who had defended Ayres Vaez, 
against the Inquisition. 

Daniel Vaez: Portuguese scholar; flourished at 
Amsterdam in the seventeenth century. Together 
with Joseph Athias, he published a prayer-book en- 
titled “Orden de las Oraciones del Todo el Anno” 
(Amsterdam, 1677). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Kayserling, Bibl. Esp.-Port.-Jud. p. 60. 


Immanuel Vaez: Physician; eldest of the Vaez 
brothers. According to the account of Rodrigo 
de Castro (“De Universa Mulierum Morborum Me- 
dicina,” ii. 47, 382, Hamburg, 1603), who was his 
nephew, and who settled in Hamburg in the six- 
teenth century, Immanuel was appointed physician 
to four kings of Portugal—John IIJ., Sebastian, 
Henry, and Philip II. He won this distinction by 
virtue of his erudition and the experience which he 
had gathered in his extensive travels. 

Pedro Vaez: Physician at Covilhaé, Portugal; 
second in age of the Vaez brothers. He is repeat- 


395 


edly mentioned in the “Medicorum Principum His- 
toria” of Abraham Zacuto. 

Salvador Vaez: Youngest of the Vaez brothers. 
He served as a page to the papal nuncio Hieronymo 
Ricenati Capodiferro in Lisbon, and was able to in- 
terest the prelate in the case of his brother Ayres, 
and to induce him to interfere in the latter’s behalf. 
The result was that after the sessions of the Inquisi- 
tion had begun, Salvador suddenly entered the hall 
and declared the sitting dissolved by order of the 
nuncio. Later he probably accompanied Capodiferro 
to Rome. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Kayserling, Gesch. der Juden in Portugal, 

pp. 219-220. 

D. S. O. 

VALABREGUE, ALBIN: French dramatist: 
born at Carpentras, Vaucluse, Dec. 17, 1853. He is 
one of the most prolific of modern French drama- 
tists, producing about two plays a year and in 
addition acting as dramatic critic of the Paris 
“L’Lllustration.” Among his dramatic works are: 
“La Veuve Chapuzot,” 1879; “Clarvin Pére et Fils,” 
Paris, 1880; “ Le Crime” (with Bertol-Graivil), Dec., 
1882; “Les Maris Inquiets,” 1883; “La Flamboy- 
ante” (with Paul Ferrier), 1884; “ Les Grippe-Sou,” 
1885; “ La Nuitdu 16,” 1885; “ L’ Homme de Paille,” 
1885; “La Fille & Georgette,” 1886; “Le Bonheur 
Conjugal,” 1886;° “Le Sens-Préfet,” 1886; “Les 
Vacances du Mariage” (with Hennequin), 1887; 
“Durand ct Durand” (with Ordonneau), 1887; 
“Clo-Clo ” (vith Decourcelle), 1887; “Les Satur- 
nales,” operetta (music by Lacombe), 1887; “ Doit et 
Avoir” (with Felix Cohen), 1888; “La Sécurité des 
Familles,” 1888; “Madame a Ses Brevets,” 1890; 
“Les Moulinards,” 1890; “Les Ménages Parisiens,” 
1890; “ Le Pompier de Justine” (with Davril}, 1890; 
“La Femme,” 1891; “Les Vieilles Gens,” 1891; 
“fe Commandant Laripéte” (with Silvestre), 1892; 
* Le Premier Mari de France,” 1893. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Vapereau, Dict. des Contemporains; La- 
rousse, Dict. Supplement, ii, 1968. 


s. E. Ms. 

VALABREGUE, MARDOCHEE.- 
GEORGES: French general; born at Carpentras, 
Vaucluse, Sept. 20, 1852. He was educated at the 
Ecole Polytechnique 
and the Ecole d’Applhi- 
cation de 1’Artillerie 
et du Génie; and, after 
reaching tle rank of 
captain, he studied at 
the Ecole Supérieure 
de Ja Guerre from 1878 
to 1880, when he was 
attached to the staff of 
the general of division 
in command of the ar- 
tillery and _fortifica- 
tionsof Paris. In 1884 
he was made comman- 
dant of the third bat- 
tery of the seventh 
battalion of artillery, 
and two years later 
was appointed officer of ordnance to General 
Boulanger, then minister of war. Valabrégue 


Mardochée-Georges Valabrégue. 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Uzziel 
Valencia 


was made lieutenant-colonel in 1898, and colonel 
in 1902, when he became commandant of the Ecole 
Militaire de l’Artilierie et du Génie. In 1904 he 
was appointed “chef de cabinet” to the Ministry of 
War. In 1905 he became brigadier-general and was 
made commandant-in-chief of the Ecole Supérieure 
de Guerre and member of the technical committee 
of the general staff. 

Valabrégue was created an officer of the Legion 
of Honor in 1904; and has been the recipient of 


numerous foreign decorations. 
s J. KA, 


VALENCE: Chief town of the department of the 
Drome and former capital of the county of Valen- 
tinois in the ancient province of Dauphiné, France. 
Several Jewish families that had been expelled from 
the Comtat-Venaissin in 1823 sought refuge in Va- 
lence and its territories. Guillaume de Roussillon, 
Bishop of Valence, also brought a number into his 
diocese in 1330, and granted them important privi- 
leges. In 1441 there were eighteen Jewish families 
in Valence, each of which paid to the bishop, John 
of Poitiers, an annual pension of one gold florin 
(“R. E, J.” ix. 288). The same prelate compelled 
them to wear the badge of the wheel (Jules Olli- 
vier, “Dissertation Historique sur la Ville de 
Valence,” p. 801). 

The dauphin Louis showed much good-will toward 
the Jews of Valence and its territories. He con- 
firmed the privileges which his predecessors had 
granted them, and invited all the Jews who wished 
to do so tosettle within his dominions, promising 
them immunities and protection similar to those 
enjoyed by their coreligionists in other localities of 
Dauphiné, on condition that they paid the same 
dues, An anonymous writer of Valentinois in the 
fifteenth century composed a commentary on the 
astronomical tables of Immanuel Jacob BonFILs. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gross, Gallia Judaica, pp. 204, 263; Prud- 

homme, J.es Juifs en Dauphiné aux XIVe et XVe Ste- 

cles, p. 67, Grenoble, 1883. 

G. S. K. 

VALENCIA (7°03%3): Capital of the former 
kingdom of the samename. During.the dominion of 
the Moors, Valencia had a Jewish community eminent 
for its size and wealth. When James I. of Aragon 
made his entry into the conquered city on Oct. 9, 
1238, the Jews went out to meet him with their 
rabbis and delegates at their head, and presented him 
with a roll of the Law in token of homage. Asa 
reward for the important services which they had 
rendered him in the conquest of the strongly 
fortified city, he presented to some of them houses 
belonging to the Moors, as well as real estate in the 
city and its precincts. Among those who received 
such gifts after the “repartimiento de Valencia” 
were the secretaries and interpreters of the king, 

Maestros R. David, R. Solomon, and 

James I. Rk. Moses Bachiel; David Almadayan, 

Makes _ secretary to the infante D. Fernando; 
Presents to Maestros (or Alfaquins) R. Joseph, 

the Jews. Abrabamibn Vives(probably the father 
of the wealthy Joseph ibn Vives who 

in 1271 held a lease of the salt-works of Valencia, 
and who, as Amador de los Rios believes, was the 
ancestor of the Spanish hero Luis Vives, after whom 


Valencia 
Vali 


a street in Valencia is named), and R. Samson. 
Besides, presents were received by the gold-workers, 
merchants, and money -changers Moses Alconstan- 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


396 


pursuits and largely in commerce, aroused the envy 


_ of both nobles and citizens through the wealth and 


| luxury displayed in their houses and apparel. 


In 


tini (probably the same who in 1271 indiscreetly ex- | 1370 loud complaints were raised to the effect that 


hibited certain letters of the king), G. ibn Ya‘ish, 
Simon Abenpesat (certainly a relative of Moses and 
Joseph Abenpesat of Tudela), and Astruc de Tortosa 
(without doubt the same that had possessions on the 
island of Majorca). 

In 1289 King James assigned the Jews a commo- 
dious quarter for residence, extending from the wall 
Aben Xemi to ‘Abd al-Malik; thence to the Puerto 
d’Exarea or Puerto de la Ley (=“gate of the 
law”); and from this gate to the “horno de Aben 
Nulid” and to the wall of Ibrahim al-Valenci. The 
Juderia or ghetto was first surrounded by a high 
wall in 1390, and was provided with three gates 
which were closed at night. The main gate was at 
the entrance of the long street which cut through 
the Juderia, hard by the Place de la Figuera (Hi- 
guera), where now the monastery of S. Thecla stands. 
Another gate, D’Ex- 


the Jews had built houses outside the Juderia; and 
although they protested that this had been done with 
the consent of the king aud by special permission 
of the queen, who received the Jewish taxes for 
rent, the king neverthcless decreed that the Jews 
should thereafter live only in the Juderia. 

The inner government of the aljama was con- 
ducted by deputies (“adelantados”) ; and this body by 
royal permission had erected a school in 1264, Near 
the Jew street stood the large synagogue; and not 
far distant fron this wasa smaller one. The Jewish 
cemetery was outside the Juderia but within the 
city wall; and leading to it was the Puerta de los 
Judios, or Gate of the Jews. 

The year of terror (1391) saw the abrupt dissolu- 
tion of the flourishing Jewish community of Valen- 
cia. In the last third of the fourteenth century the 

city had sunk to a 


area, was at the ter- | 
mination of the long — | 
street of the Jews; 
and a third gate led 
to the Place de la 
Olivera, now called 
“De Comedias.” 
This restriction of the 
Jews met with oppo- 
sition on many sides, 
especially from the 
Dominican friars, be- 
cause by the estab- 
lishment of the ghetto 
their church was 
wholly isolated. &. 
Otherwise the Jews - 
of Valencia enjoyed 
for a long time per- 
fect freedom. They 
were not restrained 
in their trade or com- 
merce; aud they were not required to appear be- 
fore the magistracy. They were subject solely 
to the city “baile,” the representative of the 
crown, For several decades the baile-general was 
R. Judah (Jehudano), the king’s confidant. The 
Jews were permitted to hold public office; but they 
were not allowed to execute justice upon a Chris- 
tian. In 1283, however, this freedom was materialiy 
restricted. King Pedro decreed that no Jew should 
thenceforth hold any public office with which juris- 
diction over Christians was connected. Moreover, 
Jews were to be admitted as sworn witnesses only 
in disputes involving sums not exceeding 5 sueldos. 
The Jews in Valencia had a special 


MOORISH 
QUARTER 


CLoES7 
city 


Restric- formula, in Catalan, for an oath, 
tions which was not very different from that 
in 1283. in Barcelona (see Rios, “ Hist.” i. 576 


ac seq.). They were not permitted to 

kill cattle in the. public slaughter-house, and they 

were required to pay aspecial tax on the necessaries 
of life, merchandise, etc. 

The Valencian Jews, who engaged in industrial 


Plan of Valencia in the Fourteenth Century, Showing Position of 
Jewish Quarter. 


low level both moral- 
ly and materially. 
The nobles wasted 
their property in ex- 
cesses and indulged 
in the most extrava- 
gantluxury. Valen- 
cia, the beautiful gar- 
den of Spain, became 
the refuge of vaga- 
bonds and adventur- 
ers from all parts of 
the country. People 
were attacked, 
robbed, and even 
murdered in broad 
daylight; and the 
time was one of com- 
plete anarchy, the 
conditions being such 
that the Jews of Va- 
lencia trembled 
when they heard of the massacre in Seville in 
13891. They sought protection from the magistracy 
and the city council, who took energetic measures 
for their defense. Quite unexpectedly, however, 
at noon on Sunday, July 9, 1891, St. Christopher’s 
Day, a mob of between forty and fifty half- 
grown youths gathered in the market-place and 
formed themselves into a procession carrying a ban- 
ner and several crosses. They marched to the main 
gate of the Juderia on the Place de Ja Figuera, shout- 
ing, “The Archdeacon of Seville comes to baptize all 
Jews,” and tried to force their way into the quarter. 
The Jews hastily closed the gates, accidentally pull- 
ing in some of the youths. In an instant nobles and 
citizens, knights and clergy, strangers and the rab- 
ble generally made a rush upon the Juderia. In 
vain did the infante D. Martin, Duke of Mont- 
blanch, try to force back the crowd. The Jews de. 
fended themselves valiantly ; and one of the youths 
was killed in the struggle. As soon as this became 
known the revengeful mob forced its way into the 
Juderia from the walls and roofs of the surrounding 


ety 


seat 
Si FL 
ey FERRER 


oe WAR 


Puerta del! 
ar 


_ dewish 
Cenretery 
Puerta 


a de los Judior 


397 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Valencia 
Vali 


houses. «A frightful massacre ensued, Two bun- 
dred and thirty (according to another source, sev- 
eral hundred) Jews were killed, their 
Massacre wives and daughters dishonored, and 
of their houses plundered. Many, to es- 
the Jews. cape death, accepted baptism. Don 
Samuel Abravallo, one of the richest 
Jews of Valencia, had the Marquis de Lombay as 
sponsor and took the name “ Alfonso Fernandez de 
Villanova,” from property belonging to him. Jo- 
seph Abarim, or Juan Perez de 8. Jaime, as he called 
himself after baptism, declared in the criminal court 
(July 21, 1891) that notes due to him amounting to 
80,000 gold guiden had been destroyed, that force 
had been used against his niece and against bis son’s 
nurse, and that his brother had been wounded. 
After the catastrophe the magistracy did its ut- 
most to punish the rioters; and ninety were taken 
prisoners. An order was issued to deliver up to 
the city all goods taken from the Jews; and soon 
the churches, the town-hall, and the neighboring 
houses were filled with the most costly 
Dissolution objects, The city council demanded 


of the an exemplary punishment of the 
Commu- guilty parties; but owing to the fact 
nity. that the most influential families of the 


city were implicated, the suit dragged 
along, and finally King John I. granted an amnesty 
to all concerned. 

The Juderia was not reestablished. The commu- 
nity was destroyed: the large synagogue became a 
monastery (8. Cristobal); the smaller one was turned 
intoa chapel; and the eight slaughtering-pens in 
the Juderia were sold (1893 and 1894). No Jew 
might enter the city without the permission of the 
baile; and even with this permit he might not stay 
longer than eight days. Each Jew entering the city 
without permission was liable to a fine of 50 mara- 
vedis. Only in places near Valencia, 8. Thomas, 8. 
Andres, and 8. Esteban, might Jews reside even 
temporarily. 

Several Jewish scholars lived in Valencia, among 
them Solomon ibn Gabirol, who also died there, and 

Joseph Caspi. Isaac ben Sheshet was 


Scholars rabbi in Valencia for several years; 
and and Amram ben Nathan Efrati occu- 
Rabbis. pied the rabbinate for four decades. 


The latter was widely respected for 
his learning, but was not on good terms with Hasdai 
ben Solomon (a friend of Isaac ben Sheshet), called 
from Tudela about 1880. Isaac Rocamora was born 
in Valencia. Several Jews adopted the name “ Va- 
lensi,” or “ Alvalensi,” after Valencia as the original 
home of their families; e.g., Samuel ben Abraham 
Valensi, a pupil of R. Isaac Campantons. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Rios, Hist. i. 404, 413 et seq.; ii. 18 et seq., 368 

et seq.: iti. 400, 4113 Jacobs, Sources, Nos. 315, 477, 483, 880, 
1123; Isaac b. Sheshet, Resporsa, Nos. 371, 387, 485. A plan 
of the Juderia is given in R. BE. J. xiv. 264 et seq. On the 
massacre see the official report given in Rios, Hist. iii. 594 et 
seq. and in V. Boin, Historia _de la Ciudad de Valencia, i. 
440 et seq.: Boletin Acad. Hist. viii. 358 et seqg., xvi. 495; 
R. E. J. xiii. 239 et. seq.; Gratz, Gesch. viii. 66. 
S. M. K. 
VALENTIN, GABRIEL GUSTAV: German 
physiologist; born at Breslau July, 1810; died at 
Bern, Switzerland, May 24, 1888. He was educated 
at the University of Breslau (M.D. 1832), and estab- 


lished himself as a physician in that city. In 1835 
hereceived the Grand Prix of the Institut de France 
for his “ Histiogenia Comparata,” which is an able 
treatise on the evolution of animals and plants. 
In 1836 he was elected professor of physiology of the 
University of Bern, which chair he resigned in 1881. 
Valentin was theauthor of several important works 
on the blood and its circulation, on the electricity 
of muscles and nerves, on digestion, on toxicology, 
on the physiology of the senses, etc. From 1836 to 
1843 he published the “ Repertorium fiir Anatomie 
und Physiologic,” and collaborated on many pro- 
fessional journals. Of his numerous works the fol- 
lowing may be mentioned: “ Handbuch der Entwick- 
lungsgeschichte des Menschen, mit Vergleichender 
Riicksicht der Entwicklung der Séugethiere und 
Vogel,” Berlin and Paris, 1835 (see above); “ Ueber 
den Verlauf und die Letzten Enden der Nerven,” 
Bonn, 1886; “Ueber Mechanik des Blutumlaufs,” 
Leipsic, 1886; “De Functionibus Nervorum Cere- 
bralium et Nervi Sympathici,” Bern, 1839; “ Lehr- 
buch der Physiologie des Menschen,” Brunswick, 
1844, 2d ed. 1847-50; “Grundriss der Physiologie 
des Menschen,” 2b. 1846, 4th ed. 1854; “ Der Einfluss 
der Vagusliihmung auf dic Lungen und Hautaus- 
diinstung,” Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1857; “ Die Un- 
tersuchung der Pflanzen- und Thiergewebe im Po- 
larisierten Licht,” Leipsic, 1861; “Beitrige zur 
Anatomie und Physiologie des Nerven- und Muskel- 
systems,” 7b. 1863; “Der Gebrauch des Spektro- 
skops,” 7b. 1863; “Versuch einer Physiologischen 
Pathologie der Nerven,” 72). 1864; “Versuch einer 
Physiologischen Pathologie des Bluts und der 
Uebrigen Kérpersifte,” 76. 1866-67, 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Pagel, Biog. Lex.; Hirsch, Biog. Lex.; Mey- 
ers Konversations-Lexikon,. 


Ss. ¥, T. #H. 
VALENTINOIS. See VALENCE. 


VALERIO, SAMUEL BEN JUDAH: Phy- 
sician and author who lived in the Grecian Archi- 
pelago in the second half of the sixteenth century. 
He wrote the following works: “Yad ha-Melek,” 
a commentary on the Book of Esther, completed at 
Corfu on the 6th of Feb., 1579, and published with 
the text at Venice, 1586; “Hazon la-Mo‘ed,” a philo- 
sophical commentary on the Book of Daniel, finished 
on the 7th of Feb., 1580, in a village near Patras, 
in the Morea, and published, with the text of the 
original, at Venice, 1586. There is an extract from 
the latter commentary in the rabbinical Bible of 
Amsterdam (1724-27). Valerio wrote also “ ‘Emek 
ha-Baka,” “Pi Hakam,” and “ Bet ha-Malkut,” still 
in manuscript. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Fiirst, Bibl. Jud. iii. 967, Literaturblatt des 
Orients, vi. (1845), 566, 606; Nepi-Ghirondi, p. 381; Stein- 
schneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 2494. 

8. U.€. 

VALI (VALLE), MOSES DAVID: Italian 
rabbi and physician; born at Padua; died there 
1777. He was a cabalistic scholar of repute, and 
lectured before the Paduan association known as 
“ Mebakeshe Adonai,” in company with the twonoted 
scholars Israel Hezekiah Treves and Jacob Hazak. 
These lectures were attended by Moses Hayyim 
Luzzatto, who, becoming deeply interested in caba- 
listic research, began the study of it under Vali both 


Valladolid 
Vambéry 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


398 


with the association and in his own home, the acute 
intellect of Luzzatto exceeding that of his confréres. 
At the age of twenty-five Vali wrote a polemical 
work in Italian against Christianity, divided into 
seven parts, and entitled “I Sette Giorni della Ve- 
rita.” He wrote also, in Hebrew, seventy “tikku- 
nim” on Deut. xxxiv. 12, Between 1721 and 1767 
he wrote eight large volumes in Hebrew (Almanzi 
MSS. Nos. 269-276), the greater part of them con- 
sisting of a commentary upon the entire Bible. 
They are still unpublished. Ephraim Luzzatto 
wrote a sonnet (No. 50 in his collection of poems) 
entitled “Eleh Bene ha-Ne‘urim,” praising the lec- 
tures of Vali and Treves. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Kerem Hemed, iii. 119, 180, 131; Steinschnei- 


der, Hebr. Bibl. vi. 49-50. 
S. U3. © 


VALLADOLID: Former residence of the kings 
of Castile and Spain; noteworthy for the numerous 
assemblies of the Cortes which were held there and 
which passed anti-Jewish laws. The city had a 
large Jewish community, which, together with the 
Jews of the neighboring towns of Zaratan, Portillo, 
Cigales, and Mucientes, paid 69,520 maravedis in 
taxes in the year 1290. Ferdinand IV., in opposition 
to the wishes of the town council, granted the Jews 
of Valladolid special privileges; but in the civil war 
between Pedro [L. and Henry of Trastamara the in- 
habitants of the town rebelled against the king and 
supported D. Henry, taking advantage of this oc- 
casion to plunder and destroy the houses of the 
Jews and their eight synagogues, robbing the latter 
of their ornaments, and tearing the scrolls of the 
Law. Toward the end of the year 1411 Vicente Fer- 
rer resided at Valladolid, and, not content with the 
results obtained from his sermons, induced the town 
council to confine the Jews within their circum- 
scribed ghetto, In May, 1482, the great synod, com- 
posed of representatives of the different communi- 
ties and of other influential men, held its sessions 
in the large synagogue in the Jewish quarter under 
the presidency of the court rabbi Abraham Benve- 
niste. Asin other places in Spain, during the year 
1473 and in the following year many Jews who had 
renounced their religion were burned at the stake in 
Valladolid. The Jews of the city were so few that 
they, together with their coreligionists in the towns 
mentioned above, paid only 5,500 maravedis in taxes. 

At the time of Asher ben Jehiel, Moses ben Habib 
was rabbi in Valladolid, which was also the birth- 
place of the convert Abner of Burgos or Alfonso de 
Valladolid (Asher b. Jehiel, Responsa, § 107, No. 6). 
A few months before the expulsion, D. Abraham, 
physician in ordinary to D. Pedro Gonzalez de Men- 
doza, Primate of Spain, accepted baptism, as did 
also D, Abraham Senior and his two sons. 

Valladolid was the seat of a tribunal of the Inqui- 
sition, which held many autos da fé there. See BEN- 
VENISTE; INQUISITION; SENIOR, ABRAHAM. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Rios, Hist. ti. 55, 95, 429; iii. 594; Shebet Ye- 

hudah, ed. Wiener, p. 133. Zarza is the only authority for 
the persecution of the Jewsin Valladolid, the Christian chroni- 
clers saving nothing about it. The introductior © h elegy 
edited by Jellinek in the Magen Abot (Leipsic, +95). > com- 
mentary on the Pirke Abot of Simeon b. Zemaxz Duran, al- 
ludes to the activity of Vicente Ferrer. 


8. M. K. 


VALLENTINE, ISAAC: English journalist 
and communal worker; born in Belgium 17938; died 
in London 1868; son of the Rev. N. 1. Vallentine. 
He founded the earliest Anglo-Jewish periodical, 
which at first was unsuccessful, but which after- 
ward gave rise to the “ Jewish Chronicle.” He also 
took a prominent part in the foundation of the Jews’ 
Orphan Asylum and other charitable and literary 
institutions in London. In 1848 Vallentine pub- 
lished “The Hebrew Almanack and Calendar,” con- 
taining a table of holy days and fasts for the ensu- 
ing twenty-five years. This has been continued 
annually up to the present time, and has become the 
communal pocket calendar. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jew. Chron. Sept. 13, 1868; Jacobs and Wolf, 
Bibl. Anglo-Jud. No, 1321. GL 
J. 4 2 


VALLS, RAPHAEL: Spanish Marano; burned 
at the stake by the Inquisition at Palma, Majorca, 
on May 6, 1691, as the “rabbi” of the CHUETAs, 
as were also bis pupil, Raphael Terongi, and the 
latter’s sister, Catalina Terongi, who adhered to 
Judaism. The popular poets of Majorca commem- 
orated the death of these Maranos in verses which 
are still sung by the women of the island, one of 
them running as follows: 


“En Valls duya se bandera, 
Y en Terongi ’s pano, 
En sos Xuetas derrera, 
Qui feyan se processo.”’ 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. de Castro, Historia de los Judios en Es- 
patia, pp. 214 et seq.; Kayserling, Gesch. der Juden in Spa- 
nien, i. 183 et seq. 

8. M. K. 

VALUATION: Estimate of the value of the 
sacred gifts when a money substitute was required 
for them. The chief Biblical passage in relation to 
the subject of valuation is Lev. xxvii. 2 et seq., 
where Jy is probably a noun of action, as in Ex. x]. 
4 (comp. Konig, “Syntax,” § 27%7c). The particle 
43, which in the cited passage often occurs suffixed 
to Jay. refers to the people of Israel, who are ad- 
dressed, and in consequence also to the priest, who 
represents the people on every occasion. To assume 
a substantive, “‘arkok” (7353), as does J. Halévy 
(“Journal Asiatique,” 1899, p. 548), is not necessary, 
nor is it supported by tradition. This valuation 
was to be made by the priest, and his estimation was 
determined partly by fixed standards and partly by 
his individual judgment. 

It might happen that some one made a vow that 
another person would become a Nazarite or would 

do service in the Sanctuary (comp. 
Particular Num. vi. 2 ef seg.: I Sam. i. 22); and 
Instances. in case such a vow were not kept out- 
wardly, the person in question had to 
be redeemed. Fora male between twenty and sixty 
years of age, for instance, the sum to be paid was 

fifty shekels of silver (Lev. xxvii. 3-8). 

It doubtless occurred very often that, moved by 
gratitude, some one would say, “I will consecrate 
this animal to the Lord.” But if the animal in ques- 
tion did not reach the standard necessary in an ani- 
mal destined for a sacrifice to the Lord, an equiva- 
lent in money was required. The value of the 
animal was estimated by the priest, and the person 


399 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Valladolid 
Vambéry 


who had made the vow had to pay that sum and 
one-fifth more (Lev, xxvii. 9-13), 

One might wish to give a house to Yawu, but 
since this could not be done literally, the donor 
would be directed to present the money-equivalent 
of the house. This, again, was to be estimated by 
the priest, and if the donor wished to buy back his 
house he was obliged to pay the estimated price and 
one-fifth in addition (Lev. xxvii. 14 et seq.). 

The case became more complicated where any one 
wished to give a part of his land to Yawn. In 
such a case two possibilities had to be considered. 
(1) The land might have been inherited. In that case 
the price of the field was to be estimated according 
to the measure of seed it required; one homer of 
seed necessitated a paymentof fifty shekelsof silver. 
In addition, only the number of years which re- 
mained until the next year of jubilee was to be reck- 

oned, for in that year the field re- 
Valuation verted to its former possessor. If he 
of Land. who desired to give the field to YowH 
nevertheless sold it afterward to some 
one, or leased it until the next year of jubilee, at the 
expiration of that term the field did not revert to its 
former owner, but belonged to Yuwn forever (Lev. 
xxvii. 16-21). (2) The piece of land might have 
been purchased by the person wishing to make the 
gift, or leased by him until the next jubilee year. 
In such a case also, if he wished to redeem his field, 
he had to pay a sum estimated according to the 
amount of seed necessary for the field. This gift 
held good only for the number of years which re- 
mained until the next year of jubilee (Lev. xxvii. 
22-25). 

The first-born of unclean beasts (asses, for in- 
stance) were to be valued by the priest, though in 
Num. xviii. 16 five shekels of silver is mentioned as 
the price for the redemption of such an animal as 
soon as it should be one month old. The owner, 
however, might redeem such firstlings by paying 
the estimated price plus one-fifth (so in the case of 
the first-born of men, according to Ex. xiii. 13, 
xxxiv. 20; Num. xviii. 16), or else they were sold 
by the priest at the price fixed by him (Lev. xxvii. 
26 et seg.). In thecase of tithes, also, the obligatory 
fifth was added to the value if a part was to be re- 
deemed by money (Lev. xxvii. 31). But such per- 
sons or things as were dedicated to the Lord in the 
form of the “herem ” (¢.e., the ban) could be neither 
redeemed nor sold. 

A comparison with other passages throws inter- 
esting light on these estimations. In the so-called 
Book of the Covenant the labor of a slave is valued 
at thirty shekels of silver (Ex. xxi. 32), while in 
Lev. xxvii. 8the value of a strong man between 
twenty and sixty years of age is reckoned at fifty 
shekels of silver. Furthermore, in the Book of the 
Covenant no difference is made between a male and 
a female slave (Ex. xxi. 32), but according to Lev. 
xxvii. 8-8, a female is always reckoned at three- 
fifths the value of a male of the same age; in one 
case this three-fifths is reduced to one-half the value 
of a male (Lev. xxvii. 5). Moreover, the sum to be 
paid to the father of a dishonored virgin is fifty 
shekels of silver (Deut. xxii. 29), whereas in Ex. 
xxii. 15 no fixed sum is mentioned in such a case. 


The number fifty, or half a hundred, is shown by 
these instances of its use to be a “round number” 
(a comparison of these numbers may be found in 
Konig, “Stilistik, Rhetorik, Poetik,” p. 56), 

A certain development may be traced in regard to 


valuation. In more ancient times persons were 
dedicated to the Lord, and then either 
History they were actually obliged todoservice 


of in the Sanctuary, as in the case of the 
Valuation. Gibeonites (Josh. ix. 23), and of Samuel 
(I Sam. i. 22), and of the women who, 
according to Ex. xxxviii. 8 and I Sam. ii. 22, did 
service at the door of the Tabernacle (this is Kénig’s 
interpretation of the fate of Jephthah’s daughter; 
Judges xi. 39), or they lived as Nazarites and re- 
frained from wine and other intoxicating drinks 
(Num. vi, 2 et seg.; Judges xiii. 7; Amos ii. 12 
[*“They caused my Nazarites to drink wine,” 
Hebr.]). Later such persons were often redeemed 
(Lev. xxvii. 3-8). 

A similar evolution is to be seen in the case of the 
first-born of unclean beasts. At first the neck of 
such an animal was broken (Ex. xiii. 18); but in 
later times, according to Lev. xxvii. 27 and Num. 
xviii. 15, redemption became allowable. The case 
of herem also came to be treated more mildly in the 
course of time. This word (comp. the Arabic “ha- 
ram” = “to cut off ”) designated formerly a separa- 
tion, or a setting aside to be destroyed (Ex. xxii. 19 
et al.); but according to Num. xviii. 14 and Ezek. 
xliv, 29, the thing set aside belongs to the priest. 
Perhaps the passage Lev. xxvii. 28b designates a 
transition period in this idealization of the herem 
(comp. Simon Mandl, “ Der Bann,” 1898, p. 13). 

This valuation occurs once also in the history of 
Israel. King Jehoash, in II Kings xii. 5, mentions 
the money for the dedicated objects (“ kodashim ”) 
which is brought into the house of YuwH. These 
kodashim are nothing else than persons or things 
given to YawuH and then redeemed with money, 
according to Lev. xxvii. 2 e¢ seg. For in If Kings 
xii. 5 the valuation (“‘erek”) of the souls in ques- 
tion (?.e., of the persons) is spoken of, and nothing 
is said of the half-shekel which each male Israelite, 
according to a fixed rule, had to pay annually to the 
Temple as atonement money (“kofer”; Ex. xxx. 12- 
16), If the Chronicler in the parallel passage (II 
Chron. xxiv. 5) intended that, he was mistaken. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bertholet, Commentary on Lev. xxvit. in K. 

H. C. 1900; Baentsch, ib. 

E. G. H. EK. K. 

VAMBERY, ARMINIUS: Hungarian traveler 
and Orientalist; born at Duna-Szerdahely, on the 
island of Schtitt, near Presburg, March 19, 1882. He 
was apprenticed at the age of twelve to a ladies’ 
dressmaker; but after becoming tutor to the son of 
the village innkeeper, he was enabled by his friends 
toenter the gymnasium of St. George, near Presburg. 
Jn 1846 he went to Presburg, where he remained 
three years. Later he studied at Vienna, Kecske- 
met, and Budapest. 

Vambéry was especially attracted by the litera- 
ture and culture of Turkey, and in 1854 he was en- 
abled, through the assistance of Baron Joseph Eét- 
vos, to go to Constantinople. There he became a 
private tutor, and thus entered the household of 


Vambéry 
Varus 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


400 


Husain Da’im Pasha, later becoming private secre- 
tary to Fuad Pasha, About this time he was elected 
a corresponding member of the Hungarian Acad- 
emy of Scicnces in recognition of his translations of 
Turkish historians. Returning to Budapest in 1861, 
he received a stipend of a thousand florins from the 
academy, and in the 
fall of the same year, 
disguised as a Sunnite 
dervish, and under the 
name ot Rashid Effendi, 
he set out from Con- 
stantinople. His route 
lay from Trebizond to 
Teheran, via Erzerum, 
Tabriz, Zenjan, and 
Kazvin. He then went 
to Shiraz, through Is- 
pahan, and in June, 
18638, he reached Khiva, 
whence he went by 
way of Bokhara and 
Samarcand to Herat, re- 
turning through Meshed to Teheran and Trebizond, 

This was the first journey of its kind undertaken 
by a European; and since it was necessary to avoid 
suspicion, Vambery could not take even fragmentary 
notes, except by stealth. He returned to Europe in 
1864, and received in the next year the appointment 
of protessor of Oriental languages in the University 
of Budapest, retiring therefrom in 1905. Vambeéry 
became known also as a publicist, zealously de- 
fending the English policy in the East as against 
that of the Russians. 

The publications of Vambéry, aside from magazine 
articles, areas follows: “ Deutseh-Tiirkisches Tasch- 
cnworterbuch ” (Constantinople, 1858); “ Abuska,” 
a Turkish-Chagatai dictionary (Budapest, 1861); 
“ Reise in Mittelasien ” (Leipsic, 1865, 2d ed. 1873); 
“Cagataische Sprachstudien” (2b. 1867); “Meine 
Wanderungen und Erlebnisse in Persien ” (76, 1867); 
“Skizzen aus Mittelasien” (2b. 1868); “ Cigurische 
Sprachmonumente und das Kudatku-Bilik ” (Inns- 
bruck, 1870); “ Cigurisch-Ttirkische Wortvergleich- 
ungen” (Budapest, 1870); “Geschichte Bocharas” 
(2 vols., Stuttgart, 1872); “Der Islam im Neun- 
zehnten Jahrhundert ” (Leipsic, 1875); “Sittenbilder 
aus dem Morgenlande” (Berlin, 1876); “ Etymolo- 
gisches Woérterbuch der Turkotatarischen Sprachen ” 
(Leipsic, 1878); “Die Primitive Cultur des Turko- 
tatarischen Volkes” (2b. 1879); “Der Ursprung der 
Magyaren ” (i). 1882); “ Das Tiirkenvolk ” (2d. 1885) ; 
“ Die Scheibaniade, ein Oezbegisches Heldengedicht,” 
text and translation (Budapest, 1885); “Story of 
Hungary ” (London, 1887); “A Magyarsig Kelet- 
kezése €s Gyarapodiasa” (Budapest, 1895); “Travels 
and Adventures of the Turkish Admiral Sidi Ali 
Reis in India, Afghanistan, Central Asia, and Persia 
During the Years 1553-1556,” a translation from the 
Turkish (2b. 1899); and “ Alt-Osmanische Sprach- 
studien” (Leyden, 1901). 

On political subjects Vambéry has written : “ Russ- 
lands Machtstellung in Asien” (Leipsic, 1871); 
“Zentralasien und die Englisch-Russische Grenz- 
frage” (2b. 1873); and “The Coming Struggle for 
India” (London, 1885), Many of his works have 


Arminius Vambery. 


been translated into other languages, especially 
French. He has written his autobiography under 
the titles “ Arminius Vambéry, His Life and Adven- 
tures” (7b, 1883) and “Struggles of My Life” (vd. 
1904). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Meyers Konversations-Levikon; Brock- 
haus Konversations-Lexrthon. 


8. L. H. G. 
VAN DEN ENDE, FRANZ. See Spinoza. 


VAN OVEN, ABRAHAM: Physician; died 
in England 1778; grandson of Samuel Basan, who, 
fleeing from Spain at the beginning of the eighteenth 
century, settled in Oven, Holland, whence the patro- 
nymic was derived. Abraham Van Oven received 
his medical diploma at Leyden Dec. 14, 1759. After 
residing for some time at Hamburg, he emigrated to 
England, and, settling in London, acquired an ex- 
tensive and remunerative practise among the Jewish 
residents. He was a good Hebrew scholar, and 
wrote a Hebrew translation of Congreve’s “ Mourn- 
ing Bride.” 

J. G. L. 

VAN OVEN, BARNARD: English physician 
and communal worker; born in London 1796; died 
there July 9, 1860; youngest son of Joshua Van 
Oven. He was brought up for the medical profes- 
sion, studying under Sir William Blizard and receiv- 
ing the degree of L.R.C.S. in 1818. He practised 
in London during his whole life, and had an exten- 
sive clientele among the Jewish community. 

Van Oven was one of the pioneers in the move- 
ment for the removal of the disabilities of the Jews 
in England. In 1829 he wrote the first appeal which 
directed public attention to the subject, and which 
was entitled “An Appeal to the British Nation on 
Behalf of the Jews.” He followed this up by organ- 
izing committees in support of the movement, and 
by convening public meetings, at which he was an 
indefatigable speaker. In 1847 he published the 
pamphlet “Ought Baron Rothschild to Sit in Par- 
liament?” He was subsequently appointed chair- 
man of the committee which celebrated the success 
of the agitation by the establishment of commemo- 
ration scholarships at several public schools. Van 
Oven served on the committces of most of the Jew- 
ish institutions of his day, and was instrumental in 
establishing the Jews’ Infant Schools. In 1827 he 
had been appointed physician to the poor of the 
Great Synagogue, which position he filled for many 
years. 

Van Oven was the author of a work entitled 
“The Decline of Life in Health and Disease ” (Lon- 
don, 18538). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jew. Chron. July 18, 1860; Brit. Mus. Cat.s.v. 

J. 

VAN OVEN, JOSHUA: English surgeon and 
communal worker; born in England 1766; died in 
Liverpool 1888; son of Abraham Van Oven. He 
was trained for the medical profession, being a pupil 
of Sir William Blizard. On receiving the degrce of 
L.R.C.S. (1784) he established himself in London 
as a surgeon and apothecary, acquiring an extensive 
practise among the Jewish residents. Through un- 
fortunate speculations he in 1830 found himself 
in monetary difficulties, and then removed to Liver- 
pool, where he continued to reside till his death. 


401 


Van Oven was one of the most prominent workers 
in the Jewish community of his day, and was chiefly 
instrumental in establishing the Jews’ Free School, 
the presidency of which he held for many years. 
His active participation was evinced in the weekly 
sermons he delivered to the pupils. He will, how- 
ever, be chiefly remembered for his zeal in establish- 
ing the Jews’ Hospital 
in Mile End. There was 
at that time no institu- 
tion for teaching handi- 
crafts to Jewish lads; 
and its want was keenly 
felt and commented on. 
Van Oven therefore con- 
ceived the plan of erect- 
ing houses of industry 
and education, together 
with hospitals for the 
sick, whose maintenance 
was to be provided for 
by annual contributions 
from thesum paid accord- 
ing to the general poor- 
rates by Jewish householders. Opposition being 
shown to part of this plan, he was induced to modify 
it; and instead of several hospitals the Jews’ Hospital 
in Mile End was erected from funds previously col- 
lected from the community. 

Van Oven acted as honorary medical officer to the 
poor of the Great Synagogue, London, until his 
removal to Liverpool. In the latter city he took 
a prominent part in communal affairs, established 
schools and charitable organizations, and delivered 
in the synagogue sermons in the vernacular—at that 
time a novel proceeding. 

Van Oven was a Hebrew scholar—perhaps one of 
the best of his day—and a voluminous writer, con- 
tributing articles on Jewish and medical subjects 
to the “European Magazine” and the “ Liverpool 
Medical Gazette.” He wrote also: “Letters on the 
Present State of the Jewish Poor in the Metrop- 
olis,” London, 1802; a preface to “The Form of 
Daily Prayers,” 7b, 1822; and “A Manual of Juda- 
ism,” 7, 1885. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Picciotto, Sketches of Anglo-Jewish History, 
passim; Huropean Magazine, 1815; Brit. Mus. Cat. s.v. 


J. G. L. 

VAN PRAAGH, WILLIAM: Pioneer of lip- 
reading for deaf-mutes in England; born in Rot- 
terdam June 11, 1845. Having studied under Dr. 
Hirsch, who had introduced into Holland from Ger- 
many the purely oral system of teaching the deaf 
and dumb, and who became principal of the Rotter- 
dam Institute, Van Praagh became active in spread- 
ing his teacher’s principles. When, in the early 
sixties, a Jews’ Deaf and Dumb Home was estab- 
lished in London, Van Praagh was invited (1866) to 
takeover the management of theinstitution. Hisap- 
plication of the purely oral system at once attracted 
the notice of Miss Thackeray, daughter of the novel- 
ist, and others in the public press. In 1871 he pub- 
lished his * Plan for the Establishment of Day-Schools 
for the Deaf and Dumb.” This pamphlet gave the 
first impulse in England to the establishment of day- 
schools and the boarding-out system. 

XII. —26 


Joshua Van Oven. 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Vambéry 
Varus 


The success of Van Praagh’s work at the Jews’ 
Deaf and Dumb Home led to the establishment by 
the late Baroness Mayer de Rothschild of an unsec- 
tarian institution on that system. It was termed 
“The Association for the Oral Instruction of the 
Deaf and Dumb.” Lord Granville became presi- 
dent; Sir George Dasent, chairman; Sir Jolin Lub- 
bock (now Lord Avebury), treasurer; and Van 
Praagh, who severed his connection with the Jews’ 
Deaf and Dumb Home, was appointed director 
(1870), which position he held almost until his death. 
In 1872 the association opened a Normal! Schoo] and 
Training College for Teachers, as the head of which 
Van Praagh for more than a third of a century had 
charge of the training of the majority of English 
teachers in the lip-reading system. 

Van Praagh’s publications include (in addition to 
the above-mentioned pamphlet): “ Lip-Reading for 
the Deaf” (6th ed. 1900); papers on the ora] educa- 
tion of the deaf and dumb (including one read at the 
National Health Exhibition in 1884); “Lessons for 
the Instruction of Deaf and Dumb Children in 
Speaking, Lip-Reading, Reading, and Writing” 
(two parts, 1884); “ Defective Articulation Resulting 
from Cleft Palate”; and various contributions to the 
medical and general press, 

In consideration of Van Praagh’s services to the 
deaf and dumb, M. A. Falliéres, minister of public 
instruction and fine arts in France, created him 
“ Officier d’ Académie” in 1884. In 1887 Van Praagh 
gave evidence before the Royal Commission on the 
Blind, the Deaf and Dumb, ete. The teachers he 
trained have made known his system in every Eng- 
lish-speaking country, He died June 28, 1907. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Out of the Silence, in Cornhill Magazine, 

1868; Proc. of Royal Commission on the Blord, the Dea 

and Dumb, ete., 1887; Jew. Chrun. Jan. 138, 1905; Jews 

Year Book, 1905, 

J. i aes @ 

VAN STRAALEN, SAMUEL: English He- 
braist and librarian; born at Gouda, Holland, 1845; 
died in London, England, 1902. In 1873 he was ap- 
pointed Heorew librarian at the British Museum. 
He translated many Dutch, German, and Hebrew 
books, and was the author of a catalogue of the 
Hebrew books in the British Museum (London, 
1894) supplementary to that by Zedner, with an index 
to both volumes. He prepared also a subject cata- 
logue of the Hebrew collection; but this was not 
published, 

BIBLIOGRAPHY : Jacobs, in Publ. Am. Jew. Hist. Soc. xi. 

J. 

VANCOUVER. See CAaNnapDa. 
VANITIES. Sec Ipots. 
VARNHAGEN, RAHEL. Sce Levin, RAHEL. 


VARUS, QUINTILIUS: Roman governor of 
Syria 6-4 B.c.; successor of Saturninus. He first be- 
came prominent in Jewish history when Herod the 
Great placed his own son ANTIPATER On trial before 
the tribunal over which Varus presided, and which 
condemned him. After Herod’s death, however, his 
two sons, ARCHELAUS and ANTIPAS, went to Rome 
to make their pleas for the throne, while Varus re- 
mained in Jerusalem and quickly suppressed a re- 
volt before be left for Antioch. When, however, 
SABINUS arrived at Jerusalem and oppressed the 


Vashti 
Vazsonyi 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


402 


people, rebellion again raged throughout Judea, 

so that Varus was obliged to return with both his 

legions. Joined on the march by the Arabian king, 

Aretas, he first traversed Galilee, where Judas, 

whose father, Hezekiah, had been put to death by 

Herod, was at the head of the insurrectionists. 

Sepphoris, the capital, was burned, and all its in- 

habitants were sold as slaves, after which Varus 

marched on Emmaus in the west, and burned it 
likewise, the inhabitants saving themselves by flight. 

Traversing the entire district of Samaria, which he 

left undisturbed, he reached Jerusalem, where the 

Roman legion was besieged in the royal palace by 

the rebels. The news of his approach, however, so 

dispirited the latter that he was able to enter the city 
without resistance, whereupon the great majority of 
the people were pardoned, although the country was 
scoured by soldiers and about 2,000 of the insurgents 
were crucified. After the suppression of this revolt 

Varus returned to Antioch. 

In an enumeration of the various wars, the Se- 
der ‘Olam Rabbah (end) alludes to this rebellion 
and its suppression as the “polemos shel Varos.” 
According to Gr&tz, it exercised a great influence 
on Judaism, its direct results being the following: 
the rabbinical regulations (1) that emigration causes 
ritual defilement, since the people fice for refuge to 
foreign lands (Tosef., Mid. xviii. 8; Tosef., Kelim, 
B. K. i. 1, 5; Git. 8a), and (2) thatan agent delivering 
a get must prove its authenticity through a messenger 
(Git. i. 1); (3) the reception into the canon of Ec- 
clesiastes, the Song of Solomon, and the Hagiographa 
(Yer. Shab. 3c); (4) the redaction of the Psalms (the 
majority of the daily Psalms contained lamentations 
and allusions to the Roman supremacy, and this was 
felt most keenly in the post-Herodian period); (5) 
the introduction of regular Psalms into the service 
of the Temple. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY : Josephus, Ant. xvii. 5, 88 3-7; 10, §& 7, 9-10; 
idem, B. J. i. 82, $8 1-5; ii. 4.83: 5, 881-3; Derenbourg, Hist. 
p. 194; Neubauer, M. J. C.i. 66; Gritz, in Monatsschrift, 
1866, p. 80; idem, Gesech. 4th ed., iii., 235, 249, 252, 714-720; 
Schtirer, Gesch. i. 322, 418, 420, 421, 669; iif, 215. 

t 8. O. 

VASHTI.—Biblical Data: The first wife of 
ANHASUERUS; her disobedience and subsequent pun- 
ishment furnish the theme for the introduction to 
the story of EstHEeR. The name is held to be that 
of an Elamite goddess. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY : Wildeboer, Esther, p. 173, Freiburg, 1897. 
E. G. I 


——In Rabbinical Literature: Among the wom- 
en who ruled were: Jezebel and Athaliah in Israel: 
and Shemiramot (Semiramis), wife of Nebuchad- 
nezzar (see Lev. R, xix., end), and Vashti in Gentile 
kingdoms (Esther R.i. 9). Vashti prepared a feast 
for women in the “royal house,” where she served 
them with sweetmeats and other delicacies palatable 
to women; and she selected as the place of the ban- 
quet the royal chamber of Ahasuerus, where she 
might exhibit the artistic paintings which, accord- 
ing to R. Abin, women prefer to see to eating fat- 
tened birds (Yalk., ii., § 1049). Ahasuerus ordered 
Vashti-to appear nude before him and his guests at 
the banquet with the queen’s crown as her only or- 
nament. R. Abbab. Kahana says Vashti was no more 
modest than Ahasucrus. R. Papa quotes a popular 


proverb: “He between the old pumpkins, and she 
between the young ones”; 7.¢., a faithless husband 
makes a faithless wife. According to R. Jose b. 
Hanina, Vashti declined the invitation because she 
had become a leper (Meg. 12b; Yalk., Zc.) Ahas- 
uerus was “very wroth, and his anger burned in 
him” (Ksth. i. 12) as the result of the insulting mes- 
sage Which Vashti sent him: “Thou art the son of 
my father’s stableman. My grandfather [Belshaz- 
zar] could drink before the thousand [Dan. v. 1]; 
but that person [Ahasuerus] quickly becomes in- 
toxicated ” (Meg. l.c.). Vashti was justly punished 
for enslaving young Jewish women and compelling 
them to work nude on the Sabbath (20.). 
BE. C. 


VATICAN LIBRARY: Papal library; origi- 
nally housed, with its archives, in the Lateran Pal- 
ace, Where it was enriched, in the course of time, 
by many rare manuscripts. Transferred to the 
Torre Chartularia on the Palatine, tt was taken to 
Avignon; but on the return of the Apostolic See to 
Rome it became known as the Biblioteca Avig- 
nonese. According to a catalogue published by 
P. Ehrie, this library contained 116 Hebrew manu- 
cripts (“Historia Bibliothecee Romanorum Pontiti- 
cum,” pp. 398, 754), and was probably the most 
ancient collection of its kind in any European 
library. The subsequent history of these manu- 
scripts is uncertain, and they have been either 
wholly or partly lost. Such vicissitudes of fortune 
at, length reduced the Vatican Library to a state of 
insignificance, until Martin V. (1417-31) and Nicho- 
las V. (1447-55) endeavored to repair these losses, 
and founded the Biblioteca Apostolica in the Palace 
of the Vatican. This task was at length completed 
through the efforts of Sixtus TV., and from that 
time the Vatican Library has contained a large num- 
ber of Hebrew codices. During the librarianship of 
Girolamo Aleandro (1519-38), who understood He- 
brew, and of Marcello Cervini, afterward Marcellus 
jI., the growth of this department was probably 
rapid; and it is clear that about 1550 the library must 
have contained a large number of Hebrew manu- 
scripts, since after that date a special “scrittore” 
or copyist was employed for works in the Hebrew 
language. The actual number of manuscripts, 
however, is unknown, for the first catalogue, which 
was compiled by Carlo Federigo Borromeo, and 
which lists 173 books, is very imperfect, and is but 
little anterior to the middle of the seventeenth 
century. 

Shortly afterward (1650) another catalogue was 
prepared by BarTo.occi, with the assistance of 

Giovanni Battista Jonah, which con- 

Early Cat- tains a list of 584 Hebrew manuscripts 
alogues. and printed books. The manuscripts 
then in the Vatican had been acquired 

from two sources, the ancient Vatican collection, 
and the more modern Palatine foundation, which 
had formerly been in the library at Heidelberg, but 
which was presented by Duke Maximilian I. to 
Gregory XV., and placed in the Vatican by Urban 
VIII. in 1624. This Palatine collection contained 
287 Hebrew manuscripts, which had originally be- 
longed to Jews near the Rhineand the Neckar, from 


J. D. E. 


403 


ee > one 


whom they had been taken during the persecution 
of 1391. 

In 1658 the Vatican Library was enriched by the 
Urbino collection, which contained a number of 
valuable Hebrew manuscripts, including two an- 
cient codices of the entire Bible. The second of 
these (not mentioned by Ginsburg in his “ Introduc- 
tion to the Massoretico-Critical Edition of the Hebrew 
Bible”) was written, according to the colophon, in 
976; this date is questionable; but the manuscript 
is undoubtedly very old. After these acquisitions, 
Bartolocei, assisted by Giulio Morosini, compiled a 
new catalogue of manuscripts; but all three lists are 
still unpublished. 

The first printed catalogue is that of Stefano 
Evodio and Giuseppe Simone Assemani, issued in 
1756, and in use at the present day. It contains nu- 
merous errors and discrepancies, however, some of 
them corrected by Berliner, Steinschneider (comp. 
“Die Hebriiischen Uebersetzungen,” p. xi.), and 
others. Thus, codex 133, which contains, accord- 
ing to the catalogue, a work by Isaac b. Jacob Al- 
fasi, actually comprises a collection of treatises of 
Yerushalmi, and affords valuable material for the 
textual criticism of this Talmud. In his “ Appen- 
dix ad Catalogum Codicum Hebraicorum Bibliothe- 
ce Vaticane,” Cardinal Mai gave a list of seventy- 
eight other manuscripts which were added to the 
library after the publication of the Assemani 
eatalogue, thus raising the number of Hebrew 
manuscripts in the entire collection to 590, 

In recent years three small libraries of Hebrew 
manuscripts have been added to the Vatican, these 
accretions comprising thirty-nine manuscripts from 
the Pia Casa dei Neofiti at Rome, deposited in the 
Vatican in 1892 and catalogued by Gustavo Sacer- 
dote; eighteen manuscripts from the Museo Borgiano 
“ De Propaganda Fide,” added in 1902, together with 

the other Borgian codices; twelve 
Recent Ac- manuscripts from the Barberini collec- 
cessions. tion, placed ir the Vatican in 1903, 
with the rest of the Barberini library. 
Neither the Borgian nor the Barberini manuscripts 
have as yet been accurately described and cata- 
logned; and therefore the above estimate of their 
number is provisional. The Borgian collection con- 
tainsa Bible of considerable antiquity ; but the other 
mavuscripts seem to be of little value. Among the 
Barberini codices is the famous tricolumnar Samari- 
tan Pentateuch in Hebrew (Samaritan version), 
Arabic, and Samaritan (Targum), as wellas the Pen- 
taglot Psalter in Armenian, Arabic, Coptic, Ara- 
maic, and Ethiopic. 

The Vatican Library was formerly governed by a 
cardinal librarian and a first and a second custo- 
dian; but in 1879 a sublibrarian was added to this 
staff, aud in 1895 the position of second custodian 
was abolished. “Scrittori,” or copyists, are em- 
ployed in the library to copy and catalogue the 
manuscripts; but the statement that Sixtus TV. ap- 
pointed a “scrittore” for Hebrew rests solely on a 
passage from Panvinio, and seems to be incorrect 
(comp. Miintz and Fabre, “La Bibliothéque du Va- 
tican au Quinziéme Siécle,” p. 137, note 2), a)- 
though it is certain that the library contained a He- 
brew copyistabout 1550, and thata second “ scrittore ” 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Vashti 
Vazsonyi 


was added by Paul V. (1605-21). The celebrated 
Bartolocci was a Hebrew copyist, as were many con- 
verted Jews, including Carlo Federigo Borromeo, 
Agostino Grimani, and Giovanni Battista Jonah, 
the last of whom went to Rome in 1688, and was a. 
copyist at the Vatican until his death in 1668, when 
he was succeeded by Giulio Morosini, who held this 
oftice for the remainder of his life. 

The Vatican Library includes also the Numismatic 
Cabinet and the “Pagan” and “Christian ” muse- 
ums. The last-named contains a glass vessel prob- 
ably taken from a Jewish catacomb under the Via. 
Labicana (see illustration, Jew. Encyc. ii. 140b).. 
This glass is especially valuable on account of its: 
representation of the Temple of Jerusalem; it. 
has been published by De Rossi (“Bollettino di 
Archeologia Cristiana,” 1882, p. 137). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: 8, E.andG. 8. Assemani, Bibliothecce 4 posto- 
lice Vaticanc@ Cadicun Manuseriptorum Catalogus, Rome, 
1756: Mai, Scriptorwum Veterum Nova Collectio, vi. 88; Sa- > 
eerdote, [ Manoscritti della Pia Casa dei Neoftiin Roma, 
in Alti della Regia Accademia dei Lincet, 1893; De Rossi, 
De Origine, Historia, Indicibus Scrinit et Bibliothecce 
Sedis _A postoliece, Rome, 1886; Ehrle, Historia Bibliotheca 
Romanorum Pontificum, Rome, 1890. 


J. J. Gu. 

VATKE, JOHANN KARL WILHELM : 
Christian Hebraist; born March 14, 1806, at Behn- 
dorf, Saxony; died in Berlin April 19, 1882. After 
studying in Halle, Géttingen, and Berlin he be- 
came privat-docent in the University of Berlin in 
1830, and assistant professor in 1837, In 1835 (Ber- 
lin) appeared his first important work, “Die Reli- 
gion des Alten Testaments ” (intended as part i. of @ 
“ Biblische Theologie ”; butno more was published). 
After 1841 he published little; but his lectures om 
the Old Testament were edited after his death by 
H. Preiss under the title “Einleitung in das Alte 
Testament ” (1886). 

On the question of the origin of the Pentateuch, 
Vatke took the most advanced position, denying to 
Moses any share in the work, and regarding Deute- 
ronomy as the earliest of the Pentateuchal books. 
He thus brought on himself the vigorous oppositiom 
of Hengstenberg; but his teaching exerted a lasting: 
influence on a wide circle of hearers; and he is re- 
garded as one of the predecessors of Graf, Kuenen, 
and Wellthausen. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. Benecke, Wilhelm Vatke, Sein Leben une 
Seine Schriften, Bonn, 1883; Allg. Deutsehe Biographie. 
T 


VAV. See Waw. 

VAZSONYI, WILHELM: Hungarian publi- 
cist and deputy; born at Siimegh (Siimeg) 1868. 
He was educated at Budapest, where his remarka- 
ble eloquence made him the leader of all student. 
movements during his university career. After he 
had completed his studies the most vital social 
questions found in him an earnest investigator. He 
aroused a national sentiment against dueling, his 
success being proved by the numerous antidueling 
clubsin Hungary. Later he began a social and jour- 
nalistic agitation in behalf of the official recognition 
of the Jewish religion, and kept the matter before 
the public until the law granting recognition was 
sanctioned (1895). 

In 1894 Vazsonyi founded the first democratic club 
in Budapest, and became a common councilor. In 
1900 he established the political weekly “Uj Szazad ” 


Vecchio, Del 
Veigelsberg 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


404 


(="“The New Century”) for the dissemination of 
democratic ideas throughout the country; and at 
the same time he organized democratic clubs in all 
the large Hungarian cities. In 1901 VAazsonyi was 
elected deputy for the sixth district of the capital, 
ona democratic platform, of which he is the only 
public representative in the Hungarian Parliament ; 
and at the election of Jan. 26, 1905, he defeated 
Hieronymi, minister of commerce, as a candidate for 
the deputyship from his district. 

Besides numbers of articles in the daily press, 
Vazsonyi has written the following works: “ Oenkor- 
many zat” (1890), on autonomy; “ A Valasztasi elv a 
Kulfdldi Kézigazgatasban ” (1891), on the principle 
of election in foreign governments; “A Szavazis 
Deczentralizaczidja” (1892), on decentralization in 
voting; and “A Kiraélyi Placetum a Magyar Alkot- 
many ban ” (1898), on the royal veto in the Hunga- 
rian constitution. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Pallas Lex. xviii.; Sturm, Orszaggyitlési .Al- 

manach, 1901-6. 

8, L. V. 

VECCHIO, DEL (srondyxn, wo 5): Italian 
family, tracing its descent from the period of the 
destruction of the Second Temple. Some members 
of this family were called also DID ND (“the old 
ones”). Its most important members were the fol- 
lowing: 

Abraham ben Shabbethai del Vecchio: 
Scholar of the seventeenth century; rabbi of Ven- 
ice, Sassuolo, and Mantua. He was the author of 
the “ Perush ‘al ha-Ketubah,” a work on marriage 
settlements. A commentary on this, entitled “She- 
tar Bi'urim,” was in the possession of Joseph Al- 
manzi. Abraham wrote also the “Sefer Zera‘ Abra- 
ham,” on rituals, and a responsum included in the 
“Debar Shemuel” of Samuel Aboab (No. 19). 

Samuel ben Mahalaleel del Vecchio: Rabbi 
of Ferrara in the sixteenth century. He was the 
author of “Tikkunim ” (or “ Haggahot ha-RIF ”), on 
Alfasi’s commentary on the Talmud, and of a re- 
sponsum included in the collection of Jehiel ben Az- 
riel Trabot (No. 19). 

Shabbethai Elhanan ben Elisha del Vec- 
chio (SHaBA): Rabbi of the seventeenth and eight- 
eenth centuries; officiated at Lago, Leghorn, An- 
cona, and Casale. He was the author of all those 
responsa in Lampronti’s “Pahad Yizhak” which 
bear the signature Raw nobn: and he wrote also an 
approbation of that work. His correspondence with 
Morpurgo has been published in the latter’s collec- 
tion of responsa entitled “Shemesh Zedakah ” (i., 
Nos. 15, 16; iv., No. 9), while his letters to Hayyim 
Joseph David Azulai are included in the latter’s 
“ Hayyim Sha’al” (i. 16). Shabbethai was also the 
author of the “‘Ir Miklat,” responsa on the Biblical 
commandments, and of the “ Da‘at Zekenim,” a work 
on ethics. The latter work is mentioned in the 
“Pabad Yizhak ” (iv. 61D). 

Solomon David ben Moses del Vecchio: 
Rabbi of Lugo; flourished in the latter part of the 
seventeenth and at the beginning of the eighteenth 
century. A responsum of his is printed in the 
“Pahad Yizhak” (i. 38a) of Lampronti, with 
whom he was on terms of intimate friendship, al- 
though the two were engaged in a literary contro- 


versy concerning the question of damage to property 

(tb. iii. 37a). Solomon was also the author of a re- 

sponsum on phylacteries, which is included in Sam- 

son Morpurgo’s “Shemesh Zedakah” (i., § 4), and 
of a responsuim in Motalia Terni’s “Sefat Emet” 

(p. 19). 

Solomon Moses del Vecchio: Rabbi at Siniga- 
glia in the eighteenth century. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Mortara, Indice, p. 68; First, Bibl. Jud. iii. 
469-470; Steinschneider, Hebr. Bibl. v. 21; She’elot u-Te- 
shubot ‘Afar Ya'‘akob, No. 41; Nepi-Ghirondi, Toledot (re- 
dole Yisrael, pp. 235, 321-823; Mose, vi. 265, 388; Vogelstein 
and Rieger, Gesch. der Juden in Rom, i. 25 
E. C. 5. 0. 
VECINHO (VIZINO), JOSEPH: Portuguese 

court physician and scientist at the end of the fif- 

teenth century. Hewas a pupilof Abraham Zacuto, 
under whom he studied mathematics and cosmogra- 
phy, on which latter subject he was regarded as an 
eminent authority by John II. of Portugal. He 
was sent by the king to the coast of Guinea, there 
to measure the altitude of the sun, doubtless by 

means of the astrolabe as improved by Jacob b. 

Machir, 

When, in 1484, Columbus laid before the king 
his plan for a western route to the Indies, it was 
submitted to a junta, or commission, consisting of 
the Bishop of Ceuta, “Mestre Josepe” (Joseph Ve- 
cinho), the court physician Rodrigo, a Jewish math- 
ematician named Moses, and Martin Behaim. The 
junta finally decided against Columbus’ plans; and 
when the matter came up before the council of state 
Pedro de Menezes opposed them also, basing his ar- 
guments upon Joseph Vecinho’s criticisms, Colum- 
bus attributed the refusal of the Portuguese mon- 
arch to adopt his plans chiefly to “the Jew Joseph.” 
Though Vecinho did not favor Columbus, the latter 
had personal intercourse with him, and obtained 
from him a translation of Zacuto’s astronomical ta- 
bles. Columbus carried this translation with him 
on his voyage, and found it extremely useful; it 
was found in his library after his death. 

Joseph Vecinho’s translation of Zacuto’s tables 
was published by the Jewish printer Samuel d’Ortas 
in Leiria under the title “Almanach Perpetuum,” 
1496. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Kayserling, Christopher Columbus, pp. 9, 12- 
13, 16-18, 47-48. 


8. J: 
VEGA, JOSEPH DE LA. See PEnso, Jo- 
SEPH. 


VEGA, JUDAH: Rabbi and author; flourished 
in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Vega 
was the first rabbi of the second synagogue of 
Amsterdam, Neweh Shalom, which was established 
in 1608. After a short time he resigned his oflice, 
and in 1610 went to Constantinople, where he is said 
to have written a work entitled “Jazania” (?), 
which treated of the life of the Jewish people from 
the time of the second destruction of Jerusalem. 
Conforte confounds this Judah Vega with another 
person of the same name (not Bizo), who lived at the 
game time, and who went from Salonica to Safed, 
where he conducted a Talmudic school and where 
he died. Judah Vega was a good preacher and 
haggadist; his small collection of sermons, entitled 
“Malke Yehudah,” appeared at Lublin in 1616. 


405 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Isaac Trani, Responsa, i. 1389; De Barrios, 
Vida de Ishak Husiel, p. 42; Conforte, Kore ha-Dorot, p. 
48a; De Rossi-Hamberger, Hist. Worterb. p. 325; Gritz, 
Gesch. ix. 523. 

E. C. M. K. 

VEGETARIANISM: The theory according to 
which it is desirable to sustain the body with vege- 
tables and fruits, and abstain from eating animal 
food or any product thereof. Rab said that Adam 
was prohibited from eating meat. “ Dominion” in 
Gen. i. 28 is interpreted as the privilege of using the 
animals for labor only (Sanh. 59b). But after the 
Flood, when the animals were saved in Noah’s ark, 
the right of consuming them was granted to man: 
“Every moving thing that liveth shall be meat for 
you; even as the green herb have I given you all 
things” (Gen. ix. 3). The only restriction was in 
the case of “flesh with the life thereof”; that is, 
flesh might not be taken for food from a living ani- 
mal. Moses could with difficulty restrain the cra- 
ving of the Israelites for the “flesh pots” of Egypt 
(Ex. xvi. 83). The manna, as a heavenly diet, could 
not satisfy them, and therefore Moses appointed a 
flesh meal for the evening (Yoma 75b). Again, the 
rabble among them “fell a lusting” and demanded 
more meat (Num. xi. 4). They were then supplied 
plentifully with quails from the sea, which caused 
an epidemic (Num. xi. 81-34; comp. Ps. Ixx vill. 25- 
31). Moses Hmited the eating of flesh to certain 
kinds of animals, prohibiting those that were un- 
clean (Lev. xi. 1-47). After the occupation of Pales- 
tine permission was given those who were too far from 
the Temple to eat the flesh of any clean animal that 
had been properly slaughtered (Deut. xii. 21). This 
is called “basar ta’awah” (= “meat of desire,” or 
“meat of luxury ”), meat not being considered a nec- 
essary Of life. Daniel and his comrades were given 
pulse and water, and yet appeared in better health 
than those who were nourished with the king’s meat 
and wine (Dan. i. 5-16). The prophet pictured a 
future when “the lion shall eat straw like the ox” 
(Isa. xi. 7). Isaac Abravanel, commenting on this 
passage, says that cruelty and ferocity are engen- 
dered in the animal that cats meat. 

The Rabbis objected to meat-eating rather from 
an economic than from amoral standpoint. The ad- 
vice of R. Judah ben Nai was: “Sit in the shade and 

eat onions; but do not eat geese and 
Rabbinic chickens, though thy heart may crave 

Views. them” (Pes. 114a). A popular prov- 
erb in Palestine rau: “He who eats 
fat tails [“alita”] will be compelled to hide [from 
creditors] in the attic [“ ‘alita”]; but he who eats veg- 
etables [“kakule”}] may rest quietly on the bank of 
the river [“kikele”|” (¢b.). The Rabbis, referring to 
Deut. xiv. 26, said, “The Torah teaches a lesson in 
moral conduct, that man shall not eat meat unless 
he has a special craving for it, and shall eat it only 
occasionally and sparingly.” R. Eleazar b. Azariah 
thought that a man who is worth one maneh should 
provide his table with a pound of vegetables; ten 
manehs, with a pound of fish; fifty manehs, with a 
pound of meat; if he is worth 100 manehs, he may 
have a pot of meat every day. Rab followed the 
regulation of this tanna. R. Johanan; however, 
remarked that Rab came from a healthy family, 
but that people like himself must spend the last 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Vecchio, Del 
Veigeisberg 


peruta to purchase the best nourishment (Hul, 84a). 
Because he did not eat ox-meat in the evening R. 
Nahman was not in a condition to render a correct 
decision to Raba until next morning (B. K. 72a). 
On Sabbaths and holy days fish and meat fur- 
nished the daintiest morsels. R. Abba spent every 
Friday thirteen silver coins at thirteen different 
butchers’ shops in order to get the best meats in 
honor of Queen Sabbath (Shab. 119a). Rabbi, how- 
ever, would prohibit an “‘am ha-arez ” from eating 
meat, quoting, “ This is the law of the beasts, . 
that may be eaten,” etc. (Lev. x. 46-47); one who is 
studying the Law may eat meat, but an ignoramus 
may not (Pes, 49b). 

The modern question of vegetarianism is probably 
first discussed by I. B. Levinsohn, who justities 
the strictness of the rules of “terefab ” on this ac- 
count, and attributes the longevity of the genera- 
tions from Adam to Noah to their vegetarian diet. 
The good morals and keen intelHect of the Jews, he 
says, are largely due to their scant eating of meat 
(“Zerubbabel,” iv., $§ 51). Dr. J. Kaniiner, on the 
other hand, claims that the scarcity of meat among 
the Jews is directly responsible for many diseases 
peculiar to them; and he blames the exorbitant. 
price of meat, due to the special Jewish meat-tax 
(“Seder Kapparot le-Ba‘ale Taksi,” p. 77, note, 
Warsaw, 1878). 

The principal reasons for upholding the theory of 
vegetarianism are summed up in an article by S. 
Rubin in connection with the prohibition of cruelty 
to animals (in Zederbaum, “ Meliz Ehad Minni-Elef,” 
St. Petersburg, 1884). 

An ardent advocate of vegetarianism was Aaron 
H. Frankel (b. Dec. 6, 1862, at Suwalki, Russia; 
d. Oct. 31, 1904, Brooklyn, N. Y.), who adopted a 
strict vegetarian diet and endeavored to organize 
vegetarian clubs. He expounded his theories in an 
English essay, “ Thou Shalt Not Kill, or, the Torah - 
of Vegetarianism ” (p. 85, New York, 1896); and in 
order to areuse the interest of the Jewish masses 
and gain adherents he translated his essay into Yid- 
dish under the title “Lo Tirzah,” adding chapters 
from time to time until he produced four large 
pamphlets on the subject. Asa text for his work 
he took “He that killeth an ox is as if he slew a 
man” (Isa. Ixvi. 3). 

A J. D. E. 

VEIGELSBERG, LEO: Hungarian publicist; 
born at Nagy-Boldogasszony Jan. 18, 1846; edu- 
cated at Kis-Korés, Budapest, and Vienna. Fora 
short time he taught in the Jewish public schoo) in 
Kecskemet, where he wrote noteworthy political ar- 
ticles for several newspapers, especially the “ Poli- 
tik” of Prague; in 1867 he became a member of 
the editorial staff of the “Neuer Freier Lloyd,” and 
since 1872 he has been editor-in-chief of the “ Pester 
Lloyd.” His political leaders, usually signed with 
two asterisks, always attracted great attention; 
and his services as a publicist were recognized by 
Francis Joseph J., who conferred upon him the 
decoration of the Order of the Iron Crown (8d class) 
on July 9, 1904. 

Veigelsberg’s son Hugo, born at Budapest Nov. 
2, 1869, and educated at Kis-K6rés, Kecskemet, 
Eperjes, and Budapest, is one of the most important 


Veil. 
Veneziani 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


406 


authors of the younger generation, being distin- 

guished for the lyric individuality of his poems, sto- 

ries, and sociological works. He usually writes un- 
der one of the pseudonyms “ Dixi,” “ Pat6é Pal,” “Tar 

Lérincz,” and “Jgnotus.” He has published: “A 

Slemil Keservei” (1891), “ Versek ” (1894), “ Vallo- 

masok” (1900), and “ Végzet,” a translation of a 

novel by the Dutch author Couperus., 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Pallas Lex. 

S. L. V. 

VEIL: A cover for the face; a disguise. From 
the earliest times it has been a sign of chastity and 
clecency in married women to cover their faces with 
veils in the presence of strangers. This custom is 
still in vogue in the Orient. The putting on of the 
veil marked the transition from girlhood to woman- 
hood. Rebekab, the bride, covered herself with a 
veil on meeting Isaac, the groom (Gen. xxiv. 65). 
A widow did not wear a veil (26. xxxvili. 19). The 
custom of dressing the virgin bride with a veil is 
mentioned in the Mishnah; covered with a veil 
«“hinuma”) and seated on a litter, she was carried 
in the wedding-procession from her father’s house 
to the nuptial ceremony (Ket. ii. 1). In modern 
times the bride is “ covered ” with a veil in her cham- 
ber in the presence of the groom, just before they 
are Jed under the canopy. In some countries the 
groom, and in others the rabbi, performs the cere- 
mony of covering the bride. 

Moses, when speaking to the people after he had 
eccome down from Mount Sinai, covered his face with 
.a veil as his skin shone so brightly that the people 
feared to come nigh him (Ex. xxxiv. 29-35). 

The veil was used as a disguise by Tamar to mis- 
lead Judah (Gen. xxxviii. 14). The prophet “ dis- 
guised himself with his headband over his eyes” 
«1 Kings xx. 38, R. V.). 

A. J. D. E. 

VEIT, JOHANNES: German painter; born in 
Berlin 1790; died at Rome 1854. He studied at Vi- 
enna and at Rome, where he especially took Va- 
nucei for his model. Together with his brother 
Philipp Verr he joined the neo-German school, but 
distinguished himself by his superior coloring. He 
painted an altar-piece for the cathedral at Liége and 
an “Adoration of the Shepherds” for a Catholic 
church at Berlin, as well as several famous portraits 
of the Madonna. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hans Wolfgang Singer, Allgemeines Kinat- 
ler- Lexicon, Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1898; Bryan, Diction- 
ary of Painters and Engravers, London, 1904 
Ss. F. C. 
VEIT, PHILIPP: German portrait- and genre- 

painter; born Feb. 13, 1798, in Berlin; died Dec. 18, 

1877, at Mayence. His father died while he was a 

ehild: and his mother, who was a daughter of 

Moses MENDELSSOHN, married Friedrich von Schle- 

gel, who had the boy baptized. 

The early part of his youth Veit spent at his step- 
father’s home in Paris, but be was later sent to 
Dresden, where he studied under Friedrich Matthii. 
He completed his education in Vienna, and in 1813 
‘entered the army, taking part in the Napoleonic 
wars. He fought at Dresden, Kulm, and Leipsic, 
‘and was decorated with the Iron Cross for bravery 
in battle. 


In 1815 he went to Rome, where he remained till 
1830 and where he became identified with the neo- 
German religious school, joining Cornelius, Von 
Schadow, and Overbeck, together with whom he 
painted many important frescos, of these may be 
mentioned “Joseph with Potiphar’s Wife ” and * The 
Seven Fat Years” for the Casa Bartholdy, and “* The 
Triumph of Religion” in the Vatican gallery. In 
Rome he painted also several subjects from Dante’s 
“Divina Commedia” for the Villa Massimi, and a 
“Mary in Glory ” for Santa Trinité de’ Monti. 

Returning to Germany in 1830, Veit became di- 
rector of the Staedel Institute in Frankfort-on-the- 
Main. For this institute he painted the following 
large canvases: “The Triumph of Christianity,” 
“The Introduction of Art into Germany by Christi- 
anity,” “Italia,” and “Germania.” The last-named, 
which is an allegorical picture representing Ger- 
many as a young matron, did more than any of his 
other paintings toward establishing his reputation. 

Veit resigned the directorate of the Staedel Insti- 

tute in 1843, and settled in Sachsenhausen, where he 
painted his “Assumption of the Virgin” for the 
cathedral at Frankfort, and also several pictures for 
King Frederick William IV. In 1853 he was elected 
director of the Gallery of Art in Mayence. Here he 
designed for the cathedral a cycle of frescos, which 
were executed by his pupils, being completed in 
1868. : 
Of Veit’s other paintings the following may be 
mentioned: “St. George” (for the church at Bens- 
heim); “The Marys at the Sepulcher ” (Berlin Na- 
tional Gallery); “The Ascension of Christ” (1846; 
cathedral, Frankfort -on-the- Main); “Madonna” 
(Darmstadt Gallery of Art); “Christ” (cathedral of 
Naumburg). 

Veit. painted also for the Rémersaal in Frank fort- 
on-the-Main several portraits of emperors of the 
Middle Ages, of which may be mentioned: “ Charle- 
magne,” “Otto IV.,” and “ Friedrich IL.” 

To the “ Vereinsschrift der Gérres-Gesellschaft ” he 
contributed “Zehn Vortriige iber Kunst” (Cologne, 
1891). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Meyers Konversations-Lexikon; Bryan, 
Dictionary of Painters and Engravers, vol. ti., London, 
1889; Hans Wolfgang Singer, Allyemeines Ktinstler-Lexi- 
con, vol. lii., FrankKfort-on-the-Main, 1898; Clement and Hut. 
ton, Artists of the Nineteenth Century and Their Works, 
Boston, 1880. 


S. F.C. 
VEITEL, EPHRAIM. See Herne, HeErricn. 


VELLUM: Skins of animals constituted the an- 
cient Oriental writing-material (Herodotus, v. 58; 
Strabo, xv. 1; Pauly-Wissowa, “Real-Encyc.” ii. 
944), and the Jews employed them as early as the 
Biblical period (Blau, “ Das Althebriiische Buchwe- 
sen,” pp. 12-15), attaining great proficiency in their 
preparation (Letter of Aristeas, $$ 176-179). The 
Talmud was acquainted with three varieties, leather, 
parchment, and “doksostos,” the last apparently 
a parchment obtained by scraping both sides of the 
skin (Blau, Z.c. p. 28); in the case of leather the out- 
side of the hide formed the writing-surface; in the 
case of parchment, the inside (Yer. Meg. 71a). The 
skins of domestic and of wild animals alike were 
used, although only those which were ritually clean 
might be chosen. Theskinsof fishesand birds were 


407 


likewise prepared (Yer. Shab. 14c; Kelim 10; Blau, 


l.c. pp. 82 et seqg.), but were not used for books. The 
most frequent writing-material was formed from the 
hide of the deer, although only half the skin was used 
(Blau, /.c. pp. 17, 30). While scrolls of the Law might 
be written on parchment (Yer. Meg. 71a, d; B. B. 
14a, top), entire skins were the usual material, these 
being consequently of leather and called “ gewil” 
(Blau, @.¢. pp. 24-26). Parchment books are men- 
tioned by Paul (II Tim. iv. 13), this phrase desig- 
nating Greek manuscripts of Biblical writings on 
parchment (“Berliner Festschrift,” p. 44). The 
Codex Sinaiticus of the fourth century is written on 
the skin of an antelope, and it is not impossible that 
the “ Hexapla” of Origen was likewise inscribed on 
leather or parchment (Blan, f.c. pp. 45-47). The 
scribes manufactured their vellum themselves, and 
it formed an article of trade (Git. 60a. Sanh. 28b). 
Babylonians were preeminent in the art of prepar- 
ing leather (Meg. 17a, 19a), and doubtless displayed 
equal skill in the manufacture of leather and parch- 
ment for writing. 

The distinctive writing-material of the ancient 
Hebrews was parchment, which alone may be used 
for the scrolls of the Law even at the present day; 
and parchment manuscripts which still exist show 
that this material continued to be employed after 
paper had come into general use for other purposes. 
References to examples of parchment and manu- 
scriptare given in JEw. ENcYC. viii. 305, s.c. Manu- 
scrrprs, where the fact is also noted that the finest 
material came from Italy and Spain. 

The statement is frequently made that the German 
Jews furnished parchment for the imperial chan- 
cery, and that when Charles IV. pawned the Jews of 
Frankfort to the citizens of that place, he reserved 
for himself and his descendants the right of obtain- 
ing parchment for the chancery from them. In 1354 
a certain Smogil Perminter (“ parchinent-maker ”) is 
mentioned (Wattenbach, “ Schriftwesen des Mittelalt- 
ers,” 3d ed., p. 181), and in the sixteenth century Mo- 
ses Isserles declares that “ our parchment is better for 
the preparation of scroHs of the Law than the leather 
[“gewil”) of the ancients.” Books were printed on 
parchment, and phylacteriesand mezuzot were made 
out of strips of parchment. Amulets were written 
on the same material; and medieval and modern 
cabalistic and magic writings contain directions for 
writing on parchment, with such added statements 
as that “it must be virginal.” Colored parchment 
is not mentioned in the Talmud or Midrash, although 
the statement is made that parchment becomes black 
Withage. See MANuscriprs; ScrRouL oF tHE Law. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Blau, Das Althebrdische Buchwesen, Stras- 
burg, 1902; Léw, Graphische Requisiten, Leipsic, 1870. 
Le 


J : 
VENDOR AND PURCHASER. See SALE. 


VENETIANER, LUDWIG: Hungarian rabbi 
and writer; born May 19, 1867, at Keeskemet. He 
studied at the rabbinical seminary and the Univer- 
sity of Budapest, and at the Jewish Theological 
Seminary and the University of Breslau, 1888-89 
(Ph.D. 1890, Budapest). Receiving his diploma as 
rabbi from the seminary of Budapest in 1892, he 
officiated as rabbi at Somogy-Csurgo from that year 
to 1895, holding at the same time the chair of Hun- 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Veil 
Veneziani 


garian and German literatures at the Evangelical 
Reform Gymnasium of that city. In 1895 he was 
called to the rabbinate of Lugos, and in the follow- 
ing year to that of Ujpest near Budapest. 
Venetianer is the author of: “A Fokozatok Ko6- 
nyve,” on the sources of Shem-Tob ibn Falaquera 
(Szegedin, 1890); “A Felebarati Szeretet a Zsidé 
Ethikaban,” on charity in Jewish ethics (Budapest, 
1891); “Das Bueh der Grade von Schemtob ibn 
Falaquera ” (Berlin, 1894); “Die Eleusinischen Mys- 
terien im Jerusalemischen Tempel” (Frank fort-on- 
the-Main, 1897); “A Héber-Magyar Oecesszehason- 
lit6 Nyelvészet,” a history of Hebrew-Hungarian 
philology (Budapest, 1898); “ A Zsidésag Szervezete 
az Eurépai Allamokban,” a history of the Jewish 
communal constitution in Europe (7. 1901); “A 
Magyar Zsidésig Szervezetérél,” a work treating 
of the organization of the Jews in Hungary (7b. 
1908); “A Zsidésig Eszméi és Tanai,” a treatise 
on the conceptions and doctrines ot Judaism (¢d. 
1904). He bas also contributed numerous articles 
to periodicals, including “ Egyenléség,” “ Tarsadalmi 
Lapok,” “Jahrbuch des Litteraturvereins,” “ Pesti 
Napl6,” “Magyar-Zsidé Szemle,” “ Orientalistische 
Litteraturzeitung,” “Ethnographia,” and ‘“ Bloch’s 
Festschrift” (supplement to the “ Oesterreichische 
Wochenschrift”); and he has published some ser- 
mons in Hungarian. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY : A. Csurgoi, Tanité-Kepz6 Jntézet Tirtenete, 


p. 45: Gesch. des Jildisch-Theologischen Seminars in Bres- 
lau, p. 199 3 


VENEZIANI, EMMANUEL FELIX: French 
philanthropist; born at Leghorn in 1825; died at 
Paris Feb. 5, 1889. At an early age he went to Con. 
stantinople, where he became the manager of the 
Bangue Camondo and president of the committee of 
the Alliance Israélite Universelle;: but after the close 
of the Franco-German war he went to Paris and 
became the associate of Baron Maurice de Hirsch in 
his philanthropic plans. In1877 Veneziani traveled 
through Turkey and Bulgaria to relieve, without re- 
gard to creed, the distress of the poor who were sufter- 
ing from the rigors of the Russo-Turkish war; and 
for his services he was rewarded with a commander- 
ship of the Order of the Nishan-i-Medjidie. In the 
following year, with Charles Netter and Sacki Kann, 
he went to the Berlin Congress to plead the cause of 
religious liberty, and in 1880 he and Netter madea 
similar plea for the Jews of Morocco at the Madrid 
Congress. Twoyears later he and Netter were sent 
by the Alliance to Brody to assist the Russian Jews 
and to aid them to emigrate, a million francs being 
set aside by the society, at his instance, for this pur- 
pose. On his election to the central committee of 
the Alliance in 1883, Veneziani made a tour of the 
Jewish colonies of Palestine, and it was decided, on 
his representation, to check the Russian emigration 
to that country. He made repeated visits to Vienna 
also, where he devoted himself to making the 
plans and laying the foundation of a charitable in- 
stitution erected at the expense of Baron de Hirsch. 
Despite the shock resulting from the death of his 
son in 1882, Veneziani continued his activities to the 
last, dying only a few days after returning froma 
journey to Vienna, 


Venice 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bulletin de UV Alliance Israélite Universelle, 
Jan., 1889; Zadoc Kahn, Souvenirs et Regrets, pp. 278-283 ; 
Univ. Isr. Feb. 16, 1889. 

8. J. KA. 


VENICE: Italian city ; formerly capital of a re- 
public embracing northeastern Italy and some islands 
in the Mediterranean. The first Venetian document, 
so far as known, in which Jews are mentioned is a 
decree of the Senate, dated 945, prohibiting captains 
of ships sailing in Oriental waters from taking on 
board Jews or other merchants—a protectionist 
measure which was hardly ever enforced. Accord- 
ing to a census of the city said to have been taken 
in 1152 (Galliccioli, “Memoria Antiche Venete,” ii. 
279), the Jews then in Venice numbered 1,300, an 
estimate which Galliccioli himself believes to be ex- 
cessive. An event which must have increascd 
the number of Jews in Venice was the conquest of 
Constantinople by the allied Venetians and French 
in 1204, when the former took possession of several 
islands in the Levant, including Eubma, where the 
Jews were numerous. At that time Jewish mer- 
chants went to Venice for the transaction of business, 
and some of them settled there permanently. 

The tirst lasting settlement of Jews was not In 
the city itself, but on the neighboring island of 
Spinalunga, which was called “ Giudeca” in a doc- 
ument dated 1252. For some unknown reason this 
island was afterward abandoned. For several cen- 
turies the ruins of two ancient synagogues were to 
be seen there (comp, Ravain “ Educatore Israclita,” 
1871, p. 47). «At the beginning of the thirteenth 
century many Jews went to Venice from Germany, 
some seeking refuge from persecution, others at- 
tracted by the commercial advantages of this im- 
portant seaport. A decree of the Senate, dated 1290, 
imposed upon the Jews of Venice a 
duty of 5 per cent on both Imports 

Jewish and exports (Galliccioli, éd.¢. i). 280). 

Settlement. R. Simeon Luzzatto (1580-1663) 

speaks in his noteworthy “ Discorso 

Circa il Stato degli Hebrei di Venetia” (p. 18) of 

the Jew who was instrumental in bringing the com- 
merce of the Levant to Venice. 

An ordinance of 1541, issued by the Senate on the 
advice of the Board of Commerce, to provide Jewish 
merchants with storehouses within the precincts of 
the ghetto, observes that “the greater part of the 
commerce coming from Upper and Lower Rumania 
is controlled by itinerant Jewish Levantine mer- 
chants” (Schiavi, “Gli Ebrei in Venezia e nelle Sue 
Colonie,” p. 493). When the “ Cattaveri” were com- 
missioned in 1688 to compile new laws for the Jews, 
the Senate demanded that “the utmost encourage- 
ment possible sheuld be given to those nations [re- 
ferring to the various sections into which the whole 
Jewish community was divided] for the sake of the 
important advantages which will thus accrue to our 
customs duties” (comp. Rava, U.¢. 1871, p. 384). 

Besides engaging in commerce, the Jews conducted 
loan-banks; and in the ancient decrees of the Senate 
in regard to them it is repeatedly declared that the 
operation of these banks, which was prohibited by 
tlie canonical law, was the chief reason for admitting 
Jews into Venice. Therefore, in deference to some 
remnant of scruple, it was ordained, at least at first, 


Early 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


408 


that contracts relative to these transactions should 
not be drawn up in the city itself, but in the neigh- 
boring Mestre (Galliccioli, dc. ii. 281). The interest 
on the loans was at first fixed by a decree of 1366 at 
4 per cent, but it was raised afterward to 10 or 12 per 
cent, according to whether the loans were made on 
substantial security or on written obligations. ‘The 
original object of these banks was solely to help the 
poor, but it soon became evident that it was neces- 


The Ghetto, Venice. 
(From a photograph.) 


sary to provide for greater loans, some of which 
were made to the government itself. These banks, 
as well as Jewish affairs in general, were placed 
under the surveillance of special magistrates whose 
titles varied according to the times, as “consoli,” 
“sopraconsoli,” “provveditori,” “sopraprovvedi- 
tori,” etc. (see Soave in “ Corriere Israelitico,” 1879, 
p. 56). 

Despite all this, however, the right of the Jews to 
reside in Venice always remained precarious, Their 


=i 


ak wis Pensa 6 


- ~~ 


Sines 


a 
Cee 


RS hinit 
te 


Sal 


SHE eS i? WITLI 
SPRAY ‘pe 


7 “Ay, od. 
LAM ALB 


; c= ff, a 
Hazly Dug 


PLAN OF VENICE IN 1640. STAR SHOWS POSITION OF THE GHETTO, 
(From Martin Zeiler, ‘' Itineraria Italie.’’) 


Venice 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


410 


legal position was not regulated by law, but was 
determined, as in the case of other foreigu colonies, 
by “condotte ” (safe-conducts) granted for terms of 
years, and the renewal of which was sometimes rec- 
fused (Lattes, in “ Venezia e le Sue Lagune,” vol. i., 
p. ii., Appendix, p. 177), The Jews, indeed, were 
twice expelled and compelled to retire to Mestre. 

The first “condotta” for the Jews seems to have 
been issued in 1378; as a rule the duration of the 
condotte ranged between five and ten years. At 
one of the renewals, made in 1385, an annual tax 
of 4,000 ducats was imposed on them, but in com- 
pensation they were relieved from all other taxes 

except customs duties. In 1894 the 
First Senate, alleging that the Jews had not 
‘‘Condotta” observed the legal regulations in their 
for the  loun transactions, and that if these con- 
Jews. tinued all the movable property in 
Venice would pass into their hands, 
ordained that at the expiration of the current permit, 
in 1396, they should leave the city. When tliat date 
arrived they actually retired to Mestre (Galliccioli, 
lc. ii. 282); but in the course of the same year, in 
view of the damage which resulted from their ab- 
sence, the Senate recalled them (Rava, é.c. 1871, p. 
48). They were, however, not permitted to remain 
in Venice more than fifteen days at a time, and were 
obliged to wear on their breasts a distinguishing 
sign in the form of a round piece of yellow cloth, 
for which a yellow cap was later substituted, and 
still later a red cap. ‘his odious regulation, al- 
though the degree of its observance varied at differ- 
ent times, and exceptions to it were permitted, con- 
tinued in force for about two centuries, until ad- 
vancing civilization did away with it; Galliccioli, 
writing at the end of the seventeenth century, says 
that in his day all such distinctions had ceased. 

The restriction to fifteen days’ residence does not 
seem to have been enforced long; being an isolated 
measure, if soon came to be disregarded. A decree 
of the year 1423 forbade all Jews of Venice to hold 
real estate (“ pro Dei reverentia et pro utilitate et 
commodo locorum”; Galliccioli, Z.¢. ii. 291). Other 
repressive measures followed in 1434. The order to 
wear the badge, then little observed, was enforced 
with severity. Schools for games, singing, dancing, 
and other accomplishments (“di qualsiasi dottrina ”) 
were prohibited, and all association with Christian 
women was still more sternly forbidden (Rava, J.c. 
1871, p. 48). The practise of any of the higher pro- 
fessions was also forbidden, excepting that of medi- 
icine, which, notwithstanding various bulls prohib- 
iting the treatment of Christians by Jews (Galliccioli, 
ic. ii, 290), was always followed by the latter with 
credit. Other prohibitions followed; and in 1566 
tailoring was specially included among the forbidden 
trades, “in order that Christian artisans may not be 
injured.” For the same reason internal commerce 
was prohibited to the Jews, with the exception of 
the so-called “ strazzaria,” the trade in cast-off clothes 
(Rava, U.c. 1871, p. 174). 

It is noteworthy that despite all these restrictions 
the economic condition of the Jews in Venice was 
on the whole prosperous, which proves that in gen- 
eral the laws were by no means enforced to the let- 
ter. In 1886 Corfu submitted to Venice, and one of 


the embassy charged with arranging the terms of 
the surrender was a Jew, who obtained for his core- 
ligionists on the island privileges which were always 
faithfully observed; the Jews in their turn always 
gave proofs of their sincere devotion to the repub- 
lic, winning from the commanders of the Venetian 
troops high praise for their valor in the frequent 
wars against the Turks (Schiavi, U.c. p. 487). 

In the second half of the fifteenth century the 
Jews of the entire republic were menaced by the 
clerical agitation against Jewish money-lenders (see 
JEW. Encvyc. vii. 4, s.v. ITALY; x. 88, 8.0. PLEDGES); 
and some cities of the mainland, terrorized by this 
agitation, requested permission of the Senate to ex- 
pelthe Jews. Cardinal Bessarione, when questioned 
on this subject by the Senate, replied that they 
might be tolerated “if the proper caution were ob- 
served,” and the request was accordingly denied. 
Nevertheless a few cities persisted in their demands 
for the banishment of the Jews; and in the course 
of a few years some expulsions took place, as at 
Brescia (1468), Vicenza (1476), and Bergamo and 
Treviso (1479). 

A much more serious fate befell the Jews of Trent 
when the monk BERNARDINUS OF FELTRE accused 
them of the murder of a Christian child (1475). Al- 
though the Doge of Venice, Mocenigo, issued a 
strong manifesto for the protection of the Jews, he 
could not prevent a similar trial for ritual murder 
from taking place in Venice itself a few years later, 
attended by the same atrocious methods of proce- 

dure. There was, however, one note- 

Blood worthy point of difference: the whole 

Accusation. trial was conducted as if for an indi- 

vidual crime, and the number of the 

victims was confined to the accused (Ciscato, “Gli 
BEbrei in Padova,” p. 186). 

The expulsion of the Jews from Spain (1492) and 
Portugal (1496) brought many exiles to Venice, and 
among them came, after many peregrinations, the 
celebrated Isaac Abravanel, who, during his resi- 
dence in Venice, had occasion to use his diplomatic 
skill in settling certain difficulties between the re- 
public and the King of Portugal (Gritz, “Gescb.” 
ix. 9). 

Times of peril now followed for the republic. In 
1508 the famous League of Cambray was formed 
against it, In which nearly all the states of Europe, 
including Austria, France, Spain, the Papal States, 
and Naples, united. The common danger had the 
effect of relaxing the enforcement of the anti-Jewish 
laws and of drawing Jews and Christians together 
in more friendly relations. But peace was hardly 
concluded (1516) when the old policy was revived, 
and the better to insure the separation of Jews and 
Christians the institution of the ghetto was intro- 
duced. Venice thus became the mother of this insti- 
tution. The decree which the Senate issued in re- 
gard to it referred to a decree of 1385; and this in 
turn referred to a still earlier decree which had not 
been carried out (Schiavi, é.¢. p. 822). According 
to Galliccioli (é.c. ii. 301), however, all the Jews 
could not find homes in the ghetto, and many were 
obliged to live outside. Synagogues, formerly scat- 
tered throughout the city, were now permitted only 
in Mestre, but before long a new concession allowed 


411 


them in Venice again, though only in the ghetto. 
At the same time, while Venice acquired the unenvi- 
able reputation of having introduced the ghetto, it 
became a potent factor in the spiritual life of Juda- 
ism through the famous printing establishment of 
Danicl BompBere, which published the most impor- 
tant works of rabbinical literature. In the later years 
of Bomberg’s life other presses competed with him, 
as many as four existing in Venice at one time. 

In 1558, however, the proscription of Hebrew lit- 
erature by the Inquisition began, and all copies of 
the Talmud which could be found in Rome, Venice, 
Padua, and other cities were confiscated and burned. 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Venice 


In 1527 another expulsion took place, although 
it probably affected only the money-lenders, who 
withdrew to Mestre, but were permitted to return 
to Venice for the time necessary to sell their pledges. 
In 1534 they were recalled, and this time the Jews 
organized themselves into a corporation called 
“Universita.” Since each man wished to preserve 
his own nationality according to the country from 
which he came, the Universita was divided into three 
national sections, Levantines, Germans, and Occi- 
dentals, the last name being applied to those who 
came from Spainand Portugal. Theadministration 
of the whele Universita was in the hands of a coun- 


Rio E PONTE DELLE GUGLIE, SHOWING HIGH HOUSES OF MODERN GHETTO. 
(From 2a photograph.) 


Later the prohibition was somewhat relaxed, though 
LEON oF MopEna, in his “ Historia dei Riti Ebraici ” 
(p. 88, Venice, 1638), declares: “ To-day it [the Tal- 
mud] remains prohibited; and in Jtaly particularly 
it is neither seen nor read.” In 1566 the Senate for- 
bade the printing of Hebrew books; but either the 
prohibition affected Jews only or the 
The decree was soon revoked, for Hebrew 
Inquisition printing in Venice continued uninter- 
and Hebrew ruptedly or was resumed after a short 
Literature. interval, and many new works were 
published. Although these always 
appeared under the names of Venetian nobles as 
editors, the connection of the latter with such works 
ended there. 


cil of seven members, three chosen from the Levant- 
ines, three from the Germans, and one from the 
Occidentals. Many laws were passed, furthermore, 
to regulate the whole internal administration of the 
community. According to Schiavi, an internal tri- 
bunal was also established to adjudicate both civil 
and criminal suits; but Jater on the Council of Ten 
limited its powers to civil suits, and in these it could 
act only when the parties appealed to it (Schiavi, 
lec. p. 829). 

The most powerful weapon of which the heads of 
the community could avail themselves was that of 
excommunication, although it appears that legally 
at least the exercise of it was not Jeft wholly in Jew- 
ish hands. Galliccioli records at length a successful 


Venice 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


412 


appeal presented to the Patriarch of Venice by the 
heads of the Universita, for permission to excommu- 
nicate those living in the ghetto who neglected their 
religious duties; and the author adds that the right 
to give this authority had been in the hands of the 
patriarch until 1671, when it passed to the “ Catta- 
veri” (Galliccioli, d.¢c. 17. 801), It does not appear, 
however, from any subsequent documents that the 
Jews held strictly to this dependence. 

Schools for study were naturally among the most 
important institutions of Jewish life in Venice at all 
times. In addition to Hebrew, secular branches of 
study were taught in them (Schiavi, é.c. p. 8382). Al- 
though nominally restricted to the ghetto, the Jews 
lived in general throughout the city, and in the six- 
teenth century, when the vice of gambling raged 
in Venice, the ghetto also was infected, while Jews 
aud Christians often played together. Although the 
government had already imposed penalties upon 
gambling, the heads of the Universita saw that the 
measure remained ineffective, and they therefore 
pronounced excommunications in ‘the synagogue 
against those who played certain games. Excom- 
munication failed in its turn; and Leon of Modena, 
whose reputation was seriously stained because of 
his addiction to this vice, wrote a long protest 
against his own excommunication, which he de- 
clared ilegal; the ban, he said, only drove people to 
worse sins. In all his long discussion there is no 

sign of the fact that the pronouncing 
Prevalence of the excommunication was depend- 
of ent on any but the Jews themselves. 
Gambling. It appears from the disquisition of 
Leon of Modena that the number of 
Jews then in Venice was little more than 2,000. 
This agrees with other data of the time, so that it 
seems necessary to reject the number 6,000 given 
for that period in Luzzatto’s “Discorso Circa il 
Stato degli Hebrei di Venetia.” In 1659, according 
to an official census, their number had increased to 
4,860 (Schiavi, l.c. p. 507). The struggle against 
gaming continued, and, in addition, regulations in- 
tended to check unnccessary luxury in dress and 
excessive display in banquets and family festivals 
were repeatedly published in the synagogue. 

Among the various societies of the period there 
was in Venice, as probably in the majority of Jew- 
ish communities, one for the ransom of Jews who 
had been enslaved. Venice and Amsterdam were 
the two principal centers for the relicf of such un- 
fortunates, and consequently the societies of other 
communities ag a rule made their headquarters in 
these two cities. Venice and Amsterdam, by mu- 
tual consent, divided the field of their activities. 
On the former devolved the task of effecting the 
ransom of those Jews who had sailed in Turkish 
ships from Constantinople and other Oricntal ports, 
and had fallen into the hands of the Knights of St. 
John, who waged a fierce and continual warfare 
against such ships. The Jews taken captive in 
these frequent attacks were held in Malta in hope 
of a heavy ransom, and were most barbarously 
treated. The society at Venice had a permanent 
Christian delegate on the island, with the recognized 
title of consul, whose duty it was to alleviate the 
lot of the wretched captives as far as possible and 


to conduct negotiations for their ransom (Soave, 
* Malta e gli Schiavi Ebrei,” in “ Corriere Israelitico, ” 
XVil. 54 et seq.). 

In 1571, after the battle of Lepanto, in which the 
Venetians and Spaniards conquered the Turks in 
the contest for the island of Cyprus, the danger 
of expulsion again threatened the Jews of Venice. 
During this war much ill feeling bad arisen in Venice 
against the Jews because one of their coreligionists, 
Joseph Nast, was said to have suggested the war, 
and many Venetians suspected that the Jews of the 
city had sympathized with him. It was tn conse- 
quence of this ill feeling, doubtless, that the Senate, 
in the first transports of its joy over the victory, 
issued a harsh decree in which, to 
show a proper gratitude to God for 
so great a victory, in which “they 
had conquered the enemies of His 
Holy Faith, as were the Jews also,” it was ordained 
that in two years, on the expiration of the “con- 
dotta,” all Jews should leave the city, never to re- 
turn (Rava, d.c. 1871, p. 176). This decree, how- 
ever, was entirely revoked, either as a result of 
reflection or in deference to some powerful inter- 
vention. 

In 1572 Sultan Salim II. sent the rabbi Solomon 
Ashkenazi, who, both as a physician and as a states- 
man, possessed great influence with the Divan, as a 
special ambassador to the Senate, charged with a 
secret mission to conclude an offensiveand defensive 
alliance between the two states against Spain (Griitz, 
“Gesch.” ix., note 7). The Senate reccived him 
with all the honors due the ambassador of a great 
power, and, although it did not accede to his pro- 
posals, it sent him back with presents. Ashkenazi 
availed himself of this opportunity to defend the 
cause of his coreligionists, and he seems to have ob- 
tained not only the revocation of the decree of ex- 
pulsion, but also the promise that such expuisions 
should never again be proposed (Griitz, /.¢. 1x. 416). 

An event, in itself of minor importance, yet note- 
worthy as one of the results of the great agitation 
aroused throughout the Jewish world by the Mes- 
sianic claims of Shabbethai Zebi, was the brief 
stay in Venice of the visionary Nathan GHAzZzZA'T. 
Even after the apostasy of Shabbethai Zebi had 
opened the eyes of the majority and calmed the ex- 
citement, Nathan continued to believe in him, or 
pretended to do so. He claimed to have had ce- 
lestial visions, and proclaimed himseif the prophet 
Elijah, the precursor of the Messiah, thus endeav- 
oring to inflame the popular mind anew and revive 
the old excitement. Driven from Salonica and 
other cities, he went to Venice in 1668, where, in 
view of the credulity of the times, his presence 
might have been dangerous. Scarcely was his ar- 
rival known to the rabbis and heads of the Univer- 
sita when they called him before their tribunal and 
made him sign a document confessing the falsity of 
his claims to have had celestial visions, and denying 
that Shabbethai was the Messiah. This done, they 
warned him to leave at once and had him escorted 
to the frontier (Rava, U.c. 1871, p. 307; Samuel 
Aboab, “Debar Shemuel,” responsum No. 375, 
Venice, 1702). 

While the administration of the Venetian republic 


Joseph 
Nasi. 


CydsaZojoqd © ut0s,4) 
‘HOINTA ‘HTADONVNAS FHL fO YOILALINI 


soe 


oak 


Oty eer 


4 


Venice 


was always under papal influence, a spirit of com- 
parative tolerance prevailed there, as is usual in 
maritime and commercial cities, and the Jews, like 
all others, were free from restrictions in their wor- 
ship. Well organized and strong, the republic al- 
ways maintained order and fulfilled its compacts 
faithfully. The “condotte” were religiously ob- 
served, and the lives and property of Jews were pro- 
tected. Local outbreaks against the Jews were of 
rare occurrence and were quickly followed by exem- 
plary punishments (Osimo, “ Norrazione della Strage 
Compita Contra gli Ebrei d’ Asolo,” Padua, 1875). 
The Inquisition existed at Venice, although it 
was not admitted until 1279, after long opposition ; 
but its jurisdiction extended only over Christian 
heretics, and even over them its power was much 
restricted, In 1570 the inquisitors of Padua wished 
to compel the Jews to attend sermons in their 
churches. On this occasion the Senate recalled them 
to their proper province, but it appears that they 
succeeded at some later time, for the greater part of 
a sermon which was preached to the Jews in one of 
the churches in Padua in 1715 is still preserved 
(Ciscato, f.c. pp. 140-141). At all events, continual 
contact in daily life often led naturally to friendly 
relations between Jews and Christians, and the gov- 
ernment was enlightened enough to encourage them. 
In 1553 the council granted Kalonymus, a Jewish 
physician, the means necessary to keep his gon at 
his studies, “so that he may become a man useful in 
the service of this illustrious city ” (Romanin, “Storia 
Documentata di Venezia,” v. 387, note 8). 

In the great financial stress in which the republic 
was placed during the long and expensive war with 
the Turks the Jews were obliged to pay heavy taxes. 
Nevertheless, their contributions, like those of the 
other citizens, were often spontaneous; and the 
names of the bankers Anselmo and Abramo, who 
had voluntarily contributed 1,000 ducats, with those 
of other contributors, were inscribed in a book of 
parchment “in everlasting remembrance” (Schiavi, 
l.c. p. 820). Most important of all, however, wasthe 
activity of the Jews in maritime commerce; in 1579, 
in the interest of this commerce, permission was ex- 
tended to many Jews of Spanish and Portuguese 
extraction to remove from Dalmatia to Venice, 
where they received privileges which were obtained 
for them by their coreligionist Daniel Rodriguez, 
who was then Venetian consul in Dalmatia, and who 
was highly esteemed by the republic for his impor- 
tant services in furthering its commerce in the Orient 
(Rava, /.c. 1871, p. 176). 

Naturally, this maritime commerce continued to 
be favored by the government; and in 1686 the 
Portuguese Aronne Uziel was the first to obtain a 
patent for free commerce under the Venetian flag in 
the Orient and Occident. He was one of the first 
shipowners of the republic: he traded with Zante, 
Cephalonia, Corfu, and Constantinople; and his busi- 
ness was so great that in twenty years he paid 451,- 
000 ducats to Venice in duties (Schiavi, /.c. p. 514), 
Among other Jewish shipowners one of the most 
important was Abramo Franco, whose duty it was 
to provide for the loading of six merchantmen (7d.). 
To come down to more recent times, special men- 
tion should be made in this connection of the two 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


414 


brothers Baron Giuseppe Treves dei Bonfil, the an- 
cestor of the present barons of that name, and Isaaco 
Treves, on account of the expedition which they 
undertook for the first time into the western hemi- 
sphere. They sailed under the Venetian flag with 
a cargo of flour and other goods, returning with 
coffee and sugar (Soave, in “I! Vessillo Israelitico,” 
1878, p. 115). Giuseppe Treves received the title 
of baron from Napoleon I. on account of his great 
services to the city, both commercially and other- 
wise (Maratti, “ Venezia ed i Veneziani,” iv. 256). 
Domestic trade continued to be limited legally to 
second-hand goods, but asa matter of fact this nom- 
inal restriction counted for little, and with the 
growth of the city liberty of trade grew also. In 
the shops of the ghetto wares of all sorts were 
sold, among them glass, decorated crystal, gold orna- 
ments, tapestries, embroideries, and books (Schiavi, 


Title-Page of a Ritual Used by the Jewish Community of 
Tripoli, Printed at Venice 1680. 


(From the Sulzberger collection in the Jewish Theological Seminary of America.) 


i.c. p. 506). A trade of special importance, against 
which ineffectual prohibitions were several times 
issued, was that in precious stones; the sovereigns 
of Europe were the first to employ Jews for selling, 
buying, and exchanging gems (7b.). Jews were 
prominent also in engineering. In 1444 a decree of 
the Senate called “a certain Solomon, a Hebrew by 
race, to be present at conferences concerning the di- 
version of the Brenta, because he has great fame for 
skill in matters concerning water” (Zendrini, “ Me- 
morie dello Stato Antico e Moderno delle Lagune di 
Venezia,” i. 102, Padua, 1811). 

In 1490 an engineer, wishing to associate himself 
with some Jewsin the mounting of a machine which 


415 


he had invented, asked the Senate whether the laws 
concerning the granting of privileges to inventors 
were applicable to Jews as well as to others. To 
this the Senate replied that in such matters no dis- 
tinction was made between Venetians and foreign- 
ers, between Jewsand Christians (Romanin, ¢.c. v. 387, 
note C). One Zarfati, in the second half of the six- 
teenth century, invented certain improvements in 
the methods of silk-weaving, and his studies were 
published at Rome and obtained for him a privilege 
from Pope Sixtus VY. (Schiavi, U.c. p. 504). In 1630 
a certain Nahman Judah obtained permission to 
manufacture cinnabar, sublimate, and similar com- 
pounds, on condition that the business should be 
carried on under the name of a Christian (Schiavi, 
Zc. p. 505). In 1718 another Zarfati was permitted 
to manufacture not only cinnabar and sublimate, 
but also aqua fortis, white lead, minium, etc. (70.). 
Under the restrictions placed upon them Jews 
could not contribute much to general literature; 
mention must be made nevertheless of the gramma- 
Yian Elijah Levira, who spent a great part of his 
life in Venice (Rava, J.c. 1871, p. 335; Griitz, fc. ix. 
225). Noteworthy also were the two rabbis already 
mentioned, LEON oF Mopena (1579-1649), at whose 
sermons even nobles and ecclesiastics were present, 
and Simeon (Simhah) Lezzarro (1590-1663), who, 
besides the “ Discorso,” wrote “Socrate, Ossia dell’ 
Intendimento Humano,” which he dedicated to the 
doge and Senate. Reference should also be made to 
the poetess Sara Copia SuLLam (1592-1641), who 
was regarded by several critics after her death as 
one of the most illustrious writers of verse in Italy 
(Soave, @.c. 1876, p. 198). Other authors of this 
period who usually wrote only in Hebrew were: 
David Nieto (1654-1728), author of the “Matteh 
Dan”; Moses GEnTILI (d. 1711), author of “ Meleket, 
Mahshabot”; his son Gershon (d. 1717, at the age of 
seventeen), author of the “Yad Haruzim”; Rabbi 
Simeon Judah Perez; and Jacob SARAVAL (d. 1782), 
Among the physicians of the republican period the 
most distinguished were Jacob MANTINO (1490-1549), 
a native of Tortosa, who was directed by circum- 
stances to Venice, and who became chief physician 
to Pope Paul III. ; and Giuseppe Tamari, who held 
the office of city physician (Rava, U.c. 1871, p. 384). 
One of the conditions always imposed upon the 
Jews of Venice was that of keeping banks for 
lending money ; and to insure their continuance the 
“condotta ” of 1534 placed this obligation upon the 
Universita as a body. Although these banks at first 
satisfied the requirements of the citizens and were 
at the same time a source of gain to those who kept 
them, they finally ended in a great financial disaster. 
The community, which formerly had been very rich, 
declined rapidly during and after the war with the 
Turks over the island of Candia (1645-55), the cause 
being the enormous burdens laid upon it by the ex- 
penses of the war. Many emigrated to escape these 
burdens; the plague of 1630, with the consequent 
stagnation of business, drove others out; and bad 
administration was responsible for other departures; 
so that in order to fulfil its obligations the commu- 
nity was forced to sink deeper and deeper into debt, 
which finally reached the sum of nearly a‘ million 
ducats. As soon as the government saw the peril 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Venice 


of an institution which was considered a necessity 
to the state, it endeavored to remedy the evil by 
adopting more easy terms of payment and by making 
other arrangements within its power; buf when all 
other methods had proved insufficient it was com- 
pelled finally to proclaim the Universita a private cor- 
poration to enable it legally to announce its insolv- 
ency. In 1735 the Université suspended payments, 
and a compromise was effected with its creditors 
with the support and protection of the government. 
The banks continued to exist, however, even after 
the fall of the republic, and until 1806, when they 
were closed by an imperial decree. On that occasion 
the Jews gave the commune all the money and 
property in the banks, having a total value of 13,000 
ducats, to be devoted solely to charity. The munic- 
ipality publicly expressed its gratitude for this gift 
(“Gazetta di Venezia,” Oct. 6, 1806). 

The Universita seems soon to have recovered from 
its failure; for in 1776, on the expiration of one of 
the “condotte,” certain commercial restrictions were 
proposed as a check upon the excessive influence 
which the Jews had acquired. These proposals 
gave rise tomany heated discussions, The majority 
sided with the Jews, and called attention to the fact 
that several Jewish families had acquired large for- 
tunes by their thrift and were of service to in- 
dustry, besides giving employment to many of the 
poor. The assistance they had rendered to the state 
was also called to mind, special emphasis being laid 
upon the noble conduct of Treves, who had loaned 
the treasury without interest the money necessary 
for the execution of the treaty of Barbary. After 
a long debate, however, the passions and influence 
of a few powerful reactionaries prevailed, and the 
proposals became law (Romanin, @.e. viii. 212). 

Several years then passed without incident, when 
the republic, becoming involved in difficulties with 

Napoleon, reconstituted itself as a 
The democracy. In consequence all citi- 
Republic zens were declared equal in the eyes 
Becomes a of the law, and all legal discriminations 
Democracy. against the Jews became nulland void. 
Each strove to outdo the other in de- 
monstrating his fraternity, and on July 11, 1797, 
amid great popular rejoicing, the gates of the ghetto 
were torn down and its name changed to “ Contrada 
dall’ Unione” (= “Street of Union”). Many speeches 
of lofty tone were made on this occasion, and even 
priests were present at the ceremony, setting the 
example in evidencing the feeling of fraternity, for 
which they were praised by the new municipality. 
The latter had been quickly constituted, and three 
Jews had at once taken their places in it (Romanin, 
le. X. 222). 

Yet even this revolution, though made in the 
spirit demanded by the times, could not save the 
republic, which was powerless before the invading 
armies of France. Jn the very month in which this 
change of government took place Napoleon declared 
war on Venice, and the Senate, wishing at least to 
make an attempt at resistance, invited the Jews and 
the various religious corporations of the city to con 
tribute all the available silverin their places of wor- 
ship for the defense of the city against the impend- 
ing attack. The Jews enthusiastically responded, 


Venice 
Verblovski 


among the first, to this appeal; and again they re- 

ceived from the Senate a gratifying letter of thanks 

(Soave, Je. 1876, p. 88). The attack, however, was 

never delivered; for the Senate abandoned the re- 

public on Oct. 17, 1797, and Austria and France 
signed the treaty of Campo Formio, by which the 
city was assigned to Austria. The latter took pos- 
session of it at once (Jan. 15, 1798), and the Jews by 
this change of government lost their civil equality. 

They regained it, however, in 1805, when the city 

became @ part of Italy, but lost it once more in 1814, 

when, on the fall of Napoleon, the city again came 

under Austrian control, 

When the news of the revolution at Vienna reached 
Venice in 1848 the city seized the opportunity to 
revolt, and, almost without bloodshed, forced the 
Austrian garrison to capitulate (March 22, 1848). It 
then proclaimed anew the republic of Saint Mark 
and clected a provisional government, of which two 

Jews formed a part —Isaaco Pesaro 

Equality Maurogonato (appointed to the Minis- 

of Jews and try of Finance) and Leone Pincherle. 

Christians Austria, however, reconquered the 

Estab-_ territory and held it until 1866, when 

lished. it became part of the united kingdom 

of Italy; from that time the complete 

equality of Jews and Christians has been firmly 
established, as in all other parts of the country. 

According to the last census, the Jewish commn- 
nity of Venice numbers 2,000; and it now bears the 
name of the Jewish Fraternity of Religion and Phi- 
lanthropy. It possesses many institutions for study 
and benevolence, and is one of the most cultured 
Jewish communities in Italy. Among the Vene- 
tians of most recent times who have become distin- 
guished are: Samuel Romanin, the learned historian 
of Venice, in whose honor a bust was placed in the 
Pantheon of Venice; I. P. Maurogonato, already 
mentioned, who for many years was vice-president 
of the Chamber of Deputies; Luigi Luzzatti, who 
was repeatedly minister of the treasury; the Treves 
dei Bonfili family, whose members still continue, as 
in the time of the republic, to be distinguished 
for their philanthropy and for their services to their 
fellow citizens; the poetess Eugenia Pavia Gentilomo 
Fortis; the physicians Namias and Asson; and the 
rabbi Abramo Lattes. In the industria] field also 
the Venetian Jews are well represented, being in- 
terested in mInany of the numerous factories and 
establishments on the islands around Venice, either 
as proprietors or as managers. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Samuel Romanin, Storia Documentata di 
Venezia; Abraham Lattes, in Venezia ele Sue Lagune, vol. 
i., part if., Appendix; Schiavi, Gli Hbrei in Venezia e nelle 
Sue Colonie, in Nuova Antologia, 3d series, vol. xlvii.; Vit- 
tore Rava, in Educatore Israelita, 1871, 1872 ; Cesare Musatti, 
ll Maestro Moise Saave; M. Soave, Malta e gli Schiavi 
Ebrei, in Corriere Israelitico, xvii.; Ciscato, GU Ebrei in 
Padova: Osimo, Narrazione della Strage Compita Contra 
gli Hibret di Asolo ; Gratz, Gesch. passim; Galliccioli, Memo- 
ria Antiche Venete; Simeon Luzzatto, Discorso Cirea il 
Stato degli Hebrei, ete.; Leon of Modena, Historia dei Riti 
Ebraici, Paris, 1637. 

D. K. L. 


VENTURA: Family of rabbis and scholars 
prominent in Italy and Greece in the sixteenth, sev- 
enteenth, and eighteenth centuries. 

Eliezer ben Samuel Ventura: Italian scholar 
of the sixteenth century; born at Da Porta, prov- 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


416 


ince of Perugia; died in 1584 at Ferrara, where he 
had officiated as rabbi. One of his manuscripts has 
been preserved in the collection of Marco Mortara 
(see “ Mosé,” vi. 134), 

Elijah ben Abraham Ventura: Scholar of 
the eighteenth century: probably flourished in the 
Levant. He was the author of a work in three 
parts, entitled: (1) “ Kokeba di-Shebit,” novella on 
various Talmudic sayings; (2) “ Kontres,” novell 
on the works of Elijah Mizrahi; and (3) “She’elot 
u-Teshubot,” responsa. The entire work appeared 
at Salonica in 1799. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider, Cat. Boal. col, 952; Benjacoh, 

Ozar ha-Sefarim, p. 237. 

Isaac Hananiah Ventura: Scholar of the sev- 
entecnth century; rabbi of Pesaro. He wrote a re- 
sponsum which is published in the “Shelom ha- 
Bayit” of Menahem Cazes, and another which has 
been printed in Solomon Graziano’s novelle (ii. 123) 
on the Shulhan ‘Aruk. 

Isaac ben Moses Ventura: Talmudist of the 
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries; rabbi at An- 
cona and Pesaro, One of his responsa is extant in 
Terni’s “Sefat Emet ” (p. 24), and another in Netha- 
neel Segre’s “‘Ezer Ya‘akob” (No. 2). 

Isaac Raphael Ventura: Rabbi of Pesaro in 
the seventeenth century. According to Mortara 
(“ Indice.” s.z.), he was a descendant of a family 
bearing the name mNDdoN "yp"; and he is men- 
tioned in Graziano’s novelle (ii. 141) on the Shulhan 
‘Aruk., 

Jehie] Ventura: Rabbi of Romagna in the six- 
teenth century. He was related to MaHaRaM of 
Padua, who mentions him in his collection of re- 
sponsa (it., §§ 62, 83) as one of the foremost halakists 
of his time. 
rN Nepi-Ghirondi, Toledot Gedole Yisrael, p. 219, 

NO. 290. 

Jehiel Ventura: Liturgical poet of the first half 
of the seventeenth century; probably a resident of 
Ancona. He was the author of liturgical and ele- 
giac poems, which Ghirondi of Padua possessed in 
manuscript (Zunz, “ Literaturgesch.” p. 440). 

Moses ben Joseph Ventura (called also Ven- 
tura of Tivoli and Ventura of Jerusalem): Rab- 
bi of Silistria, Bulgaria, in the latter half of the six- 
teenth century. He was educated at Jerusalem, but 
later settled in Silistria. Ventura was the author of 
“Yemin Mosheh” (Mantua, 1624; 2d ed., Amster- 
dam, 1718; 3d ed., The Hague, 1777), a commentary 
on the Shulhan ‘Aruk, Yorelk De‘ah; and Aaron 
Alfandari, in his commentary entitled “Yad Aha- 
ron,” ascribes to him the “Haggahot we-Hassagot 
‘al Bet Yoscf,” a commentary, as yet unpublished, 
on the four parts of the “ Bet Yosef.” 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinsehneider, Cut. Boat. col. 2008; Benjacob, 
Ozar ha-Sefarim, p. 224; First, Bibl. Jud. fii. 433. 


Shabbethai ben Abraham Ventura: Scholar 
and rabbi of Spalato during the eighteenth century ; 
one of the most prominent pupils of David Pardo. 
He was the author of the “ Nehar Shalom ” (Amster- 
dam, 17'75), novellze and notes on the Shulhan ‘Aruk, 
Oral Hayyim. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY : Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col, 2248: Azulai, 
Shem ha-Gedolim, ii. 90. 
E. C. s. O. 


417 


VENTURA, RUBINO: Soldier; born at Fi- 
nale, Modena, 1795; died at Toulouse, France, April 
5, 1858. At the age of seventeen he was enrolled 
as avolunteer in the militia of the kingdom of Italy. 
On the downfall of Napoleon he returned to his 
home; but in 1817, owing to a dispute between him 
and a local policeman, he was obliged to leave the 
country. He went first to Triest, and then to Con- 
stantinople, where he was for a time a ship-broker. 
wearning that Persia was secking the services of 
European soldiers, he obtained an officer’s commis- 
sion, and helped to mstruct the forces of the shah in 
European methods of warfare. He soon attained 
the rank ot colonel. On the death of the shah in 
1822, Ventura offered his services to his successor, 
‘Abbas Mirza. In the Jatter’s service, however, were 
a number of English officers who were decidedly 
hostile to the French, with whom they classed Ven- 
tura on account of his having fought under Napo- 
leon; and through their intrigues Ventura was is- 
missed. We then went to Lahore, India, accepting 
service in the army of Ranjit Sinh. A rebellion 
having arisen in Afghanistan, Ventura conducted 
successfully several campaigns of a difficult nature, 
and greatly enlarged the boundaries of the kingdom 
of Lahore. 

Ventura married an Indian princess, by whom he 
had a daughter; but he was always desirous of re- 
turning to his native country, In 1837 he went on 
a diplomatic mission to Parts and London, but was 
recalled to Lahore before he had time to visit his 
family in Europe. On the death of Ranjit Sinh, 
Ventura took part in the contest for the succession, 
and remained in the service of the new raja, Dhulip 
Sinh. During the reign of the latter, Ventura con- 
tinued his carcer of conquest; but later, feeling the 
approach ot old age, he returned to Europe and 
settied in Paris, Whence from time to time he visited 
his native country. 

While in India, Ventura made numerous excava- 
tions. He presented Louis Philippe with a set of 
ancient Greek coins which he had unearthed, and 
which were evidences of the march through that 
country of Alexander the Great. In lis later years he 
lost a part of his large fortune in unsuccessful com- 
mercial enterprises. According to Flaminio Servi, 
Ventura received baptism toward the end of his life. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Notizie Storiche e Biografiche de Generale 

Rubino Ventura, Finalese, Esposte da un Suo_ Concitta- 

dino, Finale (Emilia), 1882; F. Servi, in Corriere Israelitico, 

x. 47 et seg.; idem, in Vessillo Israelitico, xxxi. 808 et seq. 


Ss. {Bias 62 


VENTURE, MARDOCHEE: French scholar; 
flourished at Avignon in the latter part of the eight- 
eenth century. In collaboration with Isaiah Vidal 


he composed the “Seder ha-Kontres” (Avignon, . 


1765), a collection of liturgical chants for the use of 
the Jews of the county of Venaissin. This compi- 
lation includes a piyyut (p.47; comp. Zunz, “Z. G.” 
p. 473) composed by Venture, partly in Hebrew and 
partly in Provencal, which was translated into 
French by Sabatier in his “Chansons Hébraico- 
Provencales des Juifs Comtadins” (Nimes, 1876) and 
by Pedro II., of Alcantara, Emperor of Brazil, in his 
“Poésies Hébraico-Provencales du Rituel Israélite 
Comtadin ” (Avignon, 1891). 
XU.—27 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Venice 
Verblovski 


Venture himself translated into French: “ Priéres 
Journaliéres & Usage des Juifs Portugais ou Espa- 
gnols” (Nice, 1772); “ Pritres des Jours du Rosch- 
Haschana et du Jour de Wippour” (db. 1778), 
“Pri¢res des Jours de Jefines” (Paris, 1807}; and 
“Priéres des Fétes de Pessach, Schebouot, et de 
Souccot ” (¢b. 1807; 2d ed., 7. 1845). 

g, S. Kk. 


VERA Y ALARCON, LOPE DE: Spanish 
martyr and knight (“caballero i mui emparentado,” 
as he is designated by a contemporary) of noble 
family; bornabout 1619 at San Clemente la Mancha; 
died July 25, 1644, at Valladolid. Through his 
study of the Hebrew language and literature at 
Salamanca he was drawn toward Judaism; and he 
read the Psalms daily in the original text. When 
only twenty years of age be declared openly that 
he could not believe that the Messiah had appeared. 
According to the account of acontemporary, the In- 
quisition at Valladolid in 1638, on information fur- 
nished by De Vera’s own brother, cast De Vera into 
prison, where he languished for six years. During 
this time he abstained from meat, cireumcised him- 
self, and called himself “Juda el Creyente” = “ Ju- 
dah the Believer.” The most eminent theologians 
endeavored in vain to lead him back to the Chureh; 
and the entreaties of his father were equally unsue- 
cessful. On July 25, 1644, he was tied to the stake, 
and, as Spinoza says, breathed his Jast with the 
Psalmist’s words on his lips: “Into thine hand, 
Lord, I commit my spirit.” His courage was uni- 
versally admired, the inquisitor Moscoso writing to 
the Countess de Montercy thus: “Never has such 
firmness been witnessed as that displayed by this 
young man. He was well reared, scholarly, and 
otherwise blameless.” The Marano poets Antonio 
Enriquez Gomez and Manuel de Pina mourned in 
their poems the death of the promising youth. c 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Cardoso, Las Excelencias de Israel, p. 363; 

Manasseh b. Israel, Spes Israetis, ed. L. Wolf, p. 47; José de 

Pellicer, in the Avisos, Aug. 2, 9, 1644; A. de Castro, Historia 

de los Judios de Espafia. p. 212: D. Levi de Barrios, Govi- 

erno Popular Judayco, p. 433 Kayserling, Sephardim, pp. 


203 et seq.; Gritz, Gesch. x. 101. 
J. M. K. 


VERBAND DER VEREINE FUR JU- 
DISCHE GESCHICHTE UND LITERATUR 
IN DEUTSCHLAND. See VEREIN Fir Ji- 
DISCHE GESCHICHTE UND LITERATOR. 


VERBLOVSKI, GREGORI LEONTYE- 
VICH: Russian jurist; born in the first quarter of 
the nineteenth century; died at Moscow 1900. He 
studied law at the University of St. Petersburg, 
from which he graduated in 1866. Verblovski was 
one of the first secretaries of the circuit court of St. 
Petersburg; he then became a member of that of 
Voronezh, and later of that of Moscow. 

Verblovski’s works include: “Sistematicheski 
Sbornik Polozheni i Izvlecheni iz Grazhdanskikh 
Kassatzionnykh Ryesheni za 1866-1875” (2 vols., 
Voronezh, 1879), a systematic collection of regula- 
tions and extracts of decisions of the Civil Court of 
Cassation for the period 1866-75, vol. i. being devoted 
to civil Jaw, and vol. ii. to civil law cases; also similar 
collections for 1876-78 (28. 1880), for 1879 (Moscow, 
1881), for 1880 (22. 1882), and for 1883-88 (St Peters- 


Vercelli 
Verein fiir Cultur 


burg, 1889); “ Dvizhenie Russkavo Grazhdanskavo 
Protzessa” (¢b. 1888; 2d ed. 1889), on the proceed- 
ingsina Russian civil lawsuit; “Zakonopolozheniya 
0 Poshlinakh s Imushchestv Perekhodyashchikh 
Bezmezdnymi Sposobami ” (Voronezh, 1883), on laws 
concerning taxes; “ Polozhenie o Sovyete po Zhel- 
yeznodorozhnym Dyelam ” (23. 1886), the statute of 
the council on railway affairs; “ Zakonopolozheniya 
o Preobrazovanii Myestnykh Krestyanskikh i Su- 
debnvkh Uchrezhdeni” (¢5, 1890); “ Sudoproizvod- 
stvo Grazhdanskoe i Ugolovnoe v Novykh Sudebno- 
Administrativnykh Uchrezhdeniyakh ” (2d. 1891). 

Besides, Verblovski published in the Russian jurid- 
ical press a series of articles of practical interest ; 
and, at the instance of the editorial commission in- 
stituted for the purpose of drawing up a new civil 
code, he translated into Russian the general civil 
code of 1811 of the Austrian empire (zd. 1885). 

I. R. V. R. 


VERCELLI: City in the compartimento of Pied- 
mont, Italy. The oldest document in existence con- 
cerning its Jews is dated Feb. 16, 1446, and consists 
of a permit granted by the city council to one Abramo 
della Vigneria and his son Angelo to open in Ver- 
celli a banking and loan establishment, on condition 
of their lending the city 100 florins, when required, 
for a term of six months without interest, and fora 
longer period with interest. This is the first of a 
series cf permits, granted for a set time only, but 
renewable, which authorized the residence of He- 
brews within the city, and regulated their rights as 
well as their duties to the government. The Jews 
at this time were governed according to the harsh 
statutes of Amadeus VIII. promulgated June 17, 
1480, which, among other regulations, obliged them 
to wear the customary badge, consisting of a piece 
of red cloth on the shoulder. 

Under Emmanuel-Philibert the Piedmontese Jews 
were twice threatened by decrees of expulsion from 
the province. The first of these was promulgated 
July 19, 1560; but through the intercession of the 
duchess Margherita the Jews obtained a stay of 
four mouths. Then one of the duke’s councilors 
persuaded him to renew the decree, fixing the time 
of the expulsion within ten days; but fortunately, 
through the efforts of an assistant physician attached 
to the ducal tribunal, a revocation of the edict was 
obtained. Later on (Oct., 1566) Emmanuel- Philibert 
ordered the immediate departure from his dominions 
of all the Jews, unless they consented to pay him 
the sum of 4,000 gold florins, They quitted the 
country, but shortly afterward were allowed to re- 
turn on condition of paying down 2,000 florins and 

submitting to a yearly tax. On Sept. 

Under Em- 9, 1572, at the instance of one Vitale 
manuel- Sacerdoti, Emmanuel-Philibert pub- 
Philibert. lished a decree which somewhat miti- 
gated the severity of the laws of 

Amadeus VIII. When, in 1597, the Jews were 
banished from the Milanese territories, a numbcr 
of the exiles took refuge in Vercelli, among whom 
was the continuator of the “‘Emek ha-Baka” of 
Joseph ha-Kohen. The anonymous historian relates 
that he and his family remained in Vercelli for some 
days, hoping to establish their abode in the city; 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


418 


but, although Emmanuel-Philibert had promised the 
Jews buta short time before that they should remain 
unmolested in his dominions, his son, Charles Em- 
manuel, Duke of Savoy, was unwilling to afford an 
asylum in his territories to the Jewish exiles from 
other provinces, and when he learned that there 
were numerous Hebrew refugees in Vercelli, he is- 
sued a decree banishing them from that city also. 
Charles Emmanuel contirmed the privileges granted 
by his father to his own subjects (see TURIN), 

Until the year 1600 the Italian ritual was used 
by the Jews of Vercelli. In that year one Abram 
Levi, having purchased the loan and banking es- 
tablishment of Norzi and Sacerdote, settled in the 
city; and, owing to his influence and efforts, the 

German ritual was adopted, and it 

Italian has remained in use until the present 

Ritual day. Rabbi Hayyim Segre, who in 
Superseded 1653 came from Casale Monferrato to 

by the _ reside in Vercelli, was sent with Sam- 

German. son Bachi and Jacob Pugliese to the 

East to investigate the theories and 
writings of Shabbethai Zebi, the expenses of his 
journey being defrayed by Jonah Clava (Kezigin). 

During the eighteenth century, notwithstanding 
the gencral progress of the times, the condition of 
the Vercelli Jews did not improve. Indeed, it be- 
came worse, Owing to the preponderating influence 
of the papal court. The constitutional laws of 1728, 
1729, and 1770 were almost as inimical to the inter- 
ests of the Jews as the ancient ducal statutes had 
been. Until the year 1724 the Jewish inhabitants 
were permitted to live in any portion of the city; 
but in that year they were restricted to a special 
quarter. Their concentration in the ghetto soon 
showed the need of a larger synagogue; and a new 
edifice was opened on the eve of Rosh ha-Shanah, 
1740. The financial status of the Jews of Vercelli 
improved greatly after the death of Elijah Emman- 
uel Foa (July 20, 1796), who bequeathed his large 
fortune to the community for the aid and support 
of charitable societies and institutions, and particu- 
larly for the establishment of a Hebrew college in 
his own house. The Collegis Foa (Foa College) was 
opened Sept., 1829, and is still (1905) in existence. 
It has given many noteworthy rabbis and professors 
to the Italian Jewry. 

With the outbreak of the French Revolution came 
indications of better times for the Jews of Piedmont; 
but the Austro-Russian provisional government of 

Piedmont at the restoration, in 1799, 

Effects of restored them to their former status. 
the French Later, by a patent of March 6, 1816, 
Revolu- Victor Emmanuel [.definitely freed the 
tion. Jews from the obligation of wearing 

a badge, and conferred on them leave 

to engage in merchandise, trade, and the fine arts. 
They were, however, still excluded from the univer- 
sities, from public offices, and from the administra- 
tion of charities. Thelaw of Charles Albert, enacted 
June 19, 1848, completed the work of emancipation, 
and established the Jews on the footing of citizen- 
ship. In 1853 a Hebrew journal, the “ Educatore 
Israelita,” edited by Giuseppe Levi and Esdra Pon- 
tremoli, was founded in Vercelli. The “ Vessillo 
Israelitico” of Casale Monferrato, founded by Fla- 


419 


minio Servi in 1878, is the successor of this review. 
In 1878 a new temple was dedicated. 

The following is a list of the principal savants 
and rabbis of Vercelli: sixteenth century: Isaac 
Kohen (“R. E. J.” xvi. 89 e¢ seg.); seventeenth cen- 
tury: Jacob Bachi, Hananeel ben Aaron Asher Nan- 
tova; eighteenth century: Benjamin Segre, Elisha 
ben Hayyim Segre, Joshua Benzion ben Elisha 
Segre, Joshua Benzion ben Benjamin Segre; nine- 
teenth century: Alessandro Foa, Giuseppe Levi 
Gattinara, Sabato Graziadio Treves, Jedidiah Levi, 
Michele Vita Treves, Isacco Sanguinetti, Felice 
Tedeschi, Giuseppe Raffaelle Levi. 

In 1864 the city contained 600 Jews; shortly after- 
ward theirnumbers began to diminish; in 1866 there 
were but 500; and to-day they number only 369. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. Servi, in Educatore Israelitd, xiv. 31l et 

seq., XV. 36 et seqg.; G. Volino, Condizinone Giuridica degli 

Isractitt in Piemonte Prima dell Emanetpazione, Turin, 

1904; M. Finzi, in Rivista Israelitica, i. 226 et seq.; Wiener, 

in his edition of ‘Emek ha-Baka, pp. 102, 105, 106; F. Servi, 

in Corriere Israelitico, pp. liz eb seqg.; Mortara, Indice, 
passim. 


5. D. ©, 
VERDICT. See JUDGMENT. 


VERDUN (Hebrew, 11931): Capital of the de- 
partment of Meuse, France. Jews resided there 
from the twelfth century; and among the scholars 
of the city may be mentioned the tosafist Samuel b. 
Hayyim (Tosef., Yeb. 65a, 66b; Tosef., M. K. 28a; 
Tosef., B. K. 77a, 89a), Samuel b. Joseph the 
Younger (Tosef., Niddah, 28a), and Jacob b. Joseph, 
brother of Samuel. 

Tn 1483 Canon Guillaume Chaney made, on behalf 
of the chapterand the city, a fruitless request to the 
Council of Basel to relieve the strained financial situ- 
ation by authorizing expelled Jews to return to 
Verdun; but until the annexation to France in 1559 
of the three bishoprics of Toul, Metz, and Verdun, 
all rights of residence in the town and even of tran- 
sit through it were forbidden to the Jews. Letters 
patent from Henry IV., Louis XIII., Louis XIV., 
and Louis XV., however, permitted the Jews of 
Metz to sojourn for very bricf periods in Verdun to 
attend to business. In1774a Jew who had remained 
in the city for three days was expelled by order of 
De Watrouville, representative of the Marquis de 
Creil, theintendant. In 1748 the Jewish community 
of Metz addressed a petition to the intendant, asking 
that its members be allowed to visit Verdun, but 
this request was refused on account of the strong 
opposition of the merchants, goldsmiths, tailors, 
second-hand dealers, and, above all, the gild-wardens 
(“echevins”) of the city, who were united in their 
hostility to the Jews. In 1752 and 1755 a number 
of Jews settled im the vicinity of Verdun, but were 
expelled by the intendant at the urgent demand of 
the gilds; and from that time until the Revolution 
of 1789 there are no traces of Jews in the city. 

The existing community, which was founded 
in 1792, now (1905) consists of about forty - five 
families. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Documents in the municipal archives; Buvi- 
gnier, Notes sur les Archives de  Hitel-de-Ville de Verdun, 
Metz, 1855; Carmoly, in Revue Orientale, i. 515: Gross, Gal- 
lia Judaica, pp. 205-207 ; R. B. J. xi. 126; Wassebourg, .Ai- 
tiquités de la Gaule Belgique, ii. 481, Paris, 1549; Zunz, Z. 


G. pp. 50, 55. 
D. S. K. 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


and Moses Moser. 


Vercelli 
Verein fiir Cultur 


VEREIN ZUR ABWEHR DES ANTI- 
SEMITISMUS: Name of two societies for com- 
bating anti-Semitism. The first was formed in Ber- 
lin toward the end of 1890 by twelve men who 
issucd an appeal tothe German people, calling upon 
Jews and Christians alike to fight the excesses of 
anti-Semitism and especially all attempts to rob the 
Jews of their rights of equality. This appeal, is- 
sued in Jan., 1891, received 585 signatures from 
among the most prominent men of Germany. The 
poets Freytag, Heyse, and Sudermann (the first, on 
account of the Jewish characters in his novel “Soll 
und Haben” and in his drama “Die Journalisten,” 
had been considered a partizan of anti-Semitism); 
scholars like Mommsen and Erich Schmidt; poli- 
ticians like Von Forckenbeck and Baron von Stauf- 
fenberg; and Protestant clergymen like Dreyer and 
Zittel—these were among the signers (“ Allg. Zeit. 
des Jud.” Jan. 29, 1891; “ Mittheilungen,” etc., Jan. 
30, 1901). A similar society was founded in Vienna 
July 20, 1891 (“ Oesterreichische Wochenschrift,” 
1891, p. 526), of which the most prominent organi- 
zers were Baron and Baroness von Suttner and Pro- 
fessor Nothnagel. 

These societies counted mostly upon Christians for 
support, although Jewish members were accepted. 
The Berlin society reported at its first general meet- 
ing, Nov. 28, 1893, a membership of 13,388 distrib- 
uted in 968 localities. Its presidents were the emi- 
nent jurist and statesman Rudolf Gneist (up to 
1895) and the liberal politicians Heinrich Rickert (up 
to 1902) and Theodor Barth. The propaganda of 
the societies was carried on chiefly by means of pop- 
ular literature intended to check the growing anti- 
Semitic movement. Besides leaflets and pamphlets, 
the Berlin society published (1891) the “ Antisemiten- 
spiegel,” a handbook of refutations of the slanderous 
assertions found in the “ Antisemitenkatechismus, ” 
and (from Oct. 21, 1891) the weekly “ Mittheilungen 
aus dem Verein zur Abwehr des Antisemitismus,” 
which isa complete record of the anti-Semitic move- 
ment, containing valuable material for the refutation 
of anti-Semitic charges. Both societies have from 
time to time protested to the authorities against the 
unjust treatment of the Jews, and have therefore 
been called by their opponents “Judenschutz- 
truppe” (Jew-guards), The Vienna society has 
established a “ Rechtsschutzabthciluug,” a bureau 
for legal advice to victims of anti-Semitism. 

The foundation of the Berlin society coincided 
— hardly by accident — with the retirement of 
Court Chaplain Stécker and a condemnation of anti- 
Semitism by Emperor William in a conversation 
with his Jewish classmate Judge Sommer. The 
effect of the society’s agitation can not be measured 
with any degree of certainty, although in Germany 
the anti-Semitic movement has made no progress 
since 1892, 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Mittheilungenaus dem Verein zur Abwehr 
des Antisemitismus, passim. D 


VEREIN FUR CULTUR UND WISSEN- 
SCHAFT DER JUDEN: Society founded at Ber- 
lin (Nov, 27, 1819) by Leopold Zunz, Eduard Gans, 
The objects of the society were 
to improve the social position of the Jews and to 


Verein fiir Cultur 
Verse-Division 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


420 


check the conversious to Christianity which at that 
time had alarmingly increased in the Berlin commu- 
nity. These aims were to be attained by spreading 
gencral culture among the Jews and by furthering 
the study of Jewish history and literature. About 
fifty intellectual members of the Berlin community 
joined the society, among them the philologist Lud- 
wig Markvs, to whose character Heinrich Heine 
paid a glowing tribute. On Aug. 4, 1822, Heine 
himself joined the society, and later some of the sur- 
viving members of Mendelssohn’s circle, as David 

FRIEDLAXNDER and Lazarus Benpavip, followed 

suit. Outside of Berlin the society was joined by 

about twenty members of the temple congregation 
at Hamburg (see Jew. Enxcyc. vi. 1982), and also by 
individual Jews in other places. 

The society, in spite of its very limited means, 
planned to establish a complete system of educa- 
tional justitutions, from primary to academic, in- 
cluding industrial schools. It actually opened a 
school in which Polish bahurimn, who came to Ber- 
lin in large numbers, were instructed in secular 
branches. At the same time the society prepared a 
program for a normal course of Instruction in the 
Jewish religion. Heine proposed the founding of a 
women’s auxiliary society which should promote the 
aims of the mother institution in the homes. How- 
ever, on account of this manifold activity, no tangi- 
ble results were accomplished, and hence it was 
decided to limit the work of the society to the fur- 
thering of “Jewishscience.” With this aim in view 
the society began in 1822 to publish a “ Zeitschrift 
fir die Wissenschaft des Judenthums,” of which 
Leopold Zunz was the editor. The first number was 
headed by an article entitled “Ueber den Begriff 
einer Wissenschaft des Judenthums.” Gaus wrote 
on Talmudic Jaw, and Zunz contributed an essay 
entitled “Salomon ben Isak, Genannt Raschi.” As 
early as May, 1828, however, the editors felt obliged 
to ask the public to show greater interest in the 
periodical; this request being unheeded, the soci- 
ety had to cease its activity, aceremonious farewell- 
meeting which had been suggested being tactfully 
omitted. Eduard Gans, who had been among the 
most active members of the society, was the first to 
desert the cause; he became converted to Christianity 
in order to obtain a professorship. Others followed 
him, and on account of the general lack of interest 
the rest despaired of attaining any measure of 
success, 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gratz, Gesch. xi. 397 et seq.; Heinrich Heine, 
Ludwiy Markus, Denkworte ; G. Karpeles, Heinrich Heine; 
Aus Seinem Leben und aus Seiner Zeit, Berlin, 1901; Zeit- 
schrift fiir die Wissenschaft des Judenthums, Berlin, 1828. 


D. EK. Co. 


VEREIN FUR JUDISCHE GESCHICHTE 
UND LITERATUR: Name of societies founded in 
many German cities since about 1890 for the spread of 
the study of Jewish history and literature. Although 
certain societies of the kind had existed earlier, the 
first impetus was given tothe popular study of these 
subjects through the awakening of Jewish sensibili- 
ties by the growing anti-Semitic movement. It was 
chiefly felt in Jewish student circles. The growth 
of the movement began when Gustav Karpeles, after 
having founded such a society in Berlin (Jan. 2, 


SS ee i i se es el 


1892), organized the various societies into a union 
known as Verband der Vereine fiir Jiidische 
Geschichte und Literatur in Deutschland (Dec. 
26, 1893). Thisassociation furnishes lists of speakers 
to the constituent societies, issues pamphlets, and 
has published since 1898 the “ Jahrbuch fiir Jiidische 
Geschichte und Literatur,” of which up to the pres- 
ent (1905) seven volumes have appeared. These 
contain popular scientific essays and some fiction; 
aud among the contributors are to be found the most 
eminent represcutatives of Jewish literature. 

There are about 200 societies, with about 15,000 
members, in Germany. The Jewish Chautauqua 
Society in the United States, the Jewish Study Cir- 
cles in England, and the Université Juive in France 
have followed somewhat similar courses. An older 
organization of the same kind is the Afike Yehu- 
dah of Prague. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY : Jahrbuch fiir Jiidische Geschichte und Lite- 
ratur, Berlin, 1898 ef seq. D 


VERITE ISRAELITE, LA. See Periop- 
ICALS, 

VERONA: Chief city of the Italian province of 
the same name. As early as the tenth century it 
numbered Jewsamong itsinhabitants. They appear 
to have been treated with great harshness by Arch- 
bishop Raterio, and were later expelled from the 
city. Until 1408 they had apparently no recognized 
status or right of residence in Verona, although 
a few actually lived there and engaged in com- 
merce. In that year (Dec. 31), shortly after Verona 
had passed under the government of the republic of 
Venice, the Jews obtained permission to live in the 
city and to lend money at interest. This concession 
met with strenuous opposition from a large number 
of the citizens; and all other professions were for- 
bidden to the Jews. They lived among the Chris- 
tians in the quarter of San Sebastiano, in the central 
part of the city, and built a synagoguein the Vicolo 
dei Crocioni, of which no traces now remain. In 
1422 they were compelled to wear a badge, in the 
form of a yellow wheel, on the breast, or to pay a 
fine of 25 lire. The regulation, however, gradually 
came to be disregarded, but the ordinance decreeing 
the use of the badge wasrenewed. In 1443 the Jews 
were again refused permission to engage in the pro- 
fessions; and the shape of the badge was changed 
from a circle to a star. The original form was, 
however, restored in 1480. 

By a resolution of the common council, dated 
March 11, 1499, the Jews were banished from the 
city and province of Verona, and their places were 
filled by Christian usurers, who so greatly oppressed 
the poor that the Jews were shortly afterward re- 
called. It is probable that some Jews remained 
in the city in spite of the decree of banishment; and 
it is certain that there were some scattered through- 
out the province, proof of their pres- 
ence being afforded by a tombstone of 
this period, found in the neighboring 
village of Lonato. But, whether they 
never really quitted the province, or 
whether they gradually returned to it, 
in 1526 the citizens of Verona petitioned the Venetian 
republic to prohibit the Jews from lending money 


Fifteenth 
and 
Sixteenth 
Centuries. 


421 


at interest in the city and territory of Verona, This 
request was granted, and the decree of prohibition 
was ratified on Dec. 4, 1548. In 1527 a yellow cap 
(“berretto”) was substituted for the whecl-badge. 
An old manuscript, dated 1589, now in the posses- 
sion of the Hebrew community of Verona, contains 
an account of the Jewish assemblies, of the amount 
of their taxes, of the fines levied on them, ete. In 
1578 the Israelites were forbidden to pawn articles 
at the monte di pieta (see PLEDGES, HisTroricab 
VIEW). 

After their expulsion from the Milanese territory, 
some of the refugees settled in Verona (1597). In 
1599 Agostino Valieri, Bishop of Verona, resolved 
to segregate the Jews in a ghetto; but, not finding a 
suitable location, he contented himself by enforcing 
the obligation of wearing the yellow cap. In the 
same year the Jews opened their cemetery, which 
remained in use until 1755. In 1604 the bishop car- 
ried out his designs, and enclosed the Jews in a 
ghetto, in a place called “Sotto i Tetti” (under the 
roofs). Atthis time they numbered about 400 and 
possessed twenty-five shops. All expenses for the 
improvement of the ghetto were borne by the Jews 
themselves; and they were obliged to borrow in order 
to build a synagogue. Finally they 
obtained a license, renewable every 
five years, to live in the city, on con- 
dition of the payment of a special tax. 
When the plague broke out in Verona in 1680, the 
Jews remained immune, which so enraged the Chris- 
tians that they cast into the ghetto the garments 
infected by the sick, and thus spread the pestilence 
among its inhabitants. 

At this epoch many Hebrew books were published 
at Verona, among them being Midrash Tanhuma 
(1595), the Book of Isaiah (1625), the Psalms (1644), 
and “‘En Yisrael” (1649). In 1645 the synagogue 
was supplied with an Ark of the Law of red marble 
and a beautiful and costly “tebah,” also of marble. 
In 1655 a large number of Maranos, headed by Mosé 
Gaon and Giovanni Navarra, obtained leave to settle 
in Verona, for commercial purposes; and habitations 
were assigned them in what was known as the 
“Ghetto Nuovo” (New Ghetto). These Jews 
were called “ Ponentini”; the others, “ Levantines” 
or “Greeks.” In 1766 there were two Jewish physi- 
cians in Verona; in 1790, four. 

On the night of Oct. 30, 1786, a terrible conflagra- 
tion accidentally broke out in the ghetto, and raged 
fiercely for three days, notwithstanding the efforts of 
Jews and Christians alike to extinguish it. During 
the course of the fire five Jews were killed and a 
great number injured. The painter Vita Greco has 
commemorated this disaster in one of his pictures. 

During the occupation of Verona by the French in 

1797, the gates of the ghetto were torn 

The French down and burned in the public square ; 
Oc- and thenceforth the Hebrews were per- 
cupation. mitted to reside in any portion of the 
city. On June 2 of that year a decree 

was issued, ordering that the Jews be represented in 
the council of commerce. On the restoration of the 
Austrian government a fanatical] hatred of the Jews 
was fomented among the Christian population by 
the priests; and the Jews were so overwhelmed 


The 
Ghetto. 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Verein fiir Cultur 
Verse-Division 


with insults, affronts, and injuries that the Austrian 
governor of the province was obliged to interfere, 
A. proclamation was issued Jan, 22, 1798, forbid- 
ding, under heavy penalties, the molestation of any 
citizen, by word or act; but the til treatment of the 
Jews continued almost unabatedly until the issue of 
a second proclamation (Aug. 17, 1799), which deti- 
nitely forbade all further molestation ofthem. They 
fared better on the resumption of French domination 
in 1805. Verona was represented by Israel Coen at 
the great Sanhedrin at Paris in 1806. 

The community has now (1905) greatly diminished. 
In 1766 the Jews in Verona numbered 881; in 1770 
there were 905; in 1864 they had increased to 1,200; 
while at the present day there are only 600. 

Many of the ancient Hebrew associations of Verona 
still exist, the principal ones being: La Misericordia 
(Hebrew name, “Gemilut Hasadim”), founded in 
1599; the confraternity for the religious burial of the 
dead (“Gomel Dallim ”), founded about 1599; the so- 
ciety for the aid of the sick poor (“ Bikkur Holim ”), 
founded in 1610, with which the association for the 

proper attendance on the dead (“ Liw- 


Phil- yat Hen”) was affiliated in 1765; “ Sho- 
anthropic merim la-Boker” (1610), and “ Mish- 
As- meret ha-Hodesh ” (1646), both devoted 


sociations. to the recitation of prayers; a confra- 
ternity for the recital of the “ Tikkun 
Hazot ” (1655 ; see Zunz, “ Ritus,” p. 152); and “ Lim- 
mude Adonai” (1703), for the pursuit of religious 
studies. 
The following rabbis and scholars were natives or 
residents of Verona: 


Twelfth and thirteenth centuries: Eleazar b. Samuel of Ve- 
rona. Sixteenth century: Elihu Behr, Baruch Bassani, Joshua 
Jacob ben Johanan Heilpron, Moses Margalit, Abraham Mena- 
hem ben Jacob Porto, and Abraham ben Jehiel Porto. Seven- 
teenth century: Judah Lob Ashkenazi, Hezekiah Mordecai ben 
Samuel Hayyim Bassani, Israel Hezekiah Bassani, Gershom 
ben Mordecai Bassani, Mordecai ben Jacob Bassani, Isaiah ben 
Mordecai Bassani, Isaac Cardoso, Simeon Cohen, Samuel ben 
Jacob Meldola, Samuel ben Raphael Meldola, Samuel Merari, 
Moses Abraham ben Moses Romanin, Joseph Shalit ben Eliezer 
Richetti, Abraham Shallit, Isaac ben Samuel Levi Valle, Judah 
ben Moses Fano, and Abraham Zemah. Eighteenth century: 
Solomon ben Israel Bassani, Jacob ben Manasseh Gentili, 
Manasseh ben Jacob Gentili, Joseph Marin, Menahem Navarra, 
Uzziel Joel Pincherle, and Nethaneel ben Uzziel Joel Pincherle. 
Nineteenth century: Moses Shabbethai Beer, Abramo Mainster, 
David Samuel Pardo, Jacob Vita ben David Samuel Pardo, 
Samuel ben David Samuel Pardo, Jacob Hai Recanati, Emanuele 
(Menahem) Recanati, Abraham Grego, David Fortis, and 
Angelo Carpi. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: D. Fortis, in Hducatore Israelita, xi. 199, 301 

et seq., 392 ef seq.; xii. 68 et seq., 110 et seq., 209 et seq.; 8. 

Calabi, ib. xi. 78 et seq., 234 et seqg.; Joseph ha-Kohen, ‘Eemek 

ha-Baka, ed. Wiener, p. 185; Della Corte, Storia di Verona, 

1592, book xiv., pp. 297 et seq.; Mortara, Indice, passim; Migne 

Patrologia, Latin series, clyi. 585; Gtidemann, Gesch. ii. 32. 

8. LE ON 

VERSE-DIVISION: The system of breaking 
up the Biblical text into verses may seem, both in the 
original and in the versions, to go hand in hand with 
its division into chapters. In truth, however, the 
chapter-division and the verse-division are of differ- 
ent origin. Thedivision into chapters wasemployed 
first in the Vulgate, perhaps by Stephen Langton, 
Archbishop of Canterbury (d. 1228). It wasadopted 
by Jewish scholars for purposes of reference — not 
only by Isaac NATHAN BEN KaLonyMus in his 
great concordance, “Meir Netib” (Venice, 1523), 


but, not long after its introduction into the Vulgate, 


Verse-Division 
Vesoul 


by Solomon b. Ishmael (see “Theologisch Tijd- 
schrift,” 1878, p. 104)—and was introduced into the 
printed editions of the Hebrew text, 
from the Bomberg Bible of 1521 down- 
ward. On the other hand, verse- 
division, with the elaborate systems of 
accentuation resting upon it, is in itself 
essentially a part of the Masoretic tradition, although 
notation by means of figures in the text, or on 
the margin, was employed first in the Latin Bibles 
of 1528 and 1555, and somewhat later (1571) by 
Arias Montanus in the Antwerp Bible: a figure 
on the margin corresponded to a cross in the text 
at the beginning of each verse. The Athias Bible 
(1659-61) was the first edition with verse-notation 
that could be used by Jews. 

In all the manuscripts of the Hebrew Bible, ex- 
cept the scrolls used for the public lessons (see be- 
low), the end of a verse (“ pasuk ”) is marked by the 
double point (:), which is called “sof pasuk.” The 
next higher unit In the Pentateuch is the hebdoma- 
dal lesson (“ parashah ”), which is thus “treated as a 
chapter for the purpose of numbering the verses.” 
At the end of each parashah the number of verses 
contained in it is given, together with a mnemonic 
sign. Thus at the end of the first pericope (Gen. i. 
1-vi. 8) occurs {pp (2.e., 146), followed by A NDN 
Vmprm-. either of which words has the numerical 
value 146. Sometimes two pericopes which, in 
certain years, are read on ove Sabbath, are computed 
together, in addition to the separate computation 
of the component parts (so 35% Dav), Deut. xxix. 
9-xxx. 20, xxxi. 1-380, in one MS., Ginsburg, No. 
84; for the detailed items see Ginsburg, “Intro- 
duction,” pp. 72-85; Blau, in “J. Q. R.” 1897, pp. 

79-482). Discrepancies occur in the various Mas- 
oretic sources available; according to Ginsburg, 
they point to different Masoretic schools, hence to a 
lack of fixity concerning the method of verse-divi- 
sion, while Blau holds that they are “for the most 
part errors in copying or in reading which are easily 
recognized and explained” (see also Baer, “ Die 
Verszillung des Pentateuch,” in “ Orient, Lit.” 1851, 
pp. 200 ef seqg.). There is complete agreement in the 
Masoretic sources as to the total number of verses 
in the Pentateueh, given as 5,845. In the other 
books of the Bible no subdivisions are 
marked as in the Pentateuch; while 
the separate figures given for the 
single books vary (see Ginsburg, Lc. 
pp. 87-105; Blau, dc. pp. 486-487). The correct 
total figure for the verses in the prophetical books 
is proved by Blau to be 9,294; in the Hagiographa, 
8,064. The total number of verses in the entire 
Scriptures is thus 23,203. With this computation 
agree the lists in a Yemen manuscript (Ginsburg, 
é.¢. pp. 105 et seg.) and in “ Dikduke ha-Te‘amim ” (ed. 
Baer-Strack, p. 55). Blau adduces a variety of 
proofs for the correctness of these totals. He proves 
also from a sufficient number of tests obtained 
from various Masoretic notes that the Masoretic 
verses were identical with those of the editions now 
used; 7@.e., they began and ended with the same 
words (le. pp. 471-474). 

While the hebdomadal lessons are treated as “ chap- 
ters” in the Masoretic computations of verses, the 


Chapter- 
Divisions 
Christian. 


Number 
Fixed. 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


422 


“chapters” of the traditional text are really the 
much shorter “open” and “closed” sections (Gins- 
burg, /.c. ch. ii.), which are necessarily coterminal 
with their concluding verses. The exceptions are the 
so-called “breaks in the middle of verses” (“piska 
be-’emza‘ pasuk”; comp. Buhl, “Canon and Text 
of the Old Testament,” 1892, p. 85, and the litera- 
ture there noted). These exceptions, however, are 
only apparent. In Gen, xxxv. 22, for example, the 
portions before the break and after it are really 
separate verses, but are joined in reading for the 
purpose of slurring over the story concerning the 
misconduct of Reuben, or in order to suggest that, 
in spite of his misconduct, he was still counted 
with the other sons of Jacob (see 
Breaks in Rashi, ad lve., and sources). The 
Middle breaks are particularly numerous in 
of Verses. the books of Samuel; in the major- 
ity of cases in the place of the break 
there seems to have been originally a reference to 
the priest’s manipulation of the ephod. 

With the Masoretic computation as given above 
that of an anonymous baraita in Kid. 30a is appar- 
ently at variance, which assigns to the Pentateuch 
5,888 verses, to the Psalter 5,896, and to Chronicles 
5,880. The repetition of the figure 8 and the divisi- 
bility of each number by 8 are not necessarily an 
evidence of artificiality. The frequently quoted 
statement of the amora Aha bar Ada (in the Tal- 
mudic passage referred to), that the Palestinians di- 
vided Ex. xix. 9 into three verses, and the avowal 
of another amora, Rab Joseph, in a discussion with 
Abaye, that “ we are no experts in the counting of 
the verses,” have been adduced by various scholars 
asa proof of the existence of different systems of 
verse-division in Talmudic times, and at all events 
of the absence of fixity in the pre-Masoretic period 
(comp. Frankel, “ Vorstudicn zu der Scptuaginta,” 
1843, p. 217; Gritz, “ Monatsschrift,” 1885, pp. 97- 
100). It is true, of course, that the Eastern and 
Western schools varied from each other in the 
verse-division as in other matters (comp, the geonic 
statement, Blau, é.c. p. 141); such variation, how- 
ever, it is contended by Blau, was only occasional, 
and was confined toasmall number of places, which 
he enumerates. Thecontradiction between the Tal- 
mud and the Masorah is harmonized in a geonic re- 
sponsum (Harkavy, “Responsa der Geonim,” No. 8a) 
by the assertion that “the baraita refers to a Bible 
found in Jerusalem, which differed from other Bibles 
in respect to writing and number of verses.” On the 
basis of an exhaustive induction from the Talmudic- 
Midrashic data tending to show that in the centu- 
ries immediately preceding the Masoretic period the 
verses began and ended practically in the same places 
as nowadays, Blau believes himself justified in min- 
imizing the difficulty and in harmonizing the contra- 
dictory statements (l.c. pp. 471-474, 476, 483 e¢ seq.). 

According to the Yalkut on the Penta- 


Talmud — teuch, section 855, the Pentateuch con- 
Versus tains 5,842 verses. The Talmud is 
Masorah. equally at variance with the Masorah 


in counting Lev. xiii. 33, instead of 
Lev. viii. 8, as the middle verse of the Pentateuch, 
while Soferim ix. 3 gives Lev. viii. 23 as the middle 
verse, 


423 


The Talmud credits the work of the verse-divi- 
sion to the scribes. This means that it antedates 
the Talmud. In medievaltimes Judah ha-Levi, Ibn 
Ezra, and Profiat Duran considered Ezra or the men 
of the Great Synagogue as the author or authors of 
this division (Bacher, “Ibn Ezra als Grammatiker,” 
1881, p. 38); but although an element of ancient tra- 
dlition, the verse-division was not permitted to enter 
the scroll (Soferim iii. 7). It is clear that the verse- 
division occupies in the history of the Hebrew text 
a place posterior to the separation of words and the 
introduction of vowel-letters; with the verse-divi- 
sion there went hand in band the accentuation which 
presupposes it; both antedated the vocalization. 
While on the Phenician monuments there is found 
continuous script, with no space to mark even the 
division of words, the Moabite Stone makes use of a 
single point for word-separation, and of a vertical 
stroke for the purpose of marking the end of asense- 
unit corresponding somewhat to a Scriptural verse. 

The beginnings of Scriptural verse-division must 
be sought in the poetical books. As can be seen 
from the Ecclesiasticus fragments as well as from 
certain poetical passages in the canon (¢.g., Deut. 
xXxxii.; see Harris in “J. Q. R.” 1889, p. 225), it was 
customary to write each metrical (?) unit on a short 
line corresponding to what the Greeks called oriyoc 
(in Latin, “ versus”). In Hebrew poetry, two met- 
rical units, or stichs, usually go to make one com- 
plete and rounded thought. The two stichs were 
therefore written opposite each other on one line, 
and together constituted a pasuk, a verse in 

the accepted sense. From the poetic 
Stichoi of passages the custom of verse-division 
Verse. — spread to the other parts of Scripture. 
If Sievers may be believed (“Studien 
zur Hebraéischen Metrik,” p. 382, Leipsic, 1901), 
Gen. ii, 4-14 is metrical. Economy of space, of 
course, prevented the employment of broken lines 
even in the poetic passages. It was expensive to 
write “per cola et commata” (on the meaning of 
the phrase comp, Swete, “Introduction to the Old 
Testament in Greek,” 1900, pp. 845 e¢ seg.: the whole 
of ch. vi. will prove useful reading in connection 
with the present subject). Even in the scrolls many 
poetic pieces are written as prose. The manuscripts 
from which the Masoretic archetype immediately 
descends, as well as those from which the Greek 
translation was made, appear not to have been writ- 
ten in broken lines where one would expect such 
writing —e.g., in the Psalter (note the error in Ps. 
xlii. 6,7, 5x ¢ 1B for : 735s) 12), or in the alpha- 
betical chapters of Lamentations (comp. Lam. i. 16, 
LXX.; Frankel, dc. p. 218). 

Saadia is criticized by Ibn Ezra for disregarding 
the traditional verse-division in ten Scriptural pas- 
sages (Bacher, U.c. p. 39, note 14). More frequently 
this expedient is resorted to by modern commenta- 
tors and editors. Examples may be found on the 
pages of Haupt’s Bible, where a special sign ( | ) in- 
dicates the transposition of the Masoretic sof pasuk. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. D. Ginsburg, Introduction to the Masso- 

retico-Critical Edition of the Hebrew Bible, 1897, ch. vi.; 

L. Blau, Massoretie Studies, in J. Q. R. 1897, pp. 122-144, 


471-490. Older literature and special articles are enumerated 
by these two scholars. 


T. | M. L. M. 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Verse-Division 
Vesoul 


VERSICLE THEMES. See KERopot; SeExrI- 
HAH. 


VERVEER, ELCHANAN : Dutch painter and 
vignette-engraver; born at The Hague April 19, 
1826. He received instruction from his brother Sam- 
uel L. VERVEER, and from H. F. C. Ten Kate. In 
1845 he went to Brussels, where he engraved the 
vignette illustrations for Eugéne Sue’s “Le Juif 
Errant,” and on his return to The Hague he was 
engaged for some time in drawing illustrations for 
“De Brillen van Onzen Tijd,” which appeared first 
in “ Nederlandsch Magazijn” and later as a separate 
publication. 

Of Verveer’s paintings may be mentioned “The 
First Pipe” and “ Winter,” both in the museum at 
Rotterdam, and “ The Widow ” and “Sufferers from 
Sea-Sickness,” which belong to the Stadtmuseum in 
The Hague. 

Verveer is a knight of the Lion of Nassau, and 
an Officer of the Order of Leopold. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. Winkler Prins, Geillustreerde Eneyclo- 
pedie, Amsterdam, 1887; Hans Wolfgang Singer, <Alige- 
meines Kiinstler-Lexicon, Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1898. 


8. F, C. 

VERVEER, SAMUEL LEONARDUS: 
Dutch landscape- and genre-painter; born at The 
Hague Nov. 380, 1818; died there Jan. 5, 1876. He 
was a pupil of B. J. van den Hove. Verveer trav- 
eled a great deal, visiting especially the art galleries 
of French cities; but the scenery of his native land 
was ever to his mind the most beautiful in the 
world, and he became a master in depicting views 
of Dutch towns and hamlets. 

Of Vervecr’s paintings may be mentioned: “ After- 
noon at Katwijk on the Sea” (now in the museum at 
Rotterdam); “ Nordwijk on the Sea” and “Scheven- 
ingen” (both in the Amsterdam Museum of Art). 
The last-named painting was exhibited at Philadel- 
phia in 1876 and was awarded a silver medal. “Salm- 
on Fishers” and “Departure for the Market” are 
two of the most representative of Verveer’s genre- 
paintings. His works were also awarded prizes at 
Brussels in 1842 and 1851; and many of his paint- 
ings were bought by the art galleries of Ghent, The 
Hague, Hamburg, etc. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Clement and Hutton, Artists of the Nine- 
teenth Century and Their Works, Boston, 1880; A. Winkler 
Prins, Geillustreerde Encyclopoedie, Amsterdam, 1887; Hans 
Wolfgang Singer, Allgemeines Ktinstler-Lexicon, Frauk- 
fort-on-the-Main, 1898. 

s. F.C. 

VESOUL (Hebr. 1 or Siw): Capital of the 
department of Haute-Sadne, France. Jews first 
settled there in the latter part of the thirteenth cen- 
tury, under the leadership of Hayyim b. Jacob, who 
was acorrespondent of Hayyim b. Isaac Or Zarua‘, 
one of the first pupils of Meir of Rothenburg. 
The synagogue was situated within the city walls, 
on a site now occupied by the Chapelle de la Charité, 
on the Place du Palais-de-Justice; after the expul- 
sion of the Jews in 1321 it was sold for the benefit 
of the public treasury. 

In 1815 Heéliot, a banker of Vesoul, was one of the 
Jewish syndics of the Langue d’Oil who, together 
with Poncin de Bar, Joce de Pontoise, Cressent de 
Corbeil, and Morel d’Amboise, negotiated for the 
return of the Jews expelled from France by Philip 


Vesoul 
Vespasian 


the Fair. Three years later Countess Jeanne of 
Burgundy confiscated a house belonging toa Jew 
named Helget, and presented it to the prior and 
curé of Vesoul, In 1821 Philip V., the Tall, gave 
his wife, Queen Jeanne, the estate of Héliot and of 
his son Vivant as well as the property of other Jews 
of the county of Burgundy; and three years later 
Marguerite de Lambrez, one of the queen’s ladies of 
the bedchamber, was allotted Héliot’s house. In 
1842 Michelet, a Jew of Vesoul, furnished the King 
of France with a subsidy of 187 livres. 

In 1848 eighty Jews of Vesoul were arrested by 
order of Eudes IV., Duke of Burgundy, on the 
charge of well-poisoning. Renaud Joume de Cha- 
riez, provost of Vesoul, superintended the confisca- 
tion of their property, these seizures enriching the 
treasury to the amount of about 294 livres. Six of 
the prisoners were secretly put to the torture, and 
the twelve nobles appointed to pass judgment on 
them, in order to save them from the fury of the 
mob, sentenced them to banishment on the strength 
of confessions wrung from them in this manner. In 
13860, however, Manecier or Menessier, a Jew of 
Vesoul, enjoyed the special favor of Charles V., 
whom he induced to permit the Jews to return to 
France. Twenty-four years later Philip the Bold 
authorized fifty-two Jewish families to settle in 
Burgundy, in consideration of the payment of an 
entrance-fee, and an annual tax to the treasury. 
They were, however, forbidden to loan money at a 
higher rate of interest than 4 deniers per livre, but 
their testimony was recognized in legal matters, 
even against Christians. Gui de la Trémouille, Sire 
de Joinville, a courtier, was appointed guardian of 
their rights and interests. From 1410 to 1419 Hac- 
quin, a Jew of Vesoul, was physician to Duke John 
the Fearless. 

At present (1905) there are twenty-five or thirty 
Jewish families in the city. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Dom Plancher, Histoire de Bourgogne, iil.; 
Gross, Gallia Judaica, pp. 190-191; Gollut, Mémoires des 
Bourguignons de la Franche-Comté, p. itl; R. H. J. vii. 1; 
viii. 161; ix. 21, 187; xlix. 1, 244; Saige, Les Juifs de Langue- 
doe, pp. 106, 8380. 

D. S. K. 


VESPASIAN: Emperor of Rome from 69 to79; 
founder of the Flavian dynasty. Thr defeat of 
Cestius Gallus convinced Nero that the Jewish up- 
rising was a serious matter, and he transferred the 
command of his army to the veteran Flavius Ves. 
pasianus, who had already fought courageously 
against the Britons. In the winter of 67 Vespa- 
sian made his preparations for war in Antioch, and 
in the following spring marched on Ptolemais. 
After joining his son Titus, who had advanced with 
an army from Alexandria, Vespasian found himself 
in command of a powerful force, consisting of the 
fifth, tenth, and fifteenth legions, twenty-three aux- 
iliary cohorts, and six squadrons of horse, in addi- 
tion to the troops of the native vassals, of the Jewish 
King Agrippa II., and of the kings of Commagene, 
Emesa, and Arabia (Josephus, “B. J.” iii. 7, 8 1). 
The entire Roman army must have mustered at least 
60,000 men. 

The first aim was the conquest of Galilee, a wealthv 
and populous district of Palestine, which was de- 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


424 


fended by Josephus. Upon the approach of Vespa- 
sian, however, the protecting army fled in confusion, 
and the city of Gadara fell into the 
Gadara and hands of the Romans. All its inhabit- 
Jotapata ants were put to the sword by order 
Surrender. of Vespasian, and Gadara and the 
neighboring towns and villages were 
burned (20. ili. 7, § 1). These events were followed 
by the reduction of Jotapata in a siege which is de- 
scribed in detail by Josephus, who found himself 
compelled to surrender. Vespasian, like his son 
Titus, treated the captive asatriend. The opera- 
tions were now interrupted by a brief truce, while 
the conqueror marched through Ptolemais to Casa- 
rea, Where he rested his troops (7b. iii. 9, § 1). Ves- 
pasian himself went to Ceesarea Philippi, Agrippa’s 
capital, where festivities in his honor were cele- 
brated for twenty days. He then led his army 
against Tiberias, which willingly surrendered, and 
also against Tarichee, which fell into his hands in 
the beginning of the month of Elul. 

A terrible punishment awaited the conquered. 
Galilee was entirely depopulated; 6,000 youths 
were sent to Nero to work on the isthmus of Cor- 
inth; 1,200 old men were killed; and the remaining 
Jews, more than 380,400 in number, were sold as 
slaves, servitude being also the fate of those who 
were given to Agrippa (7d. iii. 10,§ 10). There now 
remained only the fortress of Gamala, whose defend- 
ers repulsed the Romans so disastrously that Vespa- 
sian in person had to urge his soldierson. The for- 
tress was reduced at last, however, and the Romans 
massacred 4,000 Jews, the rest preferring death by 
their own hands. In the meantime the fort of Ita- 
byrion at Tabor had surrendered, while the city of 
Giscala was reduced by Titus, so that Galilee was 
entirely subdued by Vespasian. 

The simplest procedure would now have been an 
attack upon Jerusalem, as was desired by the Roman 
lieutenants, but Vespasian decided to leave the city 
to itself, knowing that Jewish factional strife would 
gradually weaken it (2b. iv. 6, &§ 2, 3). Notwith- 
standing the heavy rains, he advanced toward Perea, 
and occupied the Hellenistic city of Gadara, while 
Placidus, his second in command, was engaged in sub- 
duing the remainder of the district. Once more Ves- 
pasian marched from Caesarea, and occupied in turn 
the cities of Antipatris; Lydda, Jamnia, and Emmaus, 
leaving the fifth legion in the last-named city, after 
which he scoured Edom, returning to Emmaus, and 
finally marching northward in the direction of Je- 
rusalem through the district of Samaria. He met 
with little resistance in any of these places, even 
Jericho and Adida being easily taken by the Roman 
soldicrs. Gerasa alone had to be conqnered and des- 
troyed by one of his generals (¢2. iv. 9, $ 1); this, 
however, can not have been the great Gerasa, which 
was a Hellenistic city. 

Vespasian doubtless desired to pro- 


Prolongs long the campaign in Judea, since this 
War for  Jeft him in command of a large army 
Political which was desirable in view of the im- 
Reasons. perial succession. When he heard, 


however, that Simeon bar Giora had 
invaded and ravaged southern Palestine with his 
Jewish hordes, he determined to restore order 


425 


there, and accordingly invaded and subdued the 
districts of Gophna and Acrobata in the month of 
Siwan. 69. He likewise captured the cities of Bethel 
and Ephraim, while Hebron was taken by his tribune 
Cerealis (2. iv. 9, § 9). The Romans pow had free 
access to Jerusalem from all sides, although some 
places, such as Emmaus, Herodium, Masada, and 
Machierus, still remained in the hands of the 
Jews, 

In the meantime the imperial throne of Rome had 
been filled successively by Galba, Otho, and Vitel- 
lius; and the Oriental legions, following the exam- 
ple of the army of the Rhine, gave an emperor to 
Rome in the person of Vespasian. This event, 
which was to prove important for the history of the 
world, was doubtless planned in Palestine, where, 
according to Josephus, the proclamation was issued, 
although Tacitus and Suetonius assert that the Egyp- 
tian legions were the first to hail Vespasian emperor, 
on July 1, 69. Two personages of Jewish descent 
were particularly active in connection with this 
event—Berenice, the mistress of Titus, and Tiberius 
Julius Alexander, governor of Egypt. Josephus 
boasts that he foretold Vespasian’s election to Ves- 
pasian himself and received his freedom as well 
as permission to accompany the emperor to Alex- 
andria as a reward for his prophecy. According 
to Talmudic sources, however, Johanan ben Zakkai 
was the first to predict Vespasian’s elevation to the 
imperial throne. The statement that he was un- 
able to draw on one of his shoes for joy (Git. 56b) 
may be explained by the fact that the phrase “cal- 
ceos mutare” (to change the shoes) was used also 
to denote promotion to a higher rank (“ Monats- 
schrift,” 1904, p. 277). The fact that the proclama- 
tion of Vespasian was issued from Judea led Jose- 
phus, followed herein by Tacitus (“ Hist.” v. 18) 
and Suetonius (“ Vespasianus,” § 4), to interpret an 
ancient oracle foretelling that a ruler from Judea 
should acquire dominion over the entire world as an 
allusion to Vespasian (Josephus, /.c. vi. 5, § 4). The 
new emperor left his son TrtTus in command of the 
army, while he himself hurried to Rome to take pos- 
session of the throne. 

In the eyes of the Roman people Vespasian and 
Titus shared in the glory of the subjugation of Pal- 
estine, yet neither of them assumed the title “ Juda- 
icus,” probably because this term referred to the 
religion as well as to the nationality of the Jews. 
In addition to the honors bestowed on Titus by the 
Senate, and the memorials erected to his praise, sev - 
eral decrees and monuments refer to Vespasian. The 
coins bearing the legend “ victoria navalis” proba- 
bly commemorate his pursuit of the Jews at Tari- 
chiea on rafts, and the same circumstance doubtless 
explains why Titus brought a large number of ships 
with him when he entered Rome in triumph (7. vii. 
5, § 5). Together with his sons Titus and Domitian, 
Vespasian celebrated his own triumph in the year 
71 (2b. vii. 5, § 7; Dio Cassius, Ixvi. 7). In addition 
to the triumphal arch erected in honor of Titus, 
which still stands near the Roman Forum, another 
arch of Titus existed, until the fifteenth century, in 
tlie Circus Maximus, which bore an inscription ex- 
pressly stating that Titus had conquered the Jewish 
people at the command and counsel of his father, 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Vesoul | 
Vespasian. 


and under his auspices (“C. I. L.” vi., No, 944; “KR. 


EK. J.” i. 35). All three Flavian emperors struck 
coins with such legends as ’Iovdaiag 

The éazuxviac, “Tudewa devicta,” or “ Tudeea. 
Judean capta” (Madden, “Coinsof the Jews,” 
Triumph pp. 207-229), and numerous inscrip- 
and tions furnish material for an exact de- 
Medals. termination of the names of the legions. 


and officers that took part in the war; 
such lists have been compiled by Arséne Darme- 
steter and Joseph Offord. 

The sacred vessels from the Temple at Jerusalem 
were deposited in the Temple of the Goddess of 
Peace, erected by Vespasian in commemoration of his 
victory, but destroyed by fire in 191; and other tro- 
phies were preserved in the imperial palace (Jose- 
phus, /.¢. vii. 5, § 7; Jerome, “Comm. on Isaiah,” 
xxix. 1). The Circus Maximus still exists, stained 
with the blood of Jewish martyrs. Vespasian insti- 
tuted also the Fiscus JUDAIcus, and did not hesitate 
to claim all Judea as his property (Josephus, J.¢. vi. 
6, § 6). A papyrus from the Egyptian province of 
Arsinoe, preserved partly in London and partly in 
Vienna, gives detailed information concerning a 
special impost levied on the Jews in addition to the 
customary poll-tax. This papyrus is dated in the 
fifth year of Vespasian’s reign, and shows that the 
tax was payable by every Jew and Jewess over three 
years of age. The annual amount of the special 
Jewish assessment was 8 drachme 2 oboles per in- 
dividual, and to this was added an extra income tax 
of 1 drachma. The poll-tax itself amounted to 40: 
drachme, so that the Jews were heavily burdened, 
at least throughout Egypt. Christian sources fur- 
ther state that Vespasian caused all Jews of the 
house of David to be executed, and thus instigated 
a great persecution (Eusebius, “ Hist. Eccl.” iii. 12, 
based on Hegesippus). He also closed the Temple 
of Onias, in 78, and enlarged the pomerium of the 
city of Rome, which might be. done only by an 
imperator who had increased the territories of the 
empire. 

Vespasian is frequently mentioned in rabbinical 
literature, the war, with which certain mourning 

customs were associated, being called 

Talmudic “polemos shel Aspasyanos ” (Sotah ix. 

References. 14), and “ Vespasian and his comrades ” 
(z.é., his sons) being accused of enrich- 

ing themselves from the treasures of Israel (Midr. 
Teh. xvii. 2), When Vespasian came to Jerusalem 
he encamped outside the wall and made proposi- 
tions of peace to the Jews which were rejected. 
According to Ab. R. N., Recension B, § 6, certain 
Jews in the city communicated treacherously with 
Vespasian by means of arrows; but this state- 
ment confuses Vespasian with Titus, while other 
passages confound him with Hadrian, or even with 
Nebuchadnezzar. “One of these will destroy the 
holy Temple, and that one is the miscreant Vespa- 
sian” (Midrash ha-Gadol on Gen. xxv. 23, ed. 
Schechter; in Gen. R. Ixvii. the name of Hadrian 
is substituted). The passage “I have not despised 
them” was interpreted as meaning, “I have not de- 
spised them in the days of Vespasian” (Sifra. xxvi. 
44; Esth. R., beginning); and it is clear from a state- 
ment of Jerome on Joel iii. 3 that several haggadic 


Vessels 
Vienna 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


426 


passages were likewise regarded as allusions to Ves- 
pasiun. Various legends concerning this emperor 
appear in rabbinical literature, the first one being 
told by Josephus (“ Ant.” viii, 2, § 5), who relates 
how a Jewish exorcist displayed his skill to Ves- 
pasian. The shiploads of captive Jews are gen- 
erally, and correctly, associated with the name of 


‘ 
a 5 a . 
Rs ry 
pawn 


Arana At 


Brass Coin of Vespasian, with Inscription ‘* Iudaea Capta.” 
Struck in 72 ¢. E. 
(From Madden, “ History of Jewish Coinage.’’) 


Titus; but according to a later legend (Buxtorf, 
“Synagoga Judaica,” ix. 231; “J. Q. R.” xv. 664), 
which apparently sought to attribute to Vespasian 
all the evils that befell the Jews, the future emperor 
guided three vessels filled with Hebrew prisoners to 
Lavanda, Arlada, and Bardeli. 

Vespasian collected his memoirs of the Jewish 
war;and these were mentioned, and probably also 
used, by Josephus (“ Vita,” § 65; comp. “Contra 
Ap.” i., § 10). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gritz, Gesch. 4th ed., iii. 494 et seq.; Schiirer, 
Gesch, 3d ed., i. 610 ef seq. (Where further sources are given); 
Vogelstein and Rieger, Gesch. der Juden in Rom, i. 23; 
Mommsen, ROnriselhe Gesch. vol. v.: Darmesteter, in R. BE. J. 
i. 40-56; Offord, in Proce. Soe. Bibl. Arch, 1902, xxiv. 325; 
Newton, The Epigraphal Evidence for the Reign of Ves- 
pasian and Titus, Ithaca, New York. 1901; Wessely, Die 
Eyptkrisis und das "Jovdatwy téedeoua Unter Vespasian, in 
Studien zur Paleographie und Papyruskunde, Leipsic, 1901. 


G S. Kr. 


VESSELS, SACRED. Sce Temrie, ADMIN- 
ISTRATION OF. 


VESSILLO ISRAELITIOCO, IL (“Hebrew 
Banner”): An Italian monthly; the continuation of 
the “ Educatore Israelita ” (founded 1853), which, up- 
on the death of itseditor Giusep pe Levi (July 10, 1874), 
passed under the new title into the control of Flaminio 
Servi, rabbi of Casale Monferrato, who transferred its 
headquarters from Vercelli to Casale. During the 
early years of its existence it contained essays from 
the pens of such men as Berliner, Benedetti, Perreau, 
Soave, and Steinschneider; but later its importance 
as a literary and scientific journal deteriorated. It 
is noteworthy as containing valuable biographical 
sketches of Italian Jews. 

Flaminio Servi died Jan. 28, 1904, and was suc- 
ceeded by his son Ferruccio, who has made consid- 
erable changes in the publication, giving it a dis- 
tinctly modern character. In February, 1905, the 
“Lux,” a review founded in Leghorn in 1904 under 
the editorship of Arrigo Lattes and Alfredo Toaff, 
was incorporated with the “ Vessillo.” 

8. U. C. 


VESZI, JOSEPH: Hungarian editor and dep- 
uty; born at Arad Nov. 6, 1858. He was educated 
at the gymnasium of his native town, and studied 


philosophy, literature, and languages at Budapest. 
In his early youth he was a poet, and in the sev- 
entices his lyrical productions were accepted by the 
best literary periodicals, while two volumes of his 
verses were published at Budapest in 1880 under the 
titles “ A Banat Dalaibol” and “ Traviata, Dalok Egy 
Tévedt Noéh6éz.” Since 1877 he has devoted himself 
to journalism, advocating liberal views. He was 
for some time editor of the “ Budapester Tagblatt,” 
and contributed leaders and stories to the “ Pester 
Lloyd.” In 1894 he became editor-in-chief of the 
“Pesti Napld,” and in 1896 he founded the “ Buda- 
pesti Naplo.” 

Vészi is president of the journalistic club of Buda- 
pest, and vice-president of the picture salon and of 
the club of amateur musicians in that city. He is 
also master of the masonic lodge “ Reform.” In 1899 
he was elected to the Hungarian Parliament from 
the district of Szasz-Sebes; and in 1901, from the 
third district of the capital. At present (1905) he 
represents the third district of Budapest. He takes 
an active interest in all Jewish affairs. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sturm, Orszdggyitilési Almanach, 1901-6; 


Pailas Lex. 7 

Ss. L. ie 

VICTORIA. See AusTrRALia; BALLARAT; MEL- 
BOURNE. 

VICTORIA. See CANADA. 


VIDAL B. BENVENISTE IBN LABI. Sce 
Lani, JOSEPH IBN. 


VIDAL, MENAHEM B. SOLOMON ME- 
IRI. See ME’rRI, MENAHEM. 


VIDAL OF TOLOSA: Spanish scholar of the 
latter half of the fourteenth century. Heresided in 
Catalonia, where he prepared his most important 
work, “Maggid Mishneh,” a commentary on Mai- 
monides’ “ Yad.” This work covered the entire con- 
tents of the “ Yad,” but only those parts are extant 
which cover the following books: iii.,iv., v. (ch. i.- 
ix. only), xXi., xii. (ch. i.-iil. only), and xi. The 
commentary was never published separately, but 
only together with the “ Yad” (first at Constantino- 
ple, 1509). Vidal’s second work was a commentary 
jin Arabic on Al-Ghazali’s “To‘elet ba-Higgayon.” 
This commentary was translated into Hebrew by 
Moses ben Joshua of Narbonne, and is extant in 
manuscript in the Library of the Vatican. From 
Joseph Caro’s preface to his “ Kesef Mishneh ” it ap- 
pears that Vidal was a personal friend of R. Nissim. 

Vidal’s son Isaac was also a prominent scholar; 
he lived in Alcala and corresponded with Isaac ben 
Sheshet (Responsa, No. 473), 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Michael, Or ha-Hayyim, pp. 360-361; Ibn 
Yahya, Shalshelet ha-Kabhaiah, ed. Amsterdam, p. 43; Se- 
fer Yuhasin, ed. Filipowski, p. 225a; Conforte, kore ha- 
Dorot, ed. Cassel, pp. 26a, 27a; Rosin, Compendium der 
Jitidischen Gesetzeskunde, p. 115, Breslau, 1871; De Rossi, 
Dizionario, p. 328; Steinschneider, Hebr. Uebers. i. 315, 
note 3538; idem, Jtidische Literatur, p. 388, note 17; Wolf, 
Bibl. Hebr. i. 563, iii. 562; Bartolocci, Kiryat Sefer, ii. 804a- 
805b; Benjacob, Ozar ha-Sefarim, p. 384; Steinschneider, 
Cat. Boal. cols. 2707-2708. 

E. C. 8. 0. 


VIDAL-NAQUET, SAMUEL EMANUEL: 
French financier; born at Paris Aug. 22,1859. Edu- 
cated in his native city, he graduated from the Law 
Faculty and was admitted to the bar in 1882. In 
1885 he entered the Banque des Fonds Publics et 


427 


Valeurs Industriclles, managed by his father, whom 
he succeeded as chief on the latter’s death. 

Since 1888 he has edited with his brother Charles 
the “ Cote de la Bourse et de Ja Banque,” for which 
paper he wrote many editorials. He is recognized 
as one of the leading French authorities on financial 
law. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY : Curinier, Dict. Nat. iii. 34. 


s. F. T. H. 


VIDAS, DE, ELIJAH B. MOSES. See EL- 
JAW B. Mosks DE VIDAS. 


VIDAS, SAMUEL BEN HABIB DE: Span- 
ish scholar and Bible commentator of the fifteenth 
century ; itissaid, but not known with certainty, that 
he was a physician also. He wrote a commentary 
on Lamentations, entitled “ Perush Megillat Ekah,” 
which appeared in Salonica, 1595. He was the au- 
thor of the following works also, which have been 
preserved in manuscript: “Mebakkesh ha-Shem,” 
sermons on the weekly Torah lessons, beginning with 
Ki Tissa and continued to Nizzabim; and a com- 
mentary on Canticles, in which his name is given as 
Samuel Bibas (t#s33). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Polak, in Orient, Lit. x. 276: Azulai, Shem 
ha-Gedolim, i. 174; Carmoly, Histoire des Médecins Juifs, 
pp. 124 et seq.; Sehorr, in He-Halvz, ii, 24; Dukes, in Orient, 
Lit. x. 707; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. cols. 2410-2411; Jacobs, 
Sources, p. 195. 

J. 5. O. 

VIENNA: Capital of Austria-Hungary. Legend 
asscrts that Jews settled in this city in the remotest 
antiquity, and it is alieged that some were among 
the first colonists that Rome sent to the Danube. 
In 905 decrees were issued fixing the toll to be paid 
by Jewish merchants in Austria; this, however, 
proves only that Jews traveled in that country. 
Ajthough the document, dated 1156, which granted 
ic Duke Leopold of Austria the privilege of adinitting 
Jews into his dominions is a forgery originating 
two hundred years after its alleged date (O. Stobbe, 
“Die Juden in Deutschland,” p. 12), Jews were un- 
doubtedly living at that time in Austria, though not 
in great numbers. Under the protection of the 
liberal princes of the house of Babenberg they fared 
much better than the other German Jews of that 
period. 

As early as 1194 Duke Leopold VI. of Austria 
placed a Jew of the name of Shlom (Solomon) at 
the head of the mint (“super officium 
monet ”), and Jewish officers of that 
mint had such influence as to give rise 
to bittercomplaints. Two years later, 
when the Crusaders reached Vienna and heard that 
Solomon had imprisoned for theft one of his servants 
who was to join them, they rushed to the Jew’s house, 
murdered him and fifteen other Jews, and liberated 
the imprisoned man. The duke was sufficiently 
just to execute two of the ringleaders (Joseph ha- 
Kohen, “‘Emek ha-Baka,” ed. Letteris, p. 46). The 
influence of the Jewish officials had become so great 
that after the expulsion of Duke Frederick the Bellig- 
erent, in 1237, the citizens of Vienna petitioned 
Emperor Frederick II. not to appoint any more 
Jews to official positions. Nevertheless Jews appar- 
ently continued to be employed as agents of the 
treasury. In 1235 they dictated the entire commer- 


Shlom the 
Minter. 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Vessels 
Vienna 


cial policy of Duke Frederick IT. and induced him ta 
forbid the export of grain into the “ upper districts ” 
(Pertz, “Monumenta Scriptores,” ix. 786); and in 
1257 the Jews Lublin and Nekelo, two brothers, 
were treasury agents (“Kammergrafen”) “to the 
most illustrious Duke of Austria” (Steinschneider, 
“Hebr. Bibl.” x. 44 ef seg.). In Aug., 1288, Em- 
peror Frederick IJ. took the Jews of Vienna under 
his protection (“servi camere nostre”), granting 
them special privileges (see JEw. Encyc. ti. 322, 8.0, 
Austria). Of still greater importance is the charter 
that Duke Frederick II. granted to all Jews within 
his territory July 1, 1244; this afterward became 
the model by which the status of the Jews of Bohe- 
mia, Moravia, Hungary, Silesia, and Poland was 
regulated. 

The Jews of Vienna, who had the right to own 
real estate and to buy houses, were engaged princi- 
pally in lending money on security to the burghers 


Ys 


, Sa aee 
: = = 


meee 


13 
Ss 


ae ee 


! 


a eee es es 


7 owe ee oO 


Gate Leading to the Old “‘Judenstadt”’ at Vienna. 
(From an old print.) 


and also to the impecunious princes. Frederick II. 
permitted the Jews to charge a weekly interest of 
eight helleron the pound (7.e., 87 per cent); under his 
father they were permitted a still higher rate. Later 
the rate on loans by Jews was reduced to three 
helleron the pound. The rich Jew Techau in Vienna 
was in 1255 the bondsman of Duke Leopold VI. for 
a debt of 2,000 pounds of silver owed to King 
Andrew of Hungary (Steinschneider, J.c. x. 46). The 
“* Muschlein Terhau ” (Techau) mentioned in a docu- 
ment (Wiener, “Regesten,” p. 117) was probably a 


Vienna 


son of this otherwise unknown person. The favor- 
able position of the Jews changed when, in May, 
1267, the Council of Vienna revived 
The Church the ancient ecclesiastical decrees con- 
Council cerning the Jews. These decrees fos- 
of 1267. tered hatred against the Jews, but 
they could not be carried out to the 
letter, since the princes in their monetary difficulties 
could not get along without Jewish help. Emperor 
Rudolph, the first of the house of Hapsburg, who 
was indebted to a Jew by the name of Amschel 
Oppenheimer, confirmed in 1277 the Jews’ statute 
of Duke Frederick the Belligerent; but a year later 
he declared the Jews ineligible for public office, a 
privilege which his successor, Duke Albert, con- 
firmed to the 
citizens of Vi- 
enna in 1296. 
The four- 
teenth 


century 
in general 
brought much 


—_ 
AN U NSER FRA UEN 


misery to the 
Jews of Vienna. 
In 13837 outrages 
were committed 
against them, 
but Duke Albert 
and the nobles 
interfered to 
protect them 
from further in- 
justice. In rec- 
ognition of the 
good-will shown 
by the citizens 
of Vienna in 
time of distress, 
and in anticipa- 
tion of its con- 
tinuance, the 
Jews declared, 
in a document 
written in He- 
brew and dated 
Vienna, June 19, 
1338, that they 
would lend to the citizens of Vienna, rich as 
well as poor, a pound of Vienna heller at a weekly 
interest of three heller. On the following day 
appeared the ‘Jews’ decree” of the dukes Albert 
and Otto, and the endorsement of the Jewish docu- 
ment (G. Wolf, “Gesch. der Juden in Wien,” p. 
11; idem, “Studien zur Jubelfeier der Wiener Uni- 
versitit,” pp. 170 ef seg.; Wiener, U.c. p. 221). 

The Jews of Vienna appear to have suffered 
during the persecutions consequent on the Black 
Death (1369), and in 1370 they were seized, deprived 
of their possessions, and expelled from the city. 
But in spite of these persecutions the Jews very soon 
returned to Vienna and other places. The dukes 
Albert and Leopold, who were continually in finan- 
cial straits, needed the Jews, as did also their succes- 
sors. At their pleasure they “killed the Jews’ let- 
ters,” that is, they canceled the debts of the burghers 
to the Jews, often those of anentirecity. One of the 


Wd 
a 
wn 
< 
6 
| on 
x 
Ww 
= 
I 
Oo 
7) 


FUTTERERGASSCHEN 


FARBERGASSE 


LEDERHOF, 


HERZOGEN HOF 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


SCHULHOF 
( NOW JUDENPLAT2) 


(ree 


Plan of the Old ‘* Judenstadt*’ at Vienna. 


428 


richest Jews of Vienna, called in the documents in- 
differently David the Steuzz, Von Steuzz, Steuzzel, 
or Steuzzlein (the Jew Henniein von Neuenburg’s 
son), who from 1850 to 1386 had business relations 
with the nobles and the burghers, often lent large 
suins to Duke Albert; and after his (Steuzz’s) death 
his son Jonah entered upon his rights; ouly the duke 
himself could bring an action against him (Wiener, 
Lc. pp. 224 ef seg.; according to Document No. 169 
[p. 240] he should be called “Jonah the Steussen ” 
instead of “Jonah the Russian ”),. 

In 1421 Duke Albert issued a decree that in future 
no Jew should be permitted to live in Austria; this 
decree was renewed by Duke Ladislaus in 1453 
(“Monumenta Germaniw,” xi. 517; Wertheimer, 
“Die Juden in 
Oesterreich,” i. 
97; Wolf, Gesch.., 
pp. 18 et seq.; 
Wiener, d.c. p. 
239; Joseph ha- 
Kohen, “ ‘Emek 
ha-Baka,” p. 
219; “Terumat 
ha-Deshen,” re- 
sponsa, No. 241). 
: The houses of 

' the Jews who 
eee had been burned 
or expelled were 

sold or given 
away by the 
duke, the syna- 
gogue at Tulln 
was presented to 
the convent of 
St. Dorothea in 
Vienna, and the 
synagogueat the 
latter place was 
torn down and 
the stones used 
for building a 
university. 
Not withstand- 
ing these perse- 
cutions the spir- 
itual activity of the Vienna Jews was consider- 
able. One of the earliest rabbis of Vienna was 
Isaac b. Moses (called also Isaac “Or Zarua‘,” 
after the title of his work, or simply Isaac of Vi- 
enna). A ritual question was addressed to him 
in 1240 by Abigdor ha-Kohen, the son-in-law of 
the learned and rich Hayyim b. Moses of Wiener- 
Neustadt, who, together with his brother Eliezer, 
was at the head of the Viennese rab- 
binate, Auother rabbi of Vienna was 
Meir ha-Levi ben Baruch, who re- 
stored the rabbinical ordination. His 
son probably was the “Judenmeister,” Baruch of 
Vienna, with whom, together with Meir b. Baruch, 
who died about 1400, the dukes Albert and Leo- 
pold came to an agreement in regard to security 
for 20,000 guiden (Wiener, J.c. p. 228, No. 82). 
Abraham Klausner filled the Vienna rabbinate; 
the last-named collected the various synagogal 


SCHULTERGASGE 
JORDANGASSE 


p] 


ae 


Ssk 


KURRENTO® 


saa 


<a 


ry 


Early 
Rabbis. 


429 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Vienna 


customs (“minhaghn”), and was also a money- 
broker. 

In spite of the decree of banishment Jews still 
remained in Vienna. In 1512seven Jewish families 
were living there, the members of which interceded 
for their unfortunate coreligionists in Marchegg, 
who were in danger of being burned, like those of 
Bésing (Wolf, Gesch. pp. 23, 255). In 1528 Emperor 
Ferdinand issued a decree “ for the Jewish residents of 
Austria, Who are the property of the royal chancel- 
lery,”and ordered that every Jew whocame to Vienna 
should immediately report to the government office, 
where he would receive a “ticket”; he must wear 


the Jews’ badge, a ring of yellow cloth, on his outer 


garment, “uncovered and unhidden”; and might 
stop only at the two housesset apart for Jews. The 
Jews of Vienna begged that their coreligionists who 


“Yyemaneanse (9 
oA LURE: 


eat 
} 


The “Judenturm” at Vienna. 
(From an old print.) 


had been driven out of Presburg in this year might 
ve allowed tosettlein Lower Austria, but Ferdinand 
refused their request. In 1542 Emperor Ferdinand 
conceded to the Jew Moses the right to carry on in 
the country a small business and “trade,” in recog- 
nition of his services at the mint: and in 1544 he 
granted to the Jew Lazarus, physician to his chil- 
dren, the privilege of living wherever he chose. 
The decrees of banishment were renewed from 
time to time. A mandate of Jan, 2, 1554, ordered 
that the Jews should leave the territory of Lower 
Austria at the end of six months; but the period was 
several times prolonged. The same proceedings 
took place when the decrees of banishment were re- 
newed in 1567 and 1572. However, toward the end 
of 1575 the Jews were really expelled; but they did 
not stay away very long, for the impecuniosity of the 
emperors and the interests of the state often inclined 
the monarchs to be favorably disposed toward them, 
outweighing religious hatred and the still stronger 
jealousy of the non-Jewish merchants. Yet the 


condition of the Jews was permanently insecure, 
for they were without rights and privileges. When 
those of Vienua, who numbered in all thirty-one 
families, were not able, in 1599, to pay the 20,000 
florins demanded of them, an order was issued, 
Feb. 5, 1600, that they should leave Vienna and 
Austria within fourteen days. All obeyed except 
eleven families and the physician Elias Aluanus 
(Halfon), the “Erztney doctor”; but all the exiles 
soon returned, with others, to Vienua (Wolf, “Stu- 
dien,” pp. 178 et seq.). 

The condition of the Jews improved under Emn- 
peror Ferdinand II. He renewed Emperor Mat- 
thias’ decree that they could be driven from the 
cities only with the consent of the ruling emperor; 
he protected them against force and oppression, and 
expressly maintained their rights, so that the de- 

cree of general expulsion dated Jan. 
Under Fer- 7, 1623, was not carried out (Wolf, 
dinand II. “Die Juden Unter Ferdinand II.” in 

“Jahrbuch fiir Gesch. der Juden,” i. 
218 et seg.). Those Jews whom the people of Vienna 
desired to expel in 1623 were assigned to the district 
of the Lower Worth as a permanent place of resi- 
dence, with protection “forever.” A wall enclosed 
this new Jews’ town, and here the wealthy ones 
among them acquired houses and gardens; they had 
their own shops, and soon a beautiful synagogue 
was built. They paid 600 florins a year in taxes to 
the city, and, apart from several imposts, 10,000 
florins a year into the imperial treasury. After the 
death of Ferdinand IT. (1687), to whose widow, the 
empress Eleonora, the Jews of Vienna were required 
to pay 2,500 gulden a year, the burghers addressed 
a petition to his successor, Ferdinand III., asking 
him “to drive out all of the Jews, no one excepted, 
three miles beyond this city, if not from the whole 
country” (Wolf, “Gesch. der Juden in Wien,” 
pp. 261 et seg.). The emperor would not grant 
this request, but satisfied the burghers by depriv- 
ing the Jews of the right to trade in the inner 
city, where the citizens had their shops. Free 
entrance into the city was henceforth denied the 
Jews. Trembling for their existence, the Jews of 
Vienna offered to assume a state debt of 8,000 gul- 
den and to present the emperor with 15,000 gul- 
den, and promised to trouble him no longer with 
their disputes. 

In Vienna, where, in 1620, about fifty families 
were living—among them several court Jews—the 
community had two synagogues and a cemetery. 
Its first rabbi, mentioned in 1600, was Abraham 
Flesch, who was followed by Isaac Hayyim of 
Opatow (Sept., 1623); Veit Munk; Yom-Tob 
Lippmann Heller, of Nikolsburg; the physician 
Leo Lucerna, or Judah Léb Ma‘or Katon (d. 
1635; built a synagogue at his own expense); and 
Hayyim Menahem Mann. The Vienna rab- 
binate, which supported higher Talmudic schools 
and philanthropic institutions, had among its more 
distinguished incumbents R. Phébus, who emi- 
grated to Palestine in 1655; he was succeeded by 
Shabbethai Sheftel Hurwitz. About this time 
Zacharias Levi, brother of Nathan Feitel (d. 
1643), learned in rabbinical lore, built a third syna- 
gogue, in connection with a richly endowed Tal- 


Vienna 


mudie school, and Vienna became a center of Jewish 
Jearning and cabalistic speculation. The last rabbi 
of Vienna and of Lower Austria was Gershon Ash- 
kenazi, whose colleagues were Mordecai Lob 
Oettingen (the friend of the Christian divine Wa- 
genseil) and the preachers Uri Lipmann Hirz 
Koma and Enoch Frankel. 

The Jewish community of Vienna in 1660 num- 
bered about 500 families, and in spite of the many 
taxes, assessments, and war duties was in a flourish- 
ing condition. But troublous times were in store for 
it. The hatred of the burghers increased with their 
intolerance, leading to difficulties in which the gov- 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


430 


againstthem. The riots turned into wholesale loot- 
ing expeditions, and the students and the mob at- 
tempted to fire the ghetto. The mili- 
tary guard had to be called out; but 
it was only on the third day of the riot 
that the emperor gave orders that no 
non-Jew was to set footin the Jewry. In further evi- 
dence of the desirability of banishing the Jews, they 
were accused of being in secret communication with 
the Swedes. It was finally decided, July 26, 1669, 
to expel a number of Jews from Vienna and Lower 
Austria; 1,346 persons were affected by this decree 
of banishment. In their dire need the Jews of Vi- 


Riot 
of 1668. 


EXTERIOR OF THE LEOPOLDSTRASSE SYNAGOGUE, VIENNA. 
(From a photograph.) 


ernment had to interfere. When in May, 1665, the 
body of a woman was found in a pool in the Jewry, 
the Jews were accused of having murdered her, and 
their lives were in jeopardy. Unfortunately for 
them, Emperor Leopold, who was entirely in the 
hands of the Jesuits, married a Spanish infanta. 
When the crown prince died, in Jan., 1668, three 
months after his birth, the emperor and empress 
formed the thought of dealing with the Jews in 
Spanish fashion. <A fire happened to break out in 
the newly built royal palace in February of the 
same year, and the populace accused the Jews of 
having kindled it. In April, 1668, delegates of the 
city of Vienna appeared before the emperor, pray- 
ing him to destroy the Jews “root and branch”; 
and before the end of the month outrages began 


enna once more sent a memorial to the emperor; but 
in vain, for the commission had attributed to them 
all kinds of crimes. On Monday, March 1, 1670, a 
solemn proclamation was made in all public places 
that “for the glory of God” all Jews should, on 
penalty of imprisonment and death, leave Vienna 
and Upperand Lower Austria before Corpus Christi 
Day, never to return. Hirz Koma and the physi- 
cian of the community, Leo Winkler, in the name 
of the community made a last attempt to propitiate 
the empcror by offering him 100,000 

Expulsion florins and, in addition, 10,000 florins a 
of 1670. year. In the meantime the period 
fixed for the exodus had been prolonged 

at the intercession of influential persons. In July 
the Jews began to Jeave, and by Aug. 1 not one Jew 


oR eee e reed 


Bet ek Ws Ke 


C4 Fie eles 


INTERIOR OF THE LEOPOLDSTRASSE SYNAGOGUE, VIENNA. 


(From a photograph.) 


Vienna 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


432 


a es SSS SS SS SSS SSS SSS 


was left in Vienna. The cemetery in the Rossau 
was protected by the city in consideration of the sum 
of 4,000 florins; the houses of the Jews became the 
property of the city; the large new synagogue was 
turned into a church, renamed the Leopoldskirche, 
and solemnly consecrated on Aug. 18; aJew’s house 
was turned into the parsonage. In place of the old 
synagogue, and out of its ruins, was built a little 
church—that of St. Margaret, since demolished. 
Many of the more prominent families settled in Ber- 
lin (D. Kaufmann, “Die Letzte Vertreibung der 
Juden aus Wien und Niederésterreich,” Budapest, 
1889; G. Wolf, “ Die Juden in der Leopoldstadt im 
17. Jahrhundert in Wien,” Vienna, 1864). 

Vienna only too soon regretted the expulsion of 
the Jews. The deficit in the state tax amounted, 
according to the report of the reyal exchequer, to 
40,000 florinsa year; the “ Landstiinde ” also reported 
a loss of 20,000 florins owing to the departure of the 
Jews. The citizens of Vienna, who had undertaken 


ber of the imperial household, the second as his as- 
sistant. But the hatred of the populace against the 
Jews was as bitter as it had been before the expul- 
sion, leading to frequent riots, and, as in 1705 and 
1710, to repeated demands for their banishment. 
Gradually more families settled there: the Schlesing- 
ers; Marcus and Meyer Hirschel, who contributed 
150,000 florins to the building fund of the Church of 
St. Charles Borromeo; the Arnsteins and Eskeles; 
the Leidesdorfers; Diego d’Aguilar; and many 
others. 
In 1753 there were 700 Jews in Vienna, who paid 
a yearly toleration tax amounting to 14,000 gulden. 
The plan, proposed repeatedly, to con- 


‘Jews’ fine the Jews to a ghetto was not 
Decree,” carried out; but they were huddled 
1764. together in houses in certain streets, 


only afew court Jews being permitted 
to live among Christians, The precarious position 
of the Jews was in a way improved by the “ Jews’ 


JEWISH ORPHAN ASYLUM, VIENNA. 
(From a photograph.) 


to pay the yearly Jews’ tax of 14,000 florins, could 
hardly pay their own taxes. At a conference held 
in Wischaw, Moravia, Sept. 26, 1673, between rep- 
resentatives of the government and of the Jews it 
was agreed that 250 Jewish families might return to 
Vienna and occupy fifty business places in the inner 
‘city on payment of 300,000 florins and the former 
yearly tax of 10,000 florins. In view of the hope- 
lessly depleted treasury, the royal exchequer consid- 
ered this offer a “remarkable piece of good fortune,” 
and on Feb. 28, 1675, the agreement was ratified; 
soon thereafter several Jews returned to Vienna. 
Samson Wertheimer, who, with his partner Samuel 
OPPENHEIMER, had rendered important services to the 
state, returned to the city in 1684, the first as a mem- 


decree” of May 5, 1764, which permitted any Jew 
who could prove that he possessed a certain sum of 
ready money and “acceptable” papers, or that he 
had established a factory, etc., to live in Vienna. 
According to this decree no Jew could buy a house; 
amatried Jew had to let his beard grow, that he 
might be readily distinguished; and no synagogue 
or other place for common worship was permitted. 
The empress Maria Theresa, who in her unbounded 
hatred of the Jews could conceive of “no greater 
pest for the state than this nation,” was always con- 
sidering how to “diminish the Jews; by no means 
to increase them.” 

Emperor Joseph II. also did not wish to favor the 
Jews or increase their numbers in his dominions; 


IENNA. 


AGOGUE AT V 


SH SYN 


POLI 


) 


(From a photograph 


XII. 


Vienna 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


434 


but he was at least the first Austrian ruler to recog- 
nize the Jew as a human being. The much-praised 
Edict of Toleration, published Jan. 2, 1782, per- 
mitted the Jews to Jearn all kinds of trades (with- 
out, however, granting the right to hold a master’s 
certificate) and to lend money on real estate, though 
they were not permitted to acquire 

Under any. The tolerated Jew—that is, the 
Joseph II. one who paid protection or toleration 
money—could live with his family 

wherever he chose in Vienna. Foreign Jews could 
sell their goods at the fairs, but could remain in Vi- 
enna no longer than was necessary to finish their 


Jews and Jewesses in Vienna who were held in high 
esteem for their culture and wealth. The salons of 
Fanny von ARNSTEIN, wife of the banker Nathan 
von Arnstein, and of her sister Cecilia von Eskeles, 
wife of Bernhard von EskELEs, were at the time of 
the Congress of Vienna attended by princes and 
nobles, statesmen and high civic dignitaries, scholars 
and artists. After several unsuccessful petitions, the 
Jews of Vienna were allowed, in 1811, to fit up a 
“ Betstube” (room for prayers) in a house they had 
bought on the old Dempfingerhof; twelve years 
later a synagogue was built, due to the efforts of M. 
L. Biedermann, J. L. von Hoffmannsthal, Joseph 


“HOHE WARTE,”? THE JEWISH INSTITUTE FOR THE BLIND, VIENNA. 
(From a photograph.) 


business. All laws compelling differentiation in at- 
tire, as well as the prohibition against visiting public 
places of amusement, were repealed. Thesixty-five 
families living in Vienna in 1784 were not allowed 
to form a congregation or to havea synagogue. In 
Vienna there were established at that time a Jewish 
physician (Samuel B. Oppenheimer), a Jewish law- 
yer (A. Joel), and a Jewish dramatist (David Bene- 
dict Arnsteiner). In 1788 Emperor Joseph decreed 
that the Jews were liable to military service, except- 
ing only those of Vienna who were “ protected.” 
Under Leopold IJ. the status of the Jews re- 
mained the same. He instituted the “Collecten- 
taxe,” a toll levied upon every Jew who went to 
Vienna. Inspite of the harsh conditions under which 
they were compelled to live, there were even then 


von Wertheimstein, and others, and Isaac N. Maxn- 
HEIMER was called as preacher and teacher of relig- 
ion, and Salomon SuLzER as cantor, The Jews of 
Vienna now possessed a synagogue, a hospital which 
had been fitted up in the eighteenth century, and a 
school of religion; the teachers in the last-named 
were Mannheimer, J. L. SAauscntrz, Leopold Breu- 
er, and Gershon Wolf. 
The number of tolerated families increased from 
year to year; in 1820 there were 135 
Statistics. families, and 197 in 1847; in 1848 there 
were 4,000 Jews inthe city. The con- 
gregation of Vienna built in 1855 a second syna- 
gogue, calling Adolf JELLINEK and later Moritz 
GUDEMANN as preachers. 
The restrictions placed upon the Jews in Vienna 


PUTT hk on 
i 6s Wk, il i A 
Awe 


Fal 
i 
ee 
aK 
eg 
ade 
ae 
bee 
ie 


INTERIOR OF THE “ TURKISH TEMPLE” AT VIENNA. 
(From a photograph.) 


Vienna 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


436 


continued under Emperor Ferdinand. In 1846, the 
year in which the medieval Oatn MoRE JUDAICO was 
repealed, the representatives of the community of 
Vienna sent a petition to the emperor praying for a 
betterment of their condition; this petition was in- 
dorsed by the magistracy and the government, but 
it was not acted upon. Then came the Vienna rev- 
olution of March, 1848, during which the resolute 
Adolf FiscHuHor distinguished himself. The consti- 
tution of March 4, 1849, which recognized the equal 
rightsof all citizens, regardless of creed, was repealed 


ministered by a board of thirty-six members, elected 
by taxpayers. The expenses are defrayed by as- 
sessments and fees, The assessments are levied on 
each Jew according to his means, the lowest sum 
being 10 kronen (82), and the highest, according 
to statute, 12,000 kronen, although occasionally this 
is voluntarily exceeded by individual members of 
the community. In 1903 communal taxes to the 
amount of 1,058,809 kronen were paid by 16,735 
members. 

The total receipts of the community for 1903 


JEWISH GIRLS’ ORPHANAGE, VIENNA. 
(From a photograph.) 


Dec. 31,1851. On Jan. 18, 1860, the Jews of Lower 
Austria were permitted to acquire real estate. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Wertheimer, Die Juden tu O0cesterreich, 
2 vols., Leipsic, 1842; D. Kaufmann, Die Letzte Vertreihbung 
der Juden aus Wien und Niederodsterreich, Budapest, 1889 ; 
G. Wolf, Die Juden in Oesterreich, in Die Volker Oester- 
reich-Ungarns, vol. vii., Vienna, 1883; idem, Die Juden in 
der Leopoldstadt im 17. Jahrhundert in Wien, ib. 1864; 
idem, Judentaufen in Oesterreich, ib. 1863; idem, Gesch. 
der Juden tn Wien, ib. 1876; idem, Historische Notizen, 
in Allg. Zeit. des Jud. 1861, vol. xxiii. idem, Zur Gesch. 
der Hmanecipation der Juden in Oesterreich, in Jtidisches 
Literaturblatt, 1877, vol. vii.; idem, Zur Gesch. der Juden 
in Wien, in Jahrb. fiir Israeliten, pp. 73 et seq., Vienna, 
1860; idem, Das Hundertjdhrige Jubiliium der Israeliti- 
ae Cultusgemeinde ii Wien, pp. 182 et seq., Vienna, 

a4. 
J. M. K. 


——Present Conditions: The Jewish population 
of Vienna is organized, in accordance with the law 
of 1890, in one community, which embraces in its 
territory the municipal district of Vienna. It is ad- 


amounted to 2,248,449 kronen, and the total ex- 
penditures to 2,147,506 kronen, the latter being item- 
ized as follows: 


Kronen. 
Synagogues and ritual institutions.......... vecccecesees 419,900 
Religious instruction and schools....... Seas aialieatia cia letvn a 260,235 
HLOSDILAL; cca 8 iid cares tae wy teslinecued sa Rikties eae aoe es 301,731 
Almshouseé .........5. GRE Ale ReipR he MERRAR LARD A AGS 145,716 
Charities ..... GAvtdoa Srantacius aie eat ah eens nena ares eaten 223,431 
Cemetery and burials............0eceee Phalstweaeateed wee 092,364 
Administration and miscellaneous..... See cheba sedasies CO4129 


The records of Jewish births, marriages, and bur- 
ials in Vienna are kept by thecommunity. In 1900, 
the date of the latest census, there were 146,926 Jews 
in the city; and their increase in the course of the 
nineteenth century, as well as their numerical rela- 
tion to the total population, is shown in the follow- 
ing table: 


437 
—— - a } 
| Jewish Population. 
Year. | Total | 
7 | Population. | | 
: Percentage 
| Sumber. to 'Total. 
iam peers Fs | 
| 
TRIES cite See dies | 232,000 1,200 0.5 
TBA: ceyclnabnges os] 317,000 1,610 0.5 
LES ci Satla italy aia pate wn 476,000 15,600 | 3,30 
LE aera bated as se 607,520 40,300 6.60 
i, US aCe aPEN 728,660 72,590 10.00 
LO 5 Zac Wiens ras 3 1,363,548 118,495 8.80 
LR) awordine dade cecas 1,674,957 146,926 TT 


The most important growth of the Jewish popu- 
lation, according to this table, was between the years 
1880 and 1856, and bet ween 1880 and 1890, the former 
being explained by the repeal, in 1848, of the law 
restricting Jewish residence in the city, and the lat- 
ter by the annexation of suburban communities to 
the city. While the first of these extraordinary in- 
creases in number marks an actual rise in percentage, 
the second is a decrease in this respect, since the 
proportion of Jews in the nine incorporated suburbs 
was far lower than in the ten old districts. 

The following table gives the annual number of 
births, marriages, and deaths among the Jews in 
comparison with those among the total population 
of Vienna according to the average of recent years: 


a 


| Total Population. een Population. 


a 


Pas Per- fahher| See 

| Number. sentave: | Number. centare. 
BITC vovews x cacaiee's 5d, 000 3.45 | 3,800 2.36 
Marriages. sc wae wiin 16,000 1.00 | 850 0.60 
DIG@AIHG a caiasesarns ope 33,000 2.06 | 1,900 1.36 


It is clear from this table that the increase in the 
Jewish population is relatively less than amovg the 
other inhabitants, although a hopeful feature is the 
small proportion of deaths, which may be due to 
a, more rational mode of life among the Jews. A 
proof of their unfavorable political situation in 
Austria is afforded by the large number of conver- 
sions to Christianity, which amounted to 559 in 
1900, and 617 in 1904. The community provides 
for daily public worship in five synagogues erected 
and maintained byit. In addition to 
these synagogues, Vienna contains a 
large number of synagogal associations, 
which have their own places of worship 
and are subventioned in great part by the commu- 
nity. On the high festivals temporary synagogues 
are opened to meet the extra demands, The perma- 
nent synagogues of Vienna provide accommodations 
for about 7,000 men and 5,600 women. 

The liturgy used in the synagogues of the com- 
munity, andin the majority of those associations men- 
tioned above, is that introduced by I. N. MAnNuE!I- 
MER and Salomon SuLzeR; but in the Grosse Schiff- 
gasse (‘Adat Yisrael) synagogue, and in almost 
all the smaller ones, the old ritual is followed, and 
in the place of worship of the Turkish Jews (in the 
second district, Zirkusgasse), who form a community 
of their own, the Sephardic ritualis adhered to. The 
shehitah and the sale of kasher meat are under the 
supervision of the rabbinate of the community of 
Vienna, and in some stalls the sales are made under 


Syna- 
gogues. 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Vienna 


the special control of the Orthodox community 
‘Adat Yisrael. There is also a mikweh. 

Religious instruction forms a part of the curric- 
ulum of the public schools of the lower and inter- 
mediate grades; the community provides for it 
entirely in the primary schools, while in the gym- 
nasiums and real-schools, where the teachers are 
appointed and salaried by the state, it is supervised 
by inspectors commissioned by the community, In 
the primary schools the expenses of this instruction 
are borne by the community, with the aid of a fund 
contributed by the state in accordance with the law, 
although this covers only a small part of the actual 
disbursements; but in the secondary schools the en- 
tire expense of religious instruction falls on the 
state. Two hours weekly are allotted to this in- 
struction in the curriculum, but the community 
maintains or subventions Hebrew schools for those 
who desire to acquire a more thorough knowledge 
of Bible and Talmud, while the large and valuable 
library of the Jewish cominunity affords a wealth of 
material for students. The publicschools of Vienna 
are non-sectarian, but the ruling majority have en- 
deavored, partly with success, to enforce a sectarian 
division by evading the existing laws. 

The chief institutions of Jewish learning in Vi- 
enua are as follows: (1) the [srarLiriscu-THEo- 
LOGISCHE LEHRANSTALT, founded in 1898 by the 
society for the establishment and maintenance of a 

Jewish theological institute in Vienna ; 


Educa- (2) the Talmud Torah, founded in 
tional 1854, with an average attendance of 
Insti- 240; (3) the gencral Austro-Jewish in- 
tutions. stitute for deaf-mutes, founded in 1853, 


with an average of 92 pupils and an 
annual expenditure of about 108,000 kronen; (4) the 
Jewish institute for the blind, founded in 1870, with 
an average of 60 pupils, and an annual expenditure 
of about 75,000 kronen; and (5) the Jewish kinder- 
garten, founded in 1848, with an average of 380 
children, and an annual expenditure of about 15,000 
kronen. In 1900a Jewish atheneum was established, 
in which evening lectures on various subjects are 
given to large Jewish audiences, composed especially 
of the poorer classes. Vienna is also the home office 
of the Baron de Hirsch fund for the promotion of 
popular education in Galicia and Bukowina and 
the seat of the Zionist Actions Comité. 

The number of Jewish pupils in the various 
classes of schoolsas compared with the total number 
is given in the following table (p. 438), whose 
figures are cited partly according to the averages 
of recent years, and partly on the hasis of the statis- 
tics of the school-year 1901-2. These figures are 
especially noteworthy when the percentage of Jew- 
ish inhabitants to the total population (8.8) is borne 
in mind. 

Vienna’s situation in the vicinity of Russia and 
Rumania, the great centers of Jewish emigration, 
has resulted in large accretions of impoverished for- 
eign Jews; and the increased destitution of the na- 
tive Israclites, due to anti-Semitic agitation, ren- 
ders it readily intelligible that, despite the liberality 
of their more wealthy coreligionists and despite the 
existence of numerous societies and foundations, 
poverty is prevalent among the Viennese Jews. This 


Vienna ~ 
Vinegar THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 
Total Jewish Students. 
Class of School. } mae = 
: er- 
| Students. | Number. centage. 
| Oe toe Poe 

UOIVCTSIOV onge tase aes ' 6,500 1,560 {| 24.74 
Technical high schools.......... 2,040 BYE 27.94 
GFYMNASIA.. cep c eee teens siete 3,900 1,800 | 30.50 
Real-schools ......... 00. eee ee ee | 8,200 1,200 23.07 
Girls’ high schools ............. | 30 380 | 46.34 
Industrial schoois........... weep 24,000 1,100 4.58 
Commerctal high schools....... 33 c | 32.07 
Commercial colleges ..... eee 680 240) 41.17 
Other commercial institutes. ; 8,300 1,800 21.68 
Publie schools.........c.c cece ee 180,000 | 16,000 | 8.3: 
Schools for deaf-mutes......... 395 97 24.53 
Schools for the blind ........... liv oo 28.20 
Schools for the feeble-minded .. 160 39 437 
Schools for neglected children.. 53 
Kindergartens ........... Ded niee 6,300 3,000 | 15.87 


is intensified by an unfortunate division of forces 
among individual associations. 


438 


throne; the cost of its maintenance is about 145,000 
kronen annually, 

The following are devoted exclusively to the care 
of the poor: the asylum fcr orphan girls (60 inmates; 
annual expenditure about 40,000 kronen); the Lea 
Merores asylum for orphan girls (50 inmates; opened 
in 1904); the Baron Springer asylum for orphan boys 
(founded 1890; 50 inmates); the employment bureau 
for girls (accommodations for 189) and the employ- 
ment bureau for boys (accommodations for 86), both 
institutions maintained by the Theresien Kreuzer 
Verein; the employment bureau for female appren- 
tices (accommodations for 80), maintained by the 
Leopoldstadt Ladies’ Club ; the home for male appren- 
tices, maintained by the Society for the Promotion 
of Handicrafts Among the Native Jews. Various 
forms of charitable work are also carried on by a 
large number of Jewish societies, of which the most 
important are given in the table on page 489, 


PART OF OLD CEMETERY AT VIENNA. 
(From a photograph.) 


The community maintains a number of charities. 
A hospital was founded by the Vienna branch of 
the house of Rothsehild, with 170 beds 


Benevolent and an annual expenditure of about 
Insti- 300,000 kronen; it has recently been 
tutions. endowed by Baron Nathaniel Roths- 


child with 2,000,000 kronen to render 
all its spaceavailable. A home for the aged and in- 
firm, with 248 beds. was founded in honor of the fifti- 
eth anniversary of the emperor’s accession to the 


Vienna is the seat of the following socicties, 
which deserve mention here, although their sphere 
of activity is not restricted to this city, or else is 
not confined to philanthropic objects: the IsRaE- 
LITISCHE ALLIANZ (founded 1872); the OErsTER- 
REICHISCH-ISRAELITISCHE UNION (founded 1885); the 
Allgemeine Oesterreichisch-Israelitische Bund; the 
Association for the Aid of the Needy Jewish Popu- 
jJation of Galicia; and the Baroness Hirsch Founda- 
tion for the Assistance of Boys and Girls in Austria. 


439 


iS ) xi aT » 
N a Date of | AI proxi 
Name of Organization. Foun- Expenditures 


: dation. in Kronen. 


STOUR Kaisha iiss cate's'a. s.cahe at aa. e dys 


1764 80,000 
Women’s Benevolent Society (tlrst dis- 
LICUS tho neu-koeak kcesuve: ee Oete sie eten 1516 40,000 
Women’s Benevolent Society (second | 
CIR PICO) caraa osc sien abe SDs tas SEPA eb S ee 24,000 
SOCIGLY TOP TNE POOT.. 6 .60biia es severe Ve aans | 1821 140,000 
Society for the Promotion of Handicrafts; 1841 5d, 000 
Orpbans’ Ald SOCRLy 65.0 sacs eae awsas beiee 1860 64,000 
Students’? Aid Sociely ........c.cseecenen ( 18) 12,000 
Girls” Ald SOClety sos cies tccnteds avawaves 1866 22,000 
Society for the Aid of Consumptives,....| ‘1871 14,200 
Society for the Establishment of Public 
PIECE NG ica. 52 eet F4-Oa ea eas 187: 65,000 
HYCRTISATY (SUGIEES sacs des wih a Pagers e4 1891 | 44,000 
( 20), 000) 
| 7 +e Fa 
Baroness Hirsch Benevolent Foundation. 1898 5 tae 
| | Cin donations) 
Free Employment Bureau............005] 7,000 


1899 | 27,000 


An important factor in the care of the Jewish poor 
in Viennais formed by the foundations, controled, 
for the most part, by the community. The total 
capital of this class of fundsamounts in round num- 
bers to 8,500,000 kronen, although these figures in- 
clude a number of foundations which are not benev- 
olent, such as bequests for the care of graves and 
for memorial services. 

The community provides for the maintenance of 
a cemetery, as well as for the preservation of the 
older cemeteries. In the Zentralfriedhof (communal 
cemetery) a portion is reserved especially for the 
Jews. Every Jew receives a separate grave, 
whether it is paid for or not, although nearly 70 per 
cent of all burials in Vienna are free. Two old 
cemeteries, now disused, exist in Vienna, one in the 
Seegasse, closed about 1783, and the Wahringer 
graveyard, closed in 1879, 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hickmann, Wien im Neunzehnten Jahr- 

hundert; the statistical annuals of the cityof Vienna, and the 

reports of the community and of individual societies. 


D. T. I. 


VIENNE: ‘Town in the ancient province of 
Dauphine, Frauce. Jews dwelt there as early as the 
tenth century (Gross, “Gallia Judaica,” p. 191). 
They lived in a special quarter, still (1905) called 
“the Jewry,” and in the thirteenth century had a 
beautiful synagogue (Carmoly, “Itinéraires,” p. 187). 

The following were the most noted scholars of 
Vienne: the tosafist Tobiah ben Elijah, author of 
a commentary on the Pentateuch and of liturgical 
poems (Zunz, *Z. G.” pp. 56, 97; tdem,“ Literatur- 
geschichte,” p. 303); Abraham ben Ephraim, a pupil 
of Tobiah and author of a work on casuistics; Yakar 
of Vienne, called also “Yakar ben Moses” of Bur- 
gundy (Vienne was for a time the capital of Bur- 
gundy), who composed posekim (legal decisions), 
fragments of which are still extant (Gross, tc. p. 
198). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY : Gross, Gallia Judaica, pp. 191-194. 

G. _«K, 

‘VILLEFRANCHE or (VILLAFRANCA): 
Town in the mountain district of the department of 
Rousillon, France;. belonged formerly to Aragon. 
It was founded in 1095, and had a Jewish popula- 
tion as carly as the middle of the thirteenth century, 
among the first settlers being Jews from Pro- 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Vienna 
Vinegar 


vence. In 1274 the small community was granted 
permission to lay out a cemetery; and in 1828 it was 
allowed to rebuild its synagogue, which had been 
destroyed about seven years previously. The edifice 
was presented in 1392 to the settlement of Monte de 
Pacht. 

Villefranche, now called Villefranche de Conflu- 
ent, was the birthplace of LEvi BEN ABRAHAM. It 
should not be confounded with Villafranca de 
Panadés in Catalonia, nor with Villafranca in 
Navarre, both of which towns had Jewish commu- 
nities, the latter until 1498. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Yanguas, Antiguédades de Naranra, iii. 258 ; 
Gross, Gallia Judaica, p. 199; RR. H. J. xvi. 184; Rios, Hist. 
ii. 14, 163; Jacobs, Sources, Nos. 147, 541, 900, 1710. 

J. M. K. 


VINE. Sce GRAPE. 


VINEGAR: In the Biblical period vinegar was 
prepared either from wine or from cider, the former 
variety being termed “homez yayin,” and the latter 
“homez shekar.” It was used to moisten the flat 
loaves of the harvesters, and was also drunk when 
mixed with water, although thirst could not be 
quenched with it alone. 

Since Jewish wine was not allowed to ferment, 
being intended for the altar, and therefore being 
necessarily clean Levitically, vinegar, which in Tal- 
mudie times was called also “the son of wine,” was 
obtained from the lees or by the addition of barley 
to the wine or cider. The alteration usually re- 
quired only three days, and the sme] changed before 
the taste, although some wines were particularly 
liable to chauge. Though vinegar could become 
wine only by a miracle, the price of the former 
equaled that of the latter, and a fall in the value of 
the one depressed the rate for the other. 

The chief varieties of vinegar were wine-vinegar 
and cider-vinegar, vinegar of late grapes, vinegar 
changed by barley, and soured vinegar. Pickles 
and meat were preserved in vinegar, and lettuce 
was dipped into it, while “ The bitterer the salad of 
endives, the stronger must be the vinegar” was a 
Palestinian proverb. Vinegar was used with asafet- 
ida, the favorite condiment of antiquity and of the 
Middle Ages. 

The effect of vincgar was astringent, but it was 
also used frequently because of its soothing and 
cooling effects. Medicinally, it might be employed 
for dandruff, and even for dressing wounds, while 
it was used as a gargle for toothache. Olives were 
sprinkled with vinegar to free them from their pits; 
it was used also in dyeing, and in adulterating oil. 
In view of the liability of wine to change, barrels 


' containing 10 per cent of vinegar were deemed fit 


for purchase, but the dealer was responsible for a 
limited period only, except in the case of wine for 
the Temple, for which he was liable until the wine 
was used. The Halakah considered the question 
whether wine and vinegar were to be considered as 
one, and forbade the use of the vinegar of Gentiles, 
since it was prepared from forbidden wine. The 
question was raised whether wine which had turned 
to vinegar became subject to the prohibition when 
touched by a Gentile. On account of its calming 
effect vinegar was forbidden on the Day of Atone- 


Vineyards 
Virtue 


ment; and the prohibition of vinegar in the case of 
Nazarites was fully discussed in the Halakah. 

The passage in which Ruth was bidden to dip her 
bread into vinegar (Ruth ii. 14) was interpreted by 
the Haggadah as referring to Manasseh, one of her 
descendants, whose deeds were sharp as vinegar. 
Among the proverbs concerning vinegar, in addition 
to Prov. x. 26 and xxv. 20, were the folowing: 
“Maycest thou have neither vinegar nor salt in 
thy house!” and “Much vinegar makes the wine 
cheap.” 

E.G. 1. I. Lo. 


VINEYARDS. Sce GRAPE. 


VINNITSA (VINITZA): Russian town in the 
government of Podolia; situated on the banks of the 
Bug. Vinnitsa was founded in the fourteenth cen- 
tury on the left bank of the Bug, and was protected 
by twocastles. The town suffered much in the six- 
teenth and seventeenth centuries from the depreda- 
tions of the Tatars and the Cossacks. Jews lived 
probably in Vinnitsa in the fifteenth century, but 
1532 is the date of the first documentary mention of 
them. In that year the local Jews carried on exten- 
sive business operations as cattle-drovers, and one 
of them, Michael of Vinnitsa, paid customs duties on 
a single drove of 2,000 head of sheep and cattle. 
Reference is also mude to a Jew (name not given) 
who in 1552 held the lease of the Iocal customs 
duties. In 1616 there were only fifty Jews in Vin- 
nitsa who paid taxes on their houses. During the 
Cossacks’ UPRISING the town was taken and _ pil- 
laged by Chmiclnicki’s followers and its Jewish tn- 
habitants were massacred, It wasretaken by the Po- 
lish troops, and then fell again under the power of the 
Cossacks and Tatars, changing hands several times. 
Tt suffered severely from the HamaMaAcks in the 
eighteenth century. The protecting castles had by 
that time disappeared, and the inhabitants, both 
Catholics and Jews, sought refuge in the Jesuit col- 
lege founded by Ladislaus in 1649. In 1774 Vin- 
nitsa was temporarily occupied by the Turks, and 
toward the end of the eighteenth century was al- 
most entirely ruined. 

Vinnitsa had 23,591 inhabitants in 1878, of whom 
18,750 were Jews. The town was then an indus- 
trial center of some significance, possessing sixteen 
factories and other industrial establishments. Nine 
fairs were held there annually, though with but a 
limited volume of trade. The Jewish community 
possessed thirteen synagogues and houses of prayer, 
a Jewish two-class school, and a Jewish hospital. 
Most of the important distilleries (an ancient indus- 
try, to which the town owes its name) were owned 
by Jews. By 1879 the population of Vinnitsa had 
grown to 28,995, including more than 15,000 Jews. 
The town had in that year twenty-nine industrial 
establishinents, and the Jewish community had added 
a Talmud Torah to its other conimunal institutions. 

On April 3 (Old Style 16), 1905, the Jewish stores 
in the market-place in Vinnitsa were demolished by a 
drunken mob composed partly of reservists; several 
Jews caught on the streets were severely beaten. 
The conflict attracted the attention of a number of 
Jews organized for self-defense, who successfully 
repelled the assailants. Five soldiers and five Jews 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


440 


were injured. Order was restored by the police and 


the military. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY : Butziklopedicheskt Slovar; Bolshaya Ent- 
ziklopedia: Russho-Veureiski Arkhiv; Regesty i Nad- 
pist; Voskhod, 1905, No. 16, p. 28. 

UW. R. J. G. LL. 

VIOL (55), lit. “skin”): Musical instrument; 
next to the “kinnor,” it was the one most used by 
the Israelites. The Old Testament furnishes no de- 
scription of it, and resort must therefore be had to 
conjectures regarding it. The viol is commonly 
identified with the santir (corresponding to the 
“ pesanter” [== peArypiov] of Dan. iii. 5), an instru- 
ment which is inuseamong the Arabs at the present 
time. The santir consists of alow, oblong box witha 
flat bottom and a somewhat convex sounding-board, 
over which the strings are stretched. The player 
sits on the ground, or on a low stool, and holds the 
viol in his lap. 

A similar instrument is represented in a picture 
found in the palace of Kuyunjik, which shows a band 
of musicians, both men and women, who are fol- 
lowed by other women singing or beating time with 
their hands as they go to greet the returning con- 
queror, Assurbanipal. One of these musicians, with 
a plectrum in his right hand, plays an instrument 
consisting of a hollow box with strings stretched 
over it. Whether the left hand likewise plucks the 
strings (as is most probable), or presses them down 
to gain the desired pitch, is not clear. The name 
“nebel” would be very appropriate for such an in- 
strument, with reference either to the convex shape 
of the sounding-board, or to the fact that the sound- 
ing-board consisted of animal membrane, The term 
“ni ba-nebel” in Amos vi. 5 would suggest the 
opening in the sounding-board across which the 
strings are stretched. Richm, however, prefers to 
associate thisterm with the portable, many-stringed 
harp which is represented, on the picture at Kuyun- 
jik, as having its sounding-box placed on the broad, 
upward-slanting upper portion of the frame. Yet 
Riehm himself points out that the shape of the 
Jewish nebel must have been somewhat different; 
for under any other hypothesis the name of this In- 
strument becomes inexplicable. Flow many strings 
(“minnim”) the instrument generally had is un- 
known, The “nebcl ‘asor” mentioned in Ps. xxXxiil, 
2 was probably different from the ordinary nebel; 
otherwise the additional word “‘asor” is superflu- 
ous. The instrument of later times is known to 
have had twelve strings (comp, Josephus, “ Ant.” 
vii. 12, § 8). 

Ee G..H, 

VIPER. See SERPENT. 


VIRGINIA: One of the Middle Atlantic states 
and one of the thirteen original states of the United 
States of America; seceded from the Union April 17, 
1861; readmitted 1870. As carly as 1624 the names 
of Elias Lagardo, Joseph Moise, aud Rebecca Isaacke 
are found in the “Musters of the Inhabitants of 
Virginia.” In 1658 one Seignor Moses Nehemiah is 
mentioned as a party to a lawsuit (“ Publ. Am. Jew. 
Hist. Soc.,” xi. 70). It is probable that a number 
of Jews from Maryland removed to Richmond at an 
early date. 


W. ON. 


441 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Vineyards 
Virtue 


Nothing further is heard of Virginia Jews till 
1754, when Michael Franks and Jacob Myer ac- 
companied Washington in his expedition across the 
Alleghany Mountains, and received a reward for 
their gallant services in the campaign. In the list 
of Virginians who served in the Revolutionary army 
in the capacity of officers occurs the name of Isaac 
Israel, a lieutenantin the Eighth Virginia Regiment. 
The Congregation Beth-Shalom of Richmond, the 
oldest congregation in the state, was in existence 
prior to 1790, in which year it joined with the con- 
gsregations of Philadelphia, New York, and Charles- 
ton in addressing a letter to President Washington. 
See RIcHMOND. 

Virginia has the following Jewish communities: 
Alexandria (Congregation Beth-El, founded June 
3, 1878; a Hebrew Benevolent Society and a ceme- 
tery), Berkley (a congregation and a religious 
school).' Charlottesville (Congregation Beth Israel, 
Moses Leterman being prayer-leader; and a ceme- 
tery). Clifton Forge (a congregation holding holy- 
day services), Danville (Congregation Beth Sho- 
lom). Hast Radford (congregation). Fredericks- 
burg (Hebrew Aid Society, founded about 1880; 
has twelve members). Hampton (congregation), 
Harrisonburg (congregation), Lynchburg (con- 
gregation). Newport News (congregations Adath 
Yeshurun and Hachnosath Orchim; and a Jewish 
Sunday-school). Norfolk (with a large Jewish 
community, supporting three congregations, a bur- 
ial association, several charitable organizations, and 
a number of social and literary clubs). Petersburg 
(two congregations: the Orthodox congregation and 
the Rodeph Shalem, the Jatter founded in 1865). 
Pocahontas (has no organized congregation, but 
the community holds special services on Saturdays 
and holy days). Radford (community holding holy- 
day services), Richmond (see JEw. Encyc. x. 
406). Roanoke (Congregation Emanu-El, founded 
1890; andacemetery). Staunton (a congregation 
and a benevolent society). 

Virginia contributed 118 Jewish soldiers to the 
Civil war, and about thirty to the Spanish-Ameri- 
can war. At present (1905) the number of its Jew- 
ish inhabitants is estimated at 15,000 in a total pop- 
ulation of 1,655,980. 

A. A. M. Ho. 

VIRTUE, ORIGINAL (Hebr. Zekut Abot, 
literally “merit of the Fathers”): A term invented 
by 8. Levy as a contrast to the expression “ original 
sin,” and designating the specifically Jewish concept 
of the influence of the virtue of ancestors upon 
descendants. The doctrine asserts that God visits 
the virtues of the fathers upon the children for 
His name’s sake and as a mark of grace; but it 
would appear, on the other hand, that the principle 
applies only when the children continue the piety 
of their parents. The Biblical basis for the doctrine 
is to be found in the second commandment (Ex. xx. 
5), which states that God shows mercy unto thou- 
sands of generations that love Him and keep His 
commandments, and in Ps. citi. 17-18, “the merey 
of the Lord is from everlasting to everlasting upon 
them that fear him, and his righteousness unto chii- 
dren’s children; to such as keep his covenant, and 
to those that remember his commandments to do 


them.” Thus Isaac was promised a blessing be- 
cause Abraham had kept God’s commandments 
(Gen. xxvi. 2-5); and the doctrine is also formulated 
in the first benediction of the “Shemoneh ‘Esreh,” 
which is technically known as the blessing of “ Abot,” 
or “the Fathers.” The concept is intimately con- 
nected with the idea of the covenant with the 
PATRIARCHS, to which an appeal is made in Ex. 
xxxii. 18; Lev. xxvi. 42, 44, 45; and Deut. vii. 12, 
while an allusion to it is contained in the phrase 
“his great name’s sake” (I Sam. xii. 22; comp. 
Ezek. xxxvi. 21, 28), which recalls the covenant. 
It thus forms part of the concept of the CuosEN 
PEOPLE, 

If the covenant is still kept with descendants, 
though they be unworthy, this isthe result of God’s 
grace (“hesed ”); and it is possible that the original 
form of the expression was “ hesed Abot” (= “ grace 
of the Fathers.” The Targum, however, uses 

“zekut” to translate the biblical He- 
Result of brew “zedakah” (comp. Gen. xv. 6; 
Grace. Deut. ix. 5, 6). The injunction of 
the second commandment is ex plained 
by the Targum and the Talmud (Sanh. 27b) on the 
principle that the sins of the fathers are visited upon 
the children only when they imitate the deeds of 
their parents (see Rashi and Ibn Ezra aé@ loe.). This 
doctrine underlies the Jewish conception of life, 
drawing its inspiration from an idealized past (comp. 
“Look unto Abraham your father, and unto Sarah 
that bare you,” Isa. li. 2), and laying stress upon 
tradition and upon the ritnal ceremonies intended 
to keep tradition alive. It is closely associated, 
moreover, with the idea of an organic or dynamic 
solidarity in Israel as a body existent through past, 
present, and future; and the principle that “all Jews 
are responsible one for another” is specifically con- 
nected in the Talmud with the idea of original vir- 
tue (Sanh. 27b; Shab. 39a; R. H. iii.). 

The doctrine under consideration is limited by the 

concept of the reward of virtue, which, according 
to Jewish teaching, is the opportu- 

Virtues to nity of performing further virtuous 
the acts. “The wages of virtue is virtue ” 
Virtuous. (Ab. iv. 2), and “when the righteous 
do the will of God, they acquire 

strength and power to perform further acts of 
righteousness” (Yalk., Lam. 44). Special warning 
is given against depending upon original virtue, so 
that even one who is exceedingly righteous should 
not eat from (that is, depend upon) the merit of his 
fathers (Sanh. 81a). The passage Cant. i. 5: “I 
am black, but comely” is interpreted as meaning: 
Israel says: “Iam black through my own works, 
but comely through the works of my fathers” 
(Cant. R. ad loe.; Ex. R. xxiil.), while “as a vine is 
supported by a prop, though made of dead wood, 
so Israel is supported by the merit of the Fathers, 
though it already sleeps in death.” Original vir- 
tue is thus only an accessory. It would appear 
that the virtues of the fathers were believed to 
have acquired a right to a greater reward than 
could be given to them, and that this residue 
was therefore due to the children. Those who 
looked forward to an immediate reward were ac- 
cordingly reproved, for if the Patriarchs had done 


Visigoths 
Vital 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


442 


i a aS 


so there would have been no store of original virtue 
for their descendants (Lev. R. xxxvi.; Ex. R. xliv.). 
See PATRIARCHS. 

Like the Patriarchs, the later saints were regarded 
as a source of original virtue for their descendants 
or for Israel, and in addition to Moses, Joshua, 
David, Hezekiah, and Ezra, Hillel, Johanan b. Zak- 
kai, and Meir are especially mentioned as storing up 
works which shall speak for their descendants (Lev. 
R. ii). On the other hand, the original virtue of 
the Patriarchs was regarded by some as lasting only 
till the time of Hosea (Shab. 55a) or until the days 
of Hezekiah (Lev. R. xxxvi.), though it-was still op- 
erative in keeping exiled Israel in existence up to the 
time of redemption (Gen. R. 1xx.); and in the Tar- 
gum Yerushalmi to Deut. xxviii. 15 God assures 
“the Fathers of the world” that their merit will 
never cease to be efficacious. 

he doctrine of original virtue is only the theo- 
logical side of the principle of heredity, with the 
consequences and responsibilities which this in- 
volves. Thecommunity of interest between parents 
and children is emphasized in aspecial Jewish man- 
ner which at times leads to the diametrically opposite 
coucept of the influence of descendants upon ances- 
tors; so that the penalty of death is said to have been 
inflicted upon Adam because of the sins of Nebu- 
chadnezzar and Hiram (Gen. R.ix.). The exten- 
sion of the concept of God’s grace even to un- 
righteous children of righteous parents is, moreover, 
an attribution to the Supreme Being of the ordinary 
attitude of men toward the degenerate children of 
distinguished or pious parents. The influence of 
a store of merit collected for the use of succeeding 
geperatious is the theological aspect of the concept 
of progress and civilization, which is practically a 
store of ancestral merits. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: &. Levy, The Doctrine of Original Virtue, 

in The Jewish Literary Annual, pp. 12-32, London, 1905; 

Weber, Jiidische Theologie, 2d ed., pp. 292-297; Lazarus, 


Ethtes of Judaism, i. 34, ii. 289; I. Abrabams, in J. Q. BR. 
Xvi. 586. - J 


VISIGOTHS. See SPAIN. 


VISONTAI, SOMA: Hungarian lawyer and 
deputy; born at Gyéngyés Nov. 9, 1854; educated 
at Budapest, where he became an attorney in 1882. 
While stiil a student he attracted much attention 
by his papers on political economy in the scientific 
journals of Hungary, and he also edited the “ Vastit.” 
He became widcly known as a pleader in 1890, 
when he successfully defended the editor of the 
“ Zasztava,” the leader of the radical wing of the 
Servians in Hungary, ina trial for political murder. 
As amark of gratitude, the people of Neusatz, being 
Servian sympathizers, elected Visontai in 1892 to the 
Hungarian Parliament as a supporter of Kossuth; 
and since 1899 he has represented his native town, 
Gyéngyd6s, in Parliament. He is an eminent author- 
ity on criminal law and a member of the board of 
examiners for admission to the bar; and he prepared 
a large portion of the preliminary drafts for the 
criminal code. 


8. L. V. 


pip rloces PHY: Pallas Lex.; Sturm, Osraggytilést Almanach, 


VITA. See Haryrm. 


VITA DELLA VOLTA (SOLOMON HAY- 
YIM): Italian physician and Hebraist; born Sept. 
24,1772; dicd March 29, 1858; flourished in Mantua. 
He was the owner of a large Hebrew library, which, 
together with its 181 manuscripts, came into the 
possession of Marco Mortara. Vita della Volta was 
a contributor to the periodical “Kerem Hemed.” A 
letter from I. S. Reggio to Della Volta appeared in 
“Ozar Nehmad ” (ili. 25-27). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 2709; Kerem 
Hemed, passim. 


S. s. O. 


VITAL: Italian family, including several scho]- 
ars, of whom the best known are: 

Hayyim Vital: Cabalist; son of Joseph Vital; 
born at Safed in 1548; dicd at Damascus May 6, 
1620. He was educated by Moses Alshech. His 
biography is full of legends; at the age of twelve, 
it is said, he was told by a chiromancer that when 
he reached the age of twenty-four years he would 
find himself standing before two roads, and would 
rise or fall according to his choice. Joseph Caro is 
said to have paid especial attention to Hayyim’s 
talents by requesting Alshech in 1557 to take great 
pains with the education of a pupil who was destined 
to succeed his teacher in the world of learning. In 
the same year Hayyim became acquainted with 
Lapidot Ashkenazi, a cabalist, who was to influ- 
ence him for the remainder of his life. The legend 
runs that after Hayyim’s unhappy marriage to 
Hannah, the daughter of a certain Moses Saadia, the 
prophet Elijah appeared to him in a dream and led 
him to a beautiful garden, where he beheld the pious 
of all ages in the form of birds flying through the 
garden and studying the Mishnah. Inthe center of 
the garden was God Himself, seated on a throne and 
surrounded by the pious on rich tapestries. 

This vision convinced the dreamer that he was 
destined to become a cabalist. After devoting him- 
self to the study of alchemy for two years and a 
half, he had another vision of the prophet Elijah, 
who told him that he would succeed in his studies 
and would even write a commentary on the Zohar. 
In 1570 he became a pupil of Isaac Luria, and before 
he had studied under him a year Hayyim had already 
become known as one of the foremost cabalists, so 
that when, in 1572, Luria died at the early age of 
thirty-eight, in an epidemic which raged in Safed, 
Hayyim became his successor. Luria had left noth- 
ing in manuscript, and his pupil accordingly began 
to commit to writing what he had learned from his 
teacher. In 1576 he commenced to give cabalistic 
lectures, declaring himself to be the Messiah ben 
Joseph; and while wandering through Syria and 
Egypt, he is said to have performed many miracles, 
such as summoning spirits before him by the power 
of magic formulas. 

In 1577 Hayyim arrived in Egypt, but evidently 
he met with a cool reception, since he soon returned 
to Palestine, where he settled, first in the little town 
of ‘Ain Zaitun, and later in Jerusalem. There he 
remained until the governor, Abu Saifia, requested 
him to rediscover, by means of the Cabala, the aque- 
duct, leading from the River Gihon, which had been 


443 


built in the daysof Hezekiah. This request so em- 
barrassed Hayyin that he fled by night to Damascus, 
where he commenced his first cabalistic work on the 
patriarch Abraham, of which extracts are contained 
in the “Ozerot Hayyim” (p. 54b). He submitted 
this work to Joshua ben Nun, the wealthy principal 
of the yeshibah at Safed. The greater part of the 
book consists of an exposition of the conjuring of 
clouds, and of a discourse on the seven fixed stars, 
the seven heavens, and their corresponding metals. 
After this Hayyim returned to Jerusalem, where his 
former teacher, Moses Alshech, appointed him rabbi 
in 1584. After a time, however, he left Jerusalem 
for Safed, where he fell sick and was obliged to 
keep his bed for an entire year. 

During this illness Joshua, his closest follower, 
who had accompanied him on nearly every journey, 
succeeded in bribing Hayyim’s younger brother, 
Moses, with 500 gold guliden to lend him the wri- 
tings of the cabalist, which were locked in a box. 
Moses accordingly brought Joshua a large part of 
the manuscripts, and 100 copyists were immediately 
engaged, who, in the short space of three days, re- 
produced more than 600 pages. Although Hayyim 
maintained, when he learned of this, that the 
papers which had been copied were not his own 
writings, they were rapidly disseminated under the 
title “‘Ez Hayyim.” This work contains, in addi- 
tion to a tribute to Isaac Luria, the bold assertion 
that it is one of the greatest pleasures of God to be- 
hold the promotion of the teaching of the Cabala, 
since this alone can assure the coming of the Mes- 
siah; that the old Cabala, however, covering the 
period from David to Nalmanides, was valueless, 
since it was based merely on human intellect, and 
was not aided by the higher spirits. Hayyim as- 
serted that he had received these teachings, like his 
other mystic theories, from the lips of his teacher 
Luria. His estimate of the value of the Cabala of 
Moses Cordovero was equally low, although he 
maintained that Moses had often appeared to him in 
dreams. One of the most prominent of Hayyim’s 
opponents was Menahem di Lonzano, who publicly 
denounced him in his “Sefer Imre Emet.” On the 
20th of Elul, 1590, Hayyim was awarded the rab- 
binical diploma by his teacher Moses Alshech, and 
four years later he settled permanently in Damas- 
cus, where he lectured every evening on the Cabala 
and on the near advent of the Messiah. Despite the 
large following which Hayyim had in Damascus, 
Jacob Abulafia succeeded, by threats of excommuni- 
cation, in compelling nim to discontinue his lectures. 
In 1604 his sight began to fail; in 1620 he had pre- 
pared to return to Safed, when his death occurred. 

Hayyim was the author of numerous works, 
which are collected under the title “Sefer ‘Ez ha- 
Hayyim” (Zolkiev, 1772; Korzec, 1785; Shklov, 
1800; Dobrowne, 1804; Sudzilkov, 1818; Laszow, 
1818). They are as follows: 


Sefer ha-Kawwanot, in two parts, the first being on the sub- 
ject.of benedictions and rituals, and the second on the ritual for 
Sabbaths and festivals. Venice, 1624; Hanau, 1624; Bragadini, 
n.d. There are five recensions of this work: (1) by Moses Vital, 
grandson of Hayyim; known especially in Egypt and Palestine; 
(2) by Zacuto, with glosses; (3) by Nathan Spira, with a com- 
mentary entitled ** Me’orot Natan’’: (4) by Abraham Azulai of 
Morocco, with glosses; (5) by M. Popper, under the title * Peri 
‘Ez Hayyim.” 


Visigoths 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Vital 


A piyyut beginning ‘‘ Dodi yarad le-ganno’’; printed in 
**Sha‘are Ziyyon.”’ Amsterdam, 1671. 

Nof ‘Ez Hayyim, novelle. Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1684; Zol- 
kiev, 1772, 1773. 

Sefer ha-Gilgulim, on the transmigration of souls. 
on-the-Main, 1684; Zolkiev, 1772. 

Sha’are Kedushshah, on the rewards and punishments of the 
future world and on holiness. Constantinople, 1734; Sulzbach, 
1758; Zolkiev, 1810. 

Likkute Torah we-Ta‘ame ha-Mizwot, cabalistic exposition of 
the Bible according to Luria’s teachings, with “ hiddushim.”’ 
Zolkiev, 1775. 

Sha‘ar ha-Yihudim we-Tikkun ‘Awonct, on the Prophets, on 
the Holy Spirit, and on repentance. Korzec, 1783. 

Sefer Ozerot Hayyim, edited by his pupil the Portuguese pby- 
sician Joseph Zemah. Korzec, 1783. (Besides the printed edi- 
tion there exist two manuscripts, one with glosses by Moses 
Zacuto [** Codex Michael,”? No. 23), and the other with glosses 
by Nathan Spiro [ib. Nos. 27, 28]). 

Likkute ha-Shas, cahalistic interpretations of Talmudic hag- 
gadot according to the teachings of Luria, with * hiddushim ” 
by the author. Leghorn, 1785. 

Arba‘ Me’ot Shekel Kesef, cabalistic treatise on the 400 shekels 
which Abraham paid for the cave of Machpelall. Korzec, 1804. 

Joseph Vital: Writer of tefillin parchments; 
born in Calabria; flourished in the fifteenth and six- 
teenth centuries. On account of his accuracy his 
work, which was expensive, was highly esteemed, 
and was known everywhere as wroadp 535 povpn. 
He was also the author of responsa on the art of 
writing tefillin, which are frequently mentioned in 
the responsa of Menahem Azariah da Fano (§ 388 
et passim). 

Moses Vital: Rabbi at Safed; younger brother 
of Hayyim Vital; diced in the middle of the seven- 
teenth century. Like Hayyim, he was a great cab- 
alist, and in addition to legends associating him with 
his brother and the prophet Elijah, a tradition is 
preserved which states that he predicted the famine 
which raged in Safed in 1682. 

Moses Vital: Son of Samuel ben Hayyim Vital; 
rabbi in Egypt during the latter part of the seven- 
teenth and at the beginning of the eighteenth century. 
Fle was a noted Talmudist and cabalist, but the only 
portion of his works which has been preserved is a 
responsum contained in Abraham ha-Levi’s collec- 
tion entitled “Ginnat Weradim.” 

Samuel ben Hayyim Vital: Cabalist; born in 
Damascusin the latter half of the sixteenth century ; 
died in Egypt in the middle of the seventeenth. 
While still young he married a daughter of Isaiah 
Pinto, rabbi of Damascus. Poverty compelled him 
to emigrate to Egypt, where, through the influence 
of prominent men, he was placed in charge of the 
cabalistic society Tikkune ha-Teshubah. After a 
brief residence there he went to Safed, where 
he instructed the physician Joseph Zemah in 
Cabala. Later hereturned to Egypt, where he died. 


Frankfort. 


Samuel Vital was the author of both cabalistic and 


rabbinical works. Among the former may be noted 

the “Shemonah She‘arim,” an introduction to the 

Cabala, later embodied in the “‘Ez Hayyim” (Zol- 

kiev, 1772; Korzec, 1785). Among his unpublished 

writings mention may be made of his “Sefer Toze’ot 

Hayyim,” a commentary on the Bible, and his “Sefer 

Ta’alumot Hokmah,” on the Cabala. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider, Cat. Badt. cols. 834-835, 2495; 
Conforte, Kore ha-Doroat, pp. 40b, 42a, 49b; Azulai, Shem 
ha-Gedolim: De Rossi, Dizionario; Kohn (Kahana), Eben 
Negef, Vienna, 1874; Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael; Benjacob, 
Ozar ha-Sefarim; First, Bibl. Jud. iii. 479-482. 3 0 
D. a eo 


Vital 
Vizhainy 


VITAL, DAVID B. SOLOMON VITAL | 


HA-ROFE: Spanish scholar; emigrated from 
Spain in the early part of the sixteenth century ; 
died at Arta, or Narda, in Greece, after 1586. He 
went first to Turkey, and then settled at Patras in 
the Morea, remaining there until the fall of the city 
in 1532, when he lost almost his entire library. He 
then went to Arta, where he spent the remainder of 
his life. 

Vital was the author of the following works: 
“Keter Torah” (Constantinople, 1536), the 618 com- 
mandments and prohibitions, and the seven regula- 
tions concerning Hanukkah, the Sabbath candle, 
Hallel, Megillah, ablutions, ‘Erubin, and benedic- 
tions, including also the “ Birkot ha-Nehenin” (the 
initial letters of the Ten Commandments are em- 
ployed in this poem, an original feature of which is 
a complete drawing of a lung to illustrate the mean- 
ing); “Hilkot Bedikah ” (1570, 1682), rules for ex- 
anlinations concerning the eating of a slaughtered 
ox, with “Shir Haruz be-Mishkal ” (1687, 1712), a po- 
etic composition on the same theme from a Maimon- 
idean point of view (published with the responsa 
of Jacob Weil, Mantua, 1740); “Mihtam le-Dawid ” 
(Venice, 1540), a versification of the thirteen articles 
of faith of Maimonides (one verse was published by 
Dukes in “ Orient, Lit.” xi. 272, note 6), printed with 
a poem entitled “Bakkashat ha-He’in,” and con- 
sisting of a thousand words beginning with 7. He 
wrote also a poem on the divisions of the year 
(Zunz, “ Ha-Palit,” Berlin, 1850-51), and a number 
of piyyutim. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Orient, Lit. vii. 198, 780; ix. 272; De Rossi- 

Hamberger, Hist. Wdrterhb.; Benjacob, Shem ha-Gedolim, 

ii. 70; idem, Ozar ha-Sefarim, pp. 138, 252, 329, 575; Zunz, Z. 


G. p. 231; idem, Literaturgesch. pp. 533 et seq. 5 oO 
Jd. ‘ A 


VITALE (COEN), BENJAMIN ALESSAN- 
DRO. Sce CoEN, BENJAMIN VITALE. 


VITEBSE: Russian city; capital of the gov- 
ernment of the same name; situated on both banks 
of the Diina. It was probably founded before the 
tenth century, and is mentioned in Russian chron- 
icles as early as 1021. Being included in the terri- 
tory known as White Russia, it became a part of 
Lithuania in 1320, and about 1485 came into the 
possession of Casimir IV. This king restored many 
of its ancient privileges in 1441, particularly those 
concerning freedom of religious worship. Vitebsk 
suffered much in the wars between Lithuania, Po- 
land, and Russia. Between 1502 and 1586 it was 
repeatedly pillaged by the different armies, and its 
commerce was greatly reduced. In 1654 after a 
siege of fourteen wecks the city was occupied by the 
Russian troops under Sheremetyev; it paid levies 
to Russian, Polish, and Swedish troops from 1700 to 
1708; and it was finally burned in 1708 at the order 
of Peter the Great. In 1772 it became a part of 
Russia, and in 1802 it was made the capital of the 
government of Vitebsk. 

Jewish traders undoubtedly came to Vitebsk in 
the fifteenth century and possibly much earlier, al- 
though it is uncertain whether a community existed 
there before the sixteenth century. Documentary 
evidence shows that the inns and taverns of the city 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


444 


were leased in 1522 to the Jew Michael Yesofovich 


of Brest. In 1551 the Jews of Vitebsk are men- 
tioned among those exempted from the 
Jewish payment of the SEREBSzCzYzNA, and 


Prosperity. reference is made to individual Jews 

of Vitebsk in 1555 and again in 1594. 
In the grant of the MaGpEsurG Law to Vitebsk by 
King Sigismund IIL. in 1597 it was expressly stated 
that, in accordance with the ancient law, Jews could 
not become permancnt residents of the town. Asin 
many other places, the burghers of Vitebsk, in order 
to get rid of their formidable commercial competi- 
tors, evidently sought the aid of laws that had be- 
come obsolete. It is not known how successful this 
measure proved in excluding the Jews from Vitebsk, 
but from documents dated a few years later it ap- 
pears that Jewish merchants continued to livein the 
city. Thus in the customs records of Vitebsk for 
1605 mention is made of Matys Germanovich and Sir 
Jacob Ilinich, both local Jews, the latter evidently 
being aman of some distinction. The samearchives 
also show that Jewish merchants from other locali- 
ties resided in Vitebsk for more or less prolonged 
periods, 

In 1627 the way wode Simeon Sangushko granted 
the Jews of the city permission to build asynagogue 
on their own land in the town or in its outskirts, 
this being in accord with royal privileges and in 
harmony with charters of former waywodes of 
Vitebsk, where the Jews had had synagogues in 
earlier times. This grant also provided for the ex- 
emption of the land and buildings of the synagogue 
from the payment of taxes. Formal entry of this 
privilege was made in the city records of Vitebsk in 
1630 at the instance of the Jewish leaseholder Judah 
Yakubovich. It is clear, therefore, that, notwith- 
standing the Magdeburg Law of 1597, Jews contin- 
ued to live in Vitebsk, and that they possessed an 
organized community there in the sixteenth and pos- 
sibly also in the preceding century. The permanent 
residence of the Jews in the city was legalized in 
1634 by an edict of Ladislaus IV., who issued it in 
response to the solicitations of Samuel and Lazar 
Moiseyevich, “the king’s servants.” It is expressly 
stated in this edict that the rights granted by it 
were only a contirmation of earlier privileges which 
permitted the Jews to buy and own land and houses 
in Vitebsk, and to have synagogues, cemeteries, and 
the like in the city. General Sheremetyev, who en- 
tered Vitebsk at the head of the Russian army 

in 1654, refers to the Jewish school 

Siege of (synagogue) in his enumeration of the 

the City. Catholicand Unitarian churches of the 

city. The hardships of the siege which 
preceded his occupation of Vitebsk bore heavily on 
its Jewish inhabitants. They took an active part in 
the defensive operations by supplying men, provi- 
sions, ammunition, building materials, money, and 
houses for the quartering of the soldiers. Asa 
punishment for their loyalty, they, together with 
the Shlyakhta, were imprisoned by Sheremetyev, 
and were later transported to Russia, where they 
suffered severely from ill treatment, many of them 
dying of hunger and cold. After a term of impris- 
onment at Novgorod the survivors were sent to dif- 
ferent towns, and finally to Kazan on the Volga, 


445 


whence they gradually found their way back to their 
native town. The property of some of those who 
died in captivity was presented to the churches of 
Vitebsk ; there is a record, accordingly, of a house 
and parcel of ground which had formerly belonged 
tothe Jew Mordecai who died in Moscow, and which 
was given by King John Casimir to a local church. 
Those who returned from Muscovite captivity com- 
plained in 1670 that much valuable personal prop- 
erty and many important documents had been left 
in the keeping of Christian citizens of Vitebsk, and 
that these had all disappeared during their absence. 
They were thus unable, in the absence of documen- 
tary evidence, to regain possession of their property. 


In 1897 Vitebsk had a Jewish population of 39,- | 


5200in a total of 65,871. The community possessed 
several synagogues, many houses of prayer, sev- 
eral schools for boys and girls, a rabbinical school, 
a Talmud Torah, and a Jewish hospital. Extensive 
trade was carried on by the Jewish merchants with 
Riga and foreign countries, the chief articles of ex- 
port being breadstuffs, flax, hemp, beet-sugar, and 
timber. The Jews werealso prominent in manufac- 
turing industries. Hundreds of Jewish tailors were 
employed in the making of clothing sold in the stores 
of a number of large Russian cities. An important 
contribution to the Jewish industries was made in 
1897, when a Jewish machinist established a small 

shop for the manufacture of plows. 

Jewish By 1905 the annual output was be- 
Industries. tween 25,000 and 35,000 plows, all 

made by about 400 Jewish mechanics 
in five factories, Vitebsk also contains fifteen Jew- 
ish machine-shops, each employing from five to 
twenty-five men, and Jewish workmen are exten- 
sively engaged in the linen-mills operated by a Bel- 
gian corporation, as well as in the manufacture of 
eyeglasses, in cabinet-making, and similar occupa- 
tions. 

In 1905 the Jews of Vitebsk informed the city 
council that their two representatives could not be 
considered by them as delegates of the Jewish pop- 
ulation, since the persons in question had not been 
elected, but had been appointed by the government. 
In the same year the Jews of the city, like those of 
many other communities, issued an appeal to the 
Russian people for more equitable legislation. 

Vitebsk is the birthplace of B. I. Sobiesensky, 
author of “Ahabat Zaddikim ” (Warsaw, 1881-82), 
and of the Talmudist David Ernurartt. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Regesty + Nadpist, i., s.v.; Bersbadski, Li- 
' tovskie Yevrei: Voskhod, t901, xi. 52: 1905, fii. 72; 1905, No. 
23, p. 16; No. 24, p. 22; Bershadski, Russko-Yevreiski Ar- 


khiv, 1.-ii., 8.v- 
WR. J. G. L. 


VITOR1IA. See BAsQguE PROVINCES. 

VITRINGA, CAMPEGIUS (the Elder): 
Dutch Christian Hebraist; born at Leeuwarden May 
16, 1669; died at Franeker March 31,1722. Hewas 
educated at the universities of Franeker and Ley- 
den, and became professor of Oriental languages at 
the former in 1681. His two chief works are his 
dissertation on the synagogue, “ De Synagoga Vetere 
Libri Tres” (Franeker, 1685; 2d ed. 1696), which 
still has value; and his “Commentary on Isaiah” 
(Leeuwarden, 1714-20), which was frequently re- 
published in the eighteenth century. The latter 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Vital 
Vizhainy 


was up to the time of Gesenius the most considerable 
contribution to the exegesis of Isaiah. There is also 
something of Jewish interest in his “Sacrarum QOb- 
servationum Libri Sex ” (Franeker, 1683-1708). 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: McClintock and Strong, Cyc. s.v. J 

VITRY, SIMHAH B. SAMUEL. See Man- 
ZOR. 

VIZHAINY (VIZHUNY, VIZAN, VI- 
ZANY): Russian town in the government of Su- 
walki. On Jan. 29, 1728, Moses Yefraimovich, an 
elder of the Grodno kahal, presented for entry in the 
municipal records of the city of Grodno the charter 
of privileges granted to the Jews of Vizhainy by 
King John II. The document was dated Cracow, 
Feb. 3, 1676, and was a confirmation of the privi- 
leges granted by King Michael at Warsaw Nov. 
14, 1670. The king states in the latter that in con- 
sideration of the privileges granted to all the Jews 
living in the grand duchy of Lithuania by Ladis- 
laus IV. at Warsaw Dec. 2, 1646, and confirmed 
by King John Casimir at the Cracow diet of Feb. 
17, 1649, and in consideration also of the petition 
of the King’s jeweler in Grodno, the Jew Isaac 
Faibishevich, acting in behalf of the Jews of Viz- 
hainy, he, King Michael, promises to retain in force 
the rights of the said Jews in the possession of their 
houses, stores, and meat-markets, acquired by them 
in the past or to be acquired by them in the future, 
this applying also to their houses of prayer, ceme- 
teries, and baths situated on land belonging to them 
and reserved for their own use, They are likewise 
accorded the right to sell liquor in their houses, to 
sell merchandise by weight or measure, and to sell 
meat in their butcher-shops to every Jewish artisan, 
provided they pay the proper tax on the cattle 
killed. Shouid the Jewish houses, stores, syna- 
gogue, meat-markets, or bath be destroyed by fire, 
the Jews retain the right to rebuild them. The 
Jewish artisans are given the right to pursue their 
avocations in accordance with the general privileges 
granted to the Jews of the grand duchy of Lithu- 
ania. 

Further, the Jews of Vizhainy are exempted from 
municipal jurisdiction, but are subject to that of 
the local court, with the right of appeal to the king’s 
tribunal. They may not be called to court on Sat- 
urdays or on other Jewish holy days; they may not 
be assessed in favor of the municipality (mir) and 
they are exempted from sentinel duty. They may 
not be made to do general work for their landlords, 
nor to supply conveyances, and shali be obliged only 
to pay the usual tax to the local court. In impor- 
tant matters they must take oath on the scroll of the 
Law, and in less important casesat the Ark, accord- 
ing to their Law. Suits concerning Jews alone are 
to be decided by their own elders according to Jew- 
ish Law. The Jews of Vizhainy are to have the 
right to use the town meadows for pasturing their 
cattle, and are permitted to make use of the neigh- 
boring woods on equal terms with the commoners 
of the town. In 1897 the population of Vizhainy 
numbered 2,274, mostly Jews. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY : Entziklopedicheski Slovar; Regesty i Nad- 


pisi, i. 
H. R. J. G. L. 


Vocalization 


VOCALIZATION: All Semitic script, ex- 
cepting Ethiopic and = <Assyro-Babylonian, the 
latter of which in its origin is held by many to be 
not Semitic, is purely consonantal, the reader being 
left to supply the vowels. The same feature is 
found in the Egyptian and Berber languages, 
not to speak of other tongues which have _ bor- 
rowed the Arabic alphabet. This circumstance ren- 
ders the reading of Semitic script in many cases 

ambiguous even in a living language. 


Semitic To obviate such ambiguity the Semitic 
Skeleton languages havedeveloped three meth- 
Writing. ods. The oldest method is to denote 

the vowels by the vowel-letters * 18 
(also my) The employment of vowel-letters shows 


a gradual development. At first used but sparingly 
to denote final vowels (Mesha Stone, Phenician in- 
scriptions), they came to mark vowels long by nature 
(Arabic, early Hebrew), then, occasionally, tone- 
long vowels (Biblical Hebrew), and finally also short 
vowels (Aramaic dialects, later Hebrew). This meth- 
od of vocalization has been retained in Mandean and 
partly in Samaritan, But since the vowel-letters 
were not sufficient to mark the exact shades of the 
vowel-sounds, some of the Semitic languages (Z.e., 
those which were in possession of sacred books in 
whose recitation exactness was imperative) devel- 
oped systems of vowel-signs. The employment of 
such signs proceeded along two lines. The Ethio- 
pic, whose vowel-system probably dates from the 
fourth century C.E., has attached its vowel-signs to 
the body of the consonant, so that there are as many 
modifications of the form of each letter as there are 
vowels. Hebrew, Syriac, and Arabic, on the other 
hand, have their vowel-signs written independently, 
above, below, or within the letters. 

It has hitherto been assumed that the Syriac sys- 
tem was the basis for the Hebrew and the Arabic, 
and that the Samaritan, which has no vowel-signs, 
was based on the latter. It has, however, been 
shown that such an assumption is groundless (Levi- 
as, “ The Names of the Hebrew Vowels,” in “ Hebrew 
Union College Annual,” 1894). All that is certain is 
that the composite Babylonian vocalization is the 
basis of all other systems. The exact interrelation, 
however, among these latter still awaits a careful 
examination. 

The present Syriac and Arabic systems were pre- 
ceded by a more primitive one consisting of dots. In 
the oldest manuscripts of the Koran a dot above 
a letter indicated «a; below, ¢-e; at the side, 
u. In Syriac, a dot above indicated a stronger 
or fuller vocalization or pronunciation of a con- 
sonant, but when placed beneath the letter it de- 

noted a weaker or thinner vocaliza- 


Rudimen- tion, a softer pronunciation of a conso- 
tary nant or itsentire vowellessness. That 
Systems. primitive device is referred to as early 


as the fourth century c.F. by the 
Syriac Church father Ephraem, and is met with 
in Syriac manuscripts of the fifth century. The 
Arabic dot-system is later, having been introduced 
by Abu al-Aswad (689 c.k.). The question presents 
itself, Did Hebrew ever have such a system? Al- 
though no manuscripts with such notation have been 
handed down, it can be proved that such a notation 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


446 


did exist. The older Masorah subsumes all vowels 
under the two designations MAb and POD, the 
former denoting «a, &, e, #4, the latter w, 6, 6. The 
former were evidently originally denoted by a dot 
above, the latter by a dot below, the letter. More- 
over, the Masorah designates with “ below ” (yabrs) 
or “above ” (S»ySr9) the relative thinness or fulness 
of vowel-sound. Thus, ¢ is “below” when com- 
pared with 4, 6, %; é is “below” as compared with 
a@; similarly, ¢as compared with 4, 6, #; 6 as com- 
pared with @ 6; @as compared with 6, %; @€ as com- 
pared with 4, 6, @ (comp. “Oklah we-Oklah,” Nos. 
5, 11); “shewa” is “below ” when compared with @ 
full vowel (comp. “ Masorah Magna” to Isa. viii. 1). 
The same terminology is found in respect to chanting- 
notes and word-accent. The Masoretic terminology 
must have had a concrete basis, and that basisis dis- 
coverable only in the rudimentary nse of the dot. 
Until 1889 only one system of Hebrew vocaliza- 
tion was known, the Tiberian. In that year manu- 
scripts were discovered in the Crimea representing 
avery different system. Since then a number of 
manuscripts from Yemen have come to light which 
show that system in different stages 
Systems of of development. In 1894 a third sys- 
Hebrew tem of vocalization was found, of 
Vocaliza- which also several types are now 


tion. known. The manuscripts of the last 
type, fragments, come from Syria and 
Egypt. Each of the three systems of vocalization 


has also a distinct system of accentuation. The 
different systems (and types) vary not only in the 
form and position of the vowel- and accent-signs, 
but to a greater or lesser extent also in pronunciation 
of the Hebrew. The greatest latitude of variation 
in pronunciation is exhibited in the Berlin MS. or. 
qu. 680, representing the (ora) Babylonian tradition. 

The most marked difference between the usual 
system of vocalization and the one discovered in 
1839 is in the position of the vowel-signs. In the 
former all but two are written below the Iectters, in 
the latter all are placed above the letters. The 
former was therefore called the “sublinear,” the 
latter the “superlinear.” With the discovery of the 
third system, which is also superlinear, this distine- 
tion has become impracticable, and more correct 
designations are desirable. On the basis of two 
passages in medieval literature, one a colophon to a 
Targum manuscript in Parma (comp. Berliner, 
“Targum Onkelos,” fi. 184), the other a passage in 
the Vitry Mahzor (p. 462), the usual system is called 
the Tiberian (= T), the one discovered in 1839 the 
Babylonian (= B), and the third the Palestinian (= 
P). These designations are understood to denote the 
places where these systems were in vogue, implying 
nothing as to their place of origin. They may be 
used, for convenience’ sake, just as are the terms 
“Semitic” and “ Hamitic” as applving to languages. 
The objection that Tiberianisalso Palestinian is not 
valid: the latter probably dates from a time when 
the Tiberian was not yet in existence, a supposition 
borne out by internal evidence. The Arabic system 
is designated by A, the Nestorian Syriac by Sy, the 
Samaritan by Sa. 

The Babylonian system shows in the various 
manuscripts different stages of development, which 


447 


can, however, be reduced to three leading types: 
the composite type (B'), represented chiefly by the 
“Codex Petropolitanus,” dated 916; 

The Baby- the simplitied type (B’), found chiefly 
lonian in Targum manuscripts and Neo-He- 

System. brew texts; and the type (B°), repre- 

sented by the Berlin MS. or. qu. 680. 
The first two ty pes show not infrequently Tiberian in- 
fluence. The } in B! is Tiberian; so is the “ dagesh ”- 
point in B’?. B denotes dagesh and vowcllessness, 
not, as do all other types and systems, by a sign 
attached to the consonant, but by a modification of 
the preceding vowel. Its phonetic theory is evident- 
ly different from all the rest. One will not go far 
astray in sceing here the influences of the Hindu 
and the Greek grammatical system respectively. 
B? is a simplification of B! adapted to the needs of 
Aramaic. 5B? is a modification of B! with the help 
of P, from which system it has borrowed its “rafe”- 
sign and the conception of dagesh. 

The Palestinian system has come down in a few 
fragments, not all of which have yet been published. 
This system also shows a gradual development; the 
classification into types, however, must remain ten- 

tative until all the material shall have 
The Pales- been made accessible. According to 
tinian Dr. Kahle (“ Der Masoretische Text,” 

System. p, 29, note 1), the fragments of the 

Cairo genizah, still unpublished, pre- 
sent the oldest type (P'); an intermediate type was 
published by the writer in the “ American Journal of 
Semitic Languages and Literature,” vol. xv. (P*); 
the third type (P*) is contained in the texts pub- 
lished by Neubauer (in “J. Q. R.” vii. 361) and 
Kahle (Stade’s “Zeitschrift,” xxi. 273). This sys- 
tem is based on B! and shows the transition to B?, 
T, Sa, Sy, and A. The position of the vowel-signs 
in P is, asin B, above the letters and thrown to the 
left, or, more correctly, over the space between the 
letters when the spelling is defective, and over the 


vowel-letters when the text is written “plene.”’ 


The cases of piene writing have evidently deter- 
mined the position of the vowel-sign. It is not im- 
possible that the inventors of these two systems, like 
the later grammarians, supposed every vowel to be 
followed actually or virtually by a vowel-letter, so 
that the sign may always be intended for the latter. 
While the above is the rule, the vowels are at times 
found within the letter (B*%) or beneath it; some- 
times both below and over the letter; at other times 
the vowel-sign above the consonant is repeated over 
the following vowel-letter (P?). The dagesh-, map- 
pik-, and shewa-signs (see Notation Table, p. 448) 
may be placed on the consonant to which they be- 
long or on the preceding consonant. P* differs from P? 
chiefly by having differentiated the e-vo welinto éand é. 

The Tiberian system is based on B! (comp. Pre- 
torius in “Z. D, M. G.” liti. 195) and P. 
Like P?, it has differentiated the e- 
vowel. Allits signs, with the excep- 
tion of two within and one above the 
consonants, are written below the let- 
ters. The accentual system seems to 
have originated with P, since the vowel- and accent- 
signs in that system seem to have been cast in one 
mold. The accents were then transferred to B! and 


The Tibe- 
rian and 
Accentual 
Systems. 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Vocalization 


mechanically supplemented by the conjunctive 
accents, Which had later developed in T. As Preeto- 
rius has shown, these conjunctive accents are based 
on the Greek neumes of the early Middle Ages. 
The disjunctive accents, however, seem to have de- 
veloped from the Greek interpunction-marks (comp. 
Kahle in “Z. D. M. G.” lv, 167 e€ seg.; see also 
Consolo in “Verhandlungen des Internationalen 
Orientalisten-Kongresses,” xiii. 214 et seq.). 

In trying to determine the date when vocalization 
was first introduced the terminus a quo and the 
terminus ad quem must first be ascertained. Elijah 
Levira had already pointed out that the Talnudim 
and Midrashim do not mention vowel-signs or vowel- 
names, in spite of there having been abundant op- 

portunity to doso. From this fact he 
Date of In- concluded that vocalization and ac- 
troduction centuation are post-Talmudic. The 
of Vocal- earliest dated mention of vocalization 
ization. is that of Saadia Gaon and his con- 
temporaries. Between the dates 500 
and 900 the following data are to be considered: 
Even Aaron ben Moses ben Asher, whose aucestor 
in the sixth generation flourished in the second 
half of the eighth century, was ignorant of the 
crigin of the vowel-points. A still older author- 
ity than Ben Asher the Elder, R. Phinehas, the 
head of the academy, is quoted as authority for 
T. If this R. Phinehas be identical with the 
payyetan mentioned after Kalir b. Saadia Gaon 
(“ Agron,” ed. Harkavy, p. 112), he must have lived 
early in the eighth century, or must have been con- 
temporary with Khalil ibn Ahmad (719-729), to 
whom the introduction of the Arabic system is at- 
tributed. Assuming that A and T were introduced 
about 750, these being based on P and B, the date 
for P must be about 700, since the age of P is condi- 
tioned by the zero-sign it uses, and that sign, together 
with the system of Arabic numerals to which it 
belongs, was first introduced by Mashallah (comp. 
NUMBERS AND NUMERALS). The date for B' must, 
therefore, be between 500 and 700; it is at present 
impossible to give the exact date. If vocalized 
manuscripts exist which go back to the seventh cen- 
tury (Harkavy’s note to the Hebrew translation of 
Graetz’s “ Hist.” iti. 160), then the date of B! must 
be about 600. The contention of C. D. Ginsburg 
(“Introduction to the Hebrew Bible,” p. 451) that 
the late “Masscket Soferim” did not know the 
vowels is out of the question. How could it be 
ignorant of vowels when it knew the accents? The 
work is a compilation, and the passage Ginsburg 
quotes to prove his deduction is taken from older 
sources. The Nestorian Syriac vocalization is no 
doubt contemporary with A and T (comp. Duval, 
“Gram. Syr.” § 71). 

When in the course of time the origin of the 

vowel- and accent-signus was forgotten, some attrib- 

uted their invention to Adam, others 
Controver- ‘dated it from the Sinaitic revelation, 
sies About while others traced it to Ezra or the 
Age of Vo- Great Synagogue. Elijah Levita was 
calization. the first to point out their post-Tal- 

mudic origin. The work in which he 
had embodied his views was soon translated into 
Latin by his pupil 8. Minster (1589). Coming as it 


Vocalization THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 448 


Volozhin 


did in the time of the Reformation, Levita’s theory 
was seized upon by the warring parties and led to 
numerous controversies. The most noted one was 
that between Cappellus and the Buxtorfs. On the 
Jewish side Levita was answered by Azariah dei 
Rossi in his “ Me’or‘Enayim.” §S. D. Luzzatto pub- 
lished in 1852 his “Dialogues sur la Kabbale et le 
Zohar et sur PAntiquité de la Punctuation et de 
l’ Accentuation dans la Langue Hébraique,” placing 
himself on the side of Levita. That work called forth 
many answers, of which the most scholarly was that 
by Jacob Bachrach (“ Ishtadalut ‘im ShaDaL,” War- 
saw, 1896). Firkovich claimed to have discovered 
documents proving the invention of vocalization 
to be of Karaite origin; but these have been 
shown to be forgeries (comp. Harkavy’s notes to 


G. lv.; M. M. Kalish, Hebr. Gram. ii. 63 et seq.; M. 
Lenormant, Essai sur la Propag. de UV Alph. Phén. i. 307- 
326; C. Levias, in Hebrew Union College Annual, 1904: 
8. D. Luzzatto, Dialogues sur la Kabbale et le Zohar et sur 
VAntiquité dela Punctuation et de VAccentuation dans 
la Langue Hébraique, Géritz, 1852; idem, in Pollak’s Hali- 
kot Kedem, pp. 23 et seq., Amsterdam, 1846; idem, in Ha- 
Maggid, iv., No. 24; G. Margoliouth, in Proc. Soc. Bibl. 
Arch. Xv. 164-205; P. Mordel, in Ha-Shiloah, v. 232 et 
seq., X. 431 et seqg.; J. Olshausen, in Monatsberiehte der 
Berliner Akadenvie, July, 1865; 8. Pinsker, Hinleitung in 
das Babylonisch-Hebriiische Punktationssystem, Vienna, 
1863; F. Praetorius, Ueher die Herkunft der Hebr. Accente, 
Berlin, 1901; idem, Die Uebernahme der Frith-Mittelgrie- 
chischen Neumen Durch die Juden, Berlin, 1892; idem, in Z. 
D. M. G. Nii. 195; S. L. Rapoport, Hebrdische Briefe, pp. 75, 
94; Roediger, in Hall. Allgem. Literaturzeit. 1848, No. 169. 

Older literature on the subject is given in Wolf, Bibl. Hebr. 
ti. 475, iv. 214; Carpzoy, Critica Sacra, p. 242: Gesenius, 
Gesch. der Hebriiischen Sprache, 88 48-56. Modern period- 
ical literature is given in Schwab, Répertoire, Index. 

On the controversy between Cappellus and Buxtorf comp. 
Diestel, Gesch. des Alt. Test. in der Christl. Kirche, s.v. 
Vocalzeichen; G. Schnedermann, Die Controverse des L. 


VowEL NOTATION. 


B! 


3{3] (4) 
65031 (3) 
aia] (a) 


6/315] (3) 
3035] (4) 
[3] (3) 
3[5] (3) 


1 Vocal Shewa 


Silent Shewa 
Hatef 

Rafe 

Dagesh 


Mappik 


The bracketed forms in B! are used before dagesh ; the parenthetic forms before a vowelless consonant. 


Graetz’s “Hist.” Hebr. transl., iii. 160, 175, 485). 
See PUNCTUATION. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. Ackermann, Das Hermeneutische Ele- 
ment der Biblischen Accentuatian, pp. 1-30, Berlin, 1893; 
W. Bacher, Die Anfdnge der Hebriiischen Grammatik, 
in Z. D. M. G. xlix. 13-20; J. Bachrach, Sefer ha-Yahas, 
Warsaw, 1854; idem, Ishtadalut ‘im ShaDaL, 2  vols., 
Warsaw, 1896; H. Barnstein, The Turgum of Onkelos to 


Cappellus mit den Buxtorfen, Leipsic, 1879 (comp. I. Deren- 
bourg in Revue Critique, 1879, pp. 455 et seq.) ; Hersmann, 
Zur Gesch. des Streites tiber die Entstehung der He- 
bridischen Punktation, Rubrort, 1885. See also bibliographies 
to the articles ACCENTS and MASORAH. 


7, C. L. 
VOGEL, SIR JULIUS: Agent-general in Lon- 


Genesis, pp. 6 ef seq., Leipsic, 1896; 8. Bernfeld, in Osar 
ha-Sifrut, iv. 347-860; A. Biichler, in Sitzungsberichte 
der Wiener Akademie, 1891, 1901; H. Ewald, in Jahr- 
bitcher der Bibl. Wissenschaft, i. 160-172; J. Fiirst, 
Gesch. des Kardiert. i. 19 et seqg., 134 et seg.; A. Geiger, 
Urschrift, pp. 484-490; I. Guidi, Bolletino, i. 430; P. Haupt, 
in Journal American Oriental Soc. vol. xxii; Hupfeld, 
in Theol. Stud. und Kritik. 1837, pp. 57-1380; P. Kahle, 
in Stade’s Zeitschrift, xxi. 273 et seq.; idem, in Z. D. M. 


don for New Zealand; born in London Feb. 25, 
1835; died there March 13, 1899. He was the son of 
Albert Lee Vogel, and was educated at University 
College School. Left an orphan, he emigrated te 
Australia in 1852. Disappointed with his progress 
at the gold-diggings, he fell back upon his liter- 


449 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Vocalization 
Volozhin 


ary ability and became editor and proprietor of sev- 
eral Victorian newspapers. Hestood for Parliament 
in 1861, but was unsuccessful, and emigrated to 
Dunedin, New Zealand, where he bought a half 
interest in the “Otago Witness” and started the 
“Otago Daily Times,” the first daily paper in New 
Zealand. In 1862 Vogel was elected to the provin- 
cial council of Otago, and four years later becanic 
the head of the provincial government, a post which 
he held till1869. In 1868 he was elected a member of 
the New Zealand House of Representatives, and on 
retiring from the provincial government in 1869, he 
joined the Fox ministry as colonial treasurer, after- 
ward becoming successively postmaster-general, 
commissioner of customs, and telegraph commis- 
sioner. The Fox ministry having been forced to re- 
sign, Vogel carried a vote of want of confidence in 
their successors, and in Oct., 1872, returned to power 
as leader in the Lower House, colonial treasurer, and 
postmaster-general. In 1873 Vogel became prime 
minister of the colony. In 1875-76 he visited Eng- 
land, and afterward resumed the premiership. From 
1876 to 1881 he was agent-general for New Zealand 
in Loudon, and in 1884 was again a member of the 
government of thecolony. He finally gave up colo- 
nial office in 1887, from which date he resided in Eng- 
land. Hewas made C.M.G, in 1872, and K.C.M.G. 
in 1875, and received special permission to retain 
the colonial title of “Honorable” during his life. 
He unsuccessfully contested Penryn in 1880 as an 
Imperialist. 

Sir Julius Vogel’s principal achievement as a 
colonial statesman was the discovery that the sa- 
vings of the mother country could, with mutual 
advantage, be obtained by the colonies and ap- 
plied to the construction of railways and other 
public works. That his system of finance was on 
the whole successful was amply proved by the pros- 
perous state of the Australasian colonies. Sir Julius 
Vogel was the author of the act by virtue of which 
Colonial stock has been inscribed at the Bank of 
England and has become a popular investment for 
trustees. His project of law was accepted by the 
imperial government to the equal benefit of all the 
colonies. His scheme of public borrowing for the 
colony of New Zealand was put into effect in 1870, 
and within the next ten years the colony borrowed 
£22,500,000 at diminishing rates of interest, the pop- 
ulation rose from 250,000 to 500,000, the extent of 
Jand under cultivation increased from 1,000,000 
to 4,000,000 acres, and the value of exports from 
£500,000 to £1,500,000. It is also stated that in the 
same ten years he introduced 100,000 immigrants 
and caused 1,200 miles of railway to be constructed. 
During a visit to England he established the ex- 
isting mail service between New Zealand and San 
Francisco. In his first premiership he set on foot 
the government life-insurance system and organized 
the New Zealand Public Trusteeship. He was one 
of the first to advocate imperial federation. 

Sir Julius Vogel wrote a novel entitled “Anno 
Domini 2000, or Woman’s Destiny”; it was pub- 
lished in 1889, and passed through several editions. 
One of his sons, Frank Leon Vogel, was killed on 
Dec. 4, 1898, while serving with Major Wilson’s 
force against the Matabele. 

XIT. —29 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jew. Chron. Mareh 18, 1899; Gisborne, Hist. 
oe Zealand; G. W. Rusden, Hist. of New Zealand, 
vols. ii., iii. 


J. G. L. 


VOGELSTEIN, HERMANN: German rabbi 
and historian; born at Pilsen, Bohemia, Jan. 8, 1870. 
His father was Heinemann Vogelstein, rabbi of 
Stettin. Vogelstein received his education at his 
native town, the gymnasium al Stettin, and 
the universities and Jewish theological seminaries 
at Berlin and Breslau (Ph.D. and rabbi 1894). In 
1895 he became rabbi in Oppeln, and since 1897 he 
has been rabbi at Kénigsberg, East Prussia. 

He is the author of “ Die Landwirtschaft in Paliis- 
tina zur Zeit der Mischnah” (Berlin, 1894) and, to- 
gether with Rieger, of the first volume of “ Geschichte 
der Juden in Rom,” the second volume being written 
by Rieger alone (Berlin, 1896). The “Geschichte ” 
gained one of the prizes offered by the Zunz- 
stiftung. 

s. F. T. H. 


VOICE OF HEAVEN. Sce Bat Kou. 
VOICE OF ISRAEL. See PERIODICALS. 
VOICE OF JACOB. See PERIODICALS. 


VOID AND VOIDABLE CONTRACTS. See 
CONTRACT. 


VOLOZHIN : Russian town in the government 
of Wilna; at the present time (1905) it belongs to 
Prince Tishkewitz. As in most other Lithuanian 
towns, the Jews constitute the greater part of the 
population. Jews settled there about the middle of 
the sixteenth century. Volozhin is celebrated for 
the rabbinical school which existed there until 1892. 
This school, or yeshibah, which was founded in 1803 
by Hayyim b. Solomon, a pupil of the renowned 
Elijah, Gaon of Wilna, was in direct opposition te 
the Hasidic movement that spread through Lithu- 
ania in the second half of the eighteenth century. 
At the head of this conservative opposition, the 
members of which were styled “ Mitnaggedim ” (op- 
ponents), stood the Gaon of Wilna. He recognized 
that, in order to combat successfully the Hasidic 
movement, the love of Talmudic study must be 
aroused and strengthened. One way of doing 
this was to establish a great Talmudic academy, 
where the letter of the Law would be studied sys- 
tematically. Death, however, removed him before 
his cherished plan could be carried out, and the task 
was left to his pupil Hayyim b. Solomon. 

Wilna already had two yeshibot, and there was 
no room for a third; so Volozhin was. chosen, 
where had lived a number of such men as the 

author of “Sha’agat Aryeh” and Zal- 

The man Volozhiner. In order to attract 
Yeshibah. scholars to the institution two wise 
rules were laid down: (1) only those 

should be admitted who had distinguished them- 
selves in Talmudic study, and (2) the medieval custom 
of assigning yeshibah students each day to a differ- 
ent family, in which they received their meals free, 
should be abolished; the students to be either 
self-supporting, or maintained by the institution. 
Thus scholars, both rich and poor, flocked to Volo- 


Voltaire 
ows 


zhin from all parts of Russia and the rest of Europe. 
For near)y a century it held its reputation as a place 
of the highest Talmudic learning, until finally, in 
1892, to the regret of all lovers of Judaism, the doors 
of the school were shut by order of the Russian gov- 
ernment. 

The very spirit in which the institution was 
founded was the cause of its downfall. It was, as 
stated before, ultraconservative, tolerating nothing 
that looked like an innovation, and strongly op- 
posing all exoteric studies. For a long time it 
withstood the great wave of progress that swept 
over Russia in the middle of the nineteenth century. 
In 1887 Count Pahlen, who devoted a great deal of his 
time to the Jewish question, called together thirteen 
representative Jewish scholars of Russia in order to 
confer with them about the yeshibot. The confer- 
ence drew up a set of regulations for the manage- 
ment of such institutions, the most important of 
which were: that each day not less than three hours 
should be devoted to the teaching of the Russian 
language and literature and to other secular studies ; 
that the teachers in these branches should be ap- 
pointed with the sanction of the government; that 
not more than twelve hours each day should be con- 
sumed in study; and that the chicf rabbi should be 
responsible for the conduct of his pupils. 

The chiefs of the yeshibot, fearing that secular 
studies would “ poison the minds of the students and 
turn them away from the study of the Talmud,” 
stubbornly refused to introduce these innovations; 
they feared also that Orthodox Jews would with- 
hold their contributions from the school. In 1891 
Count Delianov, then minister of education, sub- 
mitted a similar plan to the authorities of the school 
in Volozhin; but, seeing that his instructions were 
not carried out, he closed its doors on Jan, 22, 1892. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Ha-Kerem and Ha-Meliz, 1892; Entziklo- 

pedicheski Slovar, vol. vii. 

H, R. J. Go. 

VOLTAIRE: French poet, historian, and essay- 
ist; born at Paris Nov. 21, 1694; died there May 30, 
1778. His name was originally Francois Marie 
Arouet; but about 1718 he assumed the name of Vol- 
taire. He is known to the world as one of the most 
active and popular champions of free thought and 
as an ardent advocate of religious as well as political 
liberty. It is the more surprising that he who, in 
his “ Traité sur la Tolerance ” (1766), vindicated Jean 
Calas, the victim of Catholic fanaticism, and who, 
in his “ Lettres Chinoises,” bitterly attacked religious 
bigotry, should have fostered anti-Jewish senti- 
ments. His personal experiences with Jews would 
hardly suifice to explain snch inconsistency. He 
alleges that, while an exile in London (1726), he had 
a letter of credit drawn on a Jewish banker, whom 
he refers to once as “Medina” and another time as 
“ Acosta,” and through whose bankruptcy he lost 
the greater part of 20,000 francs. In Potsdam, 
where he was the guest of Frederick the Great, he 
had a disagreeable experience with a Jew named 
Abraham Hirsch. In his treaty of peace with Sax- 
ony (1745) Frederick had stipulated that Saxon 
bonds (“ Steuerscheine ”) held by his subjects should 
be redeemed at their face value, although they were 
then listed at 35 per cent below par. At the same time 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


450 


it was ordered that no Prussian subject might pur- 
chase any of these bonds after the declaration of 
peace. Voltaire nevertheless ordered Hirsch to buy 
such bonds for him, giving him notes for the amount, 
while Hirsch deposited with Voltaire jewelry as se- 
curity. Subsequently Veitel-Heine Erurar offered 
Voltaire more favorable conditions, and he therefore 
withdrew his order from Hirsch. The last-named, 
who had already discounted Voltaire’s notes, was 
arrested; but the enemies of the poet used the whole 
unsavory transaction as a means of attacking him. 
The king himself wrote a satire against Voltaire in 
the form of a drama entitled “ Tantale en Procés”; 
and Hirsch was discharged after having paid a com- 
paratively small fine. Voltaire himself refers to 
this incident in his humorous way, naturally pre- 
senting himself as having been duped. While it 
hardly had the effect of filling him with anti-Jewish 
sentiments, it inspired him, in his “ Dictionnaire 
Philosophique Portatif” (1764), to make some un- 
favorable remarks about the Jews. He charges 
them with greed and selfishness, saying that their 
only ideals are children and money. 

It seems that, aside from his desire to select any 
subject apt to furnish an opportunity to display his 
humorous satire and give hima chance to attack 
the Bible, Voltaire had no intention of antagonizing 
the Jews, In his reply to Isaac de Pry'ro, who 
wrote an apology for the Jews entitled “ Apologie 
pour la Nation Juive,” Voltaire admitted 2s much. 
He recognized the fact that there were respectable 
Jews, and he did not wish to wound the feelings of 
his opponent by references to the people of Israel 
as represented in the Bible. Antoine GuENE, who 
defended the Bible against the attacks of Voltaire, 
embodied in his “Lettres de Quelques Juifs” De 
Pinto’s apology together with the correspondence to 
which it gave rise. “Voltaire replied in a pamphlet, 
“Un Chrétien Contre Six Juifs” (1776), without ta- 
king up the Jewish question. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gratz, Voltaire und die Juden, in Monats- 
schrift, 1868, pp. 161-174, 201, 228; idem, Gesch. xi. 48-34; 
Becker, Voltaire et les Juifs, in Archives, xliii. 85 et seq.; 
Mathias Kahn, ib. xxxviii. 436 et seq.; Lazard, Foltatre et les 
Juifs, in Univ. Isr. xii. 1, 126; Blnemner, Voltaire tm Pro- 
aia mit Abraham Hirsch, in Deutsches Musetrmn, 1863, 


No. 43. 
D. 


VOLTERRA, AARON HAT: Liturgical poet 
of the first half of the eighteenth century; rabbi of 
the Italian communities in Massa e Carrara. He was 
the author of a prayer entitled “ Bakkashah,” or “ Elef 
Shin.” The latter name, however, is misleading; 
for in the entire prayer, in which each word begins 
with the letter “shin,” this letter occurs only 700 
times, and not, as this title would indicate, 1,000 
times. In his preface the author states that numer- 
ous difficulties obliged him to resort to artificial word- 
formations, in which he felt that the license of 
poetry justified him. The poem, which begins with 
the words “Shaddai shoken shehakim,” is accompa- 
nied by a commentary containing a glossary of the 
Talmudic terms occurring in it. A second poem by 
Volterra, forming an eightfold acrostic of the au- 
thor’s name, commences “‘Alekem ishim ekra,” and 
is written after the stvle of the poems of Jedaiah b. 
Abraham Bedersi. These two works were published 


451 


together under the title “Bakkashah Hadashah” 
(Leghorn, 1740). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zunz, Z. G. Index, s. v.; Nepi-Ghirondi, Tole- 
dot Gedole Yisrael, p. 30; Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, p. 77; 
Benjacob, Ozar ha-Sefarim, p. 82; Mortara, Indice, p. 69. 


E. C. Ss. O. 


VOLTERRA, MESHULLAM BEN MENA- 
HEM : Italian jeweler of the tifteenth century. He 
lived in Florence, where he and his father, Menahem 
ben Aaron Volterra (who in 1460 was worth 100,000 
ducats), carried on a business in precious stones. 
According to Abraham Portaleone, Volterra wrote a 
book on jewelry. In 1481 he undertook a journey 
to the Orient, going by way of Rhodes to Alexandria, 
where there were at that time only sixty Jewish 
families. Here he saw a beautiful manuscript of 
the Hebrew Bible, which the natives claimed had 
been written by Ezra. In Cairo, where he bought 
gems, great honor was shown him by the nagid of 
the city, the wealthy Solomon ben Joseph, whose 
father also had been nagid, as well as body-physi- 
cian to the sultan. 

On July 29 Volterra reached Jerusalem, where at 
that time there were 250 Jewish families. Here both 
he and his companion became dangerously ill. He 
then passed through Jaffa and Damascus to Crete, 
where he was shipwrecked, lost his precious stones, 
and again became very ill. His life was saved only 
by the self-sacrificing care of a German Jewish phy- 
sician. Volterra finally reached Venice in October. 
His account of the journey, which has been pre- 
served in menuscript in the Laurentiana (cod. xi. 3, 
p. 128), was first published by Luncz in his “ Jeru- 
salem” (i. 166-219). 

Volterra had a brother Raphael, who was en- 
gaged in the book-trade. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Nepi-Ghirondi, Toledot Gedole Yisrael, p. 
224; Portaleone, Shilte ha-Gibborim, p. 29a; Steinschneider, 
Hebr. Bibl. xxi. 76; Berliner, Magazin, vii. 119; Lunez, Je- 
rusalem, iii. 50. 


D. M. K. 

VOORSANGER, JACOB: American rabbi; 
born at Amsterdam, Holland, Nov. 18, 1852. He 
was educated at the Jewish Theological Seminary 
of Amsterdam, and received the degree of D.D. 
from the Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati, O. He 
officiated as rabbi at Philadelphia (1873-76), Wash- 
ington, D. C. (1876-77), Providence, R. I. (1877-78), 
Houston, Tex. (1878-86), and, since 1886, at the 
Temple Emanu-El, San Francisco, Cal. In 1894 he 
was appointed professor of Semitic languages and 
literature at the University of California, which office 
he held until shortly before his death; he officiated 
also as chaplain and special lecturer at the Leland 
Stanford, Jr., University. He died April 27, 1908. 

From 1881 to 1888 Voorsanger was editor of “ The 
Jewish South” (Houston, Tex.), and from 1883 to 
1886 of the “ Sabbath Visitor” (Cincinnati, O.). In 
1895 he founded “ Emanu-E},” of which paper he 
was editor until his death. He was the author of 
“ Moses Mendelssohn’s Life and Works.” 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: The American Jewish Year Book, 5664, p. 
104. 
A. F. T. H. 
VORARLBERG: Extreme western district of 


the Austrian empire. In the Middle Ages it was 
called “ Vor dem Arlberg,” and was divided into the 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Voltaire 
Vows 


estates of Bregenz, Feldkirch, and Bludenz. To 
these was added in 1560 the imperial county of 
Hohenems. The first three districts were held by 
the counts of Montfort-Werdenberg, but gradually 
came under Austrian control. Jews were in Vorarl- 
berg as early as the fourteenth century. They were 
for the most part exiles from Switzerland and the 
German and Austrian countries bordering the Lake 
of Constance, and they ventured to settle only in the 
immediate neighborhood of the lord of Vorarlberg 
or his bailiffs. The “Stadtrecht” of Feldkirch 
(printed and discussed in “Zeit. fiir die Gesch. des 
Oberrheins,” xxi. 129-171) contains four regulations 
referring to Jews (folios 3b, 13b, 15a). The state- 
ments made by modern historians regarding perse- 
cutions at Feldkirch in 1348-49 on account of the 
Black Death, and in 1448-44 because of an accusa- 
tion of ritual murder, have been shown to be erro- 
neous and due to the confusion of Feldkireh in 
Vorarlberg with Waldkirch in Baden, both of which 
were formerly called “ Veltkilch ” (Salfeld, “* Mar- 
tyrologium,” p. 69, Berlin, 1898). It is known that 
the Black Death did not break out in Vorarlberg in 
1348-49; and the episode of the ritual murder of 
1448-44 took place in Baden, principally at Con- 
stance. 

When Feldkirch became an Austrian dependency, 
at the end of the fourteenth century, the Jews left 
this district entirely. The account of the scattered 
settlements later found in various villages forms 
part of the history of the Jews of HoHENEMs, who 
founded in 1617, under Count Caspar, a community 
which still exists. Thus there was a settlement 
from 1676 to 1744 in the village of Sulz, near Feld- 
kirch, the place whence the family of Prof. Salo- 
mon Sulzer originally came. Jews lived in the city 
and territory of Bregenz in the Middle Ages, but 
were all expelled from the country by an edict of 
1559. Since 1617 Hohenems has had a Jewish com- 
munity, to which all the Jews of Tyrol and Vorarl- 
berg were assigned by the law of 1890. The Jews 
of Vorarlberg have frequently distinguished them- 
selves in the history of the country, as, for instance, 
in the war with Napoleon in 1809, and have con- 
tributed much to the promotion of commerce and 
industry. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Tanzer, Gesch. der Juden tn Tyrol und Vor- 
arlberg, vol. i: idem, Gesch. der Juden in Hohenems wd 
dem Uebrigen Vorarlberg, 1903-04. 


D. A. TA, 
VORSPIEL. See MARRIAGE. 
VOSKHOD. See Russra—PERIODICALS. 


VOSSIUS, ISAAC. 
RAEL, 

VOWS (Hebr. “nedarim ”): Promises made under 
religious sanction. In Talmudic law distinction is 
made between two principal kinds of vows: (1) A 
voluntary promise to bring a sacrifice which he who 
makes the vow is not otherwise in duty bound to 
bring; or a promise to give a certain sum to pur- 
poses of common charity or education, Such vows 
are called “nidre hekdesh” (=“ dedications”), and 
of these there are two specific kinds. (@) When 
he who promises points toward the object which he 
intends to give, and says, “This I dedicate to such 


See MANASSEH BEN Is- 


Vows 
Vulture 


and such a holy or charitable cause,” then he is not 
bound to replace the thing if it is lost. (6) If, on 
the other hand, he says, “I promise such and such 
an object, or such and such a sum of money, to be 
devoted to that purpose,” then he is bound to replace 
it if it becomes lost. The former kind of vows are 
called “nedabah ” (= “ gift”); the latter kind “ne- 
der” (=“promise”). (2) The second chief kind of 
vows consists in promises made to abstain from the 
enjoyment of certain things, he who promises say- 
ing: “Ideny myself the enjoyment of this thing, as 
of athing sanctified.” Such vows are called “nidre 
issar ” (=*“ promises of prohibition or deprivation ”). 
Such a vow is valid even if a second party imposes 
it upon the votary, he answering with an “ Amen” 
and thereby accepting it. 

A vow is valid only if made voluntarily, with- 
out any compulsion from without; and the votary 
must also be conscious of the scope or character of 
his vow. <A promise made by mistake, or one ex- 
acted by compulsory measures, is invalid. The age 
of discretion with reference to promises is for men 
the beginning of the thirteenth year, for women the 

beginning of the twelfth, at which 
Validity of ages the votaries are supposed to un- 
Vows. derstand the importance of a vow 
(Maimonides, “ Yad,” Nedarim, xi. 1). 
A father may annul the vows made by his daughter; 
and a husband may annul those of his wife, if they 
be of such a nature that the keeping of them would 
cause distress to the wife. The father or the hus- 
band may, however, annul such vows only on the 
very day when he is informed of their having been 
given (Num. xxx. 2-17; Ned. x. 8; Maimonides, /.c. 
Xli. 1 e¢ seq.). 

Any vow, be it a dedication (“neder hekdesh ”), 
or a promise of prohibition or deprivation (“ neder 
issar ”), can, in case the promisor regrets it, be de- 
clared void by an ordained teacher, or by three un- 
ordained teachers (Maimonides, “Yad,” Shebu‘ot, 
vi.; Shulhan ‘Aruk, Yoreh De‘ah, 228, where the 
conditions are specified on which a vow can be an. 
nulled). To impose vows on oneself was discouraged 
by the sages of the Mishnah and the Talmud: “ Do 
not form a habit of making vows,” says an old 
baraita (Ned. 20a). Samuel said: “He who makes 
a vow, even though he fulfil it, commits a sin” 
(ib, 22a). The making of vows was tolerated only 
when it was done in order to rid oneself of bad habits, 
or in order to encourage oneself to do good; but even 
in such cases one should strive for the desired end 
without the aid of vows (Yoreh De‘ah, 203, 207). 
More specific rules regarding vows are contained 
in Maimonides’ “ Yad,” Nedarim, and in Shulhan 
‘Aruk, Yoreh De‘ah, 203-235. See also NEDARIM. 


W. B. ds Li das 


VULGATE: Latin version of the Bible author- 
ized by the Council of Trent in 1546 as the Bible of 
the Roman Catholic Church. It was the product 
of the work of Jerome, one of the most learned and 
scholarly of the Church leaders of the early Chris- 
tian centuries. The earliest Latin version of the 
Scriptures seems to have originated not in Rome, 
but in one of Rome’s provinces in North Africa. 
An Old Latin version of the New Testament was 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


452 


extant in North Africa in the second century C.E., 
and it is thought that a translation of the Old Testa- 
ment into Latin was made in the 


Earlier same century. Indeed, Tertullian (e. 
Latin 160-240) seems to have known a Latin 
Transla- Bible. There were at least two carly 
tions. Latin translations, one called the Af- 


rican and the other the European. 
These, based not on the Hebrew, but on the Greek, 
are thought to have been made before the text-work 
of such scholars as Origen, Lucian, and Hesychius, 
and hence would be valuable for the discovery of 
the Greek text with which Origen worked. But the 
remains of these early versions are scanty. Jerome 
did not translate or revise several books found in the 
Latin Bible, and consequently the Old Latin versions 
were put in their places in the later Latin Bible. 
These Old Latin versions are represented in the 
books of Esdras, Wisdom, Ecclesiasticus, Baruch. 
and Maccabees, and in the additions to Daniel and 
Esther. The Psalter also exists in a revised form, 
and the books of Job and Esther, of the Old Latin, 
are found in some ancient manuscripts. Only three 
other fragmentary manuscripts of the Old Testament 
in Old Latin are now known to be in existence. 
Jerome was born of Christian parents about 340- 
842, at Stridon, in the province of Dalmatia. He 
received a good education, and carried on his studies 
at Rome, being especially fascinated by Vergil, Ter- 
ence, and Cicero. Rhetoric and Greek also claimed 
part of his attention. At Trier in Gaul he took up 
theological studies for several years, In 374 he 
traveled in the Orient. In asevere illness he was so 
impressed by a dream that he dropped secular stud- 
ies. But his time had not been lost. He turned his 
brilliant mind, trained in the best schools of the 
day, to sacred things. Like Moses and Paul, he 
retired to a desert, that of Chalcis, near Antioch, 
where he spent almost five years in profound study 
of the Scriptures and of himself. At this period he 
sealed a friendship with Pope Damasus, who later 
opened the door to him for the great work of his 
life. In 3879 Jerome was ordained presbyter at An- 
tioch. Thence he went to Constantinople, where he 
was inspired by the expositions of Gregory Nazian- 
zen. In3882 he reached Rome, where he lived about 
three years in close friendship with Damasus. 
For a long time the Church had felt the need of 
a good, uniform Latin Bible. Pope Damasus at first 
asked his learned friend Jerome to 


Jerome’s prepare a revised Latin version of the 
Bible-~ New Testament. In 383 the Four Gos- 
Revision pels appeared in a revised form, and 
Work. at short intervals thereafter the Acts 
and the remaining books of the New 

Testament. These latter were very slightly altered 


by Jerome. Soon afterward he revised the Old 
Latin Psalter simply by the use of the Septuagint. 
The name given this revision was the “Roman Psal- 
ter,” in distinction from the “Psalterium Vetus.” 
The former was used in Rome and Italy down to 
Pius V. (1566-72), when it was displaced by the 
“Gallican Psalter” (so called because first adopted 
in Gaul), another of Jerome’s revisions (made about 
887), based on many corrections of the Greek text 
by reference to other Greek versions. About the 


453 


end of 884 Pope Damasus died, and Jerome Ieft 
Rome to travel and study in Bible Jands. In 389 he 
settled at Bethlehem, assumed charge of a monuas- 
tery, and prosecuted his studies with great zeal. 
He secured a learned Jew to teach him Hebrew for 
still better work than that he had been doing. 
His revision work had not yet ceased, for his Book 
of Job appeared as the result of the same kind of 
study as had produced the “Gallican Psalter.” He 
revised some other books, as Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, 
Song of Songs, and Chronicles, of which his revisions 
are lost, though their prefaces still exist. 

But Jerome soon recognized the poor and unsatis- 
factory state of the Greek texts that he was obliged 


to use. This turned his mind and thought to the 
original Hebrew. Friends, too, urged 

Jerome’s him to translate certain books from 
Bible- the original text. As a resultant of 
Trausla- long thought, and in answer to many 


tion Work. requests, Jerome spent fifteen years, 
390 to 405, cn a new translation of the 
Old Testament from the original Hebrew text. He 
began with the books of Samuel and Kings, for 
which he wrote a remarkable preface, really an in- 
troduction to the entire Old Testament. He next 
translated the Psalms, and then the Prophets and 
Job. In 894-396 he prepared a translation of Esdras 
and Chronicles. After an interval of two years, 
during which he passed through a severe illness, he 
took up his arduous labors, and produced transla- 
tions of Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Song of Songs. 
The Pentateuch followed next, and the last canonical 
books, Joshua, Judges, Ruth, and Esther, were com- 
pleted by 404. The Apocrypha] parts of Daniel] and 
Esther, and Tobit and Judith, all translated from the 
Aramaic, completed Jerome’s great task. The re- 
mainder of the Apocryphal books he left without 
revision or translation, as they were not found in the 
Hebrew Bible. 
Jerome happily has left prefaces to most of his 
translations, and these documents relate how he did 
his work and how some of the earlier 


Jerome’s books were received. Evidently he 
Transla- was bitterly criticized by some of his 

tion former best friends. His replies show 
in Later that he was supersensitive to criti- 
Times. cism, and often hot-tempered and 


stormy. His irritability and lis sharp 
retorts to his critics rather retarded than aided the 
reception of his translation. But the superiority of 
the translation gradually won the day for most of 
his work. The Council of Trent in 1546 authorized 
the Latin Bible, which was by that time a strange 
composite. The Old Testament was Jerome’s trans- 
lation from the Hebrew, except the Psalter, which 
was his Gallican revision; of the Apocryphal books, 
Judith and Tobit were his translations, while the 
remainder were of the Old Latin version, The New 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Vows 
Vulture 


Testament was Jerome's revision of the Old Latin 
translation. These translations and revisions of 
translations, and old original translations. constitute 
the Vulgate. See also JEROME, 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gritzmacher, Hieronymus: eine Biblio- 
graphische Studie, vol. i., Leipsic, 1901; 8. Berger, Histoire 
dela Vulgate Pendant les Premiéres Siécles du Moyen Age, 
Paris, 1893; H. J. White, Codex Amiatinus and Its Birth- 
place, in Studia Biblica et Ecctesiastica, vol. ii., Oxford, 
1890; E. Nestle, Fina Jubildum der Lateinischen Bibel, Ti- 
bingen, L892; E. von Dobschitz, Studien zur Tertkritik der 
Vulgata, Leipsic, 1894; Hastings, Dict. Bible. See fuller bib- 
liography in 8. Berger’s work, mentioned above. 


T: I, M. P. 

VULTURE: The Hebrew terms rendered in one 
or the other of the English versions by “ vulture” 
are: “da’ah” (Lev. xi. 14) and its variant “day yah” 
(Deut. xiv. 18 and Isa. xxxiv. 15 (R. V. “kite ”}), 
“ayyah” (Lev. xi. 14; Deut. xiv. 18; Job xxviii. 
7 [R. V. “kite” and “falcon ”]), and “raham,” 
“rahamah ” (Lev. xi. 18; Deut. xiv. 17 [A. V. “ gier- 
eagle” ]); all refer to unclean birds. The raham 
is identified with the Egyptian or Pharaoh’s vul- 
ture (Neophron percnopterus), called also by the Arabs 
“raham ”; it isa migratory bird, known in Palestine 
and Arabia, returning from the south in the spring. 
The Hebrew “nesher ” (always rendered by “eagle” 
in the A. and R. V.) also denotes large birds of 
prey in general, and in some passages refers par- 
ticularly to the vulture, or griffin-vulture, which 
belongs to the Vulturide family. So in Jer. xlix. 
16 and Job xxxix. 27-30, where the nesher is de- 
scribed as making its nest in the highest cliffs, which 
is characteristic of the vulture; or in Micah i. 16, 
where the bald-headedness of the nesher is alluded 
to (this can only refer to the vulture, which is de- 
void of true feathers on the head and neck); or when 
it is used as an image of an invading army (comp. 
Deut. xxviii. 49; Jer. xlviii. 40; Hos. viii. 1; Hab. 
i, 8). The Romans also did not distinguish sharply 
between the eagle and the vulture (Pliny, “ Nat. 
Hist.” x. 3, xiii. 26). The griffin-vulture is most 
abundant in Palestine, where it breeds in colonies, 
while the kite is represented by four species. 

Besides all the Biblical terms for the vulture, the 
Talmud uses the name “ra’ah” on account of the 
keenness of the vulture’s sight, “for it can, while 
in Babylon, sight carrion in Palestine” (Hul. 63b; 
B. M. 24b [Rashi]). In the passage of Hullin it is 
said that there are a hundred kinds of unclean birds 
in the Orient, all belonging to the vulture tribe 
(“min ayyah”). The proper name of the raham is 
prapaw; it is called raham because with its ap- 
pearance mercy, that is, rain, is bestowed on the 
world, while the name prpry is due to its cry “shir- 
krek ” (Hul. 68a). In Hul. 25b is mentioned a bird 
of whose claws vessels were made, and which Rashi 
explains to be a griffin-vulture. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Tristram, Nat. Hist. p. 172; Lewysohn, 2. T. 


p. 167. 
E. G, H. I. M. C. 


Ah Aa abe i aco THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 454 


W 


WA‘AD ARBA‘ ARAZOT. See Councin, or | ashabua‘ ha-ben (B. K. 80a); and the author of the 
Fotr LAnps. Vitry Mahzor mentions a festal gathering on the 
WA-ANI TEFILLATI (Ps. Ixix. 14 [A. V. | eve of the day of circumcision as an ancient tradi- 


18]): The introduction to the reading of the lesson | tional custom (p. 627). 

before the afternoon prayer on the Sabbath. Among In Germany the pressure of business during the 
the Ashkenazim it is chanted by the hazzan to the | week finally fixed the gathering for the night of the 
prayer-motive of the service (see Music, SYNAGOGAL) | Friday before the circumcision. The feast was then 
like U-Ba LE-Zryyon, which it follows in the Ger- | called “zakar” (male; comp. Isserlein, “ Terumat 


WA-ANI TEFILLATI 


Moderato. 
la if a8 | ——o ee = ee 
i oy Se aed = se ee 2 
Wa-a - ni.... te- fil - la - ti.......... le - ka, A- do - = ‘el ra - zon; 
| 7 SSeS SS sis 
Fe ai ie sea Be = el 
ee ee 


E-lo - him,.... be-rob has- de - ka, ‘a- ne-ni be-e-met yish-‘e - ka. 


ha-Deshen,” responsum No. 269), and in modern times 
it is termed “shalom zakar,” “shalom” meaning 
“peace,” and both indicating the birth of a male 
child and also implying an inquiry after the heaith 
of the mother as well as safety from persecution. 
The festival is considered a feast of merit (“se‘ud- 
dat mizwah”; Shulhan ‘Aruk, Yoreh De‘ah, 265, 
12, note by Isserles). 

In eastern Europe the small boys of the neighbor- 


man ritual. In the later ritual tradition of the Seph- | 
ardim, who sing it also in other portions of the 
liturgy, it is chanted by the congregation to the 
modern melody here transcribed. 
A. FF. G:C; 
WACHNACHT: The Judeo-German term for 
the night preceding the day of circumcision, spent 
in feasting and the recitation of hymns and prayers 
by the mohel, sandik, and members of the family. 
The ostensible object of the watch is to ward off the | hood are accustomed to assemble every night of the 
“evil spirit” and to drive away the “devils,” espe- | week before the circumcision and recite the “Shema‘ ” 
cially Li.iry, who is supposed to be inimical to the | anda few verses of the Bible,cuding with “ The Angel 
child about to enter into the covenant of Abraham. | which redeemed ” (Gen. xviii. 16), for which they are 
The cabalists deduce the peril of this time from | given nuts and sweetmeats. The ceremony is more 
the circumstances attending the circumcision of the | elaborate in the Orient, especially in Jerusalem, 
son of Zipporah (Ex. iv, 24-26; Zohar, Lek Leka, | where, even at the birth of a girl, two women act as 
93b): but the real purpose was to inquire after the nurses of the mother during the entire 
health and needs of the mother, for the Rabbis ad- | In Modern week, while two men in another room 
vised a similar procedure in the case of the sick (Ber. Times. reciteand study the Scriptures and tik- 
' §4b), and preparations were also made for the cere- kunim. The chief ceremony, however, 
mony and feasting accompanying the circumcision. {| is on the eve of the eighth day, when all who actu- 
Other plausible reasons for the watch were the re- | ally take part in the circumcision assemble together 
peated edicts of the Gentile governments in theearly | with the friends of the parents at the house of the 
periods against circumcision and the persecutions by | latter and pass the entire night in celebration of the 
Hadrian, so that those who took part intheceremony {| event, each guest bringing wine and cake as well as 
were obiiged to adopt all precautions and to assemble a lamp with olive-oil for illumination. The Sephar- 
on the night before it to prevent publicity. Since | dim decorate their lamps with wreaths of flowers, 
circumcision could be performed only by day, the | and march in the street to the beating of a drum 
same need of caution required that all doors and | until they reach the house, where the hakam deliv- 
windows be closed and the daylight excluded, so | ers an address. The reading in the house consists 
that the ceremony was carried out by the light of | of selections from the Bible, a few chapters of mish- 
lamps and candles. Different communities had secret | nayot, including the Mishnah Bekorot if the child is 
signs and signals to announce the “ Wachnacht,” | a first-born, and selections from the Zohar (Emden, 
such as the grinding of a millstone or the lighting of ; “Siddur Bet Ya‘akob,” i. 99b-102a, Warsaw, 1881). 
alamp. The eve of circumcision itself was disguised | In his “Hemdat Yamim” (i. 8, Leghorn, 1762) Na- 
under the term “shabua‘ ha-ben” (week of the | than Benjamin Ghazzati transmits a rabbinical tra- 
son : Sanh. 32b, and Rashi ad doc.). Even after the | dition that if the watch was observed with full 
persecutions had ceased, the lights were still ht | ceremony throughout the eight days, or at least dur- 
(Yer. Ket. i.5). Rab, Samuel, and Rab Assi met at | ing the four preceding the circumcision, the child 


455 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Wa‘ad Arba‘ Arazot 
Wahb ibn Munabbih 


would be destined to remain faithful to God; while 

Aaron Berechiah of Modena recommended the reci- 

tation of the “ Pittum ha-Ketoret ” (“ Ma‘abar Yab- 

bok.” vi. 8, 5). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Lewinsohn, Mekore Minhagim, p. 65; Auer- 
bach, Berit Abraham, 2d ed., pp. 35-38, Frankfort-on-the- 
Main, 1880 ; Glassberg, Zikron Berit la-Rishonim, Appendix, 
pp. 151-173. Cracow, 1892; Lunez, Jerusalem,i.2; Abrahams, 
Jewish Life in the Middle Ages, p. 148, note. 

A. J. D. E. 
WAGENSEIL, JOHANN CHRISTOPH: 

German Christian Hebraist; born at Nuremberg 

Nov. 26, 1633; died at Altdorf Oct. 9, 1705. In 

1667 he was made professor of history at Altdorf, 

and was professor of Oriental languages at the same 

university from 1674 to 1697, after which he occu- 
pied the chair of ecclesiastical Jaw until his death. 

For his knowledge of Hebrew he was chiefly in- 

debted to Enoch Levi, who had come from Vienna 

to Firth about 1670. Wagenseil devoted his learn- 
ing to publishing anti-Christian works of Jewish 
authors, and undertook long journeys to gather his 
material. The fruit of this work is the collection 
entitled “Tela [gnea Satane, sive Arcani et Horri- 
biles Judeorum Adversus Christum, Deum, et Chris- 
tianam Religionem Libri” (Altdorf, 1681), which in- 
cludes the apologetic “Hizzuk Emunah” of the 
Karaite Isaac b. Abrahamof Troki. Becoming con- 
vinced by the “ Toledot Yeshu” that the Jews were 
guilty of blaspheming Jesus, Wagenseil addressed 
to all high potentates his “Denunciatio Christiana 
de Blasphemiis Judeorumin Jesum Christum ” (Alt- 
dorf, 1708), in which he implored them to restrain 
the Jews from mocking at Jesus, Mary, the cross, 
the mass, and Christian teachings. Although he 
would have been pleased to see the Protestant princes 
show greater zeal in the conversion of the Jews, 

Wagenseil was opposed to forcible baptism and simi- 

lar measures, and devoted a special treatise to the 

refutation of the charge of ritual murder. 
Wagenseil wrote, besides the above - mentioned 
books, “Hoffnung der Erlésung Israels” (Leipsic, 

1705), which appeared ina second edition (Altdorf, 

1707), augmented by a number of smaller works under 

the general title “Benachrichtigungen Wegen Eini- 

ger die Gemeine Jiidischheit Betreffenden Sachen.” 

This collection contains the following treatises: (1) 

“Quomodo cum Judo in Colloquio, Forte Fortuno 

Nato, Agendum”,; (2) “Judeos non Uti Sanguine 

Christiano ” ; (3) “ Quomodo Usura Judeorum Averti 

Possit”; (4) “De Precatione Judaica Olenu”; (5) 

“Denunciatio Christiana de Blasphemtis Judzorum 

in Jesum Christum”; (6) “Apologia”; (7) “ Denun- 

ciatio ad Magistratus Christianos de Juribus Eorum 

a Judis Violatis”; (8) “An Christianus Salva Re- 

ligione Judeo Die Sabbati Inservire Possit.” He 

wrote also: “Exercitationes Sex Varii Argumenti” 

(Altdorf, 1698); “ Belehrung der Jiidisch-Deutschen 

Red- und Schreibart” (2d ed., Kénigsberg, 1699); 

“Disputatio Circularis de Judeis” (Altdorf, 1705); 

“Rabbi Moses Stendal’s nach Jiidischer Rede-Art 

Vorliingst in Reimen Gebrachte Psalmen David’s” 

(Leipsic, 1700); as well as an edition and Latin trans- 

lation of the Talmudic treatise Sotah (Altdorf, 1674). 


BIBLIOGRAPRY: Wolf,. Bibl. Hebr. ii. 1046: Gratz, Gesch. 3d 
ed., x. 274-276; First, Bibl. Jud. iii. 489; Steinschneider, 
Cat. Bodl. cols. 2711-2718. 


T. E. N. 


WAGER. See AsMAKTA; BETTING. 
WAGES. Sce Master AND SERVANT. 


WAGNER, WILHELM RICHARD (gener- 
ally Known as Richard Wagner): German com- 
poser of music; born at Leipsic May 22, 1818; died 
at Venice Feb. 13, 1883. He commenced the study 
of music at the University of Leipsic, but had a 
struggling existence till 1889, when he made the 
acquaintance of Meyerbeer, who assisted him in his 
attempts to have his operas produced in Paris. He 
came in contact also with Heine, who helped him 
with the libretto of “Der Fliegende Hollander.” 
After much wandering he settled at Zurich in 1849, 
and there wrote an article, “Das Judenthum in der 
Musik,” which appeared in the “Neue Zeitschrift ” 
over the pen-name “K. Freigedenk.” The article 
did not at first attract much attention, except a pro- 
test from eleven masters of the Leipsic Conservato- 
rium to Brendel, the editor of the “Zeitschrift.” 
Wagner protested against the tendency of music by 
Jewish composers like Mendelssohn and Meyerbeer 
to be sweet and tinkling without depth. In his 
“Oper und Drama” (1852) he makes the same pro- 
test against Meyerbeer. When the article “ Das Ju- 
denthum in der Musik” was republished it drew 
forth numerous replies, among which may be men- 
tioned: Joseph Engel, “Richard Wagner, das Ju- 
denthum in der Musik; eine Abwehr”: E. M. Oettin- 
ger, “Offenes Billetdoux an Richard Wagner,” 
Dresden, 1869; and A. Truhart, “Offener Brief an 
Richard Wagner,” St. Petersburg, 1869. Notwith- 
standing his public utterances against Jewish influ- 
ence in music, Wagner had many Jewish friends: 
and his favorite choirmaster in later life was Herman 
Levi. See JEw. Encyc. i. 643 b, s.v, ANTI-SEMITISM. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Grove, Dictionary of Music, iv. 357-358; 

Glassenapp and Stein, Wagner Lexikon, s.v. Judenthum, 

Leipsic, 1883. 

8. J. 

WAHB IBN MUNABBIH (Abu ‘Abd Allah 
al-Sana’ani al-Dhimari): Mohammedan tradi- 
tionist of Dhimar (two days’ journey from Sanaa) in 
Yemen; died at the age of ninety, in a year vari- 
ously given by Arabic authorities as 725, 728, 732, 
and 737 ¢c.E. On his father’s side he was descended 
from Persian knights, while his mother was a Him- 
yarite. Wis father, whose name was Munabbih, 
had been converted to Islam in the lifetime of the 
Prophet, although a single authority, the “ Al-Tibr 
al-Masluk” (ed. 1806 a.u., p. 41), states that Wahb 
himself had turned from Judaism to Mohammedan- 
ism. His other biographers, however, including A}- 
Nawawi and Ibn Hallikan, do not note that he was 
a Jew either in race orin religion. The fact that he 
was well versed in Jewish traditions, on which he 
wrote much, probably gave rise to the statement 
that he was a Jew, although he might have ac- 
quired his knowledge from his teacher Ibn ‘Abbas. 
Wahb is said to have read more than seventy books 
on the prophets, and he was an extremely prolific 
narrator (“rawi”) of stories regarding Mohammed 
and Biblical personages. Although the Mohammed- 
ans regarded him as a reliable authority in these ac- 
counts, many of them, such as Ibn Khaldun, de- 
clared that in his other writings he simply lied 
(comp. “Notices et Extraits des Manuscrits,” xx. 


Wahl 
Wahrmann 


part 1, p. 461; De Slane, Ibn Hallikan, iii. 673, note 
2). Among Wahb’s many writings may be mentioned 
his “Kisas al-Anbiya” and “Kitab al-Isra’iliyat” 
(“Hajji MKhalfa,” iv. 518, v. 40). The former, 
which is believed to be his earliest literary work, is, 
as its title indicates, a collection of narratives con- 
cerning Biblical personages, the accounts being 
drawn from Jewish folk-lore though presented in 
Islamitic guise. Thus, like Ibn ‘Abbas and Ka‘b 
al-Ahbar, he was an authority for many legends 
narrated by Al-Tabari, Mas‘udi, and others. The 
“ Kitab al-Isra‘iliyat,” or “ Book of Jewish Matters,” 
is lost, but was apparently a collection of Jewish 
stories, many of them incorporated by a Jewish 
compiler into the “ Arabian Nights.” In the latter 
collection there are indeed many stories that bear 
the Jewish stamp, and some of them, such as the 
“Angel of Death,” are ascribed to Wahb by the au- 
thor of “ Al-Tibr al-Masluk.” There are also other 
stories which are attributed to Wahb, and many 
more which, from their Jewish character, may be 
traced to him. His Jewish learning may be illus- 
trated by his opinion of the Shekinah (Arabic, “Sa- 
kinah”) as stated by different Arabic authors. Ac- 
cording to Al-Baghawi in his “ Ma‘alim al-Tanzil” 
(Goldziher, “ Abhandlungen zur Arabischen Philo- 
logie,” i, 182, Leyden, 1896), Wahb believed that the 
Shekinah was the spiritof God. Onthe other hand, 
Al-Tabari (“ Annals,” i, 544), in recording the fact 
that the Israelites sometimes took the Ark of the 
Covenant into battle when they were at war with 
their enemies (comp. I Sam. iv. 4 e¢ seqg.), quotes 
Wahpb as saying in the name of a certain Jewish au- 
thority that the Shekinah which rested in the Ark 
was @ being in the shape of a cat, and that when the 
Israelites heard the mewing of cats coming from the 
interior of the Ark, they were sure of a victory. See 
also ARABIAN NIGHTS. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: V. Chauvin, La Récension Egyptienne des 
Mille et Une Nuits, pp. 31-32, 50 et seq., Brussels, 1899; Ibn 
Hallikan, French translation by De Slane, iii. 671 et seq.; 
Hammer-Purgstall, Literaturgesch. der Araber, ii. 177 et 
seq.: Broeckelmann, Gesch. der Arabischen Litteratur, 1. 64; 
Steinschneider, Die Arabische Literatur der Juden, § 14. 


J. M. SEL. 
WAHL, ABRASKI. See Want, Satu. 


WAHL, MORITZ CALLMANN: German 
writer; born March 28, 1829, at Sondershausen ; 
died Oct. 15, 1887. Hestudied Oriental languages at 
Leipsic under Julius Fiirst and H. L. Fleischer. La- 
ter he taught for a time at an English school, and 
subsequently held the position of correspondent in 
a large business house at Lyons, France. Finally 
he settled at Erfurt, where he founded a business 
academy. Aside from his pedagogic activity Wahl 
pursued scientific studies. The following are the more 
important of his works: “ Beitriige zur Vergleich- 
enden Parémiologie”; “Das Sprichwort in der He- 
briiisch-Aramiéischen Literatur” ; “The Book of Mer- 
ry Riddles”; “ Das Sprichwort der Neueren Sprach- 


en”; “Die Englische Parémiologie vor Shake- 
speare”; “Das Parémiologische Sprachgut bei 
Shakespeare.” 

S. W. Sa. 


WAHL, SAUL: A remarkable personage who, 
according to tradition, occupied for a short time the 
throne of Poland. The story connected with his reign 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


456 


is as follows: Prince Nicholas Radziwill, surnamed 
the Blaek, who lived in the sixteenth century, de- 
siring to do penance for the many atrocities he had 
conunitted while a young man, undertook a pilgrim- 
age to Rome in order to consult the pope as to the 
best means for expiating his sins. The pope ad- 
vised him to dismiss all his servants and to lead for 
a few years the life of a wandering beggar. After 
the expiration of the period prescribed, Radziwill 
found himself destitute and penniless in the city of 
Padua, Italy. His appeals for help were heeded by 
nobody, and his story of being a prince was re- 
ceived with scorn and ridicule. He finally decided 
to appeal to Samuel Judah Katzenellenbogen, the 
rabbi of Padua. The latter received him with marked 
respect, treated him very kindly, and furnished him 
with ample means for returning to his native country 
in a manner befitting hishigh rank. When the time 
for departure came the prince asked the rabbi how 
he could repay him for his kindness. The rabbi then 
gave him a picture of his son Saul, who years before 
had left for Poland, and asked the prince to try and 
find the boy in one of the many yeshibot of that coun- 
try. The prince did not forget the request. Upon 
his return to Poland he visited every yeshibah in the 
land, until finally he discovered Saul in that of Brest- 
Litovsk. He was so captivated by the brilliancy 
and depth of Saul’s intellect that he took him to his 
own castle, provided for all his wants, and supplied 
him with ali possible means for study and investiga- 
tion. The noblemen who visited Radziwill’s court 
marveled at the wisdom and Jearning of the young 
Jew, and thus the fame of Saul spread throughout 
Poland. 

When King Bathori died (1586) the people of Po- 
land were divided into two factions: the Zamaikis 
and the Zborowskis, There were quitea number of 
candidates for the throne, but the contending par- 
ties could agree upon noone. Thereexisted at that 
time in Poland a law which stipulated that the 
throne might not remain unoccupied for any length 
of time, and that in case the electors could not agree 
upon a candidate an outsider should be appointed 
“rex pro tempore” (temporary king). This honor was 
then offered to Radziwill; but he refused, saying that 
there was a man who belonged to neither party, and 
who in wisdom and goodness was far superior to 
any one else he knew. ‘That man possessed only 
one very slight shortcoming, and if the Diet would 
make his election unanimous, he (Radziwill) would 
acquaint it with his name. Accordingly, Saul’s 
name was solemnly proposed ; and amid great enthu- 
siasm, and shouts of “ Long live King Saul!” Wahl 
was elected to this high office. The name “ Wahl” 
was give him from the German word “ wahl” (= 
“election ”). Traditions disagreeas to the length of 
his reign. Some state that he ruled one night only; 
others make it a few days. All, however, are 
agreed that Saul succeeded in passing a number of 
very wise Jaws, and among them some that tended 
to ameliorate the condition of the Jews in Poland. 
Although this story can not be supported by any 
historical data, it gained a firm place in the belief 
of the people. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hirseh Edelman. Geditilat Sa’ul, London, 
1844; S. A. Bershadski, Saul Wahl, in Voskhod, 1889: M. A. 


457 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Wahl 
Wahrmann 


SSS SS SSS a a eee ee 


Getzelten, Po Povodi Legendit o Yevereie, Korolie Pols- 
kom, in Razsryet, 1880. No. 41; Eisenstadt, Da‘at Kedoshim, 
p. 84: St. Petersburg, 1897-98; Karpeles, Jewish Literature 
and Other Essays, pp. 272-292, Philadelphia, 1895. 

Ss. J. Go. 

WAHLTUCH, ADOLPHUS: English physi- 
cian; born in Odessa, Russia, 1887. He studied 
medicine at Kiev, Prague, and London (M.D., 
L.R.C.P., 1863), and then settled in Manches- 
ter as a practising physician. He is known asa 
successful practitiouer and as a prolific writer of 
professional works, among which may be men- 
tioned: “.A Dictionary of Materia Medica and Thera- 
peuties,” London, 1868; “On Catalepsy,” 7d. 1869; 
“ Asthma Nervosum,” Manchester, 1877; “ Electro- 
Therapeutics,” London, 1883; “Massage,” 1889; 
“The Dead and the Living,” 1891; “Treatment of 
Diseases by Energy,” Manchester, 1900. 

Wahituch is consulting physician to the Victoria 
Jewish Hospital, and to the Hulme Dispensary, 
Manchester, and past president of the Clinical Soci- 
ety and of the Manchester Medico-Ethical Associa- 
tion. To the last-named association he has rendered 
valuable services as chairman of the Parliamentary 
Coimntiittee (1890-95). He was one of the founders 
of the Manchester Cremation Society, and is a fre- 
quent lecturer on hygiene and on scientific and his- 
torical subjects. He is an enthusiastic chess-player, 
edits the chess column in the “ Manchester Weekly 
Times,” and has founded several chess-clubs in the 
city of Manchester. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: De Gubernatis, Diz. Bing. Florence, 1879; 

Manchester Faces and Places, 1896. 

J. H. L. R. 

WAHLTUCH, MARE: Russian philosopher 
and author; born at Odessa 1880; died at Pisa Jan. 
27, 1901. He resided for many years in Ancona, Na- 
ples, Florence, Leghorn, and Pisa. He translated into 
Italian the works of A. Pushkin (“Poesie di 
A. Puschkin,” Odessa, 1855), and wrote in Italian 
the following tragedies founded on Biblical subjects: 
“ Assalonne,” Odessa, 1857; “Sansone,” 7b. 1859; 
“ Jefte,” Milan, 1862; and “Giobbe,” 2b. 1872. He 
devoted himself to philosophical studies, and during 
his latter years to the investigation of spiritualism, 
the following works being the results of these activi- 
ties: “Psicografia, Ossia Descrizione dell’ Anima 
con Segni Sensibili, Preceduta da una Nuova Veduta 
Sopra Aleuni Punti Cardinali della Filosofia Obiet- 
tiva” (with illustrations), Naples, 1870; “L’Anima 
Umana nel Suo Stadio Oriundo, Terrestre e Futuro ” 
(iNustrated), Milan, 1875; “ Antropobiotica Generale, 
Ossia la Vita dell’ Anima e del Corpo nella Condizi- 
one Sana, Inferma, e Convalescente,” Florence, 1879; 
and “ Prove Incontestabili delle Pazzie d’un Psendo- 
Alienista Appalesate” (against Cesare Lombroso), 
Leghorn. 1887. 

s U. C. 


WAHRHEIT, DIE. See PERIODICALS. 


WAHRMANN, ISRAEL B. SOLOMON : 
Hungarian rabbi and Talmudist; born at Altofen, 
Hungary; died at Budapest June 24, 1824. He was 
called to the rabbinate of Pesth in 1799, and was the 
first officially recognized rabbi of the community, 
which developed rapidly under his leadership, its 
first statutes being drafted at his instance. The 
most important institution connected with his name 


is the Nationalschule, an elementary school dedi- 
cated on Sept. 8, 1814, which wasan important factor 
in raising the intellectual status of the community. 
its curriculum including Hungarian, modern science, 
and Hebrew. Wahrmann published only one sermon, 
in German and entitled “ Andachtsitibung der Israeli- 
ten der Kéniglichen Freistadt Pesth.” The sorrow at 
his death found expression in Philip Weil's Hebrew 
and German poem “Evel Yisrael, oder Totenfeier.” 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Reich, Beth-E1, i. 128 et seqg.; Buichler, 4 Zsi- 


dék Térténete Budapesten, pp. 880 et seq. 
Ss. E. N. 


WAHRMANN, JUDAH: Hungarian rabbi: 
son of Israel WAHRMANN; born 1791; died at Pesth 
Nov. 14, 1868. He was appointed associate rabbiand 
teacher of religion at the gymnasium of Budapest 
on Feb. 9, 1851, and was the author of “ Ma‘areket 
ha-Ha‘atakot” (Ofen, 1831) and “Dat Yehudah. 
Mosaische Religionslehre” (2b. 1861; 2d ed. 1868). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: First, Bibl. Jud. iii. 490, 
8. E. N. 


WAHRMANN, MORITZ: Hungarian politi- 
cian; grandson of Israel WAHRMANN; born at Bu- 
dapest Feb. 28, 1832; died there Nov. 26, 1892. He 
was educated at the Protestant gymnasium and the 
university of his native city, and entered his father’s 
mercantile establishment in 1847, becoming its head 
after his father’s death. 

Wahrmann was closely associated with the devel- 
opment of Hungarian commerce and industry, 
the consolidation of the 
Hungarian finances, the 
growth of the education- 
al and philanthropic in- 
stitutions of Budapest, 
and preeminently with 
the progress ofits Jewish 
community. Aiming to 
nationalize Hungarian 
commerce and to render 
his country independent 
of Austria, both finan- 
cially and economically, 
he established large in- 
dustrial and commercial 
enterprises. 

In 1869 Walhrmann 
was elected to the Hungarian Parliament as the 
representative of the electoral district of the Leo- 
poldstadt (at present the fifth district of Bn- 
dapest), being the first Jew to be chosen a member 
of the Hungarian delegation, in which he energetic- 
ally promoted the interests of Hungary. He 
was reelected six times, holding the office until 
his death. He spoke comparatively seldom, but 
was an active member of committees, in which his 
financial training frequently rendered him one of 
the most important figures. He was also president 
of the Chamber of Commerce and Industry of Buda- 
pest, and of the Lloyd Company. 

Wahrmann was equally active in communal af- 
fairs, and was one of the foremost advocates of his 
coreligionists. He was a most zealous member of 
the Magyar Izraelita Egylet, and strove with tongue 
and pen for the emancipation of the Jews. In 1868 


Moritz Wahrmann. 


Wakrulkar 
Waley 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


458 


he was vice-president of the General Jewish Con- 
gress, and in this capacity headed a deputation to 
the king. As president of the community of Buda- 
pest he exercised a profound influence on its admin- 
istration and institutions, and labored to establish 
unity of Interest among the various political bodies. 
He also contributed generously from his ample 
means to scientific, educational, and philanthropic 
institutions. 

His brother, Alexander Wahrmann (born 1839; 
died at Budapest in 1899), contributed much, to- 
gether with Max Wirth, the Viennese political econ- 
omist, toward the economic elevation of Hungary. 
He was especially noteworthy as a philanthropist, 
bequeathing 200,000 crowns to the benevolent socie- 
ties of the capital, and 600,000 crowns for the erec- 
tion of a Jewish gymnasium. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Vasdrnapi Ujsdg, 1892, pp. 825 et seq.; Mag- 
yar Zsidd Szemle, 1892, pp. 687 et seqg.; 1895, pp. 1 eb seg.; 


ad 


Pallas Lex. xvi. 978. 


S. E. N.—L. V. 


WAKRULKAR, SOLOMON ELIJAH: Beni- 
Israc] soldier; enlisted in the Nineteenth Regiment 
Native (Indian) Infantry Sept. 25, 1888. He was 
promoted jemidar Jan. 1, 1898; subahdar, Jan. 22, 
1858; subahdar-major, Jan. 1, 1872. In 1877 he was 
decorated with the first and second class Order of 
British India, with the titles of bahadur and sirdar- 
bahadur, the highest mark of approbation which the 
Indian government bestows on native officers. He 
fought in the Afghanistan campaign of 1889, in- 
cluding the capture of Ghazni and occupation of 
Kabul (medal); in the Punjab campaign, taking part 
in the siege of Multan, the battle of Gujarat, and 
the march to the mouth of the Khaibar Pass; and in 
the Central India campaign of 1858. In his various 
campaigns he marched up and down both banks of 
the Indus from Kurrachee to Kabul and Attock. 
Wakrulkar retired from active service Dec, 23, 1878. 

5 a J. Hy. 


WALDEN, AARON BEN ISAIAH NA- 
THAN: Polisn Talmudist, editor, and author; born 
at Warsaw about 1835. Walden, whois an ardent 
adherent of Hasidism, is known especially for his 
“Shem ha-Gedolim he-Hadash” (Warsaw, 1864), 
a work of the same nature as Azulai’s “Shem ha- 
Gedolim.” Like the latter, it consists of two parts: 
(1) “ Ma‘areket Gedolim,” being an alphabetical list 
of the names of authors and rabbis, mostly those 
that lived after Azulai, but including also many of 
the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries who were 
omitted by Azulai; and (2) “ Ma‘areket Sefarim,” an 
alphabetical list of book-titles. Walden himself 
says in his preface that he took Azulai’s “Shem ha- 
Gedolim ” as a model; and it isevident that he refers 
to Benjacob’s edition of that work. It must be 
said that the alphabetical list tm the first part is 
arranged only according to the first names of the 
persons mentioned. In many instances the names 
are accompanied by biographical sketches, especially 
of Hasidic rabbis, whose biographies contain records 
of the miracles wrought by them and in behalf of 
them. To the third edition of the work, published 
in 1882 by Walden’s son Joseph Aryeh Lob, the 
latter added an appendix entitled “ ‘En Zoker,” con- 


taining names and book-titles omitted in the two 
previous editions. 

Another work by Walden, in which he has dis- 
played great erudition, is the “ Mikdash Melek” (War- 
saw, 1890), an edition of the Psalms in five volumes, 
In it are printed around the text: (1) “Bet ha- 
Midrash,” a kind of yalkut after the model of the 
“Yalkut Shim'oni,” Walden having gathered all the 
haggadot referring to the Psalms which were scat- 
tered in the Talmudiin, in the midrashic literature, 
and in the Targum, as well as inthe Zohar and other 
cabalistic works; (2) “ Bet ha-Keneset,” a fourfold 
commentary (“PaRDeS”) consisting of material 
taken from the most prominent ancient commen- 
tators; and (8) “Bet Aharon,” a reference index to 
the “Bet ha-Midrash,” giving also variants and an 
explanation of difficult passages. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider, Hebr. Bibl. viii. 108; Zeittin, 

Bibl. Post-Mendels. p. 403. 

E. C. M. SEL. 

WALDENBURG, LOUIS: German physician ; 
born at Filehne, Posen, July 31, 1887; died at Ber- 
lin April 14, 1881; educated at the University of 
Berlin (M.D. 1860). After a postgraduate course at 
Heidelberg he established himself in Berlin as a 
specialist in diseases of the chest and throat. From 
1864 to 1868 he was joint editor with H. Rosenthal 
of the “Allgemeine Medizinische Central-Zeitung.” 
In 1865 he became privat-docent at the Berlin Uni- 
versity, and from 1868 until his death he edited the 
“Berliner Kinische Wochenschrift.” In 1871 he 
was appointed assistant professor, and in 1877 de- 
partment physician, at the Charité. 

Among Waldenburg’s many works may be men. 
tioned: “De Origine et Structura Membranarum, 
Que in Tuberculis Capsulisque Verminosis Involu.- 
ecrum Prebent,” a prize essay at the University of 
Berlin, 1859; “ Veber Blutaustritt und Aneurysmen- 
bildung, Durch Parasiten Bedingt,” in “Archiv fiir 
Anatomie und Physiologie,” 1860; “ Veber Structur 
und Ursprung der Wurmhaltigen Cysten,” in “Ar- 
chiv fiir Pathologische Anatomie und Physiologie. 
und ftir Klinische Medizin,” 1862; “Lehrbuch der 
Respiratorischen Therapie,” Berlin, 1864 (2d ed. 
1872); “Die Tuberkulose, die Lungenschwindsucht 
und Scrofulose,” 7b. 1869; and “ Die Pneumatische 
Behandlung der Respirations- und Circulations- 
Krankheiten,” 7b. 1875 (2d ed. 1880). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Pagel, Bicg. Lex. 
Ss. KR. T. H. 


WALDOW, B. See Biocn, BIANca. 


WALDSTEIN, CHARLES: Anglo-American 
archeologist; born in New York March 30, 1856. 
He was educated at Columbia College, New York 
city (A.M. 1878), and studied also at Heidelberg 
(Ph.D. 1875) and finally at Cambridge, England 
(M.A. and Litt.D. 1878). In 1880 he became uni- 
versity lecturer on classical archeology at Cambridge 
University, and two years later university reader. 
From 1883 to 1889 he was director of the Fitzwilliam 
Museum; and in 1888 he was made a fellow of King’s 
College. In 1889 he was called to Athens, Greece, as 
director of the American School of Classical Studies, 
which office he held until 18938, when he became 


459 


professor at the same institution. In 1895 he re- 
turned to England as Slade professor of tine arts at 
the University of Cambridge; and he held this chair 
until 1901. During lis stay in Athens he directed 
the excavations of the American Archeological Insti- 
tute at the site of ancient Plateau, Eretria, where, he 
deciared, he unearthed the tomb of Aristotle, the 
Herzeum of Argos, ete. He has formed an interna- 
tional committee to promote the excavation of Her- 
culaneum. 

Waldstein is the author of: “Balance of Emotion 
and Intellect” (1878); “Essays on the Art of Phid- 
ias ” (1885); “The Jewish Question and the Mission 
of the Jews” (1889, anon. ; 2d ed. 1900); “ The Work 
of John Ruskin” (1894); “The Study of Art in Uni- 
versities ” (1895); “ The Expansion of Western Ideals 
and the World’s Peace” (1899); “The Argive He- 
reum” (1902); “Art in the Nineteenth Century ” 
(1908). He has written also in several journals 
numerous reports on his excavations, and has pub- 
lished, under the pseudonym “Gordon Seymour, ” 
three short stories which later appeared, under his 
own name, as “ The Surface of Things” (1899). 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: American Jewish Year Bouk, 5665, 

J, F. T. H. 

WALDTEUFEL, EMILE: French composer; 
born at Strasburg Dec. 9, 1837. He commenced the 
study of music under the tuition of his father, a 
professional musician; later he became the pupil of 
Joseph Heyberger; and he completed his musical 
education at ‘the Conservatoire in Paris. Here 
he pursued his studies on the piano in com- 
pany with Massenet, a fellow pupil, who soon be- 
came his firm friend. About 1860, being obliged to 
discontinue his studies owing to lack of means, he 
turned his attention to dance-music. “Manolo,” a 
waltz performed under his direction at a soirée 
given by the Prince of Sagan, was a great success; 
and it so delighted the Prince of Wales (now Ed- 
ward VIT.), who was present, that he requested the 
dedication of the piece to himself, and had it pub- 
lished in England. In a short time Waldteufel re- 
ceived brilliant offers from the English publishers of 
music; and his fame and fortune were thenceforth 
assured. His triumphs in London were soon fol- 
lowed by similar ones in Paris. In 1865 he was ap- 
pointed pianist to the empress Eugénie. He became 
director of the court balls of the emperor Napoleon 
III.. and organizer of the famous soirées at Com- 
pitgne and Biarritz. At the latter place he met Bis- 
marck. 

During the Franco-Prussian war (1870-71) Wald- 
teufel enlisted as a voluntecr in the legion of the 
Basses-Pyrénées. Upon the defeat of the French 
cause hereturned to Paris and devoted himself with 
renewed ardor to his art. Of his most celebrated 
works may be mentioned: “Amour et Printemps,” 
a waltz so universally popular that, after fourteen 
years of repeated publication by two firms, it was 
purchased by a third for the sum of 8,000 francs; 
“A Toi, Dolores”; “Dans les Nuages”; “Dans un 
Songe”; “Je T’Aime”; “Myosotis”; “Pour une 
Rose”; “Retour du Printemps”; “Sentiers Fleuris” ; 
“Soir d’Amour”; “ Les Sourires” : “ Toujours ou Ja- 
mais”; “Doux Poéme”: “Les Violettes”; “ L’Es- 
pace”; and the polka “ Bella Bocca.” 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Wakrulkar 
Waley 


In 1885 Waldteufel was summoned to London to 
direct the performance of his compositions. There 
he met with a triumphant success, which was re- 
peated four years later at Berlin, whither he went 
for a similar object. For three successive weeks the 
three great composers Fahrbach, Strauss, and Wald- 
teufel personally directed the execution of their 
respective waltzes. Waldteufel has won renown 
also as an orchestra leader, particularly at the “Bals 
de l’Opéra.” He is a chevalier of the Royal Order 
of Isabella the Catholic. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Le Petit Poucet, No, 12. 

s. J. KA. 

WALEY, JACOB: English lawyer and professor 
of political economy; born in London March 17, 
1819; died there June, 1873. He was the elder son 
of Solomon Jacob Levy (who adopted the name of 
Waley), and was educated at Neumegen’s school at 
Highgate and at University College, London, where 
he was the first pupil to obtain the Flaherty Mathe- 
matical Scholarship. In 18389-he was graduated 
(B.A.) from the University of London, taking the 
tirst place in both mathematics and classics. He 
was entered as a student at Lincoln’s Inn on Nov. 
3, 1887, and was called to the bar Nov. 21, 1842, be- 
ing the fourth Jew to be thus called. 

Wailey became one of the most eminent convey- 
ancers of his day. His first studies in conveyancing 
were conducted in the chambers of Duval; and he 
was also a pupil of Holt, afterward lord chief justice. 
Waley practised as an equity draftsman; he acted 
as conveyancing counsel for the Bedford estates, 
and was named by the queen in 1867 a member of 
the royal commission appointed to consider the law 
on the transfer of real property. In this capacity 
he had a large share in framing the report on which 
was based the lord chancellor’s bill passed in 1874. 
He was associate editor witb Davidson of a work on 
conveyancing precedents, and attained the distinc- 
tion of becoming (1870) one of the conveyancing 
counsel of the Court of Chancery. 

Waley was president of the Jews’ Orphan Asy- 
lum, and on the formation of the Anglo-Jewish 
Association he was elected its first president. His 
numerous engagements, however, compelled his 
early retirement from the latter position. He pro- 
moted the Hebrew Literary Society, was for a long 
period a member of the council of Jews’ College, 
and aided materially in the organization of the Jew- 
ish Board of Guardians. But his greatest service to 
the Jewish community was his formation, in con- 
junction with Lionel Louis Cohen, of the United 
Synagogue, to which object he devoted his profes- 
sional skill, eloquence, and careful judgment. He 
took much interest also in the treatment of Jews 
abroad ; and in 1872 he wrotea brief preface to Israel 
Davis’ “Jews in Rumania,” in which he remon- 
strated against the persecution of his coreligionists. 

In 1853 Waley was appointed professor of polit- 
ical economy at University College, London, which 
office he held until 1865, when the pressure of other 
engagements compelled him to resign. He was as 
active member of the governing body of the univer 
sity, and was secretary of the Political Economy 
Club, as also of the Statistical Society. On his res- 
ignation he was named professor emeritus by the 


Waley 
Walton 


council of University College. Waley also acted as 
examiner for the University of London. 
BIBLIOGRAPILY: Times (London), June 23, 18738; Jew. Chron. 
and Jew. World, June 27 and July 4, 1873; Dictionary of 
National Biograpiy. 
J. G. L. 
WALEY, SIMON WALEY: English mer- 
chant, musician, and) communal worker; born in 
London Aug. 28, 1827; died there Dec. 30, 1875: 
younger son of Solomon Jacob Levy. He studied 
at University College, London, but left without ta- 
king a degree. At the age of seventeen he wrote a 
series of articles for the * Times” on the question of 
international traffic, and in 1858 he contributed to 
the “ Daily News” a series of letters on “A Tour in 
Auvergne,” afterward included in Murray’s “ Hand- 
book to France.” Waley entered the stock exchange 
and acquired an influential position, being elected a 
member of its committee. For nearly a quarter of 
a century he was honorary secretary of the Jews’ 
Free School, and conducted the entire correspond- 
ence between the school and the government Board 
of Education. From 1848 he was the official corre- 
spondent for England of the chamber of commerce 
of Boulogne, in which city he took great interest. 
Waley received instruction in piano from Mosch- 
eles, Sir William Sterndale Bennett, and G. Alex- 
ander Osborne, and in theory and composition from 
William Horsley and Molique. The first musical 
work published by Waley was “L’Arpeggio,” a 
pianoforte study, which appeared in 1848. Tis other 
compositions include a pianoforte concerto, two 
pianoforte trios, many piano pieces and songs, and 
some orchestral pieces. He composed also hymns 
for Sabbaths and festivals, several of which were 
chanted for many years at the West London Syna- 
gogue. His songs include “Sing on, Ye Little 
Birds,” “The Home of Early Love,” and “ Alpine 
Shepherds’ Song.” 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jew. Chron. Jan. 7, 14, and 21, 1876; Impar- 
tial (Boulogne), Jan. 21,1876; Dict. National Biography: 
Gross, Dict. of Music and Musicians. 


J. G. L. 
WALLACHIA. See RuMANIA. 


WALLERSTEIN, ABRAHAM BEN 
ASHER: German scholar and rabbi of the eight- 
eenth century; officiated in Schnaittach, Bavaria. 
He was the author of the following works: “ Ma’a- 
mar Abraham” (Firth, 1757), Hebrew sermons on 
the weekly lessons of the entire Pentateuch; “ Zera‘ 
Abraham” (2b. 1761), an ethical work in eighteen 
chapters, written according to Biblical as wellas rab- 
binical principles; and “Mahazeh Abraham” (2d. 
1761), an index to the four ritua) codices, arranged 
alphabetically. The last-named work was_ pub- 
lished in connection with the “ Zera‘ Abraham.” 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 711; Benjacohb, 

Ozar ha-Sefarim, p. 279. 

E. C. S. O. 

WALLICH: German family which probably 
derived its name from the Hebrew transcription of 
“Falk ” (p59). The earliest known members of it 
are Joseph b. Metr Wallich, a physician, and Moses 
Joshua Wallich, both of whom lived at Worms in 
the sixteenth century. A document relating to the 
purchase by Joseph b. Meir Wallich of a Rashi and 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


460 


ss —— 


Rashbam manuscript (Worms. 1615) is signed by 
Joseph and by his two sons Eliezer and Solomon, all 
physicians and all surnamed Weibush (Phoebus’), 
and by thirteen other members of the Wallich family, 
among them the physicians Moses b. Lezer and 
Moses b. Moses Joshua (surnamed Weibelin), Many 
physicians of the Wallich family were prominent in 
Germany in the eighteenth century. 
Subjoined is an abbreviated pedigree: 


Moses Joshua Wallich 
(Worms) 


Tsaac Wallich 
(Metz; M.D. 1620) 


David (Tewle) Wallieh 
(Treves ; M.D.: ad. 1691) 


Abraham Wallich 
(Frankfort-on-the-Main ; 
M.D. 1655) 
Mamele 
= Simon Roste ‘ Cobienz) 
(issue ’ 


= 


Judah Léb Isaac Meyer Wallich Solomon Wallich 
at 35) Vie (Frank fort-on- 
M.D.; d. 1735 Metz ; acob Walli the-Main : 

| M.D. 1688) ep each M.D.; d. 1749) 
M.D. ¢. 1750) i 
Abraham Isaac (a Tek) 


Abraham Wallich 
(M.D.: d. 1799) 
= Lische 


Solomon Wallich Michel Wallich L6b Wallich Feifer Wallich 
(d. 1808) (d. 1809) (d. 1810) 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. Schultze, Gesch. der Familie Wallich ; 
Monatsschrift, 1905, passim. 
J. 


The following are the more important members: 

Abraham ben Isaac Wallich: Physician: born 
at Metz; flourished at Frankfort-on-the-Main in the 
second half of the seventeenth century. He went to 
Padua to study medicine, obtaining his diploma, 
“maxima cum laude,” in 1655; and in 1657 he went 
to Frankfort to practise as a physician. He was the 
author of a Hebrew treatise on medicine entitled 
“Sefer Refu’ot,” or, as he called it in Latin, “ Har- 
monia Wallichis Medica” (published posthumously, 
Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1700). He tried to prove 
that the ailments of the soul correspond to those of 
the body and that they must be treated in the same 
way. In this work he speaks alternately as a physi- 
cian and as a preacher of morals. 

Immanuel Wallich: Rabbi and physician of 
Coblenz in the eighteenth century. 

Joseph b. Meir Wallich: Physician: the ear- 
liess known member of the family; flourished at 
Worms in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. 
He is known to have written in 1597, on a manu- 
script of Isaac Isracli’s translation of Ibnal-Yazzar’s 
“Zad al-Musafir,” a bibliographical note in which 
he confounded the translator with Isaac ben Joseph 
Israeli. From this and from what has been said 
above it may be concluded that Joseph b. Meir was 
a collector of medical and rabbinical manuscripts. 
He had in his possession also a copy of Bernard de 
Gordon’s “ Sefer ha-Gebulim ” (see Neubauer, “ Cat. 
Bodl. Hebr. MSS.” No. 2125, 4), the first leaf of 
which was supplied in his own handwriting. 


461 


Judah ben Abraham Wallich: Physician; 
lived at Frankfort-on-the-Main in the seventeenth 
and eighteenth centuries. He was the author of: (1) 


*Dimyon ha-Refu'ot ” or“ Harmonia Wallichis Med- | 
| structure (¢, verses 9-11) shows that this was not 


ica Anime cet Corporis” (Frankfort-on-the-Main, 
1700), a Jud:eo-German compendium of his father’s 
“Sefer Refuvot.” supplemented by a treatise on fever 
in children. (2)”" Zori ha-Shamayemah ” (Latin title, 
© Theriaca Coelestis Wallichiana ”; German, “ Himm- 
lischer Theriak “: 74, 1713). Of this work only the 
German preface and the first Hebrew section are 
extant; the remainder, which was destroyed by fire, 
Was not published. (8) “Dankfest” (4. 1716), a 
thanksgiving memorial in pure German with Hebrew 
characters; written on the occasion of the birth of 
Arcbduke Leopold of Austria (April 13, 1716). 

Moses b. Eliezer Wallich: Scholar; lived at 
Worms in the seventeenth century. He was the 
author of “Sefer Meshalim ” or “ Kuh-Buch” (Frank- 
fort-on-the-Main, 1687), a German collection of fables 
adapted from Berechiah ha-Nakdan’s * Mishle Shu'a- 
lim ” and Isaac ibn Sahulah’s “ Mashal ha-Kadmoni.” 
This book is not to be confounded with a similar 
work by ABRAHAM B. MATTATHIAS which bears the 
same title. 

Naphtali Hirz b. Abraham Wallich: Physi- 
cian; lived at Metz in the seventeenth century; 
brother of Judah ben Abraham Wallich. He is 
known as having been the competitor of Solomon b. 
Baruch of Lippstadt, who was appointed physician 
to the Jewish community of Metz. Solomon delayed 
his arrival, and consequently the community ap- 
pointed Naphtali Hirz in his stead. When Solomon 
reached Metz a quarrel arose between the two phy- 
sicians, Solomon urging his letter of appointment, 
and Naphtali Hirz his priority. They continued 
quarreling until 1695, when they were reconciled by 
R. Gabriel Eskeles of Metz. 

Solomon Wallich: Physician of Mayence, where 
he died May 11, 1780: son of Immanuel Wallich. 
Like his father, Solomon received a rabbinical edu- 
cation in addition to his medical training. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. Berliner, in Hebr. Bibl. vii, 82-83; Car- 

moly, Histoire des Médecins Juifs, pp. 200, 207; First, Bibl. 

Jud. iii. 492: Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. cols. 1377-1378, 2008 ; 


idem, Hebr. Uebers. pp. 704, 959: Horovitz, Jitdische Aerzte, 
pp. 30-32; Landau, Gesch. der Jiidischen Aerzte, p. 116. 


D. M. SEt. 
WALLIS (VALAIS). 


WALLS (FpN, VP, bon): The walls erected by 
the Canaanites for the protection of their farmyards 
consisted of great unhewn blocks of stone, and rem- 
nants of them still exist, especially in the east-Jor- 
dan district. Walls of fortifications and towns were 
similar in structure, although many large cities may 
have hadrampartsof hewnstone. Unburned bricks 
were also used for walls, and the excavations at 
Tell al-Hasi (Lachish) have brought to light brick 
walls between nine and ten feet thick. Less thick 
are the walls at Tell el-Mutasallim (Megiddo), 
which show a combination of both materials, the 
base being of unhewn stone. on which layers of 
brick are laid. The dimensions of the bricks at 
Megiddo are about 50 « 83 x 18.cm., and the size of 
the Canaanite walls filled the Israelites with alarm 
(Num. xiii. 28; Deut. i. 28). 


See SWITZERLAND. 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


_ Lexicon as a supplement tothe Polyglot. 


Waley 
Walton 


The construction of walls of unhewn stone was 
long retained by the Israelites, so that, although 
Solomon built the outer wall of his palace of hewn 
stone (f Kings xii. 12), the description of the 


the usual style of architecture, but an extraordinary 
innovation which aroused the admiration of his con- 
temporaries. Herein, moreover, is seen the influ- 
ence of the Tyrians, who designed the palace of 
Solomon, for Phenician architecture is characterized 
by its partiality for large blocks of hewn stone. 
The choice of material was doubtless conditioned 
primarily by the locality, since in the mountains 
there was no lack of stoue, while in the plains 
bricks were used for houses and even for the 
walls. 

The walls were generally broad, for the defenders 
stood on them (comp. Isa. xxxvi. 11; Neh. xii. 81; 
I Macc. xiii. 45), and engines of war were also 
placed thereon (II Chron. xxvi. 15). Battlements 
(Mab, Mwpy [Tsa. liv. 12] probably has a similar 
meaning) were likewise built to protect the guards 
(II Chron, J.c.). Strong towers were constructed at 
the corners and gates, as wel) as on the wall itself at 
intervals. The entrance was built in an angle, as 
may still be seen at Jerusalem; and the inner and 
outer gates were closed with doors covered with 
iron plates and fitted with iron bolts. A low bul- 
wark (59m; Isa. xxvi.; Ps, xlviii. 14 (A. V. 13]) with 
a protective glacis was frequently constructed at 
some distance before the main wall. See also For- 
TRESS; House; TOWER. 

E. G. H. I. Br. 


WALOZIN. Sce VoLozuHIn. 


WALTON, BRYAN: Christian Hebraist; born 
in 1600 at Hilton, Yorkshire, England; died in Lon- 
den Nov, 29, 1661; educated at Magdalene and 
Peterhouse colleges, Cambridge. He became a 
London clergyman and was involved in the ques- 
tion of tithes raised by John Selden, but was ap- 
pointed king’s chaplain, and, after being imprisoned 
by the Parliamentarians, went to Oxford to join the 
king. There he formed the project of issuing a 
polyglot Bible, better and cheaper than the one that 
had appeared at Paris as late as the year 1645. In 
1652 he issued a circular on the subject, and sub- 
scriptions were obtained under the patronage of 
Selden and Ussher. The work, which was in six 
volumes, was published between 1654 and 1657 in 
nine languages, though no single book appears 
with more than eight versions. Much of the work 
was done by Castell, who compiled the Heptaglot 
Walton’s 
prolegomena were printed as a separate work both 
in Germany (Leipsic, 1777) and in England (Can- 
terbury, 1828). 

The “ Biblia Sacra Poly glotta ” was one of the ear- 
liest books printed by subscription in England, the 
price being £10 for the six volumes. Walton dedi- 
cated his work to the Parliament; but when Charles 
IT. came to the throne, the dedication was changed 
to one in honor of the king, who appointed Walton 
Bishop of Chester in 1660. Walton’s Polyglot has 
been the standard work up to the present day; but 


Wandering Jew 
War 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


462 


its texts scarcely meet the requirements of modern 
scholarship. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Dict. National Blography. 


ise J. 

WANDERING JEW: Imaginary figure of a 
Jerusalem shoemaker who, taunting Jesus on the 
way to crucifixion, was told by him to “ go on for- 
ever till I return.” The legend first appeared in a 
pamphlet of four leaves entitled “ Kurtze Beschrei- 
bung und Erzihlung von einem Juden mit Namen 
Ahasverus.” This professes to have been printed 
at Leyden in 1602 by Christoff Crutzer, but no 
printer of that name has been discovered, and the 
real place and printer can not be ascertained. The 
legend spread quickly throughout Germany, no less 
than eight different editions appearing in 1602; 
altogether forty appeared in Germany before the 
end of the eighteenth century. Eight editions in 
Dutch and Flemish are known; and the story soon 
passed to France, the first French edition appearing 
in Bordeaux, 1609, and to England, where it ap- 
peared in the form of a parody in 1625 (Jacobs and 
Wolf, “Bibliotheca Anglo-Judaica,” p. 44, No. 221). 
The pamphlet was translated also into Danish and 
Swedish; and the expression “eternal Jew ” is cur- 
rentin Czech. The pretended existence of the Wan- 
dering Jew, who is stated to be met with from time 
to time in all of these countries, was eagerly seized 
upon amidst the religious disturbances caused by 
the Reformation, as furnishing an eye-witness of 
the crucifixion. The various appearances claimed 
for him were at Hamburg in 1547; in Spain in 
1575; at Vienna, 1599; Liibeck, 1601; Prague, 1602; 
Liibeck, 1603; Bavaria, 1604; Ypres, 1623; Brussels, 
1640; Leipsic, 1642; Paris, 1644; Stamford, 1658; 
Astrakhan, 1672; Frankenstein, 1676; Munich, 1721; 
Altbach, 1766; Brussels, 1774; and Newcastle, 1790. 
The last appearance mentioned appears to have 
been in America in the year 1868, when he was re- 
ported to have visited a Mormon named O’Grady 
(see “ Desert News,” Sept. 28, 1868). 

The figure of the doonyed sinner, forced to wan- 
der without the hope of rest in death till the millen- 
nium, impressed itself upon the popular imagina- 
tion, and passed thence into literary art, mainly with 

reference to the seeming immortality 

Influence of the wandering Jewish race. These 
of Legend two aspects of the legend are repre- 

on sented in the different names given to 
Literature. the central figure. In German-speak- 
ing countries he is referred to as “ Der 

Ewige Jude” (the immortal, or eternal, Jew), while 
in Romance-speaking countries he is known as “ Le 
Juif Errant” and “L’Ebreo Errante”; the English 
form, probably because derived from the French, 
has followed the Romance. The Spanish name is 
“Juan Espera en Dios.” The legend has been the 
subject of poems by Schubart, Schreiber (1807), W. 
Miller, Lenau, Chamisso, Schlegel, Julius Mosen 
(an epic, 1838), and Koehler; of novels by Franz- 
horn (1818), Oeklers, and Schucking; and of trage- 
dies by Klinemann (“ Ahasuerus,” 1827) and Zedlitz 
(1844). Hans Andersen made his “ Ahasuerus” the 
Angel of Doubt, and was imitated by Heller in a 
poem on “The Wandering of Ahasuerus,” which he 
afterward developed into three cantos. Robert 


Hamerling, in his “ Ahasverin Rom” (Vienna, 1866), 
identities Nero with the Wandering Jew. Goethe had 
designed a poem on the subject, the plot of which 
he sketched in his “ Dichtung und Wahrheit.” 

In France, E. Quinet published his prose epic on 
the legend in 1833, making the subject the judg- 
ment of the world; and Eugene Sue wrote his “ Juif 
Errant” in 1844. From the latter work, in which 
the author connects the story of Ahasuerus with that 
of Herodias, most people derive their knowledge of 
the legend. Grenier’s poem on the subject (185%) 
may have been inspired by Gustav Doré’s desigus 
published in the preceding year, perhaps the most 
striking of Doré’s imaginative works. In England 
—besides the ballad given in Percy’s* Reliques ” and 
reprinted in Child’s “English and Scotch Bailads” 
(ist ed., viii. 77)—there is a drama entitled “The 
Wandering Jew, or Love’s Masquerade,” written by 
Andrew Franklin (1797). William Godwin's novel 
“St. Leon ” (1799) has the motive of the immortal 
man, and Shelley introduced Ahasuerus into his 
“Queen Mab.” George Croly’s “Salathiel.” which 
appeared anonymously in 1828, treated the subject 
in an imaginative form; it has been recently re- 
printed under the title “Tarry Thou Till I Come” 
(New York, 1901). 

According to L. Neubaur, the legend is founded 
on the words given in Matt. xvi. 28, which are in- 
deed quoted in the earliest German.pamphlet of 
1602. So, too, from John xxi. 20 et seg. a legend 
arose in the Church that St. John would not die 

before the second coming of Jesus; 
Origin of while another legend declares that the 
Legend. attendant Malchus, whose ear St. 
Peter cut off in the garden of Geth- 
semane (John xviii. 10), was condemned to wander 
till the second coming. THis action 1s associated in 
some way With the scoffing at Jesus, and is so rep- 
resented in a broadsheet which appeared in 1584. 
An actual predecessor of the Wandering Jew is 
recorded in the “Flores Historiarum” by Roger of 
Wendover in the year 1228. An Armenian arch- 
bishop, then visiting England, was asked by the 
monks of St. Albans about the celebrated Joseph of 
Arimathea, who had spoken to Jesus, and was 
still alive. The archbishop answered that he had 
himself seen him in Armenia, and that his name was 
Jartaphilus; on passing Jesus carrying the cross he 
had said: “Go on quicker,” Jesus thereupon an- 
swering: “I go; but thou shalt wait till I come.” 
Matthew Paris included this passage from Roger of 
Wendover in his own history; and other Armenians 
appeared in 1252 at the Abbey of St. Albans, repeat- 
ing the same story, which was regarded there as 
a great proof of the Christian religion (Matthew 
Paris, “Chron. Majora,” ed. Luard, London, 1880, 
v. 340-341). The same archbishop is said to have 
appeared at Tournai in 1243, telling the same story, 
which is given in the “Chronicles of Phillip 
Mouskes,” ii, 491, Brussels, 1839. According to 
Guido Bonnati, the astrologer known to Dante, this 
living witness of the crucifixion was known as Jo- 
hannes Buttadeeus because of his having struck 
Jesus. Under this name he appears at Mugello in 
1418 and in Florence in 1415 (8S. Morpurgo, 
“L’Ebreo Errante in Italia,” Florence, 1891). 


463 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Wandering Jew 
ar 


It is difficult, however, to connect this Carta- 
philug Buttadeus, or Buttadeo with the later 
Ahasuerus of the pamphlet of 1602, no trace being 
found either in popular legend or in literature dur- 
ing the intervening two centuries. Gractz supposes 
that the somewhat different picture given of the 
Wandering Jew in a book called “The Turkish 
Spy ” (1644), in which work the Wandering Jew is 
called “Sieur Paule Marrana,” and is said to have 
passed through the tortures of the Inquisition in 
Spain, Portugal, and Rome, was derived from a 
Marano author (see, however, Boswell’s “Life of 
Johnson,” under date April 10, 1783, and Malone’s 
note). Moncure D, Conway attempts to connect 
the legend with others of immortal beings, as those 
of King Arthur, Frederick Barbarossa, and Thomas 
the Rhymer, not to speak of Rip Van Winkle. These 
again he connects with immortals visiting the earth ; 
as Yima in Parsism, and the “ancient of days” in 
the books of Daniel and Enoch. Yima and Enoch, 
as well as Elijah, are also credited with immortality ; 
but there is no evidence of any connection of these 
names with the legend of the Wandering Jew which, 
as stated above, was put into currency in 1602 in 
Germany, by some one who was acquainted with 
the earlier form of the story known only in literary 
sources from Matthew Paris. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: G. Paris. Le Juif Errant, Paris, 1881; M.D, 
Conway, The Wandering Jew, London, 1881; H. Graetz, in 
Papers of the Anglo-Jewish Historical Exhibition, pp. 1-4: 
Basnage, Histoire des Juifs, v. 1834-1836, Rotterdam, 1707; 
Graesze, Der Tannhduser und der Ewige Jude, Dresden, 
1861; Jacob Bibliophile, in Curiosités des Croyances Popu- 


laires, pp. 105-141, Paris, 1859; Neubaur, Die Sage vom 
Ewigen Juden, 2d ed., Leipsic, 1893. J 


WANDSBECK: Town in Sleswick-Holstein, 
near Hamburg. About the year 1600 Count Breido 
Rantzau, owner of the estate of Wandsbeck, al- 
lowed Jews to settle there in consideration of a 
small yearly payment for protection. Many Jews 
availed themselves of this permission, attracted by 
the town’s proximity to Hamburg, where Jews were 
not allowed to settle at that time. According toa 
document of Nov, 10, 1637, Berend of Hagen, called 
Geist, feudal tenant of the Danish crown estate of 
Wandsbeck, ceded to the Jews a plot for a cemetery 
and permitted them “to perform their prayers and 
other rituals according to their customs.” 

In 1674 the community of Wandsbeck formed to- 
gether with those of Altona and Hamburg the 
“union of the three communities,” acknowledging 
as its spiritual head the chief rabbi of Altona, the 
first being R. Hillel ben Naphtali. The three com- 
munities continued united until 1811 (see ALTONA; 
HamMBurG). Wandsbeck had to pay one-eighth of 
the chief rabbi’s salary, Altona paying five-eighths, 
and Hamburg one-fourth. In 1688 the Jews of 
Wandsbeck obtained the right to receive into their 
congregation Jews living elsewhere, a payment 
being exacted for their protection. They made use 
of this privilege by forming a branch community in 
Hamburg, which soon became larger than the origi- 
nal community at Wandsbeck. Since 1710, when 
German Jews received unrestricted permission to 
settle in Hamburg, the community of Wandsbeck 
has diminished rapidly. Its relations with the com- 
munities of Altona and Hamburg were not always 


the best. In 1778 the Wandsbeck community was 
put under ban for having evaded payment of its 
share of the communal expenses for the support of 
the poor. Rabbi Jacob Emden was called upon te 
settle this dispute. 

For a list of the rabbis who officiated during the 
union of the three communities, from R. Solomon 
Mirels Neumark (d. 1706) to R. Zebi Hirsch Zamosz 
(d. 1807), see ALTONA. After the dissolution of the 
union in 1811, Wandsbeck remained under the rab- 


binate of Altona until the community in 1864 en- 


gaged Dr. Hanover (d. 1901) as its minister: he was 

succeeded by S. Bamberger, the present incumbent. 
An official list of the mentbers of the Wandsbeck 

community compiled in 1784 contains the names 
of 128 families (exclusive of unmarried members and 
widows). At present (1905) there are about sixty 

Jewish families in the town. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Nachrichten von der Geschichte und Ver- 
fassuny des Adlichen Gutes Wandsbeck, Hamburg, 1775; 
Haarbleicher, Zwei Bpochen aus der Geschichte der Deutsen- 
Israelitischen Gemeinde Hamburgs, ib. 1867: E. Dukesz, 


Twwah le-Moshab, Cracow, 1908; M. Grunwald, Hamburgs 
ae Juden bis zur Aufldsung der Dreigemeinden, ih. 


D. A. Fr, 


WANDSWORTH, LORD, SIDNEY 
STERN: English bankerand peer; born in London 
1845; son of Viscount de Stern, senior partner of 
the firm of Stern Brothers. He was educated at 
Magdalene College, Cambridge, and was for some 
time a member of the firm established by his father. 
He has, however, retired from business, and is now 
(1905) a justice of the peace for Surrey and London. 
an honorary colonel of the Fourth Volunteer Bat- 
talion of the East-Surrey Regiment, and vice-presi- 
dent of the London and Counties Radical Union. 
After several attempts to enter Parliament (Mid- 
Surrey, 1880, 1884; Tiverton, 1885; and Ipswich, 
1886) he was elected in May, 1891, by the Stowmar- 
ket division of Suffolk, which he represented until 
his elevation to the peerage (July 19, 1895), He is 
also a Portuguese viscount by hereditary right. 


Ey ochary Jew. Chron. Aug. 5, 1892; Jewish Year Book, 
5660. 
J. G. IL. 


WANEFRIEDEN, ELIAKIM GETSCH- 
LIK: Dayyan and preacher in Amsterdam about 
the end of the eighteenth century. He published a 
pamphlet entitled “Megillat Sefer” (Amsterdam. 
1790), containing some homilies, besides a eulogy of 
R. Saul Liéwenstamm, chief rabbi of Amsterdam. 
His family name points to Wannfried in Hesse as his 
birthplace, but he is not identical with the Eliakim 
Getschlik Wanefrieden who was rabbi in Kanitz, 
Moravia, about 1760 (“Die Deborah,” 1902. pp. 
70-71). The latter was probably the father of Jere- 
miah ben Eliakim Getschlik Wanefrieden, rabbi in 
Rausnitz, Moravia, and one of those who defended 
Jonathan EysBescut'tz against the charge of heresy 
(“ Luhot ‘Edut,” p. 29a, Altona, 1755). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: First, Bibl. Jud. iii. 493. D 


WAR.—Biblical Data: The earliest war re- 
corded in the Old Testament is that of the Elamitic 


king Chedorlaomer and his allies against the five 
kings of Sodom and its adjacent cities (Gen. xiv. 1 


War 


et seg.). The result of the conflict was the destruc- 
tion of the vanquished army in the field and the 
captivity of all the non-combatants, whose posses- 
sions became spoils of war. Inthe battle the troops 
were arranged in order (Gen. xiv. 8, R. V.), and the 
King of Sodom and his four allies displayed a cer- 
tain degree of strategy by fighting in a valley, al- 
though their plan proved unsuccessful. Some mod- 
ern scholars infer from the obscure passage IT Sam. 
xi. 1 that wars were regularly begun in the spring. 
In many instances negotiations were 
carried on through messengers or am- 
bassadors to avert bloodshed (Judges 
xi. 12-28; I Sam. xi. 1-10; I Kings xx. 2-11); and 
the Hebrews were expressly forbidden to make an 
attack without first demanding the surrender of the 
enemy (Deut. xx. 10 et seg.). The only instance in 
which war was declared without previous negotia- 
tions was that of the war between Amaziah, King of 
Judah, and Jehoash, King of Israel (II Kings xiv. 8). 
In addition to the various modes of DIVINATION 
employed by all the nations before setting out for 
war (comp. Ezek. xxi. 26 ef seg.), the Israelites 
consulted Yaw, who was not only their divin- 
ity, but also the war-god par excellence (comp. 
Ex. xv. 3, and the frequent phrase PINAY AYN), 
deciding whether they should begin the war and 
whether they would be successful (Judges i. 1; 
xx. 18, 28). In these passages the manner of con- 
suitation is not indicated, but from other sec- 
tions and from the Septuagint it may be inferred 
that the priest put on the ephod and stood before 
the Ark to consult the Crim and Thummim (Judges 
xx. 27-28; I Sam. xiv. 18, xxviii. 6, xxx. 7). Oc- 
casionally the divinities were consulted through 
dreams or prophets, or even through familiar spirits 
evoked by a witch (Judges vii. 18; I Sam. xxviii. 6 
et seqg.; I Kings xxii. 15). Troops were generally 
summoned by the blowing of a trumpet or the war- 
horn, which was likewise the signal that warned the 
people of an enemy’s approach (Judges iii. 27; IT 
Sam. xx. 1; comp. Ezek. xxxiii, 2-11), although 
sometimes banners were placed on the tops of high 
mountains or messengers were sent through the dif- 
ferent tribes of Israel (Judges vii. 24; I Sam. xi. 7; 
Isa. xiii. 2). Occasionally extraordinary means were 
used to arouse a popular feeling of indignation which 
would ultimately impel the nation to make war, as 
in the case of the Levite who cut the body of his 
concubine into twelve parts and sent them to the 
other tribes of Israel, thus kindling between them 
and the Benjamites the war which resulted in the 
destruction of the latter tribe (Judges xix. 29 ef seq. ; 
comp. also I Sam. xi. 7). 
The army of the Israelites was always accom- 
panied to the field by a priest, Phinehas having this 
post in the battle with the Midianites 
The War- (Num. xxxi. 6). It wasthe duty of 
Priest. the priest to care for the spiritual wel- 
fare of the soldiers and, before the at- 
tack, to encourage them and to inspire martial en- 
thusiasm in them (Deut. xx. 2-4). Sometimes, 
however, the high priest himself went upon the field, 
where he attended the Ark, which was carried into 
action quite as idols and images were borne into 
battle by the Philistines (I Sam. iv. 3-4; II Sam. v. 


Details. 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


464 


21, xi.11). Like other Semites, the Israelites began 
a& war with burnt offerings and fasting (Judges vi. 
20, 26; xx. 26; I Sam. vii. 9, xiii. 10), this explain- 
ing the frequency of the phrase “to sanctify war,” 
and the epithet “sanctified” as applied to warriors 
(Micah iii. 5; Isa. xiii. 3; Jer. vi. 4, xxii. 7). A sin- 
gle instance is recorded, though in obscure terms, of 
a human sacrifice as a burnt offering in a time of 
extreme danger (II Kings iii. 27). According to a 
passage of TD, furthermore, the officers of the He- 
brew troops were required to proclaim before a battle 
that whosoever had betrothed a wife and had not 
taken her, or had built a house and had not dedicated 
it, or had planted a vineyard and had not eaten of it, 
or was fearful and faint-hearted, should return home 
(Deut. xx. 5-9). This regulation was actually car- 
ried out under the Maccabees (I Mace. iti. 56), which 
shows that the document is of a post-exilic date. 

From the geographical condition of Palestine, 
the raid was the favorite mode of warfare both 
among the Hebrews and among the other Semites 
(Gen. xlix. 19; I Sam. xiii. 17, xxvii. 8; II] Sam. fii. 
22; II Kings xiii. 20), although in the 
course of time regular battles were 
fought, and in certain cases tactics of 
modern warfare were employed. The first instance 
recorded was in the battle of Gibeah between the 
tribes of Israel] and the Benjamites (Judges xx. 30 
et seq.). After laying an ambush behind the city, 
the Israelites pretended to flee from the Benjamites, 
thus enticing the latter from their fortified positions. 
Suddenly the Israelites wheeled, and the Benjamites 
found themselves outflanked on all sides. It is also 
probable that in the battle of Gilboa between the 
Philistines and the army of Saul, the Philistines re- 
sorted to strategy by striking northward at the plain 
of Esdraelon instead of attacking the Israelites by 
the shorter route from the southwest. By this de- 
vice, which proved completely successful, the Phi- 
listines lured Saul’s army from the valleys, where a 
stout defense could be offered, to the open plain, 
where the Israelites might be overwhelmed by sheer 
force of numbers (I Sam. xxviii. 1-xxxi.7). Astrong 
army was sometimes divided so that the enemy 
might be attacked from different directions (Gen. 
xiv. 15; II Sam. xviii. 2), and ambuscades were 
often used with success (Josh. xiil. 10-28; Judges 
xx. 80-44; II Kings vi. 8-9). Night marches were 
particularly in favor with the Hebrews; thus Joshua 
marched at night, Gideon assailed the Midianites 
about midnight, and Saul attacked the Ammonites 
before dawn (Josh. x, 9; Judges vii. 19; I Sam. xi. 
11). It may be noted that night marches were made 
by other Semites as well, for Nebo was captured 
from the Israelites by Mesha, King of Moab, after 
such a march (Moabite Inscription, line 15). An in- 
stance is likewise recorded in which the Philistines 
chose a champion who challenged one of the oppo- 
sing army to a duel to decide the fate of both forces 
(I Sam. xvii. 4 et seg.). Such proceedings were 
afterward much in vogue among the Arabs in their 
pre-Islamic tribal conflicts. 

Fortresses played an important part in war, espe- 
cially in defense. In early times the Israelites 
were unable to reduce the fortified cities of the in- 
habitants of the land, and consequently had no means 


Raids. 


465 


of defense except to hide themselves in caves or 
mountains (Judges vi. 2; I Sam. xiii. 6; comp. Isa. 

ii. 21); but in the regal period they 
Fortresses. became so proficient in the art of war- 

fare that they not only reduced the 
fortresses of the enemy, beginning with Jerusalem (II 
Sam. v. 7 e¢ seg.), but also built many fortified cities. 
The chief method of reducing one of these towns 
seems to have been to throw up around the walls 
a bauk, from which the archers might shoot their 
arrows into the place; while an instance is recorded 
from an earlier period in which the gates of a city 
were set on fire (Judges ix. 48 et seq.). According 
to a marginal note on I Kings xx. 12, R. V., the 
Syrians used engines in their effort to reduce Samaria, 
while similar machines were frequently employed in 
addition to the battering-ram for breaching walls in 
the time of Ezekiel (Ezek. iv. 2, xxvi, 8-9), The 
strength of the walls and the efficiency of the be- 
leaguering army naturally conditioned the length of 
a siege. Thus Jericho, which fell in consequence 
of a miracle, was taken after a continuous onslaught 
of seven days (Josh. vi. 3 e¢ seg.), but the Syrian 
sieges in Samaria were doubtless lengthy since they 
entailed terrible famines, and Jerusalem was cap- 
tured by the Babylonians only after a siege of two 
years, despite the systematic operations of Nebu- 
chadnezzar (II Kings xxv. 1-4). In their sieges the 
Hebrews were forbidden to fell fruit-trees for use in 
building bulwarks against the fortified city (Deut. 
xx, 19-20). 

The accounts of wars in the patriarchal period 
show that the conquered peoples were reduced to 
captivity and their property was taken as spoils of 
war. In the case of the Shechemites, all the males 
were massacred by the sons of Jacob, while the 
women and children and all their possessions were 
carried off as booty (Gen. xxxiv. 25-29). Later, ac- 
cording to a document belonging to D (Deut. xx. 
10-17), the Hebrews were commanded to make a 
wide distinction between the inhabitants of the land 
whom they were to replace and the Gentiles out- 
side the land. Mildness was to be shown the latter 
in case they surrendered without fighting and sub- 
mitted to pay tribute. If they were subdued by 
force of arms, however, every man was to be slain, 

while the women, children, cattle, and 
Treatment all else should belong to the victors. 
of Far different was to be the treatment 

Captives. of the inhabitants of the land, who 

were to beslaughtered without excep- 
tion, not even the cattle being left alive. If this 
passage is of early date, it is evident that the com- 
mand with regard to the inhabitants of the land was 
only partially executed, since, excepting the thirty- 
one kings enumerated in Josh. xii. 9-24, the greater 
part remained unconquered, and the Israclites were 
obliged to live with the very Gentiles whom they 
had been bidden to exterminate (comp. Josh. xviii. 
2-3: Judges i. 21-85). Even when the Israelites 
proved victorious, they often granted the inhabit- 
ants their lives, and subjected them only to tribute 
(Judges i. 28, 30, 38, 35). At a later period, how- 
ever, gross cruelty was practised both by the He- 
brews and by the other nations. After having de- 
feated the Moabites, David cast them down to the 


SU.—30 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


War 


ground and measured them with a line, putting to 
death two lines and keeping one alive (II Sam. viii. 
2), While he put the Ammonites under saws, har- 
rows, and axes of iron and made them pass through 
the brick-kiln (@d. xii. 81). Menahem, King of Israel, 
the Syrians, and the Ammonites are charged with 
the massacre of pregnant women (II Kings viii. 12, 
xv. 16; Amos i. 18); and Amaziah is described as 
causing ten thousand Edomite captives to be hurled 
from a cliff (II Chron. xxv. 12), while in some in- 
stances children were dashed against rocks (Ps. 
CXXXVii. 9). 

There are instances of treaties of peace in which 
conditions were imposed by the victors on their de- 
feated foes. The first treaty recorded is that which 
Nahash, King of Ammon, proposed to the people of 

Jabesh-gilead, and which was marked 
Conditions by the savagery of the Ammonite 
of Peace. king, the terms being that the right 
eye of every inhabitant of the city 
should be put out (I Sam, xi. 2). A treaty which 
might almost have been made in modern times, on 
the other hand, was drawn up between Ben-hadad 
and Ahab; by it the cities previously captured 
from Israel were to be restored, while Ahab had the 
right of making streets in Damascus, the same con- 
ditions having been previously imposed on the 
father of Ahab by Ben-hadad’s father (I Kings xx. 
34). Sennacherib, in the treaty with Hezekiah by 
which he withdrew his army from Judah, exacted 
a heavy indemnity from the Jewish king (II Kings 
xviii. 14). The victors generally returned home in 
triumphal processions and celebrated their victories 
with songs and festivals (Judges v. 1 e¢ seq., xi. 34, 
Xvi. 28; comp. Prism Inscription, col. 1, line 53, in 
Schrader, “K. B.,” ii. 141 e¢ seq.). 

The wars in the earlier period were religious in 
character and thus had the sanction of the Prophets. 
Deborah herself urged Barak to make war on Sisera 
and accompanied him into the field (Judges iv. 6 e¢ 
seqg.), While Elisha exhorted Joash, King of Israel, to 
prosecute the war with Syria and advised the allied 

kings toavail themselves of stratagem 
Attitude of against the Moabitish army (II Kings 
the iv. 16 e¢ seq., xii. 14-19), and an anon- 
Prophets. ymous prophet encouraged Ahab to 
battle with Ben-hadad (I Kings xx, 
13-14), Naturally the Prophets were opposed to 
war among the tribes of Israel, and when Reho- 
boam wished to resort to arms to recover his lost 
sovereignty over the ten tribes, he was prevented by 
the prophet Shemaiah (zd. xii. 21-24). Jn later times 
the Prophets considered war from a political point 
of view, and Jeremiah, seeing that hostilities against 
the Babylonians would be to the detriment of the 
Israelites, always advised the latter to submit to the 
stronger people and live in peace with them (Jer. 
XXvii, 12 et passim). War in general was represented 
by the Later Prophets only in its horrible aspect, and 
many of them, particularly Isaiah, longed for the 
time when there would be no more war, and when 
weapons should be transformed into agricultural 
implements ({sa. ti. 4; Micah iv. 8; and elsewhere). 
See ARMY; FORTRESS. 
——_-In Rabbinical Literature: The Rabbis laid 
special stress on the distinction between obligatory 


War 
Warranty of Title 


war (“milhemet mizwah,” or “milhemet hobah”) 
and voluntary war (“milhemet ha-reshut”). The 
former category comprised the campaigns against 
the seven nations who inhabited the land, the battles 
against Amalek, and the repulse of an enemy attack- 
ing an Israelitish city; while the latter class denoted 
any war waged for the extension of Jewish territory. 
Obligatory war had the priority, nor was it neces- 
sary for the king to ask the permission of the San- 
hedrin to levy troops, since he could compel the 
people to take the field. Voluntary war, on the 
other hand, could be declared only by the Great San- 
hedrin of seventy-one members. Although certain 
persons were permitted by Deut. xx. 5 et seg. to 
leave the field before a battle began, this was al- 
lowed, according to rabbinical opinion, only in case 
ofa voluntary war. Nosuch leave of withdrawal was 
granted in an obligatory war, but, on the contrary, 
even a bridegroom and bride were obliged to leave 
their nuptial chamber and join the army (Sotah 44b; 
Sanh. 2a, 20b; Maimonides, “ Yad,” Melakim, v. 
1-2). The Rabbis differed greatly regarding the 
terms of peace to be offered the inhabitants of a be- 
leaguered city (Deut. xx. 10 et seg.). According to 
Sifre, Deut. 199, which was followed by Rashi (on 
Deut. l.c.), peace might be proposed only ina volun- 
tary war, while in an obligatory war no terms should 
be allowed. It would appear, however, from Lev. 
R. xvii. 6and Deut. R. v. 13 that peace might be 
offered even in an obligatory war, and this was es- 
tablished as a law by Maimonides (J.c. vi. 1; comp. 
Nahmanideson Deut, /.c.). According to both Mai- 
monides and Nahmanides, the command of exter- 
mination which was imposed regarding the seven 
nations (Deut. xx. 16-17) was applied only in case 
the beleaguered people refused to surrender. The 
submission in consideration of which the conquered 
were granted their lives had to be complete, since 
they were required to accept the seven command- 
ments of the Noachide, and were obliged to pay 
tribute and to recognize their condition of servitude 
(Maimonides, J.c.). 

In direct opposition to the obvious interpretation 
of Deut. xx. 5-9, the Rabbis declared that all the 
proclamations contained in that passage were made 
by the priest anointed as the chaplain of the army 
(“meshuah milhamah”), and the verses were inter- 
preted as meaning that the priest made the proclama- 
tious and the officers repeated them to the troops, 
who could not hear the priest (Sotah 48a; Maimon- 
ldes, Zc. vil. 1,4; comp. Sifre, Deut. 193). A 
Jewish army was forbidden to begin the siege of 
a Gentile city less than three days before the Sab- 
bath, butit might continue its operations on that day 
even in a voluntary war. The army was permitted 
to encamp in any place, and the slain soldiers were 
to be buried in the place where they had fallen, 
since the combat had made it their own. 

The Jewish soldiers enjoyed four privileges: they 
might take wood anywhere without incurring the 
charge of robbery; they were permitted to eat fruit 
even though it was not certain that it had been 
properly tithed (“demai”); and they were exempt 
from washing their hands and from “ ‘erube hazerot ” 
(Shab. 19a; ‘Er. 17a; Tosef., ‘Er, iv. [iii.] 7; see also 
‘ErRvB). In besieging a Gentile city, the troops 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


466 


were commanded to invest it on three sides and 
to leave one side free so that any one who wished 
might escape from the town (Maimonides, J.e. vi. 
7). During the seven years consumed by Joshua’s 
conquest of Palestine the Israelitish soldiers were 
allowed to eat any food which they found in the 
houses of the Gentiles, even though such provisions 
were forbidden under all other circumstances (Hull. 
1%a; Maimonides, @.c. viii. 1). 

B.C: M. SEL. 

WARBURG: Family whose members are widely 
spread throughout Germany, Denmark, Sweden, 
England, and America. There is a tradition that 
the family was originally settled at Bologna, but 
emigrated to the Westphalian town of Warburg, 
whence it removed to Altona, near Hamburg. 

The earliest known bearer of the name is Levi 
Joseph Warburg, whoseson Jacob Samuel died 
in 1667 at Altona. From him are descended two 
branches, one through Samuel Moses Warburg 
(died 1759), known also as “Frankfurter,” and the 
other through Samuel Reuben Warburg (died 
1756), whose grandson R. D. Warburg (1778-1847) 
founded the firmof Warburgin Hamburg. Samuel 
Moses Warburg had four sons: from the eldest, 
Moses (died 1752), are descended the present branch 
at Altona and the Copenhagen family of Delbanco, 
which adopted that surname. The second, Gum- 
prich (died 1801), was the father of Moses Marcus 
Warburg (died 1830), who founded the firm of Moses 
Marcus Warburg & Co., of Hamburg. The third, 
Elia Samuel Warburg, said to. have been a 
teacher of mathematics in Altona, took part in the 
Emden-Eybeschiitz quarrel. He was the founder 
of two large branches of the Warburg family. Sam- 
uel Elias Warburg (died 1826) was the ancestor 
of most of the Hamburg and American Warburgs 
of to-day. The youngestsonof Elia, Simon Elias 
Warburg (1760-1828), settled in Géteborg as a 
merchant, founding there a branch of his brother 
Samuel’s firm at Hamburg. He was one of the 
founders of the Géteberg synagogue, and his two 
sons, Samuel (1800-81) and Michael, were the 
first Jews permitted to enter the public service 
in Sweden. The former married Emma Gliick- 
stadt, his cousin, and was a writer on economic sub- 
jects, and a member of the Board of National Debt 
Department from 1867 to 1879. He was decorated 
with the Order of the North Star in 1860 (“ Nordisk 
Familjebok,” xvii.). 

The following members of the family have distin- 
guished themselves: Moritz Gumprecht War- 
burg, who settled at Manchester asa merchant, but 
showed literary taste, and published Shakesveare’s 
sonnets in German; Carl Simon Warburg, third 
son of Samuel Warburg (1835-65); he was the editor 
of “Svensk Monadsskrift,” in which Mill’s and Dar 
win’s works were first presented to the Swedish 
public: Frederick Elias Warburg, second son of 
Samuel Warburg (born at Stockholm in 1832: died 
in London in 1899); as a director of the Electric 
Traction Company he was one of the founders of 
the Central London Electric Railway ; Moritz War- 
burg (born in 1810 at Altona; died there in 1886), 
who was educated for the law, and ultimately be- 
came “Justizrat” and represented Altona in the 


Hosted by Google 


Moses (Mozenah) W. 
(d. 17OU) 
= (1) Hitzel Heil but 
(A. 1698): 
= (2) Reiza Gumprecht 
(dad. L699) 


Sehmui (Samuel) W. 
(d. 1759; called ** Frankfurter ”’) 
= Raehel Ruben 
(ad. 1770) 
i 


Mausche 8S. W. 
(d. 1752) 


Levi Joseph Warburg 
(fh. c. 1600) 


Jacob Samuel W 


d, 1687) 
= Rahei Reiza Samson 
td, 1673 


DN fetes el ee che tes st inie 


oe 


Samson W, 
(ad. 1712) 


Samuel S. W. 
(d, 1742) = Esther L6b 


Samson Samuel] W. 
(d. 1769) 


Hirsch Samson W. (d. 1844) 
(issue) 


ee eee 
Guniprich 8. W, 


Eilje (Elias Samuel) W. 
(at. 1801) d 


. 1804) 
= (1) Jeannette Heilbut ; (2) Sch6nehe Delbanco 


Simon (Simle) 8. W. 
(b. 1718; d. 1808) 
= (1) Jetle Delbanco; (2) Esther Delbanco: 


i 6 


Isaac Reuben W. 
(ad. 17229) 


= — Delbancr ; i 
l 2 5 (3) Siisse Heilbut 
—= ee te ee ; eee | 
| Mausche G. W. Shimon G. W. ; | ; = a 
Solomon M. W. Elias M. W. Delbanco (d. 1830) (d. 1836) Schmul E. W. Samle E. W. Simle (Simon Elias) W. 
(d. 182. = Penina Henriques = Rischen = Zerline (d. 1826) (da. 1824) (bh. 17603 d. 1828) Esther W. Isak W. (rumpreebt S. W. 
= (1) Zippora Leidesdorf (ud. 1799); | Hanan Kronacher = Mariamne =(1)-—-Von Halle; = Aippora Henriques = Jacob (bo. 1786: d. 1857) (b. 1788; d. 1850) 
(2) Sara Curjel Moses Delbanco (d. 1844) Meyer (2) SUsschen Rintel | Heilbut = Fanny Haarbleicher 
(Kancelliraad, Copenhagen; Sarchen W. (issue) 
o— hl 1784-1848) (1805-84) | a ; | - | pov tad 
I = Bieta kK ct = PW, : EF eee + 1 
Moses S. W. Wolf SW. Samuel S. W. ie Rae co | Aby Samuel W. Wilhelm Aaron Moritz GW. Emma W. 
(a. 1842) (d. I854) (a. 1858) ; a i (b. 1798; (Michel) W. Samilel W. (b. 1827) (bh. 1829) | 
= Susanne Eschwege = Betty founder of the Simon Vilhelm Delbanco (ee 7 d. 1856) (b. ES: d. 1850 | = Jane Franks = Bernhard ! 
Lazarus “SS. Warburg (b. 1815) rye 5 mee = Sarchen W. = Itanchen W, (issue) Behrens | 
Stiftiine ” = Emma Caroline Jacobson Gumprich Elias Simon W. (b. 1805: | 
Poa MG. (1828-80) (Marcus) W. (1803-70) d. 1884) eae = ——— a a ah 
Louis W Fduard W. eaten | (d. 1885) =: Fanny Meyer ri Rae ore | | | 
(b. 1807) (py. ISB: d. 1893) cn one Se (1809-55) | Adolph W. Gustav W. Rachel W. Rosa W. Samuelo W. Michael 8. W. Jeanna W. 
= (1) Julie (2) Mariamne ~ Uy” 2 | . | | | = Emma = Emma (b. 1796) (b. 1799; (b. 1300; (b. 1802; (b. 1805; 
By gest ae Meyer Israel Andres Christian Wilhelm = Ferdinand [fa se | Flesh Seligman = Samuel d. 1874) d. 1881) d. 1868) d. 1880) 
| aga) fence easy ea 1388) G ustav w Albert W | MBSE) (issue) Henriques = Levy Fiirst- ee Ae gal cones eave ira 
cee ron V ’ Lb. 184: “bane D. 2505 . xUSEDV NW. PAS enberg Gluickstadt alomonsen 1 is 
(1845-80) Kan eu) Max Anton W. = Jobn W. = Gerta (b. 1851) = Johanne (issue) (b. 1833) (b. 1840; : a I | ‘ ‘(b. 1809: ne 
; (b. 1846) (b. 1851) Rindskopff Lindquist = Flora Elkan d. 1892) be te d. 1881) gt ee Bae ge 
= Clara = Henriette (issue) (issue) (issue) Mariamne W. Susette W. Siegfried W. 
(issue) {issue} | = 8. Wolff = David = Ellen Josephson = Jacob Elias W. Johann W 
Hildesheimer (issue) M. Bing = (b, 1840) (b, 1852) 
| (issue) = Pauline = Betty 
eth ce ape oh eB eet ee ee ea ena ee ee | | Drucker = Drucker 
po 7 a , 
| | | | 
Mariainne W. Sie~mund W. Jenny W. Moritz W. (b. 1838) Frederie Elias W. Carl Simon W. Moritz W. aE 


Amatie W. Rosa W. 


(b. 1881) (th. 1833) = — Zagury (b, 1835; ad. 1889) : ‘ ] 
= Adolph Goldschmidt = Pauw Sebiff = Theophilia Rosenberg = Michael Firth Oppenheim = Emma Jane Raphael author) = Annie Ware 
(issue named Ware) 
a rt ee wows ee ee oo woe eee oo" a ——_ - —-. fat he 
—_ | | | | | | [oo se) | 
Mathilde W. Aby W. Alina W. Rosa W Georg W. Aby M. W. Max M. W. Paul M. W. Felix M. W. Olga W. Louise W. Fritz M. W. John Anson W. Lily W. Oscar Emanuel W. 
(b. 1863) (b. L864) (b. 1856) (ob. Lasth th. L874) (b. 1866) (b. 1867) (b. 1868) (b. 1841) (b, 1878) (b. 1879) (h. 1879) (b, 1867) (b. 1868) (b. 1876) 
= Prof. Mare = (1) Olga = Dr. J. M. = Baron A = Lucie Kaulla = Mary Hertz = Alice Magnus = Mira Loeb = Frieda Schiff Mig Paul = Dr. = Violet Sichel = Erik Philipson = Catherine Byrns 
Rosenberg Leonino; Blumenfeld von Gunzburg (issue) (issue) (issue) (issue) (issue) Kohnspeyer Derenberg (issue) 
(issue) =: (2) Elly (issue) (issue) 
Simon ase oe ee oh 
(issue) — = 


(1836-94) = Charlotte Esther (b. 1832) 


(b. 1835; d. 1865; 


(b. 1841) 


Samuel Reuben W. (a. 1756) | 


Daniel Gedalja W. (qd. 1790) 
=: Guendel ei aes (d. 1821) 


2 5 


-_-———— 


~ ee. 


Ruben Daniel W. 

(bh. L778: a. Vk4) 

= Sophie Bondy 
| 


Samuel D. W. 
= Bliiinchen Steinthal 
(issue) 


— 


i \ 
Daniel Rudolph W. Siegmund R. W. 


| 
Wilhelm R. W. 


(b. 1804; d. 1883) = —— Tachau = Anne Goldschmidt 
= Caroline Brit (issue) 
| 
Ferdinand W. Ida W. Rudolph D. W. Otto W. Sophie W. 
(b. 1844) = Henry = Anna Barxhall = Anna Cohen = Dr. W. Herschel 
= Luise Voss Oppenheimer (issue) 


(issue) 


i 
Marcus Daniel W. Solomon Daniel W. 


Kalman W. 


Jacob Kalman W. 


(a. 1774) 


Heiman J. W. 


(d. 18384) (b. 1778; d. 1869) . 1806) 
= Johanna Levy = Jetle Delbanco 
| feerean (issue) Jacob H. W. 
| : ~ | (Hamburg) (b. | 
Daniel M. W. TT aa Hetty W. Adolph W. Angust W. Kdward Marcus w. > ‘(pea Volt 
= Ida Cohen (b, 18045 4. 1894) (b. 1806; d. 1881) (Philadelphia) (b. 1815; ad. 1893) (d. 1891) 
= —— Lassen = Cecilia Cohen = Wilhelmina Kahlen >= Elise Strom 
Emil W. (issne) 
<= Gertrude Gartner Eduard Lassen —=——> 7 | Henry W. 
issue om b. ; a. 185 
va ees Ida W. Tony W. Eduard Martin W. Otto Daniel W. eee aecue ana 
= Prof. L. (b. 1848) (b. 1844; d. 1886) 
Teep = Caroline Dreyer 


(issue) 


WarBCRG Prnigrer. 


Simeon J. W. 


(d. 1815) 


John W. 
780: ad. 1860) 
(London) 


= Betsy W. 


ae 


Simeon W. 
(b. 1827; d. 1893) 
= Eliza Morris 


J. 


Hosted by Google 


467 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


War 
Warranty of Title 


Reichstag ; Moritz’s second son, Jacob (born 1848), 
who was killed in battle during the Franco-Prussian 
war; and Moritz’s eldest son, Albert (born 1843), 
who has been appointed “ Commerzienrat.” 

Of the London branch, founded by Mendel Mar- 
tin Warburg (born 1789; died 1877), the younger 
son, James, has settled at Manchester, where he 
is known as a musician. Moses Delbanco (born 
1784; died 1848) attained the distinguished position 
of “ Cancelliraad ” at Copenhagen. Aby Warburg 
(born 1866) is known as an art critic and historian. 
Karl Johann Warburg (born in 1852 at Stock- 
holm) is a historical and biographical writer of im- 
portance, has been appointed Jibrarian of the Nobel 
Institute, and isa member of the Upper House of 
Sweden. Otto Warburg studied at Berlin, where 
heis now professor of natural history, and is promi- 
nent in the Zionist movement. Emil Warburg is 
a professor at Freiburg and Charlottenburg. One 
of the daughters of Marcus Warburg married R. 
Lassen, and her son was the composer and musical 
director, Eduard Lassen. 

Felix M. Warburg (born in 1871 at Hamburg) 
settled in New York, where he joined the firm of 
Kuhn, Loeb & Co. He is at present (1905) commis- 
sioner of education in the city of New York, and is 
also one of the trustees of the Jewish Theological 
Seminary of America. 

One of the striking features of the family history 
of the Warburgs is the practically world-wide ex- 
tent of their wanderings and ultimate distribution, 
the following places being mentioned in their pedi- 
gree: 


Altona Mejbourne Stockholm 
Glickstadt Goteborg Cassel 

Grindel Copenhagen South America 
Hamburg Wandsbeck Havana 
London Philadeiphia Leeds 

India Tokyo Géttingen 
Holstein Shanghai Hanau 

Berlin Lineburg Paris 

Hanover Manchester New York 
Freiburg 


Equally remarkable is the variety of occupations 
which the various members of this family have 
taken up or married into. Among those mentioned 
may be enumerated: 


Saddlemaker Paper manufac- | “Commerzienrat” 
* Cancelliraad ” turer ** Justizrat”’ 
Merchant Stationer Soldier 

Banker Ribbon merchant. Photographer 
Bookseller Joiner (wholesale) {Company director 
Horsehair-dealer Shohet Doctor 

Clock manufacturer | Shawl manufac | Librarian 

Book censor turer Fditor 

Art eritic Tobacconist Naturalist 

Wool dyer Lieutenant, R. N. Professor 

Author Musician Composer 

Consul 


J 


Moritz Warburg: German jurist; born at Al- 
tona June 8, 1810; died there April 15, 1886. He 
studied at the colleges of Wolfenbiittel and Altona, 
and at the universities of Heidelberg and Kiel. His 
studies completed, he settled in Altona, where he 
practised law for over forty years; in 1879 he was 
appointed a counselor of justice. Warburg’s name 
is connected with the stirring events of 1848, in 
which year he was elected to the Sleswick- Holstein 


bad or defective title. 


constituent assembly, remaining a member of that 
body for twenty-two consecutive years, 


BIBLIOGRAPHY : Jew. Chron. April 23, 1886. 
Ss. L. R. 


Otto Warburg: German botanist: born in 
Hamburg July 20, 1859. From 1879 to 1883 he 
studied at the universities of Bonn, Berlin, and Stras- 
burg. Having graduated from the last-named uni- 
versity, he continued his studies at Munich and 
Tiibingen; and from 1885 until 1889 he traveled 
through southern and eastern Asia. He settled in 
Berlin and became privat-docent in botany at the 
university in 1891. Inthe following year he wasap- 
pointed teacher of tropical botany and agriculture at 
the Oriental Seminary, and received the title of pro- 
fessor in 1897. A few years ago Warburg began to 
interest himself in Jewish agricultural colonization, 
for which purpose he visited the East in 1900, 1901, 
and 1903; and he founded the first Jewish settlements 
in Asia Minor. He worked as an active administra- 
tive member of the Esra, an organization for the 
agricultural movement among the German Jews, and 
in connection therewith founded in Palestine the 
Neuhof Agricultural Society. 

Warburg is the author of: “Monographie der My- 
risticaceen,” in “Nova Acta Leopoldina,” vol. 58 
(1897)—the De Candolle prize essay: “ Die Muskat- 
nuss, Ihre Geschichte, Botanik, Kultur, Handel-Ver- 
wertung” (Leipsic, 1897); “ Pandanacee,” part iii. of 
“ Pflanzenreich ” (2d. 1900); “ Die Kautschuk pflanzen 
und Ihre Kultur” (Berlin, 1901); “Monsunia. Bei- 
trige zur Kenntniss der Vegetation des Siid- und 
Ostasiatischen Monsungebietes” (Leipsic. 1901); 
“Die Kunene-Sambesi Expedition,” 1908, published 
by the Colonial Agricultural Committee in Berlin. 

From 1897 to 1908 Warburg was the publisher and 
editor of “ Der Tropenpflanzer,” a journal of tropical 
agriculture and the organ of the Colonial Agricul- 
tural Committee. He is besides one of the principal 
collaborators on the Zionistic periodicals “ Paliis- 
tina” and “ Altneuland.” Warburg is also chairman 
of the Palestine Commission of the Zionist Congress 
and a member of the smaller Actions Comité. 


WARNING. 


WARRANTY OF TITLE: The Hebrew term 
for warranty of title is NY INN (= “future ”), the 
same word denoting the force of an attested deed 
which served as a mortgage on all lands owned by 
the debtor at the time of its delivery. Whenever 
lands or slaves were sold by deed, it was customary 
to insert a clause by which the seller bound himself 
to reimburse the buyer for any loss arising from a 
The custom must have been 
very ancient; for similar clauses, which were tre- 
quently quite elaborate, are found in some of the 
oldest deeds of conveyance among the Assyrians and 
Babylonians. Warranty of title was implied. how: 
ever, in every sale, whether of slaves, land. or chat 
tels (Maimonides, “ Yad,” Mekirah, xix. 3: Shul- 
han ‘Aruk, Hoshen Mishpat, 225), thus agreeing 
with the Talmudic saying (B. M. 15b) that an omis 
sion of the warranty was regarded as a mere over 
sight of the draftsman and was supplied by the 
courts. The parties to the sale were accordingly 


fi 


See HaTRaA’AH, 


Warrens 
Warsaw 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


468 


required to make a special agreement toexempt the 
seller from all responsibility, such a document re- 
leasing him from every claim against him, even if 
goods iad been sold him which were later claimed 
by the true owner, who had been deprived of them 
by robbery. The most dangerous flaw in the title 
seems to have been an outstanding bond against the 
seller, or against his grantor or ancestor, thus afford- 
ing an opportunity to levy for debt on the thing sold. 

The warranty secured the buyer not only against 
the loss of his lands or slaves, but also against the 
payment of mesne profits (NIN°5 ndosy), which he 
might otherwise have had to give the true owner 
for withholding possession; but the covenant of 
warranty, as far as it covered this uncertain and un- 
liquidated liability, could be levied only on “ free 
property,” not on “subjected property ” (see DEED). 
The Mishnah refers incidentally to mesne profits and 
to their inclusion in a warranty (Git. v. 3), and thus 
Jimits the remedy (see Tort). The codes held that 
the ordinary and the implied warranty of title could 
be broken and give rise to a suit against the war- 
rantor only in case the buyer was evicted or com- 
pelled to pay a bond debt by a Jewish court, al- 
though either the decision of a Gentile court or an 
adverse title appearing on the records Kept by the 
Gentiles was to be deemed an overpowering force. 
Such a force might, however, have a special pro- 
tective warranty, just as the seller might warrant 
against the loss of his field through the action ofa 
neighboring river. 

E. ¢. L. N. D. 


WARRENS, ROSA: Swedish poet and trans- 
lator: born at Karlskrona Feb. 24, 1821; died at 
topenhagen Nov. 8, 1878. At the age of five she 
went with her parents to Hamburg, where she re- 
mained until her father’s death in 1861. She then 
moved to Berlin with her mother, and after the lat- 
ter’s death in the summer of 1878, she settled at 
Copenhagen. She devoted herself chiefly to Swe- 
dish literature and Norse mythology, translating into 
German the northern folk-songs in the original 
meters. The fruitsof these studies were the follow- 
ing volumes: “Swedische Volkslieder der Vorzeit ” 
(1856): “ Danische Volkslieder ” (1858) ; “ Schottische 
Volkslieder” (1861); “Zwei Lieder der Edden” 
(1863); “Norwegische Volkslieder,” “ Isliindische 
Volkslieder,” and “Finnische Volkslieder” (1868). 
A volume of her original poems appeared in 1878. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Alig. Deutsche Biographie; Franz Briimmer, 

Deutsche Dichter und Prosaisten des Neunzehnten Jahkr- 

hunderts; Lina Morgenstern, Die Frauen des Neunzehnten 
Jahrhunderts. 

8. R. N, 

WARS OF THE LORD, BOOK OF THE 
in nondy "2D): A work mentioned in a single 
passage of the Old Testament (Num. xxi. 14) in 
connection with the geographical position of Arnon. 
The title suggests that the book contained songs 
celebrating the victories of the Israclites led by 
Yuwu, and it seems, therefore, to have been similar 
to the Book of JASHER or possibiy even identical 
with it, though there is no evidence to support the 
latter hypothesis. Modern scholars regard Num. 
XXi. 17-18, 27 e¢ seq. as extracts from the same book 
(comp Nahmanides on Num, xxi. 14); and since 


some of the facts there mentioned refer to an epoch 
far subsequent to the Mosaic period, the last citation 
being supposed by Stade (“ Gesch. des Volkes Israel,” 
i. 50) to refer to the time of Omri’s dynasty, the date 
of its composition is variously placed in the ninth 
century B.c. or in the reigns of David and Solomon 
(Reuss, “Gesch. der Heiligen Schrift,” p. 172). It 
must be noted, however, that the Septuagint, read- 
ing fin nonby, renders the title of the book Tlé2eno¢ 
tov Kvptov, and refers its contents to one particular 
war of Yuwu. The verse which is said to be ex- 
tracted from the book is extremely obscure, and the 
words 7BHiD2 IA) AN in particular are variously but 
unsatisfactorily interpreted. The Septuagint ren- 
ders them r7v Zwd8 éddadyice, apparently reading 
Aw ant MX, which is unintelligible in meaning, 
though it evidently contains some allusion to Diza- 
hab. Jerome, following Onkelos, translated IA) AN 
“he did,” although it rather means “he gave.” 
Among Jewish commentators only Ibn Ezra and 
Nahmanides postulated the existence of a “ Book of 
the Wars of YuwH”; according to the former the 
work had been written before the time of Abraham. 
They also advanced the theory that Waheb was the 
name of a place where the Israclites had waged wars 
against their enemies. The Targumim understood 
“the book” to denote the “ Pentateuch” and _ inter- 
preted the passage as meaning: “ Therefore it is said 
in the Book, the wars which Yuwu,” etc., while 
Rashi and RaSHBaM translated 95D23 “in the act of 
narrating.” Sayce (“The Academy,” Oct. 22, 1892) 
follows the Targumim in the general translation of 
the passage, except that he adopts the Septuagint 
reading 37} instead of 37), and he accordingly dis- 
poses of the theory that such a book ever existed. 
8. M. SEL, 


WARSAW: Capital of the Russo-Polish gov- 
ernment of the same name, and former capital of the 
kingdom of Poland; situated on the left bank of the 
Vistula. According to Polish writers, the earliest 
settlement of Jews in Warsaw dates from the thir- 
teenth century, and their influence at that time is 
indicated by a number of documents in Hebrew 
script preserved in the local archives. They at 
first resided on the Jewish street near the present 
Dunai street, whence they spread to other quarters 
of the city, acquiring houses and lands, possessing a 
cemetery, and owning a synagogue near St. John’s 
Church. 

As in other cities, their growing influence awa- 
kened commercial and social antagonism among the 
citizens. The Christian merchants endeavored to 
rid themselves of their Jewish competitors by in- 
sisting on the strict application of the MAGDEBURG 
Law, and continued their propaganda with varying 
success until 1525, when Prince Janush of Mazovia 
issued a decree which forbade the Jews to reside in 
Warsaw or to pursue mercantile or industrial occupa- 
tions in the city. This measure was not strictly en- 
forced, however, for two years later Sigismund I. 
was obliged to issue a similar decree with an addi- 
tional clause which debarred the Jews from residence 
even in the suburbs of Warsaw. This decree likewise 
proved ineffective, since the Jews who were driven 
from the city itself settled just beyond the walls, 


469 


waiting for more favorable legislation which would 
permit themtoreturn. By this expedient they were 
still enabled to secure an important portion of the 
city trade, but in 1570 Sigismund Augustus issued 
a more drastic decree containing the following pro- 
visions: 
(1) No Jew, Jewess, Jewish child or servant (be the latter 
Jewish or Christian) shall dwell with property or wares on any 
lands, municipal, royal, or clerical, within 
Provisions the limits of Old Warsaw or New Warsaw, nor 
of may he or she remain there even duribg royal 
Sigismund sojourns, excepting only at the time of the 
Augustus. Diets, when Jews shall be permitted to visit 
Warsaw for business purposes. (2) The Jews 
who have business connections in Warsaw shail be allowed to 
sojourn there with the written consent of the magistrate: but 
they shall not have the right to engage in any trade or handi- 
craft which may in any way interfere with the daily pursuits of 
the citizens. (3) The Jews shall have no right to reside on any 
grounds, or to trade or ply their handicrafts, within a radius of 
two miles from Warsaw on either bank of the Vistula, under 
penalty of confiscation. (4) It shall be the duty of the mag- 
istrates and their successors at Warsaw to enforce the removal 
of the Jews from the city and its environs without regard to any 
extenuating circumstances or even to letters of exemption from 
the king or his successors. 


The commercial importance of the Jews as agents 
of the king and higher nobility, as well as the an- 
nual sessions of the Diets in Warsaw, rendered it im- 
practicable to execute this ordinance, and the re- 
peated protests and machinations of the Christian 
gilds were unavailing, at least so far as a large 
number of Jewish merchants was concerned. Peti- 
tions for the exclusion of the Jews from Warsaw 
and its suburbs were very frequent; and in 1580 
King Stephen Bathori issued an edict forbidding the 
Jews to reside in Warsaw or to lease city taxes or 
property. Those Jews who were obliged to come to 
Warsaw on business had to secure a special permit 
from the city magistrates. It is evident that these 
laws were enforced under Ladislaus IV., foron July 
16, 1646, Marcus Neckel obtained the title of “ gen- 
eral Jewish delegate” in Warsaw, In 1648 Ladislaus 
reaffirmed the earlier restrictive decrees, although he 
made an exception in favor of Neckel, ordering that 
“Marcus, the Jewish delegate and royal agent, shall 
not be molested or ridiculed.” Thesubsequent royal 
decrees of 1663, 1676, 1737, 1740, 1761, 1768, and 1770 
confirmed the provisions of the earlier edicts, It is 
evident, therefore, that the exclusion of the Jews 
from Warsaw, like their expulsion from Riga and 
other cities, was never wholly effective. Deprived 
of the right of permanent residence, they secured im- 
munity and exemption by purchasing 
the good-will of the city magistrates, 
while, on the other hand, the Chris- 


Royal 
Decrees. 


tian merchants frequently paid bribes. 


to the city magistrates for the exclusion of their 
Jewish competitors. Thus in 1691, when prepara- 
tions were being made for the wedding of the crown 
prince Jacob Sobieski, which was to be attended by 
many guests, the merchants of Warsaw paid ten 
silver thalers to the great crown marshal, and gave 
lemons and oranges to the value of 54 Polish gulden, 
in order that intercession might be made with the 
king to withhold protection from the Jews. 

In the reign of August THI., Crown Marshal 
Francisek Bielinski enforced the restrictive measures 
against the Jews, and during his incumbency they 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Warrens 
Warsaw 


a) 


were permitted to enter Warsaw only during the 
sessions of the Diet. After his death the old order 
of things was restored. The great crown marshal 
Lubomirski issued special certificates at a cost of one 
silver groschen each, and every Jew wishing to stay 
in Warsaw was compelled to procure one of them 
under penalty of imprisonment, although they were 
good for five days only. The income from these 
tickets reached the sum of 200,000 Polish gulden 
annually. Large Jewish colonies were formed in 
the outskirts of the city on lands owned by members 
of the Polish nobility. The most noted of these set- 
tlements was “ New Jerusalem,” situated beyond the 
present Jerusalem gate. Notwithstanding a reso- 
lution of the city council which permitted Jews to 
reside in New Jerusalem, Marshal Lubomirski suc- 
cessively combated the legality of this right of set- 


tlement. On Jan. 22, 1775, the mar- 

Destruc-  shal’s guard invaded New Jerusalem, 
tion of confiscated the merchandise found 
‘New Je- there, and demolished all] the Jewish 
rusalem,” houses. The merchandise thus seized, 
1775. which was valued at hundreds of thou- 


sands of guiden, was stored in the 
arsenal and was later sold at public auction, the pro- 
ceeds being returned to the Jews. 

In the following year the Jews secured permission 
to rebuild their houses, but had meanwhile settled 
in large numbers in the city itself. On May 25, 
1784, however, Marshal Mniszek issued an ordinance 
expelling the Jews from Warsaw and its environs, 
though it should be noted that the better classes of 
Polish society condemned the ill treatment of the 
Warsaw Jews by the Christian merchant and artisan 
gilds. This is clear from the following paragraph, 
for example, in the Warsaw periodical “ Pamietnik 
Historyczo-Politiczny ” (1788, p. 5): “ What terrible 
spectacles must we witness in the capital on solemn 
holidays! Students and even adults in noisy mobs 
persecute the Jews and sometimes beat them with 
sticks. We ourselves have seen a gang waylay a 
Jew, stop his horses, and give him such a cudgeling 
that he fell from the wagon. How can we look 
with indifference on such a survival of barba- 
rism?” 

An agreement was then made with Peter Tepper, 
the banker of King Stanislaus Augustus, permitting 
the Jews to reside in Rasin, Tepper’s estate in the 
suburbs of Warsaw. The agreement was profitable 
to both. Rasin became a Jewish colony, and drew 
a large volume of trade from Warsaw. The city 
magistrates were alarmed at the commercial decline, 
however, and attempted to discourage the growth 
of the colony by threats and persuasion. They were 
finally forced to repeal the restrictive ordinances and 
gave permission to the Jews to reside in special dis- 
tricts. The new Jewish quarter of Warsaw was 
located on the square known as Mary wil, the present 
theater-square. Subsequently the Pociej Palace was 
erected there and gave its name to the entire 
district. 

The Jews gradually spread to Tlomacka, Klopoc- 
ka, and Danilowicz streets, while some lived as far as 
Trinity Church, at the corner of Nalevki and Dluga 
streets. In March, 1790, members of the furriers’ and 
tailors’ gilds convened at the council-hall of Stare 


Warsaw 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


470 


Miasto, and in their fear of competition requested the 
magistrates to expel the Jews from the city. They 
demanded that their request be present- 
Action of ed tothe Diet, threatening, in case of 
the Gilds. refusal, to take the matter into their 
own hands. John Deckert, president 
of the city council, referred the matter to the Diet, 
and the latter appointed acommission to investigate 
the grievances of the Christian gilds. The commis- 
sion was informed that Jewish competition had forced 
the petitioners to resolve either to destroy them- 
selves or to annihilate their competitors. The Diet 
acceded to the demand of the Christian craftsmen 
and ordered the expulsion of all Jewish traders and 
craftsmen, allowing only those merchantsand manu- 
facturers to remain who kept important establish- 
ments. As on former occasions, the Jews who had 
been expelled gradually returned in the course of a 
few weeks. and the Christian craftsmen, driven to 
desperation, organized an anti-Jewish riot. 

A Christian tailor, Fox, meeting a Jewish tailor 
on the street, attempted to take from him some 
clothing which he was carrying. He pursued the 
Jew, who finally rallied around him some of his co- 
religionists and had Fox imprisoned, whereupon 
Fox’s workmen raised the cry that the Jews had 
killed their master. This was the signal for a riot. 
A mob attacked the Jewish houses and stores, burn- 
ing and pillaging everything in their way until 
forced to desist by the troops. The Polish authori- 
ties, fearing the outbreak of a revolution like the 
one which was then raging in Paris, forcibly re- 
stored order, arrested Fox and other leaders of the 
outbreak, enforced the old restrictive regulations 
against the Jews, and subjected the Jews transgress- 
ing these laws tocorporal punishment. During the 
reign of Poniatowski the Jewish question received 
increased attention among liberal Poles; and at the 
sessions of the Four Years’ Diet some reformers, in- 
cluding Butrymovicz, Czacki, and Kollontai, pre- 
sented projects for its settlement. 

The occupation of Warsaw by the Prussians 
brought about a beneficial change in the position of 


the Jews. The Prussian government, 

Under not _ recognizing the old city charters, 
Prussian allowed them to live in Warsaw, per- 
Rule. mitted them to organize a kahal for 


the regulation of local Jewish affairs, 
abolished rabbinical tribunals, and prohibited rab- 
binica] anathemas under penalty of fifty thalers’ fine 
and banishment for rabbis guilty of repeating 
this offense. The new administration led to an in- 
flux of Jews to Warsaw, thus giving rise to renewed 
complaints from the Christian merchants. A census 
of the Jewish population, ordered by the Prussian 
authorities in 1798, was largely evaded by the Jews, 
and the censusreturns of 6,997 were evidently much 
below the actual figures. 

When the Russians invaded Poland in 1794 the 
Jews did their share in defending their Polish father- 
land. Joselovich BEREK formed a light horse reg- 
iment of 500 Jews of Warsaw, which was almost 
annihilated during the siege of Praga (a suburb of 
Warsaw) by Suvarov. 

Among the wealthy Jewish merchants of Warsaw 
at the end of the eighteenth century may be mep- 


tioned Hershka and Itzik, David and Nutka of 
Karolevetz, Hershko Markevich, Iosek and Hershko 
Salamonovich of Posen, Ivosan and Hayyim of 
Lutsk, Naftal of Sokhachov, Shmul Scheidazh and 
Abraham of Cracow, Josel Jankel and Schmul of 
Piotrkow. One of the most prominent Jews of the 
time was Samuel Zbitkover, who was also called 
Schmul Jacobovich. His name figures largely in 
official Gocuments and in the correspondence of 
King Stanislaus Augustus, whose favorite he was; 
and a quarter of the suburb Praga was even called 
Schmulevizna in his honor. During the first parti- 
tion of Poland he was the chief contractor in the 
Russian army, and traveled with an honorary con- 
voy of Cossacks by permission of General Romanus. 

Zbitkover was evidently a very influ- 

Samuel = ential man, and Stanislaus Augustus, 

Zbitkover. in a memoir which he presented to 

Catherine IJ., mentions 7,000 ducats 
which the Russian army owed the contractor. The 
king also presented him with some lots in the suburb 
of Praga for a Jewish cemetery and synagogue. 
After the second partition of Poland, Zbitkover still 
continued to be the contractor of the Russian army, 
but after the Polish uprising under Kosciusko in 
April, 1794, the Polish party (“Rada Zastepeza”) 
confiscated his money, which amounted to 757 duc- 
ats, and his leather factory. On Nov. 4, 1794, during 
the siege of Praga, Zbitkover, in his*sympathy for 
the many victims of the war, issued a notice that 
any soldier or citizen who should bring him an in- 
habitant of Praga, whether Jew or Christian, would 
receive a ducat in gold, and whoever should bring 
him a dead citizen of Praga for burial, would be 
paid a ruble in silver. Two barrels, one filled with 
gold and the other with silver, stood before him, 
and both were emptied in aday. He died Sept. 8, 
1800. 

In 1797 an order was issued directing all the Jews 
of Warsaw to adopt family names selected by 
themselves or assigned them by local officials, and 
this ordinance accounts for the frequency of Ger- 

man names among the Polish Jews. 


Family The increase of the Jewish population 
Names ied the Prussian authorities to check 
Adopted, the influx of Jews into Warsaw, and 
1797. in March, 1798, acertain portion of the 


Jewish population was expelled from 
the city, and the remainder had to submit to in- 
creased taxation. All Jews who should arrive in 
Warsaw after that date were to pay a poll-tax of 
one guiden daily, while the “ Nahrungssteuer,” or 
tax collected from the permanent Jewish popula- 
tion, amounted to 210,000 Polish gulden annually. 
In addition to this, the Jews were obliged to pay a 
“'Poleranzsteuer ” amounting to 50 per cent of the 
total tax collected from the city population. Two 
years later the tax on kasher meat was again levied 
by the government, and in March, 1809, this tax, 
which formerly amounted to two groschen per 
pound, was raised to six groschen. The burdensome 
taxes did not, however, check the increase of the 
Jewish population. In May, 1804, another anti- 
Jewish riot broke out in Senatorski street, but was 
quelled by troops. 

In 1826 a rabbinical school was established in 


471 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Warsaw 


Warsaw under the direction of Anton Eisenbaum, 
some of the chief teachers being Aaron Moses Cyl- 
kow, father of the Judeo-Polish preacher of War- 
saw, Jacob Cylikow (who translated the Psalms 
into Polish; Warsaw, 1883), A. Buchner (author of 
“Der Talmud und Seine Nichtigkeit”), and Isaac 
Kramsztyk. Eisenbaum, who was born at Warsaw 
in 1791 and died there in 1852, was educated under 


ese WON 


— 


mann, “Mo‘ade ‘Ereb,” p. 84, Wilna, 1863; see 
also “ Allgemeine Zeitung des Judenthums,” 1851, 
No. 48). 

The Reform movement of the early forties af- 
fected the Jewish community of Warsaw. Abra- 
ham Meyer Goldschmidt was its first German 
preacher (1842); and Mathias Rosen of the Jew- 
ish school board did much for the education of 


EXTERIOR OF THE GREAT SYNAGOGUE AT WARSAW, RUSSIA. 
(From a photograph.) 


the supervision of his father, who instructed him in 
the Bible and Hebrew grammar in addition to his 
Talmudic studies. In the latter part 

The of 1823 he founded a Jewish weekly in 
Rabbinical Yiddish and Polish with the title “ Der 
School. Beobachter an der Weichsel” (Polish 
title, “Dostrzegacz Nadwisianski”). 

A copy—the only one in existence—of this, the first 
Judzo-Polish periodical, is preserved in the library 
of the great synagogne of Warsaw. The school, 
however, did not produce many rabbis, since its 
real object was to impart secular knowledge rather 
than rabbinical learning, and it gradually became a 
Jewish high schoo! (“ Kenesct Yisrael,” i. 138; Reif- 


the younger Jewish generation of Warsaw. When 
Count Uvarov, the Russian minister of public in- 
struction, visited the rabbinical schoo! of Warsaw in 
1843, he was pleased with the results of the educa- 
tion of the Jews of the city; in that year the num- 
ber of pupils was 221, as compared with 14 at the 
opening of the school in 1826. In 1861 the Warsaw 
rabbis Dob Berush MEIsELs and Marcus JAsTRow, 
suspected by the Russian government of sympathy 
with the Polish uprising, were expelled from the 
city, although Meisels was permitted to return in 
the following year. In 1861 Jewish artisans were 
admitted into the gilds of working men; and a 
Jewish weekly in the Polish language, entitled 


Warsaw 
Washington 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


472 


“ Jutrzenka ” (Dawn), was founded by Daniel Neu- 
feld. In 1878 Rabbi Jacob GESUNDHEIT, author 
of the “ Tif’eret Ya‘akob,” died; and anew Jewish 
hosvital was established by M. Bersohn, A. Kraushar, 
and others, and the great (reformed) synagogue 
was opened on Tlomacka street. In the following 
year a Hebrew technical school was established by 
L. Nathansohn, Lesser Levi, H. Reichmann, and 
others, and in 1881 a library, still in charge of Ignacy 
BERNSTEIN, was organized in connection with the 
great synagogue. In 1882 Jews were permitted to 
live in the streets which were formerly forbidden to 
them, and in 1889 a Jewish trade-school was founded 
by Ludwig Nathanson and others. In 1890 some 

foreign Jews were expelled from Warsaw. 
In 1862 the Jews were accorded equal rights with 
the Christian inhabitants of Poland, largely owing 
to the efforts of Marquis Vyelepolski, 


Equal and the taxes on meat, baskets, and 
Rights, candles were then discontinued in 
1862. Warsaw. The kahal was abolished in 


1881, and in its place a committee was 

appointed to control Jewish religious affairs. 

Serious anti-Jewish riots, instigated by the agents 
of Ignatiev, broke out in Warsaw on Dec. 25, 1881, 
and lasted for three days, during which time much 
property was destroyed, and twenty-four Christians 
and twenty-two Jews were injured. The sympa- 
thies of the soldiers sent to check the disorder were 
evidently with the rioters, for some of those arrested 
were allowed to escape, aS was the case in other 
riots of the early eighties. A spirited protest 
against the indifference of the local administration 
was made by the Jews of Warsaw, including Ma- 
thias Bersohn, Ivan Blioch, Stanislas Brunn, Mec- 
zislav Epstein, Alexander Goldstand, Stanislas Kro- 
nenberg, Michael Landau, Stanislas Lesser, Ludwig 
Nathanson, and Julius Wienyavski. 

The growth and proportion of the Jewish popu- 
lation of Warsaw since 1882 are shown by the fol- 
lowing table: 


—- —— 


Jewish Population. | Total Population. 


SRR Acs ox ei sara 98,698 307.451 
1 CRS OE PORE AS: 127,917 382.464 
TRB. scm ehane tuner 136,234 406,965 
MOOG ns Scot rublcaceu nt 158,154 455,852 
ISH) hie a tess ass 931678 | 638,208 
1901......- ety neers 954,712 711,988 
Jewish Births. | Total Births. 
Tiibas Sect = ced agte a 3,899 14,991 
Ra eck craescatuhes 4,744 15,416 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Starozitne Poiskie, ii, 64; Sobiesczanski, Rys 
Historieny m Warszawy, p. 20; Przyborawski, Z Przeszlo- 
sci Warszawy, i. 246, Warsaw, 1899; Nussbaum, Szkice His- 
toryczne z Zycia Zydow w Warszawie, ib. 1881; Den, 1870- 


= Ga: 


H. R. 
Following are lists of rabbis, dayyanim, and schol- 
ars of Warsaw and of its suburb Praga: 


Rabbis and Dayyanim: Dob Berash ben Reuben (d. 
Feb. 27, 1819), rabbi of Praga; Simhah ben Alexander Stsskind 
(d. Oct. 3, 1822), dayyan; Solomon ben Judah Lob (a. Feb. 24, 
1832), dayyan, and author of “*Shebile Torah” (Warsaw [7], 
1804); Abraham Abele (d. April 14, 1882), dayyan for forty years ; 
Aryeh Lob b. Moses Zunz (d. April 22, 1833), dayyan, and author 
of “ Ya‘alat Hen” (Praga, 1793) and ‘* Get Mekushshar ”’ (War- 


saw, 1811); Mordecai b. Phinehas (d. May 7, 1837), rabbi of 
Praga; Solomon Zalman b. Isaac of Posen (d. March 26, 1839), 
first district rabbi of Warsaw and vicinity, and author of °° Hem- 
dat Shelomoh’’? (Warsaw, 1836); David Jedidiah b. Israel (d, 
April 14, 1842), dayyan for forty years; Hayyim Davidsuhn b. 
David Tebele (ad. March 17, 1854), rabbi for fifteen years (eulogy 
by Benjamin David Rabinowicz in ** Ruah Hayyim,’” Warsaw, 
1854); Mordecai b. Nehemiah (d. July 1, 1855), dayyan, and au- 
thor of "* Mor Deror,”’ a commentary on the Haggadah: Samuel 
b. Dob Bersohn (d. Feb. 27, 1856), dayyan for eighteen years ; 
Meir b. Eliezer (d. March 16, 1863), rabbi of Praga for thirty 
years; Isruel Muschkat (d. Feb. 28, 1868), rabbi of Praga for 
twenty-eight years, and author of ** Hare Besamim,”” a commen- 
tary on the prayers, and ‘*‘ Rashe Besamim,”’ a commentary on 
the Bible and on the Talmudic Haggadah; Judah Aryeh Loébush, 
known as “the Holy” (d. Sept. 1, 1868), dayyan for thirty-three 
years; Dob Berush Meisels (d. Feb. 16, 1870), rabbi for fourteen 
years; Judah Heschel b. Gabriel Goldstadt (d. May 4, 1872), 
dayyan; Nathan b. Dob of Siemjaticz (d. July 22, 1873), dayyan 
for forty-three years: Solomon Hillel (d. May 25, 1874), dayyan, 
and author of ** ‘Ateret Shelomoh,”’ on Eben ha-‘Ezer and Mas- 
seket Kiddushin: Jacob b. Isaac Gesundheit (b. 1814; d. 1878), 
rabbi, and author of ** Tif’eret Ya‘akob,”’ on Hoshen Mishpat 
(Warsaw, 1842); Samuel S. Kleppisch (b. 1820; d. 1901), chicf 
dayyan for forty years (‘‘ Ha-Zefirah,”’ 1902, Nos. 225-227). 

The list of rabbis of the modernized congregation, known 
as the ‘‘German” or ‘‘Choir’’ congregation, is as follows: 
Abraham Meir Goldschmidt (b. 1812; d. Feb. 8, 1889), officiated 
until 1858, when he replaced A. Jellinek at Leipsic ; Isaac Kram- 
sztyk (b. 1814; d. Sept. 25, 1889); J. Cylkow, Polish translator of 
the Psalms, with notes (Warsaw, 1883); and Samuel Poznanski. 

Scholars: Joseph b. Israel Léb (d. Aug. 25, 1794}; Joseph 
Samuel b. Abigdor (d. in Praga Oct. 14, 1800), parnas of the 
Council of Four Lands; Benjamin Zeeb Wolf Cohen (d. April 
23, 1808; first recorded burial in the Jewish cemetery in War- 
saw, Wbich was opened in 1807); Moses Solomon Zalman (d. 
Jan. 7, 1816), formerly rabbi of Cracow, and gabbai of the Holy 
Land Halukkah Fund; Baer Berksohn (d. March 12, 1831). left 
a legacy, the interest on which is to be distributed among the 
pour on his JAHRZEIT; Abraham Jacob Stern (d. Feb. 3, 1842), 
astronomer and mathematician, father-in-law of Hayyim Selig 
Slonimski; Jacob Moses b. Solomon Zalman Jerislawer (d. March 
19, 1842), publisher of the works of R. Low of Prague; Solomon 
ben Judah Blumberg (d. Oct. 2, 1850), parnas and philanthro- 
pist (left fund for a synagogue); Anton Fisenbaum (b. 1791; d. 
1852), editor and publisher (1823-24) of ‘‘ Der Beobachter an der 
Weichsel,”’ the first Yiddish newspaper in Poland; Abraham 
Buchner, instructor in the Rabbinerschule, and author of ** Do- 
resh Tob’’ (Warsaw, 1830) and ** Der Talmud ”’ (2 vols.. tf. 1848); 
Isaac Lob Peretz (born at Samosez, May, 1851), the poets 
Eleazar Thalgriin (d. April 2, 1857), German translator of the 
Psalms, with bi’ur ** Tokahat Musar’”’ (Warsaw, 1854); Hayyim 
Gershon b. Hillel Cohen Halle (d. Oct. 1, 1857), communal worker, 
and founder of the synagogue at the Iron Gate; Jacob David 
Schapiro (d. Aug. 5, 1863), formerly rabbi of Wiszagrod, and 
autbor of annotations on “ Torat Kohanim *’; Samuel b. Abra- 
ham Fliederbaum (d. Apri! 6, 1867), gabbai of the burial society ; 
Hillel Gleitstein (d. 1867), editor of the “ Warschauer Jiidische 
Zeitung’: Zusze b. Wolf Ulrich (d. April 23, 1868), founder 
and leader of a synagogue; Solomon Baer (d. Dec. 1, 1868), 
formerly rabbi of Naszelsk, and author of ** Dibre Shelomoh,” 
Talmudic novell#; Moses b. Eliezer Lippman Feinkind (da. May 
17, 1869), gabbai of the Jewish hospital; Moses b. Enoch Zundel 
Endelman (b. 1808; d. Dec. 16, 1869), communal worker and 
gabbai; Jacob Tugendhold (b. 1791; d. April 20, 1871), author, 
translator, and censor of Hebrew books (see ** Magzid Mishneh,”’ 
i. 59); Joshua b. Solomon Léb of Ostrowa (d. April 25, 1873), 
author of ** Toledot Adam*’?; Menahem Mendel b. Zeeb (d. May 
13, 1873), rosh yeshibah; Bunem Wolf Zeeb Mendelssohn (d. 
Nov. 28, 1875), rosh yeshibah, and author of ** Terumat Zahab’*; 
Menahem Mendel Oettinger (d. July 6, 1878), bequeathed 10,000 
rubles to the Jewish community; Jacob Joseph b. Mattithiah 
Hayyim (d. Aug. 3, 1878), publisher of Hebrew books, and author 
of “Sefer ha-Mizwot”’; Simhah b. Mordecai Posner (d. Oct. 17, 
1878), author of ** Ha-Zofeh be-Erez Nod” (** The Wandering 
Jew’); Judah b. Zimel Epstein (d. Oct. 7, 1879}, author of 
‘**Minhat Yehudah ”’; Moses b. Mordecai Lipschitz (d. April 5, 
1881), left legacy of 15,000 rubles to the community; Abraham 
b. Sussman Jabez (d. Feb. 28, 1882), author and publisher; 
Jacob Nathanson (b. 1832; d. Sept. 14, 1884), professor of chem- 
istry ; Gabriel Judah Lichtenfeld (b, 1811: d. March 22, 1887), 
author and mathematician: Isaac Goldmann (»b. 1812; d. Jan. 
13, 1888), Hebraist and author; Abraham Zuckerman (b. 1843; 
d. April 21, 1892), Hebrew publisher: Moses Cohen (b. 1820; d. 
Aug. 31, 1892), communal worker, and author of a Polish work 


4738 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Warsaw 
Washington 


in defense of the shehitah; Hilarius (Hillel) Nussbaum (b. 
1820; d. 1895), Polish historian; Samuel Hirsch Peltin (b, 1831; 
d. Sept. 30, 1896), author ; Abraham Shalom Friedberg (b. 1838: 
a. March 31, 1902), author and editor; Hayyim Selig Slonimski 
{b. 1816; d. May 15, 1904), author and scientist; Moses Forelle 
(b. 1814), calendarist and author (see ‘* Sefer Zikkaron”’’); Stan- 
islaus kKramsztyk (b. 1841), naturalist; Saul Pincus Rabino- 
witz (b. 1845), editor of ** Keneset Yisrael,’’ an illustrated He- 
brew magazine, and translator of Gritz’s ‘* Geschichte der 
Juden”’; Mordeeai Spector (b. 1859), editor of the ‘ Haus- 
freund”’ and the * Familienfreund’’; Nahum Sokolow (hb. 1859), 
editor of ** Ha-Zefirah,” the first Hebrew daily; Ben-Avigdor 
(o. 1867), founder of the two publishing-houses named respect- 
ively ‘*Ahiasaf*’ and ‘* Tushiyyah.”’ 


BIBLIOGRAPHZ Samuel Jewnin, Nahalat ‘Olamim, Warsaw, 
H. R. J. D. E. 


WARSCHAUER JUDISCHE ZEITUNG. 
See PERIODICALS. 


WARSHAWSKI, MARK SAMOILOVICH: 
Russian writer; born at Kherson in 1853. He re- 
ceived his early education at a gymnasium in St. 
Petersburg, and then studied enginecring at the 
ministerial Institute for Engineers. Later he took 
up the study of law at the University of St. Peters- 
burg, from which he was graduated in jurispru- 
dence in 1879. 

Since 1874 Warshawski has been a contributor to 
the St. Petersburg daily “ Novosti,” in which he has 
published a series of humoristic poems. In 1878 
he wrote feuilletons for “Russki Mir,” and he has 
been a contributor also to the humoristic weeklies 
“Pchela” and “Strekoza.” He was one of the 
founders, and for sometime associate editor, of the 
Russo-Jewish periodical “Razsvyet” (1879-81), to 
which he contributed various essays, as well as 
sketches of Jewish life. He has contributed also to 
the “ Voskhod,” and has published a collection of 
poems entitled “U Morya” (St. Petersburg, 1884). 

H. R. M. R. 


WASHING: As compared with the Greeks and 
Romans, the Hebrews paid little attention to the 
care of the body; and the bath was a rarity in a 
land where water was relatively scarce. It was im- 
portant, therefore, that personal cleanliness should 
have a religious basis, and that the cult should or- 
dain frequent ablutions. Thus, for example, the 
ancient custom of washing before meals may have 
had its origin in ritualistic requirements; and water 
was an important factor in the Hebrew cult as in all 
other Semitic religions. <A partial explanation of 
this phenomenon lies in the fact that springs and 
rivers were often worshiped by the Semites either 
as gods or as the dwelling-places of divinities. To 
bathe or wash in such waters was, therefore, in itself 
a ritualistic act, although this should not be taken 
to imply that all water was holy, and it must also 
be borne in mind that one who wished to take part 
in a ritualistic act had first to be in a condition ap- 
propriate to it, or, in other words, had to be ritually 
clean. 

The original meaning of this concept can not be 
discussed here; for many things conditioned “ pu- 
rity,” just as there were many things which made 
one ritually defiled. First of all, however, bodily 
cleanliness was requisite; for one could no more 
come unclean into the presence of God than be- 
fore the king. Consequently a man washed not 


only himself (Gen, xxxv, 2; Ex. xxx. 17 et seq.). 
but also his clothes (Ex. xix. 10 e¢ seg.), while the 
camp of Israel, which was considered a holy place 
on account of the presence of YHwu, was defiled 
by any pollution (Deut. xxiii, 10 e¢ seg.). It thus 
becomes plain how ablutions developed into sym- 
bolistic purifications, especially from ritualistic 
defilements. It is sufficient in this connection to 
allude to the ritual uncleanness connected with cer- 
tain physical pollutions, as with touching a corpse, 
a leper, or his house, or with sexual intercourse. 
From this standpoint of symbolic purification ablu- 
tions were prescribed, in the course of the develop- 
ment of the Law, for a number of impurities which. 
since they could easily be removed by washing, 
were characterized as slight, in contradistinction to 
those graver states of defilement which required sac- 
rifice and the like. Thus, the clothing of a leper 
(Lev. xiii. 6, 34, 54-58), one who had been in a leper’s 
house (Lev. xiv, 47), and the house itself (Lev. xiv. 
52) were to be washed, while washing also removed 
the pollution resulting from sexual intercourse and 
the like. See also ABLUTION. 

E. G. A, J. BE, 

WASHINGTON: The extreme northwestern 
state on the Pacific coast, United States of America: 
originally a part of Oregon, but admitted to the 
Union in 1889. The first Jewish pioneers probably 
went to Washington about 1860, either from Vic- 
toria, B. C., which then contained a large Jewish 
settlement, or from Portland, at that time the only 
prominent American settlement north of San Fran- 
cisco, or from Walla Walla, the largest post on the 
frontier trail from the East to the North-Pacific 
coast during the Civil war. 

Seattle, which early became the metropolis of 
the state, was first visited by Jews about 1862, when 
the wholesale grocery house of Schwabacher & Co. 
was opened in Walla Walla. The members and rep- 
resentatives of the firm frequently went to Seattle: 
and they started a branch there in 1869. The first 
regular congregation, called Oheves Sholom, was 
organized in 1887, and a plot for a cemetery was pur- 
chased two years later. A synagogue was built and 
dedicated in 1891, but was sold, and the Reform 
Congregation Temple de Hirsch was organized May 
29, 1899, chiefly through the efforts of Leo Kohn. 
The foundation and first story of the new temple 
were finished and dedicated Sept. 18, 1901. R. 
Brown (now in San Francisco) and R. Abrahamson 
(now in Portland) were the officiating rabbis of Con- 
gregation Oheves Sholom, and Theo. F, Joseph has 
been the minister of Congregation Temple de Hirsch 
since its organization in 1899. In addition to the 
Reform congregation there is an Orthodox organiza- 
tion, Bickor Cholem, which was founded in 1892. L. 
Brooks is the hazzan and rabbi; and the congregation 
worshipsinasynagogue. The Seattle Hebrew Benev- 
olent Society owns the Hills of Eternity Cemetery, 
where members of the Reform congregation are in- 
terred, while Orthodox Jews are buried in Oak Park 
Cemetery, the property of Bickor Cholem congrega- 
tion. The following charitable and educational 
societies existin Seattle: Seattle Hebrew Benevolent 
Society, Ladies’ Hebrew Benevolent Society, Monte- 
fiore Society, Temple Auxiliary, Council of Jewish 


Washington 
Water 


Women, and Sous of Zion. The Independent Order 
of B’nai B’rith is represented by two lodges, Seattle 
Lodge No. 842 (organized in 1883) and Hildesheimer 
Lodge No. 503 (organized in 1900). The Concordia 
Club. founded in 1908, is a flourishing social organ- 
ization. 

Next in size to the Jewish community of Seattle 
is that of Spokane, where the congregation Emanu- 
El, organized Sept. 28, 1890, now (1905) has a mein- 
bership of about sixty. Rabbis E. Schreiber, A. 
Farber, and Jacob Bloch have officiated as ministers, 
and the present incumbent is Rabbi D, Levine. The 
communal societies are the Judith Montefiore Society 
(an auxiliary of the temple), the Ladies’ Benevolent 
Society, and the Daughters of Israel (auxiliary of 
the semiorganized Orthodox community). Abraham 
Geiger Lodge No. 423, [.0.B.B., chartered tn March, 
1893, has about fifty members. 

The Beth Israel congregation in Tacoma was 
organized in 1892 and completed its temple in 1898. 
The congregation, conservative in character, num- 
bers about sixty-five members. ‘There are several 
auxiliary societies, comprising the Lady Judith 
Montetiore Society, a section of the Council of Jew- 
ish Women, and the Hebrew Benevolent Society, 
which owns a largecemetery. A B’nai B’rith lodge 
formerly existed in the city, but the removal of 
many members resulted in the return of the charter 
to the grand lodge. Montague N. A. Cohen (now 
of Sacramento) was the minister of the congregation 
during the year 1903-4. . 

A few Jewish families that are not regularly or- 
ganized into congregations live in Walla Walla, 
Olympia (a cemetery plot was bought in 1872), El- 
lensburg, Aberdeen, Hoquiam, South Bend, Everett, 
and Bellingham. 

Among the eminent Jews of Washington have been 
Gen. Edward 8. Solomon, who was sent by President 
Grant to be governor of the territory of Washington 
from 1870 to 1872, and Bailey Gatzert, who was one 
of the pioncers of Seattle, and for several years one 
of the most prominent men of the Pacific coast, be- 
ing president of the firm of Schwabacher & Co. from 
1888 to 1893, the year of his death, and also the pre- 
siding officer of the Gatzert-Schwabacher Land Co. 

In a total population of about 750,000 (according 
to the most accurate estimate for the year 1905), 
the Jews of Washington number approximately 


3,500. 

A. T. F. J. 

WASHINGTON, D. C.: Capital of the United 
States; situated in the District of Columbia, on the 
Potomac River. In 1849 there were in Washington 
six Jews, who were engaged in business on Pennsy!l- 
vania avenue, and who went to Baltimore for the 
important holy-day services. On April 25, 1852, the 
First Washington Hebrew Congregation was organ- 
ized ; it numbered twenty-one members, and Solomon 
Pribram was elected its first president. Two years 
later the membership had increased to forty-two; 
and on Dec. 13, 1855, at the thirty-fourth session of 
Congress, a special act was passed, “that all the 
rights, privileges, and immunities heretofore granted 
by the law te the Christian churches in the city of 
Washington be and the same hereby are extended to 
the Hebrew Congregation of said city.” | 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


474 


This marks the incorporation of the first Jewish 
institution in the District of Columbia. The con- 
gregation grew steadily in membership and in influ- 
ence; and in 1863 it acquired for a place of worship 
the old Methodist church, which had been utilized 
by the government for hospital purposes during the 
Civil war. In 1898 the congregation moved into its 
present stately edifice, the corner-stone of which was 
laid by President McKinley in the presence of his 
entire cabinet, on Sept. 16, 1897. The First Wash- 
ington Hebrew Congregation is the only Reform 
congregation in the District of Columbia. Its pres- 
ent (1905) membership is 350, and its religious school 
is attended by 200 children. The following readers 
and rabbis have officiated since 1854: S. M. Lans- 
burgh, 8. Weil, J. L. Jacobson, Herman Baar, Isaac 
Stampel, M. Goldberg, Louis Stern, and Abram 
Simon. Rabbis Simon and Stern are officiating 
copjointly. 

In 1870 thirty-five members left the parent body 
to form an independent congregation, with Isaac 
Stampel as hazzan, This congregation, which was 
called Adath Israel, was organized as a protest 
against the Reform tendencies of the old congrega- 
tion. In 1878 Adath Israel moved into its present 
home on the corner of Sixth and G streets, its syna- 
gogue being dedicated in the presence of President 
Grant and his cabinet. Its present membership in- 
cludes 150 families, ministered to by Rabbi Julius 
T. Loeb; and its religious school is attended by 
sixty-five pupils. 

The Ahabai Shalom congregation was organized 
in 1902 as a result of the union of two smaller heb- 
rot, the Chayai Odom (founded 1890) and the Agoo- 
dath Achim (1898). It has a membership of 125 
families, and its present hazzan is Robert Graff- 
man, who conducts a day-school at 607 H street for 
twenty-five pupils. The Talmud Torah congrega- 
tion (present hazzan, M. R. Joelson) was founded ite 
1890, and meets on 44 street, southwest. It has « 
membership of seventy persons, but no religious 
school. All four congregations maintain cemeteries 
on the same plot of ground on Harrison road. 

The leading charitable, religious, and literary soci- 
eties are: (1) The United Hebrew Charities (found- 
ed 1882; incorporated 1898; annual income about 
$3,000; president, I. L. Blout, appointed 1894); (2) 
The Hebrew Free Inn, for the temporary care of the 
indigent; controlled by the executive board of the 
United Hebrew Charities; (3) The Hebrew Relief 
Society (founded 1905); (4) The Ladies’ Auxiliary 
Society of Adath Israel; (5) The Old B'nai Zion; (6) 
The Rebecca Lodge (1868); (7) The Deborah Lodge 
(1875); (8) The Liberty Lodge No. 19, I.0.8.B. 
(1894); (9) The Friendship Circle (1897); (10) The 
Senior and Junior Councils of Jewish Women; (11) 
The Elijah, Grace Aguilar, and Argo lodges, 
1.0.B.B.; (12) The B’rith Abraham and the Inde- 
pendent B’rith Abraham; (13) The Sons of Judah; 
(14) The Mercantile Club; (15) The Hebrew Liter- 
ary Society; (16) The Free Sons of Benjamin; (17) 
The Young People’s Union of Zion. 

While most of the Jews of Washington are en- 
gaged in commerce, the legal and medical profes- 
sious are also creditably represented. Among the 
most prominent Jews may be mentioned : Commodore 


475 


Uriah P. Levy, Simon Woif (publicist and author), 
Max Wey] (artist), Emile Berliner (inventor), Adol- 
phus 8. Solomons, Cyrus Adler (assistant secretary, 
Smithsonian Institution), and Dr. Milton J. Rosenau 
(director, Hygienic Laboratory. Marine Hospital 
Service). The Jewish population of the District of 
Columbia may be placed at 4,000. 
A. A. S. 
WASKER, SILLEMAN ABAJEE (SOLO- 
MON ABRAHAM): Beni-Israel soldier; died 
about 1850. He enlisted in the Third Regiment 
Native (Indian) Light Infantry, Jan. 1, 1809, and 
was present at the battles of Puna, Rusood, Khur, 
Multan, Kittoor, and Gujarat, rising ultimately to 
the highest rank open to a native soldier, that of 
sirdar bahadur; he was also decorated with the first 
class Order of the Star of British India. He retired 
from the army in March, 1846, after a service of 
thirty-seven years, during twenty-five of which he 
was native commander of the Beni-Israel regiment. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. Samuel, Sketch of Beni-Tsrael, pp. 24-25. 


WASSERTRILLING, HERMANN (ZEBI 
HIRSCH BEN NATHAN): Austrian Hebraist ; 
flourished in the nineteenth century; born at Bosko- 
witz, Moravia. He officiated as teacher in the Jewish 
school of Hotzenplotz, Silesia, about 1850, and later 
as rabbi of Bojanowo, Posen. The following is a 
list of his works, all published at Breslau: “Hadrat 
Elisha‘ ” (1857), an epic poem in nine cantos, de- 
scribing the life of the prophet Elisha, and giving 
also a brief history of contemporary kings; “ Nezer 
Hamudot ” (1860), an epic poem in cight cantos, being 
tt history of Daniel and his contemporaries under 
the reign of the Babylonian, Median, and Persian 
kings until the return of the Israelites to Jerusalem, 
and the building of the Second Temple; “ Mattenat 
Nahali’el ” (part i., 1860; part ii., 1868), a collection 
of legends from the Talmud, Midrash, and the mid- 
rashic commentaries, arranged in verse in the order 
of the weekly lessons; “Torat ha-Berit” (1869), a 
treatise in reply to a question on circumcision ad- 
dressed to the synod of Leipsic by Max Engel 
(July, 1869). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: First, Bibl. Jud. iii. 495; Lippe, Bibliogra- 
phisches Lexicon, i. 518, Zeitlin, Bibl. Post-Mendels. pp. 
404-405. 

s. M. Set. 

WASSERZUG, HAIM: English hazzan and 
composer; born at Sheritz, Prussian Poland, 1822; 
died at Brighton, England, Aug. 24, 1882. As a 
child he was endowed with a remarkably sweet 
voice, and at eighteen he was elected hazzan at 
Koniv. His renown soon spread among the Jewish 
communities of Poland, and he received a call as 
hazzan to Novy-Dvor, where his introduction of 
choral singing and singing in harmony, instead of 
the then prevalent “ hazzanut,” aroused considerable 
opposition against him on the part of the Hasidim. 
Thirteen years later he was appointed to a post at 
Lonisa, near the Lithuanian frontier. Here he re- 
mained for five years, when he was elected cantor 
of the Wilna congregation. In 1867, on the opening 
of the North London Synagogue, he was elected its 
first reader, which office he held until his death in 
1882. 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Washington 
ater 


During his hazzanship at Wilna. Wasserzug 
wrote some sacred compositions which, under the 
title “Sefer Shire Mikdash,” were published in 
London, 1878. These compositions received high 
commendation ; and some of the principal cantors of 
the European continent and of America were num- 
bered among his disciples. His son, David Wasser- 
zug, waseducated at Jews’ College, London, and has 
officiated as rabbi at Cardiff in Wales, at Johannes- 
burg in South Africa, and, since 1905, at the Dalston 
Synagogue, London. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jew. Chron. and Jew. World, Sept. 1, 1882. 

J. G. L. 


WATCH-NIGHT. See WAcHNACHT. 


WATER: Water was looked upon by the Jews 
as extremely important and precious, The first 
thing placed before a guest was water to wash his 
feet (Gen. xviii. 4, xxiv. 32), and it was a duty of 
hospitality to give water to strangers coming into 

the house, or even passing by (2b. xxiv. 

Water for 17, 48). The non-fulfilment of this 
Guests. duty often resulted in serious hostili- 
ties. Thus, when the Israclites were 

marching toward Palestine they were prevented 
from passing through Edom, Ammon, and Moab 
because the inhabitants refused to give them a drink 
of water, even for money. Two hundred years 
later this resulted in bitter warfare (see AMMON; 
JEPHTHAH), During the wandering in the wilder- 
ness the lack of water caused the Israelites to mur- 
mur against their leader (Ex. xv. 22-25, xvii. 1-7; 
Num. xx. 1-18). On the other hand, the heroes of 
King David’s guard won distinction by procuring 
water for the king at the risk of their lives (II Sam. 


xxiii. 16; I Chron. xi. 17-18). 


Water was of great importance in purification, 
being used in cleansing the leper, in sickness, in 
washing utensils, and in the cleansing 
of one who had been defiled by touch- 

Ritual ing an unclean body (Lev. xv. 16-22, 

Purposes. 27). The liability of plants and fruits 

to defilement was increased by con- 

tact with water (Lev. xi. 38), a contingency which 

formed a topic of much discussionin the Talmudic 

period, and became the subject of the treatise Max- 
SHIRIN. 

The offering of water as a libation was an an- 
cient institution, and even before the kingdom was 
established the Israelitish tribes, after having suf- 
fered repeated defeats at the hands of the Philistines, 
gathered together at Mizpeh at the command of the 
prophet Samuel, and poured water on the ground 
before Yuwu (I Sam. vii. 5-6). An apparent ana- 
logue to this is found in the story that at the great 
feast of Baal the prophet Elijah poured waterin the 
trench which surrounded the altar (I Kings xviii. 
30), possibly to enhance the miracle. The libation 

at the Feast of Tabernacles, when the 
Libations. high priest sprinkled water upon the 

altar as a sacrifice, was a later devel- 
opment of the ancient offering; it was a feature of 
the ritual until the destruction of the Second Temple, 
and the disregard of it by ALEXANDER JANN2ZUS 
entailed terrible consequences (comp. Suk. 48b). 

The word “water” was often used by the Jews 


For 


Water 
Way 


symbolically, especially in expressing grief, 7.e., 
tears (Jer. ix. 1, 18; Ps. cxix. 136), A misfortune 
of great magnitude, the full extent of which it 
seemed impossible to fathom, was likened to water 
(Lam. iil. 54; Ps. Jxix. 2, cxxiv. 4-5), while the con- 
stant flow and unrest of water were symbolic of 
numerous descendants (Num. xxiv. 7). The for- 
giveness of sins and their complete remission were 
typified by sprinkling with clean water (Ezek. 
Xxxvi. 25); and in Jer. ii. 13 God is compared to a 
fountain of living waters. Jt was customary in the 
Talmudic period, moreover, to use “water” sym- 
bolically for the divine teachings (see Mek., Beshal- 
lah, Wayassa‘, 1); so that in several passages the term 
“water” is used without any amplification whatever 

(comp. Hag. 8a; B. M. 84b; Hor. 14a; Ab. i. 2). 
Water prepared with the ashesof the Rep HEIFER 
was especially important, since, even though un- 
clean, it had the power of cleansing men and things 
infected with defilement. Still more important, 
however, was the “ water of bitterness,” the so-called 
“me ha-marim ha-me’arerim,” which 


‘‘Water was prepared in the following man- 
of Bitter- ner: Into an earthen vessel the priest 
ness.”’ poured water which had stood in the 


Temple, and with this water he mixed 
dust taken from the Temple floor. Ifa woman was 
suspected of unfaithfulness toward her husband, the 
priest pronounced certain maledictions, which he 
afterward wrote on a little scroHh. This was then 
dissolved in the water, which the accused woman 
was obliged to drink (Num. v. 17-24; see also the ar- 
ticle SoTAn). 

Water was an important factor during the first 
three days of Creation. On the first day “the Spirit 
of God moved upon the face of the waters” (Gen. 
i, 2); on the second day the nether waters were di- 
vided from the upper, and the latter were trans- 
formed into the “rakia‘,” or “firmament” (7b. verse 
7); and on the third day the nether waters were 
assigned to their allotted place, which received the 
name of “sea” (2b. verse 10). 

Through the influence of the Greeks, and espe- 
cially of the Gnostics, who regarded water as the 
original element, similar beliefs gained currency 
among the Jews, so that Judah ben Pazi transmitted 
the following saying in the name of R. Ishmael 
(Yer. Hag. ii., beginning): “In the beginning the 
world consisted of water within water (Gen. i. 2); 
the water was then changed into ice (Ps. exlvii. 17), 
and again transformed by God into earth (Job xxxvii. 
6). The earth itself, however, rests upon the waters, 
and the waters on the mountains” (z.¢,., the clouds; 
Ps. civ. 6). This teaching, however, was rejected 
by R. Akiba, who warned those scholars who de- 
voted themselves to the study of cosmogony not 
to be led astray by Gnosticism, and not to cry 
“Water!” whenever they saw in their visions a sea 
of crystal around the throne of God (Hag. 14b). In 
the later Talmudic period the word “ water” was 
used as a designation for mucus, which was called 
“water from the nose ” (Tosef., Shab. viii.; Niddah 
50d), while buttermilk was termed “ water of milk,” 
and unfermented grape-juice was called “water of 
the grape-vine” (‘Orlah i. 7). 


E.G. H. Ss. O. 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


476 


NaxivwnA ng): At the morning service on each of 
the seven days of the Feast of Tabernacles (Sukkot) 
a libation of water was made together with the 
pouring out of wine (Suk. iv. 1; Yoma 26b), the 
water being drawn from the Poo! of Siloam ina 
golden ewer of the capacity of three logs. It was 
borne in solemn procession to the water-gate of the 
Temple, where the train halted while on the SHOFAR 
was blown “ teki‘ah, teru‘ah, teki‘ah.” The proces- 
sion then ascended the “Kebesh,” or slanting bridge 
to the altar, toward the left, where stood on the 
east side of the altar a silver bowl forthe water and 
on the west another for the wine, both having snout- 
like openings, that in the vessel for the wine being 
somewhat the larger. Both libations were poured 
out simultaneously (Suk, iv. 9). 

Although there was no direct Mosaic law for the 

libation of water, it was claimed by R. Nehunya 
of Beth-horon that the ordinance was 
A a Mosaic tradition (Zeb. 110a), while 
Mosaic R. Akiba deduced a Mosaic intimation 
Tradition. (“remez”) of the tradition from the 
plural form “u-nesakeha” ( “drink- 
offerings”; Num. xxix. 31), R. Judah b. Bathyra 
drew a similar inference from the spellings OF°Dp3 
and 7"5p3 as compared with the usual O7435p3, and 
DOwYD as compared with pswys (Num. xxix. 30, 
31, 33), the superfluous letters forming oy (“ water” ; 
Shab. 108b); and R. ‘Ena confirmed the tradition by 
quoting Isa. xii. 3: “Therefore with joy shall ye 
draw water out of the wells of salvation” (Suk. 
48b). The treatise Sukkah also explains the offering 
as made in order that the rainy season. which begins 
at that time of the year, may be abundant (comp. 
R. H. i. 2, 16a; Ta‘an. 2b). 

Why the Rabbis laid such stress on the water-li- 
bation is not clear, unless there were weighty rea- 
sons which have not been recorded. It may have 
been emphasized to counteract the Gentile practise 
of offering wine only; or it may even have been in- 
tended as a temperance iesson. At all events, the 
Sadducees were strongly opposed to this interpreta- 
tion of the Law, so that on one occasion ALEXANDER 
JANNAZUS poured the water on his feet instead of on 
the altar, thusaffronting the Pharisaic sympathies of 
the people so bitterly that they threw at him the 
etrogim which they carried in celebration and nearly 
killed him, and the priest was accordingly required 
thenceforth to raise bis hand when he poured out 
the water at the libation that his offering might be 
seen by all (Suk. 48b). To express their contempt 
of the Sadducees on the one hand and to strengthen 
their own position on the other, the Rabbis embel- 
lished the libation of water with so much ceremony 
that it became a favorite and distinctive rite on 
these occasions. On the nightof the first day of the 
Feast of Tabernacles the outer court of the Temple 
was brilliantly illuminated with four golden lamps, 
each containing 120 logs of oil, in which were 
burning the old girdles and garments of the priests 
(Shab, 21a; Yoma 23a). These lamps were placed 
on high pedestals which were reached by ladders; 
and special galleries were erected in the court for 
the accommodation of women, while the men below 
held torches in their hands, sang bymns. and danced. 


477 


On the fifteen steps of the Gate of Nicanor stood the 
Levites, chanting the fifteen “ songs of degrees” (Ps. 
CXX.-CXXxXiv.) to the accompaniment 

Becomes of their instruments, of which the most 

a Favorite important was the “halil,” or flute, 

Rite. although it was used neither on the 
Sabbath nor on the first day of the 
feast (Suk. v. 1). The illumination, which was like 
a sea of fire, lit up every nook and corner of Jeru- 
salem, and was so bright that in any part of the 
city a woman could pick wheat from the chaff. 
Whosoever did not see this celebration never saw a 
real one (Suk. 58a). Hillel the Elder encouraged 
general rejoicing and participated in the celebration 
that all might follow his example, while R. Simeon 
b. Gamaliel juggled with eight torches, throwing 
them in the air and catching them again, thus show- 
ing his joy at the feast. R. Joshua b. Hananiah 
states that the festival was celebrated throughout 
the night with songs, music, shouting, clapping of 
hands, jumping, and dancing. 

After the destruction of the Temple the libation of 
water, being a portion of the sacrifice, was discon- 
tinued; but the custom of rejoicing was retained for 
some one day of the Feast of Sukkot other than the 
Sabbath or a full holy day. No “ ‘am ha-arez” was 
permitted to join the celebration, although he was 
allawed to look on. Probably the ceremony origi- 
nally included a symbolic form of prayer for rain in 
the winter season (see Zech. xiv. 16-19). 

The feast of water-drawing is now celebrated in 
the bet ha-midrash on any night other than Friday 
in the middle of Sukkot. At Jerusalem each night 
of the semiholy days is observed in the bet ha-midrash 
or in the synagogue by chanting the fifteen “shire 
ha-ma ‘alot ” and appropriate Bible verses, while the 
Sephardim have special piyyutim. After the serv- 
ice small parties are formed, and engage in feasting, 
singing, and dancing till midnight (Lunez, “Jeru- 
salem,” i. 40). In his “Die Eleusinischen Mysterien 
im Tempel von Jerusalem” (in Hungarian, in 
“Magyar-Zsidé Szemle,” xii. 218; ¢dem, in “ Popu- 
liir-Wissenschaftliche Monatsblitter,” xvii. 121) L. 
Venetianer endeavors to prove that the feast of 
water-drawing bears traces of Greek influence. 

KE, ¢. J. D. E. 


WATER-RIGHTS. See RIpartan OwneERs. 
WAVE-OFFERING. See SACRIFICE. 


WAW (}): Sixth letter of the Hebrew alphabet. 
The name possibly means “ nail” or “ hook,” and the 
shape of the letter in the Phenician alphabet bears 
some resemblancetoa hook. “Waw” is a labial spi- 
rant. identical in sound with the English “w.” 
When preceded by the labial vowel “u,” it blends 
with it (“uw”), the result being a long u-sound; 
and when an a-vowel precedes it, the two form the 
diphthong “au,” which in Hebrew has passed into 
“o.” At the beginning of a word (a position it rarely 
has in Hebrew) “ waw ” retains its consonantal value, 
except when followed by 8, 3, 9, or a letter with 
simple “shewa.” As the first letter of verb-stems it 
has been replaced in Hebrew almost everywhere by 
“yod.” Asa numeral (in the later period) “ waw ” 


has the value of 6. 
T. I. Br. 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Water 
Way 


WAWELBERG, HIPPOLITE HENRICH- 
OVICH: Russian banker; born at Warsaw 1844; 
died at St. Petersburg Oct. 20, 1901. After gradu- 
ating from the real-gymnasium of Warsaw he stud- 
ied at the university of that city, and later at the 
Agricultural College of Nova Alexandria, finally 
completing his studies in Germany. Upon his re- 
turn to St. Petersburg he assumed the management 
of his father’s banking establishment, and became a 
very successful financier, He took a lively interest 
in the communal affairs of St. Petersburg and of 
Warsaw, and contributed considerable suins of money 
toward the foundation and maintenance of indus- 
trial schools. He devoted large sums also to the im- 
provement of the condition of the laboring classes. 
The Museum of Arts and Industries, the Teclinical 
School of Wawelberg and Rothwand, and the cheap 
lodging-houses of Warsaw owe their existence 
largely to his support. 

Wawelberg contributed liberally to the publica- 
tion in the Polish language of popular books on the 
applied sciences. It was his aim not only to raise 
the general economic and social condition of Poland, 
but also to elevate his coreligionists and to imbue 
them with a spirit of patriotism. He was a director 
of the Jewish community of St. Petersburg, and, 
from 1880, a member of the Society for the Promo- 
tion of Culture Among the Jews of Russia, and of 
the Society of Friends of Jewish Artisans and Farm- 
ers. After 1891 he was also an active inember of the 
Jewish Colonization Association. Wawelberg was 
one of the trustees of the Industrial Company at 
Dubrovna, which endeavored to provide work for 
the poor Jewish artisans of that place. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY : Voskhod, 1901, No. 57. 

H. R. J. G. L. 

WAX (Hebr. “donag”): In the Old Testament 
wax is referred to only as a simile for something 
easily dissolved or evanescent (Ps. lxviii. 3); for com- 
pliance and submission (Judges xvi. 18; Micah i. 4; 
Ps. xevii. 5); or for fear and discouragement (Ps. 
xxii, 15). Inthe Talmud mention is made of the use 
of wax (“sha‘awah ”) for lighting purposes, prob- 
ably in the form of candles (Shab. 20b; comp. Rashi). 
At present wax candles are frequently employed on 
the Feast of HantKkauH in places where olive-oil is 
not easily obtainable. On the eve of the Day of 
Atonement and at the anniversary of the death of a 
relative (JAHRZEIT) it is customary to light in the 
synagogue large wax candles that will burn at least 
twenty-four hours. A candle made from braided 
wax tapers is used also for the HABDALAH ceremony. 

KE. G. H. I. M. C, 


WAY. Sce Ricut oF Way. 


WAY, LEWIS: English clergyman; born at 
Denham, Bucks, England, Feb. 11, 1772; died in 
London Jan. 26, 1840. He was educated at Merton 
College, Oxford, and was called to the bar in 1797, 
but entered the Church and devoted to Church pur- 
poses a large legacy left him by a stranger named 
John Way. He was the founder, in 1808, of the 
London Society for Promoting Christianity Among 
the Jews, under the patronage of the Duke of Kent, 
father of Queen Victoria, and with the assistance of 
Prof. Simeon of Cambridge, Dr. Marsh of Birming- 


Wayehi ‘Ereb 
We-‘al Kullom 


ham, the convert J. F. Fry, and the preacher Leigh 
Richmond. Convinced that the Jewish nation would 
again arise, return to its ancestral home, embrace 
Christianity, and convert the Gentiles, Way trav- 
eled at his own expense through Holland, Germany, 
and Russia, in order to study the condition of the 


WAYEHI ‘EREB 


Con brio. 


A Sn 
———ea 
Se 
CONGREGATION: Wa - ye - hi ‘e - reb, wa - 
ad lid. ~ A 
b——_ @ > a te @. — 
easy pert 25 pipe Pier a ee 


PruapER. Wa- ye-hi — - - reb, wa- ye- hi 


Jews, ameliorate their social and political status, and 
urge the Christians to missionary work among them. 
In 1817 Way induced Czar Alexander L. to issue 
two ukases assuring all baptized Jews of imperial 
protection and promising them land for farming. 
Further, he wrote a work entitled “ Mémoires sur 
VEtat des Israélites Dédiés et Présentés 4 Leurs 
Majestés Impériales et Royales, Réunies au Congrés 
d’ Aix-la-Chapelle ” (Paris, 1819), in which he empha- 
sized the Messianic importance of the Jews, consid- 
ered their relation to the Biblical promises and the 
ultimate fulfilment thereof, and pleaded for their 
emancipation in Europe. This was presented at the 
Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (Oct., 1818) to the czar, 
who gave the memorandum to his plenipotentiaries, 
Nesselrode and Capodistrias, ordering them to bring 
it before the congress, together with the question of 
the emancipation of the Jews. It was accordingly 
entered on the minutes, but produced no further 
effect. In hisown house Way used to entertain con- 
verted Jews, who sometimes ill repaid his hospital- 
ity, giving rise to a satirical epigram by Macaulay. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Herzog-Hauck, Real-Eneye. xiii. 179: Mo- 
natsschrift, 1869, xviii. 234 et seq., 334 ef seq., 477 et seq., S51 
et seq.: Gratz, Gesch, xi. 352 et seq.; Dict. Nat. Biog.: Tre- 
velyan. Life of Macaulay, ch. i. 


J. E. N. 

WAYEHI ‘EREB (“And it was evening”): 
One of the “nedarim,” or special declamatory varia- 
tions from the strict CANTILLATION of the Penta- 
teuch, according to the Northern use. This chant 
is introduced into the reading which reopens the 
yearly cycle of pericopes on the Rejoicing of the 
Law (see Siumat Toran); and it marks the verses 
which conclude the recital of the work of each of 
the six days of Creation (Gen. i. 5, 8, 13, 19, 28, 31). 
The reader pauses at the end of each verse; and 
after the congregation has loudly chanted the 
“ Wayehi ‘ereb,” he repeats the intonation with florid 
amplification of the melody. Like other nedarim, 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


478 


such as the “Song by the Sea” (Ex. xv.:; comp. 
ASHIRAH) or the “ Journeys of the Standards ” (Num. 
X. 14-16, 18-20, 22-24, 25-28; xxxiii. 11-13, 15~36, 
41-47), the present chant is founded on a vocal imi- 
tation of a herald’s trumpet-call. The accompany- 
ing transcription, based on that of Baer, shows the 


(Gen. i. 5) 


ye - hi bo - ker, yom e - had...... 
sintton wees === ros 
-  - ker, [are eee ere - - had. 


method of its rendering (comp. also “The Voice of 
Prayer and Praise,” No. 168b, London, 1899), 
A. F. L. C. 


WAYEKULLU (“Thus were finished”: Gen. 
ii. 1-3): The concluding verses of the story of Crea- 
tion, deemed from Talmudic times an essential por- 
tion of the prayers for Friday night, as the eve of 
the Sabbath (Shab. 119b). While the whole con- 
gregation remained standing (Shulhan ‘Aruk, Orah 
Hayyim, 268, 7), the“ Wayekullu” was recited aloud 
in the synagogue after the silent repeating of the 
“*Amidah.” In the homes it was recited before 
the domestic Kippusu. Thus the precentors were 
tempted to dwell upon it when chanting it: and in 
the course of time they developed for it, out of 
the simple CANTILLATION of the Law, an elaborately 
melismatic intonation in their most florid style, for 
an example of which see JEw, Encyc, vi. 290. 

A. F. L. C. 

WAYIKRA RABBAH (called also Hagga- 
dat Wayikra): Haggadic midrash to Leviticus. 
Under the name “ Wayikra Rabbah ” this mitirash is 
first referred to by Nathan, in his “‘Aruk,” s.r. 335, 
som, and in several other passages, as well as by 
Rashi in his commentaries on Gen. xlivi. 26, Ex. 
xxxii. 5, Lev. ix. 24, ete. According to Zunz, how- 
ever, Hai Gaon and Nissim knew and made use of 
this midrash; and Zunz dates its origin back to the 
middle of the seventh century. Jt originated in Pal- 
estine, and is composed Jargely of older works, its 
redactor having made use of Genesis Rabbah, Pesikta 
de-Rab Kahana, and the Jerusalem Talmud, in ad- 
dition to other ancient sources. He appears to have 
referred also to the Babylonian Talmud, several ex- 
pressions in the midrash being used in the sense in 
which only that work employs them (comp. Weiss, 
“Dor,” if}. 261). 

The Wayikra is not a continuous, explanatory 
midrash to Leviticus, but a collection of exclusive 


479 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Wa yehi ‘Ereb 
We-‘al Kullom 


sermons or lectures on the themes or texts of that 


book; and it consists altogether of thirty-seven such 


homilies, each of which constitutes a separate chap- 
ter, or “ parashah.” The Scriptural passages on which 
the homilies are based are often referred to in the 
midrash as “ parashiyyot,” and are further designa- 
ted according to their contents; as, for example, ch. 
i., “ Parashat ha-Mishkan,” on Lev. 1. e¢ seq. ; ch. ix., 
“Parashah Korbanot,” on Lev. vii. 11 et seg.; ch. 
xv., “Parashat Nega‘im,” on Lev. xiii. 1 e¢ seg.; 
etc. Of the thirty-seven homilies, eight (1, 3,8, 11, 
13, 20, 26, 30) are introduced with the 
formula “Patah R.” (“The teacher 
has commenced ”); eight (2, 4-7, 9, 10, 
19), with “Hada hu di-ketib” (lit., “Asit is writ- 
ten”); and twenty-one (12, 14-18, 21-25, 27-29, 31- 
37), with “ Zehshe-amar ha-Katub” (lit.,“ This is what 
the Holy Scriptures say”). The fact that the redac- 
tor of the midrash selected only these thirty-seven 
texts for his exposition, is explained by Weiss (/.c.) 
as the existence of the Sifra, the halakic midrash to Le- 
viticus: “The redactor of the Wayikra Rabbah had 
nothing to add to the halakic midrash; he collected 
therefore only those haggadic explanations which he 
found on various texts and passages.” This surmise 
by Weiss is, however, refuted by the circumstance 
that nearly all the parashiyyot of the Wayikra Rab- 
bah (with the exception of chapters 11, 24, 382, 35, 
and 36) refer to halakic passages. Thus, the redac- 
tor of the midrash collected haggadic ex positions also 
of such texts as were treated in the Sifra. The con- 
jecture of Theodor that in the older cycle of weekly 
lessons the passages on which the homilies of the 
Wayikra Rabbah were based consisted in certain par- 
agraphs, or in lessons for certain festivals, seems 
therefore to be correct (comp. Theodor, “ Die Midra- 
schim zum Pentateuch und der Dreijihrige Pales- 
tinensische Cyclus,” in “ Monatsschrift,” 1886, pp. 
307-818, 406-415; see also Jew. Encyc. viii. 560). 
In its plan, as well as in the form of the several 
parashiyyot, the midrash bears great resemblance 
to the Pesikta de-Rab Kahana (see JEW. ENCyYC. 
viii. 559). Like the lectures in the Pesikta, the hom- 


Contents. 


long pieces, in others brief sentences only, have been 
adduced in connection with the Scriptural passages, 
seemingly in accordance with the material at the red- 
actor's disposal. Inasmuch, however, as the hom- 
ilies in the Wayikra Rabbah treat largely of top- 
ics beyond the subject-matter of the Biblical text 
itself, the explanations of the individual verses are 
often replaced by series of haggadic quotations 
which refer to the theme considered in the homily 
(comp. ch. 8, 12-15, 18, 19, 28, 31-34, 36, 37). In 

this the Wayikra Rabbah differs from 


Relation the Pesikta, for in the latter work the 
to the individual explanations are seldom 
Pesikta. lacking. Another difference between 


the two works is, that while the Pe- 
sikta rarely quotes lengthy hagyadic excerpts after 
the proems, the Wayikra Rabbah quotes such after 
the conclusion of a proem, in the course of cach 
parashah, and even toward the end of a chapter: 
these excerpts have often very slight reference to 
the context. But otherwise the Wayikra carcfully 
follows the form of the Pesikta. The end of each 
parashah in the former work, in analogy with the 
usage followed in the Pesikta, consists of a passage 
containing a Messianic prophecy. 

The extent of the present midrash is the same as 
that of the edition quoted by R. Nathan in the 
“*Aruk,” since he refers to passages from ch, Xxxvi. 
(8.2. TAN) and xxxvii. (8.¢. 3p) as “the end.” Aside 
from some transpositions, eliminations, and glosses, 
the printed text of the midrash is noteworthy as 
containing, at the end of the first three parashity yot, 
annotations from Tanna debe Eliyahu which were 
not contained in the older manuscripts. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zunz, G. V. pp. 181-186; Weiss, Dur, fii. 261: 

Theodor, Zur Composition der Agadischen Huomilien, in 


Monatsschrift, 1881, pp. 500-510 
8. a Oe le: 


WE-ADAR. See ADAR SHENI. 


WE-‘AL KULLOM: The brief prayer which 
interrupts and divides into three sections the longer 
confession of sins enumerated in alphabetica! order 


WE-‘AL KULLOM 


Lento dolente, _ 


2 = ae aE ————— oe aa er ——f4—0e— ——— 
2 Se ee eS ee ee | Se 

We - ‘ace kul - lom, E - lo - ah se- li - hot, se - lah... ore 

And for them all, for - giv - - ing God, for - give......... 

me ~ ee ee ee 
—_ aS SS SS ee eS 
SSS ee ge —~y—F , <= a res <i oe a 

la - nu, me~- hal......... la - nu, kap...... DORs iucuaks la - nu 

US aGueeeasats par - don wus,........ grant...... Us re- mis - — sion. 


ilies in the Wayikra Rabbah begin with a larger or 
smaller number of proems on passages mostly taken 
from the Hagiographa. Thereupon follows the ex- 
position proper of the passage to which the homily re- 
fers. The explanation often covers only afew verses, 
or even a few words of the first verse, of the pas- 
sage on which the parashah is based. In some cases 


(see ‘AL Het) in the prayers of the Day of Atone- 
ment. The traditional melody presents many vari- 
ants besides the foregoing (comp. the Polish and 
German renderings given in Baer’s ~Ba‘al Tefil- 
lah,” No. 1857), all of which are based on the plain- 
tive phrases of the wail which pervades the SELIHAH. 
A. i ie Bae ss 


Weasel 
Week 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


480 


WEASEL (45m): Unclean animal (Lev. xi. 29). 
Saudia, Bochart, and others render 45m by “mole,” 
referring to the Arabic “huld” and the Aramaic 
“huldah.” The family of the Wustelide, to which 
the weasel belongs, is represented in Palestine and 
Syria by several species. 

In the Talmud the common weasel, Mustela vul- 
garts, is mentioned under the names mmbyn_ and 
Nnvia is (Pes. 9a; Sanh. 105a). In Gen. R. xxiv. 
6 also occurs the term 55. The weasel lives on 
dung-heaps and in holes and chinks of walls, 
and it burrows in the ground (Pes. 8b, 118b; Nid- 
dah 15b; Suk. 20b). It kills animals larger than 
itself (Toh. iv. 3), and even attacks corpses (Shab. 
151b). It is especially dangerous to domestic fowl 
{Hul. 52b et al.); its bent and pointed teeth pierce 
the skulls of hens (26. 56a; comp. Rashi on Deut. 
XXxil. 5). 

It 1s above all dangerous to the cat. Hence the 
proverb “ Weasel and cat wed,” applied to simu- 
lated friendship (Sanh. 105a). Like all small beasts 
of prey, the weasel carries off glittering objects to 
its hole (Lev. R. clxxi. 4). The weasel alone of all 
land animals has no counterpart in the sea (Hul. 
127a). It was employed in clearing the house of 
mice (B. K. 80a). On the use of the weasel in divi- 
nation see Sanh. 66a; and for the pretty story of the 
weasel and the well which, as witnesses of a be- 
trothal, avenged its breach, see Rashi on Ta‘an. 8a. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Tristram, Nat. Hist. p. 151; Lewysohn, Z. 7. 


pp. 91, 366. 
E. G. A, I. M. C. 


WEATHER-LORE: Popular prognostications 
regarding the weather. A certain number of these 
occur in the Talmud (B. B. 147a). If the weather 
at Shabu‘ot is clear, sow wheat. If the smoke of the 
altar turns to the north on the last days of Taber- 
nacles, there will be much rain in the following year. 
This was true for Jerusalem; the opposite, for Baby- 
lonia. If New-Year’s day is warm, the whole year 
will be warm (comp. Yoma 2b). 

Much importance was attributed to the “ tekufot,” 
or changes of seasons. If the tekufah of Tebet falls 
on a Wednesday ora Saturday, there will be famine. 
It the tekufah of Nisan is on a Sunday, there will 
be war and death and snow. Some of these prog- 
nostications of later times were adapted from the 
Greeks. Thus, if the new moon of Tebet fell on a 
Sunday, it was taken to portend that the winter 
would be a good one. Moses ha-Darshan declared 
that if the tekufah of Tebet fell within the first ten 
days of the month, grain would be dear. This is 
quoted by Issachar ibn Susan in his “‘Ibbur Sha- 
nim ” (pp. 128b, 124a, Venice, 1579), which contains 
other weather-lore. In some weather-signs the posi- 
tion of the planets is taken into account. Thus, ifa 
new moon occurs in the mansion of Mars, the month 
will be warm and rainy ; ifin the mansion of Mercury, 
windy and dusty. If the tekufah happens when the 
sun is in the zenith, the year will be a warm one; 
when Venus is in the ascendancy, a rainy one; etc. 

Many of the larger Mahzorim contain items of this 
kind; as, for example, the Roman Mahzor edited by 
Luzzatto and the Vitry Mahzor. So, too, in the “Se- 
fer Yerahme’el” there is an elaborate treatise on me- 
teorology, containing prognostications based on the 


occurrence of rain on certain days, or of thunder on 
such days. Thus, if it rains on the new moon of 
Nisan, there will be death among the cattle. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: M.Gaster. Jewish Weather-Lore, in Jew. 
Chron. Noy. 13, 1891, pp. 7-8. J 
S, : 


WEAVING: As early as the nomadic period 
the Israelites understood the art of spinning the 
hair of camels and goats, and the wool of sheep, 
and of weaving therefrom rough stuffs for tents 
and clothing. Their method of weaving was prob- 
ably quite as primitive as that of the Bedouins of 
Jabal Musa observed by E. H. Palmer, who describes 
the process, as carried on by a woman, thus: “Her 
loom was a primitive one, consisting only of a 
few upright sticks, upon which the threads were 
stretched; the transverse threads were inserted la- 
boriously by the fingers without the assistance of a 
shuttle, and the whole fabric was pressed close to- 
gether with a piece of wood” (“The Desert of the 
Exodus,” i. 125). 

In Palestine the Israelites became acquainted with 
somewhat better methods of weaving, although these 
must have remained very simple until a later period. 
This is shown by the fact that the Egyptian looms, 
although the Egyptian methods of weaving, like 
the Babylonian and Syrian, are spoken of as highly 
developed, were nevertheless exceedingly primitive. 
Herodotus narrates that the Egyptians wove at an 
upright loom. The threads were fastened below, 
and the weavers commenced their work at the bot- 
tom, unlike other peoples, who, according to the 
same authority, began at the top. This method of 
weaving was probably the one which was customary 
at the time of Herodotus, although the monuments 
prove that the Egyptians were acquainted also with 
horizontal looms. The well-known representation 
in one of the tombs at Beni Hasan (Wilkinson, “ An- 
cient Egyptians,” i. 317) shows a horizontal loom 
at which two women are seated. (The usual view 
that this is an upright loom has been refuted by 
Kennedy in Cheyne and Black, “ Encye. Bibl.” iv. 

5279.) The warp was stretched over 

Warp and two sticks fastened to the ground by 

Woof. wooden pegs. Other representations 

show upright looms on which the 

warp runs from top to bottom, being held firm 

above and below by a cross-bar. Both kinds of 

loom may have been in use among the Hebrews 
also. 

The Greeks and Romans used most commonly the 
upright loom, as described above, although at an 
earlier period both the upright and the horizontal 
loom may have been used side by side. Kennedy 
(7.c.) finds an indication of the existence of the hori- 
zontal loom in the story of Samson, where it is 
related that Delilah wove Samson’s locks into the 
web of her looin while he was asleep (Judges xvi. 
13 e¢ seq.). In modern times only the horizontal 
loom is used in Palestine. Still another upright 
loom, differing from that described above, seems to 
have been in use. This corresponded to the old 
Grecian loom, having but one cross-bar at the top to 
fasten the web, while the threads were kept stretched 
apart at the bottom by weights instead of by a sec- 
ond cross-bar. With this kind of a loom it was nec- 


481 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Weasel 
Week 


essary to begin at the top. Bliss claims to have 
found such looms in Tell al-Hasi (“A Mound of 
Many Cities,” p. 118). The primitive 
fashions of olden times made it possi- 
ble to weave a whole garment in one 
piece, and the looms were adapted to the sizes of 
the products required. It was not customary to 
weave long strips of cloth from which the clothing 
was cut out later, although this was possible when 
the rods upon which tle warp was stretched could 
be turned, as seems to have been sometimes the case 
with the Egyptian looms. 

One of the most important problems of ancient 
weaving methods was the separation of the odd from 
the even threads of the warp, so that the woof could 
pass between them easily, and their interchange of 
positions (z.e., respectively over and under the woof) 
after each stroke of the shuttle. This the ancient 
Egyptians effected by means of two sticks: one was 
pushed between the two layers of threads, keep- 
ing them separate, while the other, to which the 
threads of the lower layer were fastened by loops, 
made it possible to pull them up simultaneously, 
and thus to produce the interchange of positions. 
The insertion of the transverse thread was effected 
by means of a shuttle (A9"). “here are no data 
by means of which the history of the development 
and perfection of this important discovery can be 
pursued any further. 

Egyptian representations show that from the ear- 
liest times the Syrians delighted in variegated and 
gorgeous garments. The Hebrews must soon have 
learned how to manufacture many-colored stuffs, 
in addition to the most simple single-colored weaves. 
For example, the coarsest mantles of the modern 
peasants are striped black (or brown) and white, 
and they were probably the same in antiquity. The 
inweaving of gold was fashionable for elegant gar- 
ments (Ex. xxviii. 5 et seg., xxxix. 2 et seq.; Ps. 
xlv. 10), but it is not certain whether the stuff called 
apr, often mentioned in the description of the Tab- 
ernacle, was of variegated weave or an embroidery. 
It is doubtful whether the Hebrews understood how 
to weave figured textures. 

The weaving of clothing, etc., for household use 
was originally a task which devolved upon the 
housewives; itis not known when weaving was first 
developed as a separate trade. In later times weav- 
ers held a position of high esteem among the people 
(comp. Delitzsch, “Jiidisches Handwerksleben,” pp. 
A5 et seq.). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Rieger, Versuch einer Technologie und Ter- 


minologie der Handwerke in der Mischnah, s.v. Spinnen, 
Weben, ete., Berlin, 1894; Cheyne and Black, Eneyc. Bibl. 


E. G. H. I. Br. 


WECHSELMANN, IGNAZ: Hungarian archi- 
tect and philanthropist; born at Nikolai, Prussian 
Silesia, in 1828; died at Budapest Jan. 17, 1903. He 
was educated at Berlin, and then went to Vienna, 
where he became the friend and assistant of the 
architect Ludwig Forster. In 1856 he removed to 
Budapest, where he, as Foérster’s representative, 
superintended the building of the great synagogue. 
Most of the monumental buildings erected in the 
Hungarian capital between 1870 and 1890 were de- 
signed by him, his work including palaces, mills, 

XIT.—31 


Looms. 


factories, churches, and the famous Burg-Bazar. 
In 1886 he received the Order of the Iron Crown of 
the third class, and shortly afterward Francis Jo- 
seph I. elevated him to the Hungarian nobility. 

Failing eyesight compelled Wechselmann to retire 
from active life in 1890, whereupon he devoted his 
time to philanthropic activity in Budapest. His 
greatest act of charity was embodied in two clauses 
in his will, by which he bequeathed one million 
kronen to the Institute for the Blind, and two mil- 
lions for the support of meritorious teachers in the 
public schools. Half of these beneficiaries were to 
be Jews and the other half Christians; and the board 
of directors of the Jewish community was entrusted 
with the administration of the bequests. 

s. L. V. 


WECKER, DER. See PERsopICcALS. 


WEDDING and WEDDING-GIFTS. 
MARRIAGE CEREMONIES. 


WEEK (Hebr. “shabua‘,” plural “shabu‘im,” 
“shabu‘ot”; Aramaic, “shabbeta,” “shabba”; N. 
T. Greek, oa8S8arov, odfB8ara): A division of time 
comprising seven days, thus explaining the Hebrew 
name. There are indications of the use of another 
system of reckoning time, in which the month was 
divided into three parts of ten days each, the decade 
being designated in Hebrew by the term “‘asor” 
(Gen. xxiv. 55; comp. the commentaries of Dill- 
mann and Holzinger ad loc.; Ex. xii. 3; Lev. xvi. 
29, xxiii. 27, xxv. 9). This apparently represented 
one-third of the solar month, while the week of seven 
days was connected with the lunar month, of which 
it is, approximately, a fourth. The quadripartite 
division of the month was evidently in use among 
the Hebrews and other ancient peoples; but it is 

not clear whether it originated among 
Connection the former. It is unnecessary to as- 


See 


with sume, however, that it was derived 
Lunar fromthe Babylonians, for it is equally 
Phases. possible that observations of the four 


phases of the moon led the Hebrew 
nomads spontaneously and independently to devise 
the system of dividing the interval between the suc- 
cessive new moons into four groups of seven days 
each. There is ground, on the other hand, for the 
assumption that both among the Babylonians and 
among the Hebrews the first day of the first week 
of the month was always reckoned as coincident 
with the first day of the month. The emphasis laid 
on the requirement (Lev. xxii. 15) that the weeks 
of Pentecost should be “complete” (“temimot ”) 
suggests that weeks might be reckoned in such a 
way as to violate this injunction. This was the 
case as long as the first day of the first week of the 
month was made to coincide with the new moon. 
At the end of four weeks an interval of one or two 
days might intervene before the new week could 
begin. At an early date, however, this intimate 
connection between the week and the mcocn must 
have been dissolved, the chief cause of the fixed 
week of seven days being, in all probability, the 
predominance of the seventh day as the Sabbath 
(but see Meinhold, “Sabbat und Woche im O. T.” 
Gottingen, 1905, according to whom Sabbath, orig- 
inally only the full-moon day and the week are 


Weekblad voor Israelieten 
Weights and Measures 


independent of each other). The week thus became 
a useful standard in the measurement of intervals 
of time (one week, Gen. xxix. 27 et seg.; two weeks, 
Lev. xii. 5; three weeks, Dan. x. 2; seven weeks, 
Deut, xvi. 9; Lev. xxiii. 15). 

With the exception of the seventh day, which was 
called the Sanbatu, the days of the week were des- 
ignated by ordinal numerals, not by names. In 
post-Biblical and later Hebrew literature Friday is 
known as “‘Ereb Shabbat” (Greek, wapackevy or 
mpooagsBarov; Judith viii. 6; Mark xv. 42; Matt. 
xxvii. 62; Josephus, “Ant.” xvi. 6, § 2). The Bib- 
lical writings contain no trace of any custom of 
naming the days of the week after the seven planets; 
nor had this custom, found among the Babylonians 

and the Sabeans, any bearing origi- 


Week- nally on the division of the week into 
Days Not seven days, since it was a mere numer- 
Named. ical coincidence that seven planets 


were assumed in these primitive astro- 
logical conceits. In the Babylonian nomenclature 
the first day of the week was under the tutelage of 
Shamash, the sun; the second under that of Sin, the 
moon; the third under Nergal, Mars; the fourth 
under Nabu, Mercury; the fifth under Marduk 
(Bel), Jupiter; the sixth under Ishtar (Beltis), Ve- 
nus; and the seventh under Ninib, Saturn (see, how- 
ever, Schrader, “K. A. T.” 8d ed., pp. 622 et seq.). 
WEEEKBLAD VOOR ISRAELIETEN. See 
PERIODICALS. 


WEEKS, FEAST OF. Sce PENTEcostT, 
WE-HIZHIR. See MipkRAsnH HaGGADAH. 


WEHU RAHUM (nin gin = “ But He, being 
full of compassion”): A prayer, beginning with 
Ps. Ixxviii. 88, recited on Mondays and Thursdays 
before TABANUN. Itis composed chiefly of Biblical 
verses, and is divided into seven parts: (1) “Wehu 
Rahum ”; (2) “Hatteh Elo‘a Ozneka”; (3) “ Habbet 
Na”; (4) “ Anna Melek ” ; (5) “ FE] Rahum we-Hannun” ; 
(6) “En Kamoka”; and (7) “Ha-Poteah Yad.” 
From the repetitions in it, it may be inferred that 
the prayer is the work of more than one author. 
It was known in its present form to the compiler of 
the Vitry Mahzor, who quotes it in full; while in 
the Siddur of R. Amram it is given in three versions, 
one beginning with “Im ‘Awonenu” (the seventh 
verse of the present form) and followed by the con- 
fession of sins (ASHAMNU; see Tur Orah Hayyim, 
& 184), another commencing with “ We-Attah 
Adonai,” and the third opening with “Wehu 
Rahum,” but in much shortened form. In the Seder 
Tefillot of Maimonides (at the end of the second 
book of the “ Yad ”) the prayer before “ Tahanun ” is 
given in a very different version and is to be recited 
every day, not merely on Mondays and Thursdays. 

According toa legend, the “Wehu Rahum” was 
composed on the following occasion: After the de- 
struction of the Temple many Jews were placed by 
Vespasian on three vessels and were abandoned by 
their captains in the open sea. Among those thus 
Jeft to perish were Benjamin Yerushalmi, his brother 
Joseph, and their cousin Samuel. By a miracle the 
vessei bearing them and their companions reached 
Bordeaux in safety. They were kindly received 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


482 


by the ruler of the country, but at his death became 
the object of enmity. They accordingly instituted 
fasts for the cessation of the persecution, and during 
this period they recited the “ Wehu Rahum,” which 
had been composed by Benjamin, Joseph, and Sam- 
uel. Later, when the persecutions had ceased, the 
authors sent the prayer to their coreligionists of 
other countries. 

Another legend of the origin of this prayer is 
given in the Vitry Mahzor, though it fails to men- 
tion the names of the authors. A prince is said to 
have notified three refugees from Jerusalem that he 
would throw them into a burning furnace to deter- 
mine whether they were Jews. At the expiration 
of the respite which they requested, a pious old 
mano told them he had heard in a dream a Biblical 
passage containing the word °5 twice and the word 
xb thrice. One of them immediately recognized Isa. 
xliii. 2, from which they inferred that they would 
be saved. At the command of the prince a fire was 
kindled in the street, but the flames, as soon as the 
old man entered them, divided in three directions, 
and the Jews passed through uninjured. In com- 
memoration of this miracle they composed the 
“Wehu Rahum,” to which each of them contributed 
a portion. 


Gross, Gallia. 
_ J, Bra. 
WEIBERDEUTSCH. See Jupa#:0-GERMAN, 


WEICHSELBAUM, ANTON: Austrian phy- 
sician; born at Schiltern, Lower Austria, Feb. 8, 
1845. Educated at the Josefs-Akademie and the 
University of Vienna (M.D. 1869), he joined the 
army as surgeon and remained in service until 1878, 
when he resigned and became privat-docent at the 
University of Vienna. In 1885 he was appointed 
assistant professor and in 1894 professor of patho- 
logical anatomy. In 1892 he was elected member of 
the Imperial Academy of Sciences at Vienna. 

Weichselbaum has contributed more than a hun- 
dred essays to the professional journals, and is the 
author of “Grundriss der Pathologischen Histolo- 
gie,” Leipsic and Vienna, 1892. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zunz, Literaturgesch. p. 17: 
Judaica, p. 75. 
J. 


PLE OCEAL EY : Eisenberg, Das Geistige Wien, vol. ii., Vienna, 
S. F. T. H. 


WEIGERT, KARL: German pathologist; 
born at Miinsterberg in Silesia March 19, 1845: died 
at Frankfort-on-the-Main Aug. 5, 1904. Hereceived 
his education at the universities of Berlin, Vienna, 
and Breslau, graduating in 1868. After having 
taken part in the Franco-Prussian war as assistant 
surgeon he settled in Breslau, and for the following 
two years was assistant to Waldeyer; from 1870 to 
1874 to Lebert, and then to Cohnheim, whom he fol- 
lowed to Leipsic in 1878, There he became assistant 
professor of pathology at the university in 1879, In 
1884 he was appointed professor of pathological 
anatomy at the Senkenbergsche Stiftung in Frank- 
fort-on-the-Main, and received the title of “Geheimer 
Medizinal- Rat” in 1899. 

Weigert assisted Cohnheim in many of his re- 
searches, and wrote much on the staining of bac- 
teria in microscopy. He contributed many essays 


483 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Weekblad voor Israelieten 
Weights and Measures 


to the medical journals. Among his works may be 
mentioned: “Zur Anatomie der Pocken” (Breslau, 
1874); “Farbung der Bacterien mit Anilinfarben ” 
(20, 1875); “Nephritis” (Leipsic, 1879); “ Fibrin- 
firbung ” (1886); “ Beitrige zur Kenntniss der Nor- 
malev Menschlichen Neuroglia” (Frank fort-on-the- 
Main, 1895); “ Elastische Fasern ” (7b. 1898). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Pagel, Biog. Lex. s.v., Vienna, 1901; Oester- 

reichische Wochensehrift, 1904, pp. 533, 534. 

g. BT. A, 

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. — Biblical 
Data: While the references in the Old Testament 
are sufficient for a general knowledge of the ancient 
Hebrew system of weights and measures, and of the 
mutual relations of the several units, they are not 
adequate for an exact determination of the absolute 
standard of measurement. The rabbinical state- 
ments that a fingerbreadth equals seven barleycorns 
laid side by side, and that a log is equivalent to six 
medirm-sized eggs, are as indefinite as the statement 
on the Siloam inscription that the Siloam canal (537.6 

meters as measured by Conder) was 

Derived 1,200 ells long—evidently around num- 
from Baby- ber. Since, however, the entire svstem 

lonia. of measures corresponds almost exactly 
with the Babylonian, from which the 
Hebrew measures were in all probability derived. it 
may be assumed that the Hebrew system corre- 
sponded with the Babylonian with regard to the 
absolute standard as well. It is true that the Egyp- 
tian system may have exerted some influence here 
and there, as will be shown later, but it is now gen- 
erally recognized that the culture of ancient Syria, 
even before the Israelites had migrated there, was 
almost wholly under Babylonian influence. 

I. Measures of Length: The original meas- 
ures of length were derived from the human body: 
the finger, hand, arm, span, foot, and pace. As 
these measures differ with each individual, they 
must be reduced to a certain definite standard for 
general use. The Hebrew system, therefore, had 
such a standard: the ell (“ammah”) contained 2 
spans (“ zeret”), while each span was made up of 3 
handbreadths (“tefah”) of 4 fingers (“ezba‘”) 
each. This division of the ell into 6 handbreadths 
was the one customarily employed in antiquity, but 
it was supplanted in Babylonia by the sexagesimal] 
system. The Old Testament mentions two ells of 
different size. Ezekiel implies that in his measure- 
ment of the Temple the ell was equal to a “cubit 
and a handbreadth” (x}. 5, xhii. 18)—that is, one 
handbreadth larger than the ell commonly used in 
his time. Since among all peoples the ell measured 
6 handbreadths, the proportion of Ezekiel’s ell to 
the others was as 7 to 6. The fact that Ezekiel 

measured the Temple by a special ell 
The Cubit. is comprehensible and significant only 

on the assumption that this ell was 
the standard of measurement of the old Temple of 
Solomon as well. This is confirmed by the state- 
ment of the Chronicler that the Temple of Solomon 
was built according to “cubits after the first meas- 
ure ” (II Chron. iii. 3), implying that a larger ell was 
used at first, and that this was supplanted in the 
course of time by a smaller one. 

The Egyptians in like manner used two kinds of 


ells in exactly the same proportion to each other, 
namely, the smaller ell of 6 handbreadths and the 
larger “royal” ell, which was a handbreadth longer. 
The latter measures 525-528 millimeters, and the 
former 450 millimeters, estimating a handbreadth as 
75 millimeters. It would seem at first sight that the 
Egyptian system of measurement had influenced the 
Hebrew, and the two Hebrew ells might naturally 
be considered identical with the Egyptian measures, 
This assumption is, however, doubtful. Since all 
the other measures were derived from Babylon, in 
all probability the ancient Hebrew ell originated 
there also. The Jength of the Babylonian el) is 
given on the famous statue of King Gudea (begin- 
ning of 38d millennium B.c.), found in Telloh in 
southern Babylonia. A scale is inscribed on this 
statue, according to which the ell may be reckoned at 
495 millimeters, a measurement which is confirmed by 
certain Babylonian tablets. These measure, accord- 
ing to the Babylonian scale, 2 ell, or, according to 
the metric system, 380 millimeters (1 foot) on each 
side. The ell of 495 millimeters seems to have been 
used also in Phenicia in measuring the holds of 
ships, but these computations can not be discussed 
in detail here. The length of the ancient Hebrew 
ell can not be determined exactly with the data now 
controlled by science; but it was either 525 or 495 
inillimeters, and this slight difference between the 
two figures is scarcely appreciable in an estimate of 
the size of Hebrew edifices, etc. 

II. Measures of Capacity: The Hebrew system 
here corresponds exactly with the Babylonian. In 
contradistinction to the Egyptian metrology, which 
shows the regular geometric progression—1, 10, 20, 
40, 80, 160—the Hebrew and the Babylonian systems 
are based on thesexagesimal system. The unit of the 
Babylonian system was the “maris,” a quantity of 
water equalin weight toa light royal talent. It con- 
tained, therefore, about 30.3 liters. The maris was 
divided into 60 parts, probably called “ ming” (=.505 
liter), All the other measures are multiples of this 
mina: 12, 24, 60, 72 (60 + 12), 120, 720 mine. 

In the Hebrew system the log (Lev. xiv. 10) cor- 
responds to the mina. Since the Hellenistic writers 
equate the log with the Greco-Roman sextarius, 
whatever these writers say on the rela- 
tion of the sextarius to other measures 
apples also to the relation of these 
measures to the log. The log and the sextarius, 
however, are not equal in capacity. The sextarius 
is estimated at .547 liter, while there is no reason to 
regard the log as larger than the Babylonian mina, 
especially as other references of the Greek metrolo- 
gists support the assumption that the log was equal 
to the mina. The fact that in the Old Testament 
the log is mentioned only as a fluid measure may be 
merely accidental, for the dry measures, which are 
distinguished in all other cases from the liquid meas- 
ures, also have the log as their unit. The corre- 
sponding dry measure may, however, have been 
known under a different name. The same possibil- 
ity must be borne in mind in the case of the cab, the 
next larger measure, containing four logs and men- 
tioned only asa dry measure. <A differentiation of 
the dry and liquid measures gives two simple sys- 
tems, as follows: 


The Log. 


Weights and Measures 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


484 


Dry MEASURES. 


l homer= 10 ephahs = 30 se’aim= 180 cabs = 720 logs= 364.4 lit. 
(cor) lephah = oe = 18 cabs = 72logs = 36.44 lit. 
se’ah = 


6 cabs = 24logs = 12.148 lit. 
leab = 4logs= 2.024 lit. 
llog = 0.806 lit. 
Liquip MEASURES. 
lcor = 10 baths = 66 hins = 180 cabs = 720 logs = 364.4 lit. 
lbath = 6hins= [8cabs = 72 logs = 36.44 lit. 
lhin= scabs= 1l2logs= _ 6.074 lit. 
lcab = 4logs=_ 2.024 lit. 
lliog = 0.506 lit. 


In these tables that homer has been omitted which 
is, according to Ex. xvi. 36, one-tenth of an ephah, 
and which is, therefore, identical with the “ ‘issaron ” 
(Num. xxviii. 5 e¢ a/.). The tenth part of a bath, for 
fluids, which is mentioned in Ezek. xiv. 14 without 
a special name, corresponds in content to the homer, 
or ‘issaron, among the dry measures. The homer and 
its liquid equivalent do not belong to the original 
system, as may be seen by the proportion the homer 
bears to the other measures: 3 homers = 1 se’ah, 13 
homers = 1 hin, 1 homer = 14 cabs = 7} logs. The 


Babylonian Weight in the Form of a Lion with Inscription 
49D 3m (= “royal maneh”’). 
(From Madden, ‘' History of Jewish Coinage,’’) 


tenth part of a bath is, furthermore, mentioned 
only in Ezekiel and in the Priestly Code. The old 
division of the ephah and the bath was into three 
parts; Ezekiel mentions also the sixth part of an 
ephah. At a Jater period the se’ah and the cab dis- 
appear as dry measures, so that the Priestly Code 
refers simply to the tenth part of the ephah. This 
new division into tenths may be connected with the 
appearance of the decimal system, which can be 
traced elsewhere, especially in weights and coins. 
Only one measure in addition to those enumerated 
above is mentioned in the Old Testament. This is 
the “letek,” which occurs but once (Hosea iii. 2). 
It isa dry measure, and is uniformly designated in 
tradition as equal to 4+ homer, although it is doubt- 
ful whether a definite measure is implied by this 
term. The Septuagint translates “letek” in its 
single occurrence as vé3e otvov = “a skin of wine.” 
III. Measures of Weight: It is evident from 
inscriptions that the Babylonian system of weight 
was used in Syria and Palestine even before the en- 
trance of the Israelitesinto the country. The Egyp- 
tian inscription of Karnak records the tribute which 
the kings of Egypt exacted from their Syrian vas- 
sals. Although the sums are given according to 
Egyptian weight, the odd numbers clearly indicate 
that the figures were computed originally by some 


other system, which may easily be shown to have 
been the Babylonian. 

The Babylonians reckoned weight in talents, 
ming, and shekels. Layard found in the ruins of 
Nineveh several Babylonian units of weight, some 
in the form of a crouching lion and others in that 
of a duck, the former being twice as heavy as the 


latter. This proves that a heavy and 
The Mina. a light talent were used in Babylon, 
the latier one-half the weight of the 
former. A heavy talent = 60,600 grams; 1 mina (7; 


talent) = 1,010 grams; 1 shekel = 16.88 grams; 1 
light talent = 30,300 grams; 1 light mina = 505 
grams; 1 light shekel = 8.41 grams. There was, in 
addition to this “royal” weight, another “common” 
weight which was somewhat lighter (compare the 
Jarge “royal” ell and the “common” ell, mentioned 
above). According to thiscommon weight the heavy 
talent weighed 58,944 grams; its mina 982.4 grams; 
its shekel 16.37 grams; and the light talent, mina, 
and shekel just one-half as much. The common 
heavy talent and its subdivisions were the weights 
current in Syria and Palestine, as Josephus expressly 
states (“ Ant.” xiv. 106, ed. Niese). According to 
him, 1 Jewish mina (of 50 shekels) was equal to 24 
Roman pounds, or 818.62 grams; hence 1 shekel 
was equivalent to 16.87 grams, and 1 old mina of 
60 shekels to 982.2 grams. There were also the half- 
shekel or bekah (“ beka‘ ”). 

In the course of time the sexagesimal system was 
superseded in Babylonia also, perhaps under Egyp- 
tian influence. The mina of 60shekels was replaced 
throughout Asia Minor by the mina of 50 shekels. 
The shekel remained the same, forming the unit of 
weight, while the mina and talent were reduced, 
containing respectively 50 shekels = 818.6 grams and 
3,000 shekels = 49,110 grams. 

The period of these changes is unknown. In the 
Old Testament the first reference occurs in Ezekiel; 
if the Septuagint is correct inits translation of Ezek. 
xiv. 12, that passage reads, “You shall count the 
manhe [mina] as fifty shekels.” There is other evi- 
dence in Ex. xxxviij. 25 (Priestly Code), where the 
tax levied upon 603,550 men at 4 shekel each was 
computed to be 100 talents and 1,775 shekels, whence 
1 talent equaled 3,000 shekels, and 1 mina was equiv- 
alent to 850 shekels. These measures were further 
changed in the currency, which was also reckoned 
in talents, minas, and shekels. In Jewish silver 1 
sheke) = 14.55 grams, 1 mina = 50 shekels = 727.5 
grams, 1 talent = 3,000 shekels = 43,- 
659 grams. What bearing this change 
~Which was confined to silver—had 
upon the relative values of gold and silver, and how 
far it was conditioned by the demands of exchange 
day by day, can not be discussed in detail here 
(comp. Benzinger, “Arch.” pp. 192 et seq.). With 
this silver shekel the shekel of weight must not be 
confounded. In the Pentateuch the heavy shekel of 
weight is called, in coutradistinction to the silver 
shekel, the “holy shekel, the shekel of 20 gerahs” 
(Ex. xxx. 13; Lev. xxvii. 25; Num. iii. 47). This 
refers to the tax payable to the Sanctuary, which, it 
is expressly stated, must not be paid in silver shek- 
els, but according to weight, conforming with an- 
cient custom. 


Money. 


485 


The division of the shekel into 20 gerahs is men- 
tioned only in the passages just quoted and in Ezek. 
xiv. 12(LXX.). Otherwise the Old Testament re- 
fers only to quarters and halves of shekels. See 
Money; NUMISMATICS. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Brandis, Das Miinz-. Mass- und Gewichts- 
wesen in Vorderasien bis auf Alerander den Grossen, 
Berlin, 1866; Hultsch. Griechische und Rémische Metrolo- 
gie, 2d ed., Berlin, 1882; Lehmann, Das Altbabylonische 
Mass- und Gewichtsystem als Grundlage der Antiken Ge- 
wicht-, Miinz-, und Masssysteme, in Actes du 8éme Congr. 
Internat. des Orient. vol. i., part 2, pp. 165 et seq.; Benzinger, 
Arch. pp. 178 et seq., Leipsic, 1894; Weights and Measures, 
in Cheyne and Black, Encyc. Bibl. 

I. BE. 


E.G. H. 


——In Rabbinical Literature: The weights and 
measures of Talmudic literature are a combination 
of those of the ancient Hebrew system with for- 
eign elements; and it was especially Greek and Ro- 
man metrology which became current among the 
Jews in the post-Biblical period. These two ele- 
ments, the domestic and the foreign, were, however, 
so intimately fused that it is ofter 
difficult to distinguish between them. 
In the course of time the Biblical 
weightsand measures underwent vari- 
ous changes which are recorded in the 
Talmud, where an endeavor is made to 
determine the original values. The Talmudic sys- 
tem of metrology is especially important since it af- 
fords an evaluation of the Biblical units. Talmudic 
sources deduce the value of Biblical weights and 
measures by comparing them with those which were 
current in the period of the Talmud, and the units 
of this system may often be determined by a com- 
parison with their Greek and Roman equivalents. 
Talmudic metrology is therefore of importance for 
the history of civilization, since it bears upon con- 
ditions prevailing among the classic peoples of an- 
cient times. The weights and measures mentioned 
in Talmudic sources are as follows: 

Gerah (773) or Ma‘ah (FAY): In the Talmud the 
gerah is mentioned as a unit of weight only with 
reference to the Bible. Raba makes it the equiva- 
lent of a ma‘ah, and names as an authority for 
this equation Onkelos, the translator of the Pen- 
tateuch, who rendered the term “twenty gerahs” 
(Ex. xxx. 18) by “twenty ma‘ot” (Bek. 50a). This 
ma‘ah must be the Tyrian obol or ma‘ah; for Bek. 
50a says: “Six silver ma‘ot are equal to a dena- 
rius.” Inasmuch as four denarii are equivalent to 

one sela‘, it follows that twenty-four 

Units of ma‘ot are also equal to one sela‘; and 

Weight. this equation was used for the Tyrian 

sela‘ (comp. Boeckh, “ Metrologische 
Untersuchungen tiber Gewichte, Miinzfiisse, und 
Maasse des Alterthums in Ihrem Zusammenhange,” 
p. 59, Berlin, 1838). The Talmud does not indicate 
the actual weight of the ma‘ah, but from Tyrian 
silver coins still extant its value may be determined. 
The heaviest Tyrian silver coin in existence weighs 
14.34 grams, and , of this, or 0.5975 gram, is there- 
fore the weight of a ma‘ah. This deduction has 
been based upon the weight of the heaviest Tyrian 
silver coin because in those that are lighter the loss 
in weight is evidently due to handling and use. 

Shekel (Spy; Greek, cixioc, ciyaoc): This is the 
next highest unit of weight. The Bible designates 


Domestic 
and 
Foreign 
Elements. 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Weights and Measures 


the value of the shekelas “twenty gerahs ” (Ex. xxx. 
18); whence, according to the weight already given 
for the gerah or ma‘ah, the shekel should weigh 
20 x 0.5975 gram, or 11.95 grams. The Jerusalem 
Talmud, however (Shek. 46d), mentions another 
weight for the shekel, stating that half a shekel is 
equal to six p73; and the same value is given in 
Tan., Ki Tissa, ed. Buber, p. 55a. The term ppg 
designates a scruple (ypaupapiov), which is equal to 
xz Ounce (comp. Mussafia, “Musaf he-‘Aruk,” 8.2, 
p73). Inasmuch as the Roman pound contains 
twelve ounces, a half-shekel becomes the equiva- 
lent of 7, Roman pound, and a whole shekel 
=, According to Boeckh, the Roman pound 
weighed 327.484 grams, and a shekel would accord- 
ingly weigh 18.643 grams. In another passage of 
the Talmud the weight of a shekel is given as 14.34 
grams, or the equivalent of the Tyrian silver coin 
already mentioned. The Talmud states that the sil- 
ver coin recorded in the Pentateuch was identical 
with the Tyrian mintage (Bek. 50b); and the Tosefta 
likewise declares that the silver coin of Jerusalem 
was identical with that of Tyre (Tosef., Ket. xiii. 3). 
A shekel was therefore identical with the Tyrian 
sela‘ (Rashi on Bek. /.c.), and its weight was accord- 
ingly 14.384 grams. The difference between the 
weight given by the Jerusalem Talmud (13.648 
grams) and that deduced by identifying the shekel 
with the Tyrian sela‘ (14.34 grams) amounts to 0.7 
gram only; and it may be explained by assuming 
that the statement in the Jerusalem Talmud, which 
makes a half-shekel equal to six })p13, is only ap- 
proximate. On the other hand, the difference be- 
tween the weight of the shekel given in the Bible 
(11.95 grams), and that of the Tyrian sela‘ of 14.34 
grams, with which the Biblical shekel is identified 
in the Mishnah (Bek. viii. 7) and the Babylonian 
Talmud (2d. 50a), as well as in Yerushalmi (Kid. 59d), 
is too large to be attributed to inaccuracy in reckon- 
ing. Thedivergence finds its explanation, however, 
in the Talmudic statement that the shekel was en- 
larged, the Biblical shekel being originally equiva- 
lent to 84 denarii, and being later increased one-fifth, 
thus becoming equal to four denarii, so that, instead 
of its original value of twenty gerahs, it later became 
equivalent to twenty-four. The Biblical shekel 
weighed 11.95 grams, and the addition of one-fifth 
(2.389 grams) gives 14.34 grams as the weight 
of the later coin, which then became equal to the 
Tyrian sela‘. In addition to this shekel, which was 
called “the shekel of the sanctuary,” and which was 
equal to asela‘, the Mishnah (Ned. iii. 1) and the 
Talmud (B. M. 52a) mention another shekel, which 
was the equivalent of half a sela‘, or half a “ shekel 
of the sanctuary,” and which was probably called 
the common shekel. This indicates that the value 
of the shekel varied at different times (on the reasons 
for these changes and the periods at which they 
took place see Frankel in “ Monatsschrift,” 1855, 
pp. 158 e¢ seg.; Zuckermann, “Ueber Talmudische 
Gewichte und Miinzen,” p. 18). 

Maneh or Mina (72); Greek, piva): In the Mish- 
nah, as well as in the Talmud, the mina is often 
mentioned as a unit of weight for figs, spices, wool, 
meat, and the like (Ket.v. 8; ‘Eduy. iii. 3; Hul. 137»; 
Ker. 6a; et passim). In the Mishnah it is some- 


Weights and Measures 


times called EN 73 or “Italian mina” (Sheb. i. 
2, 3), the designation “Italki” helping to determine 
its weight. The Italian mina contained 100 denarii. 
while the Roman pound contained only ninety-six. 
A mina was therefore equivalent to 1,4 Roman 
pounds, and since the Roman pound equaled 327.404 
grams, the Italian manelh was equal to 341.077 
grams, the weight assigned itinthe Talmud. From 
a passage in Ber. 5a it appears that a mina equaled 
twenty-five shekels; and since, according to the 
passage already cited from the Jerusalem Talmud 
(Shek. 46d), a shekel was equal to twelve scruples, a 
mina was equivalent to 25 xX 12, or 800 scruples. 
The Roman pound contained only 288 scruples, and 
the mina was therefore equal to 1,4, Roman pounds. 
Besides this mina of twenty-five shekels, the Talmud 
(Hul. 137b-138a) mentions another, which was equal 
to forty shekels or sela‘im. 

Litra (xip'S; Greek, Aitpa): The litra, which 
originally corresponded to the Italian “libra,” is 
mentioned in the Mishnah (Shebu. vi. 8; Bek. v. 1; 
Tem. iii. 5) and in the Talmud (‘Er. 29a; Ket. 67b; 
et passim) as a unit of weight for figs, vegetables, 
meat, fish, gold, and silver. The Jerusalem Talmud 
(Ter. 47b) defines the litra as equal to 100 zinin, 
the zin (}*t) being the same as the zuz (j)f), since 
the Mishnah (Ter. x. 8) uses the term “zuz” in the 
passage parallel to that in which the Tosefta (Ter. 
ix.) employs the word “zin.” A litra was there- 
fore equal to 100 zuzim. From this it follows 
that a litra was equivalent to a mina, since the Tai- 
mud also calls a denarius a zuz, which makes a litra 
= 100 zuzim = 100 denarii. As has been stated 
above, a mina equaled twenty-five shekels, and a 
shekel was equivalent to four denarii, thus making 
the mina = 100 denarii = 1 litra. In addition to the 
whole litra, pieces of weight of the value of a half, 
third, and quarter of a litra are also mentioned 
(Tosef., Kelim, B. M. ii.; B. B. 89a; Sifre, Deut. 
294 [ed. Friedmann, p. 126b]). 

Kikkar (435): The term “ kikkar,” generally ren- 
dered “ talent ” (Greek, réAavrov), usually denotes in 
Talmudic sources a weight for gold and silver (Suk. 
51b; ‘Ab. Zarah 44a e¢ passim). It is evident from 
the Talmud (Bek. 5a) that a kikkar contained sixty 
mine. In the Jerusalem Talmud (Sanh. 19d) the 
value of the kikkar is given as sixty litras, which is 
the equivalent of sixty mine; and the same passage 
refers toa kikkar as being equal to 100 mine, al- 
though this statement must allude to the Attic mina, 
which was equal to $ Hebrew mina, rather than to 
the Hebrew weight itself. 

Other Weights: Smaller weights also are in- 
dicated by coins, as, for example, the denarius 
(Tosef., Men. xii.; Shab. ix.) and the zuz (Shab. 
110a). In the Jerusalem Talmud (Ta‘an. 68a), as 
well as in Gen. R. (ixxix. 9) and other midrashic 
passages, the ounce (N'p3)N) occurs. In the Mish- 
nah (Sanh. viii. 2) mention is likewise made of the 
tartimar (919°Y7N), which, according to the Talmud 
(Sanh, 70a), was equivalent to half a mina. The 
term isa corruption of the Greek tperypdprov (= “one- 
third”), and probably indicated 3} Alexandrian 
mina, which contained 150 denarii (comp. Boeckh, 
t.c. pp. 155 e¢ seg.). One-third of this mina, or fifty 
denarii, was equal to half of the Hebrew mina, which 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


486 


contained only 100 denarii (comp. Zuckermann, é.c. 
p. 8). A minute unit of weight, designated as one- 
sixteenth of a weight in Pumbedita, is also men- 
tioned in the Talmud (Shab. 79a; Git. 22a; B. M. 
105b). Another small weight, the ritel ($9), is 
mentioned in the Jerusalem Talmud (Yoma 41d). 
This was probably a small copper coin which derived 
its name from the red color (Latin, “rutilus ”) of the 
metal of which it was composed. 

It must be borne in mind that the values of the 
weights often varied in different parts of the coun- 
try. The Mishnah (Ter. x. 8; Ket. v. 9; etc.) ac- 
cordingly states that the weights used in Judea had 
but half the value they possessed in Galilee, so that 
ten Judean sela‘tm were equal to five Galilean; and 
the same assertion is made by Sifre, Deut. 166, and 
by the Talmud (Hul. 13%7b; comp. Zuckermann, /.e. 
pp. 11-12). 

Ezba‘ (yayx = “ fingerbreadth”): The smallest 
measure of length; it is mentioned as a unit even 
in the Biblical period (Jer. ii. 21; see WEIGHTS AND 
MeEasuRESs, BrpiticaL Data). The Mishnah often 

alludes to the ezba‘ as a measure (Kil. 
Measures vii. 1; Yoma v. 2; Men. xi. 4; Oh. 
of Length. iv. 3; Mik. vi. 7), although no value 
is assigned it. Its length may, how- 
ever, be deduced from a Talmudic passage; and 
Zuckermann has found by calculation that the Tal- 
mudic ezba‘ was equal to 2.338411 cm, In the Tal- 
mud the term “ezba‘” refers to the thumb as well 
as to the middle and little fingers. The Talmud 
therefore draws a distinction between the breadth of 
the thumb and that of the middle and little fingers, 
by stating (Men. 41b): “The handbreadth [“tefah ”] 
mentioned in the Talmud is equal to four thumb- 
breadths, or six little-finger breadths, or five middle- 
finger breadths.” The size of an ezba‘ as given 
above (2.33411 cm.) refers to the breadth of a thumb. 
From the proportionate dimensions of the thumb, 
middle finger, and little finger, according to the 
Talmudic passage already cited, the breadth of the 
middle finger would be 1.867288 cm., and that of 
the little finger 1.556 cm. 

Tefah (= “handbreadth ”): The measure next in 
size to the ezba‘; it was used as a measure of length 
in the Bible. The size of the handbreadth is de- 
scribed in the Talmud (Bek. 39b) as equal to four 
thumbbreadths; and in the passage previously 
quoted (Men. 41b) this statement is amplified by 
making it the equivalent of four thumbbreadths, 
or six little-tinger breadths, or five middle-finger 
breadths. From this proportion of the tefah to the 
breadth of the fingers, its size, according to the 
measurements given above, appears to have been 
9.336443 cm. In addition to the normal hand- 
breadth the Talmud mentions two others (Suk. 7a): 
one formed by holding the fingers loosely (“tefah 
sohek”), and the other produced by pressing the 
fingers firmly together (“tefah ‘azeb”), although 
the divergence between these handbreadths and 
the normal is not determined. 

Ell: In addition to the Mosaic ell, which was 
equal to the mean ell (“ammat benonit”) and con- 
sisted of six handbreadths (comp. Zuckermann, J.¢. 
p. 17), the Mishnah (Kelim xvii. 9) mentions two 
others, one of which was half a fingerbreadth and 


487 


the other a whole fingerbreadth longer than the 
mean ell. The standards used for measuring both 
these ells were said to have been kept in a special 
place in the Second Temple. The Talmud explains 
the introduction of these two ells in addition to the 
mean or Mosaic ell (see Pes. 86a; Men. 98a), and 
mentions also an ell which contained only five hand- 
breadths (‘Er. 8b). The mean ell, equivalent to six 
handbreadths, was, according to the measurement of 
the handbreadth given above, equal to 56.018658 cm. 
The ell which was half a fingerbreadth longer was, 
therefore, 57.185375 cm. in length, and that which 
was a whole fingerbreadth longer was 58.352 cm. 
The Mishnah (Tamid iii. 6) mentions still another 
ell, called sw MON, which was measured from the 
tip of the middle finger to the armpit. Inasmuch 
as the ell which measured six handbreadths was 
equal to the length of the forearm, and the length 
of the latter is to the arm as 6 is to 10, it follows 
that the “ammat shehi” measured ten handbreadths, 
or 93.386443 cm. In the Midrash (Gen. R. xxxvii.) 
an ell is mentioned under the name ADR PPan, by 
which the Theban ell (naixév) is probably meant. 
For another meaning of the term })p°an see Zuck- 
ermann, f.c. p. 21. 

Garmida (N3'1D53): Repeatedly mentioned in the 
Talmud (Shab. 110a; ‘Er. 50b; Pes. 111b; e¢ passzm), 
without any indication of its size. It is noteworthy, 
however, that the Talmud (B. B. 27) uses this term 
to indicate a square ell, without designating it asa 
square measure, while in ‘Er. 14b “ garmida” fndi- 
cates a cubic ell, although the customary term de- 
noting “cubic” is omitted. 

Zeret (mi? = “span”): This measure, mentioned 
in the Bible (Ex. xxviii. 16) without any indication 
of its size, is described in the Tosefta (Kelim, B. M. 
vi. 12) as “half an ell of six handbreadths.” Its 
measure was, accordingly, 28.009829 cm. 

Hasit (O°DN Ann, b'pn xbo = “content and 
width of the hasit”): This terin occurs as a meas- 
ure of length in the Mishnah (‘Orlah iii. 2,3; Shab. 
xiii. 4), in the Tosefta (Shab. ix.), and in the Talmud 
(Shab. 79a, 106a), without any indication of its size 
and without being compared with any other meas- 
ure. According to Maimonides (“ Yad,” Shab- 
bat, ix. 7-10), the breadth of the hasit equals the 
opening between the thumb and the index-finger, 
which is about the equivalent of 3 zeret, or two 
handbreadths. This appears to be correct, since a 
Greek measure called “dichas” (d:yac) equaled two 
handbreadths, and was called two-thirds of a span. 
The hasit was identical with this dichas (comp. 
Zuckermann, /.¢c. p. 24), and its size was accordingly 
18.672886 cm. 

Hebel ($3n = “cord”): A measure described in 
the Mishnah (‘Er. v. 4) as a cord of fifty ells in 
length, and in the Talmud (‘Er. 58b) as one of four 
ells. 

Tehum Shabbat (naw pinn = “Sabbath-way ”): 
The extreme distance which a Jew might go in any 
one direction from his home on the Sabbath. It is 
defined in the Mishnah (‘Er. iv. 8) and in the Talmud 
(‘Er. 51a) as 2,000’ Hebrew ells, and it was there- 
fore equal to 112,037.816 cm. This was also the 
length of the mile (5%), with which the Mishnah 
(Yoma vi. 18) and both Talmudim (Pes. 93b, 94a; 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Weights and Measures 


Yer. Yoma 40b) indicated distances. In the Tal- 
mud (Yoma 67a) it is explicitly stated that the mile 
is equal to the tehum Shabbat; the Hebrew mile 
was therefore shorter than the Roman, with which 
it must not be confused. 

Pesi‘ah (Apps =“ pace”): The pace is used as 
a measure of length in the Talmud (‘Er. 42b), and 
its value is defined as one ell (56.018658 cm.). 

Ris (Dp = “stadium ”): The Mishnah uses the 
term “ris” to indicate distance, and defives its 
length as mile. The Talmud (B. M. 38a) also 
states that its length was #4 mile, or 2663 ells. 
According to Frankel (in “Monatsschrift,” 1856, 
p. 383), the term “ris” is Persian, as is also the 
term 71075 (“parasang ”), used in the Talmud as a 
measure of length (comp. Tos. B. B. 28a, s.2. xbx), 
and defined as equal to four miles, or 8,000 ells (Pes. 
93b-94a). 

Day’s Journey (O71 375): The Talmud defines 
a day’s journey for a man of medium gait as ten 
parasangs, or 80,000 ells. 

Measurements of fields are generally indicated in 
the Talmud by the amount of seed sown in them. 
The term AND M3. for example, indicates a field in 

which one se’ah can besown; the term 
Superficial D'NND M3, one which requires two 
Measures. se’aim. Tlie latter space is defined in 
the Talmud (‘Er. 28b) as equal to 5,000 


- Hebrew square ells, or to 15,690,445.095 sq. cm., and 


this can be used as a basis for the determination of 
other superficial measures given in the Talmud. 
The Talmud mentions separate systems of solid 
measures for dry and for liquid substances, although 
some units were used for both. The Mishnah states 
that the measures were enlarged at some time or 
other. In addition to the Biblical measure, which 
is called “desert measure” (FYASID AWD) in Tal- 
mudic sources, the Mishnah (Men. vii. 
Solid 1) mentions a “Jerusalem measure” 
Measures. inpSeny M19), which was equal to 
1} “desert measures,” and also alludes 
(‘Er, 82a) toa “Sepphoric measure” (FUNDY AW), 
which was equal to 14 “Jerusalem measures.” One 
se’ah “desert measure” was therefore equal to 23 
se’ah “Sepphoric measure,” and one se’ah “ Jerusa- 
lem measure” equaled 3% se’ah “Sepphoric measure.” 
With regard to the names of the units, it must be 
noted that the hollow vessels used as measures also 
served as ordinary utensils; and the name of the 
vessel likewise designated the measure. The Biblical 
log is defined by the Talmud (Pes. 109a) as equal to 
the NNDp (= Greek féorne), and was therefore equiv- 
alent to 549.838184 cu. cm. (comp. Zuckermann, f. ¢. 


| pp. 6-10); this aids in the evaluation of several other 


Talmudic measures. 

Bezah (Ay"3 = “egg”): The egg is often used in 
the Talmud as a standard of measurement; and in 
the Mishnah (Kelim xvii. 6)a method is given by 
which to determine its size. The Jerusalem Tal- 
mud (Ter, 48c) defines the egg as equal to 5), cab; 
and the same value may be deduced from the Baby- 
lonian Talmud (‘Er. 88a), where a se’ah is described 
as the equivalent of six cabs, or 144 eggs. Inas- 
much as a cab was equal to four logs, it follows that 
an egg equaled 4 log, or 91.565223 cu.cm. The ex- 
pression Mipmiw ory’ (“laughing eggs”) occurs 


Weights and Measures 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


488 


as a term for eggs of larger size (‘Er. 83a), although 
the difference between these and ordinary eggs is 
not stated. 

Cab (3p; Greek, yaBoc): The cab is often men- 
tioned as a measure in Talmudic sources (Kil. ii. 1; 
Ket. v. 8; Naz. 52b; Sotah 8b et pussim), and its 
halves, quarters, and eighths are frequently recorded 
(comp. RaSHBaM on B. B. 89b, 8.v. porn). The size 
of the cab is given in the Jerusalem Talmud (Ter. 
47b), where it is said that a se’ah is equal to twenty- 
four logs. Since a se’ah is equal to six cabs, a cab 
is equivalent to four logs, or 2,197.406683 cu. cm. 
The Talmud (Pes. 48a) records also a large cab, con- 
taining 1} “Sepphoric cabs,” and a “ Nehardean 
cab” is likewise mentioned (Ket. 54a), although no 
indication of its size is given. Theexpression “ ter- 
kab” (Span; Greek, tpixaSoc = “three cabs”) also 
occurs frequently in the Talmud (Hag. 28b; Ta‘an. 
10a; Git. 30a; ef passim). 

Kapiza (NPpp): A small vessel often used as a 
measure and mentioned in several Talmudic pas- 
sages (Shab. 10b; Pes. 48b; Git. 70a; e¢ passim). 
That the kapiza was smaller than the cab is clear 
both from Hul. 25a and from Shab. 108a, as well as 
from the discussion in B. B. 90b. The commentaries 
disagree as to its size, one defining it as a quarter, 
and another as three-quarters, of a cab, while in one 
passage in Menahot (78a) Rashi makes it equivalent 
to¢cab. Inthat case it would be identical with the 
Persian “kawiz” (Greek, xeié7), which was equal 
to a choenix = 2 xestes = 2 logs =4cab. The Tal- 
mud relates that a new measure which contained 
three kapizot was introduced by R. Papa b. Samuel 
into Pafonya, where it was called X55 p17 (“ Papa’s 
secret”; B. B. 90b). 

Se’ah (AND; Greek, carov): The Biblical se’ah re- 
curs as a measure in the Mishnah, from which it ap- 
pears (Parah i. 1; Ter. iv.7; Men. vii. 1) that it was 
equal to six cabs, or 18,184.44 cu. cm. Another 
se’ah, which was used in Arbela and called an “ Arbe- 
lian se’ah ” (mS35K ND), is mentioned in the Jeru- 
salem Talmud (Pe’ah 20a; Sotah 17b), although no 
comparison is drawn between if and the ordinary 
se’ah. 

Modius (x1): A measure mentioned in the 
Talmud, although its value is not designated (Git. 
57a; Yer. Shab. 18c; Pes. 30a). In one passage, 
however (‘Er. 88a), the term is taken as a synonym 
of “se’ah” (comp. Zuckermann, l.¢c. pp. 40-41). 

Tuman (jon = “an eighth”): Mentioned in the 
Talmud as a dry measure (B. B. 89b), its value being 
defined as one-eighth of a cab. 

‘Ukla cxdoiy): A dry measure mentioned in the 
Talmud, its value being given by RaSHBaM as ,/, 
cab =+t log. According to another interpretation, 
the ‘ukla was equal to ;}, cab, or 4 log, as stated by 
Rashi (‘Er. 29a, 8.0. “‘Ukla”). The first interpreta- 
tion, however, is the correct one; and an ‘ukla was 
therefore equal to 4 log = 109.8748 cu. cm. (comp. 
Zuckermann, t.c. p. 42). 

Ephah (45'x): The Biblical ephah is mentioned 
in the Mishnah ( Men. vii. 1), where its value is de- 
fined as three se’aim. 

Cor (115): The Biblical cor is defined in the Tal- 
mud (B. B. 86b, 105a; comp. Men. 77a) as equal to 
thirty se’aim. 


Letek (qnd) : Although the letek is mentioned in 
the Bible as a measure, no value is assigned it. 
From examples given in the Mishnah (Sheb. vi. 3) 
and in the Talmud (Sheb. 48a; B. M. 80a, b), how- 
ever, it appears that it was equal to 4 cor=195 
se’aim (comp. Hos. iii. 2 in the Greek versions). 

Pesikta (1N3D5; Greek, pu«r#p): A measure men- 
tioned in the Mishnah (Tamid v. 5) as the equiva- 
lent of a letek. 

Ardaba (3758, 3908): Among its measures the 
Talmud alludes to the 398, which is the aq of 
the Shulhan ‘Aruk, and consequently the ardaba 
used by the Egyptians and Persians (or Medes). 
The context in the Talmudic passage (B. M. 80b) 
does not show which ardaba was equivalent to the 
S75N there mentioned, but it is at least clear that 
the latter was not the ancient Egyptian measure 
(comp. Zuckermann, l.c. pp. 46-47). 

Komez (yop) or Kuna (x33): In the Talmud 
the handful is often mentioned as a measure, espe- 
cially for medical purposes. The term varies, how- 
ever, in the different passages. In Shab. 110b, ‘Er. 
29b, and Git. 69b-70a it is called “buna,” but in 
Git. 69a, Ket. 99b, and ‘Ar. 21b, “kuna.” The hol- 
low form of the hand was called “kuna,” from j3 
(= “basin ”), and this term designated the quantity 
which one could hold in the palm of his hand. The 
komez mentioned in the Bible (Lev. ii. 2, v. 12) con- 
notes, according to the Talmud, the quantity one 


can grasp between the palm of the hand and the 


three middle fingers. 

Geriwa (N13): A weight frequently mentioned 
in the Talmud as a measure for solids (‘Er. 29b; 
Pes. 32a; Ned. 50b; B. K. 96a; e¢ pass?m)}, but with- 
out any indication of its value. <A single passage, 
however (‘Er. 14b), states that 2,000 baths, which 
were equal to 6,000 se’aim, were equivalent to 6.000 
geriwot. It would follow, therefore, that a geriwa 
was identical with a se’ah. 

Gerib (33): This measure, which in name re- 
sembles the geriwa, is mentioned in the Talmud 
(Git. 69b) as a measure for solids (comp. Rashi ad 
loc., where he identifies it with the geriwa). A cask 
or a jar serving as a large measure for fluids also was 
called “gerib” (Shab. 18b), and the Mishnah (Ter. 
x. 8) mentions a 34) (“garab”) containing two 
se’aim. 

Besides the log, the Talmud mentions also half- 
logs and quarter-logs, as well as eighths, sixteenths, 
and sixty-fourths of a log. The quarter-log was 
often called simply “quarter” (“rebi‘it”; comp. 

RaSHBaM on B. B. 89b), and was lJike- 

Liquid wise designated by the term po wy 

Measures. (réraprov; Yer. Pes. 8%, where “te- 
tarton” or “rebia‘” must be under- 
stood ; comp. Zuckermann, ¢.c. pp. 48-49). 

Antel (5198; Greek, avrAyr7c): A measure fre- 
quently mentioned in the Talmud as containing 
+ log (B. B. 58b). Hul. 107a alludes to a “natla” 
(= antel), which had the same capacity. “Antel” 
is the name of a utensil, which was also used asa 
measure. 

Ambiga (p53, 3338, or 8333): In the Talmud 
the anpak and anbag are compared with the antel 
(B. B. 58b), whence it may be inferred that, like it, 
they were equivalent to } log. 


489 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Weights and Measures. 


MEASURES OF WEIGHT. 


| 
Italian Sa of | Common 


Sanctuary. 


Talent. Shekel 


Tartimar 
Shekel of the Sanetuary 


Common Shekel 


MEASURES OF LENGTH. 


Sabbath : 
Day’s is Ammah Zeret. Hasit. Tefen. shat 
Journey. (Stadium). } (Pesi‘ah). efah 2 


Day’s Ris 
Journey. |(Parasang). 


Day’s Journey 
Ris (Parasang) 
Sabbath Day’s Journey 
Ris (Stadium) 30 
Ammab (Pesi‘ah) 8,000 2,000 
32, 8,000 
48,000 12,000 
96,000 24,000 1,600 3 1 
384,000 96,000 6,400 12 8 4 1 


448, 149.264 | 112,087.316 | 14,938.3088 | 56.018658 | 28,009329 | 18,672886 | 9.33644 | 2.33411 


Dry MEASURES. 


Letek (Pe- Se’ah 


sikta). (Geriwa). Kapiza. Log. 


720 


1,440 


1 
2 

3,600 1,800 5 1 
6 


4,320 2,160 432 144 3 1k 1 
Cubic Centimeters| 395,583.2] 197,766.6 | 39,553.32 | 13,184.44 | 2,197.406683) 1,098.782676|549.391838} 274.695669 |109.8743) 91.565223 


wer and Measures 
el 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


490 


Liguip MEASURES. 


Metarta. 


4,608 


39,553.32 


} 
Kortab | 
Cubic Centimeters | 

Tamnita (NM90n = “eighth”): In the Talmud 
(Pes. 109a) R. Johanan mentions the old “eighth” 
of Tiberias, which was about 3 log larger than the 
new “eighth”; and the Jerusalem Talmud (Pes. 
87c) likewise alludes to an old “eighth” of Sep- 
phoris, which was equal to half the “eighth” of 
Tiberias. 

Kortab (a0 7p): A small measure mentioned in 
the Mishnah and in the Talmud (Men. xii. 4; Mik. 
iii. 1; R. H. 18a; B. B. 90a), its capacity being de- 
fined as J, log (Tosef., B. B. v. 10). 

Kutit (mip) and Zir (7°}): In the Sifra, Kid- 
dushin, a large measure is mentioned under the name 
of 7}, while a smaller one is designated as Md 1p. 
The Romans hada large oblong cask, called “seria,” 
which they used for wine and oil; while a small tub 
for the same purpose was termed “ guttus.” Both 
these vessels are mentioned in the Sifra as equiva- 
lents of the Biblical “ mesurah.” 

Kaisa (ND"“p): A measure mentioned in the Tal- 
mud (Ber. 44b), though without any indication of 
its value. According to Rashi ad loc., it was the 
equivalent of a log. 

Hemina (9°10; Greek, 7uiva): A measure men- 
tioned in Targum Sheni to Esther i. 8. It was prob- 
ably identical with the Roman “termina,” which was 
used for both liquids and solids (comp. Boeckh, ¢.c. 
pp. 201, 203). | 

Metarta (NMI; Greek, wetpyt7¢): A measure 
mentioned in the Talmud (‘Ab. Zarah 10b), and cor- 
responding to the Attic metretes = 72 xestes. Al- 
though the metretes is a liquid measure, the metarta 
is mentioned in the Talmud (/.c.) as being used for 
dry substances, no strict distinction being drawn be- 
tween dry and liquid measures. 

Barzina (N)°'?02): Mentioned in the Talmud 
(Shab. 109b) as a small measure, no value being in- 
dicated. The Shulhan ‘Aruk (s.z7.) regards it as 
equal to z; log. 

Kuza (xN3; Greek, voc): A measure mentioned 
both in the Misbnah (Tamid iii. 6) and in the Talmud 
(Shab. 83b; B. M. 40a; B. B. 96b), and probably 
equal to the Attic yove. The Talmud records an- 
other kuza, which was introduced by R. Ashi in 
Huza, and was equivalent to + log (Hul. 107a). 
There were accordingly two kuzot, one the equiva- 
lent of the yovc —6 xestes = 3,296.11 cu. cm., and 
the other equal to + log =4 xestes = 187.387917 
cu. cm. 


3,290.11 


Antel (Natla, 
Anpak, Anbag. 
Kuza). 


Log (Kaisa, 


Xestes). Barzina. 


Kortab. 


1 
8 


137347834 17.168479 8.584239 


| 
| 

| 

| 16 i 1 
549.391338 | 


Kesustaban (jaQDID_ ; Greek, feoriov): A meas- 
ure mentioned in the Jerusalem Talmud (B. M. 10c), 
the context indicating that it wasof small size. Its 
name is probably a diminutive of féorn¢. 

Tarwad (3)17N): A measure mentioned several 
times in the Talmud, its size being indicated in Naz. 
50b. According to one opinion it was the equivalent 
of a heaping handful, while according to another it 
equaled an ordinary handful. 

Shorgash (winw): A measure mentioned in the 
Talmud (‘Er. 29b), According to the ‘Aruk it was 
well known in Pumbedita. 

Kizba (Na}'5): A measure mentioned in the Tal- 
mud (Men. 69b), and, according to Rashi (ad Joc.) 
and the Shulhan ‘Aruk (s.¢.), equal to a handbreadth. 

In addition to the units enumerated in thisarticle, 
the Talmud employs several indefinite measures, 
such as the sizes of various fruits (olives, pomegran- 
ates, and the like), to indicate certain quantities. 

The foregoing tables sum up the results reached 
in the present investigation. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: B. Zuckermann, Ueber Talmudische Ge- 
wichte und Miinzen, Breslau, 1862; idem, Das Judisehe 
Maassystem und Seine Beziehungen zum Griechischen 
und Rémischen, in Breslauer Jahreshericht, tb. 1867: Schef- 
tel, ‘Erek Millin, Berdychev, 1905. 

J. J. Z. L.. 

WEIL, ADOLF: German physician; born at 
Heidelberg Feb. 7, 1848. Educated at the universi- 
ties of Heidelberg, Berlin, and Vienna (AL. D. 1871), 
he settled in Heidelberg, where, in 1872, he became 
privat-docent in special pathology and therapy, and 
in 1876 assistant professor of syphilology. In 1886 
he was called to Dorpat as professor of special 
pathology and therapy, from which position he re- 
signed the following year on account of sickness. 
Since 1893 he has practised in Wiesbaden. 

In 1886 he published in “ Dorpater Archiv fiir 
Klinische Medizin,” vol. xxxix., the essay “ Ueber 
eine Eigenthiimliche mit Milztumor, Icterus und 
Nephritis Einhergehende Acute Infectionskrank- 
heit,” treating of a disease which has since become 
known as Weil’s disease. 

Among his works the following may be men- 
tioned: “ Die Auscultation der Arterien und Venen” 
(Leipsic, 1875); “Handbuch und Atlas der Topo- 
graphischen Percussion” (¢b. 1877, 2d ed. 1880); 
“Zur Lehre vom Pneumothorax” (2b. 1882); “Zur 
Pathologie und Therapie des Typhus Abdominalis 
mit Besonderer Beriicksichtigung der Recidive, 


491 


Sowie der Renalen und Abortiven Formen” (2d. 
1885). He furthermore contributed to Virchow’s 
“ Archiv ” (1884) the article “Ueber die Hereditiire 
Form des Diabetes Insipidus” and to Gerhardt's 
“Handbuch der Kinderkrankheiten” an essay on 
“Die Krankheiten der Bronchien.” 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Pagel, Biographisches Lexikon. 


8. F. T. 4H. 


WEIL, GUSTAV: German Orientalist ; born in 
Sulzburg, Baden, April 25, 1808; died at Freiburg- 
im-Breisgau Aug. 29, 1889. Being destined for the 
rabbinate, he was taught Hebrew, as well as Ger- 
man and French; and he received instruction in 
Latin from the minister 
of his native town. At 
the age of twelve he 
went to Metz, where his 
grandfather was rabbi, 
to study the Talmud. 
For this, bowever, he 
developed very little 
taste, and he abandoned 
his original intention of 
entering upon a theo- 
logical career. In 1828 
he entered the Uni- 
versity of Heidelberg, 
it devoting himself to the 
1. study of philology and 

history ; at the same time 
he studied Arabic under Umbreit. Though without 
means, he nevertheless went to study under De 
Sacy in Paris in 1830, and thence followed the 
French military expedition to Algiers, acting as 
correspondent at Algiers for the Augsburger “ All- 
gemeine Zeitung.” This position he resigned in 
Jan., 1831, and journeyed to Cairo, where he was 
appointed instructor of French at the Egyptian 
Medical School of Abu-Zabel. He utilized the op- 
portunity to study with the Arabic philologists Mo- 
hammed Ayyad al-Tantawi and Ahmad al-Tunsi. 
Here also he acquired Neo-Persian and Turkish, 
and, save for a short interruption occasioned by a 
visit to Europe, he remained in Egypt till March, 
1835, 

Weil returned to Europe by way of Constanti- 
nople, where he remained for some time pursuing 
Turkish studies. In Germany he sought permission 
to establish himself as privat-docent in the Univer- 
sity of Heidelberg, receiving it, however, cnly after 
great, difficulties. Weil had attacked Joseph von 
Hammer-Purgstall in a translation of Zamakhshari’s 
“Golden Necklaces” (Stuttgart, 1836), and the fac- 
ulty of Heidelberg, being unable to judge the mat- 
ter, hesitated to appoint him docent because of 
Hammer-Purgstall’s high reputation. De Sacy’s 
recommendation opened the way to him, which, 
however, was destined to remain rough and rugged. 
He gained his livelihood as assistant librarian, and 
was appointed librarian in 18388, which position he 
retained till 1861; in that year he became professor. 

At Stuttgart in 1837 Weil published “Die Poe- 
tische Literatur der Araber,” and later issued a 
translation of the “Thousand and One Nights,” the 
first complete translation from the original text 


a 
Gustav Wei 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Weights and Measures 
Weil 


into German (4 vols., 1837-41; 2d ed. 1866; 4th 

ed. 1871-72), which was, however, spoiled in the 

process of publication. Weil purposed to give 

a philologically exact version, which would have 

been highly desirable in many respects; but the 

Stuttgart publisher authorized August Lewald to 

change many objectionable passages, and thus 

made of it a popular and salable work. This per- 
version caused Weil much vexation. Weil’s second 
great work was “ Mohammed, der Prophet” (Stutt- 
gart, 1843), a life of Mohammed, in the compilation 
of which he was the first to go back to the oldest 
accessible sources in Europe. It was not in his 
nature, however, to attempt a psychological recon- 
struction of the prophet’s character, as was done 
later by Sprenger and Muir. Washington Irving 

in his “Life of Mohammed ” used Weil’s work as a 

source of information, and acknowledged his in- 

debtedness to that author, 

While pursuing these studies Weil published his 
“THistorisch-Kritische Einleitung in den Koran” 
(Bielefeld and Leipsic, 1844 and 1878) as a supple- 
ment to Uilman’s translation of the Koran, and the 
translation of one of the original sources of the biog- 
raphy of Mohammed, “Leben Mohammed’s nach 
Muhammed ibn Ishak, Bearbeitet von Abd el-Malik 
ibn Hischim ” (Stuttgart, 2 vols., 1864). Three ad- 
ditional essays remain to be mentioned: one on Mo- 
hammed’s epilepsy (“ Journal Asiatique,” July, 1842); 
the second an investigation of a “Supposed Lie of 
Mohammed ” (2d. May, 1849); and the third a discus- 
sion of the question whether Mohammed could read 
and write (“Proceedings of the Congress of Orien- 
talists at Florence,” 1.357). To these must be added 
“Biblische Legenden der Mohammedaner” (Frank- 
fort, 1845), in which Weil proves the influence of the 
rabbinic legends upon the religion of Islam. 

The most comprehensive work of Weil is his “ Ge- 
schichte der Chalifen ” (5 vols., Heidelberg and Stutt- 
gart, 1846-51), which is virtually an elaboration of 
the original works of Mohammedan historians, whom 
he in large part studied from manuscripts; it treats 
also of the Egyptian and Spanish califates. This 
was followed by the “Geschichte der Islamischen 
Volker von Mohammed bis zur Zeit des Sultans 
Selim” (Stuttgart, 1866), an introduction to the 
medieval history of the Orient. After 1866 Weil 
confined his literary activity to the publication of 
reviews in the “ Heidelberger Jahrbiicher ” and in the 
“Jenaische Litteratur-Zeitung.” In later years he 
received honors from various states, including Baden 
and Prussia. Owing to continued illness he was 
pensioned in 1888. 

Weil’s collection of Arabic manuscripts was pre- 
sented to the University of Heidelberg by his 
children. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Von Weech, Badische Biographien, iv. 489- 
496, Carlsruhe, 1891; Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, xi. 
486-488, Leipsic, 1896; Brockhaus Konversations-Lerikon 5 
Meyers Konversations-Lexikon. 

S. KE. O. A. M. 

WEIL, HENRI: Philologist; born at Frank- 
fort-on-the-Main Aug. 26, 1818; educated at the uni- 
versities of Bonn, Berlin, and Leipsic. He went to 
France, and continued his studies at Paris, gradua- 
ting as “docteur és lettres” in 1845, and becoming 
“agrégé” in 1848. Appointed professor of ancient 


Weil 
Weill 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


492 


literature at the University of Besuncon, he was in 
1872 elected dean of the faculty. In 1876 he was 
called to Paris to fill a vacancy as instructor in the 
normal high school and to assume charge of the 
Ecole Pratique des 
Hautes Etudes, both 
of which positions he 
resigned in 1891. In 
1866 he was elected 
corresponding mem- 
ber of the Académie 
des Inscriptions et 
Belles- Lettres, be- 
coming full member 
in 1882 as the succes- 
sor of Dulaurier. In 
1887 he received the 
cross of the Legion 
of Honor, 

Weil edited the 
poems of A%schylus, 
eight tragedies of 
Euripides, and the 
orations of Demos- 
thenes. Among his works may be mentioned: “ De 
VOrdre des Mots dans les Langues Anciennes Com- 
parées aux Langues Modernes” (Paris, 1844; 3d ed. 
1879); “De Tragediarum Grecarum cum Rebus 
Publicis Conjunctione ” (with L. Beuloew, Paris and 
Berlin, 1845); “ Théorie Générale de l’Accentuation 
Latine ” (7b. 1855); and “Etudes sur le Drame An- 
tique” (#2. 1897). He died Nov. 24, 1909. 


Henri Weil. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY : Curinier, Dict. Nat. i. 142; La Grande En- 
cyclopédie. 


S. Po}. -H 


WEIL, JACOB: German rabbi and Talmudist; 
flourished during the first half of the fifteenth cen- 
tury. Of his life no details are known, but, accord- 
ing to Gritz, he died before 1456. He was one of 
the foremost pupilsof Jacob Mélin (MaHaRIL), who 
ordained him in the rabbinate, and authorized him 
to officiate in Nuremberg. Weil, however, did not 
avail himself of this permission lest he should offend 
an older scholar, Solomon Cohen, who had been ap- 
pointed rabbi of that city long before. 

Weil was later called to the rabbinate of Erfurt; 
and congregations far and near, recognizing him as 
an authority, addressed their problems to him. He 
approved of the pilpulistic method only as an aid 
to study, but rendered legal decisions purely on the 
basis of logic (Responsa, No. 144). 

Weil was especially severe on contemporary 
rabbis who regarded themselves as having peculiar 
privileges transcending the rights of the laity, de- 
claring in a responsum (No, 163) that no rabbis of 
his time had any such prerogatives, and that, more- 
over, no man could be regarded as a scholar (Tat- 
MID HAKAM) in the Talmudic sense. Of Weil’s 
works only a collection of opinions and decisions, 
“She’elot u-Teshubot ” (Venice, 1549), has been pre- 
served. To this work was added an appendix enti- 
tled “Shehitot u-Bedikot,” containing regulations 
for slaughtering and for the examination of slaugh- 
tered cattle. These rules have been regarded as au- 
thoritative by later rabbis, have run through seventy- 


one editions, and have been the subjects of various 

commentaries and additions. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. cols. 1258-1265; 
Benjacob, Ozar ha-Sefarim, No. 99, p. 558; No. 385, p. 5703 


Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael; Michael, Or ha-Hayyim, No. 1061: 
Gratz, Gesch. viii. 309 et seg., 313 et seq. 


E. C. Oi De Lk 


WEIL, JACOB: German educationist and wri- 
ter; born at Frankfort-on-the-Main 1792; died there 
Nov. 18, 1864. His first work was “ Fragmente aus 
Talmud und Rabbinen,” Frankfort-on-the-Main (sec- 
ond edition of part i. appeared in 1809, of part ii. 
in 1811). Hewas an instructor at the Jewish school 
(Philanthropin) of Frankfort, and from 1818 until 
1845 he conducted an educational institute. 

In an address which he delivered, Oct. 18, 1816, 
in the chapel of the school, he expressed the hope 
that the new era would bring the emancipation of 
his coreligionists. He had, however, to defend the 
Jews against the attacks of Riths and Fries, and 
refuted them in his pamphlet “Bemerkungen zu 
den Schriften der Herren Professoren Riihs und 
Fries tiber die Juden und Deren Anspriiche auf das 
Deutsche. Biirgerrecht” (Frankfort-on-the-Main, 
1816). Weil was one of the founders (1823) and 
for many years a member of the board of the Verein 
zur Beférderung der Handwerke Unter den Juden, 

Various articles and numerous addresses on _ polit- 
ical, religious, and historical subjects written by him 
appeared in the Frankfort daily press. He supported 
Gabriel Riesser enthusiastically, and wrote his biog- 
raphy in Duller’s “Manner des Volks” (vol. ii.). In 
addition Weil was the author of the following: “ Das 
Junge Deutschland und die Juden” (Frank fort-on- 
the-Main, 1836), refuting the accusation that most 
of the young writers who agitated Germany were of 
the Jewish race; “ Die Erste Kammer und die Juden 
in Sachsen” (Hanau, 1887); “Ueber die Idee des 
Christlichen Staats,” in Karl Weil’s “ Konstitutio- 
nelle Jabrbiicher” (i. 321 e¢ seg., Stuttgart, 1848). 
Other essays written by him in this periodical were: 
“Ueber die Verbindung des Staates mit der Kirche ” ; 
“Lamartine, iber Kommunismus und Sozialismus”; 
“Gervinus, die Deutschkatholiken und die Glau- 
bensfreiheit ”; “ Ueber die Stellung der Konstitutio- 
nellen Fiirsten im Staate.” Against the reactionary 
movement in Prussia Weil wrote “ Wagener, Stahl, 
die Juden und die Protestantischen Dissidenten,” in 
Stein’s “Israelitischer Volkslehrer ” (1857, pp. 209 e@ 
seg. ; also printed separately, Frankfort-on-the-Main, 
1857). Weil devoted himself to historic studies, and 
contributed a number of articles and essays to the 
“Magazin fiir die Literatur des Auslandes” (1843- 
1846) and to the “ Blatter fiir Literarische Unterhalt- 
ung ” (1850, 1851, 1854), His last production. “ Die 
Alten Propheten und Schriftgelehrten und das 
Jueben Jesu von David Strauss,” criticized Strauss 
for his prejudices against Judaism. 

A son of Jacob Weil, Henri WEIL, is professor at 
the University of Besancon. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY : .Achawa, ii. 33 et seq.; Gritz, Gesch. xi. 366: 


Jost, Neuere Geschichte, i. 57. 


8. S. Man. 


WEIL, KARL: Austrian physician; born at 
Altsattel, Bohemia, March 19, 1844. He studied 
medicine at the universities of Prague and Vienna 


493 


(M.D. 1867). From 1871 until 1873 he was assistant 
at the surgical hospital of Vienna University, and 
from 18738 to 1879 at the Prague German university. 
In 1877 he became privat-docent, and in 1879 assist- 
ant professor, of surgery at the latter university. 

Weil is the author of “ Beitrige zur Kenntniss 
des Genu Valgum ” (1879) and of “ Untersuchungen 
iber die Schilddriise ” (1889). For Maschka’s “ Hand- 
buch der Gerichtlichen Medizin” he wrote “ Beur- 
theilung der Verletzung und Narben.” 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Pagel, Biographisches Lexikon. 


8. F. T. Hz. 


WEIL, KARL, RITTER VON: Austrian 
journalist: born in Wirttemberg, Germany; died 
at Vienna Jan. 7, 1878. He studied law at the Uni- 
versity of Freiburg (LL.D. 1827), and afterward 
joined the staff of the “Allgemeine Zeitung,” then 
published in Augsburg, now in Munich; from 1830 
to 1832 he was its Paris correspondent. In 1832 he 
became editor of the “ Wiirttembergische Zeitung ” 
in Stuttgart, holding that position until 1848, when 
he went to Berlin as associate editor of the “ Consti- 
tutionelle Zeitung.” During the following two years 
he resided in Stuttgart; and in 1851 he removed to 
Vienna, entering, as a journalist, the services of the 
Austrian government. In 1873 he was retired with 
the title of “ Ministerial-Rath.” 

Weil took an active interest in Jewish affairs, and 
was a member of the executive board of the Israe- 
litische Allianz from its foundation. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Allg. Zeit. des Jud. 1878, pp. 57-358, 
S. F. 


T. H. 


WEIL, NETHANEEL: Rabbiand Talmudist; 
born at Stihliingen in 168%; died at Rostadt May 7, 
1769; sonof Naphtali Hirsch Weil. His mother took 
him to Firth when he was ten years old, and soon 
afterward to Prague, where his father’s brother, 
Lippman Weil, adopted him. Although so young, 
Nethaneel was granted permission to attend the 
lectures of R. Abraham Brod, head of the yeshibah 
of Prague; and he soon won the favor of his teacher 
to such a degree that the latter proffered him the hand 
of his niece, Végele. The wedding was celebrated 
in 1708; and when R. Abraham was called to the rab- 
binate of Mayence, his son-in-law accompanied him 
thither, remaining there until 1718, when he returned 
to Prague. Here he occupied himself with Talmud- 
ic studies and with teaching, his pupils being num- 
bered by thousands. His only source of income was 
the scanty salary attached to his position as assistant 
rabbi. 


Weil remained in Prague until the issue of the 


edict of Maria Theresa of Dec. 18, 1744, ordering the 
expulsion of all Jews from Bohemia. This proved 
to be the means of releasing Nethaneel from a bur- 
densome existence; for he was then offered the rab- 
binate of the Black Forest, with headquarters in 
Mihringen. He assumed office in 1745, and held it 
for five years, writing the greater part of his com- 
mentary on Asher b. Jehiel during that time. In 
1750 he was called-as rabbi to Carlsruhe; and there 
he completed the commentary in the spring of 1754. 
It was published at Carlsruhe in 1755 under the title 
“ Korban Netan’el,” and was later printed together 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Weil 
Weill 


with Asheri in editions of the Talmud, although it 
embraces only the orders Mo‘ed and Nashim. 

Nethaneel officiated in Carlsruhe for about twenty 
years. In addition to the “Korban Netan’el,” which 
was published by himself, he was the author of two 
works published posthumously by his son Simeon 
Hirsch: (1) “Netib Hayyim” (Ftrth, 1779), contain- 
ing critical notes on the Shulhan ‘Aruk, Orah Hay- 
yim, and its commentaries, the “Ture Zahab” and 
“ Magen Abraham ”; and “ Torat Netan’el ” (2d. 1795), 
in two parts, the first consisting of a collection of 
his responsa, and the second consisting of halakic 
derashot on the Pentateuch, 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: L. Lowenstein, Beitrdge zur Gesch. der Ju- 
den in Deutschland, ii.. Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1898; Stein- 
schneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 2053; First, Bibl. Jud. iii. 501. 

J. Z. L 


E. C. 


WEIL, SIMEON HIRSCH: German scholar; 
son of Nethaneel WEIL; lived in Carlsruhe in the 
eighteenth century. He published his father’s “ Netib 
Hayyim,” “Torat Netan’el,” and responsa, and 
wrote “Sefer Eldad ha-Dani” (with a German trans- 
lation; 1769). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: First, Bibl. Jud. iii. 501; Zedner, Cat. Hebr. 

Books Brit. Mus. pp. 217, 776. 

EB. C. 8. O. 

WEIL, TIAH (JEDIDIAH): German rabbi; 
born at Prague Oct. 2, 1721; died at Carlsruhe Oct. 
10, 1805. He was the son of Nethaneel Weil and 
received his early instruction from his father. In 
1744 he married Gitel, daughter of Jacob Eger, a 
well-to-do resident of Prague; but the expulsion of 
the Jews from Prague ordered by Maria Theresa 
drove him to Metz in 1745, where he remained until 
1748, continuing his studies under Jonathan Eybe- 
schiitz. Returning to Prague, he lived in great 
difficulties until, in 1754, he became rabbi of Wot- 
titz,in Bohemia. In 1758 he again settled in Prague, 
which he left in 1770 to succeed his father in the rab- 
binate of Carlsruhe. Of his works only a commen- 
tary on the Passover Haggadah has been printed 
(Carlsruhe, 1791, published anonymously).  Re- 
sponsa of his are found in the collection of Ezekiel 
Landau and in his father’s “ Netib Hayyim ” (Firth, 
1779). Numerous novelle and homilies are pre- 
served in manuscript. His will shows him to have 
been a man of genuine piety and a believer in the 
Cabala. Among his descendants there were several 
rabbis: his grandson R. Jacob WEIL was the au- 
thor of a compendium of Sabbath laws (“ Torat Shab- 
bat,” Carlsruhe, 1839), and his great-grandson Ne- 
thaneel WEIL was Klaus-rabbi at Carlsruhe (May 
1, 1892), 

BIBLIOGRAPHY : Lowenstein, Beitriige zur Gesch. der Juden 


in Deutschland, vol. ii.. Frankfort-on-the-Main. D 
EB, On ° 


WEILL, ALEXANDRE (ABRAHAM): 
French writer; born at Schirhoffen, Alsace, May 10, 
1811; died at Paris Oct. 18, 1898; grandson of R. 
Abraham Kellermeister. He was destined by his par- 
ents for a rabbinical career, and was sent to Frank- 
fort to pursue his preparatory Talmudic studies. 
At the same time he studied German, French, Eng- 
lish, Italian, Latin, and Greek literature. In 1837 
he abandoned his rabbinical studies, and left Frank- 
fort for Paris with a letter of introduction from 


Weill 
Weiss 


Heinrich Heine which procured him speedy admis- 
sion into the salons and journalistic circles of the 
French capital. He became a contributor to the 
“Revue du Progrés” (edited by Louis Blanc), the 
“ Déemocratie Pacifique,” the “ Presse,” the “ Gazette 
de France,” “L’Opinion Nationale,” the “ Figaro,” 
and the “Temps,” to various journals of Frankfort, 
Stuttgart, and Hamburg, and to the “ Archives 
Israclites,” the “ Univers Isractite,” etc. The publi- 
cation of his “ Histoires de Village ” (1847), to which 
Heine wrote a preface, and of his “L’Ami Fritz” 
and “La Petite Fadette” marked his entrance into 
the field of romance. He was perhaps the first 
French writer to conceive the idea of depicting vil- 
lage scenes and writing rustic idyls. Among his 
numerous admirers may be mentioned Giacomo 
Meyerbeer and Victor Hugo. 

Weill was a born polemic, and he wrote a number 
of brochures on some of the leading questions of the 
day ; among these may be mentioned: “ République 
et Monarchie,” 1848; “Le Génie de la Monarchie,” 
1849; “Que Deviendront Nos Filles?” 1863; “Mes 
Batailles,” 1867; and “ Lettre de Vengeance d’un 
Alsacien,” 1871. In the “Corsaire” of March 2, 
1848, he addressed a remarkable letter to Hippolyte 
Carnot, the minister of public instruction and father 
of the late president of the French republic, Sadi 
Carnot. In this letter, which bore the heading “ Une 
Révolution 4 Faire,” he strongly urged a more gen- 
eral instruction in foreign languages in the public 
schools. 

Weill was the author also of the following works: 
“Mes Contemporains” (1864; 2d ed., with an ap- 
pendix, 1890); “Dix Mois de Révolution,” 1868; 
“La Guerre des Paysans et des Anabaptistes,” 1874; 
“Ludovic Boerne,” 1878; “Souvenirs Intimes de 
Henri Heine,” 1888; “Histoire Véridique et Vécue 
de la Révolution de 1848,” 1887; “Le Centenaire de 
Emancipation des Juifs,” 1888; “Mes Romans”; 
“Mon Théatre”; “Fables et Légendes d’Or”; “La- 
martine et Victor Hugo”; “La France Catholique” 
(in reply to Drumont’s “ La France Juive”); “ Les 
Cing Livres de Moise” (translated from Hebrew, 
and supplied with etymological notes); “Moise, le 
Talmud et l’Evangile”; “La Parole Nouvelle”; 
“Hommes Noirs, Qui Etes Vous?”; “L’Art Est une 
Religion”; “Lois et Mystéres de la Création”; 
“Etude Comparative de la Langue Francaise avec 
PHébreu, le Grec, le Latin, l’Allemand, et V’An- 
glais”; “ Rabbin et Nonne, Poésie et Realité”; “Le 
Nouvel Isaie” ; anda volume of poems entitled “Les 
Grandes Juives ” (1882). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Alexandre Weill, Ma Jeunesse, 1888 ; Maurice 
Bloch, Alexandre Weill, Sa Vie et Ses GHeuvres, 1905. 
8. J. Ka, 


WEILL, ANSELME: French physician; born 


at Bischheim, Alsace, Aug. 24, 1842. He received 
his education at the lyceum of Strasburg and the 
universities at Strasburg and Paris. Settling in the 
French capital, he took part, as assistant surgeon 
attached to the Lariboisiére Hospital, during the 
defense of Paris in 1870-71. From 1871 to 1874 he 
was assistant physician at the Rothschild Hospital, 
and graduated as M.D. in 1874. He became chief 
physician of that institution in 1889; in the same 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


494 


year he was made “Officier d’Académie”; and in 
1894 he received the cross of the Legion of Honor, 

Weill has published many essays, especially on 
the treatment of tuberculosis. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Curinier, Dict. Nat. iii. 195. 

S, F. T. H. 

WEILL, EMANUEL: French rabbi; born at 
Ensisheim, Alsace, Oct. 21, 1841; cducated at the 
bet ha-midrash of Colmar and the Séminaire Israé- 
lite de France in Paris (rabbi, 1861). In 1865 he was 
appointed rabbi at Versailles, and in 1876 he was 
called to Paris as assistant to the chief rabbi of that 
city. Since 1882 he has officiated as rabbi of the 
Portuguese synagogue in Rue Buffault, Paris. He 
is the author of “La Femme Juive Selon la Bible et 
le Talmud” (Paris; 2d ed. 1881) and “Judah Mac- 


cabée Suivi de Rabbi Akiba” (2d. 1888). 
8. RF. T. #H. 


- WEILL, MATHIEU: French mathematician; 
born at Hagenau, Alsace, May 24, 1851; educated in 
the lyceums of Burg and Strasburg, at the Poly- 
technigue in Paris, and at the military school in 
Fontainebleau. He attained the rank of lieutenant 
of artillery, but resigned in 1877. In 1881 he be- 
came teacher of mathematics in the Collége Chaptal 
at Paris, and in 1898 its principal. 

Weill has published several essays in the mathe- 
matical journals of his country, and is the author 
of “Cours de Géométrie Analytique” and of “ Pré- 
cis d’ Arithmétique, de Géométrie, d’Algébre, de Tri- 
gonométrie,” in four volumes. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Curinier, Dict. Nat. iii. 72. 

S. KF. T. HH. 

WEILL, MICHEL AARON: French rabbi; 
born at Strasburg July 19, 1814; died at Paris Jan. 
6, 1889. He was educated at the Ecole Centrale 
Rabbinique at Metz, where he received the rabbin- 
ical diploma, and at the Sorbonne at Paris. After 
acting asa professor at the Ecole Consistoriale at 
Nancy, Weill was in 1845 appointed instructor at 
Algiers, where he became the first French chief 
rabbi (1846-64). His earnest efforts to inculcate 
French civilization in the Algerian Jews met, how- 
ever, with little success, and he retired into private 
life until 1876, when he accepted the rabbinate of 
Toul. Nine years later he resigned this office and 
settled in Paris, devoting himself to literary pur- 
suits. 

Weill was the author of the following works: “Le 
Judaisme, Ses Dogmes et Sa Mission ” (Paris, 1866); 
“ Théodicée ” (4b. 1867); “La Révélation ” (7b. 1868); 
“Providence et Rémuné¢ration” (7, 1869); “La 
Morale du Judaisme” (2 vols., 7b. 1875-77); “La 
Parole de Dieu, ou la Chaire Israélite Ancienne et 
Moderne” (2b. 1880); and “Oraison Funcbre de M. 
Lazare Isidor, Grand-Rabbin ” (24. 1888). 

Weill’sson, Georges Weill (born at Algiers July 
6, 1865), was educated at the Ecole Normale Supéri- 
eure, and at present (1905) occupies the chair of his- 
tory at the Lycée Louis-le-Grand of Paris. He is 
the author of “Les Théories sur le Pouvoir Royal 
en France Pendant les Guerres de Religion” (Paris, 
1892); “Saint-Simon et Son Ciuvre” (2. 1894); 
“L’ Ecole Saint-Simonienne ” (2b. 1896); “ Histoire du 
Parti Républicain en France, 1814-1870” (2d. 1900); 


495 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Weill 
Weiss 


“La France sous la Monarchie Constitutionelle ” (2d. 
1902); and “Histoire du) Mouvement Social en 
France, 1852-1902” (7d. 1904), 

S. J. Ka. 

WEILLER, LAZARE JEAN: French manu- 
facturer and author; born at Schlettstadt, Alsace, 
July 20, 1858; educated at the Lycée Saint-Louis of 
Paris and at the University of Oxford. Devoting 
himself to electric metallurgy, he induced the French 
government to employ the various copper alloys 
which render the long-distance telephone possible; 
and in 1883 he was made a chevalier of the Legion 
of Honor in recognition of his treatise “ Conducteurs 
Electrigues.” In 1889 he was the Republican can- 
didate for deputy of the department of the Charente; 
he defeated the Boulangist Paul Dérouléde, but the 
election went by aslight majority to the Bonapartist 
candidate. Weiller has been successively a member 
of the consulting committee of the railways of 
France, censor of the Bank of France, vice-president 
of the jury on electricity at the International Expo- 
sition at Paris (1900), and member of the superior 
colonial council. . 

In 1902 he was sent to the United States on an im- 
portant diplomatic mission, and on his return pub- 
lished his impressions under the title “Les Grandes 
Idées d’un Grand Peuple,” which ran through more 
than fifty editions ina few months. He has written 
also a number of scientific works, which are re- 
garded as classics, notably his “Traité Général des 
Lignes et Transmissions Electriques”; and he has 
likewise been a contributor for many years to the 
“Revue des Deux Mondes.” He is an enthusiastic 
art-collector. 

Weiller took an active part in the Dreyfus case, 
and vainly endeavored, together with his old friend 
Scheurer-Kestner, to induce his uncle General Gonse, 
deputy chief-of-staff, to rehabilitate Dreyfus on his 
own responsibility. Weiller by marriage allied 


himself to a family of orthodox Catholics. 
S. J. Ka. 


WEILLER, PAULINE (née EICHBERG): 
American pianist; born in Stuttgart April 22, 1839; 
died in Baltimore, Md., Dec. 28, 1874; eldest daugh- 
ter of Moritz Eichberg, cantor in Stuttgart. The 
Eichberg daughters, of whom there were five, in- 
herited musical talent from both parents. Under 
the tuition of Mathilde Ries, Pauline’s gift for music 
developed so rapidly that she played in public before 
the age of ten. When she was thirteen Rubinstein 
heard her play, and introduced her to Meyerbeer, 
through whose influence she completed her musical 
education at the Leipsic Conservatorium, then under 
the direction of Moscheles. Later she played for 
a season with Rubinstein at Baden. Her greatest 
triumphs were won as a Chopin performer. Her 
technique was faultless and elegant, and her musical 
memory aroused the astonishment of critics. In 
1859 she went to New York asa teacher of music, 
and two years later married Alexander Weiller of 
Baltimore. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: M. Kayserling, Die Jitdischen Frauen in der 
Geschichte, Literatur und Kunst, 1879, p. 326; Nahida 
Remy, Das Jitdische Weib, pp. 259-260. Hs 

A. i $ 


WEIMAR. See Saxon DUCHIES. 


WEINBERG, PAUL: Russian writer; born at 
Odessa about 1840. Llis father, Isaiah Weinberg, 
adopted Christianity. Unlike his brothers, Peter 
Weinberg, a prominent writer, and Jacob Wein- 
berg, a judge, Pau! never studied at any institution 
of learning, and this lack of training is plainly 
shown in his literary works. From his early youth 
he devoted his time to caricaturing the Jews, whose 
lives, customs, and habits he never studied, know- 
ing of them only through his uncle Billizer. These 
caricatures were published in three works: “Stzeny 
iz Yevreiskavo Byta” (St. Petersburg, 1870); 
“NovyyaStzeny i Anekdoty iz Yevreiskavo, Army- 
anskavo, Grecheskavo, Nyemetzkavo i Russkavo 
Byta” (2d, 1880); and} “Polny Sbornik Yumoris- 
ticheskikh Stzen iz Yevreiskavo i Armyanskavo 
Byta” (Moscow, 1888). These scenes are crudely 
humoristic. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sistematicheski Ukazatel Literatury o Yev- 
reyakh, St. Petersburg, 1893; Ha-Meliz, 1878, No, 28. 


8. J. Go. 

WEINBERGE. See K6NIGLICHE WEINBERGE. 

WEINGAERTNER, FELIX ALPHONSE: 
French musician and composer; bornat Nantes May 
5, 1844, Theson of a musician, he received his early 
education at home, later entering the Ecole des 
Beaux-Arts at Paris, where he became the pupil of 
Alard and of Vieuxtemps. Returning to his native 
city, he established himself as a teacher of music, 
and gave several very successful concerts. In 1884 
he was appointed principal of the Conservatoire at 
Nantes, which position he held until 1894, when he 
moved to Paris. There he soon acquired a reputa- 
tion as a violinist, appearing in many concerts. He 
traveled through France, giving concertsin the more 
important cities. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Curinier, Dict. Nat. ii. 231. 
s 


WEISEL, HIRZ. See WEsSELY. 

WEISS, ADOLPHE: French painter; born 
at Budapest May 11,1888. He was educated at the 
School of Fine Arts in Vienna, and in 1860 went to 
Paris to complete his studies. His first exhibit at 
the Salon (1869) was a portrait of M. Marmontel. 
Becoming a French citizen in 1871, he settled in 
Paris, and has since then been a regular exhibitor 
at the Salons. Among his many paintings, which 
include also portraits of well-known people, may be 
mentioned: “La Corbeille de Mariage” (1874); “La 
Fiancée Slave” (1877; now in the Museum of Li- 
siceux); “En 1815” (1878); “Le Lion Amoureux ” 
(1888); “Tournesol” and “Nymphe Découvrant la 
Téte d’Orphée ” (1886); “La Jeunesse ” and “ Fillette 
aux Péches” (1891); “Judith” (1895); “Captifs” 


F. T. H. 


(1896; now in the Museum of Angers); and “ Nou- 


velle Captive” (1901). 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Curinier, Dict. Nat. iii, 101. 
g, F. T. H. 
WEISS, ISAAC HIRSCH: Austrian Talmud- 
ist and historian of literature; born at Gross Meser- 
itsch, Moravia, Feb. 9, 1815; died at Vienna June 1, 
1905. After having received elementary instruc- 
tion in Hebrew and Talmud in various hadarim of 
his native town, he entered, at the age of eight, the 
yeshibah of Moses Aaron Tichler (founded at Gross 
Meseritsch in 1822), where he studied Talmud for 


Weiss 


five years. He then studied at home under a tutor, 
and later in the yeshibah of Trebitsch, Moravia, 
under Hayyim Joseph Pollak, and in_ that 
of Eisenstadt under Isaac Moses Perles, returning 
to his home in 1837. From the tender age at which 
Weiss began to study Talmud and rabbinics it may 
be deduced that he 
was endowed with re- 
markable ability. He 
felt a keen desire for 
the pursuit of the sec- 
ular sciences also, of 
which he was deprived 
in his youth, although 
he had been instructed 
in German by his pri- 


vate tutor. In some of 
the yeshibot which he 
attended instruction 


was given also in the 
Hebrew language and 
grammar; but that did 
not satisfy Weiss. It 
was for this reason 
that he changed from 
one yeshibah to another, hoping that he would ulti- 
mately find one in which his desire for learning would 
be satisfied. Influenced by Nachman Krochmal, by 
Rapoport, and by Zunz’s “Gottesdienstliche Vor- 
trige,” Weiss devoted part of his time 
His to the study of religious philosophy. 
Early Talmudic studies, however, occupied 
Ability. the greater part of his time, and dur- 
ing the years that he spent in his 
parents’ home he wrote several pamphlets contain- 
ing novelle on Talmudic treatises, as well as on the 
Shulhan ‘Aruk, Yoreh De‘ah and Hoshen Mishpat, 
He also kept up a correspondence with many dis- 
tinguished rabbis, particularly Joseph Saul NaTHAN- 
‘SON, and contributed to Stern’s “ Kokebe Yizhak” and 
to Kobak’s “Jeschurun.” To the former he contrib- 
uted articles on general subjects, as well as verses 
and a number of biographies, among which that of 
Rab (Abba Arika) deserves special notice. In the 
“Jeschurun” he published several articles on the 
origin of prayer. 

In 1858 Weiss settled in Vienna, where he became 
corrector for the press in the printing establishment 
of Samarski and Dittmarsch. Six years later (1864) 
he was appointed lecturer in the bet ha-midrash 
founded by Jellinek, holding that position until his 
death. In Vienna, where Jellinek and other promi- 
nent Jewish scholars were congregated, Weiss found 
greater scope for his literary activity. He imme- 
diately turned his attention to a Vienna edition of 
the Talmud; and the notes with which he provided 
most of the treatises give evidence of his vast erudi- 
tion. Then, at the request of Jacob Schlossberg, he 
wrote a compendium of the laws and observances 
relating to the ritual; this work, which was entitled 
“Orah la-Zaddik,” was published by Schlossberg at 
the beginning of the “ Seder Tefillat Ya‘akob ” (Vien- 
na, 1861). In the following year Weiss edited the 
Sifra with the commentary of Abraham b. David of 
Posquiéres; to this work he added a historical and 
linguistic introduction in nine chapters, and he provi- 


Isaac Hirsch Weiss. 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


496 


ded the text with critical and exegetical notesentitled 
“Masoret ha-Talmud,” giving the variants of different 
manuscripts as well as an index show- 

Activity ing the parallel passages in both Tal- 

at mudim. In 1864 Weiss took a prominent 

Vienna. part in the Kompert trial, publishing a 

pamphlet entitled “ Nezah Yisrael” in 
support of the testimony of Horowitz and Mannheimer 
with regard tothe belief in the Messiah. This work 
called forth a reply by Nissan Schidhoff, entitled 
“Neshek Bar” (Firth, 1864). In the same year 
Weiss edited the mishnayot of the treatise Berakot, 
giving a list of variants in both Talmudim anda 
brief synopsis of the contents. A year later (1865) 
he founded a monthly magazine, “ Bet ha-Midrash,” 
of which, however, only five numbersappeared. In 
the same year he edited the Mekilta, to which he 
added an introduction dealing with the historical de- 
velopment of both Halakah and Haggadah, and a 
critical commentary entitled “ Middot Soferim.” 

After the publication of his “ Mishpat Leshon ha- 
Mishnah ” (1867), an essay on the mishnaic language, 
Weiss began to prepare his stupendous work, the 
“Dor Dor we-Dorshaw ” (1871-91; see below). Al- 
though Weiss had not been successful with his “ Bet 
ha-Midrash,” he was more fortunate with the BET 
TALMUD, @ monthly magazine which he founded 
in 1881 with Meir FrrepMANnn. In this periodical 
Weiss published numerous articles of his own, 
most of them treating of the Talmud in general 
and of Talmudic subjects. Noless important are his 
biographical sketches, among which are those of 
Maimonides, Rashi, and Jacob Tam (“Bet Talmud,” 
i., i, and iii., and reprinted in book form under the 
title “ Toledot Gedole Yisrael”). In 1891, on the com- 
pletion of his “Dor,” Weiss reedited Isaac Campan- 
ton’s “Darke ha-Gemara,” a methodology of the 
Talmud, His last work in book form was his “ Zi- 
kronotai” (Warsaw, 1895), a collection of his remi- 
niscences from his childhood to his eightieth year. 
He continued to contribute to various Hebrew 
periodicals, writing mostly biographies, of which 
may be mentioned that of Saadia Gaon (in “ Ha-Asif,” 
li, 275-293), published before Weiss had attained his 
thirtieth year, and that of Mannheimer (in “ Mi- 
Mizrah umi-Ma‘arab,” iii. 17 e¢ seg.). In his lectures 
Weiss was rather free with regard to the text of the 
Talmud and the Midrashim. He did not hesitate to 
declare the text faulty whenit seemed soto him; but, 
on the other hand, he was very careful in making 
corrections. He held aiso that the words of the 
ancient rabbis should not be interpreted according to 
modern conception, such interpretation being liable 
to result in error. 

Weiss’s most important production, through 
which he acquired great renown, is his “Dor Dor 
we-Dorshaw,” a work in five volumes. As its Ger- 
man title, “Zur Geschichte der Jtidischen Tradition,” 

shows, it is a history of the Halakah, 

His or oral law, from Biblical times until 
“*Por Dor theexpulsion of the Jews from Spain 
we-Dor- at the end of the fifteenth century. 
shaw.” The first volume(1871) covers the his- 
tory from the inception of the oral 

law to the destruction of the Second Temple; vol. 
ii, (1876) treats of the tannaitic period until the con- 


497 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Weiss 


clusion of the Mishnah; vol. iii. (1888), of the am- 
oraic period till the completion of the Babylonian 
Talmud; vol. iv. (1887), of the geonic period until 
the end of the fifth millennium (= the middle of 
the thirteenth century); and vol. v., of the period 
of the casuists (“ posekim ”) till the composition of 
the Shulhan ‘Aruk. As the oral law is in reality 
the interpretation of the Pentateuch, Weiss thinks 
that it originated immediately after the redaction 
of the latter by Moses. The apparent divergencies 
in the Pentateuch and the various books of the 
Prophets (as the well-known differences between the 
books of Ezekiel and Leviticus, and many others) 
are due only to different interpretations of the Pen- 
tateuch in different epochs. It will be seen that 
Weiss defended the unity of the Pentateuch and vin- 
dicated the authorship of Moses. But he believed 
that Moses himself followed certain traditions cur- 
rent in his time, as it is said that Abraham observed 
God's commandments and laws (Gen. xxvi. 5). He 
asserted also that while the Pentateuch contains no 
simple repetitions of the laws, it contains additions 
which amplify or limit the commandments laid down 
in the earlier books. In the second volume Weiss 
gives the history of the Mekilta, Sifra, Sifre, and 
Mishnah. This volume contains also monographs on 
the Tannaim which are invaluable to the Talmudic 
student; without concealing the failings of some, he 
defends them, especially the patriarchs, against the 
charges of Schorr and others. In the third volume 
much space is devoted to the Haggadah and the hag- 
gadists; and the author does not endeavor to find 
apologies for those seemingly strange passages in this 
part of the Talmud which serveas pretexts for those 
who seek to detract from its value. But he points 
out the many edifying sentences that are scattered 
throughout the Haggadah, and quotes a great num- 
ber of them. 

As was to be expected, this work, adopted by the 
majority of Talmudic scholars as the standard his- 
tory of the oral law, called forth replies from some 
malcontents. Isaac Halevy is known to have written 
his “Dorot ha-Rishonim” mainly against Weiss’s 
“Dor”; and Eleazar Zarkes published a criticism of 
the work in “Keneset ha-Gedolah” (iv., part 2, pp. 
65 e¢ seq.). Simhah Edelmann issued a small pam- 
phiet entitled “Ma’amar Doreshe Reshumot” (War- 
saw, 1893), in which he endeavored to make evident 
Weiss’s mistakes; and Simhah Weissmann, in his 
pamphlet “Teshubot u-Ma‘anot Nimrazot,” did not 
even abstain from personalities. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Chajes, in Rivista Israelitica, ii. 126-128; 
Ehrenpreis. in Ha-Maggid, xl., Nos. 5-7; Elbogen, in Ost wid 
West, v.499-502 Jewish Comment, xxi., No. 11; Louis Ginz- 
berg, ib, xx., Nos. 18-20; N. Sokolow, in Ha-Asif, iv. 47; 
idem, Sefer Zikkaron, pp. 38-39: Weiss, Zikronotat, War- 
saw. 1895. For the Dor Dor we-Dorshaw: Brill, Jahrb. iv. 
59 et seq., vii. 124 et seqg., ix. 115 et seq.: Gratz, in Monats- 
schrift, xxvi. 92 et seq., 133 et seqg.: Schechter. in J. Q. R. iv. 


445 et seg.; P. Smolenskin, in Ha-Shahar, tii. 182-183. 
S. M. SEL. 


WEISS, JOSEPH HIRSCH: Hungarian 
rabbi: born at Podola, Comitat Neutra, 1800; died 
at Erlau 1881. He was a descendant of a long line 
of rabbis resident in- Moravia in the seventeenth 
and eighteenth centuries; the family name was 
originally Weissfeld. He officiated for some time as 
rabbi of the congregation of Sook-Szelocze, and in 

XIT.—82 


1840 was appointed chief rabbi of Erlau, where he 
remained until his death. He was one of the lead- 
ers of the ultra-Orthodox party in Hungary, and 
one of the chief opponents of the founders of the 
Reform movement in Pesth. Identified with the Kos- 
suth movement in 1848, he was obliged to seek ref- 
uge for atime in the monastery of Erlau under the 
protection of the resident archbishop. Later he was 
arraigned before the royal authorities at Vienna on 
a charge of sedition, but was ultimately acquitted. 
A considerable portion of his library, consisting 
mainly of responsa, was presented by his grandson 
Stephen 8. Wise to Columbia University in New 


York. 
S Ss. S. W. 


WEISS, LEOPOLD W.: German ophthalmo!l- 
ogist; born at Giessen 1849. He was educated at 
the universities of Giessen (M.D. 1874), Tibingen, 
and Vienna; and from 1875 to 1877 acted as an as- 
sistant at the ophthalmological institute of the Uni- 
versity of Heidelberg, where he received the “ venia 
legendi” in 1876. Since 1878 he has been a practising 
physician in Heidelberg and in Mannheim. Among 
his works may be mentioned: “Zur Bestimmung 
der Drehpunkte des Auges” (in Graefe’s “ Archiv,” 
xxi.); “ Beitrige zur Entwicklung der Myopie” (76. 
xxii.); “Ueber die Tuberculose des Auges” (2d. 
xxiii.); “Ueber die Abflusswege der Intraocularen 
Fliissigkeiten” (2b. xxv.); and “Ueber den an der 
Innenseite der Pupille Sichtbaren Reflexstreif ” (72. 
Xxxi.). 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hirsch, Biog. Lex. 

8. F. T. if. 

WEISS, MARKUS NISSA (called also Mar- 
dokai Ungvar): Hungarian advocate of Reform. 
In 1792 he had a small business at Pesth, and in 1794 
he leased an estate near Munkacs, where his op- 
pressions gave rise to complaints among the Gali- 
cian Jews. In 1802 he published a pamphlet en- 
titled “Der Jude wie Er Ist,” in which he pleaded 
with the Jews to accept the ideas of Reform. This 
work caused him to be bitterly attacked by the 
Hungarian Jews; and in order to defend his person 
and ideas he issued (Vienna, 1803) another pam- 
phlet, which was entitled “Der Bedringte Markus 
Nissa Weiss an die Menschen.” Finding, however, 
that he could not overcome the antagonistic attitude 
of his coreligionists, he embraced Christianity. 

After his conversion Weiss published his “In 
Neuerfundenen Tabellen Gegritindete Praktische 
Vortheile der Rechnungskunst,” Ofen, 1805; “ Der 
Missverstandene Text und dessen Wahrer Sinn,” 
7. 1806. He has further published “ Unparteiische 
Betrachtungen iiber das Grosse Jitdische Sanhedrin 
zu Paris” (2b. 1807). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Alexander Biichler, in Magyar Zsid6 Szemle, 
XV]l. 


Ss A. BU. 


WEISS, MAX: Hungarian chess-player: born 
July 21, 1857, at Szered on the Waag. Removing to 
Vienna, be studied mathematics and physics at the 
university, and afterward taught those subjects. 
Having, however, learned to play chess in his twelfth 
year, his interest in the game increased as he grew 
older, and he entered many international competi- 
tions. 


Weiss 
Well 


Weiss has invariably acquitted himself well in 
tournaments, at which his chief successes have 
been; 
1882, Vienna, won 2 games from Zukertort, and drew with 
Steinitz. 
3885, Hamburg, tied with Englisch and Tarrasch for second 
prize. 
1e87, Frankfort-on-the-Main, divided second and third prizes 
with Blaekburne. 
1888, Bradford, tied with Blackburne for sixth prize. 
J88Y, New York. tied with Tchigorin for first prize. 
1&8, Breslau, third prize. 
1890, Vienna, first prize. 
Weiss is now (1905) employed in Baron Roths- 
chiid’s banking-house at Vienna. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. T. Blanshard, E:camples of Chess Master- 
Picty, Ist series (transl. from the German of Jean Dufresne), 


Index, New Barnet, 1898. . 
S. Ay iP. 


WEISS, WILHELM: Austrian mathematician ; 
born at Ridka, Bohemia, Feb. 3, 1859; died at 
Prague June 18,1904. He received his early educa- 
tion from his father, who was a teacher at Ridka; 
and from 1881 to 1887 he studied successively at the 
universities of Prague, Leipsic, and Erlangen (Ph.D. 
1887). From 1887 to 1894 he was instructor in 
mathematics at the Deutsche Technische Hochschule 
at Prague, becoming lecturer in 1894, deputy pro- 
fessor in 1896, assistant professor in 1897, and pro- 
fessor in 1900. From 1901 to 1902 he was dean of the 
school of engineers at the same institution. 


es Prager Tageblatt and Bohemia, June 19, 
4. 


S. A. Kt. 


WEISSBERG, ISAAC JACOB: Russo-He- 
brew writer and pedagogue; born at Polonki, gov- 
ernment of Minsk, 1841; died at Kiev 1904. He re- 
ceived his preliminary training in various hadarim, 
and then attended the yesbibah of Slonim, where he 
came to be regarded as one of the best Talmudic 
students. Later he went to Minsk, where he be- 
came acquainted with various Hebrew scholars of the 
younger generation, especially with Joseph Brill, 
knownalsoas Jobof Minsk. While in Minsk, Weiss- 
berg devoted himself particularly to the study of 
Hebrew literature. In 1873 he established himself 
as a teacher of Hebrew in Kiev; many of his pupils 
have become prominent Hebrew writers. 

In 1879 Weissberg began contributing articles to 
various Hebrew periodicals, and his literary activ- 
ity was very extensive. The following isa list of his 
more important works: “Ga’on we-Shibro,” a schol- 
arly criticism of medieval and modern literature; 
“She’clat ha-Nashim ‘al Pi ha-Talmud,” a work 
written in Yiddish and treating of the status of 
women according to the Talmud, as well as of the 
prevailing opinion regarding the authority cf the 
Talmud; “Peshuto shel Mikra ‘al Pi Da‘at” (St. 
Petersburg, 1898), Talmudic explanations of Bib- 
lical passages; and “ Mishle Kadmonim” (Nezhin, 
1901), a collection of ancient proverbs. He was the 
author also of exegetic notes on the Pentateuch (pub- 
lished by Ezekiel Mandelstamm); and he collected 
and published letters by the poet J. L. Gordon (2 
vols.), Isaac Bair Levinsohn, and Isaiah Tugendhold 
(*“Dibre Yeshatyah”). Weissberg contributed nu- 
merous articles to “ Ha-Meliz,” “ Ha-Maggid,” “ Ha- 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


498 


Zebrah,” “Wa-Shahar,” “Ha-Boker Or,” “° Ozar ha- 


Sifrut,” “Ahiasaf,” “TWa-Shiloah,” “ Ha-Goren,” 
“ Ha-Pisgah,” and “ Ha-Tikwah.” 
lt. R. TI. Ma. 
WEISSENBERG, SAMUEL ABRAMO- 


WITCH: Russian physician and anthropologist; 
born in Yelizavetgrad, South Russia, Dec. 16, 1867. 
He attended the public school and the real-school of 
his native town; entered the Polytechnicum in Carls- 
ruhe, Baden, in 1884; and received his medical de- 
gree in Ucidelberg in 1890. His chicf work has 
consisted of anthropological researches among the 
sews of South Russia, the results of which he pub- 
lished in 1895 (“Die Stidrussischen Juden,” in 
“Archiv fiir Anthropologie,” xxiii.). He has also 
published researches on the anthropology of the: 
Karaites (“Die Kar&er der Krim,” in “Globus,” 
Ixxxiv., and in “ Russki Antropologitcheski Zhur- 
nal,” 1904). Several other contributions were pub- 
lished in the “Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologie” and the 
“Mitteilungen der Anthropologischen Gesellschaft ” 
of Vienna. Weissenberg has been a frequent con- 
tributor to the “Globus” on Jewish folk-lore, his 
articles on Jewish proverbs (vol. Ixxvii.) and folk- 
songs (vol. Ixvii.) being particularly noteworthy. 
He has written also papers for the “ Mitteilungen der 
Gesellschaft fiir Jiidische Volkskunde” on the 
“Purimspiel” (part xiii.), “ Weddings” (part xv.), 
and kindred subjects. 
J. M. Fr. 


WEISSMANN, ASHER (ARTHUR) SIM- 
HAH: Austrian scholar and publicist; born at 
Zelynia, Galicia, April 21, 1840; died at Vienna May 
14, 1892. He received a rabbinical training in his 
native town and in the yeshibah of Rzeszow, where- 
upon he (1871) took up the study of foreign lan- 
guages and secular sciences. After officiating for 
some time as director of the Jewish school of Galatz, 
Rumania, he went to Tysmenitz, Galicia, and finally 
settled in Vienna. 

Weissmann’s literary activity in Hebrew and Ger- 
man was considerable. In 1872 he edited the “Ji- 
dische Freie Presse,” a Judxo-German monthly with 
a Hebrew supplement entitled “ Ha-Kohelet ”; but 
only three numbers of it appeared. He contributed 
essays and novels to various Hebrew and Judzxo- 
German periodicals, among which may be mentioned 
“Ha-Mabbit,” the “Israelit ” of Mayence, the “ Isra- 
elitische Wochenschrift,” and the “ Israelit ” of Lem- 
berg. Especially noteworthy were his novels * Ha- 
Neder” (in “ Ha-Mabbit,” 1878, No. 15), treating of 
the moral status of the Jews; “Chajim Prostak” 
(iu Rahmer’s “ Wochenschrift,” 1880), dealing with 
Jewish life in Galicia; and “Folgen Verfcehlter Er- 
zichung ” (in the “ Israelit ” of Lemberg). Lis “ Cha- 
jim Prostak ” was later translated into English. 

In 1889 Weissmann founded in Vienna a German 
periodical, “ Monatsschrift fiir die Litteratur und 
Wissenschaft des Judenthum,” which was issued 
with a Hebrew supplement. To this publication, 
which existed for two years, he contributed numer- 
ous articles, among which may be mentioned essays 
on the redaction of the Psalms, and critical essays 
on the books of Esther and of Judith, the last-named 
being reprinted in book form. In the Hebrew sup- 


499 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Weiss 
Well 


plement Weissmann published a work on the history 
of the formation of Jewish sects prior to the death 
of Simeon the Just. He was the author also of 
“Kontres ‘al Debar Serefat ha-Metim” (Lemberg, 
1878), a critical essay on cremation according to the 
Bible and Talmud, and “ Kedushshat ha-Tenak ” 
(Vienna, 1887), on the canonization of the books of 
the Old Testament. In 1891 he published at Vienna 
Jonathan Eybeschiitz’s “Shem ‘Olam,” together with 
notes of his own and an introduction by 8. Rubin. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Lippe, Bibliographisches Lexicon, i., 8.v.3 


Sokolow, Sefer Zikkaron, pp. 39-40; idem, in Ha-Asif, vi. 
1, 152; Zeitlin, Bibl. Post-Mendets. p, 412. 
M. SEL. 


E,. C. 


WEISSMANN-CHAJES, MARCUS: Austri- 
an scholar; born at Tarnow, Galicia, 1880. Ue was 
destined for a rabbinical career, and began early to 
receive instruc- 
tion in the Tal- 
mud and in rab- 
binics, among 
his tutors being 
Israel Rapoport, 
then rabbi of 
Tarnow. When 
only ten years of 
age he com- 
menced writing 
versified He- 
brew letters, and 
five years later 
he wrote his 
*Mappalat ha- 
Mitkashshe- 
rim,” a metrical 
composition 
treating of the 
failure of the 
Polish revolt. 
Part of this work 
appeared in the 
“Maggid Mish- 
neh” (1872) un- 
der the title 
“ Aharit Mered.” 

In 1872 he 
founded in Lemberg the “Maggid Mishneh,” a 
semimonthly periodical devoted to Jewish history 
and to Hebrew literature; of this publication, how- 
ever, only four numbers appeared. In the fol- 
lowing year he settled in Vienna, where he edited the 
thirty-seventh number of the “ Kokebe Yizhak,” 
founded by Stern, its previous editor. During the 
years 1874 to 1876 he edited the “ Wiener Jiidische 
Zeitung,” a Judwo-German weekly. 

Weissmann-Chajes is the author of: “ Mashal u- 
Melizah” (vol. i., Tarnow, 1860; vols. ii.-iii., Vien- 
na, 1861-62; iv.-vi., Lemberg, 1863-64), an alpha- 
betically arranged collection of Talmudic proverbs 
rendered into metrical rimes; * Allon Bakut ” (Lem- 
berg, 1863), elegies on the deaths of Mordecai Zeeb 
Ettinger and Jacob Gutwirth; “Mar’eh Makom we- 
Hageahot” (Krotoschin, 1866), index and glosses to 
the Jerusalem Talmud, appended to the Krotoschin 
edition; “Hokmah u-Musar” (Vienna, 1875), para- 
bles and legends rendered into metrical verse; “ Ha- 


Village Wells in Use in Palestine. 
(From a photograph by the American Colony at Jerusalem.) 


| 
| 
| 


tan Bereshit we-Hatan Torah” (7d. 1883; a reprint 
from “Ha-‘Ibri”), the 613 commandments derived 
by means of notarikon from “ bereshit,” the initial 
word of the Pentateuch; and “Mille di-Bedihutea ” 
(th. 1884), versified epigrams and humorous sayings. 
In 1898 a second edition of the “ Mashal u-Melizah ” 
appeared under the title “ Dibre Hakamim we-Hido- 
tam ” (25. 1893); in this edition the Talmudic prov- 
erbs are supplied with rimed explanations. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sckolow, Sefer Zikkaron, pp. 43-44: Zeitlin, 
Bibl. Post-Mendels. pp. 410-411. 
8. M. SEL. 
WEISZ, BERTHOLD: Hungarian deputy; 
born at Budapest 1845. He was educated at the 
gymnasium and commercial academy of his native 
city, devoting himself especially to the study of 
pohtical economy. In 1876 he became a member of 
the arbitration 
committee of the 
Budapest ex- 
change, and 
since then has 
contributed 
much toward 
promoting Hun- 
garian com- 
merce and in- 
dustry. He 
was one of the 
founders (1879) 
of the suburban 
railroad system 
of Budapest, 
and in the fol- 
lowing year took 
part in the fra- 
ming of the in- 
dustrial code. 
Since 1883 he 
has established 
the Hungarian 
preserve-fac- 
tory and fac- 
tories for 
brassware and 
cartridges in 
Budapest and Berlin, as wellas textile manufactories 
in Waitzen, Schmeczbanya, Kézeg, and Rozsahegy. 
He was the originator also of the Danubius Dock- 
yards in Budapest. The national pension bureau 
for employees in mercantile houses and the central 
hypothecary department of the provincial savings- 
banks owed their existence chiefly to his efforts. 
Since 1896 Weisz has represented the district of 
Nagy Ajta in the Hungarian Parliament, and in 1903 
he received the title of court councilor. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Pallas Lex. xviii.; Sturm, Orsszggyttltési Al- 
manach, 1901-6. 


5. L. Y. 


WELL: The Hebrew language distinguishes be- 
tween two kinds of wells: (1) “ be’er,” an artificially 
constructed hollow in which the water of a spring 
or underground water collects, and “bor,” a cistern 
in which rain-water is stored. Of the former, which 
were probably designated also as “wells of living 
water” (Gen. xxvi. 19), the best preserved is that at 


Well 
Weltsch 


the foot of Gerizim, which in the time of Jesus was 
called “Jacob's Well,” and is undoubtedly very old 
(comp. John iv. 2), It is 23 meters deep and 23 me- 
ters in diameter. The shape of the cisterns for col- 
lecting rain-water of course differed. A number of 
such ancient cisternsare still well preserved. Those 
shaped like a bottle, round, broad at the bottom, and 
narrowing at the top, seem to have been the oldest. 
They were usually like chambers hewn out of rock, 
or built up with walls; and in their construction nat- 
ural cavities were preferred. Sometimes they were 
of very considerable size. For instance, the largest 
of the celebrated cisterns on the Temple area, called 
the “sea” or the “king’s cistern,” had a circumfer- 
ence of 224 meters and a depth of 13 meters. These 
Temple cisterns were fed not only by rain-water 
but also, through large conduits, by spring-water. 
In distinction from open pools, cisterns and wells 
were wholly covered. Even the hole through which 
the water was drawn in leather buckets (Ex. ii. 16; 
Isa. xl. 15) was tightly closed with a large stone (Gen. 
xxix. 3 et seg.; comp. Ex. xxi. 83), in order to pre- 
vent any one from using the well without permis- 
sion. 

In a land so poor in springs and water, a well was 
always a valuable possession. In Jerusalem every 
house of the better sort had its own cistern. King 
Mesha of Moab in his inscription (line 23) boasts 
that by his command every house in the city of 
Karhah was provided with a cistern (comp. also II 
Sam. xvii. 18; Prov. v. 15). The wells outside of 
settlements formed the stations for caravans, To- 
day, as of old, strife among the wandering herds- 
men, the Bedouins, arises chiefly from disputes over 
wells (comp. Gen. xxi. 25 et seg. ; xxvi. 15, 19 ef seq.). 
The importance of good wells is shown also by the 
situation of many cities near wells, after which they 
were named. 

E. G. H. I. Bz. 

Some of these wells and cisterns had their origin in 
the time of the Patriarchs. Abraham dug a well in 
Beer-sheba (Gen. xxi. 30), and Isaac restored the 
wells dug by his father, which had been filled up by 
the Philistines. Ordered by the king of the Philis- 
tines to leave the country, Isaac dug three wells in 
succession elsewhere; the first he called “ Esek,” the 
second “Sitnah,” and the third “Rehoboth” (Gen. 
xxvi. 16-22). 

Near Mosera, where Aaron died, were the wells 
“of the children of Jaakan” (Deut. x. 6 [R. V., 
margin]), and at the ford over the Arnon the Israel- 
ites found a very ancient well, which they celebrated 
in song as the work of princesand nobles (see WELL, 
SONG OF THE). The King of Edom refused to allow 
the Israelites to drink from his wells, even though 
they offered to recompense him for the privilege 
(Num. xx. 19). Eliezer, sent by Abraham to find a 
wife for Isaac, stopped at a well to rest and to await 
the course of events (Gen. xxiv. 11, 18). 

In early times cisterns were used as dungeons, and 
even in later times, when prisons were built, they 
were still constructed for this purpose. Reuben 
counseled his brethren to throw Joseph into a cis- 
tern (Gen. xxxvii. 22); when Jeremiah was accused 
of having incited the people against the king, he was 
thrown into a miry dungeonin the court of the guard 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


500 


(Jer. xxxvili. 6-13) ; and when a later prophet wished 
to picture a real deliverance, he described a libera- 
tion from a waterless cistern (Zech. ix, 11). 

The well, or spring, was also used symbolically, 
as in Cant. iv. 12, where virginity is compared to 
a sealed fountain; but such symbolical interpreta- 
tions are chiefly found in the Talmud and Midrash. 
Commenting on Prov. xx. 5 (“Counsel in the heart 
of man is like deep water”), the Midrash observes: 
“Only a man of understanding, who can join rope 
to rope, can draw from a deep well (the Law] full of 
water” (Cant. R. xciii.). When Johanan ben Zakkai 
wished to describe the ability of his pupils, he com- 
pared R. Eliezer b. Hyrcanus to “a cemented cistern 
that loses not a drop,” and R. Eleazar b. ‘Arak to 
“a rising well” (Ab. ii. 9, 10). 

The cistern figured also in Biblical and Talmudic 
law. Incase one openedacistern and failed to cover 
it again, and a neighbor’s animal fell into it, the owner 
of the cistern was required to make good the loss 
(Ex. xxi. 38-34). The Rabbis regarded a cistern in 
a public place as one of the four chief sources of 
danger, and determined upon various punishments 
for breaches of the regulations connected with it 
(B. K. i. 1). : 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Herzog-Plitt, Real-Encyc. iv. 783: vi. 563 ; 


xiv. 296, 299; Hamburger, R. B. T. i. 198; Tobler, Dritte 
Wanderung nach Palestina, pp. 206-217 ; Doraraey Arch. 


BE. G. A. 

WELL, SONG OF THE: A poem which is 
quoted in Num. xxi. 17, 18. It is introduced ina 
list of the encampments made by Israel while cross- 
ing the wilderness. One of these camping-places 
was Beer. After this it is explained that Beer was 
the name of the well referred to when YHWH said to 
Moses, “Gather the people together, and I will give 
them water” (R. V.). Then Israel sang: 

** Spring up, O well, 
Sing ye to it: 
Thou well, dug by princes, 


Sunk by the nobles of the people, 
With the scepter, with their staves” (ib. Hebr.). 


Budde (“New World,” iv. 144 e¢ seg.) points out 
that the word “midbar” (wilderness), which imme- 
diately follows, is never used as a proper name, and 
that in the present text it occurs awkwardly in the 
midst of a list of proper pames. One would expect 
“from Beer” (they journeyed), and not “from the 
wilderness.” He points out also that in an important 
group of manuscripts of the Septuagint the words 
“and from Mattanah,” in verse 19, are omitted. He 
accordingly believes that “midbar” and “mattanah” 
were not intended as a part of the itinerary, but that 
they formed a part of the poem, which read: 

* Spring up, O well, 
Sing ye to it: 
Thou well, dug by princes, 
Sunk by the nobles of the people, 
With the scepter, with their staves, 
Out of the desert a gift!” 

Cheyne concurs in this view of the text (Cheyne 
and Black, “Encyc. Bibl.” s.c. “Beer”). The song 
belongs toaclassof ancient popular poetry of which, 
unfortunately, only fragments survive. This po- 
etry consisted of short snatches sung in honor of 
the vine in time of vintage, and of wells and springs. 
Ewald thought that they were popular songs 
accompanying the alternate strokes of hard labor 


501 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Well 
Weltsoh 


(“ Hist. of Israel” [English ed.], ii. 203). No com- 
plete vintage song survives, though probably a line 
from one is quoted in Isa. Ixv. 8, and in the titles of 
Ps. lvii., }vili., and lix., and there are imitations of 
such songs in Isa. v. 1-7 and xxvii, 2-5. 

The “song of the well” seems to be a complete 
popular song, addressed to a well. Budde and 
Cheyne, as is natural from their emended text, trace 
its origin to the Negeb, where wells were highly 
prized (comp. Gen. xxi. 25 et seg. and xxvi. 20 et seq.), 
and where indeed they were necessary to life (comp. 
Josh. xv. 19 and Judges i, 15), Budde believes that 
the song alludes to a custom by which, when a well 
or spring was found, it was lightly covered over, and 
then opened by the sheikhs in the presence of the clan 
and to the accompaniment of asong. In this way, 
by the fiction of having dug it, the well was regarded 
as the property of the clan. He thinks that a pas- 
sage in Nilus (Migne, “Patrologia Greeca,” Ixxix., 
col. 648) to which Goldziher had called attention con- 
firms this view. Nilus says that when the nomadic 
Arabs found a well they danced by it and sang songs 
to it. 

According to W. R. Smith, the use of the song 
was different: “The Hebrew women, as they stand 
around the fountain waiting their turn to draw, coax 
forth the water, which wells up all too slowly for 
their impatience” (“Brit. Quar. Rev.” Ixv. 45 e 
scq.). This would imply a Palestinian origin for the 
song, and suggests a use for it more in accord with 
Ewald’sideaof theaccompaniment tolabor. Some- 
what parallel to this conception of the purpose of 
the song is the statement of the Arabic writer Kaz- 
wini (i. 189), that when the water of the wells of 
llabistan failed, a feast was held at the source, with 
music and dancing, to induce it to flow again. The 
writer is inclined to accept Budde’s view. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. R. Smith, Rel. of Sem. 1894, pp. 169, 183; 
Budde, in New World, 1894, iv. 1386-144; Gray, Numbers, in 
International Critical Commentary, 1908, pp. 288 et seq. 


E. G. H. G. A. B, 
WELL-POISONING. See Buackx DratTuo. 


WELLHAUSEN, JULIUS: German Biblical 
critic and Semitist; born at Hameln May 17, 1844; 
educated in theology and Semitics at Gottingen 
(Ph.D. 1870), where he became privat-docent in the 
theological faculty in 1870. Two years later he was 
called as professor to the theological faculty of 
Greifswald, and in 1874 received the degree of D.D. 
“honoris causa” from Gottingen. He was compelled 
to resign from the theological faculty, however, in 
1882 in consequence of his views on the Bible, 
whereupon he entered the philosophical faculty of 
Halle as assistant professor of Semitics. Three 
years later he went as professor of Semitics to Mar- 
burg, and was called to Gottingen in 1892. 

Wellhausen has written-extensively on subjects of 
vital interest to the student of the Bible and of Juda- 
ism and other religions. Among his earliest publica- 
tions was a dissertation on the tribal organization of 
ancient Israel (“ De Gentibus et Familiis Judis Que 
I Chron. ii. 4 Enumerantur,” Géttingen, 1870). This 
was followed by a work on the text of Samuel (2d. 
1871) and by an elaborate treatise on the Pharisees 
and Sadducees (Greifswald, 1874), in which he at- 
tempted, though without success, to weaken the dis- 


coveries of Geiger. The name of Wellhausen is 
more especially connected with Pentateuchal analy- 
sis, and on this basis he has reestablished and sys- 
tematized the theory originally advanced by Vatke 
and Georg, and later by Graf, Reuss, and Kuenen, 
which assignsa post-exilic date to the Priestly Code 
and makes the Pentateuch, as it appears in the 
canon, posterior to the pre-exilic prophets. It is, 
consequently, the law-book of Judaism and the re- 
ligion of the post-exilic congregation, the cult of 
the Israelites and Hebrews being held to have been 
a crude tribal Semitic nature-worship which cul- 
minated in a henotheistic Jahvistic nationalism, 
against which the Prophets, as the preachers of 
ethical righteousness, often had to protest. These 
critical views were expounded by Wellhausen in his 
“Composition des Hexateuchs und der Historischen 
Bicher des Alten Testaments” (3d ed., Berlin, 1901), 
“Prolegomena zur Geschichte Israels” (5th ed., zd. 
1899); “Israelitische und Jiidische Geschichte” (4th 
ed., 22. 1901}; and in his article “Israel” in “ Encyc. 
Brit.” 9th ed., xiii. 406-441. His series of “Skizzen 
und Vorarbeiten,” which includes a commentary on 
the Minor Prophets, seeks in the third voluine 
(“Reste Arabischen Heidenthums,” Berlin, 1887) to 
elucidate and elaborate by a presentation of primi- 
tive Arabic paganism the analogies between the orig- 
inal Hebrew religion and the cults of the pre-Moham- 
medan Arabs. With the exception of his “ Book of 
Psalms” (in “8S. B. O. T.” xiv.), the more recent re- 
searches of Wellhausen have been in the history of 
Islam and in the exegesis of the New Testament, his 
latest contributions being commentaries on the Gos- 
pels. Although his works are monuments of mar- 
velous scholarship, they may be said to be marred 
by an unmistakable anti-Jewish bias and a conse- 
quent ignoring of the labors of Jewish writers. 
E. G. H. 

WELT, DIE: Zionist periodical, published 
weekly at Vienna (it is arranged to remove its 
headquarters to Berlin in 1906). The first number 
appeared June 4, 1897, since which time the period- 
ical has been issued regularly. At one time a Yid- 
dish edition was published. There have been several 
editors—Uprimy, Feiwel, 8. Werner, etc. It was 
for some years a private venture of Theodor Herz], 
who sank much money in it. “Die Welt” is the 
official organ of the Zionist movement throughout 
the world, and contains articles dealing with Zionism 
in its various phases, the renascence of Hebrew liter- 
ature, and Jewish conditions in different lands. It 
publishes also Judeeo-national tales, and endeavors to 
encourage Jewish art. At the fifth BaseL ConGRreEss 
it became the official organ of the Zionist movement. 

J. A. M. F. 


WELTSCH, SAMUEL: Austrian cantor; born 
at Prague Sept. 12, 1885; died in that city Aug. 
5, 1901. Belonging to a family of hazzanim, he 
early entered the profession, and became cantor of 
the Meisel synagogue at Prague while quite a young 
man. He received his musical education at the 
Conservatory of Music at Prague. In 1865 he re- 
ceived a call from the Ahawath Chesed congrega- 
tion in New York, and remained its cantor until 
1880, when he resigned the position in order to re- 


Werber 
Wertheimer 


turn to his native city. During his stay in New 
York he was active in Improving the musical serv- 
ice of the American synagogue, and was one of the 
coHaborators on the first three volumes of the 
“Zimrat Yah,” a fourth volume of which was later 
added by Alois Kaiser of Baltimore. This work 
contains the music for all the seasons of the year 
and is still extensively used. In addition Weltsch 
published Ps. xciii. with German words for solo and 
chorus, and “Todtenfeier,” two hymns for the 
memorial service. He was a very prominent mem- 
ber of the order B'nai B’rith and took preat interest 
in communal affairs in Prague, being the leading 
spirit in various charitable and educational organi- 


Zations. 
S. A. Kat. 


WERBER, BARUCH: Austrian Hebraist; born 
at Brody, Galicia, in the beginning of the nineteenth 
century; died there July 31, 1876. Werber, who 
was a follower of Isaac Erter and Nachman Kroch- 
mal, founded a Hebrew weekly, which was pub- 
lished in Brody from 1865 to 1890 under the names 
of “ Ha-‘Tbri” and “‘Tbri Anoki.” In addition to 
numerous articles which appeared in this magazine, 
Werber wrote: “Megillat Kolelet” (Lemberg, 
1862; 2d ed., Warsaw, 1876), consisting of explana- 
tory notes on Ecclesiastes, together with a long in- 
troduction; and “Toledot Adam” (Brody, 1870), a 
biography of Albert Conn of Paris. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zeitlin, Bibl. Post-Mendels. p. 418. 


s. S. O. 


WERBER, JACOB: Austrian Hebraist; born at 
Brody, Galicia, Feb. 4, 1859; died there Aug. 20, 
1890: son of Baruch WERBER. When only fifteen 
years of age Jacob could write and speak Hebrew flu- 
ently; and in 1874 he published in “Ha-‘Ibri” a 
novelette of rare beauty, entitled “ Galgal ha-Hozer 
ba-‘Olam.” In addition to several contributions to 
his father’s magazine, he wrote articles on natural 
science for “ Ha-Maggid ” (1875, 1876) and for “ Ha- 
Zetirah” (1876). Upon the death of his father in 
1876, he became the editor of “Ha-‘Ibri,” and was 
active in this capacity until his death, when the pa- 
per ceased toappear. In 1890 Werber was attacked 
by a severe illness; and when he heard that his phy- 
sician had given up hope of his recovery he wrote 
his own necrology, which appeared in the last 
number of “Ha-‘Ibri,” three days before his 
death. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Ha-Asif, 1898, vi.140; Sefer Zikkaron, p. 
40, Warsaw, 1890. 
8. S. O. 


WERNER, ABRAHAM: Polish rabbi; born 
at Tels, Kovno, 1837. He received his early educa- 
tion in various hadarim, and at thirteen was well 
versed in Talmudic literature, whereupon he con- 
tinued his studies under his father, who was govern- 
ment rabbi of Tels. In 1856 Werner received the 
HaATraRaAT Hora’an from several eminent rabbis, 
and shortly after was appointed rabbi of Weger; 
later he succeeded his father as dayyan at Tels, 
subsequently becoming chief rabbi. He then ac- 
cepted a call to Helsingfors as chief rabbi of the 
entire province of Finland, and finaliy, in 1891, 
was elected rabbi of the newly founded Mahazike 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


502 


Hadath congregation in London. Here he remained 
until July, 1901, when he settled in the Holy Land. 


SN Voung Israel, June, 1899; Jew. Chron. July 
26, : 
Ji: G. L. 


WERNIKOVSKI, JUDAH: Russian Talmud- 
ical educator; born in Slonim, government of 
Grodno, 1828; died in Jerusalem Feb. 20, 1901. In 
his childhood he was known as an “ ‘illui,” or prodigy 
in Talmudical learning. He was married at the 
age of eleven; he was afterward sent to the yeshibah 
of Volozhin; and in 1840 he went to Wilna and 
studied under R. [srael Lipkin. Though ordained 
rabbi, he preferred to teach; and, settling in his na- 
tive town, he gathered around him a number of men 
who studied Talmud under him. In 1861 he became 
“rosh yeshibah” in Slonim, and continued in that 
position until 1900, when he went to the Holy Land 
to spend his last days. He was the author of “ Pene 
Yehudah,” on the tractates Shabbat and Ketubot 
(Wilna, 1871-72); “Leket Yehudah,” sermons (2d. 
1872); and “Pene Yehudah,” on Baba Kamima and 
Keritot (Warsaw, 1890). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Alhiasaf, 5662, pp. 428-429. 
P. Wi. 


WERTHEIMER, JOHN: English printer; 
born in London at the close of the eighteenth cen- 
tury; died there Dec. 18, 1883; senior member of the 
firm of Wertheimer, Lea& Co. From 1820 until his 
death he was actively engaged as a printer in Lon- 
don; and many important educational, medical, and 
philological works were issued from his press. His 
firm printed most of the works needing Hebrew type, 
also commercial reports and the “ Jewish Chronicle.” 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jew. Chron. Dec. 21, 1883. 
ad. G. L. 


WERTHEIMER, JOSEPH, RITTER VON: 
Austrian philanthropist and author; born at Vienna 
March 15, 1800; died there March 15, 1887. He 
was the descendant of an old and prominent Jewish 
family; and his father was an intimate friend of 
Joseph von Sonnenfels. 
At the age of fifteen 
young Wertheimer en- 
tered the business of 
Freiherr von Stifft, and = |, 
five years later that of (iy 
his father, whose part-  "')'; 


ner he became in 1821. }=% 
During his leisure hours 2-227 gem Be es 
, j aS=- ie: misty Sith. CR aa i 3 cas 4 


pedagogic works. In “9@Ygs 
1824, 1826, and 1828 he “2 Uf 
traveled through Ger- 
many, Italy, France. and pi 
England; and during a 
protracted sojourn in 
London made a special 
study of the kindergartens organized in that city 
in 1824. On his return he translated into Ger- 
man a work by the director of the London Central 
Infant School, publishing it under the title “ Ueber 
Friihe Geistige Erziehung und Englische Klein- 


Joseph Wertheimer. 


503 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Werber. 
Wertheimer 


kinderschulen ” (Vienna, 1826; 2d ed. 1828). At 
the same time he addressed to the government of 
Austria a letter advocating the establishment of sim- 
ilar institutions in that country. With the coopera- 
tion of Johann Lindner, a Catholic priest, Wert- 
heimer opened in 1830 the first kindergarten in the 
Austrian capital. The success of this institution, 
and of others founded in the same year, led to the 
organization of a central society for the establish- 
ment of infant asylums, under the patronage of the 
empress Carolina Augusta, and with the active co- 
operation of the Catholic clergy. Wertheimer was 
one of the founders also of the Allgemeine Rettungs- 
anstalt of Vienna, a society for the care of released 
criminals and neglected children. 

Wertheimer began his labors in behalf of his co- 
religionists by founding in 1840 the Verein zur 
Férderung der Handwerke Unter den Israeliten, a 
society whose aim it was to afford Jewish children 
an opportunity of learning trades, and thereby to dis- 
pel the common belief in the Jews’ dislike for man- 
ual work; this object was fully realized, thousands 
of apprentices being trained by the society. In 1848 
Wertheimer founded a Jewish infant school in the 
Leopoldstadt, Vienna, to which a non-sectarian kin- 
dergarten was added in 1868. During the thirty-two 
years (1835-67) in which he was actively connected 
with the management of the Jewish community of 
Vienna, first as trustee and subsequently as _presi- 
dent, he rendered signal services to Austrian Juda- 
ism by raising the social and political status of his 
coreligionists,and by advocating religious and educa- 
tional reforms. Among other institutions founded 
by Wertheimer may be mentioned the Verein zur 
Versorgung Hilfsbedirftiger Waisen der Israeli- 
tischen Cultusgemeinde (1860), which led to the es- 
tablishment of a girls’ orphan asylum; and the 
Tsraelitische Allianz zu Wien (1872), of which he 
remained president for a number of years. In rec- 
ognition of his labors the emperor conferred upon 
him the Order of the Iron Crown with the accom- 
panying patent of nobility, and he was made an 
honorary citizen of Vienna. He took active part in 
the conferences of the second Jewish synod of Augs- 
burg July 11-17, 1871. 

Wertheimer’s interest in the emancipation of his 
coreligionists led him to publish his work “ Die 
Juden in Oesterreich vom Standpunkte der Ge- 
schichte, des Rechtes und des Staatsvortheiles” (2 
vols., Leipsic, 1842), which is still considered a stand- 
ard work. As such a work could not be issued in 
Austria at that time, and as Austrian subjects were 
forbidden to print interdicted works elsewhere, the 
writer’s name had to be concealed from the authori- 
ties. Of other works by Wertheimer the following 
may be mentioned: “Therese. Ein Handbuch fiir 
Miitter und Kinderwirterinnen ” (1835); “ Drama- 
tische Beitriige” (1838), consisting partly of trans- 
lations from the English; “ Die Stellung der Juden 
in Oesterreich” (Vienna, 1853); “Die Regelung 
der Staatsbiirgerlichen Stellung der Juden in Oes- 
terreich” (2b. 1859); “Jahrbuch ftir Israeliten ” (11 
vols., 72. 1854-64); “Die Emancipation Unserer 
Glaubensgenossen ” (7b, 1882): and “ Jiidische Lehre 
und Jiidisches Leben” (7d. 1888). From 1848 until 
his death he edited the “ Wiener Geschaftsbericht ” ; 


and he contributed many political, economic, and 
historical essays to various periodicals. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Die Neuzett, March, 1887: Wurzbach, Biog. 
roe e r Oesterreichischen Monarchie: Jew. Chron. Mareh 
8. S. Sa. 
WERTHEIMER, SAMSON: Austrian court 
Jew, financier, and rabbi; born at Worms Jan. 17, 
1658; died at Vienna Aug. 6,1724. He was the son 
of Joseph Josel Wertheimer (d. May 2, 1718, at the 
age of cighty-seven), and received his education at 
the yeshibot of Worms and Frank fort-on-the-Main. 
He went to Vienna Dec. 2, 1684, and associated him- 
self with Samuel Oppenheimer, sharing the latter’s 
privilege of residence. During the absence of Op- 
penheimer, Wertheimer represented him in trans- 
actions with the Austrian government. Wertheimer 


_ soon gained the confidence of Emperor Leopold I, 


who presented a portrait of himself to Wertheimer 
and his son Wolf, and on Dec. 15, 1701, followed 
this gift with another of 1,000 ducats for the finan- 
cier’s success in obtaining for the daughter of the 
King of Poland a dowry of 1,000,000 florins from 
her father upon her marriage to Leopold’s brother- 
in-law Duke Charles Philip. In the Spanish War 
of Succession Wertheimer united with Samuel Op- 
penheimer to procure the money necessary for the 

equipment of the imperial army and 


Supplied for the supply of provisions. After 
the Oppenheimer’s failure, and his sudden 
Imperial death in 1703, Wertheimer maintained 
Army. the credit of the state and found new 


sources of income. On-Aug. 29, 1708, 
the emperor appointed him court factor, and ex- 
tended for twenty years his privileges of free relig- 
ious worship, denizenship, and immunity from tax- 
ation. Joseph J., who succeeded his father on May 
5, 1705, confirmed Wertheimer’s title and privileges. 

Under Emperor Joseph I., Wertheimer maintained 
his position as a financier and creditor of the state. 
He was in personal relations with Prince Eugene of 
Savoy, to whom he paid 300,000 florins promised by 
Joseph I., Charles VI. adding another 100,000 florins. 
During the Turkish war Wertheimer made large 
loans to the government. The title of “ Landesrab- 
biner,” which the Jews of Hungary had bestowed on 
Wertheimer, was made effective by Charles VI. 
(Aug. 26, 1711). Wertheimer, according to a con- 
temporary account of one of his relatives, Abraham 
Levi, was called the “Juden Kaiser.” Ten imperial 
soldiers stood as sentinels before his house. He pos- 
sessed many of the palaces and gardens in Vienna, 
and numerous estates and houses in Germany, ¢.g., in 
Frankfort-on-the-Main, Worms, and other cities. He 
established schools, and distributed large amounts 
of money in Europe and in the Holy Land. Alien 
Jews were not allowed to remain over night in 
Vienna without a written permit from him. 

Wertheimer did not discontinue his rabbinical 

studies. In a manuscript volume he 
Rabbinical left a number of derashot that he had 

Knowl-_ delivered in the private synagogue ia 

edge. his house; these show considcrabie 

Talmudic erudition. He delivered 
many funeral sermons on the deaths of distinguished 
rabbis, as Simhah Cohen and David ben Israel, 


Wertheimer 
We-Shameru 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


504 


rabbi of Trebitsch and son-in-law of Menahem 
Krochmal. From far and near questions of religion, 
particularly of-ritual, were submitted to him and to 
the rabbinical court over which he presided; and to 
the latter he called such great authorities as Jacob 
Eliezer BRAUNSCHWEIG, Simeon ben Judah Lob 
Jalles of Cracow, and Alexander ben Menahem ha- 
Levi of Prossnitz. 

Moses Meir Perls, for many years Wertheimer’s 
secretary and almoner, mentions him in his * Megil- 
lat Sefer ” (1709) as “a rabbi of great congregations in 
Israel.” In some works Wertheimer is called “ rabbi 
of Prague and Bohemia”; but he did not accept this 
title, as may be seen in an edition of Alfasi (Frank- 
fort-on-the-Main, 1699-1700). His reputationspread 


Tombstone of Samson Wertheimer at Vienna. 
(From a photograph.) 


even to the Orient, where he was described as a 
“prince of the Holy Land” and given the title of 
“rabbi of Hebron and Safed.” 
honored him with the title of rabbi. Many authors 
sought his “approbation,” but only in a few cases 
did he give it, ¢.g., in Moses ben Menahem’s “ Wa- 
Yakhel Mosheh,” and Jair Bacharach’s “Hawwot 
Yair.” He contributed liberally toward the publi- 
cation of such works as “Hawwot Yair” (in which 
his name appears with that of Samuel Oppen- 
heimer), Judah ben Nisan’s “ Bet Yehu- 
dah,” Gershon Ashkenazi’s “‘Abodat 
ha-Gershuni” and “ Tif’eret ha-Ger- 
shuni” (in Which David Oppenheimer 
also is mentioned). He and his son-in-law Moses 
Kann bore the greater part of the expense of 


As 
Mecenas. 


His native city also. 


printing the Babylonian Talmud at Frankfort-on- 
the-Main in 1712-22; this excellent edition was con- 
fiscated and for thirty years kept under lock and 
key (see KANN, MosEs). 

When Hisenmenger’s “Entdecktes Judenthum ” 
appeared at Frankfort in 1700, Wertheimer addressed 
to Emperor Leopold a petition in which he exposed 
the grave dangers which the malicious and slander- 
ous attack of the unscrupulous author would bring 
upon the Jews. Accordingly the 2,000 copies of the 
book were confiscated, and for years its sale was 
forbidden. 

When, in consequence of RAk6czy’s insurrection 
(1708), the Jewish congregation of Eisenstadt had 
been dispersed and the wealthier members had 
taken refuge in Vienna, Wertheimer persuaded 
them to return or to help their poorer brethren re- 
build the congregation. He himself built for them 
in Eisenstadt a house and a beautiful synagogue, 
still called “Samson’s Schule.” He lent his aid also 
in establishing about forty congregations in Hun- 
gary. In Frankfort-on-the-Main he founded and 
richly endowed a Talmudical school, at whose head 
was his son-in-law Moses Kann, 

By the marriages of his children Wertheimer be- 
came connected with the most prominent families of 
Austria and Germany. His stepson Isaac Nathan 
Oppenheimer married a daughter of the wealthy 
purveyor Posing; his eldest son, Wolf, married a 
daughter of Emanuel Oppenheimer. Wolf was an 
active agent in his father’s financial transactions, 
and shared his dignity as court factor. He later 
experienced great reverses of fortune, however. 
Having invested a large part of his wealth in loans 
to the Bavarian government, the stipulated terms 
of repayment were not kept, and bankruptcy stared 
him in the face. For a time he was able to pay 
only half of the interest on the 150,000 florins 
which Samson Wertheimer had donated to charity, 
and of which Wolf was trustee. On his father’s 
donation of 22,000 florins in favor of the German 
Jewsin Palestine he did not pay any interest after 
1738. His embarrassment was ended by Elector 
Maximilian, who liquidated his debts. In his will 
(1762) Wolf declared that, although entailing a great 
loss upon him, he accepted this liquidation in order 
to do justice to his creditors. Further, he enjoined 
his children to pay in full his father’s donation of 
22,000 florins, although in 1759 he (Wolf) had _ re- 
turned to the Frankfort congregation 10,000 florins 
which it had contributed to this fund, In 1769 the 
grandchildren of Samson Wertheimer secured the 
donation of 150,000 florins, and Wolf's heirs added 
thereto 40,000 florins, in compensation for unpaid 
interest. These two foundations at Vienna and 
Jerusalem still keep alive the name of Wertheimer. 

Samson’s second son, Léb, married a daughter 
of Issachar ha-Levi BERMANN of Halberstadt, a rela- 
tive of Leffman Behrens, court Jew of Hanover; 
thus the three great “shetadlanin ” were closely con- 
nected. Samson’s sons-jn-law were: R. Moses Kann 
of Frankfort-on-the-Main; Issachar Berush EskELRs, 
father of the Vienna banker Bernhard ESsSkELEs; 
Joseph, son of R. David Oppenheimer; and Selig- 
mann Berend Kohn, called Solomon of Hamburg. 
His youngest son, Joseph Josel (b. 1718). married 


505 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Wertheimer 
We-Shameru 


a daughter of his stepbrother Wolf. Joseph died in 
Vienna (1761), where he was greatly esteemed for 
his charity and Talmudic learning. See Court 
JEWS. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: David Kaufmann, Samson Wertheimer, Vi- 
enna, 1888; idem, Urkundliches aus dem Leben Samson 
Wertheimer’s, ib. 1892; Wurzbach, Bibliographisches Lex- 
icon, lv. 180 et seq. 


s. S. MAN. 

WERTHEIMER, SOLOMON AARON: 
Hungarian rabbi and scholar; born at Bésing Nov. 
18, 1866. In 1871 he went with his parents to Jeru- 
salem, where he was educated; and in 1890 he re- 
sided at Cairo, Egypt, where he collected ancient 
Jewish manuscripts. He is the author of the fol- 
lowing works: “ Ebel Mosheh ” (1885), sermon deliv- 
ered on the death of Sir Moses Montefiore; “ Hid- 
dushe Rabbi Nissim ” (1888); “ Pirke Hekalot” and 
“Zawwa’at Naftali” (1889); “Darke shel Torah” 
(1891), guide to the theory of the Talmud and to the 
fundamental principles of the Halakah and Hagga- 
dah; “ Hatam Sofer” (1891), Talmudic studies, with 
notes; “Batte Midrashot” (4 parts, 1893-97), a col- 
lection of short midrashim from manuscripts, with 
glosses, notes, and introduction; “Ginze Yerusha- 
layim ” (3 parts, 1896-1902), a collection of scientific, 
literary, and poetic treatises, from rare manuscripts, 
with notes and introduction; “Midrash Haserot 
wi- Yeterot ” (1898), from the Parma manuscript, col- 
lated with three Egyptian manuscripts; “Leshon 
Hasidim ” (1898), notes and introduction to the 
“Sefer Hasidim”; “Kohelet Shelomoh” (1899), a 
collection of geonic responsa, with notes and intro- 
duction, and with Hebrew translations of the Arabic 
responsa; and “‘Abodat Halcb ” (1902), a commen- 
tary on the Jewish prayers. 


WESEL, BARUCH BENDET BEN REU- 
BEN (called also Benedict Reuben Gompertz): 
German rabbi and seholar; born at Wesel in the 
latter half of the seventeenth century; died at Bres- 
lau in the latter part of 1753 or the beginning of 
1754. He wasa descendant of a prominent family 
which had ramifications in Germany, Austria, and 
Holland. His grandfather, Elijah Emmerich, was 
a confidential adviser of the Great Elector, and knew 
how to use his influence in behalf of his German 
coreligionists. Baruch’s father, Reuben, was a rich 
merchant of Berlin, and was closely related to 
wealthy families in Breslau. In 1724 Baruch was 
one of the three members of the Breslau rabbinical 
court, and in that year he approved Solomon Hanau’s 
“Sha‘are Tefillah.” On Jan. 30, 1728, the Council 
of Four Lands appointed him rabbi (¢.e., advocate) 


of the Polish congregation at Breslau. From his 
father he had inherited a fortune which made him 
financially independent; and he engaged in the trade 
of a money-broker, the rabbinate being unsalaried. 
Through poor business management, however, he 
soon lost his fortune, and in 1733 he was compelled 
to calla meeting of the wealthiest members of his 
congregation, who granted him a salary. Shortly 
afterward he requested the city authorities to strike 
his name from the tax-list of wholesale merchants, 
and to enroll him among the “Toleranz-Imposts,” 
the second class of taxpayers. This petition was 
rejected; he was imprisoned, compelled to pay his 
arrears of first-class taxes, and deprived of the title 
of rabbi. After the issuance of the decree of expul- 
sion by Maria Theresa (July 10, 1788), he was al- 
lowed to remain in the city as a “ Plautzen Rabbiner ” 
only. When Frederick IT. invaded Silesia, Wesel 
wrote in his honor a eulogy, in the form of an acros- 
tic (Breslau, 1741), of which only two copies have 
been preserved. 

On the issuance of the new decree of May 6. 1744, 
which permitted only twelve families of Polish Jews, 
in addition to the privileged Polish merchants, to 
remain in Breslau, Wesel was appointed *<‘ Lan- 
desrabbiner ’ without jurisdiction.” In the same de- 
cree the Jews, who theretofore had buried their dead 
in Dyhernfurth, were ordered to purchase a site fora 
cemetery, but the congregation seemed unwilling to 
comply. Wesel thereupon suggested to the com- 
munity that the money necessary for the purchase 
of the cemetery, as well as for the taxes on it, might 
be procured from a meat-tax. He died in the midst 
of these deliberations, and was buried in the cemetery 
at Dyhernfurth. His work “ Mekor Baruk,” a coilec- 
tion of ten responsa, appeared in Dyhernfurth in 
1755 (2d ed., published by his son Moses, Amsterdam, 
1771). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: aie Ozar ha-Sefarim, p. 366; Fuenn, 
Keneset Yisrael, 194; Zedner, Cat. Hebe. Books Br it. 
Mus. pp. "76-777 :  Reulak Shem ha- Gedolim, s.v.: Stein- 
schneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 776; Brann, Gesch. des Landes- 
rabbinats in Schlesien, in Gratz Jubelschrift, pp. 237-251, 
Breslau, 1887. 


Dd. Ss. 0. 

WE-SHAMERTU (“And the children of Israel 
shall keep the Sabbath”; Ex. xxxi. 16, 17): Quota- 
tion from the Pentateuch, recited before the “‘Ami- 
dah” in the Sabbath evening service, and repeated 
in the domestic K1ippusH on Sabbath morning after 
service. Nowadays it is usually chanted in a choral 
setting, or responsorially ; but by the older precentors 
it was declaimed ina rhapsodical improvisation based 
on other melodies in the service, especially on the air 


WE-SHAMERU (Ex. xxxi. 16, 17) 


Recit, ad lid. 


be 


SS ag 


mf Wo-sahaomes id 


Ss I se 
| ee ee ee 


Ja - ‘a - sot.... et 


et ha - Shab- 


ha-Shab-bat.... le-do-ro - 


We-Shameru 
West 


S Sg 


tam  be- rit ‘oOo - 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


506 


P r: = et A in tempo, dolce. 
———— = a a 


ni.... u - ben 


oe B Andante, 


= 


——_~ 


ee ae ee ee ce eae oe eee eee 
ie: = 
= 


ot D1 3.5 le-‘o - lam, f ki she-shetya-mim ‘a - sah A-~- do - nai... 
ef __,___ ee Paaera —>--=——- 
= > = — 
o— 95 oo [| 8 oS 


ha- @ - 


bi - ‘41 shab~ - e 7 = 
top 
See ee ee 
bat wa - yin - na 2 e 


for the “ Kaddish” as rendered after the reading of 
the Law on Sabbath, which is usually the one em- 
ployed also before the “ ‘Amidah” on Friday eve- 
ning, immediately following “ We-Shameru.” The 
strains between A and B,C and Din the accompany- 
ing recitative, due to Naumbourg of Paris, may be 
compared with the corresponding passages in the 
JEW. Encyc, vii. 404, s. 7. Kappisi (AFTER THE 
PENTATEUCHAL LESSON—SABBATH). 
A. F, L. C. 


WESSELY, HARTWIG. 
NAPHTALL Hrrz. 


WESSELY, MORITZ AUGUST: German 
physician; born at Bleicherode, near Erfurt, Oct. 
15, 1800; died at Nordhausen March 7, 1850; nephew 
of Naphtali Hirz WEesseLy. He was educated at the 
universities of Halleand Gottingen (M. D. 1828); from 
1828 to 1828 he studied at Paris; and in the latter 
year, returning to Germany, settled in Nordhausen, 
where he practised medicine until his death. Wes- 
sely received the title of “Geheimer Hofrath” from 
the Duke of Nassau, and that of “Sanititsrath ” from 
the King of Prussia. In 1849 he founded, together 
with L. Blédan, the “ Neue Zeitung fiir Medizin” and 
the “ Medicinal Reform,” both of which journals he 
edited until his death. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hirsch, Biog. Lex. 


s. F. T. H. 


WESSELY, NAPHTALI HIRZ (HART- 
WIG): German Hebraist and educationist; born 
at Hamburg 1725; died there Feb. 28, 1805. One 
of his ancestors, Joseph Reis, fled from Podolia 
in 1648 on account of the CHMIELNICKI persecu- 
tions, during which his whole family had perished. 
After a brief sojourn in Cracow, Reis settled in Am- 


See WESSELY, 


= 
fash, wa - yin ~ na - fash. 


sterdam, where he acquired great wealth, and where 
he, in 1671, was one of the siguers of a petition to the 
Dutch government requesting permission to erect a 
synagogue. Together with his younger son, Moses, 
Reis later settled in Wesel on the Rhine, wheuce the 
family name “ Wessely ” originated. In the syna- 
gogue at Wesel are still preserved some ritual para- 
phernalia presented to it by Moses Reis Wessely, who, 
upon the advice of the Prince of Holstein, whose 
purveyor he was, removed to Glickstadt, then the 
capital of Sleswick. He established there a factory 
of arms. King Frederick VI. of Denmark later sent 
Moses to Hamburg as his agent; and while there he 
transacted important business for Peter the Great 
also. Moses’ son, Issachar Ber, was the father of 
Naphtali Hirz. 

Naphtali Hirz Wessely passed his childhood at 
Copenhagen, where his father was purveyor to the 
king. In addition to rabbinical studies under Jona- 
than Eybeschiitz, he studied modern languages. As 
the representative of the banker Feitel, he later vis- 
ited Amsterdam, where he published (1765-66) his 
“Lebanon,” or “Gan Na‘ul,” a philological investi- 
gation of Hebrew roots and synonyms. Although 
prolix in style, and lacking scientific method, this 
work established his reputation. After his marriage 
at Copenhagen, he represented Feitel at Berlin, and 
there became associated with Mendelssohn. Wessely 
encouraged the latter in his labors by publishing 
“<«Alim li-Terufah,” a work advocating the “bi’ur” 
and the translation of the Bible into German. To this 
work Wessely himself contributed a commentary on 
Leviticus (Berlin, 1782), having published, two years 
previously, a Hebrew edition of the Book of Wis- 
dom, together with a commentary. 

Wessely was an ardent advocate of the educa- 
tional and social reforms outlined in Emperor Joseph 


507 


II.’s “ Toleranzedict.” He even risked his reputa- 
tion for piety by publishing a manifesto in eight 
chapters, entitled “Dibre Shalom we-Emet,” in 
which he emphasized the necessity for secular in- 
struction, as well as for other reforms, even from the 
points of view of the Mosaic law and the Talmud. 
This work has been translated into French as “ In- 
structions Salutaires Adressées aux 
His Works. Communautés Juives de |’ Empire de 
Joseph IT.” (Paris, 1792); into Italian 
by Elia Morpurgo (Goerz, 1793); and into German 
by David Friedlander under the title “Worte der 
Wahrheit und des Friedens” (Berlin, 1798). By 
thus espousing the cause of reform, as well as by 
his support of Mendelssohn, Wessely incurred the 
displeasure of the rabbinical authorities of Germany 
and Poland, who threatened him with excommuni- 
cation. His enemies, however, were finally paci- 
fied through the energetic intervention of the Ital- 
ian rabbis, as well as by Wessely’s pamphilets 
“Mekor Hen,” in which he 
gave evidence of his sincere 
piety. In 1788 Wessely pub- 
lished in Berlin his ethical 
treatise “Sefer ha-Middot,” 
a work of great moral 
worth. He published also 
several odes, elegies, and 
other poems; but his mas- 
terwork is his “Shire Tif'’e- 
ret” (5 vols.; i-iv., Ber- 
lin, 1782-1802; v., Prague, 
1829), describing in rhetor- 
ical style the exodus from 
Egypt. This work, through 
which he earned the admira- 
tion of his contemporaries, 
was translated into German 
(by G. F. Hufnagel and 
Spalding; 1789-1805), and 
partly into French (by Mi- 
chel Berr: Paris, 1815). His 
commentaries on the Bible 
were published by the so- 
ciety Mekize “Nirdamim 
(Lyck, 1868-75) under the 
title “ Imre Shefer.” 
Wessely influenced his contemporaries in various 
directions. Asa scholar he contributed, by his pro- 
found philological researches, to the reconstruction 
of the language of the Bible, though his work is 
marred by prolixity and by his refusal to admit 
shades of meaning in synonyms. As a poet he 
possessed perfection of style, but lacked feeling and 
artistic imagination. No one exerted a greater 
influence than he on the dissemination of modern 
Hebrew; and no one, on the other hand, did more 
to retard the development of pure art and of poetic 
intuition. Because of the courageous battle which 
he fought in behalf of Jewish emancipation, Wessely 
may be regarded as a leader of the Maskilim. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Abraham Meldola, Kol ha-Zirim, Altona, 1808 ; 
M. Mendelssohn, Pene Tebel, Amsterdam, 1872; Ha-Asif, iii. 
404-416: N. Slouschz, Renaissance dela Littérature Hébra- 
ique, ch. ii., Paris, 1903; David Friedrichsfeld, Zeker le-Zad- 


dik, Amsterdam, 1809; W. A. Meisel, Leben und Wirken 
des Naphtali Hirz Wessely, Breslau, 1841; Zeitlin, Bibl. 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Naphtali Hirz Wessely. 


We-Shameru 
West 


Hebr.; A. Benesra, in Ost und West, May, 1905; D. Simonsen, 

areelg Wessely’s Todestag, in Monatsschrift, 1905, pp. 203~ 

S. N. Su. 

WESSELY, WOLFGANG: Austrian jurist 
and theologian; bornat Trebitsch, Moravia, Oct. 22, 
1801; died at Vienna April 21, 1870. At the age of 
fourteen he was sent to Prague to prepare himself 
for the rabbinate, graduating as Ph.D, in 1828, and 
as LL.D. in 1838. In 1831 he was appointed teacher 
of religion at the gymnasium, and in 1837 at the 
Jewish congregational school; in 1846 he received 
permission to lecture on Hebrew and rabbinical lit- 
erature at the University of Prague. In the mean- 
time he had made himself known by contributions 
to juristic literature; and when, in 1848, trial by 
jury was introduced into Austria, the minister of 
justice sent him ona mission through France, Rhen- 
ish Prussia, Holland, and Belgium to study the legal 
methods employed in these countries. In the fol- 
lowing year he was appointed privat-docent of ju- 
risprudence at the Univer- 
sity of Prague; in 1852 he 
was made assistant profess- 
or; and in 1861 he was ap- 
pointed ordinary professor, 
being the first Austrian Jew 
to hold such a position. 

In addition to contribu- 
tions to periodicals, Wes- 
sely was the author of the 
folowing works: “ Wer Ist 
nach den Grunds&tzen des 
Ocsterreichischen MReclits 
zur Vornahme einer Jii- 
dischen Trauung Befugt?” 
(Prague, 1889); “Netib 
Emunah ” (26. 1840; 8th ed. 
1863), a catechism; “ Tefil- 
lat Yisrael,” a prayer-book 
with German translation in 
Hebrew characters (2). 1841; 
2d ed., with German char- 
acters, 7). 1844); “Ueber 
die Gemeinschaftlichkeit 
der Beweismittel im Oester- 
reichischen Civilprocesse” 
(7b. 1844); and “ Die Befug- 
nisse des Nothstands und der Nothwehr nach 
Oesterreichischem Rechte” (2b. 1862). As a the- 
ologian he had strong rationalistic tendencies; and 
he explains Bar Kot as being the voice of con- 
science (Isidor Busch, “ Jahrbuch,” ili. 229). 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Wurzbach, Biog. Lex.; Allg. Zeit. des Jud. 


. 1879, pp. 407-408; Die Neuzeit, 1870, pp. 186-188. 
Ss. ; D. 


WEST: One of the “four skirts” (N)595, Isa. xi. 
12; Ezek. vii. 2; Job xxxvil. 3, xxxviil. 18) or 
“four corners,” known also as the “ four ends” (Jer. 
xlix. 86) or “four winds” (Ezek, xxxvii. 9; Dan. 
viii. 8, xi. 4), into which the Hebrews, following 
Assyrian analogies, divided heaven and earth. As 
the East was termed “kedem” (= “front”), the 
west was designated as “ahor” (= “rear”; Isa, ix. 
11; Job xxiii. 8). Since the Mediterranean Sea was 
west of Palestine, the noun O° (= “sea”) became a 


West Indies 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


508 


favorite term to denote the west (Ex. x. 19, xxvii. 
12, xxxviii. 12; Gen. xii. 8, xxviii. 14; Isa. xlix. 12; 
Ps. evii. 3), another word being “ma‘arab” (= “the 
point where the sun sets”; Ps. Ixxv. 7[A. V. 6], 
ciii. 12, evii. 8; Isa. xliii. 5, xlv. 6). 

In later Hebrew “ma‘arab” is the common term 
for “west” (B. B. 25a). It may have been in oppo- 
sition to the Babylonian belief that the entrance to the 
realm of death was situated in the west that R. Ab- 
bahu advanced the opinion that the SHEKINAH was in 
the west (7b.). The contrary assumption, attributed 
to the heretics (“minim”), who were said to maintain 
the doctrine that the Shekinah resided in the east, 
seems, therefore, to be a reminiscence of Babylonian 
influence. Since Palestine lay to the west of Baby- 
lon, it came to be designated as Ma‘araba (Ber. 2b 


obtained the assistance of Jewish residents, who 
were always antagonistic to the Spanish government. 

The Portuguese were no less intolerant toward the 
Jews; and on their capture of Brazil from the 
Dutch in 1654 they exiled numbers of Jews.’ These 
sought refuge in the Dutch colonies, especially 
in Curacao, to whose prosperity they have notably 
contributed until the present time. It was the toler- 
ance shown by the Dutch and British governments 
which helped to build up the supremacy of those 
powers in the West Indies. France was nearly as 
intolerant as Spain; but prior to the promulgation 
of the “Code Noir” (1685) Jews were allowed, 
mainly through the policy of Colbert, to reside and 
trade in the French West Indies, despite the hostil- 
ity of the Jesuits. In the eighteenth century laws 


(From a seventeenth-century print.) 


et seg.; Yeb. 17a et passtm), and its inhabitants were 
called the “sons of the West” (Niddah 51b). 
WEST INDIES: Group of islands in the North 
Atlantic adjoining the Gulf of Mexico; so named 
because supposed by Columbus, who discovered 
them, to be India reached by the western route. For 
convenience the Dutch possessions in South Amer- 
ica are known as the Dutch West Indies, and are 
treated here. Kayserling asserts that the Jew 
Luis de Torres, who accompanied Columbus in 1492, 
settled in Cuba and died there. Jewesses who had 
been forcibly baptized are known to have been sent 
to the West Indies by the Spanish government. 
Thus the Jews have been identified with these is- 
lands from the time of their discovery; butalthough 
families of Crypto-Jews are known to have lived in 
Cuba during four centuries, it was not until 1881 
that they were legally admitted into the Spanish 
colonies; nor did they obtain full rights until the 
Spanish-American war. As late as the year 1788 
the Inquisition claimed its victims from among the 
Cuban Maranos. It is probable that the buccaneers 


were passed permitting some Jews to live in the 
West Indies; and in 1722 David Grapis established 
a business at St. Pierre, Martinique, and two years 
later a branch office in Santo Domingo. He sent 
out merchantmen from Bordeaux, carrying cargoes 
of alcohol, meal, and pickled meat; and his family 
gradually grew so wealthy and powerful that the 
efforts of the colonial authorities to expel it were 
unavailing. Abraham Gradis, son of David. traded 
between Bordeaux, the French West Indies, and 
Canada, and was granted exceptional privileges, 
such as the right of acquiring real estate. 

Jewish activity in the West Indies commenced in 
the middle of the seventeenth century, at a time 
when the exiled Spanish Jews had already made 
their influence felt in Ainsterdam and in the Levant 


trade. Jews sent out by the govern- 

Curacao mimentof the Netherlands had colonized 
and Surinam and Curacao, in which latter 
Surinam. island there were twelve Jewish fam- 


ilies in the year 1650. Governor 
Matthias Beck was directed to grant them land and 
to supply them with slaves, horses, cattle, and agri- 


509 


cultural implements. Their scttlement was situated 
on the northern outskirts of the present district of 
Willemstad, and is still known as the Jodenwyk. 
In 1651 there was a large influx of Jews into Cura- 
cao, under the leadership of Jan de Ilan, who had 
the rights of patroon, and the contractor Joseph 
Nuiiez de Fonseca, known also as David Nassi. 
The settlement was successful; and by reason of the 
tolerant attitude of the government large numbers 
of Jews went thither from Brazil after the Portu- 
guese conquest of that country in 1654. The settle- 
ment became increasingly prosperous. A congre- 
gation was established in 1656, and a new synagogue 
built in 1692. In 1750 there were 2,000 Jewish in- 
habitants in the island, and at the present time (1905) 
the trade is almost entirely in the hands of Jews. 

Jews had settled in Surinam prior to the occu- 
pation of that colony by the British (1665), when 
they were confirmed in all the privileges previously 
enjoyed by them, including full religious liberty. 
Summonses served on the Sabbath were declared to 
be invalid; and civil suits for less than the value of 
ten thousand pounds of sugar were to be decided by 
the Jewish elders, magistrates being obliged to en- 
force their judgments. Jews were permitted to be- 
queath their property according to their own laws 
of inheritance. In order to induce Jews to settle in 
Surinam it was declared that all who came thither 
for that purpose should be regarded as British-born 
subjects. In Feb., 1667, Surinam surrendered to 
the Dutch fleet, and in the treaty of Breda, which 
confirmed the Dutch in their possession, it was stip- 
ulated that all British subjects who desired to do so 
should be allowed to leave the country. In 1675 
Charles IT. despatched two commissioners with three 
ships to bring off those wishing to leave. The gov- 
ernor of Surinam, fearing that the emigration of the 
Jews would injure the prosperity of the country, 
refused to let them depart. According to a list 
which has been preserved, ten Jews, with 822 slaves, 
wished to go to Jamaica. The governor at first 
claimed that Jews could not be British subjects, 
and, being compelled to yield this contention, took 
advantage of the arrival of a frigate in the harbor 
to pretend that he had received fresh instructions 
from the Netherlands forbidding the migration of 
the Jews. Finally the British commissioners sailed 
away without having accomplished their purpose. 
The number of Jews in Surinam continned to in- 
crease, and a splendid synagogue was erected there 
in 1685: David Pardo of London, who officiated as 
its rabbi, died in Surinam in 1713. Maps still exist 
showing the position of the “Joodsche Dorp” and 
“Joode Savaane” in Surinam (see R. Gottheil in 
“Publ. Am. Jew. Hist. Soc.” ix.). In 1785 the cen- 
tennial of the synagogue was celebrated. 

Jews were probably among the first colonizers of 
Barbados. In 1656 they were granted the enjoy- 
ment of the laws and statutes of the commonwealth 
of England relating to foreigners and 
strangers, Schomburgk relates that 
Jews settled at Barbados in 1628 
(“History of the Barbadoes”). In 1661 Benjamin 
de Caseres, Henry de Caseres, and Jacob Fraso peti- 
tioned the King of England for permission to live 
and trade in Barbados and Surinam. The petition, 


Barbados. 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


West Indies 


supported by the King of Denmark, was referred 
to the Commissioners for Foreign Plantations, who 
reviewed the whole question of the advisability of 
allowing Jews to reside and trade in his Majesty's 
colonies, a matter which they said “hath been long 
and often debated.” The request of the applicants 
was granted, but the principle was left undecided. 
About the time that this case was before the coun- 
cil, Jacob Josua Bueno Enriques, a Jew who had 
been for two years resident in Jamaica, petitioned 
the king for permission to work a copper-mine in 
that iskand. The result of this request isnot known. 
In 1664 one Benjamin Bueno de Mesquita obtained 
letters of denization and relief from the provisions 
of the Navigation Act, but scarcely had these been 
obtained when he, with two sons and three other 
Jews, was banished from Jamaica for failure to find 
a promised gold-mine. His tomb has been discov- 
ered in New York. Iu 1671 Governor Lynch of 
Jamaica wrote to Secretary Arlington, opposing a 
petition requesting the expulsion of the Jews. 
Thenceforward their position became more secure. 
Despite special taxation in 1693, and a prohibition 
from employing indentured Christian servants 
(1703), the Jews’ privileges were not afterward in- 
fringed. In 1802 an act of the Barbados legislature 
removed all the disabilities of the Jews. 

There were Jewish colonists also in the Leeward 
Islands. A special act designed to prevent Jews 
from monopolizing imported commodities bears date 
of 1694, This was repealed in 1701 on the petition 
of the Jews, with the proviso that in case of war 
they should assist in the defense of the island to the 
utmost of their power, and further “behave them- 
selves fairly and honestly for the future.” 

Spain and Portugal’s loss was gain for the 
Dutch and British West-Indian colonies, For 
a few years the French possessions shared in the 
advantage. When France occupied Martinique in 
1635 she found there a number of Jews whom the 
Dutch had brought with them as merchants or 
traders. For more than twenty years these were 
left unmolested, until their prosperity excited the 
envy of the colonists, and especially of the Jesuits, 
who caused various discriminating enactments to be 
issued from time to time against the Jews. Toward 
the year 1650 a Jew named Benjamin d’ Acosta in- 
troduced into Martinique the cultivation of the 
sugar-cane. This benefit was rewarded with ingrat- 
itude; for when the epoch of toleration in France 
gave way to new persecutions under Louis XIV., 
an order of that king, dated Sept. 24, 
1683, commanded that the Jews should 
be expelled from the French posses- 
sions in America. The “Code Noir” 


Mar- 
tinique. 


of 1685, referred to above, repeated this injunction. 


In spite of occasional complaints, Jews continued to 
enter the island during the eighteenth century. 
They remained subject to the caprices of the colo- 
nial governors until the Revolution, when all dis- 
criminations against them were abolished. 

There exists a Jewish congregation in the Danish 
island of St. Thomas. After the sacking of St. 
Eustatius by Rodney in 1781, a number of Jews 
emigrated thence and settled in St. Thomas, where 
they in 1796 built a synagogue under the appella- 


west Virginia 
Wetziar 


tion “Blessing and Peace.” In 18038 the congre- 
gation numbered twenty-two families, having been 
augmented by arrivals from Eng- 
St. land, St. Eustatius, and Curacao. In 
Thomas. 1804 the synagogue was destroyed 
by fire. It was replaced by a small 
building erected in 1812; and in 1823 this was su- 
perseded by a larger one. Ten years later a still 
larger synagogue was erected, the community hav- 
ing in the meantime increased to sixty-four families. 
In 1850 King Christian VIII. sanctioned a code of 
laws for the government of the congregation. There 
were at that time about 500 Jewish inhabitants in 
the island, many of whom held civil offices. Among 
the ministers were B. C. Carillon of Amsterdam and 
M. N. Nathan and Mayer Myers of England. Of 
recent years, however, the Jewish community of 
St. Thomas has greatly declined, numbering at the 
present time (1905) little more than fifty members. 
See also BARBADOS; CUBA; CURACAO; JAMAICA; 
MARTINIQUE. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: L. Wolff, American Elements in the Reset- 
tlement, in Transactions of the Jewish Historical Soctety 
of England; Abraham Cahen, Les Juifs dans les Colonies 
Francaises au 18e Siécle,in R. E. J. iv., vi G. A. Kohut, 
Who Wasthe First Rabbi of Surinam? in Publ. Am. Jew. 
Hist, Soc. No. 5, 1892: Dr. H. Friedenwald, Material for the 
History of the Jewsin the British West Indies, ib. No. 5, 
1897; B. Felsenthal, The Jewish Congregation in Surinam, 
ib. No. 2, 1894; B. Felsenthal and R. Gottheil, Chronological 
Sketch of the History of the Jews in Surinam, ib. No. 4, 
1896; Herbert Cone, The Jews in Curacao, ib. No. 10, 1902. 
J. V. E. 


WEST VIRGINIA: One of the cast-central 
states of the American Union; formerly part of Vir- 
ginia; made a separate state on June 19, 1863. 
While individual Jews went farther West as early as 
1825, there seem to have been no communities before 
1840 in the territory now constituting the state. On 
April 20, 1849, a Jewish Cemetery Association was 
incorporated in Wheeling by Samuel Kline, Meyer 
Heyman, Alexander Heyman, Julius Ballenberg, 
Isaac Horkheimer, Meyer Stein, Simon Stein, Selig- 
man Oppenheimer, and Marx Graf. In the follow- 
ing month of the same year the Congregation Leshem 
Shomayim was organized, with Myer Mannheim as 
its rabbi. Since then nine ministers have occupied 
its pulpit, the present incumbent (1905) being Harry 
Levi, who was installed in 1897. Thecongregation 
now has 110 members, a Ladies’ Hebrew Benevo- 
lent Society (founded 1875), a Relief Society (1891), 
and a Rabbi Wise Personal Aid Gild (1899). The 
Mercantile Club, Wheeling’s Jewish social organiza- 
tion, has a membership of forty-five. 

Charleston, the capital of the state, contains the 
Congregation Bene Yeshurun, which was organized 
in 1873, and which is now composed of forty-four 
members, the present rabbi being Leon Volmer; the 
eity likewise has a small Orthodox congregation, a 
benevolent society, and a social club, the Germania, 
founded in 1874. 

Parkersburg, the third largest city of the state, 
has a Ladies’ Sewing Society, a Hebrew Aid Soci- 
ety, and the Progress Club, but no congregation. 
At different times, however, services have been held 
on the fall holidays. 

Huntington is one of the younger cities; but in 
1887 the Congregation Ohev Shalom was organized 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


510 


with eighteen members. Its charities are now in 
charge of the Ladies’ Hebrew Benevolent Society. 

Few in number as they are, the Jews of West 
Virginia have their fair share of prominent citizens, 
though they are not conspicuous in high public po- 
sitions. Joseph Shiclds, now residing in Cincin- 
nati, was collector of internal revenue at Charles- 
ton during the Civil war, and Daniel Mayer was a 
commissioner of immigration under Governor Jacobs, 
prosecuting attorney twice in Logan and once in 
Boone county, a director of the hospital for the in- 
sane (1887), a member of the state legislature (1889), 
and for the past eight years consul to Buenos Ayres. 
Charleston is represented in the army by Lieut. 
Samuel Frankenberger, and in the navy by his 
brother, Lieut. Hugo Frankenberger, who took 
high honors at Annapolis. Morris Horkheimer of 
Wheeling was a member of Governor Atkinson’s 
staff, and commissary-general of the state under 
Governor White. Samuel Gideon of Huntington 
has run the whole gamut of public office in the south- 
western part of the state, being president of the 
Cabell County Court for six years, and Mike Broh is 
also a prominent citizen of Huntington, being the 
president of the Merchants’ Association and a di- 
rector of the Chamber of Commerce. Forsome years 
Albert Zilinzinger was a member of the Weston 
Asylum board. 

Grafton, Fairmont, and Sistersville contain 
few Jews, but for some time have held annual serv- 
ices on New- Year and the Day of Atonement. 

Wheeling has 450 Jews, all affiliated with the con- 
gregation; Charleston about 300; Parkersburg 150; 
and Huntington 100. In the entire state there are 
about 1,500 Jews in a total population of 958,000. | 

A. TA... Te 


WETTE, WILHELM MARTIN LEBE- 
RECHT DE: Christian Biblical critic and theo- 
logian; born at Ulla, ncar Weimar, Jan. 12, 1780; 
died in Basel June 16, 1849. He took his doctorate 
in Jena, where he became privat-docent in 1806. 
The following year he was appointed professor of 
theology at Heidelberg, and in 1810 was called to 
the new University of Berlin, where he worked in 
harmony with Schleiermacher. A public expres- 
sion of sympathy for Sand, the murderer of Kotze- 
bue, occasioned his dismissal from the university 
(1819). After remaining three years in Weimar he 
was called (1822) as professor of theology to Basel, 
where he passed the rest of his life. 

De Wette ranks among the foremost Old Testa- 
ment scholars of the nineteenth century. His dis- 
sertation on Deuteronomy (1805) and his “ Beitriige 
zur Einleitung in das Alte Testament ” (1806-7) may 
be said to have laid the foundation (in conjunction 
with Vater’s works) for the subsequent develop- 
ment of Old Testament criticism. In his commen- 
tary on the Psalms (1811) he called in question a 
number of the Davidie titles and the Messianic 
character of certain of the Psalms. His translation 
of the Olid Testament (1809-11) had a wide circula- 
tion in Germany and elsewhere. In 1814 he pub- 
lished his “Lehrbuch der Hebriisch-Jiidischen 
Archiologie,” which went through a number of edi- 
tions. De Wette’s critical work on the Old Testa- 


511 


ment was summed up in his “ Lehrbuch der Histo- 
risch-Kritischen Einleitung in die Kanonischen und 
Apokryphischen Biicher des Alten Testaments” 
(1817), which was translated into English by Theo- 
dore Parker (1848), and was edited in revised form 
by Schrader (1869). Though later critics have de- 
parted in some points from his positions, his funda- 
mental! principle of historical development in the Old 
Testament has been the basis of all succeeding work. 
Besides the books mentioned above he wrote much 
on the New Testament, and on theology and ethics. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Herzog, Real-Hnecye.; Allgemeine Deutsche 
Biographie. 
J. TE 


WETZLAR: Prussian city in the district of 
Coblenz; formerly a free city. Jews lived there 
probably as early as the twelfth century, since a 
young Jew of “ Writschlar” is mentioned in connec- 
tion with the murder of Alexander of Andernach 
(Aronius, “ Regesten,” No. 345, pp. 154 e¢ seg.). The 
name of Wetzlar occurs also in a document of the 
year 1241, which contains the “taxes of the Jews” 
(“ Monatsschrift,” 1904, p. 71). On May 15, 1265, 
Archbishop Werner of Mayence entered into a com- 
pact of public peace with several counts and cities, 
including Wetzlar, to protect the Jews against all 
violence (Aronius, 7b. No. 706, p. 291), and on July 
9, 1277, Rudolph I. granted Siegfried von Runkel 
an income of ten marks from the 100 marks which 
the community of Wetzlar was required to pay as 
a yearly tax to the emperor (Wiener, “ Regesten,” 
No. 59, p. 10). In the beginning of the fourteenth 
century Emperor Louis the Bavarian transferred to 
Siegfried’s son, Dietrich von Runkel, the entire 
yearly tax which the Jews of Wetzlar were required 
to pay the sovereign, while, in recognition of the 
services of Gerhard, of the house of Solims-Kénigs- 
berg, Henry VII. granted him 3800 marks in silver 
from the money paid by the Jews for protection. 
Finally, in a document dated Mayence, June 5, 1349, 
Charlies IV., as a reward for faithful services on the 
part of Count John of Nassau, called “ Von Meren- 
berg,” made to him a conditional transfer of the 
Jews of Wetzlar, with the taxes they paid into the 
imperial exchequer. 

The community of Wetzlar was among those that 
suffered at the time of the Black Death in 1349 (Sal- 
feld, “ Martyrologium,” pp. 78, 883 [German part, pp. 
268, 284]); and in the same year, by a letter dated at 
Speyer on the Tuesday after Palm Sunday, Charles 
IV. confirmed all the privileges of the city of Wetz- 
lar, adding that it should continue to levy the cus- 
tonary taxes on the Jews as servants of the royal 
treasury. Charles likewise confirmed the claim of 
Count John of Nassau-Weilburg to the Jewish taxes 
in a document dated March 17, 1862, but promised 
to impose no further burdens upon the Jews of that 
city. In 1882 King Wenzcl granted Wetzlar the 

privilege of admitting Jews in order 

Allowed to enable the city to pay its debts, 

to Admit stipulating that they should be sub- 

Jews. ject to the orders of the municipal 
council only. When the emperor, in 

1491, levied a conscription upon the imperial cities, 
a valuation of 30 gulden was put upon the Jews of 
Wetzlar (“ Blatter ftir Jtiidische Geschichte und Li- 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


west Virginia 
Wetzlar 


teratur,” supplement to “ Israelit,” 1900, i. 21). On 
Sept. 10, 15938, the municipal council decreed that 
within three months all Jews living in Wetzlar 
(including those from other cities) and holding notes 
against Christian citizens should renew them; oth- 
erwise the authorities would refuse to aid in collect- 
ing such notes, On March 20, 1604, the council 
enacted that the Jews should produce in court 
within a month all the notes they held against citi- 
zens. On Aug. 30, 1659, the Jews were forbidden 
to take as interest more than 4 pfennig per reichs- 
thaler a week; and on June 4, 1661, they were pro- 
hibited from importing tobacco into Wetzlar. On 
the accession of Emperor Leopold (Aug. 30, 1661) 
the imperial commissioner, Count Joho Frederick of 
Hohenlohe, sent special envoys to receive the oath 
of allegiance of the Jews of Wetzlar in the town 
hall, in the presence of the council. Similar action 
was taken on the accession of Joseph I., in 1705; of 
Joseph II., in 1766; and of Leopold II., May 18, 1791. 

About 1755 the Jews of Wetzlar were permitted 
to build a synagogue, which was dedicated in 1756; 
and a special tax of 10 kreuzer was imposed, to be 
paid to the messenger of the imperial supreme court 
of judicature at Wetzlar whenever he passed by on 
business (“ Sulamith,” 1807, ii. 407, note), Although 
the JUDENSTATTIGKEIT permitted only twelve Jew- 
ish families to live in Wetzlar, the town council ad- 
mitted a larger number, that they might divide among 
themselves the 20 or 80 reichsthaler paid by cach Jew 
for permission to reside in the city. This was set 
forth by the citizens inacomplaint to the council in 
1707. An “agreement” was accordingly made on 
July 18, 1712, that the number of resident Jews should 
again be reduced to twelve families. In 1836 there 
were 680 Jews living at Wetzlar, which had been in- 
corporated with the kingdom of Prussia in 1815; but 
in 1904 only a little over 170 resided there, and the 
community, which supports a philanthropic society 
and a hebra kaddisha, has included itself in the rab- 
binate of Dr. Munk at Marburg (“Statistisches Jahr- 
buch des Deutsch-Israelitischen Gemeindebundes,” 
19038, p. 78). 

Jews by the name of Wetzlar lived at Celle, in the 
province of Hanover (Neubauer, “Cat. Bodl. Hebr. 
MSS.” pp. 529, 1145), at Emden (see the local “ Me- 
morbuch”), at Frankfort-on-the-Main (Horovitz, 
“Die Inschriften des Alten Friedhofs der Israeli- 
tischen Gemeinde zu Frankfurt-am-Main,” p. 748), 
at Altona (Grunwald, Hamburgs Deutsche Juden,” 
1904, p. 3805), at Prague (Hock, “ Familien Prags,” 
p. 120), and elsewhere. R. Joel of Wetzlar died at 
Minden, Westphalia, in 1698, while Solomon. b. 
Simeon Wetzlar of Firth wrote the moral code 
entitled “ Hakirot ha-Leb ” (Amsterdam, 1781; Stein- 
schneider, “Cat. Bodl.” No. 6978), and a certain 
Wolf Wetzlar Ashkenazi is mentioned by Maggid 
(“Zur Gesch. und Genealogie der Giinzburge,” p. 
195, St. Petersburg, 1899). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Von Ulmenstein, Gesch. und Topographische 
Beschreibung der Kaiserlichen Freyen Reichsstadt Wetz- 
lar, vol. i., Hadamar, 1802 (pp. 212 et seg.. 250 et seq.. 386 et 
seq., 493 ect seq., 522): vol, ii., Wetzlar, 1806 (pp. 486, 584, 681, 
730, 836): vol. ti., i. 1810 (pp. 74, 76, 86 et seq., 154, J57 et seq.); 
Abicht, Der Kreis Wetzlar, Historisch, Statistisch und To- 
pographisch Dargestellt, 1. 5, 124, Wetzlar, 1836; Forschun- 
genzur Deutschen Geschichte 1876, pp. 120, 184; Zeit. ftir 
die Gesch. der Juden in Deutschland, ii. 36, 43 et seq. 

D. A. LEw. 


We-Ye’etayu 
Widdin 


WE-YEVETAYU: A piyyut by Eleazar Kain 
(Zunz, * Literaturgesch.” p. 21), chanted by the haz- 
zan during the Musaf service on the days of New- 
Year and Atonement, according to the northern rit- 
ual; but omitted by many German congregations. 
The only music recognized as traditional is an eight- 
eenth-century air, of distinct inferiority to the other 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


§12 


Washington, D. C., where he is a member of the 
Society of Washington Artists and of the Washing- 
ton Water Color Club, Weyl’s specialty is land- 
scape-painting, and his work shows sympathy with 
the moods of nature. He wasawarded the first prize 
at the exhibition of the Society of Washington Art- 
ists in 1891, has exhibited at the National Academy 


WE-YE’ETAYU 


inherited melodies of the Penitential season, but none 
the less firmly established in the tradition of many 
congregations, and prized for its quaintness. 
s. F. LC. 
WEYL, MAX: American painter; born at 
Mihlen, Wtrttemberg, in 1840. At the age of fif- 
teen he went to the United States, but returned to 
Europe to study art. His home is now (1905) in 


of Design in New York, and is represented in the 
Corcoran Gallery of Washington by a landscape en- 
titled “ Approaching Night.” He was a protégé of 
Salvador de Mendonca, formerly Brazilian minister 
at Washington, and four of his paintings were in 
the Mendonca collection. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. American Art Annual, New York, 1905. 
A. F. N. L. 


513 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


We-Ye’etayu 
Widdin 


WEYL, MEIR B. SIMHAH: German rabbi; 
born at Lissa 1744; died at Berlin 1826. He was a 
pupilof Hirsch Janow. In 1771 he became associate 
rabbi at Lissa, and in 1784 was called as asso- 
ciate rabbi to Berlin, where he was elected chief 
rabbi in 1800, receiving the title of acting chief dis- 
trict rabbiin 1809. He published no separate works, 
but his numerous opinions on questions of the Law, 
which prove the depth of his scholarship and judg- 
ment, are included in the collections of contempo- 
rary rabbis, as in those of Akiba Eger, Jacob Lissa, 
Salmon Cohen, Solomon Posner, Aryeh Lob Breslau, 
Zebi Hirsch Samoscz, Noah of Lubraniez, and Ben- 
dix Baruch Gompertz. <A series of approbations, 
including those referring to the Jewish calendar, 
published with the sanction of the Berlin Academy 
of Sciences, show the importance attached to his 
opinion in learned circles. While he was opposed 
to innovations in ritual, he was the first advocate 
and in part the actual founder of seminaries for 
rabbis and teachers in Prussia. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Lewin, Gesch. der Juden in Lissa, pp. 338- 
346, Berlin, 1904. 
s. L. Lew. 


WEYL, WALTER EDWARD: American 
economist; born at Philadelphia, Pa., March 11, 
1874. He was educated in the public schools of his 
native city and the University of Pennsylvania 
(Ph.B. 1892; Ph.D. 1897), and took postgraduate 
courses at the universities of Halle, Berlin, and Paris. 
Weyl has published several articles on railway labor, 
the passenger traffic of railways, etc. He is greatly 
interested in organized labor, and has been connected 
with the United States bureaus of labor and sta- 
tistics. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: American Jewish Year Book, 5665 (1904-5). 
A. FE? He 


WHALE: A cetaceous mammal. Several 
species of cetacea are found in the Mediterranean as 
well as in the Red Sea. In the Authorized Version 
of the Bible the Hebrew “tannin” is often rendered 
“whale”; while the Revised Version has “sea-mon- 
ster” (Gen. i. 21; Job vii. 12), “dragon” (Ezek. 
xxxii. 12), and “jackal” (Lam, iv. 8). 

The name “leviathan,” which usually designates 
the fabulously great fish preserved for the future 
world, seems in certain passagesof the Talmud to re- 
fer to some kind of whale; so, for instance, in Hul. 
67b, where leviathan is said to be a clean fish, having 
fins and scales, and in B. B. 78b, where a fabulous 
description of its enormous size is given. In Shab. 
tb the mss (meaning perhaps the porcupine) is 
said to be the vexer of the leviathan. See also LE- 
VIATHAN AND BEHEMOTH. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Tristram, Natural History of the Bible, p. 
151; Lewysohn, Zoologie des Talmuds, pp. 155, 324, 


E. G. H. I. M. C. 


WHEAT (Hebr. “hittah”; Deut. viii. 8 e¢ seq.): 
The chief breadstuff of Palestine in both ancient 
and modern times. It has been observed that the 
cultivation of wheat indicates a higher stage of civ- 
ilization than the cultivation of barley alone. Bar- 
ley bread is, therefore, mentioned comparatively sel- 
dom (Judges vii. 138; II Kings iv. 42), and was 
probably the food of the common people only. 

XITI.—33 


Among the Greeks and Romans, as in the Orient to- 
day, barley was less esteemed than wheat, which 
was therefore the preferred breadstuff. The loaves 
of bread used for divine sacrifice were naturally 
made only from the choicest wheat flour. 

In Palestine the winter grain is sown in late au- 
tumn, when the early rains have loosened the soil and 
prepared it for plowing. Wheat is harvested some- 
what later than barley, and generally at a time when 
the heavy rains have ceased (I Sam. xii. 17), The 
harvest season varies, according to the districts, be- 
tween theend of April and the beginning of June. 
On harvesting, thrashing, and measuring the wheat 
see AGRICULTURE; BAKING; BREAD. 

Wheat was an article of export from ancient times, 
Tyre (according to Ezek. xxvii. 17) obtaining wheat 
from Judah (comp. also Acts xii. 20). Galilee, ac- 
cording to Josephus, was the most fruitful district. 
At present the plains of Philistia and Jezreel pro- 
duce chiefly wheat, but the Hauran district is still 
the great granary of Syria; and its grain is exported 
in large quantities by way of Haifa and Beirut. 

Grains of wheat were eaten also roasted, a sur- 
vival from the period when grinding and baking 
were not understood. Parched kernels (“kali”) seem 
to have been very popular among the ancient He- 
brews (I Sam. xvii. 17, xxv. 18; I] Sam. xvii. 28), 
especially during harvesting (Ruth ii. 14; Lev. 
xxiii. 14), as is still the case to-day. 

E. G. H. I. Bg, 


WHEEL (jax, Ex. xiv. 25; $353, Ezek. x. 2): 
In the Bible wheels are mentioned in connection with 
ordinary wagons, as well as with CHARioTs. Men- 
tion is made also of the thrashing-wheel (Prov. xx. 
26: Isa. xxviii. 27), and of the potters’ wheel or disk 
(Jer. xviii. 3; see POTTERY). 

E. G. H. 


WHEELING. See West VIRGINIA. 


WIDAL, FERNAND GEORGES: French 
physician; born at Paris March 9, 1862. From 1886 
to 1888 he devoted himse}f to public demonstrations 
of the researches of the faculty of pathological anat- 
omy, and during the two years following was in 
charge of a course in bacteriology in the laboratory 
of Professor Cornil. In 1895 he was appointed visit- 
ing physician to the hospitals of Paris, and in 1904 
became an instructor in the faculty of medicine. 
He is now (1905) physician to the Hépital Cochin, 
and is in charge of the medical clinics at the same 
institution. 

Widal is the author of a remarkable series of essays 
on infectious diseases, erysipelas, diseases of the 
heart, liver, nervous system, etc., besides being a pro- 
lific contributor to various medical journals and en- 
cyclopedias. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Exposé des Travaux Seientifiques du Doc- 

teur Fernand Widal, 3 vols., Paris, 1895-1904. 

S. J. Ka. 

WIDDIN: Bulgarian fortified town, situated at 
the confluence of the rivers Widd and Danube. 

The beginnings of the Jewish community of Wid- 
din were in the thirteenth century, its earliest mem- 
bers being some Byzantine and Hungarian Jewish 
settlers, At that time the city was a part of the 
territory of the waywode of Wallachia. According 


I. Br. 


Widdin 
Wiener 


to sevcral chroniclers, two celebrated rabbis went to 
Widdin in 1876--Moses Yewani (“the Greek ”) and 
R. Shalom of Neustadt. R. Shalom is said to have 
founded the first rabbinical school in Bulgania, and 
to have been the first rabbi of the community; he 
was succeeded by R. Dosa Yewani, the son of Moses 
Yewani. 

After the taking of Constantinople in 1433, during 
the campaigns of Mohammed the Conqueror in Ana- 
tolia, the way wode of Wallachia, Viadimir V., levied 
on every Jew of consequence a tribute of 1,000 silver 
aspers per head, fixing the loss of the right eye or the 
rightearasthe penalty for failure in payment. The 
Jews of Constantinople appealed, in the name of their 
coreligionists, to the sultan Mohammed, who, accord- 
ing to the statement of Elijah Capsali, revoked the 
barbarous edict on his return from Anatolia. This 
was prior to his expedition into Transylvania in 1474. 
In spite of its final conquest by the Turks, Widdin 
remained under the immediate government of the ru- 
Jers of the province of Wallachia, then tributaries or 
vassals of the Ottoman empire. In the seventeenth 
century the city passed for a time into the hands of 
the Hungarians, but was again surrendered to the 
Turks (1690). 

In the interval Jews of different nationalities set- 
tled in the city. Among the principal families of 
Greek origin were the Pyzantes (or Byzantes), Pap- 
pos, and Polychrons; among those of German extrac- 
tion were the Ashkenazis and Griinbergs; of Spanish 
origin (after the year 1492), the Pefiaroya, Duefias, 
Nifio, and Rosajies families. There were also Portu- 
gnese Jews, as the Namias; Italian, as the Farhis 
of Florence and Lecce; French, as the Yarhis of 
Lunel and the Kimhis of Provence; and even some 
natives of Barbary, e. g., the Al-Kala‘is, the Al- 
Ajams, and others. A responsum of Samuel of 
Medina, dated 1558, reveals the fact that the Jews of 
Widdin were extensive cheese-makers, the principal 
manufacturers of that time being Joseph Tchillek 
and Solomon Uriel. 

In the year 1784 the Ventura family removed from 
Spalatro, in Dalmatia, and settled in Widdin, where 
it founded a dynasty of spiritual rulers. The fol- 
lowing members of this family were successively rab- 

bis of Widdin: Shabbethai b. Abraham 

The Ventura, David Shabbethai Ventura 

Venturas. (1784-1806), Rahamim Abraham Ven- 

tura (1806-10), Gedaliah Shabbethai 

Ventura, and Joseph ben David Ventura. Other rab- 

bis later on were Benziyyon b. Shabbethai, Abraham 

Cohen, Bekor Eliakim, David Cohen, and Solomon 
Behar David. 

Among the notable events in the history of the 
community of Widdin was the incident of the Jewish 
physician Cohen, falsely accused of poisoning his pa- 
tron, Passvanoglu, the governor of the city, in 1807. 
This event, which came near being the cause of a 
wholesale slaughter of the entire community, occa- 
sioned the institution of an annual feast-day (4th— 
some say 9th—of Heshwan), known as the PuRIM OF 
Wippi, in thanksgiving for its escape. About 1880 
one Conforte b. Eliakim, a native of Salonica, was 
the “hakim-bashi,” or physician, to the governor. 
During the war between Servia and Bulgaria in 1885, 
when Widdin was being bombarded, the Jews of that 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


514 


town took refuge in Kalafat, Rumania. This oc- 
curred in midwinter; and the Jews, without means 
and wholly unprepared for flight, had no other refuge 
than the ancient synagogue. 

Widdin was the first Bulgarian community to 
produce a Jewish writer of note; this was R. Dosa Ye- 
wani, author of “ Perush-we-Tosafot,” written about 
1430 and still (1905) preserved at Wilna (Michael, 
“Or ha-Hayyim”; Benjacob, “Ozar ha-Sefarim,” 

; s.t.). Two other writers who were 
Literature. natives of Widdin may be mentioned: 

Shabbethai b. Abraham Ventura, an- 
thor of “Nehar Shalom” (Amsterdam, 1775), and 
David Shabbethai Ventura (brother of the former), 
author of “ Kokba di-Shebit,” Saloniea, 1799. 

One of the relics of antiquity preserved in the local 
synagogue isa silver plate inscribed with the date 
1658, given by the little Jewish community of the 
island of Adda-Kalessi, in the Danube, near Widdin. 

At the present day Widdin contains about 2,000 
Jews in a total population of 14,772. They include 
merchants and dealers in grain and cotton goods, to- 
gether with tailors, shoemakers, tinsmiths, and ma- 
kers of the “ teharik,” or shoes worn by the peasantry. 
At the close of the Russo-Turkish war the commu- 
nity of Widdin built a magnificent synagogue, the 
finest in Bulgaria. Connected with the synagogue 
is a school containing 225 pupils (175 boys, 50 girls), 
and a number of charitable organizations and socie- 
ties, among which are the Rohezim (for the inter- 
ment of the poor), the Bikkur Holim (for the assist- 
ance of the sick), a Women’s Society, and a Zionist 
Society. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Griinwald, Dibre Mordelkai, Sofia, 1894; Eli- 
jah Capsali, Seder Eliyahu Zuta, or Debe Eliyahu (MS. in 
Bodleian Library); Bulletin de VP Alliance Israélite, 1885-86, 
p. 21; Anuaral Pentru Israelitzi, Bucharest, 1889; Dezo- 
bry, Dictionnatre de Biographie et @ Histoire. 

S. M. Fr. 


WIDDUI. See ConFESSION OF SIN. 


WIDOW: The law of Israel treats the widow as 

a privileged person, and seeks to indemnify her in 
some degree for the loss of her natural protector. 
Thus the movable property of a widow can not be 
attached for debt (Deut. xxiv. 17), whether she be 
rich or poor, though the text speaks only of her 
garment (see Execution). To meet the monition 
of Isaiah (i. 17), “Judge the fatherless, plead for the 
widow,” it became the rule, in arranging the order 
of cases in a court, to take up the complaints of 
widows next after those of the fatherless (see Pro- 
CEDURE IN Crvin Catses). The daty 


Preroga- of judges to do full justice to the 
tives of a complaining widow is emphasized by 
Widow. the assertion that God Himself “doth 


execute the judgment of the father- 

less and widow ” (Deut. x. 18), and that “a father of 
the fatherless, and a judge of the widows, is God in 
his holy habitation” (Ps. |xviii. 6). Widowhood 
“after marriage” gives to a daughter complete in- 
dependence of her father; she becomes, in Jegal Jan- 
guage, “an orphan during the father’s lifetime.” 
This principle is thus broadly laid down (Ket. iv. 
2): “After he has given her in marriage the father 
has no power over ber,” though it is different where 
the husband dies after betrothal, but before marriage. 
Under the sacerdotal law (Lev. xxi. 14) a widow 


515 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Widdin 
Wiener 


is nota suitable wife for the high priest, but she 
may marry an ordinary priest (“kohen hedyot”). 
Yet, according to the Rabbis, where the latter has 
married a widow, and is thereafter appointed high 
priest, he may retain her as his wife (Yeb. 7%a). 
Ezekiel (xliv. 22), in his scheme of a hierarchy, for- 
bade to the ordinary priest marriage with a widow, 
unless her first husband had been a priest; but his 
scheme was never accepted as law. 

In marrying again, a widow naturally is not fa- 
vored as highly as a maiden. The smallest jointure 
for the latter is 200 zuzim; for the former, only a 
mina, or 100 zuzim (et. i. 2). Marriage with a 
maiden is generally celebrated on Wednesday ; witha 
widow, on Thursday (Ket. 3.1). The rights of the 
widow in the husband's estate have, in the main, 
been set forth under KETuBau, and are secured by the 


contract. The question of priority in 
Re- payment between the widow's dues 
marriage. and the bond creditors of the hus- 


band, or between several widows of a 
polygamous husband, has been treated under Pri- 
ority. In the opinion of R. Akiba, prevailing over 
that of R. Tarfon, there isno “marshaling of assets” 
from outstanding deposits or demands in favor of 
the widow or of creditors; but the heirs are allowed 
to collect them, or to take possession (Ket. ix. 2, 8). 
The reason givenis that noone can collect a demand 
against the decedent’s estate without an oath (if 
such is required by the heirs) that he has not re- 
ceived it before, either in whole or in part. 

Notwithstanding the difference between the cus- 
toms of Jerusalem and Galilee on the one hand, and 
of Judea on the other, mentioned in Ket. iv. 12, the 
rule was recognized at an early day that the widow 
may dwell in her late husband’s house, and receive 
her support from his estate, as long as she remains 
his widow and until she judicially demands pay- 
ment of her dowry and jointure, or accepts such 
payment (see Bertinoro ad loc.). 

The husband can not, at the time of entering upon 
the contract, confine the wife to any one fund out 
of which she may as a widow collect her ketubah; 
nor can he say to her, “ Here, laid out on this table, 
is thy [due under the] ketubah”; for the whole of 
his estate is bound forit, including what he acquires 
by inheritance from his brothers after marriage. 

Where the widow is, under the husband’s ap- 
pointment, guardian of his infant children, an oath 
can be demanded by the heirs as to her management, 
unless the husband has in writing freed her from 

rendering such an oath (Ket. ix. 5); 

As but if from her husband’s grave she 
Executrix. goes back to her father’s house, or to 
the house of her father-in-law, and is 
not appointed guardian afterward, she owes an oath 
only as to the future, not as to her previous receipts 
(Ket. ix, 6). A widow who lessens her ketubah 
(v.e., collects a part thereof) can not thereafter de- 
mand further payments, except upon an oath as to 
the amount received; she must take the oath, also, 
if one witness testifies that she has been paid. So 
where land, sold of encumbered to third parties, is 
needed to satisfy the ketubah, the oath required in 
all these cases is taken in the most solemn form 
(Ket. ix. 7, 8). 


{ notably Germany. 


Where the widow claims support from the estate 
in the hands of the heirs, her earnings belong to 
them. The husband’s heirs are not bound for the 
expenses of her burial; these fall upon those who 
inherit her ketubah (Ket. xi. 1). 

The widow, even if the husband died after be- 
trothal, but before marriage, may, without the aid 
of a court, sell enough of his landed estate to satisfy 
her ketubah; and if the proceeds of the first sale 
are not suflicient, she may sell more until the full 
amount is realized. She may do the same thing 
to secure her support, if that is not given her. But 
this method of self-help seems not to have been 
practised in later times (Shullian ‘Aruk, Eben ha- 
‘Ezer, 96, 5). However, if she sells lands [that have 
a known value?| for less than their value, her sale is 
void; for in doing so she exceeds her powers, though 
the sale would hold good if it had been made under 
a decree of court (Ket. xi. 4, 5, where some dissent- 
ing views are recorded), 

BE. C. L. N. D. 


WIENER, ADOLF: German rabbi; born in 
Murowana-Goslin, Posen, 1811; died in Oppeln, 
Prussian Silesia, Aug. 25, 1895. Having acquired 
his diploma as Ph.D., he went as rabbi to Posen, 
where he introduced a modern synagogal service 
with German sermons. He met, however, strong 
opposition, headed by Solomon Eger; and the serv- 
ices could take place only under police protection. 
In 1845 Wiener was called as rabbi to Oppeln, where 
he officiated until his death. He was one of the 
most progressive rabbis of his time; and at the 
synods of Cassel (1844), Leipsic (1869), and Augs- 
burg (1870) he advocated the following reforms in 
Judaism: revision of the prayer-book ; employment 
of the organ in divine service; permission to travel 
on Sabbaths; and the abolition of all second days 
of festivals. His chief ambition, however, was to 
release the Jews from what he called the authority 
of the Talmud. 

Wiener was the author of the following works: 
“Die Opfer- und Akeda-Gebete. Ein Beitrag zur 
Orientierung in der Cultusfrage” (Breslau, 1869); 
“Worte Gesprochen an der Bahre der Seligen Frau 
Rosalie Verwitwete Cohn ” (Oppeln, 1871); and “ Die 
Jiidischen Speisegesetze” (Breslau, 1895), a very 
radical criticism of the dietary laws. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Allg. Zeit. des Jud. 1892, pp. 51-53: Ahiasaf, 
1896, p. 308; Lippe, Bibliographisches Lexikon, 1881, p. 532. 


S. S. O. 

WIENER, ALOYS. Sce SoNNENFELS, PERLIN 
LIPMANN. 

WIENER ISRAELIT, DER. See PeERiop- 
ICALS. 


WIENER, JACQUES: Belgian engraver; 
born at Hoorstgen, Rhine Province, 1815; died at 
Brussels Nov. 3, 1899. When thirteen years of age 
he was sent to Aix-la-Chapelle to be instructed in 
drawing, modeling, and engraving by his uncle 
Baruch, who was an artist of considerable merit. In 
1885 Wiener went to Paris for further study; and in 
1839 he settled in Brussels as a medal-engraver. His 
work attained a high degree of perfection, and his 
reputation as a medalist spread to foreign countries, 
He was especially distinguished 


Wiener Jahrbuch 
Wiesbaden 


for his fidelity to the minutest details. The first 
Belgian postage-stamps were designed by Wiener, 
who also arranged for their manufacture, for which 
purpose he visited England in1849. In 1872 he lost 
his eyesight through overwork, and was compelled 
to renounce his art, which, however, he had taught 
to his brothers Karl Wiener (d. 1867) and Leopold 
WIENER. 

Wiener was decorated with the Order of the 
Knights of Leopold and with that of the Prussian 
Eagle. Upon his death the King of Belgium sent 
his family an autograph letter of condolence and also 
offered military honors at the funeral; these, how- 
ever, the family declined. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jew. Chron. Nov. 10, 1899. 
s. F. C. 
WIENER JAHRBUCH. Sce PERIODICALS. 


WIENER JUDISCHE ILLUSTRIRTE 
PRESSE. See PERIODICALS. 


WIENER JUDISCHE PRESSE. See Pent- 
ODICALS, 

WIENER JUDISCHE ZEITUNG. See Pz- 
RIODICALS. 

WIENER, LEO: Anmcrican philologist; born 
at Byelostok, Grodno, Russia, July 27, 1862; stud- 
ied in the gymnasia of Minsk and Warsaw, in the 
University of Warsaw, and in the Polytechnic of 
Berlin. Emigrating to the United States, he had 
for several years a varied career in New Orleans 
and in Kansas City, being obliged to work as a day- 
laborer and to peddle fruit in order to gain a liveli- 
hood. At length he was appointed teacher in 
Odessa, Mo., and later professor in the University of 
Kansas, where he remained until he was called to an 
assistant professorship in Slavic languages at Har- 
vard University, which office he still (1905) holds. 

Wiener is a prolific writer on philology, having 
contributed numerous articles to philological jour- 
nals in America, England, Germany, Russia, and 
Austria. He has published also several articles on 
Jewish questions in the Jewish press of the United 
States, and has devoted especial attention to the 
study of Judzo-German in its philological aspects, 
having published several monographs on this sub- 
ject in scientific journals, He isthe author of “The 
History of Yiddish Literature in the Nineteenth 
Century ” (New York, 1899), and has compiled an 
“ Anthology of Russian Literature.” He has trans- 
jated numerous works from the Russian and from 


the Yiddish, including “Songs from the Ghetto” by | 


Morris Rosenfeld, and the complete works of Leo 
Tolstoy. 
A. J. LEn. 
WIENER, LEOPOLD: Belgian engraver and 
sculptor; born in Holland 18238; died at Brussels 
Jan. 24, 1891. He was a resident of Boitsfort, a 
small town near Brussels, of which he was several 
times elected mayor. Jn this place he devoted his 
undivided attention toengraving and sculpture; and 
several pieces of statuary sculptured by him are 
displayed in public squares throughout Belgium. 
In 1864 he was appointed engraver to the govern- 
ment, and soon after royal engraver, various titles 

of distinction being conferred upon him. 
Wiener enjoyeda high reputation in musical] circles 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


516 


also, and was at one time vice-president of the Con- 
servatoire at Brussels. Many schools and institu- 
tions, notably a school of design for the working 
classes, owe their origin to his activity and energy. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jew. Chron. Jan. 30, 1891, p. 8. 
S. L. R. 


WIENER, MEIR: German teacher; bern at 
Glogau June 38, 1819; died at Hanover March 31, 
1880; head master of the religious school at Han- 
over. Hemadea German translation of the “ Shebet 
Yehudah” of Solomon ibn Verga (Hanover, 1859; 
2d ed. 1856; reprinted, Kénigsberg, 1858; Warsaw, 
1882). He made also a German version of the 
“‘Aimek ha-Baka” of Joseph ha-Kohen, adding a 
sketch of the life and works of the author (Leipsic, 
1858). 

Further, Wiener was the author of “ Regesten zur 
Geschichte der Juden in Deutschland Wiihrend des 
Mittelalters” (7b. 1862), in which he compiled all the 
data relating to the Jews; but his lack of independ- 
ent study and his failure to make careful researches 
concerning the reliability of his sources seriously 
diminished the value of his work. He contributed 
numerous historical articles to the “ Monatsschrift ” 
(vols, ii.-xvii.), among which those treating of the 
Jewsof Speyer and of Hanover deserve special men- 
tion. He likewise wrote for the “Ben Chananja” 
(iv.-viii.) and for the “ Allgemeine Zeitung des Ju- 
denthums. ” 


BIBLIOGRAPHY : Monatsschrift, xi. 158; Stobbe, Die Juden in 
Deutschland Wehrend des Mittelalters, pp. 8-9, Brunswick, 
1866; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 2726; Allg. Zeit. des 
Jud. 1880, p. 231; Zeitlin, Bibl. Post-Mendels. p. 419. 


8. Ss. O. 
WIENER MITTHEILUNGEN. See PERIop- 
ICALS. 


WIENER MONATSBLATTER FUR 
KUNST UND LITTERATUR. See PERIOD- 
ICALS, 


WIENER-NEUSTADT: City of Austria; sit- 
uated thirteen miles south of Vienna. Jews settled 
in this city probably shortly after its foundation in 
the twelfth century, records showing that Duke 
Frederick IT., on June 9, 1239, issued an order ex- 
cluding them from holding those offices “in which 
they might cause inconvenience to Christians.” Also 
in the spurious charter of the city, alleged to have 
been granted by Duke Leopold IV., the Jews are 
mentioned, their rights being based largely on the 
Austrian laws of 1244 and 1277 pertaining to Jews. 
The earliest tombstone discovered at Wiener-Neu- 
stadt bears date of 1285, and marks the grave of 
Guta, first wife of a certain Shalom, 'Tombstones 
from the years 1286, 1853, 1359, and 1370 have also 
been preserved. 

During the time of the Black Death the Jews of 
Wiener-Neustadt were fully protected; but during 
the reign of Emperor Maximilian they were expelled 
from the city, their synagogue being transformed 
into a Catholic church (1497), Joseph I. permitted 
the city to admit the Jews who had fled from Hun- 
gary during the Kuruz rebellion; but these left the 
city again as soon as the uprising had been quelled. 
In 1848, Jews settled anew in Wiener-Neustadt; but 
at that time they were not allowed to bury their 


517 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Wiener Jahrbuch 
iesbaden 


dead in the city, and had to take them to the ceme- 
teries of the neighboring Hungarian or Austrian 
communities. They did not obtain a cemetery of 
their own until 1889. 

Among the earlier rabbis of the Wiener-Neustadt 
congregation may be mentioned: Thirteenth cen- 
tury: Hayyim ben Moses, teacher of Hayyim ben 
Isaac, and author of “Or Zarua‘ ha-Katon”; Moses 
Taku, author of the philosophical work “ Ketab 
Tamim”; and Hayyim, son of Isaac of Vienna. 
Fourteenth century: Shalom (the teacher of Jacob 
Mélln), Isaac of Tyrnau, and Dossa of Widdin, the 
last-named of whom wrote a supercommentary on 
Rashi’s work. Fifteenth century: Aaron Blum- 
Jein, one of the martyrs who were burned at Enns 
(1420) on a charge of desecrating the host; Israel 
Isserlein (d. 1460); and Josmann Cohen. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Max Pollak, A Zsidék Bécs-Ujhelyen, Buda- 
pest, 1892. 


E. Cc. A. Bu. 
WIENER VIERTELJAHRSSCHRIFT. See 
PERIODICALS. 


-WIENIAWSKI, HENRI: Russian violinist 
and composer; born at Lublin, Russian Poland, 
July 10, 1835; died at Moscow April 1, 1880; 
brother of Joseph WIENIAWSKI. He early showed 
himself in possession of great musical talent, and 
when only eight years of age he went to Paris, 
where he became a pupil of Claval and Massart at 
the Paris Conservatoire. At the age of eleven he 
was awarded the first prize for violin-playing. 
After one year’s absence, during which he gave 
concerts at St. Petersburg and Moscow, he returned 
to Paris, where he studied harmony under Colet. 

In 1850 Wieniawski toured with great success the 
principal cities of Poland, Russia, Germany, France, 
England, Belgium, and Holland. Ten years later 
he was appointed first violin to the Czar of Rus- 
sia, and remained in St. Petersburg until 1872, 
when, together with Anton Rubinstein, he started 
on a prolonged tour through the United States. 
Upon his return to Europe in 1874 he accepted the 
post of professor of violin at the Conservatoire in 
Brussels as successor to Vieuxtemps. After a few 
years, however, he resigned this position and, in 
company with his brother Joseph, resumed his 
travels. A serious disease which he contracted 
forced him to abandon his journey and to hasten 
back to Russia. At Odessa he suffered a relapse; 
he was conveyed to Moscow, and died there. 

Wieniawski was one of the greatest of modern vio- 
lin-players, and possessed a striking individuality, 
His playing evinced an impetuous temperament 
mixed with a warmth and tenderness peculiar to him- 
self. His compositions include two concertos for vio- 
lin and orchestra; several polonaises, legends, and 
duets for pianoforte and violin; a fantasia on Rus- 
sian airs; a “Fantaisie sur le Prophéte”; and a set 
of studies. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Champlin and Apthorp, Cyclopedia of Music 
_ and Musicians; Grove, Dictionary of Music and Musi- 
cians. 


8. J. Go. 

WIENIAWSKI, JOSEPH: Russian pianist 
and composer; born at Lublin, Poland, May 238, 
1837; brother of Henri WIENIAWSEI. He studied 
music under Zimmerman, Alkan, and Marmontel, 


and harmony under Leccoppey, at the Paris Conser- 
vatoire. After his return to Russia in 1850, he fre- 
quently accompanied his brother Henri on his con- 
cert tours. In 1856 he studied music under Liszt at 
Weimar, and later theory under Marx, in Berlin. 
In 1866 he settled in Moscow, at first officiating as 
professor in the Conservatory of Music, and later 
opening a private school for pianoforte. From Mos- 
cow he went to Warsaw, where he often appeared in 
concerts. Among his compositions may be men- 
tioned: two overtures for orchestra; a string quar- 
tet; a concerto for pianoforte and orchestra; a 
“Grand Duo Polonais” for pianoforte and violin; a 
“Valse de Concert”; fantasias; idyls; and several 
concert pieces. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Champlin and Apthorp, Cyclopedia of Music 
and Musicians. 

s. J. Go. 

WIERNIE, PETER: Russo-American jour- 
nalist; born at Wilna, Russia, in March, 1865. He 
received the customary Jewish education. From 
1878 to 1882 he was in Riga; in 1882 he lived at 
Kovno; and in the following year he joined his 
parentsat Byelostok, where he stayed for two years. 
His father, a maggid, instructed him in the Talmud 
and rabbinica, but otherwise he was self-taught. 
In 1885 he emigrated to the United States, where he 
settled in Chicago. Two years later he became a 
compositor on the “ Jewish Courier,” and in five years 
rose to be its editor. In 1898 he left for New York, 
where he has since resided. In that city he has been 
connected with the “Jtidisches Tageblatt,” and he 
is at present (1905) on the staff of “Das Morgen 
Journal.” 

In addition to his collaboration on several Ameri- 
can and Yiddish journals and his contributions to 
Tue JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA, Wiernik is the author 
of “History of the Jews,” New York, 1901. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY : American Jewish Year Book, 5665, 

A. F. T. H. 

WIESBADEN: German town in the province 
of Hesse-Nassau; capital of the former duchy of 
Nassau. Schenk (“Gesch. der Stadt Wiesbaden ”) 
thinks that Jews lived there in the fourteenth cen- 
tury; but he gives no documentary evidence to sup- 
port this view. There is norecord of persecution of 
the Jews in Nassau, either in the ARMLEDER riots 
(1338) or during the Black Death (1348-49). In the 
public peace (“ Landfrieden”) promulgated in 1265 
by Archbishop Wernher of Mayence, together with 
the lords of Epstein, Falkenstein, and others, an 
allusion is found to “certain undisciplined persons 
who have arisen against the Jews contrary to God’s 
command,” and whoare to be punished as disturbers 
of the peace. It is not said, however, that such 
disturbances actually occurred in any place in the 
duchy. A “Judengasse” in Wiesbaden attests also 
the early presence of Jews there. 

During the Thirty Years’ war several Jewish 
families from the surrounding district, whose lives 
and property were in danger from the hostile sol- 
diery, were received and sheltered in Wiesbaden; 
and when, soon after, their removal was insisted upon 
by theclergy, the latter were opposed by a consider- 
able number of the citizens and officials, who pro- 
tected the Jews. Indeed, a friendly sentiment toward 


Wiesner 
Wild Ass 


the Jews seems to have found its way among the pop- 
ulation. In 1700 a citizen of Wiesbaden—Heinrich 
Tillmann Kénig—took such a liking to the Jewish 
religion that he faithfully observed its ceremonies, 
although he had to endure much at the hands of the 
clergy for sodoing. Itis strange that about the same 
time, as Schenk asserts, EISENMENGER composed 
part of his “ Entdecktes Judenthum ” in Wiesbaden. 

For a long time the Jews of Wiesbaden formed 
only a small community and had no prominent 
rabbis, although now and again one is mentioned in 
collections of responsa. In 1832 Abraham Geiger was 
appointed to the rabbinate. He did good work in 
school and synagogue, and introduced confirmation 
and similar reforms. It was there that he published 
his “ Wissenschaftliche Zeitschrift ftir Jiidische The- 
ologie,” and called together a meeting of rabbis (see 
CONFERENCES, RABBINICAL). Geiger resigned (1838) 
on account of some dissension in the community ; and 
aftera short interval, during which Benjamin Hoca- 
STADTER, at that time teacher in Wiesbaden, was in 
charge of the rabbinate, he was succeeded by Solo- 
mon Siisskind, district rabbi in Weilburg, who was 
transferred to Wiesbaden in 1844 and remained in 
office until 1884, when he retired on a pension. The 
present (1905) incumbent ts Michael Silberstein, for- 
merly district rabbi in Wirttemberg. 

The congregation, which has greatly increased 
since 1866, now (1905) numbers about 1,800. Besides 
the main community there is the Altisraelitische Cul- 
tusgemeinde, an Orthodox congregation, with a 
membership of 300. 

Wiesbaden has a total population of 86,086. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Schenk, Gesch. der Stadt Wiesbaden. 

D. M. Sr. 

WIESNER, ADOLF: Austrian journalist and 
author; born in Prague 1807; died in New York Sept. 
23, 1867. His name was originally Wiener, but, be- 
ing desirous of pursuing a juridical career, which was 
not then possible for a Jew in Austria, he embraced 
Catholicism, assuming the name Wiesner. After 
practising law in the criminal court of Vienna fora 
short time, he devoted his endeavors to literary pur- 
suits; and by the aid of Count Kolowrat, then home 
secretary, his historical drama “Inez de Castro” was 
staged at the Vienna Burgtheater in 1842. A second 
play, entitled “ Die Geiseln und der Negersklave,” 
and based on Emperor Charles V.’s expedition agains: 
Tunis, failed, however, of acceptance. He was the 
author of two more dramas: “ Der Feind” and “ Der 
Arzt und Seine Tochter.” 

In reply to the Russian privy councilor L. von 
Tengoborsky’s work “ Die Finanzen, der Oeffentliche 
Credit, die Staatschuld und das Besteuerungssystem 
des Oesterreichischen Kaiserstaates ” (2 vols., Paris, 
1843), which attracted considerable attention, Wies- 
ner wrote his “Russisch-Politische Arithmetik ” (2 
vols., Leipsic, 1844). In 1846, the political situation 
in Vienna becoming intolerable, he went to Frank- 
fort, and shortly after his valuable historical work 
“Denkwiirdigkeiten der Oesterreichischen Censur 
vom Zeitalter der Reformation bis auf die Gegen- 
wart” (Stuttgart, 1847) appeared. In 1848 he was 
elected to the Frankfort Parliament, siding with the 
extreme Left; and during its session he edited the 
“ Frankfurter Oberpostamts-Zeitung.” 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


518 


Seeing no future for himself in Germany, and 
being still unable to return home, Wiesner emigrated 
in 1852 to the United States. He settled in New 
York, and for some years was employed by railroad 
and steamship companies, besides doing literary 
work. It was due to his activity that the Schiller 
monument was erected in New York in 1859. In 
1860 he edited the periodical “Geist der Weltlitera- 
tur,” which enjoyed buta brief existence. He after- 
ward moved to Baltimore, where he edited a “ Turn- 
Zeitung.” During the Civil war he devoted himself 
to the care of disabled Union soldiers; and at the 
close of the war the federal government acknow]l- 
edged his good offices by appointing him to a post 
in the Baltimore custom-house, where he rendered 
himself helpful to the many German immigrants 
with whom he came in contact. Early in 1866 he 
became editor of the “Tllinois-Staatszeitung.” On 
learning of the imperial amnesty of June 8, 186%, 
Wiesner, though very ill, started for Germany. He 
reached New York exhausted, and suffered an attack 
of typhoid fever, from which he died. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Wurzbach, Biog. Lex.; Presse (Vienna), 1867, 

Nos. 64, 184; Fremden-Blatt, 1867, No. 282: Der Wanderer 

(Vienna), 1867, No. 280; Neues Wiener Tageblatt, 1867, No. 

213; Neue Freie Presse, 1867, No. 1118; Heinrich Laube, Das 

firste Deutsche Parlament, i. 66, 283 ; 11. 99, 175, pecs ae 

8. . D. 


WIFE. See Husspanp AND WIFE. 


WIG (Judxo-German, sheitel; peruk [from 
the French “ perruque ”}): A covering for the head, 
consisting of false hair interwoven with or united to 
a kind of cap or netting. Wearing false hair on 
the head to supplement a scanty natural supply, 
or as an adornment, appears to have been a com- 
mon custom among women in the Talmudic pe- 
riod. The Mishnah calls false hair “ pe’ah nokrit ” 
(a strange lock), and declares that on Sabbath 
a woman may weara wig in the courtyard but not 
in the street, the apprehension in the latter case 
being that she might remove the wig and carry it 
from private to public premises, which is forbidden 
(Shab. vi. 5, 64b). The husband may object to a 
wife’s vow if it involves shaving off her hair. One 
tanna thought she might wear a wig, but R. Meir 
said the husband might object to the wig on the 
ground of uncleanliness (Naz. 28b). The question 
is discussed whether or not a wig may be consid- 
ered asa part of the body of the wearer (Sanh. 112a; 
‘Ar. 7b). 

The wearing of the hair loose and exposed in the 
street was forbidden to women as disorderly and 
immoral, A married woman who disobeyed this 
Jewish ordinance (“dat Yisra’el ”) established a legal 
cause for divorce and forfeited her dowry (Ket. vii. 
6, 72a). This ordinance came to be scrupulously 
observed, and a married woman could be dis- 
tinguished by her hair being entirely covered; if one 
went with uncovered head it was taken as evidence 
that she was a virgin (Sifre 11). For a woman, dur- 
ing the reading of the “Shema‘,” to leave visible hair 
which usually is covered is considered an impropriety 
(Ber. 24a). In the Middle Ages married women 
scrupulously cut or shaved off their hair, covering 
their heads with kerchiefs. Some women wore on 
the forehead a silk band resembling in color that of 


519 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Wiesner 
Wild Ass 


the hair. During the sixteenth century R. Judah 
Katzenellenbogen and R. David ha-Kohen of Corfu 
permitted a wig to be used under a cover (David 
ha-Kohen, Responsa, No. 90). Moses Alashkar per- 
mitted the side hair to be partly exposed (Responsa, 
No, 35). During the eighteenth and nineteenth cen- 
turies rich women wore wigs in various styles, more 
or lessexposed. The“ pe’ahnokrit” in the Mishnah 
was pointed out to prove the early custom, but the 
opponents of the innovation explained that the wig 
was covered, not exposed. JR. Moses Sofer and his 
disciple Akiba Joseph were decidedly opposed to the 
wig (“Leb ha-‘Ibri,” pp. 129, 189, Lemberg, 1873). 
In modern times Orthodox Jewesses in eastern 
Europe wear wigs, while in the Orient they still don 
the kerchief that covers all the hair. In America 
some of the women immigrants wear the wig; but 
the newly married women have all discarded it and 
wear their natural hair in the prevailing style. 
There is nothing in rabbinical literature to show that 
wigs were ever worn by men, aside, perhaps, from 
the statements that the Roman legions carried scalps 
with them (“karkefet”), and that Ishmael’s scalp 
adorned the heads of the kings (Hul. 128a). The 
scalps appear to have been used in battle to insure 
good fortune and victory; and it is possible they 
were used as wigs. See HArrR 1n RABBINICAL LItT- 
ERATURE. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Briill’s Jahrb. viii. 51-52, Frankfort-on-the- 
ain, 1887; Abrahams, Jewish Life in the Middle Ages, p. 
A. J. D. E. 
WIGA, JUDAH: Polish preacher of the six- 
teenth and seventeenth centuries. The name so 
written is given by Sternberg (“Gesch. der Juden 
in Polen,” p. 183), apparently taken from Pelish 
sources, and ascribed to a famous preacher of Lub- 
lin. Basnage (“Histoire des Juifs,” ix. 993, The 
Hague, 1716), however, calls him Judah Vega, say- 
ing he must not be confounded with the Spanish 
rabbi of Amsterdam (see VEGA, JUDAH); and he re- 
fers to him as having published a collection of ser- 
mons toward the end of the sixteenth century dur- 
ing the reign of Sigismund. Wolf (“ Bibl. Hebr.” 
i., No. 709), though using the Hebrew form 3%, 
agrees with Basnage, adding that the work was en- 
titled “Derashot.” On the other hand, this Judah 
Wiga may be identical with one Judah ben Moses 
23°39 (transliterated “ Biga” by Wolf, /.c. iii., No. 754; 
and “Bigo” by Zunz, “G. V.” p. 480), the author of 
“Malke Yehudah” (Lublin, 1616), a collection of 
fifteen sermons. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 1876. 
E. C. M. SEL. 


WIHL, LUDWIG: Germau poet and philolo- 
gist; born at Wevelingen, Prussia, Oct. 24, 1807; 
died at Brussels Jan. 16, 1882; educated at Krefeld, 
Cologne, Bonn, and Munich (Ph.D. 1880). In his 
“Anfinge der Kunst Unter den Griechen in Ver- 
bindung mit der Erklirung einer Phénicischen [n- 
-schrift,” read before a learned society (18381), he ad- 
vanced the theory that Phenician was a linguistic 
derivative of Hebrew, and that Phenicia had exer- 
cised a profound influence on the art of early Greece. 
Despite the efforts of his patron, the Archbishop of 
Cologne, and of others, Wihl’s hopes for a university 


career were doomed to failure, because he declined 

to be baptized. 

Wihi then entered upon a journalistic career at 
Frankfort-on-the-Mainand Hamburg, and published 
his first volume of poems at Mayence in 1887. Dur- 
ing a trip to England two years later he wrote his 
“Englischer Novellenkranz”; but his account of 
Heine, written at Paris for the Hamburg “ Tele- 
graph,” brought upon him the enmity of the poet. 
In 1840 he returned to Frankfort, where, with the 
help of funds advanced by a Catholic banker named 
Seufferheld, he established a boarding-school for 
boys; this school, however, existed for only eight- 
een months, because the authorities forbade him to 
admit Catholic pupils. During the next few years 
Wihl lived at Amsterdam and at Utrecht asa teacher 
and journalist, until he was called to Paderborn as 
an editor. A recklessly radical article which he 
published in a local paper during the Revolution of 
1848, however, brought on him a sentence of a year’s 
imprisonment in a fortress, and he fled to France, 
where he became professor of German at Paris and 
Grenoble. On the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian 
war he retired, from patriotic motives, to Brussels, 
where he resided for the remainder of his life ona 
pension. 

Wibl was the author of the following works: 
“Geschichte der Deutschen National-Literatur von 
Thren Ersten Anfiingen bis auf Unsere Tage,” 1840; 
“ West-Oestliche Schwalben” (Mannheim, 1847; 
French translation, “ Hirondeles Orientales,” by 
Mercier, Paris, 1860), a collection of lyric poems; 
“Le Mendiant pour la Pologne” (Paris, 1864), a col- 
lection of French and German poems; and “Le 
Pays Bleu” (7b. 1865). He published alsoa number 
of “Portraits Poétiques,” in which he gave free 
rein to his caustic sarcasm. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Winter and Wiinsche, Die Jtidische Litera- 
tur, iii. 884; Frankel, in Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, 
xxii. 469-472; Ost und West, i. 270-274. 

8. J. IKA. 

WILCZYNSKI, ERNEST JULIUS: Ameri- 
can mathematician; born in Hamburg, Germany, 
Nov. 18, 1876. He went with his parents in 1885 
to America, where he attended the Chicago high 
school, Returning to Germany in 1893, he studied 
astronomy and mathematics at the University of 
Berlin (Ph.D. 1897; thesis, “Hydrodynamische Un- 
tersuchungen mit Anwendungen auf die Theorie der 
Sonnenrotation ”), In 1898 he became computer at 
the Nautical Almanac Office, Washington, D.C., 
and then instructor in mathematics successively at 
Columbian University Summer School there and at 
the University of California, being appointed assist- 
ant professor at the latter institution in 1902. From 
1903 to 1905 he wasabsent on leave in Europe as re- 
search associate of the Carnegie Institution at Wash- 
ington. Besidesa large number of articles in mathe- 
matical and astronomical journals, he has published 
“Projective Differential Geometry of Curves and 
Ruled Surfaces,” Leipsic, 1908. 

A. F. T. H. 

WILD ASS: Rendering used in Gen. xvi. 12 
(R. V.), Job vi. 5, xi, 12, xxiv. 5, xxxix. 5, Ps. civ. 
11, Isa. xxxii. 14, Jer. xiv. 6, and Hos. viii. 9 for 
the Hebrew “pere,” and in Jer. ii. 24 for “pereh”; 


Wild Bull 
Wilenkin 


in Job xxxix. 5 for the Hebrew “ ‘arud”; and in Dan. 
v. 21 for the Aramaic “‘arad.” In all these passages 
the animal is depicted as extremely wild, shy, 
wary, and swift, At present it is rarely met with 
in Syria. 

The wild ass, though it resembles in appearance 
the tame animal, is classed in the Talmud, ina ritual 
aspect, among the wild animals (Kil. i. 6, viii. 6). 
It is the only animal whose flesh underneath the 
muscles can be torn either way (Hul. 59a). It 
turned the mill in which grain was ground (‘Ab. 
Zarah 16b), while its flesh was fed to the lions in 
the king’s menagerie (Men. 103b). See also Ass. 
BIDeOG RAPE: Tristram, Nat. Hist. p, 41; Lewysohn, Z. T. 

p. 143. 


E. G. H. I. M. C. 


WILD BULL. Sce UNIcorn, 
WILD GOAT. See Goat. 
WILD OX. See ANTELOPE; UNICORN. 


WILDA, WILHELM EDUARD: German 
jurist; born at Altona Aug. 17, 1800; died at Kiel 
Aug. 9, 1856; educated at the Johanneum of Ham- 
burg and the universities of Géttingen, Heidelberg, 
Kiel, and Copenhagen. The year 1826 was passed 
partly in Berlin and partly in travel through Ger- 
many, France, and Switzerland. After practising 
as an attorney at Hamburg from 1826 to 1880, he 
was appointed assistant professor at Halle, where 
he remained until 1842, when he was called to Bres- 
lau as full professor. In 1854 he was transferred to 
Kiel. Wilda, who was the founder of comparative 
jurisprudence, was the author of the following 
works: “Das Gildewesen im Mittelalter” (Halle, 
1831; 2d ed., Berlin, 1888); and “ Das Strafrecht der 
_ Germanen” (Halle, 1842), a volume forming the 
second part of his “Geschichte des Deutschen 
Rechtes.” In 1838 he founded, in collaboration 
with NReyscher, the “Zeitschrift ftir Deutsches 
Recht,” which was published first at Tiibingen and 
later at Leipsic, and was discontinued in 1861. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY : Jtidisches Athenwum, pp. 244-245; Meyers 
Konversations-Lexcikon; Brockhaus Konversations-Lex- 
ikon. 

S 


WILDERNESS (Hebr. “horbah” [Jer. vii. 34; 
Isa, xlviti. 21], “yeshimon” [Isa. xlviii. 19; Deut. 
xxxii. 10; Ps. Ixxvili. 40]. “midbar” [very fre- 
quently], “‘arabah” [generally in poetic speech and 
as a parallel to “midbar”], “ziyyah” [Ps. lxx viii. 
17], “tohu” [Ps. evii. 40; Job xii. 24; Deut. xxxii. 
10}, “shammah,” “shemamah” [Isa. v. 9; Jer. xii. 
18; Ezek. xxxv. 7], “sharab” [Isa. xxxv. 7; R. V., 
“slowing sand ”]): An examination of the Hebrew 
-terms rendered “ wilderness ” or “desert” in the Eng- 
lish versions shows that these translations are inade- 
quate and misleading. “Horbah” implies violent 
destruction; and it is more exactly rendered by 
“waste places” (Ps. cii. 7[A. V. 6] ) or “desolation ” 
(Jer. xliv. 2). The latter term also expresses more 
accurately the connotation of “yeshimon” and 
“shammah ” or “shemamah,” while “tohu” conveys 
the idea of chaotic confusion (Jer. iv. 23; Job xxvi. 
7). “*Arabah” comes nearer to the meaning of the 
English “desert” (Isa. xxxv. 1; Jer. li, 43); “ziy- 
yah” implies the absence or dearth of water (Ps. 
lxili. 2 [A. V. 1]); while the more probable render- 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


520 


ing of “sharab” is “mirage” (see Isa, xxxv. 7, R. 
V., marginal reading). In so far as the Hebrew 
terms do not imply artificial desolation and destruc- 
tion, they connote a stretch of uncultivated land 
suitable for grazing and occupied by nomads (Num. 
xiv. 38), as is clear both from the etymology of the 
word “midbar,” and from the fact that it and its 
synonyms usually denote the wilderness of the wan- 
dering or Exodus. Such a midbar occasionally 
existed in the very midst of land under tillage 
(Gen, xxxvii. 22), and again was found at the bor- 
ders as a transition from cultivated to uncultivated 
districts (Deut, iv. 48; I Sam. xvii. 28). 

This “wilderness” is described as without ani- 
mate occupants (Deut. xxxii. 10), or as a district 
where no man is found (Jer. ii. 6; ix. 1, 11; Job 
XXXViii. 26) and where sowing is not carried on (Jer. 
ii, 2). It is an abandoned stretch (Isa. xxvii. 
10; comp. vi. 12, vii. 16) without protection (Ps. lv. 
8 [A. V. 7]), and a thirsty land (Ezek. xix. 13; Job 
xxx. 8, R. V.) devoid of vegetation (Hos. ii, 3; 
Isa. xli. 19). These terrors play upon the fancy of 
the people (Isa. xxx. 6; comp. “Z. D. P. V.” iii. 114 
et seg.). Some parts of the wilderness are character- 
ized as “ne’ot” (Jer. xxiii. 10), or pastures, and 
others as “‘arabot,” or dry, barren stretches (IJ Sam. 
Xv. 28), or as “harerim,” or stony table-lands (Jer. 
xii. 12, xvii. 6). The wilderness is the home of wild 
animals (“ziyyim”; Isa. xili. 21, xxxiv. 14), inclu- 
ding wild asses (Jer. ti. 24), and thorns grow there 
(Judges viii. 7, 16) as well as the heather (Jer. 
xvii. 6, xlviii. 6). 

The term “midbar” is applied to the district of 
the Hebrews’ wanderings between the Exodus and 
the conquest of Palestine. This region stretched 
south of Palestine in or on the border of the Negeb; 
separate parts of it are called the wildernesses of 
Sin, Shur, Kadesh, and the like. The _ wilder- 
ness between Canaan and the Euphrates is repeat- 
edly mentioned in prophetic writings (Ezek. xx. 35; 
Isa. xl. 3), and some portions of it are named in 
Num, xxi. 11, 18 and Judges xi. 22... The wilderness 
referred to in Josh. xv. 61 is that of Judah, which 
comprised the eastern declivity of the mountainous 
region toward the Dead Sea. The character of this 
district illustrates most strikingly the great variety 
of localities designated in Biblical usage as wilder- 
nesses ; for in it were pastures (II Chron. xxvi. 10), 
caves (I Sam. xxiv. 3), and cities (Josh. xv. 61), 
thoughit contained also barren rocks and precipices. 
This wilderness of Judah included the wildernesses of 
Maon (I Sam. xxiii. 24) and Ziph (¢). xxiii. 14). 
Connected with it to the north were the wildernesses 
of Gibeah (Judges xx. 42), Michmash (I Sam. 
xiii. 18), Ai (Josh. viii. 15), and Beth-aven (éd, 
xviii. 12). E. G. H. 


WILDERNESS, WANDERINGS IN THE. 
—Biblical Data: Next to the Exodus, the remem- 
brance of the wanderings in the desert for a period 
corresponding to the life of a generation (see Forty) is 
central to the historic consciousness of Israel, 
Hence the scene of these migrations is often called 
“the” wilderness (“ha-midbar ”) par excellence (Ex. 
lii. 18, xiv. 11; Num. xxxii. 18; Deut. i. 31; comp. 
Judges xi. 16,18; Amosii. 10; e¢ al.). This wil- 


521 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Wilda Bul} 
Wilenkin 


derness corresponds to that designated as Arabia 
Petrea by the Greco-Roman geographers. The 
story of the Hebrews’ wanderings is related in: (1) 
Ex. Xiv.-xix. 24, 32, comprising the stations from 
the time Israel left Egypt to the promulgation of 

the Law on Sinai; and Num. x. 11- 


Stages of xxii. 1, giving those from the revela- 
Wan- tion to the arrival of the people oppo- 
derings. site Jericho; (2) Deut. i. 2, 19 et seg. ; 


ii.; lii. 6 e¢ seg. (Comp. Xxxiv.), which 
are Without chronological order, but begin with the 
desert of Sinai (Horeb) and extend to the incursion 
into the Jand of the Amorites; (3) Num. xxxiii. 5- 
50, cataloguing the camping stations on the march 
from Rameses to Jericho. The last-mentioned list 
differs from the data in Exodus and Numbers in so 
far as it inserts eighteen stations between Hazeroth 
(Num. xi. 35) and Kadesh or Sin (Num. xii. 16; xiii. 
2, 21; xx. 1) that are not mentioned in the historical 
natratives, while the stations enumerated in Num. 
xi. 1 e¢ seg.; xxi. 16, 19 are omitted. Other, smaller 
divergences appear between Num. xxxiii. 30 e¢ seq. 
and Deut. x. 6, and between Num. xx. 22 et seg. 
and the same passage of Deuteronomy. 
——Critical View: The discrepancies just referred 
to have been noticed by all commentators, and vari- 
ous theories have been advanced to account for them. 
The favorite explanation of the precritical scholars 
was that the historical narratives contain only the 
names of the localities at which something occurred 
worth chronicling, while the fuller list includes all 
the points touched on the march. But this assump- 
tion was recognized as insufficient, especially by 
Goethe (“ Westoestl. Divan”), who urged the opin- 

ion that the eighteen stations were fic- 


Forty titious and were inserted merely to 
Stations carry out the theory that Israel wan- 
in Forty dered about in the wilderness forty 

Years. years and had one station for every 


year. Most of the names of the sta- 
tions can not be located topographically, and com- 
parison of the data shows that the order of the sta- 
tions varies as well as the events connected with 
them. 

In P a clearly chronological scheme is carried out, 
the duration of the wanderings being calculated ac- 
curately by days, months, and years. On the fif- 
teenth of the first month the Israelites started out 
from Rameses (Num. xxxili. 3); on the fifteenth of 
the second month they reached the wilderness of 
Sin (Ex. xvi. 1); in the third month they arrived at 
that of Sinai (Ex. xix. i), the exact day having been 
expunged by a later hand (see Dillmann, Commen- 


tary, ed. Ryssel, p. 209); on the first of the first 


mouth of the second year the Tabernacle was erected 
(Ex. xl, 1, 17); etc. But these chronological data 
conflict with Num. xiv. 34 (comp. Num. i. 1, x. 11, 
xiii. 25, xx. 1, xxxiii. 38; and PaRan; Sin). The 
forty years correspond to the forty days of the spies, 
and they are reckoned at one time from the Exodus, 
and again from the return of the spies. Still, P did 
not invent the number forty; it must have been 
based on an old tradition that the generation of the 
Exodus perished in the wilderness (Deut. i. 8; ii. 7; 
Vili. 2,4; xxix, 4; Josh. xiv. 7,10; Amos ii. 10, v. 
25; Neh. ix. 21; Ps. xcv. 10). 


But at the back of this tradition lies the historical 
fact that before and after the exodus from Egypt 
many of the tribes and clans of Israel moved about 
as nomads in this region, and were 
only gradually welded together into a 
union sufficieutly close to give support 
to the effort ot some of their number 
to gain a foothold across the Jordan. 
Many of the names are those of stations in which 
even in historic days the nomadic tribes would en- 
camp, being connected with oases (e.g., ELM). Other 
names gave rise to legends, ¢.g., MARAH (Ex. xv. 23) 
and ‘Taberah (Num. xi. 8); and a few are explained 
variously, ¢.g., Massah and Meripan (Ex. xvii. 2, 
7; Num. xx. 18; Deut. xxvxiii. 8; see PARAN and 
KapbkEsa; comp. Num. xiii. 3, 26a and 7b. xiii. 26b; 
Deut. i. 19, Josh. xiv. 6, and Num. xx. 1; Deut. i. 
46, Num. xiv. 25, and Deut. ti. 14, for the difficul- 
ties in the way of harmonizing the divergent state- 
ments of the sources { Wellhausen, “ Prolegomena,” 
iv. 3849]). The religious or, to be more exact, irre- 
ligious anti-Moses and anti- Yuwa attitude of Israel 
in the wilderness (Ex. xxxii.; Num. xi., xiv., xx., 
XXV.) reflects the conditions of a later historical 
period. Many of the occurrences are outgrowths of 
the natural tendency to impute greatness and mira- 
cles to the heroic generations (Ex. xvi., xvii. 5, xxiii. 
20; Num. ix. 15 e¢ seg., xx. 8; Deut. viii. 4; see also 
MaNnnA; QuaIL; comp. Hosea ii. 16, 17; ix. 10; 
Deut. xxxii. 10; Ezek. xvi, 8; Jer. ii. 2; Amos 
v. 25). E. G. H. 


WILENKIN. See Minsxi, Nicotar Maxsim- 
OVICH. 


WILENKIN, GREGORY: Russian govern- 
ment official; born at Tsarskoye-Selo, near St. Peters- 
burg, Russia, Feb. 22, 1864. He is a member of an 
ancient Russian Jewish family which has held landed 
estates tor the last two centuries, and he counts 
among his ancestors many who distinguished them- 
selves for their charitable work. The name of one 
of his female ancestors, Blema Wilenkin, is still 
remembered in the Jewish community of Minsk, 
whence the family originally came. At the end of 
the eighteenth century she bequeathed a house (stil 
in existence) at Minsk to be used as a “ Klaus”; and 
she left another house for the use of impoverished 
Russian Jews at Jerusalem. 

After completing his studies in the gymnasium of 
his native town, Wilenkin matriculated first at the 
University of Dorpat and afterward at the University 
of St. Petersburg, where he studied law. In 1887 
he entered the government service in the Ministry of 
Public Instruction, and was sent on a scientific mis- 
sion to England to study the organization of the uni- 
versities of Oxford and Cambridge; he went also to 
Paris to investigate its system of primary schools. 
His report on the schools was published, and the 
French government bestowed on him the rank of 
“Officier d’ Academie” in recognition of this work, 
On his return to St. Petersburg in 1895, Witte, then 
minister of finance, invited Wilenkin to leave the 
Ministry of Public Instruction for the Ministry of 
Finance, and appointed him assistant financial agent. 
of the Russian government in London. Wilenkin 
served in that post over nine years, and in May, 1904, 


Historical 
Foun- 
dation. 


Wilkesbarre 
Will 


was appointed financial agent of the Russian govern- 
ment at Washington, D. C., being attached to the 
Russian embassy there. 

Wilenken’s works include “ Monometalism and Bi- 
metalism ” and “The Financial and Political Organi- 
zation of Contemporary England and the Commercial 
and Political Organization of Contemporary Russia.” 

A. 

WILEESBARRE: County-seat and principal 
city of Luzerne county, Pa, Evidence points to 1838 
as the date of arrival of the first Jewish settlers, 
among whom Martin Long, a Bavarian, was the most 
prominent. Two years latera society was organized 
for occasional worship, and until 1849 the incipient 
congregation held its services in various rooms, In 
August of that year it dedicated its first synagogue 
under the auspices of Moses Strasser, Isaac Leeser of 
Philadelphia, and Samuel Isaacs of New York. In 
1857 the community was incorporated as the Con- 
gregation b’nai B’rith. Its earlier pulpit history is 
practically the record of the service of Herman Ru- 
bin, reader and teacher from 1858 to 1882. His suc- 
cessors have been David Stern, Victor Rundbacken, 
Israel Joseph, and the present incumbent, Marcus 
Salzman (1905). 

The rise of the younger generation gavea decided 
impetus to the growing tendency toward Reform, 
which resulted in the adoption of the Einhorn rit- 
ual. This yielded, in its turn, to the Union Prayer- 
Book. B’nai B'rith, the largest congregation in the 
city, is the only Reform organization. 

Until 1871 B’nai B'rith was the only congregation 
in Wilkesbarre, but in that year the first efforts were 
made to unite the Orthodox Jews. The organization, 
little more than a minyan, became the parent of the 
congregations B’nai Jacob and Holche Yosher, which 
were formed in 1881, although their synagogues were 
not built until 1886 and 1887 respectively. In 1902 
a fourth synagogue was dedicated to the use of the 
youngest congregation, Oheb Zedek (Anshe Ungarn). 

The Jewish educational, philanthropic, and social 
activities of the city are entrusted to the following 
institutions: the religious and Hebrew schools, the 
Synagogue Industrial School, branch lodges of the 
leading Jewish orders, the Young Men’s Hebrew As- 
sociation, the social and literary clubs, four aid soci- 
eties, a free loan association, and the Executive Com- 
mittee of Jewish Congregations (which aids the work 
of the Industrial Removal Office). 

With this equipment the community is an impor- 
tant center of Jewish activity in northeastern Penn- 
sylvania, reaching out to Hazleton, Plymouth, Pitts- 
ton, and the smaller towns inthe vicinity. The Jews 
of Wilkesbarre now (1905) number about 1,800, or 
about 8 per cent of the total population. 

A. M. Sat, 

WILL or TESTAMENT (Latin, “testamen- 
tum” ; Greek, dsa6yxy, which latter word is often 
found in the Mishnah and the Baraita [pn ; see 
B. B. 152b: “One diatheke annuls another”]): The 
legal instrument by which a person disposes of his 
property, or of a part thereof, and which takes effect 
after his death, but the provisions of which may be 
changed or revoked at any time before death. 

The ordinary substitute for the last will and tes- 
tament in Jewish law answers to the “ gift by reason 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


522 


” 


of death,” something like the “donatio causa mortis 
of the Roman law, called in the Mishnah “ gift of 
one lying sick” (“mattenat shekib mera’ ”), which 
has been briefly mentioned under GIrTs IN RABBIN- 
IcAL Law. 

The notices of wills in the Mishnah (B. B. viii. 5, 
6; ix.6, 7) are scanty; and in the discussion upon 
them there are very few baraitot. The discrepancies 
as to details among later authorities are wide, and run 
back to the fundamental questions “How far can 
an owner of property, by his declaration, set aside 
or change the rules of succession laid downin Num. 
XXvii.?” and, more particularly, “Can he abridge 
the rights of the first-born declared in Deut. xxi. 17?” 
This verse speaks of “the day when he gives their 
heritage to his sons,” and only restrains the father 
from robbing the first-born of his double share; 

which implies that the father may 


Biblical make, otherwise, an unequal division 
Founda- among his sonsor, when he hasno sons, 
tions. an unequal division among his daugh- 


ters. As R. Johanan ben Baroka puts it 
in the Mishnah, “If the ancestor says, ‘Sucha person 
shall be my heir,’ and such a person is capable of in- 
heriting, his words are valid; if the person is not fit to 
inherit, his words are void ”(B. B. vili. 5). The later 
Babylonian authorities (see B. B. 180a) follow R. Jo- 
hanan’s opinion, though he was in the minority. 

But the Talmud nowhere defines how the choice 
among heirs of the same class may be made, whether 
in writing or by word of mouth; it is intimated (B. 
B. 118a) only that it should be done in daytime, not 
by night. The later authorities, while declaring 
that R. Johanan’s opinion is the law, aeprive it of 
almost all its force by restricting to persons dan- 
gerously sick this power of choosing an heir, that 
is, to those who can dispose of their property by 
gift “causa mortis.” On the contrary, they require 
no written instrument for the purpose of giving to 
one son what belongs toall the sons; they here give 
greater weight to an oral command, holding that 
where a man “writes over” his estate to one son 
among several, he only makes him a trustee for all 
the sons (B. B. 180b); and if he makes a deed (“she- 
tar’) with a view to its taking effect only after his 
death, the effect may be nil, since a man’s deed can 
not be delivered after his death. Thus particular 
precautions are necessary to avoid making the wri- 
ting down of a testamentary disposition destructive 
of its purposes. 

The Hebrew word corresponding to dafgnn, 
whether written or spoken, is “Zawwa’ah” (= “a 
command ”); but it is hardly ever used in legal dis- 
cussions, cither in the Talmud or in the codes. 
Where the testator was the father of the beneficia- 
ries, the will had, in addition to its lega) effect, a great 
moral weight, it being deemed the duty of children 
to respect the desires of their deceased father, or 
even of more distant ancestors. That this princi- 

ple originated in Biblical times is evi- 

The ‘‘ Zaw- denced by the faithful obedience of 
wa’ah.” the Rechabites to the rules laid down 
for them by their ancestor Rechab 

(Jer. xxxv. 6-19). In this sense the written “zaw- 
wa’ah” became an important element in the Jewish 
literature of the Middle Ages, down even to the sev- 


523 


enteenth century, But such an instrument, if writ- 
ten during good health, had only a moral sanction, 
even as to the disposal of property, which the civil 
judge could not entorce. 

An owner of property can make a revocable dis- 
position, taking effect after death, only in the form of 
a “gift of him who lies sick”; in other words, such 
a disposition can be made only when death is ap- 
parently very near; and if the danger present at the 
time of the gift passes away, the gift is ipso facto 
revoked. But this kind of gift differs very broadly 
from the “donatio causa mortis,” which has been 
adopted by the probate and equity courts from the 
Roman law into the laws of England and America; 
for the latter gift is valid only when followed by de- 
livery or such other formalities as the nature of the 
thing given demands in gifts “inter vivos,” while 
the Talmudic gift “causa mortis” requires no for- 
mality whatever, not even an appeal to the bystand- 
ers, as, “ You are my witnesses that I give this to 
NN.” 

There is this difference between the “gift of one 
iying sick” and a true testament: while the latter 
disposes of all that the testator owns at the moment 
of death, the other takes effect only on the prop- 
erty which the donor has at the time of the gift. 
Thus, if a man says, “My wife shall take a son’s 
share,” though the share may be increased or may 
be lessened by the subsequent death or birth of sons, 
it will be only a share in the property which the 
donor owned when he spoke the words (B. B. 128b). 
Says the Mishnah (B. B. viii. 5): “If one says, ‘A, 
my first-born, shall not have a double share,’ or, 
‘My son B shall not inherit among his brethren,’ it 
is without effect; for he declares against what is 
written in the Torah. Butif he divides his estate 
among his sons by his words, giving more to one 
than to another, or making the first-born equal to 
the others, his words are valid; ouly he must not 
speak of it as ‘inheritance,’ but must call it ‘gift’ 
somewhere in his spoken or written words.” 

The technical formula “gift of one lying sick” 
(“shekib mera‘”; this Aramaic phrase is used in 
the Mishnah) really denotes the revocable gift; and 

as the removal of the danger revokes 

Gift ‘‘Causa the gift, it was usual for the witnesses 

Mortis.” to it to draw up a minute containing 

the following or equivalent words: 

“This gift was made when he was sick and lay on 

his bed: and from this sickness he departed for his 
eternal home.” 

R. Eliezer, who represents in the Mishnah the 
position that the gift “causa mortis” is not effective 
without “kinyan,” cites the well-known incident of 
aman of Meron (Galicia) at Jerusalem who wished 
to make a gift of movable property to an absent 
friend, and found no legal way except to buy a 
piece of land and then to make a deed conveying the 
land and the movable property together to his friend ; 
he is told in answer that the man proposing to make 
the gift was evidently in good health (B. B. 156b; 
comp. Yer. Pe’ah 17d). 

The gift of one who is sick is, as stated above, 
valid without the specific acts which ordinarily are 
necessary to pass a title; ¢.g., in the case of land or 
Slaves, without deed, payment of price, or occupa- 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Wilkesbarre 
Will 


tion; in the case of movable property, without 
“pulling”; in the case of demands, without the 
“meeting of three”; and the heirs can not release a 
demand that has been thus given away. While, 
according to the Mishnahb, the majority uphold the 
position that such a gift can be made without kin- 
yan and without writing only on the Sabbath, the 
contrary opinion, that the writing can be dispensed 
with on week-days also, prevailed afterward; and 
the Talmud declares that the words of the sick man 
must be deemed just as effectual as if they were 
written, sealed, and delivered. However, even the 
Mishnah cites the case of the “mother of Rokel’s 
sons,” who told her sons to give her valuable cloak 
to her daughter, the wish being enforced after her 
death. 

Where the sick man gives away his whole estate 
with those formalities by which titles pass (kin- 
yan), the act is nevertheless treated as revocable and 
as taking eifect only on the donor’s death; but, if 
he sets aside for himself “any land whatever ” (ac- 
cording to the Mishnah) or “any movable property 
whatever ” (according to later authorities), the gift 
is valid and irrevocable. The Talmud, however, 
provides that the part reserved must be sufficient to 
enable him to earn his living. Still the bystanders 
are encouraged to help the sick man in passing 
title to the donees whenever he desires to do so, on 
the ground that it will tend to calm his mind; and 
they may do this even on the Sabbath, so far as it 
can then be lawfully done; but it could hardly have 
been the intent of the sages to encourage a course of 
action which would leave the sick man penniless in 
case he should recover. 

The most effective method of making a gift is to 
acknowledge the property right of the intended 
donee as already in force; ¢.g., one may acknowledge 
that one owes A athousand zuzim, or such a horse, 
or such a slave; or that a certain sum in the hands 
of a named person (the sick man’s debtor) belongs 
to A. If the sick man wishes to give anything toan 
idolater, he can do it only in this way, as a direct 
gift would not be enforced by a Jewish court. R. 
Marc, the son of Issur the convert, was begotten 
“not in holiness” (7.e., he was begotten before his 
father’s conversion); therefore when Issur wished 
to leave him a sum of money then in the hands of a 
debtor, which money represented the bulk of his es- 
tate, he was told that it was against the policy of 
the Law to permit him to leave his estate by gift 
“causa mortis” to a son incapable of inheriting it 
(see DERELICcTs), A way out of the difficulty was 
then shown him; this was to acknowledge before 
the witnesses that the sum of money already be- 
longed to R. Marc. It seems that the heirs are 
estopped by the acknowledgment of the ancestor 
and can not question its truth. 

A dispute may arise between a donor who wishes 
to resume his gift after possession thereof has been 

given or the title thereto has otherwise 


Resump- passed, and the donee, the former as- 
tion serting that he was dangerously sick, 
of Gift. and that the gift, being made “causa 


mortis,” is revocable, while the do- 
nee says, “ You were in good health, and your gift 
is irrevocable.” A dispute may also arise be- 


William of Auvergne 
Wilna 


tween the donor’s heirs and the donee, in the case of 
a gift not completed by kinyan, the former saying, 
“He recovered from the sickness in which he made 
the gift, and afterward died from another cause.” 
The masters of the Mishnah differed as to the burden 
of proof; but finally the old rule of the Hillelites 
prevailed: “The estate remains according to its oc- 
cupation,” or, it might be said, “its presumption.” 
That is, if the things given away remain in the pos- 
session of the donor or his heirs, the burden of proof 
is on the donee; if they are in the possession of the 
donee, the burden of proof is on the donor or his 
heirs. Where a testament in writing is found on 
the person of a dead man, in the absence of other 
evidence it amounts to nothing; for though the 
“gift of one lying sick” is good without delivery of 
the deed, the testator nay have intended a delivery, 
and such delivery is impossible after his death. 

The thing given “causa mortis” is as much sub- 
ject to the donor’s debts, or to his widow's jointure, 
as property that has descended to the heirs. If sev- 
eral sums are given in such words (spoken or written) 
as, “So much to A, afterward so much to B,” etc., 
the last-named donee must first yield his gift to the 
testator’s creditors; but in the absence of words of 
postponement, the several donees lose proportion- 
ately if, through the decedent's debts, or for any 
cause, the estate falls short of the necessary value. 

Should a sick man send money or valuables to a 
person at a distance, and the messenger find such 
person dead, the gift is valid and goes to the heirs 
of the latter, if at the time of the delivery to the 
messenger the donee was alive; but if he was then 
dead, the gift is void, and the thing goes back to 
the donor’s heirs. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Maimonides, Yad, Zekiyyah, Vili.—xii.; Caro, 
Shuthan ‘Aruk, Hoshen Mishpat, 246, 250-238, 281 et seq. 


E. C. L. N. D. 


WILLIAM OF AUVERGNE. See Guttr.- 
LAUME OF AUVERGNE. 


WILLIAM OF NORWICH: Alleged victim 
of ritual murder by Jews at Norwich in 1144. He 
may therefore claim to be the protomartyr of this 
class of pseudo-martyrdom. According to the boy’s 
own family, he was enticed away on Monday, March 
21, 1144, to become a scuilion of the Archdeacon of 
Norwich, and was not heard of again till Saturday, 
March 26, when his uncle, cousin, and brother found 
his body, covered with sand, in Thorpe Wood, near 
Norwich, with the head shaven and with marks of 
puncture by thorns. Although there were signs of 
life in the body, it was reburied in the same place; 
and Godwin Sturt, the boy’s uncle, at the next 
synod, accused. the Jews of having murdered Will- 
iam, whereupon the prior of Lewis Priory claimed 
the body as that of a martyr, and the canons of Nor- 
wich Cathedral seized it for themselves. The boy’s 
brother Robert and his uncle Godwin were ap- 
pointed officials in the monastery on the strength of 
their relationship to the martyr; and his mother was 
buried in the graveyard of the monastery, some- 
what to the scandal of the monks. No action was 
taken against the accused Jews, though it was as- 
serted that the boy William had been seen entering 
-he house of a Jew named Deusaie or Eleazar, and 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


524 


a report was brought from Theobald, a converted 
Jew of Cambridge, that it was the custom of Jews 
to sacrifice a boy at Passover at some place chosen 
by lot, and that the lot for that year had fallen on 
Norwich. This is the first historical occurrence of 
the myth of the BLoop AcctsaTIon. The royal 
sheriff, in whose jurisdiction the Jews were, refused 
to take notice of the accusation, although he was 
himself indebted to the Jews, and would have been 
benefited personally if they had been proved guilty. 

It has been suggested that the boy’s relatives in a 
fit of religious exaltation attempted to gain increased 
sanctity for theniselves and for the lad by making 
him undergo the form of crucifixion on Good Fri- 
day, March 25; that, during the process, the boy 
had fallen into a fit, which had alarmed his relatives, 
who thereupon buried him in Thorpe Wood, near 
their residence; and that, to divert suspicion, they ac- 
cused the Jews, although the process of crucifixion 
would be quite unfamiliar to them, and obtained 
some sort of confirmation from the convert Theobald. 
Later, the legend of the martyr was considerably de- 
veloped by Thomas of Capgrade (d. 1494). It was 
claimed that the Jews had been met as they were 
carrying the body in a bag to Thorpe Wood, on the 
opposite side from the Jewry outside the city, which 
they would have had to traverse. The person who 
thus encountered them kept silence, it was alleged, at 
the order of the sheriff, who had been bribed by the 
Jews. On his refusal to testify, a fierce light from 
heaven pointed out the place of martyrdom to a man, 
who found the lad’s body disfigured with stigmata 
and hanging from a tree. Nothing of all this is 
found in the earliest form of the legend as related 
by Thomas of Monmouth, althoughithe supernatural 
light appeared in Germany (Pertz, “Scriptores,” 
vi, 472), whither the story was carried and where it 
had numerous repetitions. See BLoop ACCUSATION. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jacobs, fan of Angevin England, pp. 19-21, 
236-258 ; idem,in J. Q. BR. ix. 748-755; Jessop and James, The 
Life and Miracles of William of Norwich by Thomas of 
Monmouth, Cambridge, 1897. j 


WILLOW: Any tree or shrub of the genus Sa- 
“iz, Willows and poplars are numerous in Pales- 
tine. In all regions the white willow (Salix alba) 
and the Euphrates poplar (Populus Huphratica) oc- 
cur with great frequency, while the crack-willow 
(Saliz fragilis) and the white poplar (Populus alba) 
are also common. On the banks of the Jordan and 
in the valleys of the Dead Sea grow the Salix safsaf 
and its variety, the Salix hierochuntica. The fol- 
lowing species also occur, although less frequently: 
black willow (Suliz nigricans) at Amanus, near Bei- 
rut; French willow (Salix triandra) at Al-Zib; Saliz 
alba, var. latifolia, near Beirut and the Dead Sea; 
var. tntegrifolia near ‘Aintab; goat-willow (Salix 
caprea) on Lebanon; Salix alba, var. Libanotica; 
Saliz pedicellata near Damascus and in Ceele-Syria; 
black poplar (Populus nigra); weeping willow (Sa- 
liz Babylonica); and Lombardy poplar (Populus 
pyramidalis). The “willows” of the Bible (p35, 
Isa. xv. 7, xliv. 4, and Ps. exxxvii. 2; Sno *s5y, 
Lev. xxiii. 40 and Job xl. 22) were the Euphrates 
poplars, although the Mishnah interprets p°37y as 
“willows,” despite the Talmudic traces that the wil- 
low had previously been termed AHYDS (comp. 


525 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


William of Auvergne 
ilna 


Ezek, xvii. 5). aga (Gen. xxx. 37; Hos. iv. 13; 
the 729 of the Targum) is not the officinal storax 
(Styrax officinalis), but the white poplar (Populus 
alba), See PLANTS. 

The Feast of Tabernacles requires, according to 
the Bible, “ willows of the brook,” the Karaites and 
recent exegetes regarding this as applying to the 
pooths themselves, while rabbinical tradition refers 
it to the accessory decorations for the festival. One 
tannaitic tradition seems to show that the Biblical 
“willow of the brook” had leaves serrate like a 
sickle, while the variety with leaves dentate like a 
saw was rejected. Another tannaitic tradition, 
however, states that p’any may be used only when 
they have red twigs and lanceolate leaves, they be- 
ing unavailable if they have white twigs and round 
leaves. Babli combines these traditions, and identi- 
fies the former of the two varieties of willow with 
the D'D7y, while the useless willow is the AYDY 
(Euphrates poplar). The tannaitic description of the 
O’27y corresponds to the trembling poplar, or aspen 
(Populus tremula), and even more closely to the 
Sultz safsaf, or the French willow (Saléx triandra). 
Still another variety is the xabyn, a willow with 
red twigs and an oblong, sickle-shaped leaf, proba- 
bly the white willow (Saléz alba), and which an- 
swers to the tannaitic requirements. 

Theruling of Babliconcerning the available varie- 
ties of the willow was naturally adopted by the codi- 
fiers, such as Maimonides. Joseph Caro, however, 
followed by Mordecai Jaffe, dissented, claiming that 
the usage was at variance with the phraseology of 
the Halakah, since all willow twigs are green, al- 
though they become red after sufficient exposure to 


the sun, so that it is inadmissible to reject twigs be- 


cause they are green, and not red. 

In addition to the species of willow unavailable 
in themselves, twigs were forbidden which had been 
placed under the ban, or which had been stolen or 
cut, or had become dry, though twigs whose leaves 
had partly fallen or withered might be used. Wil- 
lows were also used independently on the Feast of 
Tabernacles as a shield for the altar, and were car- 
ried in the processions which took place daily, or, 
after the destruction of the Temple, on the seventh 
day, the “ willow of the brook” receiving the name 
of “hosanna” from the processional shout. 

Willow twigs were used for weaving baskets and 
similar utensils, pecled twigs being employed for 
the finer grades; while the wood of the willow and 
poplar was made into troughs, etc. The galls on 
the leaves of the willow served to dye veils, and the 
cotton of the seeds of the female willow and poplar 
was made into an inferior grade of lamp-wick. 

The Haggadah is concerned with the willow only 
so far as it forms part of the festal bush, in which 
the “willow of the brook” symbolizes: (1) God; 
(2) the impious and the ignorant of Israel, who have 
heither righteousness nor knowledge, as the willow 
has neither taste nor smell; (3) Joseph and Rachel, 
who, like the willow, faded before the rest; (4) the 
Sanhedrin, the pair of twigs typifying the two sec- 
retaries; (5) the mouth, on account of the labiate 
leaves. All four trees symbolize the beneficence of 
the rain which they cause; they fulfil their purpose 
When two fragrant and two scentless varieties of 


trees are combined. These metaphors are repeated 
frequently in synagogal poetry and in homiletic lit- 
erature, with little change or addition, even in mod- 
ern times. 

E. G. H. I. Lo. 


WILMERSDORFFER, MAX, RITTER 
VON: Bavarian financier and philanthropist; born 
at Bayreuth April 8, 1824; died at Munich Dec. 26, 
1903. At an early age he entered the Munich bank- 
ing firm of his uncle, J. W. Obernddrffer, whose 
daughter he married. He was appointed consul- 
general of Saxony and decorated with the Bavarian 
cross of St. Michael and with the crosses of the 
Saxon Order of Merit and the Order of Albrecht, 
while in 1888 he was made a knight of the Order of 
the Bavarian Crown. He also received the title of 
privy commercial councilor from both Saxony and 
Bavaria. Aman of high education, well read in the 
German classics, he was an authority on numismatics, 
as well as a patron of art and of many charitable 
institutions. Asa strict Jew, he also took a great 
interest in the affairs of the Jewish congregation of 
Munich, whose president he was in 1864 and 1865. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Dettsche Israelitische Zeitung, Regens- 
burg, 1904, No.1; Allg. Zeit. des Jud. 1904, No. 1. D 


WILMINGTON. See NortH CaRonina. 


WILNA: Ancient Lithuanian city, capital of the 
district of the same name; situated on the rivers 
Vilia and Vileika, about 200 miles southeast from 
Libau on the Baltic, and 436 miles southwest from 
St. Petersburg. A Jewish settlement existed there 
in the fourteenth century. The writer Narbutt, in 
his history of Wilna, states that as early as the reign 
of the Lithuanian chief Gedimin (1316-41) there 
was a large Jewish community in the place, and 
that the space occupied by the streets inhabited by 

Jews was about one-fifth of the area 


Earliest of the wholecity. From fully reliable 
Set- data accessible to him, Narbutt even 
tlement. specified the names of the streets then 


inhabited by Jews. The historian Bia- 
linsky writes that under the reign of Olgerd (1345- 
1877) the Jewish community of Wilna was consider- 
able. This opinion is expressed also by the writers 
Krashewsky, Kraushaar, Scherewsky (in his book 
upon the Jewish records of the city of Wilna), and 
Vassilievsky. The last-named historian claims that 
at the end of the sixteenth century the Jewish com- 
munity of Wilna numbered from 10,000 to 15,000. 
Bershadski, in his historica) sketch (in “ Voskhod,” 
1881) of the Jewish community of Wilna, shows that 
the records preserved in the archives evidence the 


_existence of a Jewish community at Wilna since the 


second half of the sixteenth century, but not before. 
He states authoritatively that he was unable to find 
any trace in official sources of the existence of a 
recognized Jewish congregation before that date. 
From scattered indications extant in various He- 
brew writings the conclusion may be drawn that 
Bershadski’s opinion, to the effect that a large 
Jewish community represented by a rabbi is trace- 
able only to the second half of the sixteenth cen- 
tury, is nearer the truth than the others. In the re- 
sponsa of R. Solomon Luria of Lublin (second half 
of 16th cent.) there is found the following: 


Wilna 


““We, the undersigned, hereby certify and witness with our 
signatures that whereas we have been chosen as judges to decide 
the controversy which has taken place at Wilna between R. 
Isaac b. Jacob and R. Jonah b. Isaac, in the matter of the taxa- 
tion of Polotzk, and whereas the disputant parties appeared be- 
fore us, and the aforesaid R. Jonah has given to the aforesaid 
R. Isaac security in behaif of R. Abraham b. Jacob and his brother 
R. Menahem. ... 

**Signed at the city of Wilna, on the first day of the week, the 
7th of Shebat, in the year 5816 [1556]: 

**Menahem b. Eliakim Triseash. 
**Meshuillam b, Jehbiel. ; 
‘*Meshullam b. Judah.”’ 


In none of the rabbinical writings is mention made 
of these rabbis; but the litigants, R. Jonah b. Isaac, 
R. Abraham b. Jacob and his brother Menahem (or 
Mendel), are mentioned in the official records, and 
are cited by Bershadski(“ Russko-Yevreiski Arkhiv,” 
No. 69) as the tax-farmers for certain localities, ap- 
pointed by the Polish king in 1556. In the responsa of 
Joel ha-Levi Sirkes (BaH), second collection (Koretz 
1785), the closing paragraph of section 75 has the 
folowing: “The above is the testimony given 
before us by Jacob b. R. Menahem Kaz. Signed 
in the city of Wilna, on the fourth day of the 
week, twenty-third day of Tammuz, in the year 
5323 [1563]. Jonathan b. R. Samuel, Eliezer b. R. 
Joel, Menahem b, R. Samuel Margolis.” In the ex- 
change of correspondence on legal questions of Ma- 
HaRaM of Lublin (Metz, 1769), the closing paragraph 
-of section 7 reads: “By this means the murderer 
was caught as set forth in full in the testimony 
taken at the city of Wilna, on the third day of the 
week, on the twentieth of Tammuz, in the year 5553 
{1593].” The fact, therefore, that the Jewish commu- 
nity of Wilna was represented by several rabbis, 
and not by one, as small communities are, is con- 
clusive proof that the community was at that time 
considerable. 

There is evidence also that Jews resided in Wilna 
in still earlier periods. It is known that in 1490 the 
plenipotentiary of the Grand Duke of Moscow, ina 
letter to King Casimir, complained of the excessive 
tax imposed upon merchants traveling 
to and from Moscow through Wilna 
by the Jewish lessee of taxes Michael 
Danilow (“ Regesty i Nadpisi,” i., No. 
208, St. Petersburg, 1899). In 1495 the grand duke 
presented to the city of Wilna some property which 
formerly had been owned by a Jew named Janischev- 
sky (7b. No. 215). In 1507 King Sigismund wrote 
that he had bought various goods from the Jewish 
merchant Michael Rebinkowitz (Yesofovich; 7b. No. 
231). Under the date of 1508 there are statements 
of accounts of Jewish lessees of taxes in Wilna and 
Brest- Litovsk (2b. No. 234). In 15382 the Jew Joshua 
Paskowitz was appointed by King Sigismund as 
chief collector of taxes on wax in the market of 
Wilna (Bershadski, “Russko-Yevreiski Arkhiv,” 
No. 140). In 1550 a certain Jewess, Fanna Kaspa- 
rova, who resided at Wilna, refused to surrender to 
the Jewish court the Jew Chatzka Issakowitz, de- 
fying the Jewish court messenger sent to take him, 
although she had previously given bond for the ap- 
pearance of the said Issakowitz (db. No. 167). In 
1555 King Sigismund granted to a certain Jew of 
Wilna a lease for three years of the privilege of 
stamping coins (2b. No. 45). The lessees, in 1560, of 


Early 
Records. 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


526 


the privilege of stamping coins in Wilna were the 
Jews Felix and Borodavka (¢. No. 125). In Sept., 
1562, a Gentile brought before a magistrate a 
charge of assault against a Jew by the name of 
Isracl, the defendant being described tn the complaint 
as @ physician (4. No. 167). In 1568 King Sigis- 
mund issued an order commanding the Jewish com- 
munity of Wilna to pay the taxes duc to the treasury 
(“Regesty i Nadpisi,” No. 557). In 15838 the Jew 
Judah Salamonowitz of Wilna paid taxes on goods 
brought by him from Lublin to Wilna, consisting of 
a truckload of wine, licorice, and linen (“ Archeo- 
graphicheski Sbornik,” part iii., p. 289). The name 
of the Jew Moses Tomchamowitz of Wilna, sccre- 
tary of the mint, is mentioned in the records of 1587 
(“Regesty i Nadpisi,” No. 660). In 1592 the citizens 
of Wilna attacked and destroyed the bet ha-midrash 
of Wilna (“Records of the Community of Wilna,” 
part xxviii., p. 52, Wiina, 1901). In 1593 King Sigis- 
mund ITI. granted to the Jews of Wilna the privi- 
lege of buying real estate from the noblemen of 
that city; at the same time he made many other 
concessions to them, including permission to rebuild 
the bet ha-midrash (Bershadski, in “ Voskhod.” 1887). 
From the above data it is evident that there was a 
large Jewish community in Wilna in the middle of 
the sixteenth century, but that until then it was 
insignificant. The Jews’ street in Wilna, the one 
formerly called by the name of St. Nicholas, which 
terminates at the Hospital of St. Mary, was known 
as the “Jews’ street” in 1592 (Bershadski, “ Istoria 
Yevreiskoi Obshchiny v Wilnye,” in “ Voskhod,” 
1887, p. 84), and is still so called. 

In the seventeenth century the Jews in Wilna and 

in Lithuania generaily enjoyed peace and prosper- 
ity. At the beginning of their settle- 

In the Sev- ment in that country their relations 
enteenth with the non-Jewish population were 

Century. very friendly. Even from the orders 

given by Bogdan Chmielnicki to the 
Polish and Lithuanian magnates it is evident that up 
to that time the Lithuanian Jews lived in happiness 
and peace, and that only the Cossacks subjected 
them to oppression and maltreatment. But from that 
time on they gradually sank into misfortune. The 
conclusion to be drawn, therefore, from the study 
of the history of the Jews of Wilna during that 
period is that the kings and rulers of Poland and 
Lithuania were considerate toward them, but that 
the non-Jewish population was extremely hostiie. 
In 1636 King Ladislaus IV. granted certain impor- 
tant concessions to the Jews of Wilna. In 1669 
King Michael confirmed six privileges previously 
enjoyed by them. King John III., in 1682, per- 
mitted them to conduct their own census-taking. 
Five years Jater (1687) the same king wrote to the 
commander of his army and to the governor of 
Wilna warning them to see that the Jews of Wilna 
were not molested by the non-Jewish population, 
and telling them that they would be held personally 
responsible and punished severely for any violation 
of this order. 

From the seventeenth century on the Wilna Jews 
passed from tragedy to tragedy, the differences being 
only in degree and extent, as may be seen from the 
series of restrictions and limitations imposed upon 


INTERIOR OF THE OLD SYNAGOGUE AT WILNA. 
(From a photograph.) 


Wilna 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


528 


them, leading at times to riots and consequent de- 
struction of property. In 1635 the populace, in a 
mood of frenzy, destroyed the newly erected and 
elaborately appointed Jewish prayer-house at Wilna, 
tearing to pieces eighteen scrolls of the Law, appro- 
priating their golden handles and everything else of 
value, and not leaving a stone of the prayer-house 
unturned (Bershadski, in “ Voskhod,” May, 1887). 
In 1653 King John Casimir was induced to issue a 
circular prohibiting the Jews from engaging in cer- 
tain businesses and from accepting employment as 
servants in the houses of Gentiles (“Regesty i 
Nadpisi,” No. 940). In 1668 the trade-union of 


Wilna passed an ordinance prohibiting Jewish gla- 


piceoteccceneneensor 


ziers from enter- 
ing that union, 
and forbidding 
glaziers to re- 
ceive Jewish ap- 
prentices or to 
employ Jews in 
any other capac- 
ity (¢b. No, 1019). 
In 1664 the fish- 
ermen’s union of 
Wilna excluded 
the Jews from 
the fishing trade 
(2b.). In the 
same year the 
king yielded to 
the request of 
the citizens of 
Wilna and pro- 
hibited the Jews 
from engaging 
in the occupa- 
tions of silver- 
smiths and gold- 
smiths (2. No. 
1022). It seems 
also that two 
years later (1666) 
the Jews were 
excluded from 
the grain busi- 
ness (db. No. 
1041), in 1667 
from tanning 
(7b. No. 1056), 
and in 1669 from the bristle manufacturing business 
(46. No. 1078). Butas long as Wilna remained under 
Polish and Lithuanian rulers all those restrictions 
and limitations were tolerable; the real and acute 
suffering began with the conquest of Wilna by the 
Russians in 1654, when the savage hordes of Cos- 
sacks, Jed by their barbaric chieftain Chmielnicki, 
destroyed everything destructible in the city, and 
killed every Jew they met (see “ Entziklopedicheski 
Slovar,” vol. vi., p. 384). The Jews that remained 
were banished from Wilna by order of the Russian 
king Alexis Mikhailovich (“ Regesty,” No. 971). 

To this wholesale expulsion from Wilna reference 
is made in the preface of “Be’er ha-Golah” by R. 
Moses Ribkes: “ And on the fourth day of the week, 
on the 23d of Tammuz, in 5415 [1655], the whole con- 


Part of the Old Cemetery at Wilna. 


Star Shows Tombstone of Elijah Gaon. 
(From a photograph.) 


gregation fied for its life from the city of Wilna, as 


one man. Those who had provided themselves 
with conveyances carried their wives, 

Calamity children, and their small belongings 
of 1655. in them; but those who had no con- 


veyances traveled on foot and carried 
their children on their backs.” Further reference to 
that catastrophe is made in the “ Bet Hillel” on Yo- 
reh De‘ah (section 21), and in the responsa collec- 
tion “Zemah Zedek” (No. 101). Among the exiles 
from Wilna in that year were the following promi- 
nent rabbis: Aaron Samuel b. Israel Kaidanover 
(who afterward became rabbi of Cracow, and who 
used to supplement his signature with the words, 
“the exile from 
the city of Wil- 
na” ; see the pref- 
ace to his “ Bir- 
kat ha-Zebah”); 
Shabbethai _ b. 
Meir ha-Kohen 
(author of “ Me- 
gillah ‘Afah,” in 
which the Wilna 
catastrophe of 
that year is de- 
scribed); and 
Ephraim b. 
Aaron (author of 
“Sha‘ar  Efra- 
yim”).  Wilna 
remained in the 
hands of the 
Russians for 
about six years, 
when it again 
came under the 
rule of the kings 
of Poland; the 
lot of the Jews, 
however, re- 
mained as bad 
as ever. 

The vernacu- 
lar of the Jews 
of Wilna at that 
time seems to 
have been Rus- 
sian. This con- 
clusion is drawn 
from the following statement in the volume of 
responsa “Geburot Anashim” (p. 26): “It hap- 
pened in the city of Wilna that a man, at the wed- 
ding ceremonies, used the Russian language in be- 
trothing his bride, ‘Ya tebja estum mekaddesh.’” 
The date following this is Dec. 26, 1636. 

Nothing important of a favorable nature happened 
to the Jewish community of Wilna during the eight- 
eenth century. In 1708, when Wilna was taken by 

Charles XIT. of Sweden, more than 20,- 

The 000 died there from famine and pesti- 
Eighteenth lence ina comparatively short time; a 
Century. great number of Jews being among 
these, the community became poverty- 

stricken, and many were compelled to leave the city 
(“ Entziklopedicheski Slovar”). The author of the 


aye Ey 


2S eer ep ee rrr nee rece necemensenepe eens ot 


“noiehe anne tie _ ON" Ra 
ipod Syed ora DEEP en “ppsma pay Peb FED Ty re 2 (30) po , 
, Foor 6 Pa TW SRR TpS PT 

. all (po3 09 porte preye = pep > wee 
) mninpon be abae ryan ord (1D) 
| Berens ee) (on. oe 
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hit bn so bor * epamgyes 2 (3) oe waite ade 


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Ses ey iy 63 : “phi Apr pee 9 She) | nos 


mos Asvt.p'3} on be) 
Shs Sosy BY Sow py poe 
Trin nm. A: Rie 


kaw SA kelsis 
Laas 51 pari 
, OFT WN: 


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SSapto wag) Sows: O03 Jee pine Sheri 
gn Osim pifion 3s ora pp: PPI MED Pp OE) 
4 409 t°5) anon i oabs open oon wh Dons 
spore Bouncy MA DoS orien. ono fd-be) onfas bhtineo. 
fmol open cent 390.1 Blanes 12 Coan 78. rE IE 
Thre ee fr: ie ¥y% oped ae SONA won ae . 
5 Pg. "4 Baw 4. > a pay Ssh ‘oss 13° Spas Apr 
P st pra sys] S3y77 ¥ san ben 2 (FI a 
fos. Fond Sins}. co Pus ouhe rea hp 8 eyose re ee SEA 3 
qhonen Soom > 
SG phos! : 


a ee 


PAGE FROM SHULHAN ‘ARUK, PRINTED AT WILNA, 1880, 


Wilna 
Windows 


“Rosh Yosef,” in his memoirs (Preface), says: “The 
wrath of the oppressor compelled me to leave my 
place of residence, for his arm was stronger than 
ours, and the wo and terror which entered our local- 
ity deprived us of our resting-place in the country 
of Poland.” The Jews now fell into such depths of 
poverty that they were unable to save their princi- 
pal prayer-house from being sealed by creditors. 
In the “ pinkes” of the Zedakah Gedolah (the princi- 
pal charitable society), under date of the 2d of Elul, 
5466 (Aug. 30, 1707), the following entry occurs: “In 
those days the synagogue was closed and sealed for 
almost a whole year. The cemetery also was closed.” 
On the return to the throne of King August of Sax- 
ony in the year 1720, the populace of Wilna, mindful 
of its hatred toward the Jews, requested him to re- 
duce the privileges heretofore granted to the latter 
in connection with the grain business. The king 
did not yield to the request at that time; but in 1742 
the citizens secured the support of the magistrate, 
who compelled the representatives of the Jewish 
community to sign and execute an agreement in 
which they surrendered their former rights and 
privileges. Thus the Jewish community of Wilna 
continued to dwindle down to the time of the per- 
manent occupation of Wilna by the Russians, when 
the position of the Jews improved somewhat—when, 
in fact, they lived under conditions much more fa- 
vorable than those of the present day. 

Following is a list of the more important known 
rabbis of Wilna: Abraham Segal (first rabbi of 
Wilna; mentioned by the author of “Sefer Toledot 
Yizhak,” Prague, 1623); Menahem Manus Hajes 
(mentioned in “Etan ha-Ezrahi,” Koretz, 1636); 
Feibush Ashkenazi (mentioned in the “‘Abodat 
ha-Gershuni,” No. 67, and in other works); Moses 
b. Isaac Judah Lima (author of “ Helkat Meho- 
kek”); Isaac b. Abraham of Posen ; Nahman b. 
Solomon Naphtali of Vladimir; Moses b. David 

(known also as R. Moses Kremer); R. 


Rabbis. Simson (in his old age settled in Pal- 


estine); Hillel b. Jonah ha-Levi; | 


Baruch Kahana Rapoport; Joshua Heshel; 
Samuel (the last head of the bet din). From R. 
Samuel’s time the title “rosh bet din” was discarded, 
no rabbi subsequently elected being authorized to as- 
sume that title; since then the rabbi has been called 
“moreh zedek.” The reason for the abolition of the 
title wasa quarrel in which R. Samuel was involved 
asa result of his having treated the community with 
disrespect. The rabbinic school or yeshibah, found- 
ed in 1847, but closed in 1873, was one of the most 
prominentin eastern Europe. Wilnais distinguished 
not only by its rabbis but also by the large number of 
eminent Hebrew scholars who have been born or have 
resided there. Among these may be mentioned: Ju- 
dah Léb Gorpon, LEBENSOHN, Reichenson, ete. 

In 1875 the Jews of Wilna numbered 37,909 in a 
total population of 82,688. The census of 1902 
showed about 80,000 Jews in a total population of 
162,638. The explanation of this rapid increase, 
which is out of all proportion to the ordinary growth 
of urban populations, lies in the “ May laws” of 1882, 
which prohibited Jews from living in rural districts, 
and thus brought a large number to Wilna, as to 
other cities. In Hebrew literature Wilna is described 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


530 


as the “mother city in Israel,” or the “ Lithuanian 

Jerusalem”: the latter term originated, probably, 

with Napoleon I., when he was in Wilna in 1812. 

Wilna contains a teachers’ institute (Jewish), the 
only one of the kind in the whole of Russia. To it 
four subordinate elementary schools for Jewish chil- 
dren areattached. After graduating from the higher 

school the students receive diplomas 

Communal as teachers; the number of such grad- 
In- uates is about twelve or thirteen annu- 
stitutions. ally. The money for the support of 
the institute, about 30,000 rubles per 

annum, is appropriated by the government from the 
municipal meat-tax of Wilna, the burden of which 
falls mainly upon the poor class of the Jewish popu- 
lation, since members of the liberal professions and 
college graduates are exempt from that tax, and the 
well-to-do class, not being strictly Orthodox asarule, 
are more or less indifferent to the use of kasher meat. 

There are about twenty elementary schools for Jew- 

ish children, called “ people’s schools.” But neither 

in these schools nor in the teachers’ institute and its 
subordinate schools is instruction given in even one 
specifically Jewish subject. 

A soup-kitchen for Jews is maintained in Wilna, 
in which a substantial meal, consisting of bread, 
soup, and meat, can be had for 4 copecks (2 cents). 
The kitchen is much used by Jewish soldiers stationed 
in the city; the extremely poor receive their meals 
free. It issupported by voluntary subscriptions, ex- 
clusively from Jews, and by the proceeds from cer- 
tain Jewish ballsand lectures. About 30,000 persons 
annually receive meals from it, one-half being non- 
Jews. About 112 soldiers are annually recruited, 
under the general conscription laws, from the Jewish 
community of Wilna. The Jews are mostly engaged 
in the export of lumber and grain, and in shopkeep- 
ing. Poverty, prevalent throughout Russian Jewry, 
is especially marked in Wilna. It may safely be main- 
tained, although noactual statistics are available, that 
fully 80 per cent of the Jewish population of Wilna 
do not know in the evening where they will obtain 
food the next morning. In former days a consider- 
able number of people made their living by the liquor 
trade, keeping saloons and inns; but a few years ago 
the Jews were excluded from that trade by govern- 
mental ordinances. Recently model tenement-houses 
have been erected for the Jewish workmen of Wilna 
by the Jewish Colonization Association. 

The district of Wiloa contains 1,706,857 inhabit- 
ants, of whom 245,771 are Jews. Of the latter 3,921 
are occupied in agriculture. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Regesty 1 Nadpisi, St. Petersburg, 1899; Ber- 
shadski, Russko-Yevreiskt Arkhiv; idem, Ocherk Wilen- 
skoi Yevreiskot Obshchiny; Voskhod, 1881-87; Akty Wilen- 
skot Kommisst, 1901-2. 

H. R. B. R. 
—Typography: A Hebrew printing-press was es- 
tablished in Wilna in 1799 by Baruch Romm, asa 
branch of his establishment at Grodno. Through 
the action of the Russian censorship this press had 
practically a monopoly of the Russian and Polish 
markets from 1845 onward, when the printing of 
Hebrew books was restricted to Wilna and Slavuta. 
Between 1847 and 1857 the Wilna press produced no 
less than 460 different works (enumerated by Ben- 
jacob in Steinschneider, “Hebr. Bibl.” iv-v.). This 


531 


yearly average of 41 works was raised to 638 in 1871 
(E. Reclus, “ Nouvelle Geographie,” p. 486). Espe- 
cially noteworthy were the Talmuds of 1885 and 
1880, which have proved the standard editions for 
the east of Europe: a specimen page of the latter is 
given in illustration of thearticle TaLMuUD. Besides 
the many books printed by the Romms, the period- 
ical “Ha-Karmel” is published at Wilna. 


WILNA, ABRAHAM. Sce ABRAHAM BEN 
ELWanH oF WILNA. 


WILNA GAON. See ELIJAH BEN SOLOMON. 


WINAWER, SIMON: Russian chess-player; 
born in Warsaw 1889. In 1867 he wasin Paris; and 
while watching some games at the Café de la Ré- 
gence in that city he decided to enter a tournament 
to be held there. To the surprise of every one he 
gained the second prize, defeating, among several 
noted players, Samuel Rosenthal. He now applied 
himself to the game so assiduously that in 1878 he 
gained the second prize at the international tourney 
held at Paris, Zukertort being first and Blackburne 
third. In 1881 at Berlin he divided the third and 
fourth prizes with Tchigorin; and in 1882 at Vienna 
he divided the first and second prizes with Steinitz. 
In 1888, playing in the international tourney held in 
London, he, for the first time in his career, was not 
placed; but at Nuremberg (19 entries) in the same 
year he gained the first prize, defeating Blackburne, 
who gained second place. 

From this time Winawer seems gradually to have 
declined as a tournament player. At Dresden in 
1892 and again at Budapest in 1896 he succeeded in 
gaining sixth place only, while at Monte Carlo in 
1901 he was unable to gain a prize. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Eneyc. Brit. supplementary vols., s.v. Chess; 
Examples of Chess Master-Pilay (transl. from the German 
of Jean Dufresne by C. T. Blanchard), New Barnet, 1893. 


S. A. P. 

WINCHESTER: Ancient capital of England; 
county town of Hampshire. Jews appear to have 
settled there at an early date, one of the first entries 
in the pipe-rols referring to a fine paid in 1160 by 
Gentil], a Jewess of Winchester, for the privilege of 
not marrying a certain Jew. The Jewry seems to 
have been located in Shorten street, afterward called 
Jewry street, leading to the North Gate. The syn- 
agogue was in Trussil, now Jail, street. The Jewry 
must have been a center of some importance, as 
Tsaac of Chernigov was found there in 1182 (Jacobs, 
“Jews of Angevin England,” p. 73). It has been 
conjectured that Moses b. Yom-Tob, who wrote the 
“Darke Nikkud ” now found in the rabbinic Bibles, 
lived at Winchester (¢b. p. 124). | 

When the massacres occurred in England (1189- 
1190), Winchester spared its Jews, though a couple 
of years later the blood accusation was raised against 
a Winclester Jew (see Richard of Devizes, “ Chroni- 
con,” ed. Howlett, p. 485). A similar accusation 
was brought against the Winchester Jews in 1282 
(Rigg, “Select Pleas,” p. xiv.). Ina description of 
the alleged murder of 1192 Winchester is called “the 
Jerusalem of the Jews” in those parts, and is stated 
to have had relations with Jews of France (probably 
Rouen). The most prominent Jew of Winchester in 
the eleventh century was probably Deulacresse or 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Wilna 
Windows 


Cresselin, who was an agent of AARON OF LINCOLN, 
and who obtained possession of some of the latter’s 
lands after his death. 

Several Jewesses are mentioned in the records as 
lending money at Winchester, notably Chera in the 
twelfth century, and Licorice in the thirteenth (28. 
pp. 19-27). An elaborate list of transactions be- 
tween the latter and Thomas of Charlecote about 1253 
shows that Jewesses of those days had the right of 
holding land as security for payment of debt.  Lic- 


orice agreed to pay the large fine of £5,000 on suc- 
ceeding to the estate of her husband, David of Ox- 


Ryd 
q yde Abbey 
3 —— : = 


(Site ofthe 
4) | Site at 
‘Minst 


palace s 


Plan of Winchester, England, in the Thirteenth Century, Show- 
ing the Position of the Jewish Quarter. 


ford, in 1244 (2). p. 27, note). Winchester had an 
ARCHA up to the time of the expulsion, and was, 
therefore, a licensed place of residence for the Jews 
while they remained in England. At the time of 
the expulsion a number of houses and outstanding 
debts fell into the hands of the king from the Jews 
of Winchester (“ Trans. Jew. Hist. Soc. Eng.” i. 137). 
The position of the Jews must have been exception- 
ally favorable in Winchester, because one of them 
was even received into the merchants’ gild, a most 
unusual case, none other being known in early 
Anglo-Jewish history. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jacobs, Jews of Angevin Hngland, pp. 1383, 
146-152, 380; Milner, History of Winchester, ii. 180; Kitchen, 
Winchester, p. 180; Norgate, Angevin England, i. 31. 


WINDOWS (“hallon,” “arubbah”): The cli- 
mate of Palestine and the customs of the ancient and 
the modern Orient alike rendered the house less im- 
portant than it is in the Occident, since it was more 
a sleeping apartment than a place for work, or even 
for occupancy during the day (comp. Hovss). 
Many large windows, therefore, were not desired, 
since they would admit heat in summer and rain and 
cold in winter. In like manner, the Assyro-Baby- 
lonian and the Egyptian house had few windows 
(comp. Perrot and Chipiez, “ Art in Chaldea,” i. 186 
et seg.; Wilkinson, “ Manners and Customs of the 
Ancient Egyptians,” i. 862 e¢ seg.). In this respect 
the houses of modern Palestine precisely resemble 
those of the ancient Hebrews, for the windows 
which look on the street are very small and are 
placed high in the wall, thus being analogous to the 
windows of the Temple of Solomon, which were 
narrow and high (I Kings vi.4). Large, wide win- 
dows were reserved, like panels of cedar-wood and 


Winds 
Wine 


mural paintings, for the luxurious palaces of the 
great (Jer. xxii. 14), 

Although excavations show that GLAss was known 
to the Assyrians and Babylonians, as well as to the 
Egyptians, at a very early time, it was never used 
for windows in the ancient East. Openings for 
light and air were either left entirely free, as was 
often the case in the simple peasants’ huts, or 
they had a shutter or wooden lattice; even the win- 
dows of the Temple had immovable gratings of 
wood (I Kings vi, 4, R. V.). Usually, however, 
these lattices were so constructed that they could be 
removed, or thrown apart likedoors. The windows 
could be opened (II Kings xiii. 17), for Ahaziah fell 
through an open window (II Kings i. 2). Such 
means of closure were naturally very unsafe, and 
thieves could easily enter the house by means of the 
window (Joel ii. 9; comp. Jer. ix. 21). 

E, G. H. J. BE. 

WINDS: Ancient Hebrew literature recognizes 
only four winds—north, south, east, and west, hav- 
ing no names forthose from intermediate points, so 
that sucha designation as “north” has a wide range 
of application. The dwelling-places of the winds 
were in the four corners of the earth (“kezot ha- 
arez ”); there they were confined in storehouses, 
from which YHwH sent them forth (Jer. x. 18, xlix. 
36, li. 16; B. B. vi. 7). According to Rev. vii. 1, 
these storehouses were guarded by four angels, who 
restrained the winds, as they continually strove to 
break loose (comp. Enoch, Ixxvi. 1 et seg.: “At the 
ends of the earth I saw twelve doors opened toward 
all the quarters of heaven, and the winds came forth 
from them, and blew over the earth”). The an- 
cient Hebrews had no conception of the nature and 
causes of winds; for them, as for every ancient peo- 
ple, the wind was a mysterious creation, whose 
paths were always unknown (Eccl. xi. 5 [R. V.]; 
John iii. 8). Indeed, in their action, as in their ori- 
gin, the winds were phenomena wholly without the 
sphere of human knowledge (Ps. cvii. 25-27; Mark 
iv, 41), and YaHwuH’s power appeared the greater in 
that it was He who created them (Amos iv. 18), 
causing them to come from out His treasuries (Ps. 
cxxxv. 7; Jer. x. 18, li. 16), and controlling their 
power and “weight” (Job xxviii. 25). He likewise 
made them His messengers and servants (Ps. civ. 4 
(R. V.], cxlviii. 8), and used the “stormy winds” as 
instruments in the execution of His judgments (Isa. 
xxix. 6; Amos i. 14; Wisdom v. 28; Ecclus. (Si- 
rach] xxxix. 28). 

The Hebrews, as was natural, carefully distin- 
guished the characteristics of the individual winds. 
The north wind was icy cold (Ecclus. [Sirach} xiii. 
20; comp. LXX., Prov. xxvii. 16; Job xxxvii. 9), 
so that Jerome called it “ventus durissimus.” 
When it came from the north it brought rain (Prov. 
xxv. 23), and, according to Josephus, the sailors on 
the coast called the stormy wind from the north, 
which scourges the waves, “the black north wind ” 
(“B. J.” iii. 9, § 3). The east wind, which came 
from the Syrian desert (Jer. iv. 11, xiii. 24; Job i. 
19), was the hot wind, which parched the crops and 
blighted the trees (Gen. xli. 6, 283, 27; Ezek. xvii. 
10, xix. 12; Hos. xiii. 15; Jonah iv. 8). Hence the 
Septuagint usually calls it catowy (“the burner”). 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


532 


When it developed into a storm it was especially 
dangerous because of the violence of its blasts (Job 
i. 19, xxvii. 21; Isa. xxvii. 8: Jer. xviii. 17; Ezek. 
xxvii. 26; Ps. xlvili. 8A. V. 7]). The south wind 
also was a hot wind (Job xxxvii. 17; Luke xii. 55); 
although the due south wind blows but seldom in 
Palestine. From the west came the refreshing eve- 
ning breeze which brought rain (Gen. iii. 8; Cant. 
ii. 17; I Kings xviii. 43 e¢ seqg.; Luke xii. 54; also 
Cant. iv. 16, where northwest and southwest winds 
are probably meant). 

E. G. H. J. Be. 

WINE.—Biblical Data: The juice of the 
grape is the subject of special praise in the Scrip- 
tures. The “ vine tree” is distinguished from the other 
trees in the forest (Ezek. xv. 2). The fig-tree is next 
in rank to the vine (Deut. viii. 8), though as food the 
fig isof greater importance (comp. Num, xx. 5) than 
the “ wine which cheereth God and man” (Judges ix. 
18; comp. Ps. civ. 15; Eccl. x. 19). Wine isa good 
stimulant for “such as be faint in the wilderness ” (II 
Sam. xvi. 2), and for “ those that be of heavy hearts” 
(Prov, xxxi. 6). 

The goodness of wine is reflected in the figure in 
which Israel is likened toa vine brought from Egypt 
and planted in the Holy Land, where it took deep 
root, spread out, and prospered (Ps, Ixxx, 9-11). The 
blessed wife is like “a fruitful vine by the sides of thy 
house” (Ps. cxxviii. 3). When peace reigns every 
man rests “ under his vine and under his fig-tree” (I 
Kings v. 5{A. V. iv. 25]). An abundance of wine 
indicates prosperity. Jacob blessed Judah that “he 
washed his garments in wine and his clothes in the 
blood of grapes” (Gen, xlix, 11), 

Bread as an indispensable food and wine as a lux- 
ury represent two extremes; they were used as 
signs of welcome and good-will to Abraham (Gen. 
xiv. 18). A libation of wine was part of the cere- 
monial sacrifices, varying in quantity from one-half 
to one-fourth of a hin measure (Num. xxviii. 14). 

Wine-drinking was generally accompanied by 
singing (Isa. xxiv. 9), A regular wine-room (“bet 
ha-yayin”) was used (Cant. ii. 4), and wine-cellars 
(“ozerot yayin”; I Chron. xxvii. 27) are mentioned. 
The wine was bottled in vessels termed “nebel” and 
“nod” (ISam. i. 24, xvi. 20), made in various shapes 
from the skins of goats and sheep, and was sold in 
bath measures. The wine was drunk from a “ miz- 
rak,” or “gabia‘” (bowl; Jer. xxxv. 5), ora “kos” 
(cup). The wine-press was called “gat” and “ pu- 
rah”; while the “yekeb” was probably the vat into 
which the wine flowed from the press. The“ vine of 
Sodom” (Deut. xxxii, 32), which probably grew by 
the Dead Sea, was the poorest kind. The “vine of 
the fields ” (II Kings iv. 39) wasa wild, uncultivated 
sort, and the “sorek” (Isa. v. 2) was the choicest 
vine, producing dark-colored grapes; in Arabic it is 
called “ surik.” 

There were different kindsof wine. “ Yayin” was 
the ordinary matured, fermented wine, “ tirosh ” was 
anew wine, and “shekar” wasanold, powerful wine 
(“strong drink”). The red wine was the better and 
stronger (Ps. Ixxv. 9 [A. V. 8]; Prov. xxiii. 81). 
Perhaps the wine of Helbon (Ezek. xxvii. 18) and 
the wine of Lebanon (Hos. xiv. 7) were white wines. 
The vines of Hebron were noted for their large clus- 


533 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Winds 
Wine 


ters of grapes (Num. xiii. 28). Samaria was the 
center of vineyards (Jer. xxxi. 5; Micah i. 6), and 
the Ephraimites were heavy wine-drinkers (Isa. 
xxvili.1). There were also “ yayin ha-rekah ” (spiced 
wine; Cant. viii. 2), “ashishah” (hardened sirup of 
grapes), “shemarim ” (wine-dregs), and “homez ya- 
yin” (vinegar), Some wines were mixed with poi- 
sonous substances (“ yayin tar‘elah ”; Ps, lx. 5; comp. 
Ixxv. 9, “mesek” [mixture]). The“ wine of the con- 
demned” (“yen ‘anushim ”) is wine paid as a forfeit 
(Amos ti. 8), and “ wine of violence” (Prov. iv. 17)is 
wine obtained by illegal means. 

E. G. H. J. D. E. 
——In Rabbinical Literature: Wine is called 
“yayin” because it brings lamentation and wailing 
(“ yelalah” and “ wai”) into the world, and “tirosh ” 
because one that drinks it habitually is certain to 
become poor (WAYNH=YIA NAN). R. Kahana said the 
latter term is written sometimes wip, and some- 
times y'7); that means, if drunk in moderation it 
gives leadership (wx = “head ”); if drunk in ex- 
cess it leads to poverty (Yoma 76b). “ Tirosh” in- 
cludes ali kinds of sweet juices and must, and does 
not include fermented wine (Tosef., Ned. iv. 3). 
“Yayin” is to be distinguished from “shekar”; the 
former is diluted with water (“mazug”); the latter 
is undiluted (“yayin hai”; Num. R. x. 8; comp. 
Sifre, Num. 23). In Talmudic usage “shekar” 
means “mead,” or “beer,” and according to R. 
Papa, it denotes drinking to satiety and intoxication 
(Suk, 49b). 

In metaphorical usage, wine represents the es- 
sence of goodness. The Torah, Jerusalem, Israel, 
the Messiah, the righteous—all are compared to 
wine. The wicked are likened unto vinegar, and 
the good man who turns to wickedness is compared 
to sour wine. Eleazar b. Simeon was called “ Vine- 
gar, the son of Wine” (B. M. 88b). The wine which 
is kept for the righteous in the world to come has 
been preserved in the grape ever since the six days 
of creation (Ber. 34b). 

The process of making wine began with gather- 
ing the grapes into a vat (“gat”). There were vats 
hewn out of stone, cemented of potter-made vats, 
and wooden vats (‘Ab. Zarah v. 11). Next to the 
vat was a cistern (“bor”), into which the juice ran 
‘ through a connecting trough or pipe (“zinnor”). 
Two vats were sometimes connected with one cistern 
(B. K. ii. 2). The building containing or adjoining 
the wine-presses was called “bet ha-gat” (Tosef., 
Ter. iii. 7). The newly pressed wine was strained 
through a filter, sometimes in the shape of a funnel 

(“meshammeret”; Yer. Ter. viii. 3), or 

Presses through a linen cloth (“sudar”), in 

and Recep- order to remove husks, stalks, ete. A 

tacles. wooden roller or beam, fixed into a 

socket in the wall, was lowered to 

press the grapes down into the vat (Shab. i. 9; Toh. 
x, 8). 

The cistern was emptied by aladle or dipper called 

‘the “mahaz” (Toh. x. 7), the wine being transferred 
to large receptacles known variously as “ kad,” “kan- 
kan,” “garab,” “danna,” and “habit.” Two styles 
of habit, the Lydian and the Bethlehemite (Niddah 
vi. 6), were used, the former being a smaller barrel 
or cask. All these receptacles were rounded earthen 


vessels, tightly sealed with pitch. The foster-mother 
of Abaye is authority for the statement that a six- 
measure cask properly sealed is worth more than an 
cight-measure cask that is not sealed (B. K. 12a). 
New wine stood for at least forty days before it was 
admissible as a drink-offering ((Eduy. vi. 1; B. B. 
97a). When the wine had sufficiently settled it was 
drawn off into bottles known as “lagin” or “leginah” 
and “zarzur,” the latter being a stone vessel with a 
rim and strainer, a kind of cooler (Sanh. 106a); an 
earthen pitcher, “hazab,” was also used (Men. viii. 
7). The drinking-vessel was the Biblical “kos.” The 
wine was kept in cellars, and from them was removed 
to storerooms called “heftek,” or “apotik” (aogxy), 
a pantry orshelvesinthe wineshop. Bottlesof wine 
from this pantry were exposed for sale in baskets in 
front of the counter (‘Ab. Zarah ii. 7, 39b). 

The quality of a wine was known by its color and 
by the locality from which it came, red wine being 
better than white wine. Keruhim (probably the 
Coreee of Josephus) in Palestine produced the best 
wine (Men. viii. 6), after which came the red wine 

of Phrygia (Perugita; Shab. 147b), the 
Varieties. light-red wine of Sharon (Shab.77a), 
and “yayin Kushi” (Ethiopian wine; 
B. B. 97b).. There were special mixtures of wine. 
Among these were: (1) “aluntit,” made of ald wine, 
with a mixture of very clear water and balsam ; used 
especially after bathing (Tosef., Dem. i. 24; ‘Ab. Za- 
rah 30a); (2) “ kafrisin ” (caper-wine, or, according to 
Rashi, Cyprus wine), an ingredient of the sacred in- 
cense (Ker. 6a); (3) “yen zimmukin” (raisin-wine); 
(4) “inomilin ” (otvéueds), wine mixed with honey and 
pepper (Shab. xx. 2; ‘Ab, Zarah J.¢.); (5) “ilyoston” 
(*7AcdoTeov), a sweet wine (“vinum dulce”) from 
grapes dried in the sun for three days, and then gath- 
ered and trodden in the midday heat (Men. viii. 6; B. 
B. 97b) ; (6) “ me‘ushshan,” from the juice of smoked 
or fumigated sweet grapes (Men. U.c.); not fit for li- 
bation ; (7) “ enogeron ” (otvéyapov), a sauce of oil and 
garum to which wine was added; (8) “apiktewizin” 
(aroxorraficerv), a Wine emetic, taken before a meal 
(Shab. 12a); (9) “kunditon ” (“conditum ”), a spiced 
wine (‘Ab. Zarah ii. 3); (10) “ pesintiton ” (“ absinthi- 
atum”), a bitter wine (Yer. ‘Ab. Zarah ii. 3); (11) 
“yen tappuhim,” made from apples; cider; (12) “ yen 
temarim,” date-wine. Wine made from grapes grown 
on isolated vines (“roglit”) is distinguished from 
that made of the grapes of a vine suspended from 
branches or trained over an espalier (“dalit”); the 
latter was unfit for libation (Men. 86b). 

During the time of fermentation the wine that was 
affected with sourness was called “ yayin koses” (Yer. 
Fe’ah ii., end), and when matured sour it was “ho- 
mez” (vinegar). Good vinegar was made by putting 
barley in the wine. In former times Judean wine 
never became sour unless barley was put in it; but 
after the destruction of the Temple that characteris- 
tic passed to the Edomite (Roman) wine, Certain vin- 
egar was called the “Edomite vinegar” (Pes. 42b). 

Fresh wine before fermenting was called “yayin 
mi-gat ” (wine of the vat; Sanh. 70a). The ordinary 
wine wasof the current vintage. The vintage of the 
previous year was Called “ yayin yashan” (old wine). 
The third year’s vintage was “ yayin meyushshan ” 
(very old wine). Ordinary, fermented wine, accord- 


Wine. 
Winnipeg 


ing to Raba, must be strong enough to take one- 
third water, otherwise it is not to be regarded as 
wine (Shab. 77a). R. Joseph, who was blind, could 
tell by taste whether a wine was up to the standard 
of Raba (‘Er. 54a). 

Wine taken in moderation was considered a 
healthful stimulant, possessing many curative ele- 
ments. The Jewish sages were wont to say, “ Wine 
is the greatest of all medicines; where wine is lack- 
ing, there drugs are necessary” (B. B. 58b). R. 
Huna said, “ Wine helps to open the heart to reason- 
ing” (B. B. 12b). R. Papa thought that when one 
could substitute beer for wine, it should be done for 

the sake of economy. But his view is 
Medicinal opposed on the ground that the preser- 


Value. vation of one’s health is paramount 
to considerations of economy (Shab. 
140b). Three things, wine, white bread, and fat 


meat, reduce the feces, lend erectness to one’s bear- 
ing, and strengthen thesight. Very old wine benefits 
the whole body (Pes. 42b). Ordinary wine is harm- 
ful to the intestines, but old wine is beneficial (Ber. 
5la). Rabbi was cured of a severe disorder of 
the bowels by drinking apple-wine seventy years 
old, a Gentile having stored away 800 casks of it 
(‘Ab. Zarah 40b). “The good things of Egypt” 
(Gen. xlv. 23) which Joseph sent to his father are 
supposed by R. Eleazar to have included “ old wine,” 
which satisfies the elderly person (Meg. 16b). At 
the great banquet given by King Ahasuerus the 
wine put before each guest was from the province 
whence hecame and of the vintage of the year of his 
birth (Meg. 12a). Until the age of forty liberal eat- 
ing is beneficial; but after forty it is better to drink 
more and eat Jess (Shab. 152a). KR. Papa said wine 
is more nourishing when taken in large mouthfuls. 
Raba advised students who were provided with lit- 
tle wine to take it in liberal drafts (Suk. 49b) in 
order to secure the greatest possible benefit from it. 
Wine gives an appetite, cheers the body, and satis- 
fies the stomach (Ber, 85b). After bleeding, accord- 
ing to Rab, a substantial meal of meat is necessary ; 
according to Samuel, wine should be taken freely, 
in order that the red of the wine may replace the red 
of the blood that has been lost (Shab. 129a). 

The benefit derived from wine depends upon its 
being drunk in moderation, as overindulgence is in- 
jurious. Abba Saul, who was a grave-digger, made 
careful observations upon bones, and found that the 
bones of those who had drunk natural (unmixed) 
wine were “scorched”; of those who 
had used mixed wine were dry and 
transparent; of those who had taken 
wine in moderation were “ oiled,” that 
is, they had retained the marrow (Niddah 24b). 
Some of the rabbis were light drinkers. R. Joseph 
and Mar ‘Ukba, after bathing, were given cups of 
inomilin wine (see above). R. Joseph felt it going 
through his body from the top of his head to his 
toes, and feared another cup would endanger his life; 
yet Mar ‘Ukba drank it every day and was not un- 
pleasantly affected by it, having taken it habitually 
(Shab. 140a). R. Judah did not take wine, except 
at religious ceremonies, such as “ Kiddush,” “ Hab- 
dalah,” and the Seder of Passover (four cups). The 
Seder wine affected him so seriously that he was 


Wine- 
Bibbing. 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


534 


compelled to keep his head swathed till the follow- 
ing feast-day— Pentecost (Ned. 49b). 

The best remedy for drunkennessis sleep. “ Wine 
is strong, but sleep breaks its force” (B. B. 10a). 
Walking throws off the fumes of wine, the neces- 
sary amount of exercise being in the proportion of 
about three miles to a quarter-measure of Italian 
wine (‘Er. 64b). Rubbing the palmsand knees with 
oil and salt was a measure favored by some scholars 
who had indulged overmuch (Shab. 66b). 

For religious ceremonies wine is preferable to 
other beverages. Wine “cheereth God” (Judges 
ix. 13); hence no religious ceremony should be per- 
formed with other beverages than wine (Ber. 35a). 
Over all fruit the benediction used is that for “the 
fruits of the tree,” but over wine a special benedic- 
tion for “the fruits of the vine ” is pronounced (Ber. 
vi. 1). This latter benediction is, according to R. 
Eliezer, pronounced only when the wine has been 
properly mixed with water. Over natural wine the 
benediction is the same as that used for the “fruits 
of the tree” (Ber. 50b). The drinking of natural 
wine on the night of Passover is not “in the man- 
ner of free men” (Pes. 108b). “Kiddush” and 
“Habdalah” should be recited overa cup of wine. 
Beer may be used in countries where that is the 
national beverage (Pes. 106a, 107a). According to 
Raba, one may squeeze the juice of a bunch of 
grapes into a cup and say the “Kiddush” (B. B. 
97%b). The cup is filled with natural wine during. 
grace, in memory of the Holy Land, where the best 
wine is produced; butafter grace the wine is mixed. 

The words introducing the grace, “ Let us praise 
Him whose food we have eaten, and by whose good- 
ness we live,” are said over a cup of wine, part of 
which is passed to the hostess (Ber. 50a). Ulla, 
when the guest of R. Nahman, was invited to pro- 
nounce the grace over wine, and the latter suggested 
the propriety of sending part of the wine to his 
guest’s wife, Yalta; but Ulla demurred, declaring 
that the host is the principal channel of blessing, 
and passed it to R. Nahman. When Yalta heard 
this she was enraged, and expressed her indignation 
by going to the wine-room (“be bamra”) and break- 
ing up 400 casks of wine (Ber. 51b). R. Akiba, 
when he made a feast in honor of his son, proposed, 
“Wine and long life to the Rabbis and their disci- 
ples!” (Shab. 67b). 

Following the Scriptural precept, “Give strong 
drink unto him that is ready to perish, and wine 
unto those that be of heavy hearts” (Prov. xxxi. 6), 
the Rabbis ordered ten cups of wine to be served 

with the “meal of consolation ” at the 

In mourner’s house: three cups before 
Mourning. the meal, “to open the bowels,” three 
cups between courses, to help diges- 

tion, and four cups after the grace. Later four 
cups were added in honor of the hazzanim, the par- 
nasim, the Temple, and the nasi Gamaliel. So many 
cups producing drunkenness, thelast four were 
afterward discontinued (Ket. 8b). Apparently this 
custom was in force when the Temple was in ex- 
istence, and persisted in Talmudic times; it dis- 
appeared in the geonic period. R. Hanan declared 
that wine was created for the sole purpose of con- 
soling the bereaved and rewarding the wicked for 


535 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Wine 
Winnipeg 


whatever good they may do in this world, in order 
that they may have no claim upon the world to 
come (Sanh. 70a). After the destruction of the 
Temple many Pharisees, as a sign of mourning, 
vowed to abstain from cating meat and drinking 
wine, but were dissuaded from issuing a decree 
which the public could not observe (B. B. 60b). R. 
Judah b. Bathyra said, “ Meat was the principal ac- 
companiment of joy in the time of the Temple, wine 
in post-exilic times ” (Pes, 109a). 

Rab said that for three days after purchase the 
seller is responsible if the wine turns sour; but after 
that his responsibility ceases. RR. Samuel declared 
that responsibility falls upon the purchaser imme- 
diately upon the delivery of the wine, the rule being 
“Wine rests on the owner’s shoulders.” R. Hiyya 
b. Joseph said, “ Wine must share the owner’s luck ” 
(B. B. 96a, b, 98a). If one sells a cellarful of wine, 
the purchaser must accept ten casks of sour wine in 
every hundred (Tosef., B. B. vi. 6). Whoever sells 
spiced wine is responsible for sourness until the fol- 
lowing Pentecost (¢.¢., until the hot weather sets in). 
If he sells “old wine,” it must be of the second 
year’s vintage; if “very old wine ” (“meyushshan ”), 
it must be of the third year’s vintage (B. B. vi. 2). 

The question of responsibility on the part of car- 
riers of wine (“shekulai”) is discussed. When 
Rabbah bar Hana’s hired carriers broke a cask he 
seized their overgarments; thereupon the carriers 
appealed to Rab, who ordered Rabbah to return 
their garments. “Is this the law?” asked Rabbah 
in astonishment. “It is the moral law,” answered 
Rab, citing, “That thou mayest walk in the way of 
good men” (Prov. ii. 20). When the garments had 
been returned the carriers appealed again: “ We are 
poor men; we have worked all day; and now we are 
hungry, and have nothing.” Rab then ordered 
Rabbah to pay them their wages. “Is this the 
law?” inquired Rabbah. “It is the higher law,” 
replied Rab, completing the verse previously ci- 
ted—“and keep the paths of the righteous” (B, 
M. 88a). 

As acommodity, wine has an important place in 
the business world, A large proportion of the trade 
in wine for the Feast of Passover is controlled by 
Jews. The agricultural activity of Palestine is di- 
rected mainly to viticulture. The Rothschild cellars 
at Rishon le-Ziyyon receive almost the entire produce 
of the Jewish colonists, which, through the Carmel 
Wine Company, is distributed throughout Russia, 
Austria, Holland, Switzerland, France, England, 
and the United States, The vintage of 1904 in the 
Rothschild cellars exceeded 7,000,000 bottles, of 
which 200,000 were sold in Warsaw. See AGRICUL- 
TURAL COLONIES IN PALESTINE. | 

Regarding the interdiction of wine prepared or 
handled by Gentiles see NESEK. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. H. Fowler, The Wine of the Bible, New 


York, 1878: W. Ebstein, Die Medizin im Neuen Testament 
und im Talmud, i. 36, 167; fi. 250, Stuttgart, 1908. 


E. C. J. D. E. 


WINKLER, MAX: American philologist; 
born at Cracow, Austria, Sept. 4, 1866; educated at 
the gymnasium of Cracow, Hughes High School 
(Cincinnati, Ohio), Harvard University (A.B. 1889), 
and the University of Michigan (Ph.D. 1892). He 


took a postgraduate course in the University of 
Berlin, and on returning to the United States was 
appointed instructor in German at the University of 
Michigan ; in 1895 he became assistant professor, and 
in 1902 professor, of German language and literature. 
Winkler has edited the following works: Lessing’s 
“Emilia Galotti,” with introduction and notes, 1895; 
Goethe’s “Egmont,” 1898; Schiller’s “ Wallenstein,” 
1901; and Goethe’s “ Iphigenie,” 1905. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: American Jewish Year Book, 5665. 


A. F. T. H. 


WINNIPEG: Capital of the province of Mani- 
toba, Canada; situated at the junction of the Assin- 
ivoin and Red rivers. Jewshad relations with Win- 
nipeg when it was merely a small Hudson Bay post, 
but the first permanent Jewish settlers went thither 
about 1878. The Russian anti-Jewish outbreaks of 
1881 and 1882 caused about three hundred Jews to 
settle there in the latter year, most of whom worked 
upon the Canadian Pacific Railway, then in the 
course of construction; and subsequent persecu- 
tions of the Jews in eastern Europe sent periodic 
waves of Jewish immigration to the Manitoban cap- 
ital. In 1898 and 1899 there was an influx from 
Rumania, and from 1908 to 1905 there was a further 
considerable accession of settlers from Russia. The 
census of 1891 placed the Jewish population at 
1,156, and at present (1905) the community numbers 
between 2,500 and 3,000 in a total population of 
about 80,000. In professional, mercantile, and in- 
dustrial pursuits the Jews of Winnipeg have done 
their full share toward the development of the city, 
and they are extensive holders of its real estate. In 
1904 one of their number, Moses Finkelstein, was 
elected alderman for the most important and popu- 
lous ward of the city, receiving a large majority. 
In 1892 and 1893, through the exertions of Asher, 
Charles, and Michael Pierce, a number of Winnipeg 
Jews established a colony in Oxbow without calling 
for outside aid. These colonists were afterward 
joined by others from eastern Canada and South 
Africa, and the colony is to-day in a flourishing 
condition. 

Winnipeg now possesses six Jewish congregations. 
The earliest was the B’nai Israel, established in 1883, 
and then came Congregation Beth-El, founded in 
1885; in 1889 these two congregations amalgamated 
under the name “Shaary Zedek,” and built a syna- 
gogue in King street. Congregation Rosh Pina was 
organized in 1890, with a synagogue on Martha 
street, Congregation B'nai Israel, in 1898, with a 
synagogue on Martha street; and Congregation Beth 
Jacob, in 1902, with a synagogue on Schultz street. 
In 1904 the Holy Blossom congregation came into 
existence, and was reorganized the following year 
under the name “Shaar Hashamoyim”; and Con- 
gregation Adas Yeshurun was founded in 1905. 

The Jews of Winnipeg have established a number 
of communal societies, including the Dr. Gaster 
Benevolent Society, the Winnipeg Hebrew Benevo- 
lent Society, the Shaary Zedek Ladies’ Aid Society, 
the Rosh Pina Ladies’ Aid Society, the Winnipeg 
Hebrew Literary Society, and the Shaary Zedek 
Talmud Torah. The last-mentioned has erected a 
spacious building for educational purposes. In 1898 


Winter 
Wisdom 


the first Winnipeg Zionist society was established, 
and at present there are in the city three large and 


active branches of the movement, 
J C. I. pe S. 


WINTER, SOLOMON: MUHungarian philan- 
thropist; born in the county of Zips, Hungary, in 
1778; died at Hunsdorf, in the same county, Feb. 24, 
1859, after laboring for sixty years for the advance- 
ment of the Jewish race in his locality. The erec- 
tion of the synagogue in Hunsdorf about 1820, and 
the construction of the school in 1840, were due 
to him; and he was a representative of the col- 
lective communities of the county in the Budapest 
congress of Jewish notables, 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Wurzbach, Biographisches Lexicon, hvil. 81; 
Howonneies Jahrbuch fiir die [sraelitischen Cultusgemein- 
en, e ty 


8 N. D. 


WINTERNITZ, MORIZ: Austrian Oriental- 
ist; born at Horn Dec. 23, 1863. He received his 
earliest education in the gymnasium of his native 
town, and in 1880 entered the University of Vienna, 
receiving the degree of doctor of philosophy in 
1886. In 1888 he went to Oxford, where until 1892 
he assisted Max Miller in the preparation of the 
second edition of the Rig-Veda (4 vols., Oxford, 
1890-92), collating manuscripts and deciding on the 
adoption of many new readings. Winternitz re- 
mained in Oxford until 1898, acting in various edu- 
cational capacities, such as German lecturer to the 
Association for Promoting the Higher Education of 
Women (1891-98), librarian of the Indian Institute 
at Oxford (1895), and frequently as examiner in 
German and Sanskrit both for the university and for 
the Indian Civil Service. In 1899he went to Prague 
as privat-docent for Indology and general ethnology, 
and in 1902 was appointed to the professorship of 
Sanskrit (made vacant by the retirement of Ludwig) 
and of ethnology in the German University of 
Prague. In addition to valuable contributions on 
Sanskrit and ethnology to various scientific journals, 
Winternitz edited the “Apastambiya Grihyasutra ” 
(Vienna, 1887) and the “ Mantrapatha, or the Prayer- 
Book of the Apastambins” (part i., Oxford, 1897); 
translated Miller’s “Anthropological Religion” 
and his “Theosophy, or Psychological Religion” 
into German (Leipsic, 1894-95); and published “ Das 
Altindische Hochzeitsrituell” (Vienna, 1892), which 
contains also valuable ethnological material; “A 
Catalogue of South Indian Manuscripts Belonging 
to the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and 
Treland ” (London, 1902); and “Geschichte der In- 
dischen Literatur” (part i., Leipsic, 1905). 

J. L. H. G. 
WINTERNITZ, WILHELM: Austrian phy- 
sician and hydropathist; born at Josefstadt, Bohe- 
mia, March 1, 1835; educated at Vienna and at 
Prague (M.D. 1857), where he settled and became an 
assistant at the institute for the insane. In 1858 he 
entered the Austriannavy, but resigned his positionas 
surgeon in 1861 and established a practise in Vienna. 
There he became interested in hydropathy, and was 
soon regarded as one of the leading authorities. Ad- 
mitted to the medical faculty of the University of 
Vienna as privat-docent for hydropathy in 1865, he 
was one of the founders of the General Vienna Dis- 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


536 


pensary, where he is now (1905) departmental chief. | 
In the same year he opened a private hospital near 
Vienna. In 1874 he became privat-docent in medi- 
cine, and was appointed assistant professor seven 
years later, becoming a full professor in 1899. 

Winternitz is a collaborator for hydropathy on 
Von Ziemssen’s “ Handbuch der Allgemeinen The- 
rapie” (ed. 1881), Eulenburg’s “ Realencyclopadie 
der Gesammten Heilkunde” (ed. 1897), and Eulen- 
burg’s “Lehrbuch der Allgemeinen Therapie und 
der Therapeutischen Methodik” (Berlin, 1898-99). 
In 1890 he founded the “ Blatter fir Klinische Hy- 
drotherapie,” of which he is still the editor. 

In addition to several essays and monographs in 
medical journals, Winternitz is the author of the 
following works: “ Kaltenleutgeben und Meine Was- 
serheilanstalt” (Vienna, 1869); “Die Hydropathie 
auf Physiologischer und Klinischer Grundlage ” (2d. 
1877-80; 2d ed. 1890-92; translated into English, 
French, Italian, Spanish, and Russian); and “Cho- 
lera, Lungenphthise und Fieber: Klinische Studien ” 
(76. 1887-88). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Wurzbach, Bicgraphisches Lexicon; Pagel, 

Biog. Lex.; Hirsch, Biog. Lex. 

8. FT so. 

WINTERSTEIN, SIMON, FREIHERR 
VON: Austrian railroad magnate; born at Prague 
1819; died at Voéslau June 11, 1883. The son of 
poor parents, he had to learn early to support him- 
self. He chose a commercial career, and worked as 
a clerk in Prague and in Vienna, later establishing 
a business of his own in the latter city. After act- 
ing for some time as shipping agent for the Nord- 
bahn, he entered the executive board of this rail- 
road, and finally became its president. Through 
business connection with the house of Rothschild he 
became a member also of the boards of directors of 
the Siidbahn and of the Creditanstalt. Winterstein 
was for a number of years president of the Jewish 
community of Vienna. He was a member of the 
Austrian House of Lords. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Allg. Zeit. des Jud. 1883, p. 425. 
8. F. T. H. 


WINTERTHUR. See SwITZERLAND. 


WISCONSIN : State in the Upper Lake region 
of the United States of America; admitted to the 
Union in 1848. In 1792 a Jew named Jacob Franks 
went to Green Bay, and in 1805 he erected the first 
grist- and saw-mill in that section of the country. 
There were doubtless other Jews possessing busi- 
ness and other interests in the region which later 
became the state; but the early records are very 
scanty. The oldest congregation in the state is B’ne 
Jeshurun, in Milwaukee, organized in 1852 by Lobl 
Rindskopf, Leopold Newbauer, Solomon Adler, 
Emanuel Silverman, and others, all of whom were 
among the first Jewish settlers in that city. 

Wisconsin contains the following Jewish commu- 
nities: Appleton, with a congregation (Zion) com- 
prising 34 members and founded in 1878, and a ladies’ 
aid society having a membership of 32 and founded 
in 1878; Ashland, which has a congregation or- 
ganized in 1887, an auxiliary society, a ladies’ benev- 
olent association, and a cemetery; Duluth, with a 
congregation, Adas Israel; Eau Claire, witha con- 


537 


gregation, a religious school, and an aid society com- 
prising 50 members; Fond du Lac, containing a 
community that holds holy-day services; Gilette 
and Green Bay, each witha congregation; Hurley 
and Ironwood, which form a congregation jointly ; 
Kenosha, with the Congregation B’nai Zedek, in- 
corporated in 1904 and having 27 members; La 
Crosse, which has two congregations (Ansche 
Cheset, founded in 1856, and Shearith Israel, in 
1899), a benevolent society, and a cemetery; Madi- 
son, possessing a congregation, Ahawath Achim, 
and a cemetery; Manitowoc, whose congregation, 
Anshe Polia Sadek, was founded in 1900; Mari- 
nette, which has a congregation (founded in 1888 
and having 382 members), a religious school, and a 
cemetery ; Milwaukee (see Jew. Encyc. viii. 594); 
Monroe, Oshkosh, Racine, and Sheboygan, 
each with a congregation; and Superior, which 
has three congregations, all organized within the 
last ten years. 

The state has a Jewish population of 15,000 ina 
total of 2,069,042 (1904). 

J A. M. Ho. 


WISDOM (Hebr. Anan; Greek, copia): Practi- 
cal intelligence; the mental grasp which observes 
and penetrates into the nature of things, and also 
the ability skilfully to perform difficult tasks. The 
former faculty is intuitive, the latter creative. 
Hence the word connotes both deep understanding 
and artistic skill. Wisdom is at once a human and 
a divine property. 

All human wisdom and skill come from God. 
The spirit of God made Joseph discreet and wise 
(Gen. xli. 38-39), inspired and prepared Bezaleel 
and other artists for the work of the Tabernacle 
(Ex. xxxi. 38-6), and was also the source of the 
wisdom of Joshua (Deut. xxxiv. 9) and Solomon 
(I Kings iii. 12, 28). “The Lord giveth wisdom” 
(Prov. ii. 6; comp. Job xxxviii. 86; Ps. li. 8 [A. V. 
6]; Dan. ii. 21), and He annuls the wisdom of the 
wise (Isa. xxix. 14). Great blame, therefore, at- 

taches to those who disregard the di- 
Wisdom in vine source of their wisdom and be- 
the Bible. come conceited and sinful (Isa. v. 21, 

xxix, 14; Jer. iv. 22, viii. 8-9, ix. 22). 
Wisdom is acquired, moreover, by the observa- 
tion of nature (Prov. vi. 6; Job xxxv. 11) and of 
history (Deut. xxxii. 29; Hos. xiv. 10 [A. V. 9]; 
Prov. viii. 88, xix. 20), as well as by study and by 
association with the wise (Prov. ix. 9, xiii, 20; Job 
Xxxii. 7). 

The wise were sought out for their counsel (Deut. 
i. 18,15; [I Sam. xiv. 20, xvi. 23; Prov. xii. 18, xiii. 
14), so that, like the priest with his Torah and the 
prophet with his revealed word of God, they formed 
a special class (Jer. xviii. 18). In more primitive 
times “wise women” were consulted (II Sam. xiv. 
2; xx. 16, 22), and at a later period females who were 
skilled in the art of music and song were called 
“wise women” (Jer. ix. 17). 

' As contrasted with the Law and the Prophets, 
which were intended for the people of Israel exclu- 
Sively, wisdom was less restricted. “The children 
of the east country,” as well as of Egypt and the 
south, were regarded as the possessors of wisdom 
from of old (comp. I Kings v. 10-11 [A. V. iv. 30- 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Winter 
Wisdom 


31]; Jer. xlix, 7), and Daniel was considered a rep- 
resentative of them (Ezek. xxviii. 3). This spirit 
of universal wisdom was also typified by King Solo- 
mon (I Kings v. 9-14 [A. V. iv. 29-34], x. 1-24; Ecel. 
i. 18, 16); and to him, accordingly, was ascribed the 
entire Wisdom-literature preserved in the form of 
proverbs, secular songs (Song of Solomon), philo- 
sophic thought (Ecclesiastes), and, later, the Wisdom 
of Solomon. As soon as monotheism was firmly es- 
tablished as a result of the labors of the Prophets, 

the wisdom of the East could be con- 


The sulted by Israel’s sages, and questions 
Hokmah concerning the origin of all things 
Literature. could be answered, in both poetry 


and prose, far more intelligently than 
had been possible for the ancient Babylonians. This 
was done occasionally by the Deutero-Isaiah (xl. 
and elsewhere), by the interpolator of Amos iv. 18 
and v. 8, by the authors of Proverbs (viii. 22-31), of 
Job (xxviii. and elsewhere), and of Ps. civ., and, 
most authoritatively of all, by the composers of Gen. 
i.-x. Wisdom, which dwelt, according to the Baby- 
lonian cosmology, in the depths of the sea with Ea, 
the creative deity, became in Biblical literature the 
all-encompassing intelligence of God, the helper of 
the Creator, the foundation of the world (comp. 
Jeremias, “Das Alte Testament im Lichte des Alten 
Orients,” 1904, pp. 29, 80). In exact proportion as 
Israel’s God was believed to be the God of the uni- 
verse, wisdom was regarded as the cosmic power, 
God’s master workman (Prov. viii. 30), the first of 
His works (20, viii. 22), and His designer (2d. iii. 19; Ps. 
civ. 24), while at the same time wisdom became the 
law of life and the divine guide and ruler of man. 
Virtue, or the fear of God which is the avoidance of 
evil, was developed into the dominant teaching of 
the Proverbs and Job. The ceremonial laws are 
scarcely mentioned, and only the ethical side of re- 
ligion is considered. At times the ethics assumes 
too worldly an aspect and becomes commonplace 
morality (Prov. vi. 84, xiv. 22, xxiv. 17-18, xxix. 3), 
although other passages point to high ideals (Job 
xxix. 16-16, xxxi.; Prov. x. 12). 

The Book of Ecclesiastes, written by some Sad- 
ducean pessimist under the influence of Greek Epi- 
cureanism and skepticism, reflects the impressions 
made by a worldly wisdom no longer permeated by 
the spirit of the Torah, so that the Solomonic wis- 
dom, which had lost sight of the ethical ideal, was 
mocked and shown to be a failure. 

In the main, wisdom was greatly valued and 
eagerly sought during the Second Temple, and the 
wise became the teachers of the young and the 
models of the old. Anextensive Wisdom-literature, 
of which large portions may have been lost, sprang 
up in continuation of the Proverbsof Solomon. Ec- 

clesiasticus (SIRACH) proves, on analy- 

Wisdom in sis, to be a compilation of writings 
the Apoc- which belong in part to an older gen- 
rypha. eration; and the TESTAMENTS OF THE 
TWELVE Patriarcns, which recent 

research has reclaimed for Jewish literature, may 
also be classed among these Wisdom-books. Con- 
cerning the Book of Wisdom see Wispom, Book 
oF. The table-talk of the wise men of Jerusalem at 
the court of King Ptolemy of Egypt in the Letter 


Wisdom 
Wisdom of Solomon 


of Aristeas, §§ 187-300, as well as the answer of 
Zerubbabel, the page of King Darius (I Esdras ii.- 
iii.), indicates the Jewish longing to appear as wise 
men like Daniel and Joseph before the kings of the 
world. 

In all these books wisdom is extolled and invested 
with divine attributes (Ecclus. [Sirach] i. 1-26, iv. 
11-29, li. 18-30, and especially xxiv. 1-29, where it 
is identified with the law of Moses; Test. Patr., 
Levi, 18; Enoch, xlii. 1-2). The book on astronomy 
and cosmography in the writings of Enoch is de- 
scribed as celestial wisdom (Enoch, xxxvii. 2, xlix. 
1-8, Ixxxii. 2~8; comp. Book of Jubilees, iv. 17, xxi. 
10), aud Noah’s book on healing (Book of Juhilees, 
x. 13) belongs to the same class. 

Under the influence of Greek philosophy wisdom 
became a divine agency of a personal character 
(Wisdom vii. 22-30), so that Philo terms it the 
daughter of God, “the mother of the creative 
Word” (“De Profugis,” 8§ 9, 20), while as the crea- 
tive principle of the world, wisdom 
occurs in Targ. Yer. to Gen. i. 1 

Post- (comp. Hag. 11b; Gen. R. i., where 

Biblical the Torah takes the place of wisdom; 

Literature. see also the midrash on Prov. iii, 19 

in Jellinek, “B. H.” ii. 28-389, v. 63- 
69). In Christian and Gentile Gnosticism, wisdom 
became the center of speculation (see GNOSTICISM). 
The so-called Fourth Book of Maccabees, a philo- 
sophical sermon on self-control with reference to the 
seven martyred sons of the Maccabean heroine, is 
another contribution to the Hellenistic Wisdom-lit- 
erature. 

“The wise man” was the title of the early master 
of the Law (Ab. i. 4, ii. 15), but at a later period the 
masters bore the epithet of “rabbi,” and only those 
who had died retained the name of “the wise,” 
while the learned were called “disciples of the wise ” 
(see Levy, “Neuhebr. Worterb.” s.c. O5m). In gen- 
eral, “wisdom ” (“hokmah ”) connotes universal or 
worldly wisdom, and is thus contrasted with the 
Torah (Kid. 49b; Niddah 69b- Sanh. 104b; Yer. 
Mak. ii. 3id). There are records of disputations be- 
tween Jewish masters and Gentile sages, such as the 
one between R. Joshua b. Hananiah and the men of 
Athens (Bek. 8-9; Lam. R. i. 4 et seg. [comp. 
ATHENIANS]; Tamid 32a, b). In Pes. 94b (comp. 
R. H. 12a) the opinion of the wise men of the Gen- 
tiles is preferred to that of the Jewish sages. At 
the sight of Gentile sages one should recite the 
benediction: “Blessed art. Thou, O Lord our God, 
King of the Universe, who hast imparted of Thy 
wisdom to flesh and blood” (Ber. 58b). “Ten meas- 
ures of wisdom came down from heaven, and nine 
of them fell to the lot of the Holy Land” (Kid. 
49b). “Since the destruction of the Temple the 
wise have taken the place of the Prophets” (B. B. 
12a). “Who is wise? He who learneth from every 
one” (Ab. iv. 1). “The Shekinah rests only upon 
the wise, the strong, the rich, and the tall” (Shab. 
92b); but the members of the Sanhedrin must pos- 
sess universal wisdom (Sanh. 1%a). Among the mas- 
ters of the Mishnah, R. Johanan b. Zakkai and R. 
Akiba were considered the paragons of universal 
wisdom (Sotah ix. 15, 49b). “Greek wisdom” was 
fostered in the house of Gamaliel, but was forbidden 


Traces in 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


538 


elsewhere after the Hasmonean war (B. K. 82b- 
83a; Sotah 49b). The sciences of music (R. H. 29») 
and astronomy (Shab. 75a) are called “ wisdom,” and 
the midwife is termed the “wise woman” (Shab. 
XViii. 3), while the fourth benediction in the “ She- 
moneh ‘Esreh” is called the “ Benediction of Wis- 
dom ” (Ber, 38a). 

In rabbinical and philosophical literature the vari- 
ous sciences are termed “hokmot”; and asthe seven 
sciences of the medieval university (“trivia” and 
“ quadrivia”) were based on Prov. ix. t, “ Wisdom 
hath builded her house, she hath hewn out her seven 
pillars,” so Jewish writers allude to the seven 
branches of wisdom (see Joseph Kimhi on Prov. ix. 1; 
Steinschneider, “ Jiidische Literatur,” in Ersch and 
Gruber, “Encyc.” section ii., part 27, pp. 424, 434- 
435, where the various “hokmot” are enumerated). 

K. 

WISDOM OF SOLOMON, BOOK OF THE 
(LXX, Logia ToAopavos ; Vulgate, “ Liber Sapientie ”): 
Apocryphal book written in Alexandria about the 
middle of the first century b.c. That it was com- 
posed in Greek by an Alexandrian Jew has been 
conclusively shown by Freudenthal (“J. Q. R.” 
iii, 722-753). The book has neither an introductory 
verse nor a regular conclusion. In fact, it consists 
of three independent parts which have no real con- 
nection, and which treat of subjects altogether dif- 
ferent, a fact clearly recognized by Bretschneider, 
Kichhorn, and others, but disputed by Grimm 
(“Kurzgefasstes Exegetisches Handbuch zu den 
Apocryphen des Alten Testaments,” vi. 9-24, Leip- 
sic, 1860) and his followers. 

The first six chapters of Wisdom form an address 
to the rulers of the earth (i. 1; comp. iii. 8; vi. 1-2, 9, 
21). They accentuate the necessity of wisdom as in- 
dispensable to rulers (i. 6, vi. 9-25), although they are 
chiefly directed against the Epicureans, the ungodly 
who deny immortality, indulge in lust and incest, 
and mock the righteous and the learned, who in their 
turn upbraid them for their lawlessness and licen- 
tiousness (ii. 1-16). In contrast with them the 

“saints” (Hasidim) whom they ex pose 

Contents of to torture (ii. 19, iii. 1) and to a mar- 
the Book. tyr’s death (iii, 2) are called “sons of 
God,” initiated into His mystery, 

promised an inheritance in eternal life (i. 14; ii. 18, 
21, 23; fii, 4, 15; iv. 1; v. 15) like Enoch (iv, 10-16), 
and assured of a crown of glory in the world to 
come (v. 16), Finally, wisdom is introduced in vi. 
9-25 as the speaker, and as the one who bestows the 
divine kingdom and confers immortality (vi. 20-21); 
whereas sin brings death, since “through envy of 
the devil came death into the world” (ii. 24). The 
second part (ch. vii.-ix. 17) contains an address of 
King Solomon, relating how his life was guided solely 
by wisdom, and closing with a prayer offered by 
him to God that he might obtain her. Here wisdom 
is represented as a mystic power which imparts not 
only knowledge of all mysteries and the spirit of 
prophecy (vii. 17-21, 27), but even immortality (viii. 
13), while it is also a cosmic force invested with 
twenty-one divine attributes, this number being 
either a triple multiple of seven, or, if originally 
twenty-two instead of twenty-one, corresponding to 
the twenty-two letters of the Greek alphabet (vii. 


539 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Wisdom 
Wisdom of Solomon 


92-23), At the same time, wisdom, as in the Pla- 
tonic system, is believed to teach the four cardinal 
virtues of temperance, prudence, justice, and forti- 
tude (viii. 7). The prayer of Solomon refers to the 
heavenly tabernacle prepared from the beginning, 
and to his own predestination (ix. 7-8; see PREEX- 
ISTENCE). Wisdom is described as a cosmic princi- 
ple dwelling on the throne of glory next to God, and 
as knowing and designing all things (ix. 1, 4, 10), 
being identical with the creative Word (ix. 1) and 
the Holy Spirit (ix. 17). | 
While these two portions of the book forma unity 
to some extent, and probably gave the entire work 
its title of “Wisdom of Solomon,” the last section 
(ix. 18-xix. 22) is devoid of all connection with what 
precedes. The speaker is no longer Solomon, but 
the author or the saints (xvi. 28, xviii. 6 et passim), 
who recite the history of Israel’s redemption from 
Egyptand otherenemies. In like manner, the words 
are not addressed to the kings of the earth (ix. 18; x. 
90; xi. 4, 9,17, 21; e¢ passim), but to God, the deliv- 
erer from the Red Sea. The whole appears on close 
observation to be part of a Passover Haggadah re- 
cited in Egypt with reference to Gentile surround- 
ings, and it accordingly abounds in genuine hag- 
gadic passages of an ancient character, The tenth 
chapter serves as a connecting-link between the Sol- 
omonic Wisdom-book and this Passover-Haggadah 
fragment, and must, therefore, be taken with the last 
verse of the ninth chapter and the first of the elev- 
enth, in both of which wisdom forms the theme. 
Here, however, it has nothing in common with the 
Solomonic wisdom, which, enabling the king to pen- 
etrate into all the mysteries of heaven and earth, to 
study the world of the spirits, and to learn the vir- 
tues of stones and roots, thus came 
Hellenistic very close tothe Platonic wisdom (vii. 
Passover 17-26). The wisdom of the haggadist 
Hagegadah. is exclusive and hostile to the Gen- 
tile world, rather than cosmopolitan 
and broad, saving only the righteous and bringing 
ruin upon the wicked (ix. 18, x. 1-21). From this 
point of view the lives of the Patriarchs are re- 
counted to lead up to the story of the Exodus. 
Wisdom taught Adam to rise from his fall by re- 
pentance (comp. “ Vita Ade et Eve,” viii.; Pirke 
R. El. xx.); but it caused Cain and his generation 
to perish (x. 1-3). It saved Noah, Abraham, and 
Lot, but brought lasting doom upon the offenders 
(x. 4-9). It showed Jacob the kingdom of God in 
the vision of the ladder (comp. Gen. R. Ixviii. 16; 
Targ. Yer. to Gen. xxviii. 12) and gave him victory 
over all his pursuers (x. 10-12). It preserved Jo- 
Seph the righteous from sin, went with him into the 
pit and the prison, and raised him to the throne and 
to glory, but covered his detractors with shame (x. 
13-15). It delivered Israel from its heathen oppress- 
ors, entered into the soul of Moses, enabling him to 
work all his miracles before Pharaoi, and, in the 
Shape of a protecting pillar of cloud by day and of 
an illuminating fire by night, guided the people 
through the wilderness and through the Red Sea, 
while it drowned the Egyptians and cast them up 
again from the deep to enrich the Israelites with the 
Spoils that floated upon the water (x. 15-20; comp. 
Mek., Beshallah, 6; Targ. Yer. to Ex. xiii. 21; xv. 


12, 20; Josephus, “ Ant.” ii, 16, § 6). It also opened 
the mouths of the dumb so that they joined in the 
song of the people in praise of God at the Red Sea 
(x. 21; comp. Mek. to Shirah [Song of Moses], 1), 
and it prospered the work of Moses in the wilder- 
ness (xi. 1-4), 

This section is followed (xi. 5-xix. 21) by a hag- 
gadic discourse in the form of a prayer of thanks- 
giving on the Egyptian plagues and other miracles 
connected with the Exodus, obviously to be recited 
on the eve of the Passover (xviii. 6-9; comp. Jose- 
phus, “Ant.” ii. 16, § 4; Book of Jubilees, xlix. 
2-6). The fundamental principle of the ancient 
Haggadah is that God metes out the perfect justice 
expressed by the Rabbis in the phrase “middah ke- 
neged middah ” (= “measure for measure ”), so that 
the book declares: “ Wherewithal a man sinneth, 
by the same also shall he be punished” (xi. 16). 
This was applied to the Egyptians witb reference 
to Ex. xviii. 11 (see Targum ad loc.; Sotah 11d). 
Here, however, the haggadist goes so far as to 
maintain that the very thing which proved an in- 
strument of vengeance to the Egyptians became a 
means of safety for Israel (xi. 5). The water in 
which the Israelitish children were to be drowned 
was turned to blood for the parched Egyptians, 
while it flowed forth from the rock to quench the 
thirst of the children of Israel in the desert (xi. 4- 
7). In like manner, the animals worshiped by the 

Egyptians became the source of terror 
Wonders of and harm to them (xi. 15-19, xii. 24- 
the 27); “for these [the Israelites] thou 

Exodus. didst admonish and try, as a father: 

but the other [the Egyptian people], 
as a severe king, thou didst condemn and punish” 
(xi. 10), even though God loves all His creatures, 
and waits for the repentance of the sinner because 
He is the lover of souls (xi. 24-xii. 2). The real 
cause Of the doom of such Gentile nations as the 
Canaanites was their commission of the capital sins 
of idolatry and murder (xii. 4-7; comp. Sibyllines, 
i. 150, 178; iii. 36-40, 585-605, 761-764; et passim). 
Yet even they were given time for repentance; 
wherefore God sent the wasps before Israel to des- 
troy the Canaanites gradually, instead of killing 
them all at once (xij..8-11; comp. Ex. xxiii. 28; 
Sotah 36a); for God blends mercy with justice, to 
teach “that the just man should be merciful” (xii. 
19; comp. i. 6), and unrepentant Egypt was thus 
severely punished until she acknowledged the God 
she had denied (xii. 27). 

Egyptian (and Greck) idolatry is declared (xiii. 
1-10) to be far less excusable than Babylonian star- 


worship, and it is therefore derided (xiii. 11-19) in 


terms borrowed from Isa, xliv. 13-20. Idolatry was 
first introduced by the giants who were descended 
from the fallenangels. Its purposes were corruption 
and fornication (xiv. 1~18); it owed its hold on man- 
kind to the honor paid the images of dead sons (xiv. 
14-21; comp. Book of Jubilees, xi. 4; 

The Folly Bezold, “Die Schatzhohle,” p. 31), and 
of it led to murder, adultery, theft, and 
Idolatry. perjury (xiv. 22-31). Knowledge of 
God alone guides to righteousness and 

immortality, while the enemies (the Romans and 
the Greeks of Alexandria, as well as the Egyptians) 


Wisdom of Solomon 
ise 


who hold Israel in subjection are termed foolish 
image-worshipers (xv. J-15; comp. Ps. cxv., recited 
on the eve of the Passover). The Egyptian animal- 
worship again suggests to the haggadist the idea 
that while the beasts became a torment to Egypt, 
the quail became nourishing food for the people of 
God (xvi. 1-4); and though the serpents bit the 
Israelites in the wilderness, they were in the enda 
sign of salvation for them, admonishing them to look 
to God as the savior whose word heals all (xvi. 5- 
12; comp. R. H. iti. 8c). The fire which fell with 
both the hail and the rain (Ex. ix, 24; Tan., Wayera, 
ed. Buber, p. 22), as well as in the sea (Ex. xiv. 24; 
Targ. Yer. ad loc.; Josephus, “Ant.” ii. 16, § 3), 
like the fire which would not destroy the frogs in 
the oven (xix. 21; Pes. 53b), manifested the won- 
drous power of God (xvi. 16-19), On the other 
hand, the manna, which fell like hoar frost and was 
flavored to suit every wishand taste, did not melt in 
the heat of the wilderness, but disappeared under the 
first rays of the sun that the people might offer their 
praise early inthe morning (comp. Yoma ia; Targ. 
Yer, to Ex. xvi, 21; Mek., Wayassa‘, 4 [ed. Weiss, p. 
58a]; for the Essene prayer at sunrise see Josephus, 
“B, J.” ii, 8, § 5; Ber. 9b; and comp. EssENgs). 
The Egyptian plague of darkness, in striking con- 
trast to the light in the houses of the children of 
Israel (Ex. x. 21-23), is declared to have been a 
punishment for their imprisonment of the Israelites, 
the future bearers of the light of the Law, and for 
their pride in their intellectuality, besides being a 
token of their future doom (xvii. 1-xviii. 4). The 
last plague, the death of the first-born, was the 

punishment for the intended murder 


Plagues of the Israelitish children (xviii. 5). 
upon This same night of watching proved 
Egypt. tobe the doom of the Egyptians and 


the election of Israel, so that on the 
one side resounded cries of lamentation, and on the 
other were heard songs of thanksgiving (xviii. 7-17). 
The almighty “ Word” carried the sword of death 
throughout Egypt, and by this same power Aaron, 
with his robe, his breastplate, and his diadem decked 
with divine mysteries, subdued the angel of death 
(xviii. 20-25). Finally, the destruction of the Egyp- 
tians in the Red Sea is described as a renewal of the 
miracle of Creation (xix. 1-6), since out of the sea 
rose a green field (comp. Targ. Yer. to Ex. xv. 19). 
The Egyptians had been more brutal in their treat- 
ment of the strangers than had the inhospitable 
Sodomites, thus accounting for the severity of their 
punishment (xix. 13-22), Here the Haggadah breaks 
off abruptly. 

It is evident that these three parts, or at least the 
first two (i.-ix., x.-xix.), can not have emanated 
from the same author, for neither the style nor the 
views can be ascribed to one and the sume person. 


This leads to the supposition that the original Wis- , 


dom of Solomon and the Passover-Haggadah frag- 
ment were probably joined together and then treated 
as one book. Gritz (“ Gesch.” 4th ed., 

Authorship iii. 382-385, 611-613) finds in the work 
and Date. allusions to theapotheosis of Caligula 
(88-40 c.E.), but the deification of 

the Ptolemies goes back to Egyptian custom. Ch. 
ii. and iti. refer to Jewish converts, not to Greeks in 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


540 


Alexandria, The character of the book as regards 

the creative Wisdom, Word, and Spirit indicates a 

stage prior to the Philonic system, and the Biblical 

story shows a haggadic form still fresh and not yet 
compressed into a rigid system, as in Philo (see Sieg- 
fried, “Philo von Alexandria,” pp. 22-24, Jena, 

1875). The apostle Paul (see Grafe, “ Das Verhiilt- 

niss der Paulinischen Schriften zur Sapientia Salo- 

monis,” Freiburg-im-Breisgau, 1892; comp. also SauL 
or Tarsus), the author of the Epistle to the He- 

brews (Heb. i. 3, iv. 12; comp. Wisdom vii. 22, 26), 

and others have drawao from the Book of Wisdom. 

This places the date of the book, or at least that of 

the first part, with certainty in the first century B.c. 
A Hebrew translation of the Wisdom of Sclomon 

is mentioned by Nahmanides in the preface to his 

commentary on the Pentateuch. A Hebrew version 
with a commentary was published by Hartwig Wes- 
scly (Berlin, 1780), and a German translation with 
notes, valuable for the references to rabbinical 
literature, was made by M. Gutmann (Altona, 

1841). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: For the extensive literature see Schiirer, 
Gesch. 3d ed., iii. 877-883. The chief editions, besides that 
contained in Fritzsche’s Apocryphi Greeci, are: Reusch, 
Liber Sapientiv Groce, Freiburg-im-Breisgau, 1858; Deane, 
Book of Wisdom, Oxford, 1881. On the question of the orig- 
inal language see Margoliouth, Was the Book of Wisdom 
Written in Hebrew? in J. R. A. S. 1890, pp. 263 et seq.: an- 


swered by Freudenthal, What Is the Original Language of 
the Wisdom of Solomon? in J. Q. R. iii. 722-753. 


WISDOM OF GOD. See Gop. 


WISE, AARON: American rabbi; born at 
Erlau, Hungary, May 2, 1844; died in New York 
March 380, 1896; son of Chief Rabbi Joseph Hirsch 
Weiss. He was educated in the Talmudic schools 
of Hungary, including the seminary at Eisenstadt, 
where he studied under Dr. Hildesheimer. Later 
he attended the universities of Leipsic and Halle, 
receiving his doctorate at the latter institution. He 
assisted Bernard Fischer in revising the Buxtorf 
lexicon, and was for several years a director of 
schools in his native town. 
tified with the ultra-Orthodox party in Hungary, 
acting as secretary to the organization Shomere 
ha-Datt, and editing a Judseo-German weekly in 
its support. In 1874 Wise emigrated to the United 
States, and became rabbi of Congregation Beth Elo- 
him in Brooklyn; two years later he was appointed 
rabbi of Temple Rodeph Shalom in New York, 
which office he held until his death. 

Wise was the author of “Beth Aharon,” a relig- 
ious school handbook; and he compiled a prayer- 
book for the use of his congregation. He was for 
some time editor of the “Jewish Herald” of New 
York, and of the “Boston Hebrew Observer”: and 
he contributed to the year-books of the Jewish Min- 
isters’ Association of America, as well as to other 
periodical publications. He was one of the founders 
of the Jewish Theological Seminary, and the first 
vice-president of its advisory board of ministers. 
Wise founded the Rodeph Shalom Sisterhood of 
Personal Service, which established the Aaron Wise 
Industrial School in his memory. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: American Jewess, May, 1896, pp. 482-487; 

Markens, Hebrews in America, pp. 303-306 


A. ' §. S. W. 


He was for a time iden- - 


541 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Wisdom of Solomon 
ise 


WISE, ISAAC MAYER: American Reform 
rabbi, editor, and author; born at Steingrub, Bohe- 
mia, March 29, 1819; died at Cincinnati, Ohio, March 
26, 1900. He was the son of Leo Wise, a school- 
teacher, and received his early Hebrew education 
from his father and grandfather, later continuing his 
Hebrew and secular studies in Prague. He received 
the hattarat hora’ah from the Prague bet din, com- 
posed of Rabbis Rapoport, Samuel Freund, and E. 
L. Teweles. In 1848 he was appointed rabbi at 
Radnitz, Bohemia, where he remained for about 
two years, emigrating to the United States in 1846. 
Ye arrived in New York on July 23 of the same 
year, and in the following October was appointed 
rabbi of the Congregation Beth-El of Albany, New 
York. He soon began 
agitating for reforms in 
the service, and his was 
the first Jewish congrega- 
tion in the United States 
to introduce family pews 
in the synagogue. Ser- 
mons in the vernacular, 
a mixed choir, and con- 
firmation were also among 
theinnovationsintroduced 
by Wise, who even went so 
far as to count women in 
forming a minyan or re- 
ligious quorum. 

In 1850 some unfortu- 
nate events caused a split 
in the Albany community, 
and the consequent forma- 
tion of a new congrega- 
tion, the Anshe Emeth, by 
the friends and support- 
ersof the rabbi. Wise re- 
mained with this congre- 
gation until April, 1854, 
when he became rabbi of 
the Bene Yeshurun con- 
gregation of Cincinnati, 
Ohio, where he officiated 
for the remaining forty- 
six years of his life. Wise 
was active in so many di- 
rections, and was so great 
& power in the history 
of Judaism in the United 
States, that it is necessary to treat under distinct 
headings the various achievements of his long and 
Successful career. He was above all an organizer, 
and the numerous institutions that he called into 
being attest tothe great influence he wielded during 
his life. 

In 1847, at the suggestion of Max Lilienthal, who 
was at that time stationed in New York, a bet din 
was formed, which was to act in the capacity of an 
advisory committee to the congregations of the 
country, without, however, exercising 
hierarchic powers. AS members of 
this bet din, Lilienthal named Wise 
and two others, besides himself. At 
& meeting held in the spring of 1847 Wise submitted 
to the bet din the manuscript of a prayer-book, to 


Prayer- 
Book. 


Isaac Mayer Wise. 
(From 8 bust by Moses Ezekiel in the possession of A. S, Ochs.) 


be entitled the “Minhag America,” and to be used 
by all the congregations of the country. He 
had noticed that nearly every prominent rabbi in 
Europe, and, Jater, in the United States, issued his 
own prayer-book, and in order to stem this individ- 
ualistic tide he advocated the adoption of a common 
prayer-book. Nothing definite was done in the mat- 
ter, however, until the Cleveland Conference of 1855, 
when a committee consisting of Wise, Rothenberg, 
and Kalisch was appointed to edit such a prayer- 
book, This book appeared under the title “ Minhag 
America,” and was practically Wise’s work; it was 
adopted by most of the congregations of the Western 
and Southern states. So pronounced was Wise’s de- 
sire for union, that when in 1894 the “ Union Prayer- 
Book” was published by 
the Central Conference of 
American Rabbis, he vol- 
untarily retired the “ Min- 
hag America” from his 
own congregation. 

As early as 1848 Wise 
issued a call to the “min- 
isters and other Israelites ” 
of the United States, 
urging them to form a 
union which might put an 
end to the prevalent re- 
ligious anarchy. His call 
appeared in the columns of 
the “Occident,” and was 
ably seconded by its edi- 
tor, Isaac Leeser. Wise 
suggested that a meeting 
be held in the spring of 
1849 at Philadelphia, to 
establish a union of the 
congregations of the entire 
country. This meeting 
did not take place; but 
the originator of the idea 
never ceased advocating 
it, especially after he had 
established his own news- 
paper, “The Israelite” 
(July, 1854), in the col- 
umns of which he inde- 
fatigably expounded his 
views upon the subject. 
His persistence won its 
reward when in 1878, twenty-five years after he had 
first broached theidea, the UNION oF AMERICAN HE- 
BREW CONGREGATIONS was organized at Cincinnati. 

Karnest as he was in proclaiming the necessity for 
union among the congregations, he was equally in- 
defatigable in insisting upon the pressing need of 
a theological seminary for the training of rabbis for 

American pulpits. In his “ Reminis- 


Hebrew  cences” he givesa vivid picture of the 
Union incompetency of many of the men 
College. who posed as spiritual guides of the 


congregations during the early days 
of his residence in the United States. He had 
scarcely arrived in Cincinnati when, with his char- 
acteristic energy, he set to work to establish a col- 
lege in which young men could receive a Jewish 


Wise 
Witchcraft 


education. He enlisted the interest and support of 
a number of influential Jews of Cincinnati and adja- 
cent towns, and in 1855 founded the Zion Collegiate 
Association. The venture, however, proved a fail- 
ure, and the society did not succeed in opening a 
college. Nothing daunted, Wise entered upon a 
literary campaign, and year in and year out he pre- 
sented the subject in the columns of “ The Israelite.” 
His indomitable perseverance was crowned with suc- 
cess when, on October 3, 1875, the HEBREW UNION 
CoLLEGE opened its doors for the reception of stu- 
dents, four of whom were ordained eight years later. 

The first outcome of Wise’s agitation for union 
among the Jews was the Cleveland Conference held 
in 1855, and convened at his initiative. This con- 
ference was unfortunate, for, instead of uniting the 

rabbis of all parts of the country in a 
Rabbinical bond of fellowship, it gave rise to 
Con- strained relations between Wise and 
ferences. his followers on one side, and promi- 
nent rabbis in the eastern part of the 
country on the other side. These differences were 
partly removed during the rabbinical conference of 
Philadelphia (1869), which Wise attended. The 
New York conference of 1870, and the Cincinnati 
conference of 1871 were efforts in the same direction ; 
but a controversy ensuing from the latter served 
only to widen the breach. Yet was the great “ union- 
ist” not discouraged. He continued agitating fora 
synod which was to be the central body of authority 
for American Judaism. In 1881 he submitted tothe 
meeting of the Rabbinical Literary Association a re- 
port urging the formation of a synod; but the mat- 
ter never passed beyond the stage of discussion. 
However, he lived to see the establishment of the 
Central Conference of American Rabbis in 1889, 
which was the third enduring offspring of his tire- 
less energy and unfailing perseverance. During 
the last eleven years of his life he served as presi- 
dent of the conference which he had called into ex- 
istence (see CONFERENCES, RABBINICAL). 

Besides the arduous labors that the organization 
of these national institutions entailed, Wise was act- 
ivein many other ways. In1857, when a new treaty 
was to be concluded between the United States and 
Switzerland, he visited Washington as chairman of 


a delegation to protest against the ratification of this. 


treaty unless Switzerland should cease its discrimina- 
tions against American Jews. In his own city, be- 
sides officiating as rabbi of the Bene Yeshurun con- 
gregation and as president of the Hebrew Union 
College, he edited the “ American Israelite” and the 
“Deborah,” served as an examiner of teachers ap- 
plying for positions in public schools, and was also a 
member of the board of directors of the University 
of Cincinnati. He traveled throughout the United 
States, lecturing, dedicating synagogues, and enlist- 
ing the interest of the Jewish communities in his 
plans and projects. 

Wise was the author of the following works: 
“The History of the Israelitish Nation from Abra- 
ham to the Present Time,” Albany, 1854; “The 
Essence of Judaism,” Cincinnati, 1861; “The Origin 
of Christianity, and a Commentary on the Acts of 
the Apostles,” 1868; “Judaism, Its Doctrines and 
Duties,” 1872: “The Martyrdom of Jesus of Naza- 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


542 


reth: a Historico-Critical Treatise on the Last Chap- 
ter of the Gospel,” 1874; “The Cosmic God,” 1876; 
“History of the Hebrews’ Second Commonwealth,” 
1880; “Judaism and Christianity, Their Agreements 
and Disagreements,” 1883: “A Defense of Judaism 

vs. Proselytizing Christianity,” 1889; 
His Works. and “Pronaos to Holy Writ,” 1891. 

In his early years he wrote a number 
of novels, which appeared first as serials in the 
“Israelite,” and later in book form; these were: 
“The Convert,” 1854; “The Catastrophe of Eger,” 
“The Shoemaker’s Family,” “Resignation and 
Fidelity, or Life and Romance,” and “ Romance, 
Philosophy, and Cabalah, or the Conflagration in 
Frankfort-on-the-Main,” 1855; “The Last Struggle 
of the Nation,” 1856; “The Combat of the People, 
or Hillel and Herod,” 1858; and “The First of 
the Maccabees.” He wrote also a number of 
German novels, which appeared as scrials in the 
“Deborah”; among these may be mentioned: “ Die 
Juden von Landshuth”; “Der Rothkopf, oder des 
Schulmeisters Tochter”; and “Baruch und Sein 
Ideal.” In addition to all these works Wise pub- 
lished in the editorial columns of the “Israelite” 
numerous studies on various subjects of Jewish 
interest. He even wrote a couple of plays, “ Der 
Maskirte Liebhaber” and “Das Glick Reich zu 
Sein.” 

During his lifetime Isaac M. Wise was regarded 
as the most prominent Jew of his time in the United 
States. His genius for organization was of a very 
high order; and he was masterful, rich in resources, 
and possessed of an inflexible will. More than of 
any of his contemporaries, it may be said of him 
that he left the impress of his personality upon the 
development of Judaism in the United States. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: I. M. Wise, Reminiscences, transl. from the 

German and ed. by David Philipson, Cincinnati, 1901; Se- 

lected Writings of Isaac M. Wise, with a biography by David 


Philipson and Louis Grossmann, ib. 1900; The American Is- 
eee: 1854-1900, passim, and the Jubilee number, June 30, 
1904. 


A. D. P. 


WISE, LEO: American journalist and publisher ; 
born at Albany Oct. 28, 1849; son of Isaac Mayer 
Wise. He was educated at St. Xavier College and 
Farmers College, Cincinnati; College Hill, Ohio; 
Trinity College, Hartford; and the University of 
Michigan (A.B., Farmers College, 1867; L.B., Uni- 
versity of Michigan, 1869). In 1868 he served a brief 
term in the river flotilla of the United States navy, 
and in 1872 was one of the original prospectors in the 
diamond fieldsin South Africa, where at Dutoit’s Pan 
he opened a new digging which was at first called 
“New Rush” and afterward became the famous 
“Colesburg Kopje,” now in the Kimberley district. 

From 1875 to 1890 Wise published “ Die Deborah,” 
and from 1884 to 1892 he owned the “Jewish An- 
nual.” In 1885 he estadlished the “Chicago Israel- 
ite” at Chicago, and is still its publisher, in addition 
to being the managing editor and publisher of the 
“American Israelite” of Cincinnati, Ohio. Wise 
has also published most of the books written by his 
father. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: American Jewish Year Book, 5665 (1904-5). 
a F, T. H. 


543 

WISE, STEPHEN SAMUEL: American 
rabbi: born at Budapest March 17, 1862; son of 
Aaron WISE. He studied at the College of the City 
of New York (1887-91), Columbia College (B.A. 
1892), and Columbia University (Ph.D. 1901), and 
Jater pursued rabbinical studies under Gottheil, Ko- 
hut, Gersoni, Joffe, and Margolis. In 1893 he was 
appointed assistant to Rabbi Henry 8. Jacobs of the 
Congregation B’nai Jeshurun, New York city, and 
later in the same year, minister to the same congre- 
gation. In 1900 he was called to the rabbinate of 
the Congregation Beth Israel, Portland, Ore. 

Wise was the first (honorary) secretary of the Amer- 
ican Federation of Zionists; and at the Second Zion- 
ist Congress (Basel, 1898) he was a delegate, and sec- 
retary for the English language. He was a member 
also of the International Zionist Executive Committee 
in 1899. In 1902 he officiated as first vice-president 
of the Oregon State Conference of Charities and Cor- 
rection; and in 1903 he was appointed Commissioner 
of Child Labor for the state of Oregon. He is the 
founder of the People’s Forum of Portland. Wise is 
the editor of the Arabic original of “The Improve- 
ment of the Moral Qualities,” an ethical treatise of 
the eleventh century by Solomon ibn Gabirol (New 
York, 1902), and of the “ Beth Israel Pulpit.” 


WISMAR. Sce MECKLENBURG. 


WISSENSCHAFTLICHE ZEITSCHRIFT 
FUR JUDISCHE THEOLOGIE. See Penrop- 
ICALS, 


WISSOTZKY, KALONYMOS ZEEB 
WOLF: Russian philanthropist; born in Zhagory, 
government of Kovno, July 8, 1824; died at Mos- 
cow May 24, 1904. Wissotzky, whose father was a 
merchant of moderate means, received the usual 
Jewish education. He married at eighteen, and six 
months later left for the yeshibah at Volozhin, where 
he studied fora short period, settling afterward in 
Yanishki. Ataboutthistime the government organ- 
ized a Jewish agricultural colony at Dubno, near 
Dvinsk, and Wissotzky became one of the colonists. 
The soil proving unproductive, he was obliged to re- 
turn to Yanishki, where he 
engaged in business. His 
love of study, however, 
soon led him to Kovno, 
where he became a pupil of 
Israel Lipkin. At the end 
of 1854 he returned to Ya- 
nishki, and in 1858 went to 
Moscow, where he engaged 
in the tea trade; this, how- 


Kalonymos Wissotzky. 


from taking an active in- 
terest in the affairs of the local Jewish community. 
He organized a Sabbath-school and Sabbath readings 
for the cantonists of the district, and had special meals 
prepared for the soldiers during Passover. He was 
instrumental also in restoring many a cantonist to 
Judaism and to his long-lost relatives. With his 
increasing wealth Wissotzky devoted constantly 
growing amounts of money to charity. He contrib- 
uted 10,000 rubles to the Alliance Israélite at Paris, 
On condition that thissum be allowed to accumulate 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


ever, did not prevent him - 


| xxvill. 3, 7 et seq.). 


Wise 
Witchcraft 


at compound interest. for 100 years, when it would 
amount to 100 million francs, and that the money 
be then used for national purposes. 
The Subsequently he made frequent and 
Wissotzky libcral additions to this fund, which 
Fund. now amounts to about half a million 
francs, and has become generally 

known as the “ Wissotzky Fund.” 

Wissotzky was an enthusiastic believer in Zion- 
ism, and one of its prime movers in Russia. When, 
in the eighties of the nineteenth century, the idea 
of Jewish colonization in Palestine began to be real- 
ized, Wissotzky spent much time and money in 
effecting the organization of the Chovevei Zion. 
He journeyed to Palestine as a delegate, and laid 
there the foundation for future colonization. His 
letters from Palestine, together with other material, 
were published in book form. He made generous 
contributions to the Palestinian organizations, and 
furnished practically all the money necessary for 
the establishment and support of the Bet ha-Sefer 
school in Jaffa. When the publication of a Jewish 
encyclopedia was suggested to Wissotzky by Ahad 
ha‘Am, he offered to give 20,000 rubles toward this 
purpose. When told that this sum would be but a 
small portion of the amount required for the colossal 
work, he decided to let the matter rest; he refused, 
however, to take back his contribution, and ordered 
the money to be transferred to the Society for the 
Promotion of Culture Among the Jews of Russia. 
At the instance of his son-in-law, Joseph Zeitlin, he 
gave 6,000 rubles toward the publication of a 
monthly magazine, “ Ha-Shiloah,” under the editor- 
ship of Ahad ha-‘Am. 

Aside from his gifts for literary enterprises and Pal- 
estinian affairs, Wissotzky expended large sums of 
money in contributions to yeshibot and Talmud 
Torahs. On the occasion of the marriage of his 
son, David Wissotzky, in 1898, he presented 70,000 
rubles for the establishment in the city of Byelo- 
stok of a Talmud Torah with technical classes; this 
institution was opened in 1904. In his will Wis- 
sotzky bequeathed the sum of one million rubles 
for Jewish national purposes. Without specifying 
the manner in which this money was to be expended, 
he left it in charge of Ahad ha-‘Am, Rabbi Jacob 
Maze of Moscow, and the banker Shmelkin. 

H. R. A. Lv. 

WITCHCRAFT: “Witchcraft” and “sorcery ” 
are the terms used in the Bible to designate the prac- 
tise of the arts of divination, which were tabooed by 
orthodox religious sentiment. As this orthodox sen- 
timent was not a constant quantity, practises which 
at one time were regarded as innocent at another were 
relegated to the domain of sorcery or witchcraft. 
These practises were varied, and are denoted by 
several different Hebrew words. 

One of the oldest of these practises was that of 
consulting the dead. The spirit of the dead was 
called “ob,” and the consultation of such a spirit 
was accomplished through a woman who was called 
a “mistress of an ob” (“ba‘alat ob”). The earliest 
and most famous instance of this on record is that 
of King Saul on the night before the fateful battle 
of Gilboa, in which he lost his life (comp. I Sam. 
It appears from the account 


Witchcraft 
Wodianer 


that this method of gaining information was under 
the ban even at that early date. The “mistress of 
the ob” whom Saul found at En-dor 

The Ob is said to have been able to summon 

and the Samuel’s spirit from the under world 

Yidde‘oni. and to talk with it. The narrative 

represents her as able to call up any 
“ob” desired. Wherever “obot” are mentioned there 
also is found the term “yidde’oni” (R. V., incor- 
rectly, “ wizard”). It is, apparently, a synonym of 
“ob” as a designation of a departed spirit (comp. 
Lev, xix. 81; xx. 6, 27; Deut. xviii. 11; I Sam. 
xxviii. 8, 9; TT Kings xxi. 6, xxiii. 24; Isa. vili. 19, 
xix. 8; If Chron. xxxiii. 6). “Ob” designated a 
subterranean spirit, but perhaps “ yidde‘oni” was a 
more general term. It is probable that the wiz- 
ards who consulted the dead were ventriloquists, 
for Isaiah (comp. viii. 19) describes them as those 
that “chirp and... mutter.” Probably the ven- 
triloquist impersonated the dead as speaking in a 
faint voice from the ground, whence this description. 
Deut. xviii. 11 adds to consulting an ob or a yid- 
de‘oni, “inquiring of the dead,” as though there 
were still another means of consulting them. If 
this be so, no information as to the method of con- 
sultation has been preserved. 

Another class of diviners is called “me‘onenim ” 
(comp. Judges ix. 37; II Kings xxi. 6; Isa. ii. 6; 
Mic. v. 12). This class also was very ancient. It 
appears from Judges ix. 26 that a sacred tree at 
Shechem was named from it. As this tree is 
probably identical with the “oak of Moreh” (Gen. 
xii. 6, R. V.), it is probable that the method of 
divination alluded to was also employed by the 
Canaanites. Isaiah (ii. 6) also alludes to the “ me‘o- 
nenim ” as existing among the Philistines. It is evi- 
dent, therefore, that this method of divination was 
common to Palestinian heathendom. W. R. Smith 
(in “Journal of Philology,” xiv. 116 et seg.), who is 
followed by Driver, derives the word from 7)» (comp. 
the Arabic “ghanna” = “to emit a hoarse, nasal 
sound ”), and thinks that it denoted the “murmurer ” 
or “hoarsely humming soothsayer”; he remarks 
that the characteristic utterances of an Arabic 
soothsayer are a monotonous croon called “saj‘” 
and a low murmur, “zamzamah,” or whisper, “ was- 
wasah.” 

An obscure class of soothsayers was called “me- 
kashshefim ” (comp. the “nomen abstractum ” “ ke- 
sha”; see Deut. xviii. 11; I] Kings ix. 22; Mic. v. 

12; Nah, iii. 4). W. R. Smith (lc. 
Drugs and p. 125) argues that the root “kashaf” 
Charms. means “to use magical appliances, or 
drugs”; and many interpreters follow 
him. Those who doubt the correctness of this ex- 
planation are unable to suggest an alternative. 
This interpretation receives some support from the 
facts that the Septuagint in Nah. iti. 4 gives 
gapyaxa, and that the belief in the use of drugs or 
herbs is: very old, as is shown by the mention of 
mandrakes in Gen. xxx. 14-19. In the oldest code 
capital punishment is ordained for this class of 
sorcerers (comp. Ex. xxii. 18). 

A further branch of witchcraft was “lahash,” or 
charming (comp. Isa. iii. 3). In Jer. viii. 17 and 
Eccl. x. 11 the word is used of snake-charming. 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


544 


Kkindred in function to the “lahash” was the 
“hober” (comp. Deut. xviii. 11), which Ps. lviii. 5 
makes parallel to “lahash.” “Lahash,” curionsly, 
does not appear in Deut. xviii. 10-11, a passage 
which Ewald and W. R. Smith regard as an ex- 
haustive list of forbidden enchantments. Inits place 
there is “nahash” (“menahesh”). As 9% and 3 are 
both liquids, possibly the two roots are connected. 
In reality, however, “nahash” seems to have had a 
different meaning. Gen. xliv. 5 says that Joseph 
divined (“ yenahesh”) by means of a cup, perhaps 
by watching the play of light ina cup of liquid. Ba- 
laam (Num. xxiv. 1) is said to have occupied him- 
self with enchantments (“nehashim”), Since Ba- 
laam observed omens on the hilltops, his oracles 
must have been deduced from some other natural 
phenomena. As the equivalent term in Syriac, 
“nahsha,” is one which covers portents from the 
flight of birds as well as other natural occurrences, 
“Jahash ” probably refers, as W. R. Smith concludes, 
to divination by natural omens and presages. If so, 
it was not always taboced by the best men in Israel, 
for David once received an omen for a successful 
military attack from the sounds in the tops of cer- 
tain trees (II Sam. v. 24). 

Another term often used to describe sorcery is 
“kesem” (Num. xxiii. 23; Deut. xviti. 10; I Sam. 
xv, 28; II Kings xvii. 17; Isa, iti. 2; Ezek. xxi. 21). 
This method of divination is elucidated in Ezek. xxi., 
R. V., where the King of Babylon is represented as 
standing at the parting of the ways, and using 
divination to determine whether to proceed first 
against Rabbah of Ammon or against Jerusalem. 
“He shook the arrows to and fro, he consulted the 
teraphim, he lookedin the liver.” In verse 22 (Hebr.) 
it is declared that in “his right hand was the kesem 
for Jerusalem.” It would appear, therefore, that 
“kesem” was a method of divination by arrows. 
Arabian analogy here throws much light upon the 
practise, as this system of drawing lots by means of 
arrows, and thus obtaining an oracle, was practised 
by the Arabs, and the details are quite well known 
(comp. W. R. Smith in “ Journal of Philology,” xiii. 
277 et seg.). The lots were drawn with headless ar- 
rows in the presence of an idol, and were accom- 
panied by a sacrifice. The method was thoroughly 
analogous to that which Ezekiel describes. The 
“kesem” was accordingly a method of casting lots. 
Among the Arabs judicial sentences were obtained 
in this way, so that it became a kind of ordeal. Such, 
probably, was the case in Israel, for Prov. xvi. 10 
declares that “ A divine sentence [“ kesem”]isin the 
lips of the king: His mouth shall not transgress in 
judgment.” (R. V.). 

Indeed, all through the earlier period of Israel’s 
history important matters were decided by lot, The 
land was assigned to the tribes by lot (Josh. xiv. 2); 
Saul is said to have been chosen king by lot (I Sam. 

x. 10); Jonathan, when he had violated 

Ordeals a4 taboo, was detected by lot (I Sam. 

and Lots. xiv. 41 e¢ seg.); in fact, some form of 

casting lots was the one way of ob- 

taining a divine decision (comp. Prov. xvi. 33). 

The EPHop was probably an instrument for casting 
lots. 

Ewald and W. R. Smith have both observed that 


545 


Deut. xviii. 10-11 contains a formal list of all the 
important kinds of witchcraft or divination known 
at the time the passage was written. These various 
modes of obtaining oracles really diverted popular 
attention from spiritual prophecy. The Deuteron- 
omist banished them from the realm of legitiniate 
practise and promised in lieu of them a perennial 
succession of prophets. Among these various kinds 
of divination, “kesem” (by sacred lots in the pres- 
ence of an idol) held a foremost place. It stands 
next in the list to making one’s son or daughter 
pass through the fire.” This was a part of Moloch- 
worsitip, and was probably a means of obtaining an 
oracle: hence it was classed with witchcraft. 

If the date of the Deuteronomic code given by 
modern critics is accepted (about 650 B.c.), the 
prominence given to “kesem” is easily understood. 
The Prophets were raising popular practises to 
a higher level; and arts which had before been es- 
teeined innocent, or regarded as the handmaids of 
religion, were now condemned as witchcraft. It is 
probable that other forms of sorcery in the list had 
passed throughasimilar history, Isaiah (viii. 19) in- 
dicates that in the eighth century B.c. necromancy 
{consulting the dead by either an ob or a yidde‘oni) 
was the most popular competitor of prophecy for 
popular favor. Itcannot be supposed, as Stade and 
others hold, that ancestor worship in a pronounced 
form ever existed among the Semites (comp. Frey, 
“Seclenglaube und Secelenkult im Alten Israel,” 
Leipsic, 1898, and Griineisen, “Der Ahnenkultus 

und die Urreligion Israels,” Halle, 
Relation to 1900); yet, when it is borne in mind 
Ancestor how easily an ancestor or a departed 
Worship. sheik becomes a “wali” among the 
modern Arabs, it is not difficult to be- 
lieve that the necromancy of ancient Israel had a 
seini-religious origin. The movement against nec- 
romancy was much older than that against “ke- 
sem,” for it began as early as the reign of Saul 
{comp. I Sam. xxviii. 3); but old customs are per- 
sistent, and “seeking unto the dead” was still a 
popular practise in the time of Isatah. 

The denunciations of Isaiah and the Deuterono- 
mist did not, however, annihilate witchcraft. It 
still existed in the time of the authorof the Ethiopic 
Book of Enoch, although it was then in bad odor. 
This writer ascribes all kinds of sorcery and divina- 
tion to the angels. who, in Gen. vi. 2-4, are said to 
have come down to earth and taken human wives 
(comp. Ethiopic Enoch, vii. 1, viii. 1, ix. 7, and xvi. 
3). In this writer's view sin came into the world 
through these angels, and not through the eating of 
the fruit in paradise (viii. 1 e¢ seg.). His idea of 
Witchcraft as consisting of nefarious knowledge is 
expressed in ch. xvi. 8. where he says that the 
angels had been in heaven, and so knew “illegiti- 
mate mysteries.” 

The Book of Tobit represents even the pious To- 
bias as using a charm against evil spirits (vi. 4-8, 
Vili, 2, xi. 11). This charm consisted of the smoke 
of the gall of a fish. 

The Apocalypse of Baruch (1x. 1) regards the re- 
ligion of the Amorites as “spells and incantations,” 
Dut its author also remembers that Israel in the 
days of the Judges was polluted by similar sins. 

XIE. —35 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Witchcraft 
Wodianer 


Any foreign religion is here counted as witchcraft 
and a wicked mystery. This is analogous to the 
classification as sorcery, in Deut. xviii. 10-11. of 
Moloch-worship, which is attributed to the Am- 
monites. See MaGIc. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. R. Smith, On the Forms of Divination 
and Magic Enumerated in Deut. xviti. 10-11, in Journal 
of Philology, xiii. 273-287, xiv. 113-128: Driver, Deuteron- 
omy, in International Critical Commentary, 1895, pp. 223 
et seq.; Griineisen, Der Ahnenkultus und die Urreligion 
Israels, pp. 160 et seq., Halle, 1900. 


E. G. H. G. A. B. 
WITEBSKEK. See VITEBSk. 

WITNESS. Sce EVIDENCE. 
WITTELSHOFER, LEOPOLD: Austrian 


physician; born at Nagy-Kanizsa, Hungary, July 
14, 1818; died at Vienna Jan. 8, 1889; educated at 
the University of Vienna (M.D. 1841). After prac- 
tising medicine for ten years in Raab, Hungary, he 
moved to Vienna (1851) and became editor of 
the “ Wiener Medizinische Wochenschrift,” to which 
periodical he contributed many essays. He was 
the author also of “ Wiener Heil- und Humanitiits- 
anstalten.” Vienna, 1856. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Pagel. Biog. Lex.: Hirseh, Biog. Ler. 
s. F. T. H. 


WITTMANN, FRANZ: Hungarian electri- 
cian and physicist; born at Hod-Mezé-Vasarhely 
Jan. 16, 1860. He was educated at the university 
of Budapest, and continued his studies in Vienna, 
Berlin, Paris, Frankfort-on-the-Main, Darmstadt, 
and Hanover. In 1892 he was appointed professor 
of physics at the polytechnic in Budapest; and five 
years later he became a member of the royal 
patent bureau and secretary of the board of exam- 
iners for teachers in intermediate schools. 

Wittmann’s works, which have made him the Jead- 
ing Hungarian authority on eclectrotechnics, include 
the following: “Az Inductiv Taszitasrél” (on 
inductive repulsion); “Periodikus Aramok Optikai 
Vizsgalata” (optical tests of periodical currents) ; 
“Budapest Villamvilagitasarol ” (electric lighting of 
Budapest); “Az Erés Villamaéramok Technikaja” 
(technics of strong electric currents); “ A Leydeni 
Batteridk ¢s Induktoriumok Aramadnak Vizsgélata 
és Objektiv Eléallitisa” (objective production of 
currents from Leyden jars and inductors): “Kon- 
densatorok Aramanak Vizsgalata és Objectiv El6él- 
litisa ” (test and objective production of currents 
from condensers); and “ Akusztikai Kisérletek ” 
(acoustic experiments). Tn addition to these works, 
Wittmann has published numerous articles on 
the technical uses of electricity and heat. 

S, L. V. 

WOCHENBLATT FUR DIE FAMILIE. 
See PERIODICALS. 

WODIANER, PHILIP: Hungarian communal 
worker; flourished in Szegedin during the latter 
part of the eighteenth and the beginning of the 
nineteenth century. He was president of the Jew- 
ish community there from 1793 to 1809, and pre- 
sented the congregation with the site for its first 
synagogue, and with silver holy vessels for its hebra 
kaddisha. 

His son Cosman (b. Veprovac 1788: d. at Gy6r- 
Sziget Aug. 18. 1831) studied Talmudics under Samuel 


woeve 
Wolf, Gerson 


C. Brody and Lebusch Harif in Szegedin, under R. 
Moses Sofer in Mattersdorf, and under R. Moses Minz 
in Alt-Ofen. In Gyér-Sziget, where he settled after 
his marriage, he maintained a yeshibah of his own, 
which was usually frequented by forty to fifty 
pupils; and he enjoyed a high reputation as a Tal- 
mudist. His writings, left in manuscript, were 
published by his son Arnold (born in Raab 1817) 
under the editorship of Prof. W. Bacher. They 
appeared in 1890 in two volumes entitled “Sefer 
Nahalat Yehoshua‘, Liber Hereditatis Josuxz, Com- 
mentationes in Plerosque Talmudi Babylonii Trac- 
tatus Additis Commentationibus in Pentateuchum,” 
and consisted of Talmudic novelle and of explana- 
tions of passages in the Torah. 

Wodianer’s son Samuel, who, after the death of 
his father, kept a large warehouse in Szegedin for 
tobacco, wool, and corn, was president of the com- 
munity from 1812 to 1821. Later he settled in Pesth, 
where he and his children were baptized. His 
son Albert (born at Szegedin Aug. 18, 1818; died 
in Budapest July 17, 1898) studied technology in 
Pesth and Vienna, and was in 1867 appointed royal 
commissary of the Hungarian Northern Railroad. 
In 1869 he received the Iron Cross of the second 
class, and in 1870 the cross of the papal Order of St. 
George; and in 1886 he was elevated to the Hun- 
garian nobility. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Kulinyi-Léw, A Szegedi Zsiddk; Sturm, Or- 

szdggyiilésti Almanach, 1897. 

S. L. V. 

WOGUE, JULES: French author; son of 
Lazare Wocve; born in Paris Dec. 4, 1868: edu- 
cated at the Ecole Normale Supérieure in his native 
city (“agrégé és lettres,” 1885). After successive 
protessorships at the lyceums of Saint Quentin and 
Reims, as well as at the Lycée Michelet and the Col- 
lége Rollin in Paris, he was appointed professor at 
the Lycée Buffon, which position he still holds (1905), 

Wogue is the author of the following works: “Le 
Poéte Gresset” (Paris, 1894); “Contes et Récits des 
Dix-Septiéme et Dix-Huitiéme Siécles”; “Les Por- 
traits de La Bruyére”; and “ Le Theatre Comique 
aux Dix-Septiéme et Dix-Huitiéme Siécles” (Paris, 
1905). He has published also editions of Racine’s 
“Esther” and “Athalie,” with historical introduc- 
tions and commentaries, including copious Biblical 
notes. Heisa contributor to the “Revue Bleue,” 


the “Grande Revue,” and “Le Temps.” 
8. J. Ka. 


WOGUE, LAZARE ELIEZER: French 
rabbi; born at Fontainebleau, Seine-et-Marne, July 
22, 1817; died at Paris April 14, 1897; educated at 
the Lycée Charlemagne at Paris, and at the Collége 
Royal and the Ecole Centrale Rabbinique at Metz. 
Receiving his rabbinical diploma in 1848, he re- 
turned to Paris, and became assistant preacher un- 
der Marchand Ennery, chief rabbi of Paris. Eight 
years later Salomon Munk and Adolphe Franck 
established a chair of Jewish theology at the Ecole 
Centrale Rabbinique at Metz, to which Wogue was 
appointed, remaining in this position until his retire- 
ment, with the title of professor emeritus, in 1894. 
Upon the transfer of the college from Metz to Paris 
(1859) as the Séminaire Israélite’de France, his duties 
were extended to embrace instruction in Hebrew 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


546 


grammar, Biblical exegesis, and German. From 
1879 to 1895 he was the director and editor-in-chief 
of the “ Univers Israélite,” being at the same time a 
member of the Imperial Academy of Metz, and of 
the Society of Archeology and History of the Mo- 
selle. On Jan. 11, 1885, he was made a chevalier 
of the Legion of Honor. 

Wogue, who was a prolific writer, is best known 
for his translation of the Pentateuch, with notes 
which include the chief rabbinical interpretations, 
and for his history of Bible exegesis. His works 
are as follows: “Sermon sur la Tolérance” (Metz, 
1841); “Le Rabbinat Francais an Dix-Neuviéme 
Siécle” (Paris, 1848); “L’ Avenir dans le Judaisme ” 
(46. 1844); “Shomer Emunim, Le Guide du Croyant 
Israélite” (Metz, 1857; 2d ed., with a preface by 
Zadoc Kahn, Paris, 1898), a collection of prayers, 
hymns, and meditations in prose and verse; “Le 
Pentateuque” (Paris, 1860-69), a new translation, 
with Hebrew text and notes, and a version of the 
Haftarot ; “ L’ Anthropomorphisme et les Miracles Se- 
lon le Judaisme” (2b, 1867); a translation of the “ Kol 
Kore” of Elijah Soloweyczyk (2 parts, 2b. 1870-75), 
a harmony of the Bible, the Talmud, and the Gospels; 
a translation of Schleiden’s “Bedeutung der Juden 
ftir Erhaltung und Wiederbelebung der Wissen- 
schaften im Mittelalter” (7b. 1877); a revised and an- 
notated edition of the “Sefer Sekiyyot ha-Hemdah” 
by D. Cahen (Mayence, 1877); a translation of Ga- 
briel b. Joshua's “ Petah Teshubah,” which appeared 
originally at Amsterdam in 1651 (Paris, 1879); a 
revised edition of letters A-C of Léon Hollaender- 
ski’s “ Dictionnaire Universel Francais-Hébreu ” (28, 
1879); “ Histoire de la Bible et de l’Exégése Biblique 
Jusqu’a Nos Jours” (2b, 1881); a translation of the 
first two volumes of Gritz’s “Geschichte der Ju- 
den” (5. 1882-84); “Esquisse d'une Théologie 
duive” (2b. 1887); and “La Prédication Israélite en 
France” (7b, 1890). In addition to these works, 
Wogue translated and annotated Lipmann Sofer’s 
“Gan Raweh,” and revised the “Semaine Israélite ” 
of Baruch Créhange, the “Sentier d’Israél” and the 
“Rituel des Priéres” of Elcan Durlacher (10 vols., 
with Hebrew text and French translation), and 
Ulilmann’s “ Catéchisme.,” 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Ozar ha-Sifrut, v.; Archives Israélites and 

Univers Israélite, April, 1897. 

s. J. Ka, 

WOHLLERNER, JETTY: Galician Hebrew 
writer; born at Lemberg in 1813; died there in 1891. 
When a little girl of eight, Jetty, after having 
passed her examination In primary instruction, was 
taken by her father, Michael Kehlmann, into his 
office as an accountant. She was so devoted to the 
study of Hebrew, however, that shealways attended 
the Hebrew lessons given her brothers, and in her 
spare moments she used to read the Bible in Hebrew. 
The Hebrew letters of the Christian Anna Maria 
Schurmann stimulated her still more, and she in- 
duced her father to engage a teacher for her. The 
physician Goldschmied, then a student at Lemberg, 
was entrusted with her Hebrew education. 
age of fourteen she was betrothed to L. Rosanes of 
Brody, and carried on a correspondence with him 
which was styled by Rapoport “the echo of the 
Song of Songs.” Her fiancé died, however; and she 


At the. 


547 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Wogue 
Wolf, Gerson 


was married several years later to Samson Wobhl- 

Jerner. She continued to write her Hebrew letters 

notwithstanding; and the greater portion of her cor- 

respondence, which is noteworthy for its style and 
purity of language, was published in “ Kokebe Yiz- 
hak ” and “ Ha-Boker Or,” while two letters, one to 

Kayserling and one to Goldschmied, are found in 

“Ozar ha-Sifrut ” (i. 60-62). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Kayserling, Die Jtidischen Frauen, pp. 309- 
3ll; Allg. Zeit. des Jud. 1891, p. 588; Weinberg, Ziyyurim 
me-Hayye ‘Ammenu, Wilna, 1891; Jewish Chronicle, Noy. 
18, 1891, p. 9. 

8. M. SEL. 


WOLF (Hebr. “ze’eb”; for the rendering of 
“iyyim,” Isa. xiii, 22, and “tannim,” Lam. iv. 8, 
see Fox): The wolf (Canis lupus) is still found in 
Palestine, where the animals prow! in pairs or droves 
about sheepfolds at night. As a type of boldness, 
ferocity, and bloodthirstiness, it is mentioned in Gen. 
xlix. 27; Isa. xi. 6, Ixv. 25; Jer. v. 6; Ezek. xxii. 
27; Hab. i. 8; and Zeph. iii. 3. 

According to the Talmud, the wolf (3N?, “2%, 
and pind [= Greek Avzoc]) resembles in external 
appearance the dog, with which it can copulate (Ber. 
9b; Gen. R. xxxi. 6); and its period of gestation is 
three years (Bek. 8a). It is the enemy of flocks, 
and directs its attacks especially against the he- 
goats (B. K. 15b; Shab. 58b). The wound caused 
by the wolf’s bite is oblong and ragged (Zeb. 74b). 
Although when pressed by hunger the wolf attacks 
even man (Ta‘an. 19a), it can be tamed (Sanh. 15b). 
For a comparison of the otter with the wolf see Suk. 
56b and Gen. R. cxii. 8; and for fables of which the 
wolf is the subject see Rashi on Sanh. 39a and 105a. 


a ca Tristram, Nat. Hist. p. 152; Lewysohn, Z. T. 
$1. 


p. 
E. G. H. I. M. C. 


WOLF, AARON BENJAMIN. See Aaron 
B. BENJAMIN WOLF. 

WOLF, ABRAHAM NATHAN: German 
scholar; born at Dessau in 1751; died there in 1784. 
On account of his liberal views he was highly es- 
teemed by Moses Mendelssohn, but when he en- 
deavored to harmonize the usual Jewish system of 
training with modern European culture, he was 
persecuted by the conservative element among the 
Jewish scholars, and even his friends nicknamed 
him “the backslider.” Wolf was the author of the 
“Pesher Dabar” (Berlin, 1777), a comprehensive 
commentary on the Book of Job, which was highly 
praised by Moses Mendelssohn on account of the 
thorough rabbinical scholarship which it evidenced 
(“Der Sammiler,” 1785, p. 43). He also wrote 
“Grundztige der Jtidischen Religion ” (2d, 1782), in 
which he expounded the teachings of Judaism in 
simple language without reducing the moral and 
religious contents of Jewish law to arbitrary articles 
of faith. The latter work has been lost for the last 
fifty years. Wolf was likewise a contributor to 
“Ha-Meassef” and to the first three volumes of the 
“ Bikkure ha-‘Ittim.” 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: P. Philippson, Biographische Skizzen, pp. 

153-154, Leipsic, 1865 ; Delitzsch, Zur Gesch. der Hebrdischen 

Poesie, p. 107; Alig. Zeit. des Jud. 1887, p. 448; Steinschnei- 


der, Cat. Bodl. col. 2578. 
8. S. O. 


WOLF, ADOLPH GRANT: American jurist; 
born at Washington, D. C., Jan. 11, 1869; educated 
at Johns Hopkins University (A.B. 1890) and at the 
George Washington (formerly Columbian) Univer- 
sity of Washington, D. C. (LL.B. 1892; LL.M. 1898). 
He was admitted to the bar in 1898, and then took 
a postgraduate course at the University of Berlin. 
Upon his return to the United States (1895) he be- 
came financial secretary of the United Hebrew 
Charities at Washington; and in 1902 he was ap- 
pointed associate justice of the Supreme Court of 
Porto Rico. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: American Jewish Year Book, 5665 (1904-5). 

A 


WOLF, EMMA: American authoress; born 
June 15, 1865, in San Francisco, Cal., to which city 
her parents had migrated from France, and where 
she received her education. In addition to several 
short stories, which appeared in various American 
magazines, she is the author of the following novels: 
“Other Things Being Equal,” San Francisco, 1892; 
“A Prodigal in Love,” 2b. 1894; “The Joy of Life,” 
7b. 1896; and “Heirs of Yesterday,” 2b. 1900. Her 
Jewish novels attracted particular attention. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: American Jewish Year Book, 5665 (1904-5). 

A F. T. H. 


WOLF, GEORGE GARCIA: South-African 
merchant, and member of the Cape Parliament; 
born at Great Yarmouth 1888; died in London 
March 18, 1899. He commenced business as an ap- 
prentice in Manchester, but soon emigrated to Mon- 
treal, where he became a general merchant. In 1860 
he went to Kimberley, where he opened a general 
store. He then became associated with the leading 
men of the diamond fields, and in 1882 was elected 
representative for Kimberley in the Cape Parlia- 
ment. He was presented by his constituents with 
a gold casket containing 500 guineas and accom- 
panied by an illuminated address. Wolf held sev- 
eral other public offices in Kimberley for some years, 
until his return to England. : 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jew. Chron. March 24, 1899. 

J. G. L. 

WOLF, GERSON: Austrian historian and 
educator; born at Holleschau, Moravia, July 16, 
1823; died in Vienna Oct. 29, 1892. He began the 
study of Hebrew at a very early age, and later re- 
ceived instruction in German and in Latin from Dr. 
Egenter, then stationed in Holleschau as military 
surgeon. Intending to pursue a rabbinical career, 
he went in 1886 to Pohrlitz, and later to Nikolsburg, 
where he engaged in Talmudic studies, attending at 
the same time the gymnasium. Three years later 
(1839) he went to Vienna, where he attended the 
university, his studies embracing pedagogics, phi- 
losophy, and modern languages. In 1845 his first 
article, “Das Lustspiel des Aristophanes und das 
Lustspicl Unserer Zeit,” appeared in Saphir’s “ Hu- 
morist.” Three years later he published in Frankl’s 
“Sonntagsblitter ” his “Das Sterben eines Kindes,” 
his only attempt In the field of fiction, 

Wolf was personally engaged in the political 
struggles of 1848-49, his “ Die Demokratie und der 
Socialismus” appearing in the latter year. On ac- 
count of several radical articles published in “ Die 


Wolf, Gerson 
Wolf, Max 


Oesterreichische Zeitung ” and in Die Zeit,” he was 
ordered to leave Vienna; but owing to the interven- 
tion of influential friends the order was revoked. 
He then decided to abandon journalism, and pres- 
ently accepted a position in a school for Jewish 
girls. In 1850 he wasappointed religious instructor 
in the state industrial high school in the Leopold- 
stadt, one of the district: of Vienna, which position 
he held till 1876. 1n 1851, in response to a request 
from the mayor of Vienna for sug gestions as to school 
reforms, he published his “ Veber die Volksschulen 
in Oesterreich,” in which he advocated the elimina- 
tion of religious instruction from all public schools. 
Toward the end of 1852, on account of a secret de- 
nunciation, his home was searched by the authori- 


ties, and Gui- 
zot's “La Dé- 


mocratie en- 
France,” a work 
which had been 
placed under the 
ban, was found 
in nis library. 
He was court- 
martialed, held 
in custody for 
seventeen days 
during trial, and 
finally sentenced 
to four weeks’ 
continement in a 
fortress, In the 
same year he re- 
ceived his degree 
of Ph,D, and 
two years later 
was appointed 
religious in- 
structor to the 
Jewish commu- 
nity of Vienna. 
Weolf was active 
in various pub- 
lic undertak- 
ings, In 1859 he 
founded a li- 
brary for the 


young; and in 
1861, together 
with Noah 


Mannheimer, 

Baron Konigswarter, and Julius von Goldschmidt, he 
organized a society for the aid of poor Jewish students 
in Vienna. This society, which is still (1905) in ex- 
istence, hasassisted more than 200 students annually 
since its foundation. Until 1872 Wolf officiated as 
pastor to the Jewish inmates of the houses of car- 
rection of Vienna and Stein-on-the-Danube; and 
from 1884 to 1892, as inspector of all the Jewish 
religious schools of Vienna. 


Wolf is the author of the following works: *’ Geschichte {s 
raels furdie [sraelitische Jugend * (Vienna, 1856), introduced as 
a text-book in various Jewish schools of the United States; ** Fer- 
dinand If. und die Juden”’ (ib, 1859; 2d ed., Leipsic, 1860); 
“Vom Ersten bis zum Zweiten Tempel. Geschichte der Israeli- 
tischen Ciitusgemeinde in Wien, 1820-60”? (Vienna, 1860): °° Zur 
Geschichte der Juden in Worms und des Deutschen Stiidtewe- 


THE JEWSH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


| 


Johann Christoph Wolf. 
(From Wolf, “ Bibliotheca Hebrea,’? Hamburg, 1715.) 


| 


| 


548 


sens’ (Breslau, 1862); " Judentaufen in Oesterreich * (Vienna, 
1863) ; ‘* Isaak Noah Mannheimer. Eine Biographische Skizze”’ 
(ib. 1863) ; ** Die Juden in der Leopoldstadt ’’ (ib. 1863): “* Zur 
Geschichte der Jiidischen Aerzte in Oesterreich *’ (1864); ** Zur 
Geschichte Jiidischer Tartiiffe’’ (pseudonymously; Leipsic, 
1864); ** Das Hundertjihrige Jubilaum der Israelitischen Cultus- 
gemeinde*’ (Vienna, 1864); ‘“ Zwei Geschichten der Israeliti- 
schen Cultusgemeinde in Wien” (ib. 1865); “Zur Lage der 
Juden in Galizien ’’ (1867); ** Joseph Wertheimer, ein Lebens- 
und Zeitbild ’* (Vienna, 1868); ‘* Die Vertreibung der Juden aus 
Béhmen im Jahre 1744, und deren Ritckkehrim Jahre 1748” 
(Leipsie, 1869); ** Kurzgefasste Religions- und Sittenlehre ” (Vi- 
enna, 1870; 2d ed., ih. 1817), used as a text-book in Jewish 
schools of North America; ** Geschichte der Juden in Wien yon 
1146-1876’ (ih. 1876) ; *° Joseph II.” (ib. 1878) ; ** Die Jiidischen 
Friedhéfe und die Chevrah Kadischah in Wien”? (ib. 1879); 
“Die Alten Statuten der Jiidischen Gemeinden in Mahren, 
nebst den Darauffolgenden Synodalbeschliissen’” (ib. 1880): 
‘Das Unterrichtswesen in Oesterreich Unter Kaiser Joseph II.”’ 
(ib. 1880) ; ““ Ausder 
Zeit der Kaiserin 
Maria Theresia” (ib. 
1888); ‘*Josefina’’ 
(ih. 1890); and 
‘** Kleine Historische 
Schriften’ (ib, 
1892). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: 
Wurzbach, Biog. 
Lex.: Allge- 


meine Deutsche 
Biographie; 
Miihrens Méin- 
ner der Gegen- 
wart, s.v. For 
Wolf's autobiog- 
raphy see Notiz- 
enhlatt der His- 
toriseh-Statisti- 
schen Section der 
Gesellschaft zur 
Beférderung des 
Ackerbaues, ed. 
by Christian Rit- 
ter d’Elvert, 1873, 
Nos. 3 and 4. 


Ss. 


Woturf, 
HENRY : 
American engra- 
ver, was born at 
Eckwersheim, 
Alsace, August 
3, 1852; educated 
at Strasburg. 
He became @ 
pupil of Jacques 
Lévy, an engra- 
ver of Strasburg, 
Wolf’s work re- 
ceived honorable 
mention from the 
Paris Salon (1888, and a gold medal (1895). He 
exhibited at the World's Columbian E: position, re- 
ceiving a medalof the first class in 1898. Since then 
his work has been shown in various expositions, es- 
pecially in Paris (1889, 1900). He received a medal 
from the St. Louis Exposition, 1904. 

His principal works are engravings which illus- 
trated the American Artist series and the Gilbert 
Stuart series of Women and Men for * The Century 
Magazine,” and a series of portraits of women for 
* Harper’s Magazine”: portraits of Thomas Jefferson 
and Carlyle; and “ The Morning Star,” “ The Eve- 
ning Star,” and “ A Dueck Pond.” 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Who's Who tn America, 1908-09. 


F,H. V. 


ew a 


SS 
ne 
————_ ea 
eee 
ae 
—— 
= 
SF 
— 
— and 


cy 
3 


= 


549 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Wolf, Gerson 
Wolf, Max 


WOLF, HIRSCH W.: German physician: born 
at Lobsens, Posen, 1788; died at Hamburg April 14, 
1820; studied at the University of Giessen (M.D. 
1779). From 1786 to 1788 he acted as physician at 
the Hamburg poorhouse. He wrote “ Abhand- 
lung tiber das Spanische Fliegenpflaster,” Altona, 
1785; “ Vertheidigung der Frihen Beerdigung der 
Juden,” Hamburg, 1788; “Bemerkungen tiber die 
Blattern,” 2d, 1795; “Ideen tiber Lebenskraft, nebst 
Einigen Krankengeschichten und Bemerkungen,” Al- 
tona, 1806; “ Praktische Bemerkungen nebst Krank- 
heitsgeschichten,” Hamburg, 1811; “ Ueber das We- 
sen des Fiebers, nebst einem Beitrag zum Thierischen 
Magnetismus,” 2b. 1815, 2d ed. 1818. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hirsch, Biog. Lex. 

8. EF. T. #H. 

WOLF, JOHawWN CHRISTOPH: Christian 
Hebraist and polyhistor, born at Wernigerode Feb, 
21, 1683; died at Hamburg July 25, 1739. Hecamein 
contact with Vitringa, Surenhuis, Reland, and Bas- 
nage, and especially occupied himself with the study 
of Oriental languages and literature, of which he be- 
came professor at the Hamburg gymnasium in 1712, 
Wolf devoted himself to a description of Jewish lit- 
erature based upon the Oppenheimer collection. His 
researches resulted in “ Bibliotheca Hebreea ” (4 vols., 
Hamburg, 1715-33). The first volume contains a 
list of Jewish authors; the second deals with the 
subject-matter under the headings “ Bible,” “ Tal- 
mud,” “Cabala,” etc. The knowledge of Christen- 
dom about the Talmud was for nearly acentury and 
a half derived from Wolf’s statements. Vol. iii. is 
a supplement to vol. i.; vol. iv. to vol. ti. Wolf’s 
work forms the basis of Steinschneider’s catalogue of 
the Bodleian Library, which has references to it on 
nearly every page. He issued a history of Hebrew 
lexicons (for his doctor's dissertation; Wittenberg, 
1705), and “ Notitia Kareeorum” (Hamburg, 1721). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider, Bibliographisches Hanc«- 
bueh, 1859, pp. xviii. et seq.; idem, Cat. Bodl. col. 2730; 
First, Bibl. Jud. iii. 528; McClintock and Strong, Cyc. 


bs 


WOLF BEN JOSEPH OF DESSAU: Ger- 
man scholar and author; born at Dessau in 1762: 
died there March 16, 1826. Left an orphan at an 
early age, he was educated by his father-in-law, Reb 
Gumpel; and in 1775 he lived with his uncle, Jacob 
Benscher, at Berlin, where he attended the com- 
munal school. He officiated as a teacher in Freien- 
walde-on-the-Oder from 1780 to 1782, wasin Wriezen 
from 1782 to 1789, and lived in Sandersleben from 
1789 to 1796, when he settled in Dessau, having 
been appointed tutor in the Herzog Franz Schule. 


At the same time he discharged the duties of secre-. 


tary to the Jewish community of Dessau, and also 
officiated as preacher. Wolf was the author of the 
following works: “Minhah Tehorah ” (2 vols., Des- 
sau, 1805), the Hebrew text of the Minor Prophets, 
with a German trauslation, anda Hebrew preface en- 
titled “Solet la-Minhah”; “ Daniel” (2d. 1808), with 
the original text, a Hebrew commentary, and a Ger- 
man translation; acollection of sermons delivered in 
the synagogue, with a Hebrew translation (ib. 1812); 
“Shir” (23. 1812), a eulogy on the Book of Esther, 
to which it was appended; a collection of sermons 
(26. 1813); “Charakter des Judentums” (Leipsic, 


ae ee 


1817), an apology written in collaboration with Gott- 
hold Solomon; and “ Yesode ha-Limmud ” (Dessau, 
1819), an elementary text-book of Hebrew, with a 
glossary. He was alsoa collaborator on the ninth 
and tenth volumes of “ Ha-Meassef.” 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: P. Philippson, Biographische Skizzen, partii., 
Leipsic, 1865; Benjacob, Ozar ha-Sefarim, p. 389; Zunz, in 
the introduction to Asher’s English translation of Benjamin 
of Tudela, p. 293, London, 1840; Buseh, in Jahrbuch fiir 
[sraeliten, vi. 93; Zunz, G. V. p. 460: Delitzseh, Zur Gesch. 
der Hebriischen Poesie, pp. 107-108; Steinschneider, Cat. 
Boal, cols. 2428-2729; Zeitlin, Bibl. Post-Mendels. p. 428. 
BC; 8. 0. 


WOLF, LUCIEN: English journalist and 
Anglo-Jewish historian; born in London Jan. 20, 
1857. He began his journalistic career at a very 
early age on “The Jewish World,” which he joined 
in 1874, and was principal leader-writer for that 
journal until 1893. He was assistant editor of the 
daily “Public Leader” in his twentieth year, and 
after other journalistic experience became foreign 
subeditor and leader-writer of the “ Daily Graphic ” 
in 1890, a position which he still (1905) holds. He 
isa fellow of the Institute of Journalists, and has 
held honorary positions in connection with it. For 
four years (1893-97) he was London correspondent 
of “Le Journal” of Paris. Wolf is one of the best- 
informed English writers on foreign politics, and for 
many years his articles signed “ Diplomaticus” on 
that subject in the “ Fortnightly Review ” were one 
of the characteristic features of the magazine. In 
1905 some communications by him to the London 
“Times” on Russian finance attracted international 
comment, and evoked the unique compliment of a 
disclaimer by the Russian Minister of Finance. 

Wolf has shown a strong interest in Anglo-Jewish 
history. He was intimately connected with the 
Anglo-Jewish Historical Exhibition, compiling the 
official catalogue and the “ Bibliotheca Anglo-Juda- 
ica,” a bibliography of Anglo-Jewish history, both 
in collaboration with Joseph Jacobs. He suggested 
the Jewish Historical Society of England, and be- 
came its first president, in addition to editing for it 
the volume devoted to “ Manasseh ben Israel’s Mis- 
sion to Oliver Cromwell” (London, 1901). He has 
devoted considerable attention to Anglo-Jewish pedi- 
grees, of which he has made large collections, and — 
wrote “Sir Moses Montefiore,” a centennial biogra- 
phy (1885). He also contributed important articles 
on “ Anti-Semitism” and “Zionism” to the * Ency- 
clopedia Britannica,” and on the lattersubject wrote 
adversely in controversy with Israel Zangwill, with 
whom, however, he joined forces in 1905 for the 
Jewish Territorial Organization. J, 


WOLF, MAX: Austrian composer; born at 
Weisskirchen, Moravia, Feb., 1840; died in Vienna 
March 28, 1886. His father, a wealthy business man, 
desired him to pursue a commercial career, but Max 
early evinced a marked inclination for music. He 
hegan studying composition at the age of sixteen, 
later continuing his studies under A. B. Marx in 
Berlin and Otto Dessof in Vienna. It is told that 
Genera] von Moltke, having heard one of Wolf’s pro- 
ductions played at a concert in Berlin, requested the 
artist to compose a military march, “that a bit o’ fire 
may get into the boys.” 

In his earlier compositions Wolf somewhat imi- 


Wolf, Simon 
Wolff, Abraham 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


550 


tated the style of Offenbach; but later he acquired 
more originality and inventive talent. Among his 
works may be mentioned: * Die Schule der Liebe” 
(1868), a one-act operetta, which passed through 
thirty-four consecutive performances in Berlin under 
the title “Die Blaue Dame”; “Im Namen des K6- 
nigs,” an operetta, performed in Berlin and on vari- 
ous other German stages; “ Die Portriitdame,” staged 
at Gratz and in Vienna; “ Die Pilger ” (Vienna, 1872), 
a three-act opera; “Cesarine”; and “ Rafaela.” 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Scribner’s Cyclopedia of Music and Must- 
cians; Wurzbach, Biog. Lex.: Aligemeitne Zeitung, 1886, p. 

262: Neue Freie Presse, 1856, No. 7750. 

8. N. D. 

WOLF, SIMON: American jurist, publicist, 
and philanthropist; born at Hinzweiler, Bavaria, 
Oct. 28, 1886; emigrated to the United States in 
18+3 and settled as a 
merchant at Ulrichs- 
ville, Ohio. He stud- 
ied law at the Ohio 
Law College, Cleve- 
land, and was. ad- 
mitted to the bar at 
Mount Vernon, Ohio, 
in 1861. He practised 
law at New Philadel- 
phia, in the same 
state, for a year, and 
then moved to Wash- 
ington, where he 
opened an office. 
From 1869 to 1878 he 
was recorder of the 
District of Columbia. 
President Hayes ap- 
pointed him one of 
the civil judges at Washington, but he resigned in 
1881 to accept the appointment of consul-general of 
the United States to Egypt, from which oftice he re- 
tired the following year. He was appointed and re- 
appointed member of the Board of Charities for the 
District of Columbia, and at present practises law 
in Washington. 

Wolf has been for many years chairman of the 
Board of Delegates of Civil and Religious Rights, 
and in that capacity has had many occasions for sub- 
mitting to the federal government grave questions 
of Jewish interest. He has been very active in the 
Independent Order B’nai B’rith, of which he was 
president from 19038 to 1905. He was the founder 
and president of the Hebrew Orphans’ Home at 
Atlanta, Ga., and is president of the Board of Chil- 
dren’s Guardians, Washington. 

He is a prominent freemason, an able Jecturer, and 
a recognized orator who has devoted much time to 
philanthropic work among all classes. 

Wolf is the author of “The American Jew as Pa- 
triot, Soldier, and Citizen” (Philadelphia, 1895) and 
of biographies of M. M. Noah and Com. U. P. Levy. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: American Jewish Year Book, 1905, p. 208. 

Je yaad Was 6&2 


WOLFENBUTTEL: German city, particularly 
noted for its Samson-Schule, a school, originally 
at Brunswick, founded by Herz Samson, on a legacy 


Simon Wolf. 


by his father. On June 4, 1786, Philip, the brother 
of Herz, opened a Talmud school at Wolfenbiittel 
for boys. The funds of these schools were increased 
by subsequent gifts of the founders and their de- 
scendants. In 1805 the two foundations were com- 
bined as the “Samson Free School,” and were trans- 
formed into a German seminary and school in charge 
of four teachers. Instruction was given in German, 


French, arithmetic, geography, history, and callig- 


raphy, and the school consisted of one class with 
eight free scholars. In 1813 the Brunswick school 
was Incorporated with the free school, and the funds 
were combined, with the condition that five addi- 
tional free scholars should be admitted. As paying 
boarding pupils had also been received at the re- 
quest of many parents, a second class was organized. 
Instruction in the Talmud was subsequently discon- 
tinued. In 18438 the institution was changed to a 
grammar-school with three classes, and was named 
“Samson-Schule.” After 1871 it was gradually en- 
larged to a high school, and by 1903 it had gained 
the status of a real-school with six classes. It was 
under the direction and supervision of the ducal 
school-board of Brunswick, and was empowered to 
give certificates for one year’s military service. 
Since 1881 Christian boys have been admitted as pu- 
pils and receive special religious instruction. In 
1903 the faculty included the director, Ludwig 
Tachau, five teachers with university training, and 
three elementary teachers, one of whom also acts 
as resident teacher. The trustees are Counselor of 
Justice Magnus of Brunswick, Gustav Cohen of 
Hanover, and L. Samson of Wolfenbittel. Among 
the former pupils of the institution may be men- 
tioned M. I. Jost, Leopold Zunz, and Samuel Meyer 
Ehrenberg (1807-46), who was later its director. 
Although the institution was frequently enlarged, 
in 1895-96 a new and larger building with all mod- 
ern improvements was erected to accommodate the 
constantly increasing attendance. There are twenty- 
five full and between eighteen and twenty partial 
scholarships, in addition to numerous foundations 
for the assistance of pupils, even after they have 


left the institution. 
g. L. K. 


WOLFENSTEIN, MARTHA: American au- 
thoress; born at Insterburg, Prussia, Aug. 5, 1869. 
During her infancy her parents emigrated to the 
United States, settling in Cleveland, Ohio, in the pub- 
lic schools of which city she received her education. 
She died March 17, 1905. 

Martha Wolfenstein contributed short stories to 
nearly all the leading Jewish journals, and to vari- 
ous other magazines. Among her writings may be 
mentioned: “A Priest from the Ghetto” and “A 
Sinner in Israel” (in “ Lippincott’s Magazine”); and 
“The Renegade ” (in the “Outlook ”). In 1901 the 
Jewish Publication Society of America published a 
book from her pen entitled “Idylis of the Gass” 
(German transl. in “Die Zeit ” of Vienna). 
BIBLIOGRAPHY : American Jewish Year Book, 1905. 


A. yaad be o 8 


WOLFF: American family which derives its 
origin from the Robies family of Surinam, Dutch 
Guiana. The following is the family tree: 


Woif, Simon 


Daniel Robles de Fonseca 
= Sarah Levy 
Jacob Robles Levy Samuel Robles Levy 
= Rachel de la Motta = Penina de la Motta 
Hattie Katie Judah David 
“4 é | 
Moses Miriam Daniel Judah Rebecca 
= (1791) Aaron Cappé von Honig = (1792) Moses ben Wolff 
Rachel Cappé Aaron Wolff 
(b. 1793) married 1814 (b. 1795; d. 1872) 
| 
| } | | | | 
Jacob W. Moses W, Charlotte Miriam Daniel W. Elias W. Rebecca Alexander Julius others 
= Josephine = Jacob Mendez = Miriam Cappé = Joseph Levy WwW. Ww. 
Levy da Costa (issue) 
(issue) 
Dayid W. Rachel Aaron W. Charles G. W. Augusta Julius R. W. Emita 
= Henry A. Tobias (b, 1843) = Fauny Levy = Frances Nathan = Lewis May 
= (1867) Agnes Hendricks 
Augusta Florence Ethel Emily John B. Arthur Frances Fanny Josephine others 

= Chas. = H. Mon- Lilian Agnes Alma W. Ww. = Myron = Moses 

R.  teflore Schloss = L. Napoleon (d. 1901) (d. 1876) Schafer Stern 

Keyser (issue) Levy (issue) (issue) 

(issue) : 

A a L. N. Le. 


WoLFrF PEDIGREE. 


WOLFF, AARON: Danish merchant; born in 
the Island of Saint Christopher on Aug. 6, 1795; died 
in London, England, Jan. 12, 1872. He was a de- 
scendant of Daniel Robles de Fonseca. Soon after 
1814 he removed to the Island of St. Thomas, Danish 
West Indies, where he was appointed to the office of 
“Stadthovidsmand ” (mayor), which ranked him next 
to the governor of the island. He received from the 
King of Denmark the decoration of the Order of Dan- 
nebrog; and he wasa member of the Royal Council; 
president of the Bank of St. Thomas, which he man- 
aged for thirty-two years; chairman of the Marine 
Slip; president of the St. Thomas Marine Insurance 
Company; and for many years president of the syn- 
agogue. Wolff anticipated the action of the King of 
Denmark by emancipating all his slaves previous to 
the Emancipation Proclamation of 1843. 

J. L. N. Le. 

WOLFF, ABRAHAM ALEXANDER: Ger- 
man rabbi; born at Darmstadt April 29, 1801; died 
at Copenhagen Dec. 8, 1891. His first teacher was 
his father, Alexander Wolff, a merchant, who was 
well versed in the Talmnd and who destined his son 
for a rabbinical career. At the age of six the boy 
astonished the scholars of Darmstadt by his know]- 
edge of Hebrew. He continued his studies under 
Rabbi C. Meklenburg, and at the same time attended 
the gymnasium of his native city. In 1817 he went 
to Mayence, where he studied under Herz Scheyer 
and Michael Creizenach, the latter teaching him 
mathematics. Hethen pursued his education under 


Abraham Bing in Wtirzburg, and entered the uni- 
versity there. Three years after his graduation at 
Giessen (Ph. D. 1821), he was ordained rabbi, and in 
1826 was appointed “ Landesrabbiner” of the prov- 
ince of Oberhessen with a residence at Giessen. In 
1828 he received a call from the community of Copen- 
hagen; and he assumed office as chief rabbi of Den- 
mark on May 16, 1829, 

The synagogue of Copenhagen had been burned 
in 1795 and was stillin ruins, so that the Jewish com- 
munity—both Sephardim and Ashkenazim—was 
split intoseveral congregations. Wolff, by his great 
energy, induced the Jews to build anew synagogue, 
which was dedicated on April 12, 1833; and in the 
same year Wolff published in Danish the agenda for 
the synagogal liturgy. He is credited also with im- 
proving the relations between the Jews and the Chris- 
tians of Denmark. In recognition of his services in 
the organization of the Royal Library of Copenhagen 
he was created a knight of the Order of Dannebrog 
(Oct. 6, 1854), and was also awarded the title of 
professor. 

Wolff was the father of Danish homiletics; and 
during his long rabbinical career of sixty-five years 
he delivered about 5,000 sermons, of which over forty 
in German and about 300 in Danish have been pub- 
lished. His works are as follows: “Der Prophet 
Habakkuk” (Darmstadt, 1822), the Book of Habak- 
kuk with literal and metrical German translations, a 
critical commentary, and an introduction on proph- 
ecy: “Torat Yisrael” (German title, “ Lehrbuch der 


Wolff, Joseph 
Wolff, Ulla 


Israelitischen Religion” ; Mayence, 1825), a text-book 
for instruction in Judaism in schools (an abridged 
Danish edition was published by Paul Martin Méler 
in “ Bibliotheca Theologica,” xvii. 67-81, and the en- 
tire work was translated into Swedish by M. Hen- 
rikes, Stockholm, 1844); “EKinige Worte an das 
Publicum titber Mein Israclitisches Religionsbuch ” 
(tb. 1826); “Abhandlung tiber den Eid” (in Weiss, 
“Archiv fiir Kirchenrecht,” 1830); “Drei Vorle- 
sungen als Einleitung zu Vortragen tiber das Juden- 
thum” (Copenhagen, 1838); “ Agende for det Mosa- 
iske Trossamfunds Synagoge” (Leipsic, 1889); 
“*Ateret Shalom we-Emet” (first published under 
the pseudonym of “ Aniam ben Schmida ” in “ Orient, 
Lit.” ii., Nos. 23-26, and then, in enlarged form, asa 
book, Leipsic, 1857), a compilation of the opinions 
of ancient rabbis with regard to the piyyutim, “ Te- 
fillat Yisrael,” the prayers with a Danish translation 

(t. 1856); “ Aufgefundener Briefwechsei Zwischen 

einem Hochgestellten Protestantischen Geistlichen 

und einem Rabbiner” (first in “Ben Chananja,” 

1860, and then in book form with additions and 

corrections, Leipsic, 1861); “ Laerebog i den Israelitis- 

ke Religion ” (2b. 1861); “ Bibelhistorie for den Lsraeli- 
tiske Ungdom” (24, 1862); “ Bibelhistorie for Skole 
og Hjem” (2). 1867); and “Talmudfjender” (2d. 

1878). He also made a Danish translation of the 

Pentateuch, which was published on his ninetieth 

birthday. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: I. 8S, Graber, in Ozar ha-Sifrut, v. 331-332 ; 
Kayserling, Bibliothek Jitdischer Kanzelredner, i. 329 et 
seq.: idem, Gedenkbliitter, p. 85; The Reformer, x., No, 37, 
p. 1; N. Sokolow, Sefer Zikkaron, pp. 36-37; idem, in Ha- 
Asif, vi., part 1, pp. 147-148. 

s. M. SEL. 

WOLFF, JOSEPH: Missionary and Oriental 
traveler; born at Weilersbach, near Bamberg, Ger- 
many, in 1795; died at [le Brewers, Somerset, Eng- 
land, May 2, 1862. His father, who was rabbi at 

Wirttemberg, sent him to the Protestant Lyceum 

at Stuttgart, and while still a youth he Jearned 

Latin, Greek, and Hebrew. Leaving home on ac- 

count of his inclination toward Christianity, he was 

converted after many wanderings, and was baptized 
on Sept. 13, 1812, by Leopold Zolda, abbot of the 

Benedictine monastery of Emmaus, near Prague. In 

1818 he commenced to study Arabic, Syriac, and 

Aramaic, and in the following year attended theo- 

logical lectures in Vienna. In 1815 he entered the 

University of Tiibingen, and by the liberality of 

Prince Dalberg was enabled to study theology for 

nearly two years, as well as Arabic and Persian, 

Biblical exegesis, and ecclesiastical history. In 1816 

he arrived in Rome, where he was introduced to 

Pope Pius VII. by the Prussian ambassador. He 

was soon afterward admitted as a pupil of the Col- 

legio Romano, and later of the Collegio di Propa- 
ganda; but in 1818, having publicly attacked the 
doctrine of infallibility, he was ex- 


Friend- _pelled from the papal dominions on ac- 
ship with count of erroneous opinions. Aftera 
Henry brief stay at the Monastery of the Re- 
Drum- demptorists at Val Sainte, near Frei- 
mond. burg, he went to England to visit the 


eccentric Henry Drummond, M.P., 
whose acquaintance he had made at Rome. He soon 
declared himself a member of the Church of England. 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


552 


At Cambridge he resumed the study of Oriental lan- 
guages, with the purpose of visiting Eastern lands 
to prepare the way for missionary enterprises. Be- 
tween 1821 and 1826 he traveled as a missionary in 
Egypt and the Levant, and was the first modern 
missionary to preach to the Jews near Jerusalem. 
He sent Christian boys from Cyprus to England for 
education, and then continued his travels through 
Persia, Mesopotamia, Tiflis, and the Crimea. 

About 1828 Wolff commenced an expedition in 
search of the Lost Ten Tribes. After suffering ship- 
wreck at Cephalonia and being rescued by Sir 
Charles Napier, whose friendship he retained 
through life, he passed through Anatolia, Armenia, 
and Khorassan, where be was made a slave, but 
ultimately set free. Undaunted, he traversed Bo- 
khara and Balkh, and reached Cabul in a state of 
nudity, having walked six hundred miles through 
Central Asia without clothing. In 1886 he went to 
Abyssinia, and afterward to Sana in Yemen, where 
he preached to the Wahabites. His next journey 
was to the United States. He preached before Con- 
gress and received the degree of D.D. at Annapolis, 
Md., in 1836. He was ordained deacon by the 
Bishop of New Jersey, and in 1838 priest by the 
Bishop of Dromore. In 1848 he made another 
journey to Bokhara to ascertain the fate of Lieut.- 
Col. Charles Stoddart and Captain Connolly, a com- 
mittee formed in London having raised the sum of 
£500 for his expenses. The men for whom he 
searched had been executed, and the same fate 
threatened Wolff. According to his own story he 
confronted the sovereigns of Central Asia with im- 
perturbable audacity, refusing to conform to their 
court etiquette or to observe any ceremony in his 
speech; on being asked to become a Moslem he re- 
turned a detiant reply. The threat of execution 
was, however, a pretense, and he was ultimately 
rescued through the efforts of the Persian ambassa- 
dor. In 1845 he was presented with the vicarage of 
Ile Brewers in Somerset, where he resided until his 
death. 

Before joining the Church of England, Wolltf had 
entertained all sorts of religious opinions. He was 
amember of the little band which met in Henry 
Drummond's house at Advent, 1826, for a six days’ 
study of the Scriptures, which resulted in the orig- 
ination of the Catholic Apostolic Church under the 
leadership of Irving. In his missionary travels he 
went fearlessly among the most fanatical peoples, and 
he may be said to have been one of the ptoneers of 
modern missionary enterprise. His greatest opposi- 
tion came from the Jews, and to overcome this he 
made use of extraordinary methods, as when, in 
Bombay, he wished to inspect the synagogue of the 
Beni-Israel. In spite of his education and his ex- 
tensive travels, Wolff was possessed of many erratic 
ideas. In India he was considered a fanatic; in 
England he was at one time ostracized by the clergy ; 
and he bent all facts to suit his theories of the lost 
tribes. He believed the East India Company to be 
the “kings of the east” (Rev. xvi. 12). 

In 1827 Wolff married the sixth daughter of the 
Earl of Orford, Georgiana Mary Walpole, by whom 
he had a son, Sir Henry Drummond Wolff, the 
politician and diplomatist. After her death he mar- 


553 


ried (1861) Louisa Decima, daughter of James King, 

rector of St. Peter-le-Poer, London. Wolff signed 

himself “ Apostle of Our Lord Jesus Christ for Pales- 
tine, Persia, Bokhara, and Balkh.” He was the author 
of the following works: “Missionary Journal” 

(London, 1824; &d ed. 1827-29); “Sketch of the Life 

and Journal of Joseph Wolff” (Norwich, 1827); 

“Journal of Joseph Wolff for 1881 ” (London, 1882); 

“ Researches and Missionary Labors Among the Jews, 

Mohammedans, and Other Sects Between 1881 and 

1884” (Malta, 1885; 2d ed., London, 1835); “ Journal 

of the Rev. Joseph Wolff Continued, An Account of 

His Missionary Labors for 1827-31 and from 1885 to 

1838 ” (London, 1839); “ A Narrative of a Mission to 

Bokhara to Ascertain the Fate of Colonel Stoddart 

and Captain Connolly ” (Londonand New York; 7th 

ed, 1852); “Travels and Adventures of Joseph 

Wolff ” (London, 1860; 2d ed. 1861; translated into 

German, 1863). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Travels and Adventures of Joseph Wolff, 
London, 1861; Dict. Nat. Biog. 

J. V. E. 

WOLFF, JOSEPH: Russian historian; born at 
St. Petersburg; died at Heidelberg 1900. The son 
of a book-dealer, he early devcloped a passion for 
reading historical works. After completing a course 
of study at the gymnasium of his native city, he 
entered the University of Leipsic, where he devoted 
himself to the study of history, especially of Polish 
and Lithuanian affairs. Among his works the fol- 
lowing may be mentioned: “Senatorowiei Dignitarze 
Wielkiego Ksiestwa Litewskiego, 1886-1795 ” (Cra- 
cow, 1885); “Syd Ministrem Kréla Zygmunta ” (20. 
1885), a historical sketch; “Rodd Gedymina” (2d. 
1886); and “Kniziowie Litewsko-Rusey od Kofica 
xiv w.” (Warsaw, 1895). Wolff was a corresponding 
member of the Academy of Cracow. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Eneyklopedja. Powszeehna, xv. 471; Siste- 
maticheski Uhkazatel Literatury 0 Yevreyakh, 1888. 

Ss. J. Go, 

WOLFF, JULIUS: German surgeon; born at 
Miarkisch Friedland, West Prussia, March 21, 1836; 
died at Berlin Feb. 18, 1902. He received his edu- 
cation at the Grauekloster Gymnasium, and at the 
University of Berlin, graduating in 1860, whereupon 
he established himself as surgeon in the Prussian 
capital. He took part in the wars of 1864, 1866, and 
1870-71, receiving the Iron Cross for non-combatants. 
In 1868 he was appointed privat-docent, and in 1884 
assistant professor of surgery, at the University of 
Berlin. In 1890 he became chief surgeon of the 
newly founded orthopedic dispensary at the uni- 
versity. In 1899 he received the title of “ Geheimer 
Medizinalrat.” 

Wolff contributed more than a hundred essays to 
medical journals, treating of orthopedics, osteop- 
athy, and laryngology. He was the author also of 
“Das Gesetz der Transformation der Knochen ” (Ber- 
lin, 1892), published by the Royal Prussian Academy 
of Sciences. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Pagel, Biog. Lex. 
8. F. T. H. 
WOLFF, MAURICE: Swedish rabbi; born in 

1824 at Meseritz, Prussia, where his father officiated 

as rabbi. Ife studied at the universities of Berlin 

and Leipsic, and was in 1849 appointed rabbi in 


a 
ce = mn, 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Wolff, Joseph 
Wolff, Ulla 


—= 


Culin, Prussia, whence he was called in 1857 to 
the rabbinate of G6teborg, Sweden. He is the au- 
thor of the following works: “E Senusi’s Begriffs- 
entwickelung des Muhammedanischen Glaubens- 
bekenntnisses ” (Arabic and German), Leipsic, 1848: 
“Philonische Philosophie,” 7. 1849 (2d ed., Gite- 
borg, 1858); “Moses ben Maimon’s Acht Capitel,” 
Leipsic, 1863; “Muhammedanische Eschatologic,” 
2b. 1872; “ Bemerkungen zudem Wortlaute der Emu- 
not we-Deot,” 7b, 1878 (2d ed. 1880); ° Philos Ethik.” 
Goteborg, 1879; “ Beitrige zur Philosophie der His- 
torie,” Stockholm, 1882; and “Zur Characteristik 
der Bibelexegese Saadia Alfajjumis,” 1884-85. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. de Gubernatis, Dictionnaire International 


des Herivains du Jour; Ally. Zeit. des Jud. 1899, No. 45: 
Jew. Chron. Oct. 19, 18Y¥9. 
C 


8. BeiG, 

WOLFF, OSKAR LUDWIG BERNHARD: 
German improvisator and novelist; born at Altona 
July 26, 1799; died at Jena Sept. 13,1851. He early 
manifested an unusual aptitude for acquiring lan- 
guages, and while still in college he translated 
Shakespeare’s “Macbeth” into German verse. In 
1817 he entered the University of Berlin, where he 
devoted himself to the study of medicine, history, 
and literature, afterward settling in Hamburg, where 
he pursued a literary career. The success of the 
Italian improvisators Gianni and Spricci developed 
in him a desire to embrace a similar career; and in 
1825 he started on his first tour, visiting Bremen. 
Hanover, Brunswick, Wolfenbitttel, Weimar, Leip- 
sic, and Dresden, and meeting everywhere with 
marked success. Among his admirers were Goethe 
and Grand Duke Karl August, the latter of whom 
appointed him to a professorship in Weimar. At 
this period of his career Wolff embraced Christianity ; 
and in 1829 he was appointed assistant professor of 
modern literature at the University of Jena, being 
promoted to a full professorship in 1837. 

Among Wolff's works may be mentioned: “Samm- 
lung Historischer Volkslieder und Gedichte der 
Deutschen ” (1830); “Altfranzdésische Volkslieder ” 
(1881); “Poetischer Hausschatz des Deutschen 
Volkes ” (1839; 15thed. appeared before the author’s 
death); “Die Geschichte des Romans von dessen 
Ursprung bis auf die Neueste Zeit” (1841): “ Haus- 
schatz der Deutschen Prosa ” (1845); and “ Handbuch 
Deutscher Beredsamkeit” (1846). A collection of 
his novels and stories was published in Jena in 1841- 
1842. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: O. L. B. Wolff’s autobiography in his collected 
works, Jena, 1841-42; Neuer Nekrolog der Deutschen, 185]; 
Schréder, Lexikon der Hamburger Schriftsteller, ii. 707. 
Altona, 1880. 

g. M. Z. 
WOLFF, ULLA (pseudonym Ulrich Frank): 

German authoress; born at Gleiwitz, Silesia. April 

2,1850; daughter of Max Hirschfeld. She received 

her education at home and in Breslau and Vienna. 

In 1880 she took up her residence in Berlin, where 

she still lives (1905). In 1876 her first production, 

“Der Vampyr,” appeared at the Lobetheater in 

Breslau, and was well received: in 1878 this was 

followed by “Der Herr Kollege,” staged at the Na- 

tionaltheater in Berlin, but meeting with scant suc- 
cess. She thereupon gave up writing for the stage. 
and devoted her literary activity to stories and nov- 


Wolffson 
Wolowski 


els, among which may be mentioned: “Das Wald- 
geheimniss,” Bremen, 1879; “Das Wunderkind,” 
Berlin, 1884; “Frau Ottilie” and “ Bettlers Heim,” 
#. 1886; “Weltliche Beichte,” 7. 1887; “Der 
Kampf ums Glick,” 722. 1888; “Rechtsanwalt 
Arnau,” 7b. 1891; “Der Kompagnon,” 7. 1895; 
“ Adelig,” 2b, 1896; “Gestern und Heute,” 2b. 1897; 
“Margarethe Eilert,” 7. 1898; “Die Lene,” zd. 1902; 
“Die Einsiedlerin”; “Die Geschichte Zweier Sab- 
bathnachmittage ” (appeared in English translation 
in “The New Era Illustrated Magazine,” New York, 
Nov. and Dec., 1904); “Beim Patriarchen”; “Die 
Toten”; “Kénnen Damen Allein Reisen?” ; and “ Die 
Frithlingsgnade.” 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gustav Karpeles, in Nord und Siid, part 327; 
eae N(eisser), in Deutsche Hausfrauen-Zeitung, Sept. 


s 


s. ¥. T. H. 


WOLFFSON, ISAAC: German jurist and poli- 
tician; born Jan. 19, 1817; died at Hamburg Oct. 
12, 1895. He was prominent in German politics, 
and prior to 1871 was a member of the North Ger- 
man Reichstag, being afterward clected to the Ger- 
man Reichstag. Inthe Jewish community he wasa 
councilman for many years, and was known for his 
philanthropic deeds, 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jew. Chron. Oct. 16, 1895, p. 9. 
Ss. F. 8S. W. 


WOLFKAN OF RATISBON : Jewish convert 
to Christianity and traducer of the Jews; lived in 
the second half of the fifteenth century. He was 
prominent in the Srmon oF TRENT affair (1475), on 
which occasion he, in order to vent his spite against 
his former coreligionists, asserted that the Jews had 
very likely killed the child, since they needed Chris- 
tian blood for the Passover festival. This affair, 
and particularly Wolfkan’s testimony, a few months 
later afforded Bishop Henry a pretext for making a 
similar accusation against the Jews of Ratisbon, 
whom he charged with having eight years previously 
bought a Christian child, which they then murdered 
for ritual purposes. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY : Gritz, Gesch. viii. 269, 267. 


S. M. SEL. 


WOLFLEIN OF LOCHAMEN (LOCH- 
HEIM): Medieval Bavarian litterateur; known for 
his compilation of the so-called “ Lochheimer Licder- 
buch ” (about 1450), a collection of medieval German 
folk-songs, numerically arranged. Under No. 15 
appears the following dedication in Hebrew charac- 
ters: “Der Allerliebsten Barbara Meinem Treuen 
Liebsten Gemaken,” which seems to indicate that 
Wolfiein was a Jew; as does also the expression 
“Vil guter Jar,” which appears under No. 5, and 
which was used only by Jews. On the other hand, 
it is noteworthy that “Barbara” is not a current 
name among Jewish women, and that a Christian 
grace after meals appears under song No. 36. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Arnold, in Chrysander’s Jahrbuch ftir Musi- 
Ve Wissenschaft, ii. 12 et sey.; Giidemann, Gesch. iii. 


5. M. SEL. 
WOLFLER, BERNARD: Austrian physi- 


cian; born at Praschnoaugezd, Bohemia, Dec. 8, 
1816. After having studied philosophy at the gym- 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


554 


nasium of Prague, he attended the University of 
Vienna (1886-42), where lhe devoted himself to the 
study of medicine. From 18438 to 1845 he acted as 
assistant physician at the communal hospital of Vi- 
enna; from 1845 to 1849 he was a private practi- 
tioner in Prague; and in 1849 he was appointed di- 
rector of the Jewish hospital of Vienna. When 
Baron Anselm von Rothschild, impressed by the 
efficiency of the hospital in spite of its limitations, 
erected a better building and presented it to the con- 
gregation, Wdlfier devoted his whole energy to the 
new institution, and visited several hospitals of west- 
ern Europe in order to study their methods, 
Wolfler founded (1872) a society for the gratuitous 
care of consumptives, without distinction of creed. 
Two country houses at Kierling, near Klosterneu- 
burg, were secured; and every summer a number of 
patients have enjoyed a stay there with proper pro- 
fessional attendance. Wé6ifler has been a curator, 
and for many years president, of the institute for 
the blind founded at the Hohe Warte by Dr. Ludwig 
August Frankl, In 1866 the government conferred 
upon him the Order of Francis Joseph, and in 1873 
he received the title of imperial councilor. On the 
occasion of his eightieth birthday (1896) the com- 
mittee of the Jewish community of Vienna hung his 
portrait, painted in oil by the Countess Adrienne 
Pétting, on the wall of the committee-room in the 
hospital, among the portraits of its benefactors, 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Wurzbach, Biog. Lex. vol. lvii., s.v. 


8. N. D. 


WOLFNER, THEODORE: Hungarian dep- 
uty; born at Oj-Pest June 18, 1864; educated at the 
gymnasium and at the school of technology at Buda- 
pest. After spending some time in his father’s tan- 
nery in order to acquire a practical knowledge of 
the manufacture of leather, he undertook an exten- 
sive journey, visiting Germany, Egypt, Palestine, 
and Turkey. 

Wolfner is an alderman of Uj-Pest, a member of 
the county council of Pesth, president of the national 
association of leather manufacturers, director of the 
technological industrial museum, and a member of 
the chamber of commerce and industry in Buda- 
pest. Since 1896 he has represented G6dGlI6 in the 
Hungarian Parliament, a fact which is the more 
noteworthy because of the circumstance that this 
district is the favorite residence of Francis Joseph I., 
and is under the influence of court officials. In 1904 
Wolfner was the recipient of a rare honor, when the 
king appointed him a captain of hussars in the re- 
serves and elevated him to the Hungarian nobility. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sturm, Orszdygytilést Almanach, 1901. 

s 


WOLFSOHN, AARON. See HALieE, AARON 
BEN WOLF. 


WOLFSOHN, WILHELM: German poet and 
essayist; born at Odessa Oct. 20, 1820; died at Dres- 
den Aug. 13, 1865; studied medicine and philosophy 
at Leipsic. He began his literary career with trans- 
lations from Latin into German under the pseudonym 
Carl Maier. In 1843 he traveled in Russia, lecturing 
on German literature with such success that he was 
offered a professorship on condition that he wonld em- 
brace Christianity; this, however, he declined. Re- 


555 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDA 


Wolffson 
Wolowski 


turning to Germany, he became assistant editor of 
the “Blatter far Literarische Unterhaltung,” and 
later edited, in connection with Robert Prutz, “ Das 
Deutsche Museum.” In 1852 he moved to Dresden, 
where he continued his literary activity. 

In addition to several volumes of poems, Wolf- 
sohn was the author of the following works: “Je- 
schurun ” (1841), a Jewish almanac; “ Die Schénwis- 
senschaftliche Literatur der Russen ” (Leipsic, 1843); 
“Russlands Novellendichter” (8 vols., 1848-51), 
with an introduction; “ Neues Laienbrevier ” (1851), 
an anthology of German poetry; and “Schauspiele ” 
(1857-59). Of his plays, “Nur eine Seele” became 
very popular, while “Die Osternacht,” the plot of 
which was based on the blood accusation, was less 
successful. Besides contributing literary essays to 
the “Leipziger Zeitung,” he edited a magazine of 
his own which from 1862 to 1864 appeared under the 
title “Russische Revue,” and afterward under the 
title “Nordische Revue.” His “Russische Ge- 
schichten” were published after his death by his 
son (Leipsic, 1884). Wolfsohn married outside of 
his faith, and his children were brought up as 
Christians. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Unsere Zeit, 1865, p. 718; Georg Ebers, in 
Ueber Land und Meer, 1865, No. 50; Allg. Zeit. des Jud. 
1865, pp. 537, 554, 602; Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie. 

8 D. 


WOLLEMBORG, LEONE: Italian economist; 
born at Padua 1859; graduated from the university of 
his native city (1878). He made a special study of 
political economy, and his most noteworthy achieve- 
ment was the establishment of rural savings-banks 
for the peasantry and small farmers of Italy. He 
represented the city of Padua in the legislative as- 
sembly during several consecutive terms, and from 
1900 to 1903 he held the portfolio of finance in Za- 
nardelli’s cabinet. 

Wollemborg is the author of the following works: 
“Alcune Lettere Inedite” (Padua, 1880); “II Costo 
di Produzione Come Norma per la Determinazione 
del Valore” (Bologna, 1882); “La Prima Cassa 
Cooperativa di Prestiti in Italia” (Padua, 1883) ; 
“L’Ordinamento delle Casse di Prestito” (Verona, 
1884); “Le Casse Cooperative di Prestito "(¢b. 1884) ; 
“Sull’ Ordinamento Economico Giuridico delle Lat- 
terie Sociali Cooperative” (Bologna, 1887); “Sul 
Dazio Compensatore pei Cereali” (Padua, 1887); 
“Sull’ Istituzione di un Consorzio fra gli Agri- 
coltori del Friuli” (Udine, 1887); “Sull’ Assicura- 
zione in Generale e in Particolare sull’ Assicurazi- 
one Contro i Danni della Mortalita del Bestiame (22. 
1887); “Sull’ Assicurazione Contro i Danni della 
Mortalita del Bestiame e sui Modi di Ordinaria ” (zd. 
1887); “a Teoria della Cooperazione” (Bologna, 
1887) ; “ Les Caisses Rurales Italiennes, Rapport pour 
Exposition Universelle de Paris en 1889” (Rome, 
1889) ; and “Che Cosa e una Cassa Rurale?” (Cuneo, 


1895). 
8. U. C. 


WOLLHEIM, ANTON EDUARD W. DA 
FONSECA: German playwright and journalist; 
born in Hamburg Feb. 12, 1810; died in Berlin Oct. 
24, 1884; studied at the University of Berlin (Ph.D. 
1831). Shortly after the completion of his studies 
he removed to Paris, where he became infatuated 


with the daushter of a Portuguese nobleman who 
lived there ir exile. In order to win her he en- 
listed in Don Pedro’s regiment, and was wounded 
during an engagement. His fiancée having died in 
the meantime Wollheim left Paris for Hamburg; 
and upon the leath of his father he went to Copen- 
hagen, wherehe was engaged in cataloguing the 
valuable Pali nanuscripts in the royal library, being 
later appointel by King Frederick VI. secretary to 
the private cuncil. In 1838 he went to Vienna, 
where he proaced his first play, “ Andrea,” which 
represented tle adventures of the French marshal 
Andrea Massma. Ten years later his “Raphael 
Sanzio” wassaged in Vienna; while his “Rosen im 
Norden,” or ‘Des Teufels Wette,” was received 
with equal favor both in Berlin and in Hamburg. 
In 1849 he wa appointed instructor in Oriental and 
modern langwges at the University of Berlin, being 
at the same tine engaged as the Berlin correspond- 
ent of the Lonlon “Morning Chronicle.” 

From 1854 b 1858 Wollheim was employed in the 
diplomatic service of the Austrian government; and 
during the folowing six years he edited at Ham- 
burg a week! journal, the “Controle,” devoted to 
the promotio: of Austrian interests. In 1868 he 
established hisown summer theater at St. Georg, a 
suburb of Hanburg; and two years later he went to 
Berlin, where le became editor of the “ Moniteur Offi- 
ciel du Gouvenement Général.” From 1871 to 1872 
he was attacled to the German embassy at Paris. 
Among his wrks may be mentioned: “ National- 
Literatur der skandinavier” (1876-77); “ Deutscher 
Seehandel un die Franzésischen Prisengerichte ” ; 
“Tndiscretiona ” (1883); and “ Neue Indiscretionen ” 
(1884), containng many autobiographical data. He 
died in povert’ in St. Hedwig’s Hospital at Berlin. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Britmmer’s Dichter-Lexikon: Schréder’s 
Lexicon der Iamburger Schrifisteller; Wurzbach, Biog. 
Lex.; Gottschal, Deutsche National-Literatur des Neun- 
zehnten Jahrhinderts; Max Mendheim, A. #. Wollheim 
da Fonseca. 


S. M. Z. 


WOLOWSII (Hebr. Shor): Polish family, sev- 
eral members >f which became converted to Chris- 
tianity. It fourished in southern Poland in the 
seventeenth aid eighteenth centuries, and was di- 
rectly descendd from Osias Tebu’at-Shor. It was 
not until the fimily had become Christianized that 
it adopted the ?vlish form of the name, “ Wolowski.” 
Jewish membrs of this family bearing the name 
Twiaschor, anl Christian members of the name of 
Wolowski arestill living in Brody and Lemberg. 
The followingare the more important members: 

Elisha Sha: Rabbi of Robatyn, Galicia, during 
the middle ofthe eighteenth century. He was a 


zealous adherat of the Shabbethaians, and, having 


become a follaver of Jacob FRANK, he was a leader 
of the Frankits before that party joined the Cath- 
olic Church. When internal friction among the 
Frankists led to public proceedings against them 
(June 11, 1756, Elisha was charged with being the 
leader of thoscwho seduced the people to lewdness. 
The prosecutia failed, however, to make out astrong 
case against he Frankists, and Elisha returned to 
Rohatyn. Upn the death of Bishop Dembowski 
of Lemberg, vhich took place shortly after, the 
Frankists losta stanch protector; they were out- 


Wolper 
Woman 


lawed, and the Polish rabble began murdering and 

pillaging among them, Elisha being one of the first 

victims (Nov., 1757). 

Hayyah Wolowski: Daughter of Elisha. She 
played a conspicuous part among the Shabbethaians, 
and later among the Frankists. She had an excellent 
knowledge of the Zohar, and whenever she fell into 
one of her trances she would cite it from memory. 

Nathan ben Elisha; after baptism, Michael 
Wolowski: Brother of Solomon, and like him 
prominently identified with the Frankists, although 
in a lesser degree. 

Solomon ben Elisha; after baptism, Lucas 
Franciszek Wolowski: A son of Elisha, and a 
prominent figure in the Frankist movement in Po- 
land, and later in Offenbach. Together with Judah 
Koysa, he was one of the chief delegates of the 
Frankists at the disputation held at Kamenetz- 
Podolsk (June 20, 1757) at the suggestion of Bishop 
Dembowski. Two years later (May 16, 1759) he 
went to Lemberg at Frank’s request, in order to 
seek official recognition for the sect from Wratislav 
Lubienski, later primate of Gnesen. Asa condition 
of the baptism of all Frankisis, he asked that the 
newly appointed Archbishop Mikolsky should ar- 
range a disputation between them and the rabbis, 
which request was granted (as to the time and result 
of this disputation see FRANK, JACOB, AND THE 
Frankisrs). On Sept. 19, 1759, Solomon, together 
with 1,000 followers of Frank, embraced the Catholic 
faith in Lemberg, whereupon he assumed the name 
of Wolowski. Even after the death of Frank he 
was active as a mediator between Eve, Frank’s 
daughter, and the Polish Jews. He died in Poland 
at the close of the eighteenth century, prior to the 
final division of Poland. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Kleczewski, Dissertacya Albo Mowa o Pis- 
mach Zydowskich, Lemberg, 1759; Pikalski. Zlose Zydow- 
ska, ib. 1760; J. Calmanson, Essai sur V Etat Actuel des 
Juifs de Pologne, Warsaw, 1796 ; Skimborowicz, Zywot Zkon 
in Nauka Jakoba Jasefa Franka, ib. 1866; Gratz, Frank 
und die Frankisten, Breslau, 1868. 

S, Ss. O. 

WOLPER, MICHAEL: Russian educator and 
author; born in Wilna 1852; educated in the rab- 
binical school of his native city. He was graduated 
in 1872, since when he has been active as a teacher 
in Jewish elementary schools. At present (1905) he 
officiates also as inspector of the Jewish seminary in 
Wilna, and as censor of Hebrew publications. 

Wolper is the author of: “Pervaya Uchebnaya 
Knizhka po Zakonu Yevreiskoi Religii” (Wilna, 
1880; 3d ed. 1882); “ Mesillah Hadashah ” (23. 1888), 
a method for the study of Hebrew; and, in collabo- 
ration with Nemser, a catechism of Judaism. He 
has published also various other Russo-Jewish 
school-books. 


BIEL OGRATEE Sistematicheshi Ukazatel, St. Petersburg, 
H. R. J. Go. 
WOMAN, CREATION OF. See Eve. 


WOMAN, RIGHTS OF: The problem of the 
rights of woman in Jewish law and custom is pre- 
sented mainly in five phases: (1) the power of the 
father over his daughter; (2) woman’s right of in- 
heritance; (3) the powersand duties of the husband ; 
(4) woman’s opportunities for self-improvement and 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


556 


for following various occupations; and (5) the posi- 
tion of the mother. 

(1) An early intimation of woman’s freedom te 
choose her mate in life is found in Gen, xxiv. 48, 
where Rebekah, when her hand is sought for Isaac 
by the steward of Abraham, is asked: 
“Wilt thou go with this man?” <Ap- 
parently, however, Isaac was not con- 
sulted at all as to Whether he preferred 
a wife from Mesopotamia or a Canaanite or Hittite 
damsel. Although the story of Rebekah proves a 
deep-seated sentiment that a girl should uot be 
coerced into marriage, the civil law gave no force 
to this sentiment, but recognized (Ex. xxi. 7) the 
power of the father to sell his daughter into bondage 
with the evident intention that she should become 
the wife of her master or of her master’s son. The 
limitations to the rights of the father. as established 
by tradition, have been discussed under SLAVES 
AND SuAvVERY. The daughter must be under the 
age of puberty, and the sale is justified only by ex- 
treme poverty, although the principle that the father 
can dispose of the daughter’s hand remains intact, 
as is attested by expressions found elsewhere in the 
Torah, such as Deut. xxii. 16: “I gave my daugh- 
ter to this man to wife.” Tradition teaches (Kid. il. 
1), however, that a mature girl (A333), 7.e., one more 
than twelve and a half years of age. had the right to 
give herself in marriage, and the same privilege was 
allowed to a “widow from marriage.” even in case 
she was immature. On the other hand, the father 
had the power to takea wife for his infant son with- 
out the son’s consent (Ket. ix. 9). 

Although marriages are celebrated between very 
young grooms and brides in Europe, it has for cen- 
turies been unusual, even in the eastern part of the 
Continent, to give immature girls in marriage. The 
form of the ketubah, as found in the “ Nahalat 
Shib‘ah,” published in 1666, speaks only of the bride 
as personally accepting the groom’s proposal, and 
has no alternative form by which the father might 
accept for her, 

The father is entitled to the work of his daughter’s 
hands, and to what she finds (Ket. iv. 4), until she 
attains the age of maturity, which is reached very 
early; and he has the same rights over his infant 
son, the term here lasting six months longer, 

The father was empowered to release his dangh- 
ter from her vows (Num. xxx.), although, according 
to the Mishnah (Ned. x. 2), this power ceased when 
she attained her majority. This power of loosing 
vows was a great step in the progress of woman’s 
freedom, marking an advance over both Babylo- 
nian and Roman law, under which the father could 
impose vows on his daughter even against her will. 

(2) While in some systeins of ancient law daugh- 
ters or sisters were excluded from all rights of in- 
heritance, and while in other systems they were put 
on an equality with sons or brothers, the Mosaic law 
gave the inheritance to the daughter or daughters 

when there were no sons, and, by 
Female In- analogy, to sisters or paternal aunts 
heritance. when there were no brothers (see 
AGNATES). In no case, however, 
either under Mosaic or under rabbinic Jaw, did an 
inheritance go to the mother (B. B. viii. 1), The 


Paternal 
Power. 


557 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Wolper 
Woman 


institution of maintenance for minor daughters, and 
the rule that the father’s estate must provide a dowry 
for the younger daughters which should equal the 
portion received by their elder sisters (unless the 
father had become impoverished, when the mini- 
mum dowry should be fifty zuzim), show that in 
the great majority of cases the daughters fared bet- 
ter than the sons (see B. B. ix. 1; Ket. iv. 11; and 
the clause concerning “benan nukban,” or “female 
children,” in the ketubah). No such favor was 
shown, on the other hand, to sisters or other kins- 
women of the decedent, and traditional law sought 
merely to soften the hardships of agnatic succession 
in accordance with the natural feelings of a dying 
father, instead of setting the inheritance aside, as 
was done by the one hundred and eighteenth novel 
in the Roman Code and by American statutes en- 
acted since the Revolution. 

The position of the daughter or sister in regard 
to the right of inheritance Was at least no worse 
than it is now under the law of England in case of 
landed estates. 

(3) The position of married women in Israel was 
naturally improved when the wife brought a dow- 
ry to her husband instead of being purchased. 
ombev, the word for “dowry,” appears for the 

first time in the arrangements for the 
Relations wedding between King Solomon and 
to Pharaoh's daughter (I Kings ix. 16). 
Husband. The literal meaning of the term is 
“clismissal,” since it was the father’s 
present to his daughter when she left his house. 
The use of the word in this place proves the exist- 
ence of a custom of bestowing on the daughter 
such gifts as would inure to the husband's benefit. 
In later times the Babylonian word “nedunya” 
was substituted for the Hebrew term. The “mohar,” 
or price,” which the groom had to weigh out ac- 
cording to the Pentateuch, was originally the sum 
paid for the bride, like the “tirhatu” of Babylonian 
law; but in Israel, as in Babylon, it early became 
customary for the bride's father to restore this price 
to the husband at the wedding, whereupon it was 
secured by contract (the ketubah) to the wife asa 
jointure, payable upon the death of the husband or 
in case of divorce. Thus the mohar was no 
longer incompatible, either in Babylonia or in Ca- 
naan, with the dowry bestowed upon the bride 
from her father’s house. The obligation to return 
the dowry and to pay the jointure (ketubah) served 
as a good security against divorce on insufficient 
grounds, 

PoLyeGamy must have been very rare during the 
period of the Mishnah and Gemara; for though the 
wives of many rabbis are mentioned, there are no 
allusions to plural marriages. Among the person- 
ages named by Josephus, King Herod is almost the 
only polygamist. Concubinage, or the taking of 
an inferior wife (see PILEGESH), was no longer 
practised in mishnaic times. 

The husband's duties to the wife are set forth in 
detail under Kerupan. In the body of that instru- 
ment he binds himself to work for her, and to honor. 
support, and maintain her. The wife, if she brings 
no dowry, is bound to do such housework for the 
husband as grinding, baking, washing, cooking, 


suckling her child, spreading the bed, and working 
in wool (spinning, knitting, and the like). If she 
brings one slave woman, or the means to buy one, 
she need not grind, bake, nor wash clothes; if two, 
she need not cook, nor suckle her child; if three, 
she need not spread the bed nor work in wool; if 
four, she may “sit still in her chair” (Ket. v. 5). 
She must, however, do certain small services for her 
husband which it would beimproper for any but the 
wife to perform, such as washing his handsand face 
(comp. the Talmud ad luc.). R. Eliezer maintained, 
however, that though she brought a hundred slaves, 
the husband might insist on her working in wool, 
lest idleness should lead her into intrigues; and R. 
Simeon ben Gamaliel declared the husband should 
not allow idleness in his wife, as it would drive her 
into melancholia. It is noteworthy that a married 
woman was never bound to work in the field. 

As shown under AssaULT AND BATTERY, the hus- 
band must notstrike his wife; if he does, he is liable 
for “damage, pain, and shame,” the same as to a 
stranger. The legal remedy was less effectual as a 
protection to the wife, however, than the religious 
warning (B. M. 59a), which ran: “A man should al- 
ways be careful lest he vex his wife: for as her 
tears come easily, the vexation put upon her comes 
near [to God]; since, though all other gates be shut, 
the gate of tears is never closed.” 

(4) The fear that an idle wife would fall either into 
intrigues or into melancholia shows that study or 
reading was notacommon diversion of women. The 
Talmud (ad loc.) suggests that they might maintain 
cheerfulness by playing chess (“nardeshir”). On 

| the other hand, it would appear from 


Woman a passage of the Mishnah (Ned. iv. 3), 
and that it was usual] to teach girls to read, 
Culture. which of course meant to read the 


Bible, though it was regarded as 

highly improper to instruct them in the oral Jaw. 
The tone which pervades the Bible and the Tal- 
mud, however, is not very different from that which 
runs through the literature of other nations, show- 
ing that woman was held of less account than man. 
Leah boasts of the mauy sons she has borne to 
Jacob; Hannah prays to the Lord for a man child; 
and the Mishnah speaks of him who prays that his 
wife may bring forth a son rather than a daughter. 
In Hebrew law women were not competent witnesses 
either in civil or in criminal cases. It was a dis- 
grace to a warrior to be killed or disabled by a 
woman, while a woman who could not find a man to 
marry her was held in contempt. Recognition was 
won, however, by women of high talent, such as 
Deborah in Israel's heroic epoch, the prophetess 
Huldah in the later days of the kingdom of Judah, 
and R. Meir’s wife in the mishnaic period; while the 
nine years’ reign of Queen Salome was a golden age 
in Jewish history. The last chapter of Proverbs 
could not have been written among a nation which 
despised its women. Wives were frequently em- 
powered by their husbands to manage a shop or 
store (“hanut”™), and widows were appointed 
guardians for their infant children; so that busi- 
ness was not an unknown field to them (Ket. tx. 
4-5.) In modern times much of the retail trade of 
the Jews, and nota little even of wholesale com- 


Wood Festival 
Worm 


merce, has been carried on by women, while their - 


husbands have been poring over the Bible or Tal- 
mud, either at home or in the bet ha-midrash. 

(5) The position of the mother is higher under the 
Mosaic law than under any other system of antiq- 
uity. By the fifth commandment the mother is to 
be honored equally with the father, while in the 
moral law (Lev. xix. 3) the command to “fear” the 

mother, that is, to treat her with re- 

Woman as spect, is placed even before the duty of 

Mother. “fearing” thefather. Death isthreat- 

ened him who strikes or who curses 
his mother, as well as him who thus offends 
against his father. The Talmud, in showing under 
what extreme provocation the righteous man will 
maintain an outward regard for his parents (Kid. 
30b-32a), gives stories of outrageous mothers who 
were treated with the utmost respect. This senti- 
ment was not shown by the Greeks toward even the 
best of mothers; for in the first book of the “ Odyssey ” 
Telemachus reproves Penelope, and imperiously 
sends her away to her own apartment to mind 
her own womanly business. In the so-called Su- 
merian family laws, the Babylonian code goes far- 
ther than Mosaic legislation, for the son must leave 
the parental house at his mother’s bidding. The 
Book of Proverbs is full of expressions of reverence 
for the mother, who is the teacher of all virtues. 
It states that King Lemuel was taught wisdom by 
his mother. A curse is foretold for the man who 
forgets to reverence his mother. 

The Baraita teaches the influence of the mother 
on her offspring through simple heredity when 
it says: “Most sons follow the nature of the 
mother’s brothers” (B. B. 110a). This very belief 
that the mother gave her child a legacy of good or 
evil qualities which, though hidden in her, appeared 
in her brothers, must have raised the standing of 
mothers and of womankind in general. 

See also DAUGHTER IN JEWISH Law; HusBAND 


AND WIFE; Magsoriry; MARRIAGE; MOoTHER; 
WIpbow. 
E. C. L. N. D. 


WOOD FESTIVAL, THE. See As, Fir- 


TEENTIU DAY OF, 


WOODBINE: Borough in Cape May county, 
New Jersey; established as an industrial village 
Aug. 28, 1891; incorporated as a borough in April, 
1903. It is situated on a tract of land which origi- 
nally comprised 5,300 acres, and was purchased by 
the trustees of the Baron de Hirsch Fund as a site 
for an agricultural and industrial colony. The pri- 
mary intention of the founders of Woodbine was 
the establishment of an agricultural colony for Jew- 
ish immigrants from eastern Europe. Farming was 
to be the chief occupation, but, to make it more re- 
munerative, it was decided at the same time to re- 

serve a certain portion of the tract as 
Early De- a site for the future village of Wood- 
velopment. bine, which should contain a local 

market for farm produce as well as 
factories to give employment to members of the 
farmers’ families. 

By the summer of 1892 about fifty farmhouses 
were completed, and all were occupied in the fall of 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


558 


that year. In the same year the firm of Meyer 
Jonasson & Co, opened a cloak-factory which gave 
employment to more than one hundred persons. 
Almost all of these employees lived on farms, some 
of them residing at a distance of three miles from 
the village. Unfortunately, the economic depres- 
sion of 1893 affected the cloak industry unfavorably, 
and the decreased demand led toa partial suspen- 
sion of work in the Woodbine factory. Thediscon- 
tent among the operatives and the strikes which 
followed caused the factory to shut down; and the 
firm finally removed from the village. In addition 
to this, many of the farmers, unable to earn a living 
either from the land or in the factory, left for New 
York or Philadelphia. A largenumber of those who 
remained were employed to cut cord-wood; and 
others were engaged in clearing the town lots of 
stumps, while the young people picked huckleber- 
ries, or sought work in the tomato-canning factory 
in Ocean View near Sea Isle City. 

In 1894 and 1895 the outlook became much 
brighter. A clothing-factory was established in the 

village by Daniel & Blumenthal of 

Factories Philadelphia; and the population be- 

Es- gan to increase, This was followed 
tablished. by the establishment of several other 
manufactories in Woodbine; and these 
additions, though gradual, were accompanied by 
an almost uninterrupted growth of population. 
While the early settlers were mostly from southern 
Russia, later arrivals increased the proportion of 
Lithuanians and added to the number from the gov- 
ernment of Kherson, the latter immigrants being 
chiefly from Odessa. A small group of Rumanians 
also went to Woodbine. 

The early plans of the founders of Woodbine have 
not been realized. Instead of becoming an agricul- 
tural colony with an industrial adjunct, it is an in- 
dustrial village with a few farmers. In 1905 there 
were probably only twenty farmers who derived 
a part or all of their income from the soil; and, al- 
though many of the villagers cultivated small gar- 
dens, a number of the more distant farms were en- 
tirely unoccupied. Considerable farming skill and 
capital are required to bring about much improve- 
ment in the soil; and the Woodbine farmers possess 

but a limited amount of either. Not- 
Failure of withstanding al] these drawbacks, 


Farms. however, the farmers of Woodbine 
have made real progress within recent 
years. Those who supply the local demand for milk 


have learned something of balanced rations and of 
economy in feeding, while the truck-gardeners and 
the fruit-growers have acquainted themselves with 
market conditions and have increased the fertility of 
their soil. Grapes, which were once sold in Wood- 
bine itself, now find a market at Vineland; and 
garden-truck, which formerly could not be disposed 
of ata profit, is sold to advantage at Ocean City 
and Sea Isle City. 

The farmers of Woodbine have profited unmis- 
takably from the Baron de Hirsch Agricultural 
School, which was established in 1895 and has grad- 
ually extended the cultivated area of the school 
farms. It hasa model poultry-plant and an apiary, 
as well as orchards, vineyards, and greenhouses, 


559 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Wood Festival 
orm 


and covers in all about 300 acres of land. The es- 
tablishment of the school was largely due to the 
efforts of Hl. L. Sabsovich. Itscurric- 


Agricul-  ulum is chiefly practical, attention be- 
tural ing given primarily to various branches 
School. of applied husbandry and to farm me- 


chanics, while the theoretical instruc- 
tion is mainly directed toward familiarizing the 
pupils with the principles underlying modern farm- 
jing. <A considerable number of the alumni of the 
school are devoting themselves to practical agricul- 
ture. One of them is the successful manager of the 
Allivine farm near Vineland, N, J.; three are farm- 
ing for themselves in Connecticut, two in Colorado, 
one in northern New Jersey, one in New York state, 
and twoin Woodbine. A much larger number are 
working for other farmers. The alumni include 
four college graduates, two graduates of a medical 
school, one lawyer, twelve college students, three 
members of the United States navy, one of the 
United States army, and a number of machinists. 

The four local public schools had in 1905 an enrol- 
ment of over 500, and the average attendance in 
1904 was450. At first included io the school district 
of Dennis township, the Woodbine schools were or- 
ganized into a separate district in April, 1903, and 
temporary trustees were appointed until the spring 
of 1904. Woodbine has also a kindergarten anda 
Talmud Torah. The public buildings include two 

synagogues, a bath-house, a hospital 

Schools (formerly a hotel), and an engine-house 
and Syna- and meeting-hall for the volunteer fire- 

gogues. company. The local industries are 

housed in five brick buildings, while 
water and electric lighting are supplied to most of the 
houses in the borough from the central pumping- 
station. 

In 1901 the average individual income was $7.30 
per week, and the average earnings per family were 
$675 per annum. There were in that year 175 single 
and double cottages in Woodbine, of which 14 were 
owned by the Baron de Hirsch Fund and 161 by the 
people; of the latter only 23 were rented. Seventy 
per cent of the cottages varied in cost of construc- 
tion between $575 and $1,000, the remainder being 
erected at a cost of over $1,000 each. Their esti- 
mated total cost was $157,450, of which $58,200 had 
been paid in 1901. In 1905 the borough proper 
had 228 private houses, these and the outlying 
farmhouses being inhabited by 325 families. Jacob 
Kotinsky, entomologist for the territory of Hawaii, 
Joseph W. Pincus, agriculturist of the Baron de 
Hirsch School, and Jacob G. Lipman, soil chemist 
and bacteriologist of the New Jersey State Experi- 
ment Station, were among the early settlers in 
Woodbine. The population is now (1905) 1,900, of 
whom 94 per cent are Jews. See also JEw. ENcyc. 
i, 262, s.v. AGRICULTURAL COLONIES. 

A. J. G. L. 

WOOLF, ALBERT EDWARD: American 
chemist and inventor; born in New York Sept. 26, 
1846; educated in the public schools of that city 
and at the College of the City of New York. 
Among Woolf’s achievements may be mentioned: 
the introduction of peroxid of hydrogen for 
bleaching ostrich-feathers and for use as an anti- 


septic (1876), and the discovery (1889) of the anti- 
septic properties of sea-water decomposed by elec- 
trolysis (electrozone), a discovery now widely applied 
in the treatment of drinking-water, garbage, and 
sewage, and used by the United States authorities in 
suppressing yellow fever in‘Havana, Cuba (1899). 
Woolf is a member of the American Institute of 
Electrical Engineers, and of the Society of Arts, 
London, England. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Who's Who in America, 1903-5. 


A. F. H. V. 


WOOLF, EDWARD: American musician and 
novelist; born in London, England, Sept:, 1808; 
died in New York March 14, 1882, After acting as 
a musical conductor in his native city, he emigrated 
(1889) to New York, where his abilities were soon 
recognized, and where he was engaged as orchestra] 
leader, musical instructor, and choirmaster. He 
contributed many novels to “ The Jewish Messenger ” 
during the carly part of the existence of that peri- 
odical; among these may be mentioned “The 
Jewess of Toledo,” “The Vicomte d’Arblay,” and 
“ Judith of Bohemia.” 

Woolf’ssonsall attained more or less prominence: 
Solomon, as a professor of art and drawing for 
forty years in the College of the City of New York; 
Benjamin E. (born in London Feb., 1886; died in 
Boston, Mass., Feb. 6, 1901), asa dramatist and com- 
poser (“The Mighty Dollar” and “The Doctor of 
Alcantara”); Michael Angelo (born in London 
1837; died in New York March 4, 1899), famous for 
his street caricatures; Philip (born in New York 
Feb. 7, 1848; died in Boston 1903), as a physician 
and novelist; and Albert Edward, as an inventor. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Isaac §. Isaacs, Hdward Woolf, in Publ. Am. 

Jew. Hist. Soc. 1904. 

A. A. 8.1, 

WOOLF, SIDNEY: English lawyer; born in 
London 1844; died March 12, 1892; educated at 
Neumegen’s school and at University College, Lon- 
don. After passing the examination of the Incor- 
porated Law Society, he joined his brother as a 
partner ina firm of solicitors. Then, after having 
been a pupil of Murphy, queen’s counsel, he was 
called to the bar by the Middle Templein 1878. He 
began to practise In mercantile and criminal cases, 
and later became the leading advocate of his day in 
bankruptcy matters. On Jan. 24, 1890, he was ap- 
pointed queen’s counsel. 

Woolf's first legal book dealt with the law on 
adulteration of food (1874). He afterward wrote, in 
collaboration with Middleton, on the Jaw and prac- 
tise of compensation, as well as on the liquidation 
of business firms by the court. He was active as a 
communal worker, was one of the principal sup- 
porters of the Westminster Jews’ Free School; and 
served as warden and as council member of the 
Berkeley Street Synagogue. He was a member 
also of the council of the Anglo-Jewish Association. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jew. Chron, and Jew. Worid, ore ae ae 

J. . LL. 


WORM: “Rimmah” and “tole‘ah” are the terms 
most frequently employed in the Bible to connote 
not only the earthworm, but any elongated craw!]- 
ing creature, such as the maggot, caterpillar, Jarva 


Worm 
Worms 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


560 


of an insect, and the like. Thus, in the account of 
the“ worms ” which appeared in the manna (Ex. xvi. 
20, 24) the terms evidently refer to caterpillars 
which feed on putrefying matter, while the 
“worms” described as destroying vineyards and the 
gourd (Deut. xxvii. 39; Jonah iv. 7) were some 
variety of beetle or insect larva, and the “ worms” in 
Isa. xiv. 11, Job xvii. 14, xxi. 26, and similar pas- 
sages were maggots or larve which feed on dead 
bodies. For the meaning of “zohale erez ” (Mic. 
vil. 17) see SERPENT. 

Mctaphorically, the worm symbolizes Jowliness 
and helplessness (Isa. xli. 14; Ps. xxii. T[A. V. 6]; 
Job xxv. 6), but in Isa. Ixvi. 24 the worm and fire 
together connote eternal pain. 

There are several species of earthworm (Lumort- 
cus) in Palestine, and Myriapoda abound. 

In the Talmud also “rimmah” and “tole‘ah” are 
found as general terms for “worm,” while the ge- 
neric denomination for all crawlers is “shekazim 
u-remasim” (see REPTILES). Several species are 
mentioned under special names, such as wsyna, a 
kind of water-worm (Nats tultfer; Zeb. 22a); 
Syboys, rainworm (Hul. 67b); S999, the worm 
which lives in the trachese of sheep and causes them 
to cough (Strongulus fllaria ; 16. 49a); and “INP, 
worms found in the intestines of fishes (Lingula 
efngulion ; +b. 67b). Since the raven is heartless to- 
ward its young, Providence, according to B. B. 8a, 
takes care of them by causing maggots to arise from 
their excrement, thus furnishing them with food 
(comp. Rasbi on ‘Er, 22a). With the worms which 
arose from rotten bran Noah fed the chameleon in 
the ark (Sanh. 108b). A host of worms infest the 
human body, both living and dead (Tem. 31a; Ab. 
iii. 1). Thereare worms in the liver (NMP IN; Shab. 
109b) and in the belly (RyWS), aremedy for the latter 
being the milk of an ass mixed with the leaves of 
the bay, or bread and salt taken with fresh water 
before breakfast (Git. 69b; B. M. 107b). Garlic is 
a cure for worms in the great intestine (Bek. 82b), 
while the tapeworm is driven out by the raw meal of 
barley or by hyssop (Ber. 86a; Shab. 109b). “1 is 
the name of a worm which finds lodgment between 
the prepuce and glans penis and is removed by cir- 
cumcision, so that even Gentiles submitted to the 
operation (Ab, Zarah 26b). From the mouths of the 
false spies whom Moses sent to Canaan came forth 
worms (Sotah 35a), and Yer. Yoma 39a recards sim- 
ilar phenomena proceeding from the nose of a heretic 
(comp. also Yoma 19b; B. M. 84b). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Tristram, Natural History of the Bible, p. 

300; Lewssohn, Zoclogie des Talmuds, p. 38d. 

E. G. H, I. M. C. 

WORMS: Town in Rhein-EHesse, grand duchy of 
Hesse, Germany. Like Mayence and Cologne, it. has 
one of the oldest Jewish communities in Germany. 
A legend relates that the Jews of Worms were de- 
scended from the Benjamites who had inigrated from 
Palestine to Germany (Briill’s “ Jahrbiicher,” 1879, 
iv. 34et seqg.). It is possible that there was a congre- 
gation there in the time of the Romans, but the first 
historical reference is the statement that Jews from 
this city visited the fair at Cologne about the year 
1000 (Aronius, “ Regesten,” No. 149; Kober, “Stu- 
dien zur Mittelalterlichen Geschichte der Juden in 


K6ln am Rhein,” p. 9, note 3, Breslau, 1903). The 
earliest authentic information regarding the commu- 
nity, however, dates back only to 1034. 
On Jan. 18, 1074, Emperor Henry IV. 
granted the “ Jews and other citizens of 
Worms” exemption from customs du- 
ties in the royal-customs ports of Frankfort, Bop- 
pard, Dortmund, Goslar, etc., as a reward for their 
fidelity. Already at this time the Jews lived ina 
special quarter of the city. About 1090 Henry IV. 
granted the community, which was represented by 
the Jew-bishop Solomon, the privileges of free com- 
merce and exemption from taxation: he designated 


Early 
History. 


Exterior of the Old Synagogue at Worms. 
(From a drawing by C, Gross Mayer.) 


the Jews as “subjects of his treasury,” and placed 
them under his immediate protection, so that neither 
royal nor episcopal functionaries could exercise any 
jurisdiction over them, their only authority being the 
BISHOP OF THE JEWS, appointed by themselves, and 
confirmed in his office by the emperor. These priv- 
ileges were renewed by the emperors Frederick I., 
Barbarossa (April 6, 1157), and Frederick U. (about 
1236). 

On May 18 and 25, 1096, the Crusaders murdered all 
the Jews of Worms—about 800 in number—with the 
exception of some whe committed suicide and a few 
who were forcibly baptized. Later a new commu- 
nity was formed in Worms; and this suffered during 
the Second Crusade (1146), and again in 1196, when 
the victims included Dulcina, wife of R. Eleazar, his 
daughters Belat and Hannah, and his son Jacob. 
During the division of the kingdom at the close of the 
twelfth century Worms was besieged by King Otto, 
and the Jews, who sided with Philip of Swabia, took 
part in the defense. On July 8, 1230, Pope Honorius 
(IL. issued from San Rieti an order directing the Arch- 
bishop of Mayence to compel the community to pay 
the sum of 1,620 marks before the following Easter, 

threatening it with exclusion from all 

Taxation. dealings with Christians if it failed to 
raise the amount. In 1241 the state 

taxes of the Jews of Worms amounted to 130 marks 
in silver, and on Feb. 28, 1255. Bishop Richard of 


561 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Worm 
Worms 


Worms transferred to the chapter of the local cathe- 
dral, among other revenues from the city, the sum of 
4() pounds heller which the congregation was obliged 
to pay annually on St. Martin’s Day (Nov. 11). Be- 
tween 1254 and 1271 the Jews of Worms were taxed 
2870 pounds heller and 250 marks in silver for the 
public peace insured by the Rhenish Alhance; and 
from 1269 to 1275 they were compelled to pay 200 
marks annually to King Richard of Cornwall. Tn 
1294 orders were issucd by King Adolphus and by 
the bishop, forbidding the Jews to acquire real es- 
tate in the parish of St. Martin. By an edict dated 
March 9, 1816, Louis the Bavarian granted the city 
of Worms. the 
privilege of lev- 
ying on the Jew- 
ish community a 
yearly tax of 100 
pounds heller in 
addition to the 
300 pounds it 
had thitherto 
paid; and on 
May 1, 1838, he 
informed the 
council of 
Worms that the 
Jews of that 
city were bound 
by agreement to 
pay the sum of 
2,000 gulden to- 
ward the king’s 
contemplated 
expedition 
against France. 
and that, if nec- 
essary, force 
might be em- 
ployed in co!- 
lecting thissum. 
By an edict 
dated at Speyer 
Jan. 4, 1848, the 
emperor Charles 
IV. surrendered 
the Jews of 
Worms to the 
city govern- 
ment, but on 
March 1, 13849, 
at the time of | 
the Black Death, the community was practically 
annihilated, the Jews setting fire to their houses, 
aod more than 400 persons perishing in the 
flames. The women’s wing of the synagogue, added 
in 1213 through the munificence of Meir and his 
wife, Judith, was also destroyed. An edict of 
Charles IV... dated March 29, 1849, 

Fourteenth gave to the citizens of Worms the prop- 
_ and erty left by the Jewish community ; 
Fifteenth buta few years later (1858) the city 
Centuries. desired to again admit Jews, and on 
Nov, 20, 1355, Charles IV. allowed 
It to grant them the right of residence. In May, 
1877, the Jewish community of Worms, numbering 


XIT.— 36 


si 


Exterior of the Old Synagogue at Worms. 
(From a photograph.) 


thirty-six persons, pledged itself. in a Hebrew doc- 
ument addressed to the city council, to pay in ° vol- 
untary ” taxes the sum of 20.000 gulden; and in the 
following year (Aug. 28, 1878) the city was granted 
the right of extending protection tothe Jews. This 
privilege was renewed by King Wenceslaus on May 
5, 1400, after he had already ordered the city (by 
edict dated April 22, 1891) to afford protection to 
his “ Kammerknechte,” as he styled the Jews, On 
March 17, 1898, the city council enacted that every 
Jew or Jewess over twelve should pay one old 
tournois in LEIBzoLL, but not one farthing more. 
On Oct. 31, 1400, King Ruprecht confirmed the 
privileges grant- 
ed the Jews of 
Worms by Hen- 
ry IV., by virtue 
of which they 
were allowed to 
exchange money 
in any part of 
the city, except 
in front of the 
mint or in the 
minters’ offices 
of exchange. 
The same king 
enacted also, by 
a decree dated at 
Heidelberg July 
29, 1406, that the 
Jews of Worms 
might be tried 
only by the mu- 
nicipal court, a 
privilege which 
was at first 
granted for a 
period of six 
years only, but 
was extended by 
King Sigismund 
(1414). 

In 1409 the 
Jews of Worms 
were accused of 
the murder of a 
Christian child, 
but as there was 
no evidence 
against them, 
they were ac- 
quitted by the council, although they lost part of their 
property. In 1422the community, encouraged by the 
council, refused to pay the “ Hussite taxes,” and was 
therefore outlawed by King Sigismund, who, through 
the margrave of Baden, confiscated and sold the 
houses vacated by the Jews. On Aug. 1, 1481, 
King Sigismund assured the Jews of Worms that 
all edicts annulling the outstanding debts owed them 
would be declared invalid upon the payment by 
each Jew of an indemnity. Thiscaused an uprising 
among the peasantry, which was, however, speedily 
quelled, the ringleaders being punished. Two years 
later (1483)the community presented Sigismund with 
the sum of 20 florins as a coronation tribute, and 


Worms 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


562 


promised to pay an additional 100 florins in the mid- 
die of the following Lent. On Nov. 6, 1441, regula- 
tions referring to the Jews were enacted by the gilds 
of the bakers, butchers, and marketmen, About 1470 
the Jews of Worms occupied thirty-two houses, for 
which they paid the city a ground rent of 960 gulden, 
{n 1484 the citizens of Worms wished to expel the 
Jews, buf this was prevented by the emperor, and ten 
years later (June 14, 1494) Maximilian confirmed the 
Jews in all their privileges, while on April 4, 1500, he 
forbade the city to encroach upon the imperial pre- 
rogative concerning them. In 1495, and again in 
1496, the palsgrave Philip and hisson, 

Sixteenth Duke Ludwig, visited the “Juden- 
Century. schul” at Worms (Boos, “ Urkunden- 
buch der Stadt Worms,” iii. 395, 401). 

In 1509 complaint was lodged against the Jews 
of Worms charging them with violence against mes- 


Se a ee ee es A 


CEMETERY AT WORMS, 


pecially Dr. Chemnitz, advocated the expulsion of 
the Jews from Worms, whereupon the elector Fred- 
erick took the congregation under his protection; the 
opposition of the gilds, however, forced the Jews to 
emigrate (April 20, 1615), after which their syna- 
gogue was demolished, the cemetery laid waste, and 
the tombstones destroyed. After thesuppression of 
the uprising by the troops of Frederick, an imperial 
decree was promulgated (Jan. 19 or 20, 1616) order- 
ing both the palsgrave and the Bishop of Speyer to 
readmit the Jews; in commemoration of this event 
the eve of the Feast of Shebat was designated as a 
fast-day for the community of Worms. During the 
Thirty Years’ war the Jews of the city were com- 
pelled to pawn even the silver of the synagogue in 
order to raise the manifold contributions exacted 
from them. At thesame time they suffered from a pes- 
tilence which raged in the Jewish quarter in 1632 and 


‘oares 


(From a photograph.) 


sengers of the imperial court. In the following 
year (1510) Emperor Maximilian gave the commu- 
nity permission to hold a public meeting in Worms 
(“Sulamith,” 1811, iii. 416 e¢ seg.; Hormayr’s “ Ar- 
chiv,” 1812, iii, Nos. 11, 12). On Nov. 22, 1559, 
Ferdinand I. issued from Vienna an order to the 
city council of Worms, directing it, under penalty 
of heavy punishment, to protect the Jews in ail their 
privileges during the quarrel between the city and 
Bishop Dietrich, and forbidding the levying of any 
special taxes. Ordinancesregulating Jewish affairs 
were issued by the council of Worms on Dec. 6, 
1570; Nov. 1, 1584; Dec. 28, 1605; as well as in later 
years. 

In 1615 some members of the city magistracy, es- 


1635; and Emperor Ferdinand II. therefore issued 
an edict (Vienna, May 16, 1686) directing the council 

of Worms to be lenient in levying 
During the taxes upon the Jews, and ordering 


Thirty the release of Jews who had been im- 
Years’  prisoned on account of inability to 
War. pay. Three years later Ferdinand 


III. gave his nephew Anselm Casi- 
mir, Elector of Mayence, full authority to appoint a 
committee consisting of the Bishop of Worms, the 
Prince of Dalberg, and the council and Jews of 
Worms, or their representatives, for the purpose of 
framing new Jewish regulations. On May 31, 1689, 
the city of Worms was invaded by the French under 
Melac, and at the same time a terrible catastrophe 


5638 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Worms 


visited the Jews. The entire Jewry, which dis- 
played the imperial arms on both gates, was burned, 
together with the interior of the synagogue, and the 
so-called RashiChapel. Theruinsof the synagogue 
were used as a Stable and storehouse. In 1698 a 
committee was formed for the purpose of restoring 
the Jewish community of Worms, which had been 
broken up by the Frenchinvasion. By anagreement 
dated June 7, 1699, the council of Worms pledged 
itself to grant the Jews certain concessions, and this 
arrangement was confirmed by Joseph I. (April 19, 
1707) in order to protect the Jews against any in- 
fringements of their rights on the part of the coun- 
cil; it was later approved 
also by Emperor Charles 
VI. (Oct. 26, 1714). 

In 1751 one-fifth of 
the revenues of the city 
of Worms was furnished 
by the Jewish taxes. 
The treaty of 1699 was 
again confirmed by a de- 
cree dated at Vienna 
March 10, 1766 (“ Jeschu- 
run,” iv. 99 e¢ seg.). In 
1872 a Jew named Edin- 
ger represented Worms 
in the Hessian Diet, 
while Levy was second 
mayor. In 1874, prior to 
the enactment of the 
new liberal school law, 
8. Rothschild was ap- 
pointed teacher in the 
non-sectarian school. 

The Jewish commu- 
nity of Worms, which in 
1875 numbered = 1,000 
members, consists now 
(1905) of about. 1,200, In 
addition to a large nuin- 
ber of other institutions, 
the city has a Jewish 
hospital, a hebra kaddi- 
sha, a society for the 
support of sick women, 
an endowment society, 
a socicty for the distri- 
bution of fuel, and an 
association for the support of school children. 
There is also the Dalberg Lodge of the Order B’nai 
B'rith. 

D A, Lew. 


Until the close of the twelfth century the Jews of. 


Worms engaged in extensive and remuucrative busi- 
hess enterprises, but through restrictive measures 
these were gradually rendered unprofitable, and at 
length only trading in money was left open to 
them. In 1165 even this branch of 
Social —_ business was denied them, and during 
Condition. the thirteenth century more and more 
of them engaged in usury. In 1255 
orders were issued-regulating the interest on loans, 
and the Jews were thereby prohibited, under pain 
of severe punishment, from charging more than 33} 
per cent per annum. 


Michael Gernsheim, a Judenbisehof of Worms, Seventeenth 
Century. 
(From a drawing in possession of M. Gernsheim, New York.) 


During the Middle Ages the Jews, as citizens of 
Worms, were permitted to acquire real estate; they 
might even occupy the commons (that is, territory 
belonging to the commonwealth), until Adolf of 
Nassau on July 28, 1294, issued an order against this. 
In spite of their various privileges, however, the 
Jews might not dwell among the Christians, but 
were assigned a special quarter of the town, sepa- 
rated from the Christians by walls and gates. These 
gates had various names, of which may be men- 
tioned “Porta Judeworum,” “Juden Borter,” and 
“Juden Burgetor.”. The synagogue formed the 
center of the Jewish quarter. It was erected in 
1034 through the munif- 
icence of a wealthy Jew, 
Mar Jacob, and his wife, 
Rachel; and in spite of 
the many accidents that 
have befallen it in the 
course of time its ap- 
pearance has changed 
but little. It is built in 
early Moorish style, and 
was originally intended 
for men only. It had 
three entrances, The 
apse for the Torah scrolls 
consisted of a semicircu- 
lar protuberance of the 
wall. The women’s wing 
of the synagogue, con- 
necting with the north- 
ern wall of the older 
structure, was built in 
1218. The men’s syna- 
gogue had five inscrip-~ 
tions ; the women’s, four. 

Prominent in the leg- 
endary and historic ac- 
counts of the Jews of 
Worms is the so-called 
Rashi Chapel, built in 
1624 by David ben Isaac 
Joseph Oppenheim. 
This building was erect- 
ed so close to the syna- 
gogue that it prevented 
the use of one of the 
entrances of the latter, 


The fact that Rashi lived for a short while in 


Worms, where he was a pupil of Isaac ha-Levi, 
gave rise to the legend that he taught 
in the edifice erected 500 years after his 
death. According toa report by Juspa 
Shammes (1648-78), in which men- 
tion is made of a “ prayer-house of Rashi,” the con- 
gregation took occasion to place an inscription in 
the building, which they termed the Rashi Chapel. 
Abraham Epstein of Vienna discovered in a niche 
of the Rashi Chapel an inscription designating 
the niche as the seat of David Oppenheim. The 
synagoguc and the chapel stand in a court, and are 
surrounded by one wall. Inside this court is a 
square space enclosed by a wall two meters high, and 
in which there formerly grew a nut-tree. The use 
and purpose of this space can no longer be deter- 


Rashi 
Chapel. 


Worms 
Worms. Asher 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


564 


Pon renee 


mined. From the chapel a path inside the courtyard 
led to the Judenbider, which were located under- 
vround. In 1895 the work of excavating them was 
begun, but they are not yet accessible. 

The cemetery dates from the first half of the clev- 
enth century, and is located on the left side of the 
present Andreasstrasse, near the old Andreas gate. 
The oldest tombstone bears date of 1077, and is that 

of one Jacob Bahur. Of other tomb- 
Cemetery. stones may be mentioned a monument 
erected in honor of twelve elders of 
whom a legend reports that, during the Crusade of 
1096, they asked the town councilors for protec- 
tion, and, on being refused, murdered the coun- 
cilors, whereupon they all committed suicide in the 
cemetery. There are also the tombstones of Jeku- 
thie] ben Jacob 
(1261); Baruch 
ben Meir, father 
of Meir of Ro- 
thenburg (1275) ; 
and Meir of 
Rothenburg 
(1807); a tomb- 
stone of four sis- 
ters, with in- 
scriptions ar- 
ranged in four 
rows (1419); and 
also those of Ja- 
cob Mélln (1427) 
and Juspa 
Shanimes (1678). 
Mention may be 
made also of 
thirteen inscrip- 
tions relating to 
members of the 
Bacharach fami- 
ly (seventeenth 
and eighteenth 
centuries). The 
Jewish congre- 
gation of Worms 
had its own pub- 
lic park, for the 
care of which 
each member 
had to contrib- 
ute a yearly sum fixed by the Jewish council. The 
guarding and keeping of the park devolved upon 
the communal servant, who officiated as “schul- 
klopfer” and sexton also. 

The internal affairs of the community were ar- 
ranged by a Jewish council of twelve members 
headed by the Brsnor or Tur Jews. This institu- 
tion dated back to the eleventh century. The Jew- 

ish bishop was elected by the council, 

Organiza- and his appointment originally had to 
tion. be sanctioned by the emperor. On 
July 25, 1812, however, Bishop Em. 

erich ordered that the Jew-bishop should no longer 
be confirmed in his office by the emperor, but by the 
bishop of the diocese: and also that a Jew-bishop 
once appointed should retain his title until his 
death, although his official duties should each year 


Interior of the Old Synagogue at Worms. 
(From an old lithograph.) 


devolve on another member of the council. On the 
death of a Jew-bishop the new appointee was to 
pay to the bishop 60 pounds Worms pfennigs: this 
stipulation, however, was changed by Bishop Fred- 
erick (Feb. 8, 1489), who ordered that the Jewish 
community should pay 20 florins each year on St. 
Martin’s Day, in lieu of the former payment. 

Next to the communities of Mayence and Speyer, 
that of Worms occupied the most prominent place 
in the fields of science and literature, and many of 
the foremost Lorrainese savants were born in 
Worms; it was from that city also that the most 
famous “takkanot Shum” were issued. Among the 
most prominent rabbis and scholars of Worms may 
be mentioned: 


Isaac ben Eleazar ba-Levi, Rashi’s teacher (llth cent.); Isaac 
ben Judah, a con- 
temporary of Rashi; 
Eleazar bey Judah 
Rokeah (18th cent.); 
Moses ben Aaron, 
teacher of the last- 
named (d. 1240); 
Baruch ben Meir, 
father of Meir of 
Rothenburg (d. 
1275); Nathan ben 
Isaac (d. 1833); Ja- 
cob MOln (da. 1427); 
Meir ben Isaac 
(1511): Abraham 
Samuel Bacharach 
(d. 1615); Elijah 
Loanz (d. 1636); 
Simson Bacharach 
(a. 4670); Aaron 
Teomim (rabbi un- 
til 1687; da. Cracow, 
1690); Jair Hayyim 
Bacharach (rabbi, 
1689-1702); Naph- 
tali Hirsch Spitz (d. 
1712); Menahem 
Mendel Rothschild 
(d. 1732); Moses 
Broda of Ungarisch- 
Brod (d. 1742); 
Hirsch Auerbach of 
Brody (1743-78). 


Worms had 
the distinction 
of having the 
first Jewish 
mayor in Ger- 
many in the 
person of Ferdi- 
nand Eberstadt (born there Oct., 1808; died at Mann- 
heim March 10, 1888). He was elected to the mayor- 
alty in 1848, having proved himself a leader in the 
liberal moveinent of the time. He held office till 
1851, when, owing to the reaction, he resigned, and 
later removed to Mannheim. He represented the 
same district, Alzey-Worms-Oppenheim, in the up- 
per house of the Hessian Landtag. 

A man of considerable importance in the history of 
the Jews of Worms was the sexton and “ schulklop- 
fer” Jephthah Juspa ben Naphtali, known also by 

the name JuspaShammes. He was 

Juspa born in Fulda in the beginning of 
Shammes. the seventeenth century, and studied 
until 1623 under R. Phinehas Horwitz 

in his native town. In that year he went to 
Worms, where he remained until his death in 1678. 


565 


He was the author of the following works: (1) 
“Shir Musar ” (Amsterdam, 1690), a poem on morals; 
printed on one folio sheet. (2) “Ma‘ase Nissim” 
(Frankfort-on-the-Oder, 1702), a Hebrew work in 
which history and fiction are intermingled, and of 
which only one copy is extant (in Oxford). It was 
translated into Judeeo-German (Amsterdam, 1728; 
Homburg, 1725; Firth, 1767). (3) A “Tehinnah ” 


= ee ae SSS es = 
2 mS = SSSA Ee 
Sat > 


Se 
Reiter om Oe 
eet Pi ge 
me os er 
tire 


ae 
iJ 3] 
aM? 
AUN reas 


Interior View of Women’s Section in the O]d Synagogue 
at Worms, 
(From an old lithograph.) 


for the eve of the first day of the month of Adar; 
still recited in Worms on that day. His work on 
the internal organization of the Jewish community 
of Worms, written in Hebrew and in Judxo-Ger- 
man, is in the possession of A. Epstein of Vienna. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zunz, Z. G. pp. 29-60, 304-459; Lewysohn, 
Nafshot Zaddikim, Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1855; Rothschild, 
Die Judengemeinden zu Mainz, Speyer und Worms, Ber- 
lin, 1904; Carlebach, Die Rechtlichen und Sozialen Ver- 
hiltnisse der Jidischen Gemeinden Speyer, Worms, und 
Mainz, Leipsic, 1901; Jellinek, Worms und Wien, Vienna, 
1880; Epstein, Jiidische Alterthtimer in Worms und Speyer, 


Aaron Worms 
(flourished about 1750) 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Worms 
Worms, Asher 


pp. 1-138, Breslau, 1896; Aronius, Regesten; Saalfeld, Mar- 
tyrologium; Breslau, in Hebr, Bibl. x.: G. Wolf, Zur Gesch. 
der Juden in Worms und des Deutschen Stddtewesens, 
Breslau, 1862; Wiener, in Israelitisches Literatirhlatt, 1878, 
No. 16; Berliner, Aus dem Inneren Leben, 1871. p. 9. 


7 S. O. 


WORMS: Frankfort and English family, tracing 
its descent from Aaron Worms of Frankfort-on-the- 
Main in the middle of the eighteenth century. 
Aaron’s great-great-grandson was created hereditary 
baron of the Austrian empire April 23, 1871; and a 
later descendant, Baron Henry de Worms, was raised 
tothe British peerage as Lord Pirbright (see pedigre 
below). J. 


WORMS, AARON. See Aaron Worms. 


WORMS, ASHER ANSHEL: German phy- 
sician, mathematician, and Hebraist; born at Frank- 
fort-on-the-Main toward the end cf the seventeenth 
century ; died there in 1769. Worms was graduated 
as Ph.D. and M.D. in 1723, and shortly afterward 
Was appointed physician at the Jewish hospital of 
his native town, holding that position for more than 
forty-five years. Before graduating Worms pub- 
lished his “ Mafteah ha-Algebra ha-Hadashah ” (Of- 
fenbach, 1722), a manual of algebra, with problems 
and their solutions. Four years later he published 
in Frankfort-on-the-Main a revised edition of the 
“Ma‘adanne Melek,” a chess manual (wrongly 
ascribed to Jedaiah Bedersi), adding to ita preface and 
aGerman poem. After graduation he occupied him- 
self with mathematics, astronomy, natural history, 
philosophy, and music, the result of his studies being 
a number of unpublished scientific works, all of 
which are enumerated in his “Seyag la-Torah ” (20. 
1766), a Masoretic commentary on the Pentateuch fol- 
lowed by a commentary on Saadia Bekor Shor’s poem 
onthe numberof lettersin the Bible. Before its pub- 
lication this work circulated among rabbis and other 


- 


Meyer Worms 
(d. 1776) 


Moses Worms 
(d, 1791) 


Benedict Worms 
(d. 1824 


= J eannette von Rothschild 


Baron Salomon Benedict de Worms 
(b. Feb. 8, 1801; d. Oct. 20, 1882) 
= Henrietta Samuel 


Baron Anthony Meyer . 
de Worms 
(b. Oct. 12, 1830; 
d. Nov. 2, 1864) 
= Emma von Schey 


Baron George de Worms 
{b. Feb. 16, 1829) 
= Louisa de Samuel 


Nina de Worms | 
= Baron George Levi 


Anthony George Perey George Henrietta 


de Worms de Worms = George Landauer 
(b. Jan. 4, 1869) © (b. Nov. 3, 1873) (issue) 
= Lulu Goldschmidt = Nora Samuel 


Elien Henrietta 
(b. Jan, 13, 1836; 
d. Sept. 29, 1894) 
= Adolf Landauer 


Baron Henry de Worms, 
Lord Pirbright 
(b. Oct. 20, 1840; d. Jan. 9, 1903) 
= Fanny von Todesco 


(issue) 
Alice Constance 
= (1) John Warner = Carl, Freiherr 
(2) David Morrison vy. Loewenstein 
Scharffeneck 
Fi 


Worms PEDIGREE. 


Worms, Emile 
Wormser 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


566 


Hebrew scholars, who plagiarized much of its con- 
tents; and Wolf Heidenheim discovered that Joseph 
Heilbronn’s “Mebin Hidot,” although printed be- 
fore the “Seyag la-Torah,” contained much material 
taken from the latter, several passages being not 
even paraphrased. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Berliner, in his Magazin, xiii. 62; Carmoly, 
Histoire des Médecins Juifs, pp. 210-211; Fuenn, Keneset 


Yisrael, p. 157; M. Horovitz, Frankfurter Rabbinen, iii. 
63; idem, Jildische Aerzte in Frankfurt-am-Main, p. 35. 


S. M. SEL. 


WORMS, EMILE: French jurist; born at 
Frisange, Luxembourg, May 23, 1838; educated at 
the University of Heidelberg and at Paris (LL.D. 
1864). In 1863 he received a prize from the Institut 
de France for an essay on the commercial history of 
the Hanseatic League; and in 1867 he was again 
awarded a prize. In that year he was appointed 
assistant professor of law at the University of Paris; 
and later in the same year he received a call as pro- 
fessor of law at the University of Rennes, which posi- 
tion he held until 1898, when he removed to Paris. 

Worms represented the French government at the 
statistical congresses of Florence (1867), The Hague 
(1869), St. Petersburg (1872), and Budapest (1876). 
He is the author of the following works: “ Histoire 
Commerciale de la Ligue Hanséatique,” 1864; “So- 
ciétés par Actions et Opérations de Bourse,” 1867; 
“Théorie et Pratique de la Circulation Monétaire et 
Fiduciaire,” 1869; “Les Rapports du Droit Pénal 
avec l’Economie Politigue,” 1870; “L’ Allemagne 
Economique, ou Histoire du Zoliverein Allemand,” 
1874; “Sociétés Humaines et Privées,” 1875; “Ex- 
posé Elémentaire de l’Economie Politique,” 1880; 
“ Nouveau Catéchisme d’ Economie Politique,” 1881 ; 
“De )’ Etat au Regard des Erreurs Judiciaires,” 1884; 
“Les Ecarts Législatifs,” 1886; “De la Liberté 
d’Association au Point de Vue du Droit Public a 
Travers les Ages,” 1887; “ Dela Propriété Consolidée, 
ou Tableau Historique et Critique de Tous les Sys- 
témes les Plus Propres 4 la Sauvegarde de la Pro- 
priété Fonciére et de Son Démembrement,” 1888; 
“Une Association Douaniére Franco-Allemande, avec 
Restitution de l’Alsace-Lorraine,” 1888; “Les At- 
tentats a@ ]’Honneur,” 1890; “Doctrine, Histoire, 
Pratique et Reforme Financi¢re, ou Exposé Elémen- 
taire et Critique de la Science des Finances,” 1891; 
“Les Condamnations Conditionelles Suivant la Loi 
Francaise et Etrangére,” 1891; “Essai de Législa- 
tion Financiére; le Budget de la France dans le 


Passé et le Présent,” 1894; “La Politique Commer- 


ciale de Allemagne,” 1895. 
8. F. T. H. 


WORMS, GUSTAVE-HIPPOLYTE: French 
actor; born in Paris March 21, 1837. He was gradu- 
ated from the Conservatoire in 1857, winning the 
first prize for tragedy and the second for comedy. 
Soon afterward he was cngaged at the Théatre 
Francais, where he made his début in 1859 as Achille 
in “Duc Job.” In 1862 Léon Laya, appreciating the 
clever comedy work of Worms, engaged him to 
create the part of Horace in “ Loi du Ceeur,” and his 
success was so marked that he secured a contract 
with the Théatre-Michel, St. Petersburg, where he 
repeated his French successes. In 1875 he returned 


to Paris, making his reappearance at the Gymnase 
as Armand Duval in“ La Dame aux Caméelias” with 
great success. After a short sojourn in Russia 
Worms was called to the Comédie-Frangaise, Paris, 
in 1877, and elected a “sociétaire” in the following 
year. He retired from the stage in 1901. 

Worms’s original creations are: lie Mareau in 
“Anne de Kerviller,” Georges in “Les Rantzau,” 
Issarts in “Service en Campagne,” Lude in “ Por- 
traits et la Marquise,” Henrt in “Les Maucroix,” 
André de Bardannes in “ Denise,” Capitain Olivier in 
“Antoinette Rigaud,” Stanislas de Grand-Redon in 
“Francillon,” AMJarguis de Simiers in “La Souris,” 
Jacquemin in “Le Flibustier,” and Francots in 
“Margot.” He died Nov. 19, 1910. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Vapereau, Dict. des Contemporains, p. 1606 ; 
Nouveau Larousse llustré, s.v. 


Ss E. Ms. 


WORMS, BARON HENRY DE. See Pir- 
BRIGHT, HENRY DE Worms, BARON. 


WORMS, JULES: French physician; born in 
Paris Jan. 24, 1880; died there April 15, 1898; edu- 
cated at the University of Strasburg (M.D. 1852). 
From 1858 to 1854 he acted as an assistant at the 
military medical school in Paris, and from 1854 to 
1858 as first assistant surgeon of an infantry regi- 
ment. He took part in the Crimean war as a sur- 
geon; was from 1858 to 1864 assistant physician at 
the Gros-Caillou Hospitalin Paris; and froin 1865 to 
1875 was surgeon at the Rothschild Hospital. From 
1870 to 1880 he officiated as statistician of the board 
of health of Paris, and in 1875 was appointed chief 
physician to the Northern Railroad (Chemin du 
Fer du Nord). Of his works may be mentioned 
“De VExtirpation des Cystes de l’Ovaire,” Paris, 
1860. | 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Pagel, Bing. Lex. 

8. F, T. H. 

WORMS, JULES: French genre painter; born 
in Paris Dec. 16, 1832. He studied under Philippon 
and Lafosse, and made his début at the Salon of 1859, 
his first painting, “ Dragoon Making Love toa Nurse 
on a Bench in the Place Royale,” auguring his sue- 
cess in the humorous vein. In 1861 heexhibited the 
painting “Arrest for Debt,” and thereafter visited 
various countries, sojourning for some time in Spain, 
where he made several sketches of the manners and 
costumes of the people. 

Worms was awarded medals for his exhibits at 
the Salons of 1867, 1868, 1869, and 1878, and was in 
1876 created a chevalier of the Legion of Honor, 
Following is a list of his paintings, several of which 
were purchased at high prices by American collect- 
ors: “Fountain in Burgos” (1868; Laval Museum); 
“Tavern in the Asturias” and “ Departure of Smug- 
glers ” (1865); “ Kitchen in Valencia ” (1866); “Scene 
in Old Castile” (1867); “ Romance ila Mode” (1868; 
Luxembourg Museum); “Weicome Visitor” and 
“Precocious Tulent ” (1869); “Sale of a Mule” and 
“A Letter Box” (1870); “Sheep-Shearing in Gra- 
nada” (1872): “An Aunt-in-Law ” (1878); “The Lit- 
tle Cabinet-Maker” (1874); “A Sensational Novel” 
and “One’s Vocation” (1875); “The Dance of the 
Vito at Granada” and “Going to the Review” 
(1876); “The Bull Fountain in Granada” (1877); 
“Distracted Barber” and “Every Age Its Pleas- 


567 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Worms, Emile 
Wormser 


ures” (1878); “Pastoral Tournament ” (1879); “ Be- 

fore the Alcalde” (1880); “Public Writer” (1882); 

and “ Politicians ” (1888). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Champlin and Perkins, Cyclopedia of Painters 
and Paintings, New York, 1892; Singer, Allgemeines Kiinst- 
ler-Lezicon, Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1901; Clement and Hut- 
ton, Artists of the Nineteenth Century and Their Works, 
Boston, 1880. 

s. F. C. 

WORMS, MAURICE BENEDICT DE: Eng- 
lish financier and agriculturist; born in Frankfort- 
on-the-Main 1805; died in London 1867; grandson of 
Meyer Anselm de Rothschild, and son of Benedict 
de Worms, a distinguished member of the Jewish 
community of Frankfort. Ona visit to the Far Kast 
in 1841, Maurice and his brother Gabriel de Worms 
purchased a large estate in Ceylon, which became 
known as the Rothschild Estate. Acre by acre was 
added to this estate, which was among the best-cul- 
tivated tracts of land in the island; and when the 
Worms brothers in 1865 disposed of their holdings, 
they had no less than 2,000 acres under cultivation, 
and more than 6,000 acres of forest land to be re- 
claimed. The brothers were among the pioneer set- 
tlers in Ceylon, and contributed largely to its pros- 
perity. In his will Maurice de Worms bequeathed 
large sums of money to various Jewish charitable 
institutions. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jew. Chron. June 14, 1867, 
J. G. L. 
WORMS, REN E: French auditor of the coun- 

cil of state; son of Emile Worms; born at Rennes 

Dec. 8, 1869; educated at the lyceum of his native 

city and at the Lycée Charlemagne and the Ecole 

Normale Supérieure in Paris (“docteur en droit,” 

1891; “docteur és lettres,” and “docteur és sciences 

politiques et economiques,” 1896). Worms, who is 

a laureate of the French Institute (Academic des 

Sciences Morales et Politiques), became a member of 

the higher statistical board in 1897 and of the con- 

sulting committee for agricultural statistics in 1908, 

besides being a member of many learned societies. 

He began his legal career as an advocate at the 

Court of Appeals in Paris in 1891, and was ap- 

pointed auditor of the council of state three years 

later, He has been on the examining board for 
commercial high schools since 1897. In 1904 he was 
the secretary of the extra-parliamentary board of 
marine investigation, and in the following year was 
appointed recording secretary of the French colo- 
nial congress. His talents found university recog- 
nition in 1895, when he was appointed lecturer on 
political economy in the faculty of law of the Uni- 

versity of Paris. He held this position until 1897, 

when he was chosen associate professor in the same 

faculty at Caen, remaining there until 1902; he was 
instructor in the faculty of law, section of economic 
sciences, and in the Ecole Normale Supérieure in 

1897, and was appointed in 1902 honorary professor 

of political economy at the Commercial Institute, 

Paris, which position he still (1905) holds. 

In 1898 Worms established the “ Revue Interna- 
tionale de Sociologie,” of which he became the editor, 
and later founded the “Bibliothéque Sociologique 
Internationale,” besides organizing the Institut 
International de Sociologie and the Société de 
Sociologie de Paris. He is, furthermore, a prolitic 


writer, his principal works being as follows: “De 
la Volonté Unilatérale Considérée Comme Source 
d’ Obligations” (Paris, 1891) ; “* Précis de Philosophie” 
(8d ed. 1905); “Eléments de Philosophie Scienti- 
fique et de Philosophie Morale” (¢). 1891); “La Mo- 
rale de Spinoza” (crowned by the Académie des 
Sciences Morales et Politiques; 2b. 1892); “De Na- 
turaet Methodo Sociologia ” (zd. 1896); “ Organisme 
et Société” (2b. 1896; Russian translation, St. Peters- 
burg, 1897); “La Science et P Arten Economie Poli- 
tique” (Paris, 1896); and “ Philosophie des Sciences 
Sociales ” (8 vols., 7d. 1908-5). In addition he has 
contributed briefer studies to technical magazines. 

Worms is a devoted adherent of Judaism, and 
was chosen as its apologist at the Mole conference, 
where he twice defended the decree of Crémieux re- 
garding the Jews of Algeria against those members 
who demanded its repeal, He was created a cheva- 
lier of the Legion of Honor Feb. 18, 1905. 

S. J. Ka. 


WORMS, BARON SOLOMON BENEDICT 
DE: English financier; born at Frankfort-on-the- 
Main Feb. 5, 1801; died at Brighton, England, Oct. 
20, 1882; son of Benedict de Worms of Frankfort. He 
was taken to England at an early age, and eventu- 
ally went to Ceylon, where, by his judgment and 
perseverance, he contributed greatly to the advance- 
ment of the colony. He was a generous benefactor 
to various Jewish charities, was a life-member of 
the council of the United Synagogue, and acted as 
a trustee of several metropolitan synagogues. In 
1871 he was created a baron of the Austrian empire 
in recognition of services rendered that country ; and 
in consideration of the efforts made by him and his 
brothers in developing the colony of Ceylon, Queen 
Victoria granted him and his heirs, by royal warrant 
of 1874, the right of using the title in England. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jew. Chron. and Jew. World, Oct. 27, 1882. 
J. G. L. 


WORMS, VICTOR: French lawyer; younger 
brother of Emile Worms; born at Luxembourg Nov. 
16, 1853; educated at Paris and Rennes (“ docteur en 
droit,” 1878). In 1880 he was appointed “conseiller 
de préfecture ” for the department of Ille-et-Vilaine, 
and at Rennes made the acquaintance of Waldeck- 
Rousseau, who appointed him his private secretary 
when he entered Gambetta’s cabinet as minister of 
the interior. On the retirement of Waldeck-Rous- 
seau, Worms returned to his former post, but when 
his patron accepted a portfolio in the cabinet of Jules 
Ferry, Worms was made president of the “conseil de 
préfecture” for the department of Seine-et-Marne. 
On the fall of this ministry Worms retired from the 
administrative magistracy and entered the judiciary. 
Appointed a judge in the civil tribunal of Reims in 
1886, he was transferred three years later in a similar 
capacity to Versailles, where he was made vice-pres- 
ident of the tribunal by a decree of Nov. 22, 1904. 

s, J. KA. 


WORMSER, ANDRE ALPHONSE: French 
composer; born in Paris Nov, 1, 1851; studied at the 
Paris Conservatoire under Bazin and Marmontel. Jn 
1875 he was awarded the Prix de Rome. Besidesa 
great number of concert overtures, piano composi- 


Worship, Idol- 
Wreath 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


568 


tions, operettas, farces, and ballets, he has written 
two operas, “ Adéle de Ponthiére” (Aix-la-Chapelle, 
1887) and “ Rivoli” (Paris, 1896). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Riemann, Musik-Lerikon, 1900. 


WORSHIP, IDOL-: All idolatrous cults are 
condemned by the Biblical insistence on worship of 
Yuwsu only. The Decalogue begins with the com- 
mand to reverence the one true God and to recog- 
nize no other deities. On this theme the Pentateuch 
dilates from every point of view, and the efforts of the 
Prophets were chiefly directed against idolatry and 
against the immorality connected with it. To recog- 

nize the true God meant also to act ac- 
Historical cording to His will, and consequently 
Outlines. to live a moral life. The thunderings 
of the Prophets against idolatry show, 
however, that the cults of other deities were deeply 
rooted in the heart of the Israelitish people, and they 
do not appear to have been thoroughly suppressed 
until after the return from the Babylonian exile. 
There is, therefore, no doubt that Jewish monotheism 
was preceded by a period of idolatry ; the only prob- 
lem is that which concerns the nature of the cults 
(comp. the articles ADRAMMELECH; ANAMMELECH; 
ASHERAH ; Ass- WORSHIP; ASTARTE WORSHIP AMONG 
THE HEBREWS; ATARGATIS; BA‘AL AND BA‘AL-WOR- 
SHIP; BAAL-PEOR; BAAL-ZEBUB; BAAL-ZEPHON;: Ba- 
MAH; CALF, GOLDEN; CALF-WORSHIP; CHEMOSH; 
Dacon; HigH PLACE; MoLtocu; Star-WorstipP; 
STONE AND STONE-Worsnip; TAMMUZ; TERAPHIM; 
and WITCHCRAFT). 

I. Biblical Data: The narratives in Genesis 
presuppose monotheism as the original religion. 
After its decline Abraham was called to spread the 

true knowledge of God (Gen. xii.; 


Origin, Josh. xxiv.), but the prophetical books 
Extent, still refiect the struggle against idols 
Name. and idolatry. Even Jeremiah, who 


lived to see the end of the Jewish state, 
complains: “ According to the number of thy cities 
are thy gods, O Judah ” (ii. 28). The various terms, 
sometimes expressive of scorn and disdain, which 
were applied to idols and idolatry are indicative of 
the wide diffusion of polytheistic cults and of the 
horror with which they filled the Biblical writers. 
Thus idols are stigmatized “non-God” (Deut. 
xxxii. 17, 21; Jer. ii. 11), “things of naught” 
(Lev. xix. 4 et passim), “ vanity ” (san, Deut. xxxii. 
21 et passim; frequently in Jer.), “iniquity” (pK, I 
Sam. xv. 23 et passim), “wind and confusion ” (Isa. 
xli. 29), “the dead” (Ps. cvi. 28), “carcasses ” (Lev. 
xxvi. 30; Jer. xvi. 18), “a lie” (Isa. xliv. 20 et puts- 
sim), and,similar epithets. They are made of gold, 
silver, wood, and stone, and are graven images, un- 
shapen clods, and, being the work of men’s hands, 
unable to speak, see, hear, smell, eat, grasp, or feel, 
and powerless either to injure or to benefit (Scholz, 
“ Gétzendienst und Zauberwesen,” pp. 45 ef seq.). 
Idols were either designated in Hebrew by a term 
of general significance, or were named according to 
their material or the manner in which they were made. 
They were placed upon pedestals, and fastened with 
chains of silver or nails of iron lest they should fall 
over or be carried off (Isa. x]. 19, xli. 7; Jer. x. 14; 
Wisdom xiii. 15), and they were also clothed and 


colored (Jer. x. 9; Ezek. xvi. 18; Wisdom xv. 4). 
At first the gods and their images were conceived of 
as identical ; but in later times a distinction was drawn 
between the god and the image. Nevertheless it was 
customary to take away the gods of the vanquished 
(Isa. x. 10 et seg., xxxvi. 19, xlvi.1; Jer. xlviii. 7, 
xlix. 8; Hosea x. 5; Dan. xi. 8), and a similar cus- 
tom is frequently mentioned in the cuneiform texts. 
Temples, altars, and statucs were erected to the 
gods, and figures of oxen and of other animals are 
also mentioned (Ezek. viii. 10 et seg.). In Israel the 
worship of high places was a favorite 


Forms of form of polytheistic cult, as is shown 
Idol- by the Book of Kings, where the reign 
Worship. of each monarch is judged chiefly from 


the standpoint of his participation in 
the worship of idols, so that the words “but the 
high places were not removed” form a stereotyped 
phrase. Prayer was offered to the gods (Ex. xx. 5, 
Xxlii. 24, ef passin), the hands were stretched out to 
them (Ps. xliv. 21 LA. V. 20]), they were invoked by 
name (I Kings xviii. e¢ seg., xxiv.), their names were 
praised (Josh. xxiii. 7), knees were bent before them 
(I Kings xix. 18), incense was burned in their honor 
(I Kings xi. 8 e¢ passim), they were invoked in the 
taking of oaths, and sacritices were immolated to 
them (Jer, vii. 18; Ex. xxxiv. 15), the vietims inciu- 
ding even human beings, such as the offerings made 
to Moloch. The custom of worshiping stars and idols 
by throwing kisses to them is mentioned in Job 
xxxi. 18. The exchange of clathes, by which men 
put on women’s clothes and women donned men’s 
garments, was an idolatrous custom, and was conse- 
quently forbidden (Deut. xxii, 5). Human hair aJso 
served as a sacrifice, and the prohibition against sha- 
ving the head or having writing burned into one’s 
body (Lev. xix. 18, 27; xxi. 5; comp. Jer. ix. 26, xxv. 
28, xlix. 82) was recognized by the Talmud (Mak. ifi. 
6) and by Maimonides (“ Moreh,” tii. 37; “ Yad,” ‘Ab. 
Zarah xii. 5) as connected with idol-worship. There 
were, moreover, many Other forms of worship, and 
numerous commandments of the Pentateuch, even 
though they omit the term “abomination ” asa syno- 
nym of idolatry, referto poly theistic worship ; foridol- 
atry was deeply rooted in the national character, as is 
shown by the many proper names compounded with 
names of idols, so that if became necessary to make 
every effort for its eradication. 

II. Post-Biblical Period: It is generally sup- 
posed that idolatry was completely crushed in Israel 
after the return from the Exile. This assertion is 
somewhat exaggerated, however, as is evident from 
the continual warnings against idols and idolatry 
both in the Apocrypha (Kautzsch, “ Apokryphen,” 

Index, s.r. “Gétzen”) and in Jewish 

Survivals tradition. The Talmud has a special 
in treatise on idolatry (see ‘ABODAH 
Talmudic Zanrau), and also discusses the subject 
Times. elsewhere in many passages, so that 
its data concerning this matter would 

fill a volume, The gods of the Greco-Roman epoch, 
especially those of the Oriental world, appear in its 
pages in variegated profusion. “If one wished to 
write all the names of idols, all the skins [parch- 
ment scrolls] would be insufficient” (Sifre, Deut. 
43). The monotheism of the masses. it is true, was 


569 


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Worship, Idol- 
Wreath 


a 5955 ee 


not endangered, for when it was threatened by the 
Syrians and Romans, the Jews revolted, refusing to 
permit Roman troops to enter their territory with 
flags; they even detected idols in the portraits of 
the Cesars stamped on coins, and this was not un- 
justifiable, in view of the divine worship paid the 
emperors (see ZEALOTS). Despite this fear of idols 
and images, the danger of inroads among the Jews 
by idolatrous customs and usages, which permeated 
che whole ancient world around them, was so great 
that the scholars could not invent too many 
“fences.” They accordingly aimed at making in- 
timate association with the heathen impossible, and 
thereby succeeded in protecting the Jewish people 
from the evil which threatened them. 

The ancient world regarded the Jews as atheists 
because of their refusal to worship visible gods. 
“Whosoever denies idols is called a Jew” (Meg. 
13a, b). To statements such as this the Jew re- 
sponded: “ Whosoever recognizes idols has denied 


the entire Torah; and whosoever denies idols has . 


recognized the entire Torah” (Sifre, Deut, 54 and 
parallel passages). “As soon as one departs from 
the words of the Torah, it is as though he attached 
himself to the worship of idols” (Sifre, Num. 48). 
Although the Jews were forbidden in general to 
mock at anything holy, it was a merit, to deride idols 
(Meg. 25b), and Akiba decreed that the 
Attitude of names of the gods be changed into de- 


Jews rogatory names (Sifre, Deut. 61, end, 
Toward et passim). Thus, Baal-zebub (II Kings 
Idolatry. i. 2, 6) is called Beel-zebul yy Sy> 


= “dominus stercoris”) in Matt. xii. 
24, 27, and elsewhere, and the word with which the 
Talmud designates sacrifice to idols (So; Yer. Ber, 
i3b) literally means “to manure.” The Hellenistic 
Jews also observed this custom, so that they applied 
the term idwAdSuruc to what the Gentiles called iepé- 
Bu7o¢ (Deissmann, “Die Hellenisierung des Semi- 
tischen Monotheismus,” p. 5, Leipsic, 1903). It 
was forbidden to look upon images (Tosef., Shab. 
xvii. 1 [ed. Zuckermandel, p. 136] and parallels), 
and even thinking of idolatrous worship was pro- 
hibited (Ber. 12b); if one saw a place where an idol 
had once stood, he was commanded to utter a spe- 
cial prayer (Ber. 61a). Sacrifice to an idol or any- 
thing which in any way might be associated with 
idolatry was forbidden. It was even insufficient to 
reduce an idol to powder and scatter it to the winds, 
since it would fall to earth and become a fertilizer; 
but the image must be sunk in the Dead Sea, whence 
it could never emerge (‘Ab. Zarah fii. 8); nor might 
the wood of the “asherah” be used for purposes of 
healing (Pes. 25a; see Macic). Among the three 
cardinal sins for which the penalty was death, idol- 
atry stood first (Pes. 25a and parallels). “Dust of 
idolatry ” is a technical expression for the prohibi- 
tion of anything related to idol-worship (“‘abodah 
zarah ”). 

To prevent any possible inducement to idolatry, all 
association of Jews with Gentiles was rendered diffi- 
cult. For three days before a Gentile feast-day no 
Jew might have any commercial dealings with the 
idolaters (‘Ab. Zarah i. 1), and it was forbidden to 
attend the fairs connected with such festivals, or even 
to goon a road which led to the image of a deity, or 


to arrange a meeting in the vicinity of such a statue. 
No cattle might be housed in the stalls ((Ab, Zarah 
iil. 1). The Jews were driven to this intolerance 
partly through the wickedness and immorality of 
the Gentiles, 

ITI. Post-Talmudic Period: In the century 
between the return from the Exile and the termina- 
tion of the Babylonian Talmud, the Jews were thor- 
oughly weaned from all belief in idols, although 
superstition itself cau never be wholly eradicated. 

Through mysticism and magic many 
Survivals polytheistic ideas and customs again 


of Idol- found their way among the people. 
Worship. and the Talmud confirms the fact that 
idolatrous worship is seductive (Sanh. 

102b). The fight fora pure belief in one God and 


worship of Him was waged by the religious philoso- 
phers, while the authorities on rabbinical law strove 
for purity of worship. Philosophy and law were 
united by Maimonides, who in his philosophical 
“Moreh Nebukim” and in his legal “Yad ha- 
Hazakah ” devoted separate sections to idolatry and 
thoroughly exposed its teachings. The Shulhan 
‘Aruk, Yoreh De‘ah, also has a separate section on 
idolatry. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: See, in general, works on the history of Israel 
and on Biblical theology. Special works of this nature are: 
Baudissin, Studien zur Semitischenr Religionsgeschichte, 
i-ii., Leipsic, 1876-78 ; Dillmann, Alttestamentliche Theolu- 
gie, ib. 1895; Hastings, Dict. Bible, ii. 445-448; Cheyne and 
Black, Heneye. Bibl. ii. 2146-2158: Hamburger, R. B. T. i. 


757 (gives ex- 


460-465; Herzog-Hauck, Real-Eneyc. vi. 750-757 
tensive bibliography and special treatment of idolatry in the N. 
T.; ib. ili, 217-221, on idolatry in the O. T); Scholz, Gdétzen- 
dienst und Zauberwesen bei den Alten Hebriiern, Regens- 
burg, 1877; Smend, Alttestamentliche Religionsgeschichte. 
2a ed., Freiburg-im-Breisgau, 1899; Stade, Geschichte des 
Volkes Israel, Berlin, 1887; F. Weber, Jitdisehe Theologie, 
2d ed., Leipsic, 1897, Index, s.v. Gdtzendienst; Wellhausen. 
I. J. G. Ath ed., Berlin, 1901; Winer, B. R. 3d ed., i. 483-436 ; 
Bousset, Religion des Judenthums im Neutestamentlichen 
Zeitalter, Berlin, 1903. 

K. L,. 3. 


WREATH: Garland placed on the head as a 
token of honor. The wealthy bridegroom and bride, 
on the day of their nuptials, were ornamented with 
crowns of precious metal and jewels, while the poor 
adorned themselves with twisted bands of roses, 
myrtles, and olive-leaves. The Mishnah mentions 
wreaths made from vine-branches and from ears of 
corn (‘Ab. Zarah iv. 2). When Jerusalem was be- 
sieged the Rabbis forbade the wearing of crowns. 
but permitted wreaths of flowers (Sotah 49a, b). 
R. Jeremiah as a groom wore a wreath of olive- 
leaves, while Samuel regarded the prohibition as 
including wreaths also, asa sign of mourning for 
the destruction of Jerusalem (Yer. Sotah ix. 15). 
When Rabina discovered Mar bar R. Ashi in the act 
of twisting a wreath for his daughter, Ashi claimed 
that women were exempted from the prohibition 
(Git. 7a). 

The first-fruit offerings were tastefully arranged. 
and the ox which the people took to Jerusalem fora 
sacrifice was crowned witha wreath of olive-leaves on 
its horns (Bik. iii. 3). A scholar, on being ordained, 
was garlanded with a wreath known as “the crown 
of the hakam ” (‘Er. 58b: Tan., Ki Teze, 6). In Tal- 
mudic times the cup of wine for grace was decorated 
with a wreath (Kohut, “Aruch Completum,” vi. 
189). The “vine” referred to in Gen, x}. 10 is sym- 


Wreschen 
Wurttemberg 


bolic of Israel, and the “three branches,” or wreaths, 

represent the Temple, the king, and the high 

priest (Hul. 92a). See Crown. 

BBD OCRARE YS Abrahams, Jewish Life in the Middle Agea, 
te 


E. G. H. J. D. E. 


WRESCHEN: A town in Posen, Germany, 
three miles from the Russian frontier. Its Jewish 
community formerly ranked among the largest of 
southern Prussia, and is mentioned as one of the con- 
gregations which suffered severely during the per- 
secutions of the years 1648-31. Unluckily, how- 
ever, all the early documents were destroyed in the 
conflagration of 1878, in which the synagogue, a 
beautiful old wooden building, also was burned. 
The gravestones of the ancient cemetery, which has 
been closed for about forty years, afford no histor- 
ical data, since the great majority of the older in- 
scriptions have been obliterated. 

Among the members of the community special 
mention may be made of Rabbi Zebi Hirsch b. Aaron 
Mirels, Rabbi Aaron Mirels (Kaufmann, “Die 
Letzte Vertreibung der Juden aus Wien und Nieder- 
ésterreich,” pp. 79 et seqg., Vienna, 1889), and the 
Bible commentator Rabbi Meir Léb Malbim. Zebi 
Mirels, who was called also Hirsch Aaron London, 
was the author of the “Mispar Zeba’am,” and pre- 
sented a Hebrew hymn to General Mélendorf when 
the latter was sent by the Prussian king Frederick 
William IT. to receive the allegiance of the new prov- 
ince of southern Prussia (“ Das Jahr 1793,” p. 16, note, 
Posen, 1895). Rabbi Aaron Mirels, the author of 
the “Bet Aharon,” is buried in the cemetery at 
Hirschberg in Silesia. In Wreschen, Malbim wrote 
his first work, the collection of annotations on the 
first chapters of the Shulhan ‘Aruk, Orah Hayyim, 
which laid the foundation of his renown asa scholar. 
In Wreschen, moreover, the musical director Louis 
Lewandowski was born April 8, 1821. 

The population of Wreschen now (1905) numbers 
5,435, of whom 490 are Jews. The present rabbi 
is Dr. M. Lewin. The community has a religious 
school and a public school, the former having an 
attendance of forty and the latter of thirty-five. 

D. M. Lw. 


WRITING. See ALPHABET; MANUSCRIPTS; 
SCRIBES; SCROLL OF THE Law. 


WRITTEN INSTRUMENTS. 
SHETAR. 


WUNDERBAR, REUBEN JOSEPH: Rus- 
sian pedagogue and author; born at Mitau Sept. 
12, 1812; died there Aug. 16, 1868. He received 
the usual Jewish education under a private teacher, 
and at the age of eighteen entered his father’s busi- 
ness. In 1834 he married, and, having lost his for- 
tune, supported himself asa private tutor. At the 
beginning of the colonization movement inaugurated 
by Czar Nicholas (sce Jew. ENcyc. i. 252), Wunder- 
bar wrote an address to the colonists who went from 
Courland to Kherson (“ Betrachtungen tiber die aus 
Kurland nach dem Cherson’schen Gouvernment Aus- 
wandernden Israclitischen Kolonisten-Familien,” 
Mitau, 1840); this address attracted the attention of 
Max LILIENTHAL, who appointed him teacher at the 
Riga school under his management. After Lilien- 


See DEED; 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


570 


thal had been called to St. Petersburg, Wunderbar 
acted temporarily as principal of the school and as 
rabbi. In 1848 he was called to Mitau as teacher of 
religion and as Hebrew interpreter to the govern- 
ment, acting occasionally as rabbi also; this position 
he held until his death. 

In addition to various pamphlets and sermons, as 
well as articles contributed to the “Orient ” and to 
the “ Allgemeine Zeitung des Judentums,” Wunder- 
bar was the author of the following works: “ Bi- 
blisch-Talmudische Medizin ” (8 vols., Riga and Leip- 
sic, 1850-60); “Geschichte der Juden in der Provinz 
Liv- und Kurland” (Mitau, 1853); and “ Immer- 
wihrender Kalender der Juden ” (Dessau, 1854). A 
bibliography of his earlier writings is given in his 
history of the Jews in Livonia and Courland. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Allg. Zeit. des Jud. 1869, pp. 19-20, 37-38. 

H. R. D 

WUNSCHE, AUGUST: German Christian 
Hebraist; born at Hainewalde July 22, 1839. He 
has devoted his attention almost exclusively to rab- 
binic literature. After completing his commentaries 
on Hosea (1868) and Joel (1872), he wrote “ Neue 
Beitrige zur Erliuterung der Evangelien aus Tal- 
mud und Midrasch ” (1878), the most complete col- 
lection of the parallel passages of the Talmud and 
the New Testament since the works of Lightfoot 
and Schéttzen. In his “Bibliotheca Rabbinica” 
(Leipsic, 1880-85) he made a German translation of 
the whole of the Midrash Rabbah and the Midrash 
to the Five Megillot, and he has also translated hag- 
gadic portions of the Jerusalem Talmud (1880) and 
of the Babylonian Talmud (1886-89), as well as the 
Pesikta (1885) and the Midrash tothe Psalms (1891). 
Smaller works of his are: “Die Ritselweisheit bei 
den Hebriiern ” (1883); “Die Freude im Alten Tes- 
tament ” (1896); “ Naturbildersprache des Alten Tes- 
taments” (1897); and “Die Schénheit der Bibel” 
(Leipsic, 1905). Together with Winter he compiled 
the “Geschichte der Jiidischen Litteratur” (3 vols., 
Leipsic, 1892-95), the best existing anthology of Jew- 
ish literature in a modern language. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Kirschner, Dewtscher Litteratur-Kalender. 

s. . 
WURTTEMBERG: Kingdom of southwestern 
Germany. The carliest traces of Jews in this coun- 
try are found in Bopfingen (1241), Ulm (1248), Ess- 
ingen (1253), Oehringen (1258), Calw (1284), and 
Weil (1289); and their numbers, as well asthe places 
where they lived, may be ascertained by investiga- 
ting the persecutions to which they were subjected 
by Rindfleisch and his followers (1298). Albrecht I. 
of Austria had been chosen King of Germany, and 

Ulrich I. and Eberhard I. were ruling 


Distribu- in Wiirttemberg, when RinpFLeIscH 
tion and and his wild hordes attacked the Jews 

Per- in Creglingen, Ellwangen, Forchten- 
secution. berg, Gartach, Goglingen, Ingeltin- 


gen, Ktinzelsau, Leonberg, Mockmihl, 
Mergentheim, Stetten, Sindringen, Sontheim, Wal- 
denburg, Weinsberg, Widdern, and Weikersheim. 
In the large community of Heilbronn alone there 
were 200 martyrs, among them Johanan ben Elia- 
kim, the rabbi, and R. Asher, the president of the 
community. There was at that time a large com- 
munity also in Ulm, which had its own cemetery, 


571 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Wreschen 
Wiurttemberg 


and which enjoyed certain privileges granted it by 
a municipal law of 1274, this law being in force in 
Ravensburg also. In the fourteenth century there 
were Jews also in Baldern, Geislingen, GOppingen, 
Schwiibisch Hall, Rohrbach, Hohenburg, Horb, 
Reutlingen, Rottweil, Stuttgart, Sulm, Tiibingen, 
Vaihingen, and Wolfegg. The counts of Wiirt- 
temberg owed money to the Jews of Colmar and 
Schlettstadt, but Louis IV. canceled their indebted- 
ness (1846). as had also Henry VII. and Louis the 
Bavarian (1311 and 13816) in the case of the citizens 
of Esslingen. 

During the night of April 19, 1316, the Bavarian 
party of Ulm succeeded in introducing Bavarian 
troops into the city, aided, as alleged, bya Jew. In 
the same night, however, the Austrian party, which 
was in the majority, appeared and drove out the 
Bavarians. In commemoration of this event amass 
was instituted to recall the treachery of the Jews; 
but this was abolished in 1822, when the Bavarians 
gained possession of Ulm. New persecutions soon 
broke out, however, the Jews being charged with be- 
ing enemies of the Christians, and with stealing and 
desecrating the host. The community of Esslingen 
was almost annihilated in 1834; and two years later 
the Jews in Hohenburg, Landenbach, Mergentheim, 
Weikersheim, and Widdern were persecuted. The 
situation became still worse toward the end of 1348, 
when the plague and fanaticism combined brought 
destruction upon the Jewish communities of Bal- 
dern, Bopfingen, Ellwangen, Esslingen, Géppingen, 
Geislingen, Schwabisch Hall, Heilbronn, Hohebach, 
Horb, Krailsheim, Mengen, Mergentheim, Nagold, 
Oehringen, Ravensburg, Reutlingen, Rottweil, 
Stuttgart, Sulgen, Sulm, Ulm, Vaihingen, Walden- 
burg, Weilderstadt, and Widdern. 

For the protection afforded them the Jews of Ulm 
had to pay large sums to the municipal council, to 
the citizens, and to the counts of Helfenstein. The 
plunder taken from the Jews became a bone of con- 
tention among the cities, the emperor, and the 
counts; and their disputes led to renewed despolia- 
tions of the Jews. As the latter still 
found advocates, some counts and 
rulers united against them; and when 
the emperor’s demand fora share of the plunder was 
unheeded, he made war against the cities, confiscated 
their possessions, and compelled them to pay high 
taxes. The city of Ulm being unable to raise the 
exorbitant sums demanded, the Jews came forward 
to aid it in its distress (1874), chief among them 
being Sicklin, son-in-law of Moses of Ehlingen, who 
was a citizen of Ulm. In order to exact money 
from the few wealthy Jews still residing in the city, 
the emperor declared them to be under the ban, and 
they had to pay large sums to have the edict revoked. 
In 1885 the federation of cities declared void all prom- 
issory notes heid by the Jews within its jurisdiction ; 
and in some cases it released the Christian debtors 
from paying interest on their ]oans, while in other 
Cases it annulled part of the debt. Two years later 
the federation issued a decree that no German or 
Italian merchant might thenceforth have money 
transactions with the Jews. Emperor Wenceslaus, 
following the example of the federation, canceled 
in 1890 all the debts owing to the Jews, demanding, 


Ulm. 


travel through the country. 


however, that the debtors pay him. Al] these meas- 
ures were explained and justified on the grounds 
that the Jews were body and soul the property of 
the emperor, with which he could do as he pleased, 
and that the usury of the Jews had become intolera- 
ble. In spite of this, the counts of Wirttemberg 
permitted the Jews to reside in Stuttgart (1484), 
Kirchheim (1485), Tiibingen (1459), Cannstadt, and 
Goppingen (1462), on definitely stated conditions, 
and on payment of large taxes for protection. Count 
Ulrich (1483-80) was commissioned by the emperor 
to protect the Jews, and at the same time rigorously 
to suppress their usury ; the fines imposed were to be 
sent to the imperial treasury. Thus money flowed 
into the coffers of the count and of the emperor. 

Count Eberhard im Bart (1459-96) was a pro- 
nounced enemy of the Jews. He removed them 
from Tiibingen in 1477; and in 1495 he decreed that 
they should be expelled from his dominions, This 

order was confirmed by decree of June 

Expulsion, 14, 1498; and the Jews of Ulm, who 

1498. were wealthy and well educated, had 

to leave the city on Aug. 6 of that year. 

The exiles were deprived of their property; and the 

emperor demanded that the people of Ulm should 

mention him in their prayers because he had delivered 
them of the Jews. 

The fifteenth century was ominous also for the 
Jews of Ravensburg. <A blood accusation brought 
against them induced Emperor Sigismund to burn 
some of the Jews of that city, and to expel others. 
The Jews were expelled from Esslingen in 1438; 
but ten years later they were again admitted, only 
to be expelled a second time in 1490. From Heil- 
bronn, where Jews had settled anew in 1414, a num- 
ber of them were expelled in 1469; and seven years 
later the city council insisted on a general expulsion, 
notwithstanding the imperial order to protect the 
Jews. The Jews expelled from the cities scattered 
among the villages; but in many cases they returned 
to the urban communities. Thus, there were Jews 
in Gmiind and Reutlingen in 1433; in Brackenheim, 
1484; in Nersheim, 1454; in Giengen, 1486; and in 
Lauterburg, Pflaumloch, and Uzmemmingen, 1491. 
Between the end of the fifteenth century and 1806 no 
Jews settled in Ulm; individual Jews were permitted 
to enter the city only temporarily, and the citizens 
were warned against having any business transac- 
tions with them. When Wiirttemberg became a 
dukedom, the treatment of the Jews remained on the 
whole the same; a]Jl money transactions with them 
were forbidden, These ordinances were frequently 
renewed and euforeed; not even JOSEL OF ROSHEIM, 
the great advocate of the Jews, was permitted to 
Strict ordinances were 
issued regarding the commercial and religious status 
of the Jews (1536). Jews traveling through the coun- 
try were subjected to many annoyances, and no at- 
tention was paid to the repeated imperial edicts for 
their protection. Josel of Roshecim had succeeded in 
regulating by a compact the convoy charges of trav- 
eling Jews; but Duke Christoph, from whom he had 
obtained thisagreement, was so inimical to the Jews 
that in the Reichstag of Augsburg in 1559 he advo- 
cated their expulsion from Germany. Frederick I: 
(1593-1608) tried in the face of the most violent op- 


Wirttemberz 
Wrysber 


position to establish a Jewish mercantile association 
under the direction of Maggino Gabrieli and a Jewish 
magician, Abraham Culorno; the attempt, however, 
was an absolute failure. 

During the reign of Eberhard Ludwig (1677- 
1738) a favorable change of attitude toward the 
Jews took place; and they were now permitted to 
frequent the fairs (1706) and to trade in horses 
(1707). The Countess of Wiirben procured the privi- 
lege of free trade for the Jews of Freudenthal (1728) 
and for those of Gochsheim (1729). Under Carl Al- 
exander (1733-37), Joseph Siiss OPPENHEIMER Was 
appointed privy factor, and subsequently financial 
councilor, to the duke; and through 
his influence several Jews were per- 

Siiss Op- mitted to settle at Stuttgart and Lud- 
penheimer. wigsburg. Oppenheimer’s subserv- 

iency to the duke brought upon him 
the enmity of the people, and after his master’s 
death (1737) he fell into disgrace. He was executed 
in 1738, and in the following year all the Jews were 
mercilessly expelled. They were soon permitted to 
return, but they were severely restricted in the ex- 
ercise of their religion, as well as in their business; 
and the people were warned against having any 
dealings with them in monetary affairs. Court fac- 
tors were treated more leniently, and important 
government contracts were given to them (1759, 
1761, 1764) inspite of the objections of the populace. 
Karl Eugen, as also his successors, Ludwig (17938- 
1795) and Friedrich (1795-97), treated the Jews con- 
siderately. These rulers were the last of the line of 
Catholic dukes; and under the succeeding Protes- 
tant régime a new era dawned for the Jews of Wiirt- 
temberg. 

With the nineteenth century the whole country re- 
ceived an entirely new political constitution. It was 
not only made a kingdom, but considerable territory 
was added to it (1806); and its Jewish population 
increased until in 1828 it numbered 8,918 souls. King 
Frederick J. (1797-1816) took the first steps toward 
the emancipation of theJews. He annulled the body- 
tax and admitted the Jews into thearmy (1807); in- 
stituted family registers; included the Jews in the 
general taxation (1808) ; opened up to them all trades; 

and regulated the organization and 

Emancipa- government of their communities, The 
tion. Jews so treated showed themselves loy- 

al citizens during the Napoleonic wars. 

The work of ameliorating the condition of the Jews 
was continued by William I. (1816-64), and com- 
pleted under Charles I. in 1869. King William insti- 
tuted the Israelitische Oberkirchenbehérde; and, by 
a Jaw enacted in 1828, he regulated the constitution 
of the Jewish communities, and made it obligatory 
upon Jewish parents to let their children receive a 
common-school education as provided by the general 
school-law of 1825. In the work of purifying the 
worship from the neglect and irregularities that had 
crept in, Dr. Maier, as theological member of the 
Oberkirchenbehérde, was most active. His aim was 
to eliminate completely all non-German elements, 
and to approach as closely as possible to the culture 
of the time, maintaining the idea of Jewish unity and 
morality, while abandoning the specifically Jewish 
laws of exclusion. Similar ideas actuated his succes- 


Joseph 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


572 


sor, Church Councilor Dr. von Wassermann (1872- 
1893). Most of the communities in the northern part 
of the country clung, however, to the Hebrew lan- 
guage and to the Biblical and Talmudic rules of life; 
and at present the majority of the Jewish children 
are instructed in Hebrew, while the form of worship 
has remained almost unchanged. 

According to the census of 1900, the Jews in the 
kingdom of Wiirttemberg numbered 11,916 in a 
total population of 2,169,480, They thus constitute 
0.54 per cent of the population, dis- 
tributed among the four districts of 
the country as follows: (1) Neckar, 
5,544, or 0.73 per cent; (2) Black 
Forest, 1,296, or 0.25 per cent: Jagst, 2,990, or 
0.74 per cent; and Danube, 2,086, or 0.40 per cent, 
of the total population, The Neckar district is di- 
vided into five rabbinates, the seat of which is in 
Stuttgart; the Black Forest district constitutes one 
rabbinate, the seat of which is in Mihringen, the 
Jagst district embraces the rabbinates of Heiibronn, 
Oberdorf, Mergentheim, Braunsbach, and Weikers- 
heim; and the Danube district, the rabbinates of 
Goppingen, Laupheim, Buchau, and Ulm, making 
a total of fifteen rabbinates for the kingdom. 
Laws and decrees regulating the communal! affairs 
were issued as follows: April 25, 1828; Oct. 27, 
1831; Janu. 31, 18384 (vabbinical examinations); 
1838 (rituals); 1841 (duties of rabbis and choir-lead- 
ers); March 25, 1851; March 26, 1873; Feb. 22, 1875; 
and Feb. 18 and April 24, 1876 (taxation); Aug. 5, 
1875; and April 23, 1900 (pensioning of rabbis); 
and July 8, 1878; and March 25, 1900 (qualifications 
of choir-leaders). 

According to the school statistics of 1900-1, the 
thirteen rabbinates had under their care 61 school 
districts, with 1,757 Jewish pupils, of whom 1,523 

(736 boys and 787 girls) were under 
Statistics. fourteen, and 234 (92 boys and 142 

girls) more than fourteen, years of age. 
They are instructed in part in twenty-seven Jewish 
parochial schools, receiving their specifically relig- 
ious instruction in thirty-one religious schools. In 
some places the religious instruction is given also 
in evening-schools and Sunday-schools. All but 140 
children receive religious instruction. According 
to the statistics of the penal institutions of the coun- 
try for 1900-1, fourteen Jews were sentenced in the 
course of the year, ten of whom were of Wiirttem- 
berg. The criminal status of the entire population 
of 2,169,480 is 0.089 per cent; that of the Jews, 
0.088 per cent. 

There are in Wirttemberg the following Jewish 
philanthropic institutions: the orphan asylum Wil- 
helmspflege at Esslingen; the Society for the Re- 
lief of Teachers, Widows, and Orphans; and the 
District Asylum and Relief Society. Since 1896 
the rabbis of the country, as well as the Jewish 
teachers and choir-leaders, have been holding yearly 
conventions in Stuttgart. Among the most note- 
worthy synagogues are those at Stuttgart, Heil- 
bronn, Ulm, Buchau, and Unterdeufstetten. There 
are very old cemeteries at Aufhausen, Oberdor?, 
Esslingen, Affaltrach, Unterbalbach, Neckarsulm, 
Wankheim, and Laibach. The Israelitische Ober- 
kirchenbehérde. which is under the immediate su- 


Present 
Status. 


573 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Wurttemberg 
ysber 


pervision of the ministry for eeclesiastical and educa- 
rional affairs, regulates the affairs of all the Jewish 
communities of the country. This body iscomposed 
of a Jewish theologian, a Jewish lawycr, and four 
Jewish associates, with a Christian ministerial coun- 
selor at theirhead. In all communities there are in- 
stitutions for the instruction of adults, as well as 
burial societies, dispensaries. and societies for ihe 
relief of the resident and traveling poor. Stuttgart 
and Hal} have societies for the promotion of a 
knowledge of rabbinical literature. The ancient rit- 
ual is observed in most of the commuunitics, though 
some innovations have been introduced in Stuttgart, 
ileilbronn, Ulm, and G6ppingen. Sce also HEIL- 
BRONN; StuTTcart; ULM. 
S. T. K. 


WURZBURG : Capital of Lower Franconia, Ba- 
yaria, Germany. Itranked asa city in 741, and had 
a Jewish community as early as the eleventh cen- 
tury, although the first documentary evidence of 
the existence of Jews in the town is dated in 1119. 
The Crusade of 1147 brought much suffering on the 
Jews, and they were also persecuted in 1298, and 
again in 1849, when in their synagogue the men, 
together with their wives and children, met a volun- 
tary death in the flames. Bishop Julius continued 
the work begun by Bishop Friedrich, who had ex- 
pelled the Jews of Wiirzburg in 1565, and banished 
the community from the city. The cemetery was, 
accordingly, no longer used, and Bishop Julius con- 
fiscated it by illegal means, even ignoring the emper- 
or’s admonition to treat the Jews with justice. 

After the expulsion from Witirzburg the Jewish 
community of the neighboring town of Heidingsfeld 
flourished greatly, and to it were transferred the 
rabbinate of Wiirzburg and the Jewish court. The 
rabbinical office of Wiirzburg has always been held 
by prominent men, including Eliezer ben Nathan, 
Isaac Or Zarua‘, Meir of Rothenburg, Israel Koppel 
Frinkel and his son Samson Friinkel, Jacob of Reck- 
endorf, Aryeh Léb Rapoport, and Levin Fahren- 
bach. Under Fahrenbach’s successor the Jews were 
again permitted to settle in Witirzburg; and Rabbi 
Abraham Bing, who was appointed chief rabbi of 
Franconia in 1798, took up his residence in the city. 
When Bing retired from active service in 1839 the 
chief rabbinate was abolished, and a district rab- 
binate was created in its place. The first district 
rabbi of Wiirzburg was Scligmann Baer BAMBERG- 
ER, Who died in 1878 and was succeeded by his son 
Nathan Bamberger. Seligmann Baer Bamberger 
founded various important institutions, including a 
Jewish school, a teachers’ seminary, and a yeshibah. 
He also originated the movement for the establish- 
nent of a Jewish hospital. 


Wiirzburg has numerous societies which support 
all formsof Jewish activity, among them being four 
associations for the promotion of the study of the 
Torah. The Jews of Wirzburg number 4,000 out 
of a total population of 90,000, and constitute one 
of the most important communities in Bavaria. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: M. L. Bamberger, Hin Blick auf die Geseh. 
der Juden tn Wiirzburg, Wiirzburg, 1905; idem, Beitidige 
zur Gesch, der Juden tn Wiirzburg-Heidingsfeld ; Heffner, 
Juden in Franken, Nuremberg, 1855; Himmelstein, Zeit- 
schrift des Historischen Vereins fiir Unterfranken und 
Aschaffenbury, vol. xii; Salfeld. Martyrologium; Stern- 
Neubauer, Hebrilische Berichte titber die Judenverfolgun- 
gen Wiihrend der Kreuzztige, Berlin, 1892; Stumpf. Denk- 


witrdigkeiten, part i.; Wegele, Vortriige wid Abhand- 
lungen. 
D. M. LL. B. 


WURZBURGER, JULIUS: American journal- 
ist; born in Bayreuth, Germany, 1819; died in New 
York city Sept. 14, 1876; studied at the Univer- 
sity of Erlangen. In 1848, the year of the revolu- 
tion, he was editor of the “Bayreuth Tageblatt.” 
Removing to Munich, his liberal views and writings 
attracted the attention of the government; and in 
1849 he was banished from Bavaria. He went to 
Italy and France, where he acted as correspondent, 
and finally emigrated to America, where he became 
connected with the “ New-Yorker Staats-Zeitung ” 
(1856-75), editing its Sunday supplement with 
marked ability and success. 

A. A. 8. I. 


WYSBER, LUDWIG: Hungarian journalist 
and author; born 1817. Originally a street pedler 
in Pesth, he obtained employment as a chorus singer 
in the German theater of that city, and afterward 
held minor positions on several local newspapers. 
At the outbreak of the March Movement in 1848, he 
obtained permission to publish “ Der Patriot,” while 
Julian Chownitz, or Chowanetz, a Jew who had 
been active as a revolutionist, was given permission 
to publish “Die Opposition.” These two journals 
represented Kossuth’s party, and acquired consider- 
able influence. Between 1850 and 1870 Wysber 
appears to have been guilty of numerous pecula- 
tions among the merchants and clergy of Hungary, 
extending his operations even to Vienna. He em- 
ployed various aliases, as “ Arthur von Alaven,” “ Jo- 
nas Féldvary,” and “ Wysbersi”; and warrants were 
issued for hisarrest. He was the author of “ Lebens- 
bilder aus Ungarn,” mentioned in Von Helfert’s 
“Geschichte Oesterreichs vom Ausgange des Wiener 
October Aufstandes 1848 ” (Prague, 1876; Appendix, 
p. 185, note 811). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY : Wurzbach, Biog. Lex.; Janstyckh von Adler- 
stein, Die Letzten Zwei Jahre Ungarns, ii. 176, 181 et seq., 


Vienna, 1850; Evangelisches Wochenblatt, Pesth, 1858, No. 
37, p. 599; ib. 1861, No. 7, p.110; Fremden-Blatt, 1861, No. 111. 


8, N. D. 


Xabillo 
xXystus 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


574 


» 


XABILLO. See HaBILLo. 


XANTEN: Town of Rhenish Prussia, in the 
district of Dtisseldorf. Like most Rhenish towns, 
Xanten had a Jewish community in early medieval 
times. Two massacres of Jews occurred during 
the First Crusade (June 1 and 27, 1096). On the lat- 
ter occasion some Jews committed suicide in order 
to escape the fury of the Crusaders (Aronius, “ Re- 
gesten,” p. 89, No. 188; p. 92, No. 195). In 1187 the 
martyrs of Neuss were brought to Xanten to be 
buried by the side of those martyred in 1096 (2d. p. 
144, No. 322). 

In the latter part of the nineteenth century the 
attention of the Jewish world was attracted to the 
small congregation of Xanten by a blood accusation. 
On June 29, 1891, John Hegemann, the five-year- 
old son of a local cabinetmaker, was found dead in 
a neighbor’s barn, with his throat cut from ear to 

ear, Anti-Semiticagitation connected 
Blood Ac- the Jewish butcher and former shohet 
cusation. Adolf Buschoff with this crime; and 
the local priest Bresser lent support 
to this rumor by publishing articles on ritual mur- 
der in the “ Bote fiir Stadt und Land,” of which he 
was the editor. The agitation in the anti-Semitic 
press, as well as at anti-Semitic meetings, where it 
was insinuated that the Jews had bribed or intimi- 
dated the authorities in order to prevent the discov- 
ery of the truth, compelled the government to arrest 
Buschoff and his family (Oct. 14, 1891). The evi- 
dence against the man, who had always borne a 
good reputation, was so flimsy, however, that he 
was discharged (Dec. 20). This action aroused the 
anti-Semites to still stronger agitation, which cul- 
minated in a heated debate in the Prussian Diet; in 
the course of this argument Stoecker, the ex-court 
chaplain, cleverly repeated the accusation of ritual 
murder, and hinted at Jewish influence as the cause 
of the failure to find the murderer (Feb. 7, 1892). 
Under pressure of this agitation Buschoff was rear- 
rested (Feb. 8), and tried before a jury at Cleve 
(July 4-14, 1892). During this trial it was found 
that the accusations were based on mere hearsay, 
and contained absolutely impossible assertions. 
The prosecuting attorney himself moved for the 
dismissal of the charge, and the jury rendered its 
verdict accordingly. The real murderer was never 
discovered, and the possibility that the death of 
the child was due to an accident was not entirely 
disproved. The agitation had the effect of reducing 
the Jewish population of the city, and Buschoff 
himself had to leave. At present (1905) Xanten has 
about thirty Jews in a total population of 3,770. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Mittheilungen aus dem Verein zur Ahwehr 
des Antisemitisinus, 1892, Index, s.v. Xanten and Busch- 
off; Allg. Zeit. des Jud. 1892, Nos. 29-31; Der Prozess 

Buschoff, Leipsic, 1892; Nathan, Der Prozess Buschoff, Ber- 

lin, 1892; Der Prozess Xanten-Cleve, ib. 1892; Der Xan- 


tener Knabenmord vor dem Schwurgericht ze Cleve, 4-14 
Juli, 1892, Berlin, 1893 (a complete stenographic record). 


J. 


XERES (JEREZ) DE LA FRONTERA: 
City in the Spanish province of Cadiz. It hada 
Jewish community with a separate Judcria as carly 
as the time of the Moors. When Alfonso X., the 


“Wise, conquered the city in Oct., 1264, he assigned 


houses and lands to the Jews. The Juderia, which 
was located near 8S. Cristobal street and extended 
along the city wall, included ninety-six houses, 
large and small, and had two synagogues and two 
“casas de la merced,” institutions for aiding and 
housing the poor. Near one synagogue were the 
“casas del reab ” (houses of the rabbi); Don Todros, 
father of Don Yucaff, is mentioned as being the 
occupant in 1264. Near the other synagogue was 
the house of Rabbi Yugaff. Upon the conquest of 
the city the following persons received houses by 
command of the king: Don Yehuda Mosca (as he is 
several times expressly called in the list drawn up 
in 1388), who made translations from Arabic into 
Spanish for the king; the “almoxarife” Don Mayr, 
or rather Mir de Malhea, and his son Cag (Isaac); 
Cimha (Simhah) Xtarugi, whose father lost his life 
and the whole of his large fortune during the rebel- 
lion of the city ; Don Vellocid (Vellecid), “ ballestero 
del rey a caballo”; Solomon Ballestero; and Axu- 
curi Ballestero—the last three being in the king’s 
army. 

Among the richest and most influential Jews in 
Jerez were the following: Cag aben Acot, who was 
the representative of the community at the reparti- 
tion of the taxes in 1290, and his relatives Judah 
aben Acot, Bonet aben Acot, Abraham aben Acot; 
likewise Samuel de Cadiz, Jacob Castellano, Cag 
aben Colmiel or Calamiel, Samuel Barrach, Levi de 
Faro, Abraham Saltos, Vellido de Castro, and 
Abraham de Carrion. The Jews of Jerez engaged 
in business. One Yucaff Alcacabi, who had laid in 
large quantities of salt pork in his houses and lost 
everything he possessed, because he had favored the 
Moors, did not receive the house which had first 
been assigned him. The Jews engaged in viticul- 
ture also, Jerez wine being the most valued wine of 
Spain. There were also tailors (Cedillo Alfayate is 
mentioned), rope-makers (Cag el Cordonnero), and 
shoemakers among them. The Jerez Jews, who in 
1294 paid King D. Sancho IV. 5,000 maravedis in 
taxes, were freed by the king from the payment of 
tolls throughout the kingdom, and were assured of 
the same favor as was enjoyed by Christians and 
other inhabitants of the city—a privilege which was 
confirmed by Kings Fernando IV. and Alfonso XI. 
(Dec, 30, 1882). 

In the second half of the fifteenth century the 
Jews of Jerez suffered from the enmity of the Chris- 
tian population. Im 1459 the city council gave @ 
portion of the Jewish cemetery to a Uuristian inhab- 
itant; and in spite of the protests of Joseph de Pare- 
des and Samuel Corcos, who represented the Israel- 
ite community, and regardless of their appeal toa 
decree of May 25, 1455, issued by King Henry IV., 


§75 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Xabillo 
Xystus 


according to which the synagogues and Jewish cem- 
eteries were not in any way to be violated, the coun- 
cil in March, 1460, granted another portion of the 
cemetery to a Christian who desired to build a house 
upon it. At the same time the following incident, 
related by Abraham Arama, took place in Jerez: 
Certain monks who appealed to a rich Jew for alms 
and received blows instead, desired to avenge them- 
selves on the whole community. They accordingly 
exhumed the body of a baptized Jew that had been 
buried in the Christian cemetery, and took it to the 
Jewish burial-ground, hoping to create the impres- 
sion that the act had been committed by the Jews. 
The affair came before the duke or the governor, 
who wished to have the king’s opinion on the sub- 
ject and to keep all the Jews in the city under ar- 
rest until the king’s decision should arrive. The 
influential Judah ibn Verga of Seville exerted him- 
self in behalf of the terrified Jews; and as the 
innocence of those who had been slandered was soon 
proved, two of the monks were burned at the stake, 
while the others, at the intercession of the people, 
were banished for life. See Spain. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Boletin Acad. Hist. x. 465 et seq., xii. 65 et 
seq.; R. EH. J. xv. 12 et seq., xvii. 188 et seq.; Shebet Yehu- 
dah, pp. 66 et seq. 

G. M. K. 

XERXES: Son of Darius, King of Persia (485- 
465 s.c.). His name, which is Khshayarsha in Per- 
sian, Ikhshiyarshu (with variants) in Babylonian, 
and Zépéy¢ in Greek, frequently occurs in the Old 
Testament. It is often written with } instead of 3%, 
as in the Masoretic text, where it is spelled yp>ywne 
(Ahashwerésh) instead of wows (Ayhashyarsh), 
with the prothetic vowel indispensable in Semitic 
before initial double consonants. Xerxes is men- 
tioned in the Book of Ezra (iv. 6) in connection with 
a complaint lodged against the Jews by the Samari- 
tans (comp. Meyer, “ Entstehung des Judenthums,” 
pp. 16 et seg.). He is the “king” of the Esther ro- 
mance, and in the Book of Daniel (ix. 1) he is men- 
tioned as the father of Darius, “of the seed of the 
Medes.” 

E. G. H. E. ME. 

XIMENES DE CISNEROS: Spanish priest, 
statesman, regent, and grand inquisitor; born 1436; 
died 1517. He studied in Rome, and upon his re- 
turn to Spain was appointed confessor to Queen 
Isabella of Castile. In 1507 the pope invested him 
with the dignity of a cardinal, and at the same time 
he was appointed grand inquisitor, being the third 
to hold that office in Spain. Two years later he ac- 
coutered an army at his own expense, and invaded 
North Africa in order to forcibly introduce Chris- 
tianity. It is said that he succeeded in conquering 
the city of Oran by employing some Jewish spies. 
Upon his return to Spain he founded the University 
of Alcal4 de THenares, with the establishment of 
Which is connected the publication of the first poly- 
glot Bible. XKimenes was dismissed from the gov- 
ernment service by Charles V. in 1517. 

During the beginning of his incumbency as grand 
inquisitor, De Cisneros was less severe than his pred- 
€cessors, Torquemada and Diaz. When, however, 
Charles V., in accordance with the advice of his 
Flemish councilors, began negotiating with the Ma- 


ranos, offering them religious liberty on payment of 
800,000 gulden (gold), the grand inquisitor proceeded 
mercilessly against both Maranos and Jews; and 
2,500 persons were given over to autos da fé during 
his inquisitorship. 

When the University of Alcali de Henares was 
founded, Ximenes commenced the work of compi- 
ling the poly glot Bible, which was completed in 1517, 
and published in Alcala under the title “ Biblia He- 
braica, Chaldaica, Greca et Latina.” Volume iv. of 
this work was supplied with a Hebrew grammar, 
“TIntroductio Artis Grammatice Hebraice,” adapted 
from Reuchlin’s grammar; while a glossary entitled 
“Lexicon Hebraicum et Chaldaicum ” was appended 
to the Jast volume. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hefele, Der Cardinal Ximenes, Titbingen, 
1851; Leorente, Histoire de ? Inquisition en Espagne, i. 345 
et sey., Meyers Konversations-Lexikon, ix. 567-568; Gritz, 
Gesch, ix. 14, 218; First, Bibl. Jud. iii. 559. 

J. 8. O. 

XIMENES, SIR MORRIS (MOSES): Born 
at London about 1762; died there after 1880. He 
was a member of the London Exchange, where he 

made a large fortune. In 1802 he was elected a 

warden of the Bevis Marks Synagogue, but declined 

to accept; and on being fined he resigned from 
the community and became converted to Christian- 

ity. He appears afterward to have adopted a mili- 

tary career, and was known as Captain Ximenes; 

he was knighted, and became a high sheriff of the 
county of Kent. 

His son, Sir David Ximenes, had no connection 
with the Jewish community. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Picciotto, Sketches of Anglo-Jewish History, 

pp. 303-304. 

8. J. 

XYSTUS: A building in Jerusalem, erected, as 
is shown by the name, in the Hellenistic period, 
probably under the Herodians. The term properly 
denotes a covered colonnade in the gymnasia, al- 
though the Romans employed the word “xystus” 
to designate open terraces before the colonnades of 
their country-houses. That the Xystus of Jerusa- 
lem was an open terrace, as Buhl rightly assumes, 
is clear from the fact that from it Titus conducted 
his negotiations with the leaders of the Jews while 
they stood in the upper city, a proceeding which 
would scarcely have been possible had it been a cov- 
ered building. The translation “colonnade” is er- 
roneous. It was artificially formed by erecting 
on the western edge of Mount Moriah a structure 
supported by pillars, the roof, which was practi- 
cally level with the Temple area, constituting the 
AXystus. Similar buildings, also called Xysti, were 
found in a number of Greek cities, as in Elis. 

The site of the Xystus of Jerusalem can be ap- 
proximately, though not definitely, determined. 
The first wall on the north, beginning at the so- 
called tower of Hippicus, extended to the Xystus, 

then skirted the council-house (fovag), 


Site. and ended at the western cloister of 
the Temple (Josephus, “B. J.” v. 4, 
§ 2). Both the Xystus and the council-house were, 


therefore, situated within the wall, the former 
lying to the north and the latter to the south. 
When Titus negotiated with the Jews concerning 
their surrender, he stood on the western side of the 


Xystus 
Ya‘aleh 


cuter Temple, facing the upper city, taking this 
position on account of the gates upon the Aystus, 
and also being influenced in his choice by the bridge 
which connected the upper city with the Temple and 
which lay between the Jewish leaders and himself 
(eb. vi. 6, § 2). The Xystus was, inoreover, the scene 
of an assembly of the people before the outbreak of 
the rebellion, when Agrippa IT. addressed them 
while his sister Berenice remained in sight of the 
populace in the house of the Hasmoneans, which 
overlooked the Xystus (#4. ii. 16,88). In hisaccount 
of this conference, Josephus states, curiously enough, 
that the bridge connected the Temple with the Xys- 
tus and not with the upper city. This can be ex- 
plained only on the assumption that the Xystus, as 
was natural, lay below Mount Moriah itself, and 
was, perhaps, separated from the hill by a ravine. 
A bridge running from the upper city would, there- 
fore, connect the Xystus with Mount Moriah, and 
this agrees with the assumption that the bridge, 
like the gates, was constructed “above the Xystus.” 
During the factional strife between Simeon bar 
Griora and John of Giscalaa fortified tower was built 
on the Xystus (2b. iv. 9, § 12), and this edifice later 
marked the limit set by Titus for the burning of the 
Temple cloister (¢b. vi. 3, § 2). 

It thus becomesevident that the Xystus formed a 
portion of the western cloister of the Temple, while 
the council-house lay to the south, but In the same 
direction and probably built into the cloister. The 
Hasmonean palace, raised still higher by Agrippa 
II. (Josephus, “ Ant.” xx. 8, § 11), stood opposite, 
on the western heights of the upper city, which was 
at that point connected with the Xystus by a bridge. 
Many investigators regard “ Robinson’s Arch,” which 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


576 


———— 


is still preserved, as an anchorage for this bridge, 
but the absence of any corresponding structure on 

the western hill opposite inclines 
Connection others to identify “ Robinson’s Arch ” 


with with the remains of the stair-tower 
‘“‘Robin- mentioned by Josephus (7. xv. 11, 
son’s $5). An additional argument against 
Arch.” any _ identification of “Robinson’s 


Arch ” with the Xystus is found in the 
fact that it lies in the lowest portion of the wall and 
almost in the bottom of the valley, while the Xystus 
evidently equaled Mount Moriah in height. It 
must have been situated, moreover, where the first 
wall joined the cloister of the Temple and turned 
toward the south. Mommert’s hypothesis that the 
lower city, which was called Akra and which was 
leveled and graded by the Maccabees, included the 
open space of the Xystus, is disproved by the fact 
that the Temple, on which the Xystus bordered, 
did not extend to the lower city. 

Equally erroneous is the theory of Schiirer, sup- 
ported by Buhi, that the so-called hall of hewn 
stone (“lishkat ha-gazit”), in which the Sanhedrin 
held its sessions, was built on the Xystus and that 
nts isidentical with fvordc ; because, according tothe 
Mishnah, this body deliberated within the precincts 
of the Temple, and not in the buildings which sur- 
rounded it, so that this hy pothesis is rightly rejected 
by Bacher and Biichler, | 
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Schiirer, Geseh. 3d ed., ii. 211 (opposed by 

Bacher, in Hastings, Dict. Bible. iv. 399): Biichler, Das Syne- 

drion in Jerusalem, p. 15, Vienna, 1902: Buhl, Geographie 

des Alten Paltistina, pp. 185, 144, 146, Freiburg-im-Breisgau, 

1896; Z. D. P. V. x. 248; Baedeker, Paldstina und Syrien, 


6th ed., pp. 28, 59, Leipsic, 1904: Mommert, Topographie des 
Alten Jerusalem, i. 67, tb. 1900, 
G. S. Kr. 


Y 


[NOTE: For topics beginning with Y not found in alphabetical place see under J. | 


YA‘ABEZ. See Empen, Jacosp IsRAEL BEN 
ZEBL ASHKENAZI. 


YA‘ALEH: The introductory hymn prefixed to 
the selihot which follow the evening service proper 
of the Day of Atonement (comp. Kot Nipre) in the 
northern rituals. The author of the hymn has not 
been identified with certainty. It consists of eight 
strophes in reverse alphabetical order, each com- 
posed of three lines, with the twenty-second Hebrew 
letter thrice repeated to complete the twenty-four 
lines. The scheme of construction is as follows: 


- “ Let our Z ascend from eventide, 
And our Y approach from morning, 
And our X appear till eventide.” 


The verbs are drawn from the prayer “ Ya‘aleh we- 
yabo we-yeraeh,” etc., specially inserted before the 
three concluding benedictions of the “ ‘Amidah ” (see 
SHEMONEH ‘EsREH), and in the grace after meals, 
on all festal days (comp. Shab. 24a), including the 
Day of Atonement. The thought, if not the form, 
is the basis of G. Gottheil’s hymn “To Thee we 
give ourselves ... from eventide to eventide” 
(“Union Hymnal,” No. 103), for which, however, a 


tune from another section of the penitential services 
(see KERonot—Kaliric stropbic hymn) wasselected. 

A fine eighteenth-century melody for “ Ya‘aleh” 
has been preserved as a general setting through its 
adaptation by Isaac Nathan:in 1815 to Lord Byron’s 
verses “The Harp the Monarch Minstrel Swept,” 
which was published, with pianoforte accompani- 
ment, in the “Hebrew Melodies,” issued in that 
year. The melody as now usually sung is somewhat 
less elaborate than in Nathan’s version. It has been 
traditional in the Great Synagogue, London, since 
1750 at least, and is well known on the Continent also. 
Its expressive swing had made it widely known and 
treasured in connection with the Atonement hymn 
even before it receiveda further appreciation from the 
fascination with which it appealed to Louis Lewan- 
dowski, the premier sy nagogue musician of his gener- 
ation. In his “ Todah w’Zimrah” (Berlin, 1876) he not 
only includes it with its original text for the service 
of the Day of Atonement (vol. ii., No. 34), but he has 
set it also to the chief hymn chanted by the hazzan in 
the “dew ” and “rain” supplications on the Passover 
and Tabernacle festivals (see GESHEM). 

The melody is here transcribed with Byron’s Eng- 


577 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA syptus 
a‘aleh 


YA‘ALEH 
HAZZAN. 


Andante maestoso. 


24 ——S— = ee —— 
a aa —— ao oe oe oe ee of 
—— oe ee ee SS Sa aaa ea 


B Nare a 2. TON aad oon ns tales aeeotens am atns qoi Galt welinatewits dn atte wees wee Suncare eemera Neale 
1, The RODD once eek Seared Suk the mon - arch min - strel swept, the 
3. It 101d anit nae ne Fe dae the tri - umphs of our King, the 


me - ‘e - reb,... 
mon - - arch min - strel swept, The King of men, the loved of heaven, 
tri - - umphs of our King; It waft - ed glo - ry to our God ; 


[ee ee eS SS SS 


ee es A = ee 
ees We - - «* ya -  bo...... shaw . - - - - ‘- te-nu 
sioienerers Which.......... mus sic hal - lowed while she wept O’er tones her heart of 
arena Tt... ccc cceeeee. made our glad-dened val - leys ring, The ce - dars bow, the 
i ee ee es — —= 
—- os ame ee ———— a 
: ~~ -@- , 
mi - bo - ker ..... Wéye -ra -’eh.... Yin- nu - ne - nu ‘ad ‘e -  reb. 
hearts had given,.... Re -  doub-led be her tears, its chords are riven! 
moun - tains nod,..... lis sound as-pired to heaven and there a -_ bode, 
— 
Us A A ee 


peer 

ee a a Be = 

——— a Se see! ac eee on 2 ae Seen Seed aes 
——————————— OE 


oT 


2. Ya-‘a - leh........ ko - - - - Ie - nu me - ‘e - reb, We - 
an (See sof - tened, sof - _ tened men of i - ron mold; dt 
4. Since then, since then, though heard on earth no ‘more, De « 


——_—__——_——_ 6 = i roel a = = 
ya - - bO<dcohue zid - ka - te - nu mi- bo - ker3...... We - 
gave.... them, it gave them vir - tues not..... their own; No 
vo - -_ tion, de - vo = tion and her daugh - ter Love, Still 

MrsSHORERIM. Hazzan. 
dim pe. —_—— ) —_— ee = 
58°, 2? 4 sf —— —— i ——— 
S ete et ee oma i oo mses ee Oe aoe 
ye - ra-’eh, BW Gite seeute Glee dida seas eneetaae pid - yo - 
ear so dull, no ear so dull, NO. wcses soul so cold, That felt not 
bid the soul, the burst - ing soul, still..... bid the soul, To sounds that 


XIT.—37 


Ya aleh THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 578 
> ae 
4g — ee 
i EE \ A aaa ——| ~—— ae aa (ES — See 
(Sas ke ee 
ne - nu, Sees ine det S ewes Gu ot batons We - ye - ra- eb, we 
jired.... NOb As oa ieetei cette to the bone,.... Till Da-vid's lyre, till 
seem. OS Hin aei woe nea eens from @- bove..... In dreams, in dreams, in 
Hazzan. 
ee 


we Per Se wz 


ye - ra-’eh, we - ye - ra-’eh, pid - yo - - ee a 3 
Da - vid's lyre greo might-i - er MORN o5 2526 ease ea sols his 
dreams that day's, that = day’s broad light CON. ..6., ie eNG ee sas not re - 
MESHORERIM. Hazzan 
a p Sf f 
eS eet ee 
= —— 4 jag tt ty ee 
ge - aa = @o—-e@ | penn ee Ca = 
a” 
bu,...... -pid - yo - ne - nu, BD nena Gea ass ‘ad = - 0 fe -~soreb. 
throne, till Da- vid's lyre grew might -i- er, GREW esa deus might-i - er than his throne. 
move, that day’s.... broad.... light....... CON ng ca ise eee $8. ae Ga dees not re-move. 


lish verses, as presented in 1815. It extends to two 
stanzas of the Hebrew hymn. This application and 
the manner in which the old-time vocal accompanists 
rather than choristers, the “ meshorerim,” otherwise 
knownas “ singer and bass” (see Music, SYNAGOGAL), 
would alternate with and imitate the solo of the pre- 
centor, are further shown in the transcription by the 
addition of the Hebrew text of the opening strophes. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. Baer, Baal Tefillah, No. 1306, Frankfort- 

on-the-Main, 1883; Israel, ii. 183, London, 1898. oe 

A. 


YAD (lit. “hand”; Judgo-German, teitel): A 
pointer to guide the reading i in public of the text of 
the Sefer Torah. During the reading of the Law in 
the synagogue the reader stands on the right side, 
the one “called up” being in the center, and the “se- 
gan,” or deputy representing the congregation, on 
the left. The segan points out with the “yad” the 
text for the reader to follow. 

From the remotest times the Hebrew teacher used 
@ pointer somewhat similar to the tapering stick em- 
ployed by the professional lecturer in modern times 
to point out places, figures, or words on a map or 

blackboard. The eurliest reference to 


Origin its use is in connection with the schools 
from the of Berar before the destruction of 
School. that place in the war of Bar Kokba 


(182-135). Bethar had a larger num- 
ber of schools and scholars than any other town in 
Judea; when an enemy forced himself into one of the 
schools the teachers stabbed him with their pointers 
(Git. 58a). The use of the “teitel” by the teacher of 
primary classes in the heder or Talmud Torah is still 
common in the eastern countries of Europe. 

The use of the yad by the segan for guiding the 


reader of the Sefer Torah is not obligatory, as the 
reader may guide himself with it, or it may be dis- 
pensed withentirely. It is for the convenience of the 
reader only, and it is handled by a second person, the 
segan, perhaps in order to impress the ceremony upon 
the reader, and to prevent errors in the reading. It 
serves also to keep the reader from touching the text 
with his fingers in a desire to guide his reading; for 
touching the bare Sefer Torah with the hands with- 
outa“ mappah ” rendered them impure for handling 
“terumah,” the priests’ share of the heave-offering 
(Yad. iii. 2). Thisis one of the eighteen enactments 
or “ gezerot” (Shab. 14a); and the motive of the edict 
was doubtless to compel the priests, who had easy ac- 
cess to the Sefer Torah, to handle it with special care. 

There are various styles of yad for the Sefer 
Torah. The usual size is about 12 inches long. It 
is made in the fashion of a staff or scepter, narrowed 
down at the end, which is in the shape of a closed 
hand with the index-finger extended. Most fre- 
quently the staff is made of silver, ornamented some- 
times with a gold hand and sometimes even with 
jewels; but hard wood also is used, preferably the 
olive-wood of the Holy Land, with an ivory hand. 
Often the yad is inscribed with an appropriate Bib- 
lical verse, such as “ The law of the Lord is perfect, 
converting the soul” (Ps. xix. 7), or with the name 
of the donor. There is aring attached to the top of 
the staff, with a chain by which to hang it to the 
rollers (= “ ‘ez hayyim ”) of the scroll after the latter 
has been rolled up. The yad is one of the “kele ko- 
desh ” (= “holy vessels”) ornamenting the Torab. 
See SCROLL OF THE Law. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY : Jacobs, Year Book, 5659, p. 314. 
J. J. D. E. 


VaRIOUS SPBCIMENS OF THE YAD. 


(In the Victoria and Albert Museum, Loudon ; Cluny Museum, Paris ; Temple Emanu-Fl, New York ; Temple Shearith Israel, New York , and in the possession of 
Sir Samue) Montagu, London ; E, A. Franklin, London ; Maurice Herrmann, New York.) 


Yadayim 
Yahya 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


580 


YADAYIM (“Hands”): Treatise of the Mishnah 
and the Tosefta, dealing with the uncleanness of the 
hands and their ablution. Jt stands eleventh in 
the order Tohorot in most editions of the Mishnah, 
and is divided into four chapters, containing twenty- 
two Parag 7a phs in all. 

Ch. i.: The quantity of water necessary to cleanse 
the hands by pouring it over them (§ 1); the ves- 
sels from which the water may be poured over the 
hands (8 2); kinds of water which may not be used 
to cleanse the hands, and persons who may perform 
the act of manual ablution (§§ 3-5). 

Ch, ii.: How the water should be poured over the 
hands, and the first and second ablutions (§§ 1-8); 
the hands are regarded as clean in all cases where 
doubt exists as to whether the ablution was properly 
performed (§ 4). 

Ch, iii.: Things which render the hands unclean; 
the canonical books make the hands unclean. The 
holy writings were kept together with the equally 
sacred heave-offering (“ terumah ”) of the priests, and 
were injured by mice; to prevent this it was enacted 
that the holy writings defiled the hands as well as the 
heave-offering, thus leading to a discontinuance of 
the custom of keeping them together; discussion of 
the question whether the Song of Solomon and Kc- 
clesiastes are canonical, and thus render the hands 
unclean; on the day of the election of Eleazar b. 
Azariah as nasi these books were declared canonical. 

Ch. iv.: Other verdicts rendered on the same day 
in which the Song of Solomon and Ecclesiastes were 
declared canonical, these rulings being corollaries of 
that decision ($8 1-4); the Aramaic language in 


Ezra and Daniel, the ancient Hebrew writing (“ke- 
tab ‘Ibri”), and dissensions between Pharisees and 
Sadducees (§§ 5-8). 

The Tosefta to this treatise is divided into two 
chapters, and contains, in addition to amplifications 
of the mishnaic sayings, various interesting maxims, 
of which the following may be mentioned: “The 
book of Ben Sira (Ecclesiasticus [Sirach]) and all 
books of later date are no longer canonical” (ii. 18), 
The “ Tobele Shaharit ” (=“ Morning Baptists”; see 
Jew. Encyc. v. 230) said to the Pharisees: “ We re- 
proach you for uttering the Holy Name before your 
bodies have been cleansed of their impurities ” (if. 20), 

J. J. Z. L. 

YAH SHIMEKA: Hymn of five long stanzag 
which forms the introduction to the Kaddish be- 
fore “ Bareku ” in the morning service of the second 
day of New- Year in the ritual of the Sephardim; it 
is signed with the acrostic “ Yehudah,” and is at- 
tributed to Judah ha-Levi (Zunz, “ Literaturgesch.” 
p. 413). The refrain, “ Yishtabbah,” ete., is quoted 
from the Kaddish mentioned, and suggests by its 
rhythm the shaping of the whole hymn in one of the 
favorite rhythmic figures of Arab music. As with 
so many other melodies of the Sephardic tradition, 
and particularly with those for the penitential sea- 
son, its ancient Oriental tune is also utilized for other 
hymns. Such are the verses “Shinannim ” by Solo- 
mon ibn Gabirol, occupying a similar position in the 
Atonement services, and Judah ha-Levi’s other 
hymn, “ Yede rashim,” which takes its place on the 
first day of New- Year, as well as the following Kad- 
dish itself and the more familiar hymns BN KELo- 


YAH SHIMEKA 


Allegretio. 


eee 


a ASSES A 5 SORE 


shim - eka,. & - ro - 


mi = me m=. ka, 


We - ek yo- mer..... YO < Zi .ivassions ho - mer, e- 
De- rash - ti - hu, pe- gash - - ti - hu, le- 
Ha - ba - hir,...... we - or mas -_ hir........ be- 
o--e—— 
le yo - zéro....... : ma ta - ‘a - seh; 
mig - dal ‘oz.... we - zur mah seh; 
en ma- sak.... we - en mik seb; Yish - tab - bah,.... we - 
—_ pir lento. rit, a 
Somes Baa = 
ee ee eg ee eee SM GIS a 
—— 
yit - pa - ’ar, we - yit - ro - mam, we - jit - - - - nas - sé. 


581 


HENU and ADON ‘OLAM at the close of the devotions 
on the samesolemndays. The melody thus becomes 
in the Spanish and Portuguese ritual a “ representa- 
tive theme” forthe New-Year festival. The quaint 
tune presents several antique and Oriental features. 
One is the repetition of the middle phrase as many 
times as the varying length of the texts to which 
it is chanted may render necessary. The presence 
in the same melody of a note sometimes natural 
and sometimes flat is explained by the fact that the 
scale is that of the “immutable system” of the 
ancients (sce Gevaert, “Histoire et Théoric de la 
Musique de |’ Antiquité,” i. 105 eé@ seg.). A very 
similar peculiarity ina parallel melody from Asia 
Minor is exhibited and discussed in Bourgault-Du- 
coudray, “Trente Mélodies Populaires de Gréce et 


d’Oriente,” No. 16. 
A. F. L. C. 


YAHBISENU. See Ne‘Ltan (Hymn Tunss, 1). 


YAHYA: Portuguese family of the Middle 
Ages, members of which were prominent in Portu- 
gal, Spain, Italy, and Turkey. Certain individuals 
of the family bore the additional cognomen “ Negro,” 
with reference to the Moors, from whom several of 
their estates had been obtained. The more promi- 
nent members of the family are as follows: 

1. Yahya ibn Ya‘ish (yy): Flourished in 
Lisbon in the eleventh century; died about 1150. 
He was held in high esteem among the Jews, and 
King Alfonso I. honored him forhiscourage. After 
the conquest of Santarem the king presented him 
with two country houses that had belonged to the 
Moors, wherefore he assumed the name “ Negro.” 

2. Joseph ibn Yahya ha-Zaken: Grandson 
of Yahyaibn Ya‘ish (No. 1); lived in Lisbon in the 
middle of the thirteenth century, and was so wealthy 
that he built a synagogue at his own expense. He 
was the author of a Talmudic commentary that is 
no longer extant. 

3. Solomon ibn Yahya ha-Zaken: Son of 
Joseph ibn Yahya (No. 2); died before 1800. He 
endeavored to check the growing love of luxury 
among his coreligionists, in order that they might 
not incur the hatred and envy of the Christians. 

4. Gedaliah ibn Yahya ha-Zaken ben Solo- 
mon: Body-physician to King Ferdinand until 1370, 
when he lost the favor of his master. He thereupon 
entered the service of Henry of Castile, who made 
him the head of the Jewish communities of his 
realm; and he enjoyed a yearly income of 5,000 gold 
ducats, which sum was levied asa tax. He died at 
a ripe age in Toledo. 

5. Joseph ibn Yahya ben Solomon: Brother 
of Gedaliah (No. 4); famous for his physical beauty 
and also for his poetic ability. Heleft Portugal with 
his brother and settled in Castile. He was the author 
of some liturgical poems, but they were destroyed in 
4conflagration. Joseph wasa pupil of Solomon ben 
Adret, at whose death he wrote an elegy in so-called 
echo rime that has often been reprinted. He de- 
frayed the cost of repairing a synagogue built in 
Calatayud by one of his ancestors, Aaron ibn 

ahya. 

6. David ibn Yahya Negro ben Gedaliah 
(ha-Rab shel Sefarad): A prominent figure dur- 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Yadayim 
Yahya 


ing the war between the kings of Castile and Por- 
tugal. By divulging a secret he succeeded in frus- 
trating the plot of Queen Leonora to murder her 
son-in-law, and as a reward he was appointed chief 
rabbi of Castile, while King Jodo of Portugal dis- 
posed of his estates in that country. At the time of 
his death, which occurred at Toledo in Oct., 1385, 
he held the post of “almoxarife” for King Ferdi- 
nand of Castile. His tombstone has been preserved. 

?. Judah ibn Yahya Negro ben David: Born 
in Toledo in the middle of the fourteenth century. 
Together with his brother Solomon he emigrated to 
Portugal in the year of terror, 1891. Judah was 
employed for a long time in the service of Queen 
Philippa, the consort of Joo I., and he had also con- 
siderable influence with the king. When Vicente 
Ferrer asked permission to carry on a propaganda 
against the Jews in Portugal, the king, at the insti- 
gation of Judah, informed him (Ferrer) that his re- 
quest would be granted on condition that he place a, 
red-hot crown upon hishead. Judah was one of the 
most prominent poets of his time, and wrote several 
elegies deploring the unhappy fate of his Spanish 
brethren. Among these poems may be mentioned: 
(1) an elegy beginning with the words Syeqyry mi 
and written in continuous rime; (2) one beginning 
with the words "3 WRX bx by; (3) an elegy 
on the persecutions of 1319 in Seville, Andalusia, 
Castile, Provence, and Aragon (printed in Lands- 
huth’s “‘Ammude ha-‘Abodah,” p. 80); (4) three 
poems that have been printed in Carmoly’s “ Dibre 
ha-Yamim li-Bene Yahya,” p. 12; (5) an elegy for 
the Ninth of Ab. He was also the author of responsa 
and of several piyyutim; among the latter are a 
hymn to be recited before the prayer 7pNw WA, 
and another which appeared in “ Shekel ha-Kedesh,” 
pp. 67, 68. 

8. Gedaliah ibn Yahya ben Solomon (Mes- 
tre Guedelha Fysicoe Astrologo): Portuguese 
philosopher and astrologer; born in Lisbon about 
1400. Before he was thirty years of age he was ap- 
pointed court astrologer to JoioI. Upon the death 
of that king (1483) the latter’s son Duarte prepared 
for his coronation, but Gedaliah warned him against 
it; and when the prince insisted on assuming the 
crown the astrologer prophesied that his reign would 
be brief and unhappy. Later, when Duarte fell sick 
he attributed hisillness to this evil prophecy, and the 
oppressive measures against the Jews were made 
still more severe, 

9. Solomon ibn Yahya ben David: A per- 
son of prominence during the reign of Alfonso V. of 
Portugal, he and his entire family being admitted at 
court. He was rabbi of the Lisbon community, and 


| forbade his children and relatives to accumulate 


property because he foresaw the coming persecu- 
tions. His death occurred before that of Alfonso V. 

10. Solomon ibn Yahya ben David: Promi- 
nent scholar who was highly honored by Alfonso V. 
He was the father of the author of “Leshon Lim- 
mudim”; he died in Lisbon, where his grave is still 
shown. 

11. Joseph ibn Yahya ben David: Born 
1425; was an intimate friend of Alfonso V., who 
called him “the wise Jew.” He was blamed by the 
king for not dissuading the Jews from indulging 


Yahya 


their love of luxury. When some of the exiled 
Spanish Jews settled in Portugal, they were re- 
garded with disfavor by the Portuguese Jews, and 
Joseph did his best toremove thisanimosity. King 
Joao at the beginning of his reign allowed the Jews 
to settle in the kingdom, and when he endeavored 
later to convert them to Christianity he chose Joseph 
as the first to receive baptism (1495). Joseph 
thereupon fled, together with his sons David Meir 
and Solomon, taking with him 100,000 crusados. 
He cruised in the Mediterranean for some time, and 
finally landed in Castile, where he was sentenced to 
be burned at the stake. Through the intervention 
of Duke Alvarez de Bragan¢a he was permitted to 
continue his journey ; and after a five months’ voy- 
age he landed in Pisa, Italy, where he and his fam- 
ily were put in irons by the troops of Charles VIIL, 
who was about to invest that city. By sacrificing 
enormous sums of money he obtained his liberty, 
and placed himself under the protection of the Duke 
of Ferrara. In the beginning he was well treated, 
but later he was accused of endeavoring to induce 
the Maranos to return to Judaism and was tortured. 
He freed himself from this charge by paying 7,000 
gold pieces, but he died as a result of the tortures he 
had endured (1498). A legend relates that his tomb 
was located near that of the prophet Hosea. It is 
said that a copy of Maimonides’ “ Yad” was made 
for him in 1472 by Solomon ben Alsark, or Alsarkon. 
12. Dinah Yahya: Wife of David ibn Yahya 
ben Joseph (No. 15). Disguised in masculine attire 
she fled from Portugal together with her father-in- 
law and her husband; and during the flight she ab- 
stained from meat, subsisting on bread and water 
only. Arriving in Pisa, she sought refuge from the 
French troops on top of a tower twenty meters high ; 
and when discovered she is said to have leaped to 
the ground without suffering injury. She fled to 
Florence, where she gave birth to her son Joseph, 
13. Gedaliah ibn Yahya ben David: Phi- 
losopher; born in Lisbon 1437; died at Constanti- 
nople in Oct., 1487. He was the author of “Shib‘ah 
‘Enayim,” on the seven cardinal virtues of the Jews, 
which appeared in Constantinople in 1543, and later 
in Venice. During a sojourn in Constantinople he 
advocated a union of the Karaites and Rabbinites. 
14. David ibn Yahya ben Solomon: Born 
1455; died 1528. He was rabbi of the Lisbon com- 
munity in 1476. Accused of inducing the Maranos 
to relapse into Judaism, he was sentenced by King 
Joao JI. tobe burnedat thestake. He fled to Naples 
with his family, but was captured; and he was 
compelled to sell his library in order to secure suffi- 
cient money to purchase his liberty. On hisrelease 
he fled to Corfu, and later went to Larta, where he 
died in extreme poverty. He was the author of a 
Hebrew grammar entitled “Leshon Limmudim,” 
which was published in Constantinople (1506, 1528) 
and in Venice (1542). While at Larta he wrote to 
the wealthy Jew Isaiah Messene, asking his aid; and 
this letter was copied by Joseph David Sinzheim, and 
later published by Gritz (“Gesch.” viii. 482-483). 
According to Carmoly, David was the author of the 
following works also: “Kab we-Naki” (Lisbon, n.d.), 
acommentary onthe Mishnah; aselection of the best 
explanations by various commentators on the Bible 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


582 


(2d ed., Venice, 1518; 4th ed., Salonica, 1522); 
“Shekel ha-Kodesh” (Constantinople, 1520), on the 
rules for Hebrew poetry; “Tehillah le-Dawid,” an 
uncompleted commentary on the Psalms; “ Hilkot 
Terefot ” (¢b. 1520); and a commentary on Maimon- 
ides’ “Moreh,” appended to his above-mentioned 
letter of supplication to Messene. 

15. David ibn Yahya ben Joseph. See JEw. 
Encyc. vi. 553. 

16. Solomon ibn Yahya ben Joseph: A 
Portuguese exile who fled with his family to Pisa. 
He left his relatives and went to Rhodes, where he 
died in 1538. 

17. Meir ibn Yahya ben Joseph: Author of 
apoetic introduction to the “Cuzari” (Fano, 1506), 
He lived at Pisa, and later settled in Oulina (xovdiy), 
Italy, where he died in 1530. 

18. Joseph ibn Yahya ben David. See JEw. 
Encyc. vi. 553. 

19. Judah ibn Yahya ben Joseph: Physi- 
cian; born in Imola, Italy, 1529; died in Bologna 
1560. Hestudied medicine at Padua, and was at the 
same time a pupil of Meir Katzenellenbogen. Re- 
ceiving his medical degree in 1557, he settled as a 
practitioner in Bologna. 

20. David ibn Yahya ben Joseph: President 
of the Jewish community of Naples; died in 1565. 
He was a cousin of David ibn Yahya (No. 14), the 
author of “Leshon Limmudim,” under whom he 
studied, and was the author of a eulogy which ap- 
peared in that work. 

21. Gedaliah ibn Yahya ben Joseph: Tal- 
mudist; born at Imola, Italy, 1515; died, probably 
in Alexandria, about 1587. He studied in the yeshi- 
bah at Ferrara under Jacob Finzi and Abraham and 
Israel Rovigo. In 1549 he settled in Rovigo, where 
he remained until 1562, in which year the burning 
of the Talmud took place in Italy. He then went to 
Codiniola, and three years later to Salonica, whence 
he returned in 1567 to his native town. Expelled 
with other Jews by Pope Pius V., and suffering a 
loss of 10,000 gold pieces, he went to Pesaro, and 
thence to Ferrara, where he remained till 1575. 
During the ensuing eight years he Jed a wandering 
life, and finally settled in Alexandria. Hischief work 
was the “Sefer Shalshelet ha-Kabbalah,” called also 
“Sefer Yahya,” on which he labored for more than 
forty years. This work is not without defects, hav- 
ing suffered either by reason of the author’s itiner- 
ant mode of life or through faulty copying of the 
original manuscript. Its contents are as follows: 
(1) history and genealogy of the Jews from the time 
of Moses until that of Moses Norzi (1587); (2) ac- 
count of the heavenly bodies, Creation, the soul, 
magic, and evil spirits; (8) history of the peoples 
among which the Jews have dwelt, and a descrip- 
tion of the unhappy fate of the author’s coreligionists 
up to his time. The value of this work is, however, 
lessened considerably by the facts that the writer has 
included many oral narratives which he gathered 
partly in his home, partly in Salonica and Alexan- 
dria, and that he often lacks the apility to distin- 
guish truth from fiction. For these reasons the book 
has been called “The Chain of Lies”; but Loeb has 
proved that it is more accurate than many have sup- 
posed it to be. The “Shalshelet ha-Kabbalah ” was 


583 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Yahya 


Yahya ibn Ya‘ish 
(about 1055) 


Judah ae Yahya 


Joseph ibn Yahya ha-Zaken 
(about 1250) 


Solomon ibn Yahya ha-Zaken 
(died rei 1300) 


Gedaliah ibn Yahya ha-Zaken 
(about 1335) 


David ibn Yahya 
(died oe 1385) 


Solomon ibn Yahya 
(died 1430) 


David ibn Yahya 
(about 1450) 


Solomon ibn Yahya Gedaliah ibn Yahya 
(died 1490) (1437-87) 
David ibn Yahya Abigail 

(1455-1528) = Joseph ibn Yahya 


Jacob Tam ibn Yahya 
(about 1475-1542) 


Joseph ha-Rofe ibn Yahya 


Gedaliah ibn Yahya 
( oe 1573) 


ge 1575) 


Moses tbn Moses ibn Jacob Tam 
Yahya Yahya ibn Yahya 


(about 1595) (about 1595) (about 1595) 


Jacob ‘Tam 
ibn Yahya 
(died 1596) 


Gedaliah ibn 
Yahva 
(about 1620) 


Gedaliah ibn Yahya 


(about 1640) 


Judah ibn Yahya 


ate 1610) {about 1615) 


Moses Gedaliah ibn Yahya Noah ibn Yahya 
{about 1650) {about 1650) 


J. 


Joseph ibn Yahya 
(1494-1589) = Abigail 


David ibn Yahya 
(d. 1565) 


Moses ibn Yahya Solomonibn Yahya David ibn Yahya 
(about 1620) 


Joseph ba-Meshorer 
(abuut 1335) 


Solomon ibn Yahya 
(about 1375) 


Judah ha-Meshorer 
(about 1865-1420) 


Gedaliah ibn Yabya 
{about 1400-40) 


Joseph ibn Yahya 
(1425-98) 


| 
David ibn Yabyaha-Dayyan Solomon ibn Yahya Meir ibn Yahya 
(1465-1543) 4 


(1470-1533) (died 1530) 
= Dinah 
Joseph ibn Yahya 

eer 1550) 


Judah ha-Rofe ibn 


Gedaliah ibn Yahya 
3-87 ahya 
(1529-60) 


(1515-87) 


Ahikam ibn Yahya 
(about 1610) 


Joseph ibn Yabya 
(about 1610) 


David ibn Yahya 


Moses ibn Yahya 
(about 1652) 


(about 1645) 


Hana ibn Yahya a daughter 


(about 1625) ” (about 1625) 


Hananeel ibn Yahya 
(about 1650) 


5. O. 


David ibn Yahya 
(about 1650) 


YAHYA PEDIGREE. 


published at Venice, 1587; Cracow, 1596; Amster- 
dam, 1697; Zolkiev, 1802, 1804; Polonnoye, 1814; 
and Lemberg, 1862. 

Gedaliah was the alleged author of twenty-one 
other works, which he enumerates at the end of his 
“Shalshelet,” and which are mentioned also in Ben- 
_Jacob’s “Ozar ha-Sefarim ” (pp. 590-591). 

22. Jacob Tam ibn Yahya ben David: 
Turkish rabbi; lived from about 1475 to 1542. He 
was probably rabbi of Salonica, and was a Talmud- 
istof repute. Benjamin ben Abraham Mutal, in the 
preface to his “ Tummat Yesharim,” mentions Jacob 


Tam as the author of the following works: a 
commentary on Alfasi; the completion of Nissim Ge- 
rondi’s halakot entitled “ Ma‘aseh Nissim”; a com- 
mentary on R. Nissim’s halakot entitled “‘A] ha- 
Nissim ”; controversial writings against R. Nissim; 
Talmudic decisions; and responsa and derashot. 
All these works were destroyed in a fire at Constanti- 
nople. Jacob Tam published Leon ben Massoni’s 
“Sefer Yosippon” (1510), and wrote an opinion of 
Abraham ben Solomon Treves’s “ Birkat Abraham ” 
(1512). He was a member of the rabbinical confer- 
ence which convened in May, 1520, to dissolve the 


Yalput 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


584 


ban placed on Shaltiel, “kahijalik” (* praefectus 
aule”) to Sultan Sulaiman, on account of which 
Shaltiel had been discharged from his office, 

23. Joseph ibn Yahya bar Jacob Tam: 
Born in Constantinople; body-physician to Sultan 
Sulaiman. Joseph was obliged to be in constant at- 
tendance during the sultan’s travels and in time of 
war; and he met his death in battle (1573), The 
poet Saadia Lougo wrote an elegy in Joseph’s honor 
which was printed in the “Seder Zemannim.” Jo- 
seph defrayed the cost of publishing the “Shib‘ah 
‘Enayim,” the “ Leshon Limmudim,” and the “Shek- 
el ha-Kodesb,” a]l written by his ancestors. 

24. Gedaliah ibn Yahya ben Jacob Tam: 
Physician and scholar; born in Constantinople; died 
there 1575. He officiated as rabbi and teacher in 
Salonica and Adrianople until 1548, in which year 
he went to Constantinople and devoted himself to 
Hebrew literature. He left numerous manuscripts, 
several of which are still extant in the Orient. 

25. Tam ibn Yahya ben Gedaliah: Born in 
Constantinople in the middle of the sixteenth cen- 
tury. He inherited a large fortune from his father, 
and used his wealth to promote Jewish literature. 
Upon the death of his father he settled in the neigh- 
borhood of Salonica, where he was intimate with 
several well-known poets, among them Abraham 
Reuben and Saadia Lougo. Hisown literary efforts 
consisted in compiling the commentaries left by his 
forefathers on the writings of Alfasi, R. Nissim, and 
Moses ben Nahman. He completed this task in 
1595, but died before the work was published. 
Eliezer Shoshan and Meir Yizhaki were called to his 
deathbed and entrusted with the task of publishing 
the work, which appeared at Venice in 1622, under 
the title “She’elot u-Teshubot Ohole Shem.” 

26. Moses ibn Yahya ben Gedaliah: Turk- 
ish physician of the latter half of the sixteenth cen- 
tury. He resided in Constantinople, and during an 
epidemic of the plague he not only devoted a large 
part of his fortune to aiding the sufferers, but also 
rendered medical assistance at the risk of his life. 
He was known throughout Turkey for his generous 
hospitality. 

27. Gedaliah ibn Yahya ben Moses: Born 
at Salonica in the latter half of the sixteenth cen- 
tury; son of Mosesibn Yahya (No. 26). He was a 
liberal patron of letters, and gathered about him no 
less than thirty-two littérateurs in order to culti- 
vate Hebrew poetry. Among the most prominent 
members of this circle were Judah Zarka and Israel 
Najara. The names of these poets and some of the 
verses written by them in Gedaliah’s honor have 
been printed in Carmoly’s “ Dibre ha-Yamim.” 

Other members of the Yahya family whose rela- 
tionship to the persons mentioned above has not 
been established are as follows: 

28. Bonsenior ibn Yahya (called also Maestro 
ibn Yahya): Author of a poem on chess, It ap- 
peared first at Mantua (1549) and later in a Latin 
translation at Oxford (1702), Frankfort-on-the-Main 
(1767), and Presburg. 

29. Judah ibn Yahya ben Gedaliah: Italian 
scholar of the eighteenth century; lived in Padua 
andin Venice. Hesought the advice of Meir Katzen- 
ellenbogen with regard to intimate family affairs, 


the incident being mentioned in Meir’s responsa 

(No. 58). 

30. Reuben ibn Yahya ben Solomon Hez- 
ekiah: Born in Lugo, Italy, at the close of the 
seventeenth century. He wasa pupil of Isaac Fano, 
and was appointed rabbi of Lugo during the lifetime 
of his teacher. He was the author of a haskamah 
which appears in the preface to Lampronti’s “ Pahad 
Yizhak.” 

31. Samuel ibn Yahya: Rabbi in Amsterdam 
in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries; author 
of “Trinta Discursos” (Amsterdam, 1629), thirty 
sermons in Spanish. 

32. Solomon ibn Yahya: A Portuguese exile 
who settled in Ancona, where he was burned at the 
stake by order of Pope Paul IV. 

33. Zerahiah ibn Yahya: Scholar of Lugo, 
Italy; flourished about 1780. In his latter years 
he held the office of ab bet din in his native town. 
He is mentioned in Lampronti’s “Pahad Yizhak” 
(iii. 20a). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zunz, Z. G. pp. 223, 233, 381, 394, 409, 461, 465, 
499, 531; idem, G. V. p. 434; De Rossi, Dizionario; Luzzatto, 
Prolegomena, p. 35; Geiger, Melo Chofnajim, p. 72; Con- 
forte, Kore ha-Dorot, ed. Cassel; AZulai, Shem ha-Gedolim, 
i. 92; ii. 11, 15, 38, 46; Orient, Lit. vii. 542, 561; xii. 455; 
Jost’s Annalen, ii. 26; Carmoly, Histoire des AMlédecins 
Juifs, pp. 123, 164, Brussels, 1844; Ersch and Gruber, Eneye. 
ii; xxxi. 60, 80; Nepi-Ghirondi, Toledot Gedole Yisrael, pp. 
132, 148, 149; Dukes, Nahal Kedumim, p. 58; Gedaliah ibn 
Yahya, Shaishelet ha-Kabbalah; Delitzseh, Zur Geséh. der 
Jiidischen Poesie, pp. 8, 67, 70, 76, 77, 158, 174; Bass, Sifte 
Yeshenim, ed. Zolkiey, 1800, p. 18d; J. Loeb, in R. HJ. xvii. 
93-95; Frankel, in Zeitschrift fiir die Religidsen Iiteressen 
des Judenthums, ii. 78; Reifmann, in Ha-Maggid, 1864, viii. 
190-191; Heor. Bibl. ii. 110, vi. 458-459, xvi. 40; Manasseh 
ben Israel, Nishmat Hayyim, iii. 21; Landshuth, *Ammaude 
ha-‘Abodah, xxx.; Carmoly, Dibre ha-Yamim li-Bene Yah- 
ya, Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1850; Kayserling, Gesch. der Ju- 
den in Portugal; idem, Bibl. Esp.-Port.-Jud. p. dda; Stein- 
schneider, Cat. Bod. cols. 804, 864-866, 10U2, 1475-1476, 2426- 
2407, 2665; idem, Schach bet den Juden. 

J. 8. O. 

YA‘ISH, DAVID B. ABRAHAM IBN: Rep- 
resentative of the community of Seville and contem- 
porary of Asher b. Jehiel. He was probably a 
brother of Solomon b. Abraham ibn Ya‘ish and the 
father of the Solomon b. David ibn Ya‘ish mentioned 
by Judah b, Asher (“ Zikron Yehudah,” p. 12a). 
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Ibn Verga, Shebet Yehudah, pp. 18, 31; Gratz, 

Gesch. vii. 541 et seq.; Steinschneider, Hebr. Uebers. pp. €86, 

989: Hebr. Bibl. vi. 115 (on the identity), xvii. 119, xix. 98 et 

seq.; Jost’s Annatlen, i, 281, 302; Asher b. Jehiel, Responsa, 

Nos. 18, 2; 18, 1. 

D, M. K. 


YAKIM. See ALcIMUS. 


YAKINI, ABRAHAM. Sce ABRAHAM H4- 
YAKINI, 

YAKKAR BEN SAMUEL HA-LEVI I.: 
German scholar of the eleventh century; lived fora 
short time in Speyer. He wasa pupil of Kalony- 
mus of Rome, and questions addressed by him to 
Kalonymus have been preserved (“Shibbole ha- 
Leket,” viii.); several of these referred to a custom 
observed among the Jews of Speyer only. The 
same subject is treated by Mordecai (“ B. M.” ix.). 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Kohn, Mordekai hen Hitlel, pp. 126, 127, and 

notes, Breslau, 1878; Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, pp. 669-670; 

Gross, Gallia Judaica, p. d67. 

E, C. 5. O. 

YAKKAR BEN SAMUEL HA-LEVI II.: 
German scholar and liturgical poet of the second 
half of the thirteenth century ; flourished in Cologne 


585 


and in Mayence. He wasrelated to Meir of Rothen- 
purg, in whose responsa he is several times men- 
tioned; and he was a pupil of R. Jehiel of Paris. 
His marginal glosses to Abot are still preserved in 
manuscript. He was, besides, the author of the 
following liturgical poems: a “yozer” for a Sab- 
path festival; an “ofan”; a “zulat,” poem to be 
sung before the recital of the “Shemoneh ‘Esreh ” ; 
a “ Kedushshah,” to be sung at the repetition of the 
“Shemoneh ‘Esreh”; a zulat, poem beginning 
with the words “ Ezkerah Elohim” and meant for 
the Sabbath following the 20th of Tammuz, in 
memory of the martyrs of Pforzheim, 1267; a 
Kedushshah, poem in eleven lines, with continu- 
ous rime; a “Ge’ullah” of three cantos, each con- 
sisting of two stanzas of five lines; and an elegy 
on Zion, in which the author’s name is twice men- 
tioned. As Yakkar and his father, Samuel ben Abra- 
ham, fel] victims in the butchery of 1271, the zulat 
in memory of the Pforzheim martyrs must have 
been written shortly before his death. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zunz, S. P. p. 32; idem, Biteraturgesch. pp. 
487-488 ; idem,-Z. G. pp. 100, 101, 105, 193; Landshuth, *.4m- 
mude ha-‘Abodah, p. 182; Gross, Gallia Judaica, pp. 566- 
568; Kohn, Mordekat ben Hillel, pp. 127-128; Fuenn, Ketie- 
set Yisrael, p. 6.0, 

B.C, Ss. O. 

YALKUT (“Compilation ”); called also Yalkut 
Shim ‘oni (“The Compilation of Simeon”): A hag- 
gadic compilation on the books of the Old Testa- 
ment. From such olderhaggadotas were accessible 
to him, the author collected various interpretations 
and explanations of Biblical passages, and arranged 
these according to the sequence of those portions of 
the Bible to which they referred. The individual 
elucidations form an organic whole only in so far as 
they refer to the same Biblical passage. 
Lengthy citations from aucient works 
are often abridged or are only partially 
quoted, the remainder being cited elsewhere. Since 
the interpretations of the ancient exegetes usually 
referred to several passages, and since the Yalkut 
endeavored to quote all such explanations, repeti- 
tions were inevitable, and haggadic sayings relating 
to two or more sections of the Bible were often 
duplicated. In many instances, however, only the 
beginning of such an explanation is given, the 
reader being referred to the passage in which it is 
recorded in its entirety. 

The work is divided into sections, which are num- 
bered from Genesis to the end of Deuteronomy, and 
are numbered anew from the beginning of Joshua, 
the first non-Pentateuchal book, so that the Yalkut 
falls into two parts. The first division treats of the 
Pentateuch and contains 963 sections, of which 


Contents. 


§$ 1-162 relate to Genesis; $3 163-427 to Exodus; 


8$ 428-682 to Leviticus; $$ 683-788 to Numbers; 
and §§ 789-968 to Deuteronomy. The second part 
deals with the non-Pentateuchal books (the Prophets 
and the Hagiographa), and contains 1,085 sections. 
In this part the redactor followed the Talmudic 
order of the prophetic books (B. B. 14b), 8§ 1-252 
being devoted to the first prophets (Joshua, 
Samuel, and Kings); §§ 258-835 to Jeremiah; &&§ 
336-384 to Ezekiel; $3 885-514 to Isaiah; &§ 515-595 
to the twelve minor prophets; §& 596-609 to Ruth; 
8$ 610-890 to Psalms; §§ 891-928 to Job; &§ 929- 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Yahya 
Yalkut 


965 to Proverbs; §§ 966-979 to Ecclesiastes; §3 980- 


994 to The Song of Solomon; §§ 995-1043 to Lamen- 
tations; §§ 1044-1059 to Esther; §§ 1060-1066 to 
Daniel; §§ 1067-1071 to Ezra and Nehemiah; and 
$$ 1072-1085 to Chronicles. 

In the arrangement of the Hagiographa the author 
deviates from the Talmudic order (B. B. /.c.) by 
placing Esther before Daniel, while the reverse order 
is followed in the Talmud. The division into sec- 
tions is arbitrary, and the sections are very unequal 
in length; Deut. 818, for example, in the Wilna edi- 
tion containing only five lines, while Deut. 938 

comprises eighteen columns. In _ his 

Order and exegesis of euch passage, often in the 
Arrange- text itself, the author indicates the 
ment. sources from which his explanations 
are derived, In the Salonica edition 

they are given at the beginning of each correspond- 
ing Biblical passage, although in later editions 
they were placed in the margin. In many in- 
stances, bowever, the sources are given in an incon- 
venient place or are entirely eliminated ; while some 
references are even indicated by a later redactor, as, 
for example, Job 921, where the source (Ex. R.) isa 
later addition, the original redactor being unac- 
quainted with Exodus Rabbah (comp. Epstein, 
“Rabbi Shimeon Kara weha-Yalkut Shim‘oni,” in 
“ Ha-Hoker,” i. 187). The sources embrace not only 
the major portion of halakicand haggadic literature 
during the ancient and geonic epochs, but also the 
haggadic literature as late as the twelfth century, 
The author made use of the older midrashic works, 
such as Seder ‘Olam, Sifra, Sifre, Sifre Zuta, Me- 
kilta, the Baraita on the Thirty-two Middot, the Ba- 
raita on the Forty-nine Middot, and 
the Baraita on the Erection of the Tab- 
ernacle (“ Meleket ha-Mishkan ”); and 
he availed himself also of the Mishnah, both Tal- 
mudim, and Semahot, Fallah, and Soferim. He 
drew from the ethicai and historical Haggadah, 
such as Abot de-Rabbi Natan, Tanna debe Eliyahu 
(Rabbah and Zuta), Derek Erez, Masseket Gan 
‘Eden, Midrash Wayissa‘u, the Chronicle of Moses, 
and the Midrash on the Death of Moses. The author’s 
chief source, however, was the explanatory mid- 
rashim, such as the rabbot on Pentateuch (with the 
exception of Exodus Rabbah), Pesikta, Pesikta Rab- 
bati, Yelammedenu, Tanhuma, Debarim Zuta, Mid- 
rash Abba Gorion, Esfa, Tadshe, Abkir, Pirke 
Rabbi Eli‘ezer, and the midrashim on Samuel, 
Psalms, Proverbs, and Job. The latter works are 
often cited simply as “ Midrash,” without any more 
definite identification. In that portion of the Yalkut 
which treats of the books of Samuel, Psaims, and 
Proverbs, the term “ Midrash” designates the mid- 
rash on the respective books, The term “ Midrash ” 
is used also to indicate the source of passages 
which belong to older or more recent works. In 
these few instances the author was apparently cither 
uncertain of his references or he used an older col- 
lection known under the name of “ Midrash,” but 
did not have access to the original documents. It 
must also be borne in mind that the redactor failed 
to use various sources, such as the Midrash on the 
Ten Commandments and the Midrash on the Death of 
Aaron, and that he likewise ignored the Targumim 


- Sources. 


Yalkut 
Yarmouth 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


586 


and writings relating to esoteric doctrines, with the 
exception of the “Otiyyot de-R. Akiba,” to which 
he alludes in Gen. 1., § 1. 

The author of the Yalkut can not be determined 
with certainty. The title-page of the Venice edition 
ascribes the composition of the work to R. Simeon 
of Frankfort, “the chief of exegetes” (“rosh ha- 
darshanim ”), and this was accepted by Conforte and 
Azulai, who called him Simeon Ash- 
kenazi of Frankfort. Rapoport (in 
“Kerem Hemed,” vii. 7 et seg.), on the 
other hand, maintained that R. Simeon 
(the father of R. Joseph Kara), who flourished in the 
eleventh century, was its author; but this assertion 
ig untenable since the compiler of the Yalkut used 
midrashim of a later date. If the Yalkut was so 
old, moreover, it would be difficult to explain why 
no mention of it is made by R. Nathan b. Jehiel, the 
author of the “‘Aruk,” or by Rashi. All the proofs 
advanced by Rapoport have been refuted by Ep- 
stein, who inclines to agree with Zunz that the au- 
thor of the Yalkut flourished in the early part of the 
thirteenth century. According to Zunz, the work 
was written by R. Simeon Kara, who lived in south- 
ern Germany at that period, and the title “ ha-Dar- 
shan” was bestowed upon him probably at a later 
date. It is certain thata manuscript of the Yalkut, 
mentioned by Azariah dei Rossi, existed in 1310 
(comp. Zunz, “G. V.” pp. 295-308); but despite 
this, there is scarcely any allusion to the work dur- 
ing the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. This 
may be ascribed, however, to the unhappy position 
of the German Jews and to the repeated persecu- 
tions of the period; for peace and prosperity were 
necessary for the copying of so extensive a work, and 
the Jews of Germany had neither. After the begin- 
ning of the fifteenth century, on the other hand, the 
work must have been disseminated in foreign coun- 
tries, for it was used by Spanish scholars of the latter 
half of that century, Isaac Abravanel being the first, 
to mention it (comp. Epstein, l.c. p. 184). 

The editio princeps of the Yalkut was printed in 
Salonica in 1521, the latter part of the work, rela- 
ting to the Prophets and the Hagiographa, ap- 
pearing first. The part treating of the Penta- 
teuch appeared between 1526 and 1527, and the 
entire work was later published in Venice (1566) 
with certain emendations and deviations from the 
Salonica edition. All later texts are 
merely reprints of the Venetian edi- 
tion, with the exception of one pub- 
lished at Leghorn (1650-59), which contained addi- 
tions and corrections as well as a commentary by R. 
Abraham Gedaliah. The latest text (Wilna, 1898) is 
based on fhe editions of Lublin, Venice, and Leghorn, 
and contains foot-notes giving the sources, a glos- 
sary of difficult words, and an index of the chapters 
and verses of Biblical passages. To this edition is 
appended a brief commentary by Abraham Abele 
Gumbiner of Kalisz entitled “ Zayit Ra‘anan.” 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zunz, G. V. pp. 295-308; Rapoport, in Kerem 
Hemed, vii. 4 et seq.; Abraham Epstein, Rabbi Shimeon 
Kara weha-Yalkut Shim‘oni, in Ha-Hoker, i. 85-93, 1 
137: Schiirer, Gesch. 3d ed., i. 146. 

J J. Z. L. 


YANNAI: Palestinian amora of the third cen- 
tury; father-in-law of Ammi. According to his 


Author 
and Date. 


Editions. 


own statement, he had a grandson of the same name 
(Hul. 111a). He is knownas having taken part in 4 
controversy regarding the succession of the writings 
of King Solomon, he himself maintaining that the 
book Kohelet is the last one written by him (Cant. 
R. i. 1). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bacher, Ag. Pal. Amor. ii. 145a, iii, 573-574 ; 

Heilprin, Seder ha-Dorot, ii. 116d. 

J. Ss. O. 

YANNAI: First payyetan to employ rime and 
introduce his name in acrostics; flourished, proba- 
bly in Palestine, in the first half of the seventh cen- 
tury. He was apparently a very prolific poet, for 
reference is made to “the liturgical poems of 
Yannai”; he is also said to have composed “ke- 
robot ” for the “ orders of the year” (perhaps for the 
weekly lessons). Most of his poems are lost; some 
are perhaps still extant, but they can not be rec- 
ognized with certainty as Yannai’s work. The fol- 
lowing fragments alone remain to show his style: 

lL. p’nOM Ws IN: A “kerobah” for Sabbath 
ha-Gadol. It is said to include also D°D) 317 IN 
aob5 nebpn., found in the Pesah Haggadah. 

2. po NO TUN DY! Tw: A “shib‘ata” 
for the seventh day of Pesah. The middle portion 
ismissing. It isdesignated as Ww (this reading 
must be substituted for the senseless win 7D in the 
superscription), 7.¢e., “ bolt” or “ beam ” (dpésoc, other- 
wise called wt"), and forms a sort of textual varia- 
tion of Canticles, following the conception and in- 
terpretation of that book in the Midrash. 

3. DIINDS tS wn: A “silluk” for Sabbath 
Shim‘u, 7.e., the second Sabbath before the Ninth 
of Ab. 

Yannai, like his predecessor Jose b. Jose, is not 
as obscure in his vocabulary and in his metaphors as 
is Kalir, whois said to have been Yannai’s pupil and 
to have been killed by his master out of jealousy. 
The extant examples of Yannai’s work do not indi- 
cate any great poetic talent, 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Rapoport, in Bikkure ha-‘Ittim, 1829, p. 111; 
idem, in Kerem Hemed, 1841, vi. 25; Luzzatto, Mebo, p. 10; 
Zunz, Literaturgesch. D. 28; Landshuth, *Ammude ha-’ Abo- 
dah, p. 102; Harkavy, Studien und Mittheilungen, v. 106; 
S. A. Wertheimer, Ginze Yerushalayim, ii. 18b. 

D. H. B. 

YANNATI (known also as Yannai Rabbah = 
“the Great”): Palestinian amora of the first genera- 
tion (2d and 3d cent.). A genealogical chart found 
at Jerusalem traced his descent from Eli (Yer. 
Ta‘an. iv. 2; Gen. R. xcviii, 13). Yannai was very 
wealthy; he is said to have planted four hundred 
vineyards (B. B. 14a) and to have given an orchard 
to the public (M. K. 12b). His first residence was 
at Sepphoris (Yer. Ber. iv. 6 et ai.), where he seems 
to have held a public office, since at the death of R. 
Judah ha-Nasi I. (Rabbi) he gave an order that 
even priests might attend the funeral of the great 
teacher (2). iii, 1). Halevy, however, has concluded 
that Yannai always lived at ‘Akbarah, or ‘Akbari, 
where he established a school (see below). 

Yannai was prominent both as halakist and hag- 
gadist. He was a pupil of Rabbi, in wnose name he 
transmitted several halakic sayings(Yer. Hag. iii. 2; 
Yer. Kid. iii. 14; et al.). The best known of his se- 
nior fellow pupils was Hiyya Rabbah, who, as an as- 
sistant teacher in Rabbi’s schoo), sometimes acted a3 


587 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Yalkut 
Yarmouth 


Yannai’s tutor (Yer. Dem. vii. 1; Yeb. 98a). But 
several discussions between Hiyya and Yannai (Yer. 
Ber. iv. 5, and Babli yass7?m) show the real relation- 
ship. Their friendship was afterward cemented by 
the marriage of Yannai’s daughter to Hiyya’s son 


Judah (Yer. Bik. iii. 3; Ket. 62b). Yannai transmit- | 


ted also some halakot in the name of the council (“ ha- 
purah ”) of the last tannaim (Mak. 21b), He estab- 
lished an important school at ‘Akbarah (Yer. ‘Er. 
viii. 4), often mentioned in both Talmuds and in the 
Midrash as the “debe R. Yannai” or the “ bet R. Yan- 
nai,” and which continuedafterhisdeath. Hisschool 
differed from others in that the pupils were treated 
as belonging to the master’s family; they worked on 
Yannai’s estate, took their share of the 
revenue, and lived under his roof 
(comp. Yer. Sheb. viii. 6). His chief 
pupil, of whom hethought highly, was 
R. Johanan, who transmitted most of his halakot 
(Yer. Kil. viii. 1; Sotah 18b; Kid. 64b). Others of 
his many pupils were Simeon b. Lakish (Yer. Yoma 
iii. 10; Ta‘an. ii. 6; Hul. 82a), R. Aibu (Kid. 19), and 
R. Hoshaiah (et. '79a),. 

In regard to the Mishnah of Rabbi he shared the 
opinion of Hiyya. In fact, Yannai ascribed no 
greater authority to the Mishnah than to the collec- 
tions of halakot or baraitot compiled by Hiyya and 
other disciples of Rabbi (comp. Yer. Pes. i. 5; Yer. 
Yoma iv. 2). When his pupil R. Johanan remarked 
that the Mishnah rendered a decision different from 
his, he answered, “The Mishnah gives only the de- 
cision of a single tanna, while I decide conformably 
to the Rabbis as a whole” (Shab. 140a). He was in- 
dependent in his decisions, and sometimes had all his 
contemporaries against him (Yer. Niddah iii. 4; Shab. 
65a). His decisions were generally rigid as regards 
private persons (Yer. Ber. ii.6; Yer. Ket. i. 10; Shab. 
14a), but liberal when the whole community was con- 
eerned. Yannai’s disregard of R. Judah Nesi’ah (Ju- 
dah II.), Rabbi’s grandson, was notorious (B. B. 111a, 
b), and so was his attitude toward R. Hanina, an 
ardent believer in Rabbi’s Mishnah (Yer. Kil. ix. 7; 
Ber. 80a; e¢ al.). Referring to Hanina, Yannai said, 
“He who studies the Law under only one teacher sees 
no sign of blessing ” (‘Ab. Zarah 19a). 

Yannai is conspicuous in both Talmud and Mid- 
rash as a prolific haggadist, and he occupies an im- 

portant place among the Biblical exe- 
His getes of his time. In reference to a 
Haggadah. man who studied much but did not 
fear God, he said: “Wo to the man 
who, before he gets a house, makes the door ” (Shab. 
3lb). He recommended submission to the govern- 
ment (Zeb. 102a; Men. 98a). When old age had im- 
paired his sight he requested Mar ‘Ukba tosend him 
some collyrium prepared by Samuel (Shab. 108b). 
He enjoined his children to bury him neither in 
white nor in black clothes, as they would not know 
Whether his place would be in paradise or in hell 
(Shab. 114a; Yer. Kil. ix. 4). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY : Bacher, Ag. Fal. Amor. i, 35-47; Frankel, 
ebo, p. 108a, b, Breslau, 1870; Gratz, Geach. 3d ed., iv.; Ha- 
levy, Dorot ha-Rishonim, ii. 273-282; Heilprin, Seder ha- 
Dorot, ii.; Weiss, Dor, iii. 50, 51. 
Q. M. SE1.. 


YANNAI BEN ISHMAEL: Palestinian 
amora of the third century; « contemporary of 


His 
School. 


Ze‘era and of Abba bar Kahana. There exist a few 
halakot transmitted in his name, among them one re- 
ferring to the prayer “Shomea‘ Tefillah” (Ta‘an. 14a). 
A question, likewise referring to the “Shemoneh 
‘Esreh,” is addressed to Yannai by Ze‘era through 
R. Nahum (Yer. Ber. 5a). R. Zerikan quotes a ha- 
lakah in the name of Yannai, referring to the circum- 
cision of slaves (Yer. Yeb. 8d). Several haggadot 
of Yannai’s have been preserved, among which may 
be mentioned one treating of Adam’s meeting with 
the angels (B. M. 86b), anda farewell address based 
on the verse Judges i. 15 (Sotah 46b). Once, during 
an illness, Yannai was visited by Ze‘era and Abba bar 
Kahana (Yer. Ter, 45c), with the latter of whom he 
engaged in a controversy relating to Solomon’s plan- 
tations. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bacher, 4g. Pal. Amor, ili. 572-578 ; Heilprin, 
Seder ha-Dorot, ti. 11fa; Frankel, Mebo, p. 1038b; Yuhkasin, 
ed. Filipowski, p. 15b. 

J. 8. O. 

YANNAI THE YOUNGER: Palestinian 
amora of the fourth generation; called “the Young- 
er” (“ze‘era”) to distinguish him from Yannai 
b. Ishmael. When his father-in-law died Yan- 
nai was exempted from the priestly laws of 
purity in order that he might attend to the inter- 
ment of the dead (Yer. Ber. 6a; Yer. Naz. 6i). A 
sentence treating of the importance of an oath and 
how it is to be made has been preserved in Lev. R. 
vi. It appears that at Yannai’s funeral his pupils 
did not follow current customs, for which reason 
they were reproved by KR. Mani (Yer. M. K. 82c). 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bacher, Ag. Pal. Amor. ii. 442, note 5; tii. 

, 623; Frankel, Mebo, pp. 108b-104a; Heilprin, Seder ha- 

Dorot, p. 116d. 

J. 8. O. 

YARHI, ABRAHAM. See ABRAHAM BEN 
NATHAN, 

YARMOUTH: Seaport of Norfolk, England. 
Jews must have resided in this town at an early 
date. In the Lansdowne MS. under date of 1280 
mention is made of a certain Ysaac de Gernemutha, 
and in “Hebrew Deeds” (“Shetarot ”), edited by M. 
D. Davis, there is an allusion to one Isaac of Yar- 
mouth who resided at Norwich. Row 42 has been 
known traditionally as Jews’ or Synagogue Row, and 
in 1847 a synagogue which had been erected there 
was consecrated by Rev. M. B. Levy of the Brighton 
congregation, the building taking the place of an 
older one which had become dilapidated. In 1877 
the synagogue was closed in consequence of the 
decrease in the Jewish population, and it is at pres- 
ent used asa parish mission-room. For some time 
after its closing, services were held at the house of 
Michael Mitchell. The first minister was probably 
Rabbi I. Cohen; the second was Levi Levenberg, 
who died in 1870. 

A plot of land for a cemetery was granted by the 
town council on April 7, 1801, on the petition of 
Simon Hart, a silversmith, who had resided in Yar- 
mouth for forty years and who was the first to be - 
interred there, in the following year. Thecemetery 
is in the Alma road and contains sixteen tombstones 
and one headstone, all bearing inscriptions in He- 
brew or English. 

Among other relics of former days existing in the 
parish church are an illuminated Hebrew scroll of 


Yarmuk 
Year-Book 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


588 


Esther, said to date back to the end of the fifteenth 
century; a copy of the Yosippon in pointed charac- 
ters and printed at Basel in 1541; and a Hebrew and 
Latin Bible printed at Antwerp in 1584. on 

J. _ E, 


YARMUK (modern Shari‘at al-Manadirah) : 
River of Palestine; its various sources rise in the 
mountains of Hauran and Jaulan; it flows generally 
west and empties into the Jordan four English 
miles south of the Lake of Gennesaret. Although 
it is narrow and shallow throughout its course, at 
its mouth it is nearly as wide as the Jordan, meas- 
uring thirty feet in breadth and five in depth. The 
Matthew Bridge, which crosses the Yarmuk at its 
confluence with the Jordan, and which is built of 
volcanic stones, is celebrated. According to R. Jo- 
hanan, the Yarmuk was the second largest river in 
Palestine (B. B. '74b), but its water was not to be 
used for the water of atonement with the ashes of 
the red heifer (Parah viii. 10). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sepp, Jerusalem und das Heilige Lana, ii. 
287 et seq., Regensburg, 1876; Sehwartz, Palestine, p. 53, 
Philadelphia, 1850; Neubauer, G. T. p. 31; Ritter, Compara- 
tive Geography of Palestine, ii. 299 ef seq. 

E.G. H. S. O. 

YAROSLAV (JAROSLAW): Town in Gali- 
cia, known as one of the principal seats of the 
Counct, oF Four Lanps. The fair of Yaroslav, 
at which the Council decided matters regarding the 
various communities, and at which also the heads of 
yeshibot used to discuss Talmudic themes (“shit- 
tot”) with their pupils, was held toward the end of 
the summer, It is Known that in the second half 
of the seventeenth century Yaroslav began to 
supplant the other towns with regard to the Coun- 
cil of Four Lands; so that Moses Hagiz, in his “ Mish- 
nat Hakamim,” No. 849, mentions only the Yaroslav 
fair, where the rabbis used to assemble once every 
three years. In 1671 the Council decided to meet 
ina place a few miles from Yaroslav, as the town 
was deemed unsafe; but the decision was soon re- 
voked. It was at the fair of Yaroslav that the 
Council gave judgment in the eighteenth century in 
the dispute between Jonathan Eybeschiitz and Jacob 
Emden, Among other important acts of the Coun- 
cil was the giving of approbations of literary works, 
and many of these were issued at Yaroslav. Thus, 
in the autumn of 1677, under the presidency of 
Issachar Biirusch b. Héschel, at this town, permis- 
sion was granted to print Jekuthiel Blitz’s German 
translation of the Bible; and on the eighth of Tishri, 
5452 (= Oct. 1, 1691), under the presidency of Léb 
Hasid, a similar approbation was granted for the 
Midrash Rabbah. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Friedberg, Luhot Zikkaron, pp. 17, 36, 65, 
et passim 3 Gritz, Gesch. 3d ed., ix., note 9; x. 51; Schudt, 
Jiidische Merehwitrdigkeiten, i. 209. 

H. R, M. SEL. 


YASHAR, SEFER HA-: One of the latest 
works of the midrashic Haggadah; known also 
under the titles “Toledot Adam” and “ Dibre ha- 
Yamim he-‘Aruk.” It is written in correct and 
fluent Hebrew, and treats of the history of the Jews 
from the time of Adam to that of the Judges. Three- 
fourths of the work is devoted to the pre-Mosaic 
period, one-fifth to the Mosaic period, and only three 
pages to later history. In his endeavors to explain 


all Biblical subjects the author invented entire nar- 
ratives, interweaving them with certain passages 
of the Bible. 

Among such narratives and additions originating 
with the author may be especially mentioned an ex- 
planation of the murder of Abel by 
Cain, and also an extended and ingen- 
ious genealogy of the descendants of 
Shem, Ham, and Japheth. In this genealogy the 
origin of Seir, which Ibn Ezra states to be shrouded 
in obscurity, is explained by the assertion that Seir 
was the son of Hur, the grandson of Hori, and the 
great-grandson of Cainan. The life of Abraham is — 
described at great length, the account beginning 
with his birth and the appearance of the star (viii. 
1-85), and including the smallest details, such as, 
for example, his two journeys to his son Ishmael 
(xxi, 22-48). Similar minuteness is displayed with 
regard to the last days of Sarah and her funeral, 
which, according to the author, was attended not 
only by Shem, Eber, Aner, Eshkol, and Mamre, but 
also by Canaanitish kings with their retinues (xxii. 
41-44), The enumeration of the doctrines which the 
three Patriarchs received through Shem and Eber 
also occupies considerable space; and the life of Jo- 
seph is depicted in an especially bnpressive manner 
(xXXvil.—xll.). 

In connection with the different “ blessings ” which 
Jacob before his death gave to his sons, the author 
depicts the bloody warfare waged between the 
kings of Canaan and the sonsof Israel on account of 
the violation of Dinah, the war ending with the vic- 
tory of Israel (xxxiv.-xxxv.). In the history of the 
sojourn of the Israelites in Egypt and of their exo- 
dus from that country are also interwoven several 
legends, though these lack the completeness that 
marks the narratives of the pre-Mosaic history (part 
ii.\. The author, moreover, gives an entire song of 
Joshua, which is merely indicated in the book of 
that prophet (x. 18); but this consists only of Bib- 
lical passages artistically put together. 

In the compiling of the work the following sources 
were made use of, namely: the Babylonian Talmud; 
Bereshit Rabbah; Pirke R. Eliezer; 
the Yalkut; the Chronicle of Moses; 
Yosippon; Midrash Abkir; and various 
Arabic legends. As to the place and time of the 
work’s origin various legendary accounts are given 
in the preface of the first edition (Naples, 1552). 

In 1750 the London printer Thomas Ilive issued 
an English translation of the work, asserting that he 
had published the real “ Book of Yashar” mentioned 
in the Bible; and in 1828 the London “Courier” 
(Nov. 8) reported that a man from Gazan in Persia, 
by name Alcurin (Noah has “ Alcuin”), had discov- 
ered the book named after Joshua, and brought it 
with him to London. Eleven days later (Nov. 19) 
a Jew of Liverpool named Samuel reported in the 
same paper that he was working on a translation of 

this work, which he had obtained in 


Contents. 


Sources. 


Modern North Africa. Zunz thereupon found 
Transla- himself compelled to assert, in the 
tions. “Berliner Nachrichten” of Nov. 29, 


1828, that the work mentioned was the 
same as that published in Naples in 1552 or 1613; 
and in his “Gottesdienstliche Vortriige,” 1832, the 


589 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Yarmuk 
Year-Book 


a 


same author declared that the book originated in 

Spain in the twelfth century. That Italy, however, 

was the land of its origin seems evident from the 

author’s knowledge of Italian names, as Tuscany, 

Lombardy, and the Tiber (x. 7-86), and also from 

the description of the rape of the Sabines (xvii. 

1-14). The appearance of Arabic names, such as 

Sa‘id, Allah, Abdallah, and Khalif, only tends to 

show that the book was written in southern Italy, 

where Arabic influence was strongly felt even in the 
eleventh century. 

The “ Yashar” has appeared in the following edi- 
tions: Naples, 1552; Venice, 1625; Cracow, 1628; 
Prague, 1668; Frankfort-on-the-Main, 
1706; Amsterdam, 1707; Constanti- 
nople, 1728; Firth, 1768; Koretz, 
1785; Frankfort-on-the-Oder, 1789; Grodno, 1795; 
Lemberg, 1816 and 1840; Warsaw, 1846; Wilna, 
1848; Lemberg, 1850; Wilna, 1852; Warsaw, 1858. 
It was translated into Judeo-German by Jacob ha- 
Levi, and published with various annotations and 
Arabic glosses (Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1674; Sulz- 
bach, 1788). A Latin version by Johann G. Abicht 
appeared in Leipsic in the middle of the eighteenth 
century under the title “ Dissertatio de Libro Recti.” 
The work was first translated into English by Thomas 
Ilive, as mentioned above, and later by M. M. Noah 
under the title “The Book of Yashar” (New York, 
1840). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: The passages mentioned in this article refer to 
the New York edition, since the Hebrew editions are not di- 
vided into either chapters or paragraphs. See also Zunz, 
G. V. 2d ed., pp. 162-165 and notes; Carmoly, in Jost’s An- 
nalen, 1839, i., No. 19, pp. 149-150; M. M. Noah, in preface to 
The Book of Yashar, New York. 1840; Benjacob, Ozar_ha- 


Sefarim, p. 233; First, Bibl. Jud. ii. 111; Israel Lévi, Une 
Anecdote sur Pharaon, in R. E. J. xviii. 180. 


Editions. 


J. Ss. O. 
YATES PEDIGREE. See SAMUEL AND YATES 
PEDIGREE. 


YATES, BENJAMIN ELIAKIM. First min- 
ister of the congregation at Liverpool, England; died 
there 1798. He was the elder son of Eliakim Getz 
(Goetz) of Strelitz, and he himself also appears to 
have been a native of Strelitz. On going to Eng- 
land he became an itinerant seal-engraver, and prob- 
ably settled in one of the southwestern counties. 
Subsequently he located in Liverpool, where he be- 
came an engraver and working jeweler; and with 
this calling he combined that of minister or rabbi of 
the infant Liverpool congregation, acting also as 
hazzan, shohet, and mohel. His residence, at 109 
Frederick street, is believed to have been the first 
regular synagogue of the Liverpool Jews. Itssmall 
garden was used as a burial-ground, and Benjamin 
Yates was the last person interred in it. 

After Benjamin’s death his younger brother, 
Samuel, settled in Liverpool, probably in order to 
manage the engraving and jewelry business left by 
his brother, and to look after the latter’s young and 
helpless family. Samuel Yates became, by his mar- 
riage with Martha Abrahams, of Shaftesbury, Som- 
ersetshire, a progenitor of the leading families of the 
Liverpool community (see SaMUEL AND YATES). 
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Lucien Wolf, History and Genealogy of the 

Jewish Families of Yates and Samuel of Liverpool, Lon- 


don, 1901; Gore, ara aie Directory, 1790, 1798, and 1800; 
Margoliouth, Jews of Great Britain, iii. 110-112 (to be cor- 


rected by Wolf); Jewish Worid, August 10, 1877; Isaac 

Leeser, History of the Jews and Their Religion, in Griffin's 

Cyclopedia of Religious Denominations, p. 11, London, 18538. 
I. H. 


J. 
YAWAN. See JAVAN. 


YEAR-BOOK (German, Jahrbuch): An an- 
nual publication that contains not only a calendar 
and a review of the year, but also articles of literary 
interest, and communal information, being thus dis- 
tinguished from the almanac, though the line of dis- 
tinction can not be very sharply drawn. The earli- 
est work of this kind seems to have been that of J. 
Heineman (Berlin, 1818-20), entitled “ Almanach fir 
die Israclitische Jugend.” This, however, lasted 
only a couple of years, whereas the “Jahrbuch ” of 
Isidore Busch was published in Vienna for six years 
(1842-47), with contributions from the most distin- 
guished Jewish scholars of the time, including Zunz, 
Rapoport, Picciotto, Sachs, Ludwig Frankl, Kom- 
pert, and L. Léw; the latter work was followed by 
Wertheimer’s (1854-68) ; and Klein’s“ Jahrbuch ” was 
published in Breslau for nineteen years (1841-61). 
For two or three years the Institut fir Forderung der 
Jiidischen Wissenschaft issued a year-book on Jew- 
ish history, and the Société des Etudes Juives also 
produced an “ Annuaire” for four years after its es- 
tablishment (1880-84). 

A somewhat different variety of this class of pub- 
lications was started by J. Jacobs in the “Jewish 
Year Book” (1896), which contained statistics, lists 
of communal institutions and of communal celebri- 
ties, a glossary, and a“ Who’s Who.” “The Ameri- 
can Jewish Year Book,” edited by Cyrus Adler (1899 
et seg. ; later with Henrietta Szold), has some of these 
features, together with other characteristics (see 
ALMANAC). It may here be mentioned that in M. 
H. Myer’s “Calendar and Diary,” which appeared 
in London (1876-96), I. Zangwill produced some of 
his earliest sketches under the pseudonym “ Bar- 
oness von 8.” 

The Hebrew year-books deserve special mention, 
asin a measure they precede the rest in the twelve 
volumes of “Bikkure ha-‘Ittim,” which were pub- 
lished in Vienna from 1820 to 1831; these were ed- 
ited chiefly by I. 8. Reggio, and included many arti- 
cles by Rapoport that were of great value. <A kind 
of supplement was produced at Vienna in 1845, and 
two volumes of “Bikkurim” were edited by N. 
Keller in the same place (1864-65). Still more re- 
cently two series have appeared in Warsaw: “Ha- 
Asif” (1894-1908), edited by N. Sokolow; and 
“ Ahiasaf,” begun in 1893 and stillin progress. A 
Hebrew and Dutch “Muzen Almanak” was pro- 
duced by G. Pollak at Amsterdam in 1844, but ap- 
peared only one year. The Jiidischer Verlag of 
Berlin issued in 1904 the first volume of a “ Jiidische 
Almanach” that was mainly devoted to Zionistic 
literature, although it contained also much decora- 
tive work by E. M. Lilien. The Austrian Jewish Un- 
ion producesa calendar which often includes literary 
matter, and which therefore comes under the year- 
book category (Vienna, 1892; still in progress). <A 
somewhat curious year-book entitled “ Bethlehem ” 
was produced in Budapest in 1871, being entirely 
restricted to the promotion of agriculture among the 
Jews of Hungary; it was edited by I. Reich, and 


Yedaya 
Yekaterinoslaf 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


590 


appeared for one year only. A still earlier Hunga- 
rian example was the “Jahrbuch ftir die Israeliti- 
schen Cultusgemeinden in Ungarn,” edited by 
Leopold Rosenberg and published at Budapest in 
1860. The Israelitisch-Ungarische Literaturgesell- 
schaft, since its foundation in 1895, has published a 
year-book of literary contents. In Rumania, Julius 
Barasch produced a historical year-book at Bucha- 
rest, and this is still continued under the title 
“ Anuarul Pentrn Israelitzi.” 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. S. Freidus, in Bulletin of the New York 
Public Library, vii. 2638-265, New York, 1903. j 


YEDAYA. See BEDERsI or BEDARESI, JEDAIAH 
BEN ABRAHAM. 


YEHUDAI BEN NAHMAN (usually cited as 
Yehudai Gaon): Gaon of Sura from 760 to 764. 
After the office of the gaonate was left vacant by 
the death of Mar Aha, the exilarch Solomon, depart- 
ing from the usual custom, decided to appoint a 
scholar of the Pumbedita Academy, Yehudai ben 
Nahman, as gaonofSura. Shortly afterward Yehu- 
dai’s brother Dodai was appointed gaon of Pumbe- 
dita (761-767). Yehudai was blind, and was perhaps 
so afflicted, asI. H. Weiss suggests, at the time when 
he was appointed gaon. If this was the case his 
appointment was contrary to Sanh. 49a, according 
to which a man blind in both eyes is incapable of 
acting as a judge or as president of acourt. It is 
interesting, however, that it was Yehudai Gaon 
who decided that blindness should not act as a bar 
to the appointment as hazzan of a man otherwise 
irreproachable (“Or Zarua‘,” i. 116). As far as is 
known, Yehudai had one son, Joseph (see “ Halakot 
Pesukot,” ed. Schlossberg, p. 122); Mar Ahinai is 
mentioned as his pupil. 

Yehudai was highly respected asa halakic author- 
ity, and later geonim as well as rabbis hesitated to 
decide against his opinion (comp. “Teshubot ha- 
Geonim,” ed. Lyck, No. 43, end; Jacob Emden, 
“She’elat Ya‘bez,” i., No. 145). His responsa, gen- 
erally written in Aramaic, are precise and usually 
very short; they sometimes consist of only one or 
two words, giving merely the decision. But when 
he was asked to explain Taimudical passages his 
responsa naturally went more into detail; and there 
are also some long responsa dealing with property 
rights. Some Hebrew responsa are supposed to 
have been translated by his pupils or by the com- 
piler. The majority of Yehudai’s responsa deal 
with the order of the prayers and the readings from 
the Scriptures; with traveling on board a vessel and 
disembarking on the Sabbath, and various laws con- 
cerning the observance of the Sabbath and of holy 
days; with the tefillin (see Hayyim M. Horowitz, 
“Halachische Schriften der Geonim,” i. 45 e¢ seq.); 
and with dietary laws, divorce, and halizah cases of 
Jews who had embraced Islam and returned to 
Judaism (comp. especially “Teshubot ha-Geonim,” 
ed. Lyck, No. 45; Miller, “Mafteah le-Teshubot 
ha-Geonim,” pp. 66 e¢ seq.). 

Alfasi in his “ Halakot” (Nedarim, end) asserts 
that it was Yehudai Gaon who did away with abso- 
lution from vows (“hattarat nedarim ”), which was 
so carelessly granted by the rabbis of his time that 
it gave occasion for Karaite attacks. He even went 


so far as to abolish the study of the Talmudical 
treatise Nedarim (“ Vows”), and his successors were 
anxious to adhere to this reform (see L. Low, “Ge- 
sammelte Schriften,” iii. 363), 

Yehudai Gaon, however, is best known as the au- 
thor of halakot, which are quoted under the titles 
of: “Halakot de-R. Yehudai Gaon,” “ Halakot Pesu- 
kot” or “Hilkot Re’u,” “Halakot Ketu‘ot,” and 
“ Halakot Kezubot ” or “Halakot Ketannot” (as dis- 
tinguished from the “ Halakot Gedolot” of Simeon 
Kayyara). The relation to one another of these 
several versions, which are obviously adaptations 
from one and the same original work, is not yet 
quite clear, and indeed forms a very difficult. prob- 
lem in literary criticism. According to A. Epstein, 
who devoted an important study to the problem, 
this work was a collection of legal decisions (hala- 
kot), mainly in Aramaic, which first appeared in 
Yehudai’s short responsa or were taken down from 
his lectures by his pupils and probably arranged by 
them later. Owing to the fact that the responsa are 
so short and confine themselves to a mere statement 
of the decision in question they were called “ Deci- 
sive Laws” (“Halakot Pesukot” or, according to a 
more Arabic mode of speech, “Halakot Ketu‘ot ”). 
Of the numerous evidences brought forward by Ep- 

stein to prove that the responsa were 
His actually called thus, only ene may be 
Responsa. indicated here. At the end of a col- 
lection of Meir of Rothenburg’s “ She- 
‘elot u-Teshubot ” (MS. Prague) some “ Halakot Ke- 
zubot de-R. Yehudai” are given. Soon after this 
heading occurs the stereotyped form for “ responsa,” 
ondxwer or omDNw), etc. These halakot have 
been published according to this manuscript by Joel 
Miller under the title “ Handschriftliche, Jehudai 
Gaon Zugewiesene Lehrsitze.” Besides, there must 
have been incorporated into these “ Halakot Pesu- 
kot” or “ Halakot Ketu‘ot” a collection of “dinim,” 
arranged according to the order of the Talmud or 
according to subject-matter; for such dinim are 
quoted by geonim and later rabbis as “ Halakot 
Pesukot” and “Halakot Ketu‘ot,” sometimes with 
and sometimes without a mention of the authorship 
of Yehudai Gaon or his pupils (for the reference see 
Epstein, “ Ma’amar ‘al Sefer Halakot Gedolot,” in 
“ Ha-Goren,” iii. 57 e¢ seq.). 

Simeon Kayyara, author of the “ Halakot Gedolot,” 
as well as R. Amram, author of the well-known 
“Siddur,” borrowed largely from these halakot of 
Yehudai Gaon, for which, as Epstein points out, the 
two terms “Halakot Pesukot” and “Halakot Ke- 
tu‘ot” were used promiscuously in the geonic period ; 
only later, when the varying recensions of them in- 
creased in number, were the titles distinguished as 
designating two different recensions. 

Yehudai’s halakot were translated from Aramaic 
into Hebrew, including even the Aramaic quota- 
tions from the Talmud. This translation has been 
preserved in an Oxford manuscript 
under the original title “Halakot Pe- 
sukot,” being also know, according 
to the first word of the text, as “ Hil- 
kot Re’u”; and it was published by A. L. Schloss- 
berg, Versailles, 1886. It was probably made in 
a Greek-speaking country, as Halberstam showed 


His 
Halakot. 


591 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Yedaya 
Yekaterinoslaf 


jin his introductory letter to Schlossberg’s edition, 
and was brought thence to Babylonia. A very 
great part of it, however, is taken from the “ Ha- 
lakot Gedolot” in an abridged form, so that Ep- 
stein did not recognize it as being a translation of 
the “ Halakot Pesukot,” but rather deemed ita com- 
pilation of the “ Halakot Gedolot,” containing at the 
same time Hebrew quotations from the Aramaic 
“Halakot Pesukot.” 

The “ Halakot Kezubot ” seem to be a compilation 
from the “Halakot Pesukot” and the “Halakot 
Gedolot.” They are preserved in a Parma manu- 
script that has been published by Hayyim M. Horo- 
witz in “Halachische Schriften der Geonim,” first 
part, pp. 14 et seg., Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1881, Ac- 
cording to the beginning of the text, however, these 
“Halakot Kezubot” are ascribed to Yehudai Gaon. 
Since the term “ Kezubot,” a synonym of “ Pesukot,” 

seems to have been prevalentin West- 
The ern countries (see “Sefer we-Hizhir,” 
‘‘Halakot ed. Freimann, ii., Introduction; “Ha- 
Kezubot.” lakot Gedolot,” ed. Hildesheimer, p. 
469; “She’elot u-Teshubot Sha‘are Ze- 
dek,” p. 29a; Zunz, in Steinschneider, “ Hebr. Bibl.” 
viii. 20), and as the “ Halakot Kezubot” are not quo- 
ted in geonic literature, Epstein supposes Palestine or 
Italy to have been the birthplace of this compilation, 
which afterward was widely known in Germany and 
France, and was often copied and enlarged by addi- 
tions. It is quoted especially in the “Sefer ha- 
Pardes,” in the Vitry Mahzor, in the “Sefer Issur 
we-Hetter ” (Merzbacher MS. No. 6), and others. 

Much has been written about the relation between 
the “ Halakot Pesukot” and the “ Halakot Gedolot” 
and their respective authors. The note in Abraham 
ibn Daud’s “Sefer ha-Kabbalah” (“M. J. C.” i. 68) 
that Yehudai Gaon gathered his “ Halakot Pesukot ” 
from the “Halakot Gedolot” of Simeon Kayyara, 
and the supposition of the medieval Jewish scholars 
of Germany and northern France that Yehudai Gaon 
was the author of the “Halakot Gedolot,” caused 
great confusion regarding the authorship, and also 
regarding the dates of these twoauthors. Recently, 
however, the disputed points have gradually been 
cleared up. 

The writing of halakic compendiums was always 
censured by those who were afraid that such works 
might displace the study of the Talmud itself, the 
mass of the people being perfectly satisfied to know 
the final halakie decision without caring for its de- 
velopment in the Tajmud, It is interesting to ob- 
serve that as old a compendium as the “ Halakot 
Pesukot” of Yehudai Gaon met with the disap- 
proval of Paltoi, gaon of Pumbedita (842-858), for 
the very same reason (see Epstein, é.c. p. 57). 
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Briill, in Jahrbticher ftir Jitdische Geschichte 

und Litteratur, ii. et seqg., Vv. 158 et seq.: Gratz, Gesch. v. 165, 

174; idem, in Monatsschrift, vii. 217 et seq.; A. Harkavy, 

Responsen der Geonim, Index; A. Neubauer, in Ha-Mag- 

gid, 1873, pp. 125 et seq.; idem, in Letterbode, iv. 55 et seq.; 

akalat Shedal, in Ozar Toh, 1878, p. 17; S. Sachs, in Ha- 

Maggid, 1878, Nos. 31-34; I. Halevy, Dorot ha-Rishonim, iii. 

194, 200: Weiss, Dor, iv. 3140; Winter and Wiinsche, Die 

Jtdische Litteratur, ii. 16 et seg.: Epstein, in Ha-Goren, iii. 

9 et seq.s Schorr, in He-Haluz, xii. 81 et seq.; Hayyim M. 

Horowitz, Halachische Schriften der Geonim, Preface, 

Frank fort-on-the-M ain, 1881; Steinschneider, Jewish Litera- 


ttre, pp. 26, 67: Zunz, G. V. p. 60; Buber, Sefer ha-Orah, 
Pp. 20, 75, 82, 114, Lemberg, 1905. 
g, M. Sc. 


YEKATERINOSLAF (YEKATERINO- 
SLAV): Russian city founded in 1787 during the 
reign of Catherine I1.; capital of the government 
of the same name. It is one of the most important 
commercial and industrial centers of southern Rus- 
sia, the census of 1897 crediting it with a population 
of 121,216 persons, including 36,600 Jews. The lat- 
ter are actively identified with the trades and indus- 
tries of the city, about one-third of the entire Jewish 
population (2,388 families; in all 11,157 persons) de- 
riving its income from commercial pursuits, and an- 
other third (2,712 master artisans and 480 appren- 
tices) being engaged in industrial occupations. The 
city has more than thirty shopsand factories, mainly 
grist-mills, lumber-mills, foundries, machine-shops, 
and tobacco-factories. Almost all of these estab- 
lishments are owned by Jews, but the number of 
Jewish factory employees is comparatively low, 
although in one cigarette-paper factory and in one 
tobacco-factory the workmen are all Jews. Thereare 
847 Jewish day-laborers, mainly drivers, porters, etc. 

On account of its busy commercial and industrial 
life, Yekaterinoslaf serves as a center of attraction 
for the population of a very extensive region. The 
concentration in this city of such a considerable 
number of Jews, for the most part impecunious, 
was stimulated by a series of government measures 
enacted during the last twenty years, which limited 
the sphere of Jewish economic activity. Among 
these were the so-called temporary measures of 1882; 
the exclusion of the Don region (1880) and of Rostov 
and Taganrog from the Pale of Settlement; and the 
establishment of a government monopoly in the 
manufacture of alcoholic beverages (1896). <All of 
these measures led to the increase in Yekaterinoslaf 
of a Jewish proletariat which, for lack of employ- 
ment, became dependent on charity. Thus, in 1898, 
1,830 families, representing 9,000 persons, were given 
aid for Passover. In the same year the local Jews 
supported the following charitable organizations: a 
hospital, a maternity home, a dispensary, a free-loan 
association (“gemilut hasadim”), a lodging-house 
(“haknasat orehim”), and a clerks’ mutual aid soci- 
ety. The expenditures of these institutions, amount- 
ing to about 74,000 rubles, were defrayed mainly 
from the basket-tax (48,067 rubles) and from volun- 
tary contributions and membership fees. At present 
(1905) the most important charitable organization is 
the Association for the Aid of Poor Jews, founded 
toward the end of 1898; itsincomein 1900 was 52,509 
rubles, and its expenditures 47,611. The society 
maintains a free employment bureau. 

Yekaterinoslaf has the following Jewish educa- 
tional institutions: ten private schools, a Talmud 
Torah (400 pupils) founded in 1857, a yeshibah (74 
students), and ninety-two hadarim (855 pupils). The 
Zionistic movement has made great progress in the 
city, the propaganda being carried on by several 
societies under the leadership of Michael UsisHxIn. 
The attitude of the Christian population toward the 
Jews was expressed in 1881 in the decisions of the 
provincial commission concerning the Jewish ques- 
tion, formed here as in other government cities in 
order to determine the causes of the anti-Jewish 
outbreaks. This commission saw away to the solu- 
tion of the Jewish question in the passing of a series 


VYelammedenu 
Yemen 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


592 


of regulations limiting the rights of the Jews in com- 
merce, in the acquisition of real estate, in the partic- 
ipation in local government, etc. The anti-Jewish 
outbreaks did not spare Yekaterinoslaf. On July 
20, 1883, a mob invaded the Jewish houses and 
wrought great destruction. Many ruined families 
were compelled to seek safety in flight. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Razsvyet, 1851, No. 45; Russki Yevrei, 1883, 


No. 32; Otechot Pravlentya Obschestva Posobiya Byednym - 


Yerrevyam za 1889 God, Yekaterinoslaf, 1900; ib., 2a 1900 

God, 1901. 

H.R. S. J. 

YELAMMEDENU. See Tannuma Mrprasn. 

YELISAVETGRAD (ELIZABETHGRAD): 
Town in the government of Kherson, Russia. It 
was founded in 1754, and soon became one of the 
mostimportant cities of southern Russia, Thename 
of Yelisavetgrad recalls sad memories to the Rus- 
sian Jews; for from that town issued the signal for 
the riots which brought upon them incalculable 
affiiction and misery. As soon as Alexander ITI. 
had ascended the throne rumors of a rising 
against the Jews reached Yelisavetgrad, which 
caused the leaders of the Jewish community to 
apply to the governor for special protection. No 
notice was taken of the appeal, and on Wednesday, 
April 27, 1881, the dreaded outbreak took place. 

A religious dispute in an inn concerning the use 
of Christian blood by the Jews served as a pretext 
for the rioters, who proceeded to the Jewish quarter 
and commenced a systematic destruction of Jewish 
shops and warehouses. At first the Jewsattempted 
to protect their property; but, seeing that this only 
served to increase the violence of the mob, and that 
the soldiers, who were called to protect them, took 
part in the pillage, they barricaded themselves in 
their houses. For two days the rioters perpetrated, 
under the very eyes of the officials, and with the 
cooperation of the soldiers, the most barbarous and 
hideous deeds. Synagogues were wrecked and 
Jewesses outraged. Two young girls, in dread of 
violation, threw themselves from windows. An 
old man named Pelikov, who attempted to save his 
daughter, was thrown from the roof by the enraged 
soldiery. Many persons were killed ; 500 houses and 
100 shops were demolished; and 2,000,000 rubles’ 
worth of property was stolen or destroyed. 

In the revolutionary uprisings of 1905 the town 
was burned, and the mob killed the Jews and plun- 
dered their quarter. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jacobs, Persecution of Jews in Russia, 1881, 
p.4; Russkaya Mysl, June, 1881, pp. 96-99; Sychewski, Pro- 
tivo Yevreiskiya Bezobraziya ; H. Rosenthal, in JEw. EXCYC. 
1.347, s.v. Alerander ITI.; Semenov, Geographical-Statis- 
tical Dictionary of the Russian Empire (in Russian), s.v. 

H.R, I. Br. 

According to the census of 1897, Yelisavetgrad 
had a population of 61,841, including 24,340 Jews. 
The latter are prominent in the city’s commerce, 
trade, and industries, and three-fourths of its fac- 
tories are controlled by them. The number of fac- 
tories exceeds cighty, among them being grist-mills, 
machine- and tool-factories, foundries, soap-facto- 
ries, brick-yards, vinegar-distilleries, and tobacco- 
factories. Only tobacco manufacture, however, en- 
gages any considerable number of Jewish workers. 
There are in all 522 Jewish factory-laborers, 368 
day-laborers, and 3, 164 artisans, 


The Jewish community supports a number of 
charitable institutions, among which may be men- 
tioned a society for the aid of the poor 
(founded 1899), a loan society which 
lends money to the poor at a low rate 
of interest, and a Jewish dispensary 
with infirmary attached. More than 1,000 Jewish 
families have recourse to charity. In the winter of 
1898, 1,100 families received fuel from charitable 
organizations, while 1,300 families applied for aid 
for Passover. 

The Jewish children are sent either to the general 
or to the Jewish schools, although Jewish boys are 
not freely admitted tothe former. TheJewish schools 
include a Talmud Torah with industrial classes, two 
government schools (one with industrial classes), 
several private schools, a school founded by the 
local Zionists, and 122 hadarim, including a free 
heder with sixty pupils. Early in 1881 there was 
organized among the Jews of Yelisavetgrad a Bible 
Brotherhood (sce BIBLEITzY). 

H. R. S. d. 

YEMEN : Province comprising the southwestern 
partof Arabia. Various traditions trace the earliest 
settlement of Jewsin this region back to the time of 
Solomon, and the Sanaite Jews have a legend to 
the effect that their forefathers settled there forty- 
two years before the destruction of the First Tem- 
pie. Under the prophet Jeremiah 75,000 Jews, in- 
cluding priests and Levites, are said to have gone to 
Yemen; and when Ezra commanded the Jews to re- 
turn to Jerusalem they disobeyed, whereupon he 
pronounced an everlasting ban upon them. Tradi- 
tion states, however, that asa punishment for this 
hasty action Ezra was denied burial in Palestine. 
As a result of this tradition, which is devoid of his- 
toricity, no Jew of Yemen gives the name of Ezra to 
a child, although all other Biblical appellatives are 
found there. 

The actual immigration of Jews into Yemen ap- 
pears to have taken place about the beginning of 
the second century C.E., although the province is 
mentioned neither by Josephus nor by the Mishnah 

or Talmud. According to Winckler, 

First Set- the Jews of Yemen enjoyed prosper- 

tlements. ity until the sixth century c.&., and 

the fourth sovereign before Dhu Nu- 

was was aconvert to Judaism. The kingdoms of 

Sheba, Raidan, Hadramaut, and Yamanat (Yemen) 

were united under the hegemony of the Yemenite 
kings, who were as follows: 


Institu- 
tions. 


Yahamin (ce. 325 C.E.) 


| 
Abu Karib As‘ad Wara ‘Amr Amin 


Shurahbil Ya‘fur (c. 448) 

Shurahbil Yakkuf (c. 467) 
Ma‘di Karib Yun‘im Luhai‘athah Yanuf 
Dru Nuwas (d. 525) 


Until recently Dhu Nuwas was regarded as the 
first king who was zealous for Judaism, but a chron- 
icle of saints in the British Museum gives the name 


593 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Yelammedenu 
Yemen 


of the martyr Arkir, who was condemned to death 
by Shurahbil Yakkuf at the instigation of his coun- 
selors, the rabbis. Although all these legends are 
extremely biased and are chiefly devoted to the por- 
trayal of the persecution of Christians by the Jews, 
it is evident that Judaism had in the fourth century 
taken a firm hold upon the royal house. In this 
legend, as in others, the city of Najran is impor- 
tant. Two Jewish youths are said to have been 
killed there, whereupon Dhu Nuwas conquered the 
city and executed the king after offering him his 
choice between Judaism and death. The effect of 
these traditions was a bitter oppression of the Jews, 
first bv the Christians and later by the Arabs. 

The average Jewish population of Yemen for the 
first five centuries c.E. is said to have been about 
3,000. The Jews were scattered throughout the coun- 
try, but carried on an extensive commerce aud thus 
succeeded in getting possession of many Jewish 
books. When Saladin became sultan in the last quar- 
ter of the twelfth century and the Shiites revolted 
against him, the trials of the Yemenite Jews began. 
There were few scholars among them at that time, 
and a false prophet arose, proclaiming the amalzgama- 
tion of Judaism and Mohammedanism, and pretend- 
ing to beable to prove the truth of his teachings from 
the Bible. In this hour of need the greatest Jewish 

scholar of Yemen, Jacob ben Nathan- 
Yemen and ael al-Fayyumi, wrote for counsel to 
Mai- Maimonides, who replied in a consola- 
monides. tory epistle entitled “Iggeret Teman.” 
This letter made such an impression on 
the Jews of Yemen that, according to Saphir, they 
included the name of Maimonides in the Kaddish 
prayer. The false prophet was condemned to death 
and died in hisillusion. Although Benjamin of Tu- 
dela did not personally visit Yemen, he gives certain 
data concerning the Yemenite Jews. Their capital 
was Teima and they called themselves Rechabites, 
while at their head stood the nasi Hanan. They 
were in constant strife with their Ismaelitic neigh- 
bors, from whom they won many victories and took 
much booty. 

At the beginning of the nineteenth century the 
condition of the Jews of Yemen was miserable. 
They were under the jurisdiction of the Imam, and 
were forbidden to wear new or good clothes, nor 
might they ride anass or a mule, being compelled to 
make the longest journeys on foot when occasion re- 
quired it. They were prohibited, moreover, from 
engaging in money transactions, and were ali me- 
chanics, being employed chiefly as carpenters, ma- 
sons, andsmiths. At the beginning of the nineteenth 
century they are said to have numbered 30,000, and 
to have lived principally in Aden (200), Sana (10,000), 
Sada (1,000), Dhamar (1,000), and the desert of Beda 
(2,000). In recent times there have been no Jews in 
the Tahama (the low coast-land) nor in Hodeida, but 
they now reside in the interior of the plateau. Set- 
tlements of considerable size are found in the vicinity 
of Sana, and are divided between Manakhah, with 
3,000 Jews, and Sana, which has a separate quarter 
containing about 8,000. The Jews have also special 
Sections of the city in Kaukaban, Weilan, and Dha- 
mar. Special mention should likewise be made of the 
Jewish village of Al-Gharaba, two kilometers from 

XII.—38 


Reda‘. The chief industry of the Jews of Yemen is 
the making of pottery, which is found in all their 
settlements and which has rendered them famous 
throughout the East. They engage very little in 
commerce, An important personage among the 
Yemenite Jews in the last quarter of the nineteenth 
century was Aaron Chehip, known as the “Coffee 
King.” He came toa violent end, however, being 
murderously assaulted and robbed by the natives. 

According to the most recent investigations, there 
is no longer any doubt that the Jews of Yemen 

whatever the date of their settlement, 
Literature. brought with them the Bible and a 

large part of the traditional Hagga- 
dah, which also had aninfluence onthe Koran. The 
Talmud, or at least a part of it, was likewise known 
in Yemen, and the fact that it was less widely dis- 
tributed there than in Europe was due solely to the 
poverty of the people, which made it impossible to 
buy more copies. The Jews of Yemen must have 
been in close touch with Babylonia, since they reck- 
oned time according to the Seleucidan era, and this 
chronology is found on tombstones as early as the 
ninth century. All the Hebrew manuscripts of 
Yemen, moreover, show the superlinear, or Baby- 
lonian, system of punctuation. It is clear from the 
“Tegeret Teman” that though the Yemenite Jews 
were not Talmudists, they acted according to the 
decisions of Rab Ashi in traditional law, at least 
after they had come under the influence of Maimon- 
ides. The “Yad,” which they called “ Hibbur,” 
and the Shulhan ‘Aruk of Joseph Caro were re- 
garded by them as the highest authorities in Jewish 
law. 

The oldest Yemenite manuscripts are those of the 
Bible, which the Yemenite Jews call “Taj” (= 
“crown”). They date from the ninth century, and 
each of them has a short Masoretic introduction, 
while many contain Arabic commentaries. The 
Masorah was highly valued by the Jews of Ye- 
men, and a special compilation, made by Yahya 
Salih, was called by Ginsburg the “Masorah of 
Teman.” They were acquainted with Saadia, 
Rashi, Kimhi, Nahmanides, and Isaac Arama, be- 
sides producing a number of exegetes from among 
themselves, In the fourteenth century Nathanael 
b. Isaiah wrote an Arabic commentary on the 
Bible, full of haggadot and almost wholly destitute 
of any real Biblical hermeneutics, while in the sec- 
ond half of the fifteenth century Saadia b. David 
al-‘Adani was the author of a com- 
mentary on Leviticus, Numbers, and 
Deuteronomy, and Abraham b. Sol- . 
omon wrote on the Prophets (British Museum). Of 
the Talmud the following treatises are now known 
to exist in manuscript: Bezah, Pesahim, Mo‘ed Ks 
tan, Megillah, and Zebahim. The Yemenite Abner 
b. Ker ha-Shoshani wrote a double commentary 
in Hebrew on the “‘En Ya‘akob” of Jacob Habib. 
and between 1478 and 1483 Saadiab. David al-‘Adani 
composed a gloss on the “Yad” of Maimonides. 
Among the midrashim compiled in Yemen mention 
should be made of the “Midrash ha-Gadol” of 
David bar Amram al-‘Adani (vol. i., ed. Schech- 
ter, 1902). Between 1413 and 14380 the physician 
Yahya Zechariah b. Solomon wrote a compila- 


Writers. 


Yemen 
Yeshibah 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


594 


tion entitled “ Midrash ha-Hefez,” which included 
the Pentateuch, Lamentations, Esther, and the haf- 
tarot, while between 1484 and 1493 David al- 
Lawani composed his “Midrash al-Wajiz al- 
Mughni.” In the thirteenth and fourteenth centu- 
ries supercommentaries on the “ Yad” were written 
by Salih Musa al-Hadhari, Isaac b. Abraham, 
and David b. Solomon. 

The Cabala was and is very popular among the 
Yemenite Jews, who are familiar with the Zohar and 
with the work of all the European cabalists. One 
of them, Solomon b. Dawid ha-Kohen, has written 
a cabalistic treatise in thirteen chapters, entitled 
“ Lehem Shelomoh. ” 

Among the Yemenite poets who wrote Hebrew 


Manuscripts of the Yemen Siddur are in the Brit- 
ish Museum. The prayers agree in part with the 
Sephardic and in part with the Ashkenazic liturgy, 
and their language is partly Hebrew and _ partly 
Aramaic and Arabic, while the daily so-called “ Ma- 
‘amadot” prayers are written in Aramaic. The 
Yemenite Siddur appeared in Jerusalem 1892 (2d ed. 
1898), and in Vienna 1896. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Benjamin of Tudela, ed. Asher, p. 70, London, 
1840; Burehard, in Ost und West, ii. 387-341; Deinard, Or 
Meir, pp. 20-28, New York, 1896; Greenburg, The Hagadah 
According tothe Rite of Yemen. i.-iv., London, 1896 ; Gratz, 
Gesch. iv.-vi. (Index); Harkavy, Studien und Mittheilungen, 
pp. 202, 217, Berlin. 1887; Neubauer, in J. Q. A. iii. 22; idem, 
in R. KB. J. xxiii. 122 et seq.; idem, in Monatsschrift, iii. 42- 
44; Saphir, Bhen Safir, i. 99-116; Steinschneider, Ver- 
zeichniss der Hebrilischen Handschriften der Kdniglichen 


GROUP OF YEMEN JEWS. 
(From a photograph by Elkan N. Adler.) 


and Arabic hymns modeled after the Spanish school, 
mention may be made of Yahya al-Dhahri and 
the members of the Al-Shabbezi family. <A single 
non-religious work, inspired by Hariri, was written 
in 1573 by Zechariah b. Saadia (identical with the 
Yahya al-Dhahri mentioned above), under the title 
“Sefer ha-Musar.” The philosophical writers in- 
clude: Saadia b. Jabez and Saadia b. Mas‘ud, 
both at the beginning of the fourteenth century; 
Ibn al-Hawas, the author of a treatise in the form 
of a dialogue written in rimed prose, and termed by 
its author the “Flower of Yemen”; Hasan al- 
Dhamari; and Joseph ha-Levi b. Jefes, who 
wrote the philosophical treatises “Ner Yisrael” 
(1420) and “ Kitab al-Masahah.” 


Bibliothek zu Berlin, ii. 71 et seq.: idem, in Tsraelitische 
Monatsschrift, 1891, No. 2; idem, in Monatsschrift, 1894, 
pp. 79 et seq.: Winckler, Altorientalische Forschungen, iv. 
329-337; W. Bacher, Der Siid-Arahbische Siddur, in J. Q. RB. 
xiv. 581-621: idem, Hin Hebrdisch-Arahisches Liederbuch 
aus Jemen, in Berliner-Festschrift, 1908, pp. 10-382; 8. Poz- 
panski, Zum Schrifthum der Stid-Arabischen Juden, in 
J. Q. BR. xiv. 752-757; P. Heinrich, Fragment cines Gebets- 
buches aus Jemen, Vienna, 1902; idem, in J. Q. R. xv. 


330- 
J. Ss. O. 


YERUSHALMI, SOLOMON B. MENAHEM 
(called also Solomon Isaac [Sekel] Ashke- 
nazi): Scholar of the early part c! the sixteenth 
century. He wrote a commentary on the Book cf 
Ruth which he entitled “ Perush ‘al Rut” (Salonica, 
1551; 2d ed. [together with the “Pardes Rimmo- 
nim ”], Sabbionetta, 1554). 


595 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Yemen 
Yeshibah 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Ersch and Gruber, Lneyc. section 2, xxviii. 40; 
Benjacob, Ozar ha-Sefarim, p. 474. 
Ss. O. 


E, C. 


YESHIBAH: A high school; a rabbinical col- 
lege. It is the oldest institution of Jewish learning, 
aud ranks higher than the HEDER or the TALMUD 
ToraH. The term “yeshibah” and the Aramaic 
equivalent “metibta” (both found in the Talmud) 
originally meant a session, a council, or a meeting 
of scholars, over which presided the “elder.” The 
Patriarchs were all elders of a yeshibah (Yoma 28b). 
R. Pappa was elected “rosh yeshibah” (or “resh 
mietibta ”), z.e., president of the yeshibah, and it was 
his duty to deliver a lecture and discussion before 
the yeshibah of a large and mixed assembly (Ber. 
5ia and Rashi ad /oc.; B. K. 117%a). At first the bet 
ha-midrash was the place where the yeshibah as- 
sembled, one or two (morning and afternoon) ses- 
sions being held daily. Later, when the number of 
students increased, it became necessary to hold the 
sessions in a separate large hall adjoining the bet 
ha-midrash, and this hall was known by the name 
of “yeshibah.” The general term for the lecture 
was probably “ pesikta” or “mekilta,” which, like 
the modern term “shi‘ur,” means “measure,” indi- 
cating the fixed and limited time occupied by the 
rosh yeshibah in delivering the discourse—from two 
to three hours. 

During the Talmudic period the principal Pales- 
tinian yeshibot were at Secpphoris, Tiberias, and 
Caesarea, while the leading Babylonian ones were at 
Mahuza, Nehardea, Sura, and Pumbedita. Those 
at the last two towns were maintained in the geonic 
period (see ACADEMIES). The principal seat of the 
Rabbis after the days of the Second Temple was 
Pumbedita (“Iggeret Rab Sherira Gaon,” ed. 
Goldberg, p. 32, Mayence, 1873). The attend- 
ance at the Babylonian yeshibot gradually de- 
creased. Rab had 1,200 students at his yeshibah; 
R. Huna had 800 students, with 13 amoraim as 
interpreters; Rabbah and R. Joseph each had 400; 
and R. Ashi had only 200 (Ket. 106a). The sessions 
of the Babylonian yeshibot were interrupted on sev- 
eral occasions. and were finally suspended by the 
Persian persecutions, the last being held at Bagdad. 
Benjamin of Tudela (1160-78) found ten yeshibot 
there, and he enumerates the names of every rosh 
yeshibah, the principal one being R. Samuel b. 
Eli. The “rosh ha-golah” (president of the Cap- 
tivity) bestowed “semikah” (ordination) upon the 

graduates of the yeshibah (Benjamin 

In of Tudela, “Itinerary,” ed. Asher, p. 
Babylon. 60, London, 1840). Pethahiah of Re- 
gceusburg, in his “Sibbub” (travels), 

Written in the same century, describes the Bagdad 
yeshibah as follows: “The rosh yeshibah [R. Sam- 
uel ha-Levi b. Eli] bas about 2,000 students at a 
time, and there are over 500 around him who are 
Well informed.; The students receive lessons from 
other teachers before they are admitted to the ye- 
shibah. The rosh ha-golah is R. Eliezer, and under 
him is the rosh yeshibah. The latter occupies a 
large house covered with tapestry. He is dressed 
Ma gold-trimmed garment and sits on high, while 
the students sit on the ground. He discourses 
through an interpreter or explainer [“meturge- 


man ”], who answers all questions asked by the stu- 
dents, and if he does not know inquires of the rosh 
yeshibah. Sometimes there are several interpreters, 
each expounding a treatise ina different part of the 
yeshibah. The whole study is with an intonation ” 
(ed. Benisch, p. 16, London, 1861). Toward the end 
of the eleventh century an important yeshibah at 
Bagdad was under the guidance of Isaac ibn Sakin, 
and later it was under Samuel b. David ha-Kohen, 
who defended Maimonides against the edict of ex- 
communication (1289), 

The example of the yeshibot of Babylon was fol- 
lowed throughout the Levant. It is curious that 
even the Karaites carried along with them the title of 
“rosh yeshibah,” bestowing it in the tenth century 
on Jacob ha-Tamani(= “ of Taman,” on the Bosporus) 
(d. 958; see Pinsker, “ Likkute Kadmoniyot,” Ap- 
pendix, p. 86; the date is disputed by Deinard in 
“ Ha-Shahar,” viii. 452). Until theninth century the 
Jews in European countries and elsewhere depended 
entirely upon the decisions of the authorities in the 
yeshibot of Babylon, which they supported liber- 
ally. It was largely due to the encouragement of 
Charlemagne that the learned men of Babylon emi- 
grated and later established yeshibot in France and 
Germany. During the tenth century three new ye- 
shibot were founded: the first by Shemariah b. Elha- 
nan at Mizr (Cairo), Egypt; the second by Hu- 
shiel at Kairwan in North Africa; and the third 
by Moses b. Enoch (d. 965) at Cordova (Abraham 
ibn Daud, “Sefer ha-Kabbalah ”). 

The yeshibah of Narbonne was perhaps the most fa- 
mous of its time, drawing eagerstudentsfromall parts 

of France and Germany. Benjamin 

In the traveler says: “R. Abraham [ibn 
France. Daud] is rosh yeshibah at Narbonne, 
whence the study of the Law spreads 

over all countries. At Lunel the foreign students 
who attend the yeshibah are supplied with food and 
raiment at the public expense. At Beaucaire there 
is a grand yeshibah under the presidency of Abra- 
ham ibn Daud, an eminent scholar of the Scriptures 
and Talmud, who attracts students from distant 
countries, and who provides for them from lis pri- 
vate means, which are quite considerable. At Mar- 
seilles, in the upper city near the fortress, is a great 
yeshibah which boasts of very learned scholars, 
headed by R. Simon Anatolio, Abba Mari b. Isaac 
[author of the “‘Ittur ”], and others. The scholars 
and descendants of Rashi hold yeshibot at 
Troyes and Ramerupt. Paris contains many 
Jearned men whose equals are not to be found 
anywhere upon earth” (“ Massa‘ot,” pp. 4, 6, 112). 
The yeshibah of Paris was closed by order of King 
Philip Augustus (1181), but the yeshibah at Cham- 
pagne, where the tosafists pursued their work, still 
flourished, as did also that at Dampierre, where a 
grandson of Rashi conducted a yeshibah of consid- 
erable authority. I. Isaac, a nephew of R. Tam, 
guided a yeshibah of sixty pupils, each one study- 
ing for himself a different treatise of the Talmud, 
and all together taking up one treatise at a time in 
rotation under the rosh yeshibah (“ Zedah la-Derek,” 
Introduction, ed. Ferrara, 1554, p. 4a). A yeshibah 
was reopencd at Paris for a short time in the thir- 
teenth century by R. Jehiel, who emigrated to the 


Yeshibah 


Woly Land. Mattithiah b. Joseph of Provence rees- 
tablished a yeshibah at Paris in the fourteenth cen- 
tury, and Jacob of Orleans (d. 1189), a pupil of R. 
Tam, crossed the Channel and opened a yeshibah in 
London. 

The first yeshibah in Spain was established at Cor- 
dova, and attracted the scholars of the Levant. 
Later were founded the yeshibah of Granada and 

that of Lucena, the latter being suc- 
In Spain, cessively conducted by Isaac Alfasi 
Germany, (1090) and his pupil Ibn Migash. 
Italy, and These examples were followed by Je- 
Holland. hiel ben Asher at Toledo, where he 
changed the whole tone of Spanish 
Judaism; by Solomon ben Adret at Barcelona in 
1805; and by R, Nissim at the same city in 1872. 
R. Gershom (960-1028) emigrated from France to 
Mayence, where he founded a yeshibab and gath- 
ered many students from Germany and Italy. This 
yeshibah flourished for more than eighty years and 
became a center of Talmudic activity. Joseph 
Colon (1420-80), the author of a collection of re- 
sponsa, had a yeshibah at Pavia, Italy; and Judah 
Minz of Mayence founded a yeshibah at Padua 
(1504-26). Joseph Ottolenghi opened a yeshibah in 
Cremona, northern Italy, prior to the public burning 
of the Talmud in 1559, The yeshibah ‘Ez Hayyim 
in Amsterdam flourished during the eighteenth cen- 
tury, and its publications of responsa under the 
title “Peri ‘Ez Hayyim” extended from 1733 to 
1792. In the same century there were celebrated 
yeshibot at Altona-Hamburg, Frankfort-on-the- 
Main, Firth, and Metz. At Nikolsburg Morde- 
cai Benet had a yeshibah with from 300 to 400 
students. 

Jacob Pollak (1460-1541), the founder of “hillu- 
kim” (the sophistic method of Talmudic discus- 
sions), was the first to transfer the rabbinical science 
from Germany to Poland; he opened a yeshibah at 
Cracow, which later was presided over by Moses Is- 
serles and became the most celebrated schoo] through- 
out the whole European Jewry. All who sought 

sound learning betook themselves 
In Poland. thither; and the fact that a man had 

been educated in the yeshibah of Po- 
land was of itself a high recommendation if he 
sought to obtain a position as rabbi. Other German 
scholars settled in Lithuania, Ruthenia, and Volhynia 
and founded new centers of rabbinic study. 

The three documents mentioned below describe 
the yeshibah at various times and in various coun- 
tries, and illustrate the life, methods, regulations, 
and course of studies in the old yeshibah. A docu- 
ment ealled “Hukke ha-Torah ” (= “the laws of the 
Torah,” #.e., rules or bylaws regulating the teaching 
of the Torah), and appended to the “Semak” of 
Isaac Corbeil under date of 1309, throws light on 
the attitude and conditions of the yeshibah in north- 
ern France in the thirteenth century. There were 

‘two schools, one called “midrash ga- 

Curricu- dol” and the other “midrash katon,” 
lum, 13th corresponding respectively to the 

Century. Christian cathedral school and parochi- 

al school at that time; the lower schools 
were known also as “petites écoles,” and in some 
paragraphs the “higher midrash” is referred to as 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


596 


“veshibah.” The “Hukke ha-Torah” is composed 
of three different collections, and may have been 
added to from time to time, as the occasion required, 
to complete and perfect the regulations. The rules 
for the higher and lower schools are mixed indis- 
criminately. The students of the higher midrash 
were called “perushim” (= “ Pharisees”), a title 
still retained by married students in the yeshibah. 
The length of the term was seven years, during 
which time the pupils dwelt in the midrash, food 
and lodging being provided for them. The head 
teacher, called “rosh yeshibah,” also lodged there 
during the week, but returned to his home on Fri- 
day night. Interpreters were employed, one for 
every ten students, to explain the lecture of the rosh 
yeshibah (Gidemann, “Gesch. des Erziehungs- 
wesens,” etc., i., note 8; Jacobs, “Jews of Angevin 
England,” pp. 348 ef seq.). 

The following is a summary of the chief provi- 
sions of this important code of education. The sep- 
arate sections sometimes occur in more than one of 
the three recensions, here indicated by the letters 
A, B, C. Jacobs (“Jews of Angevin England ”) 
is of the opinion that A was composed in England 
in the thirteenth century, on account of the refei- 
ences to the capital and to the long winter nights: 


(i.) Every first-born male is to be set apart (‘* separated °°) for 
the study of the Law from the eighth day after circumcision 
(A 1,B 5). 

{ii.) At fve years of age every Jewish boy isto be brought in 
the month Nisan to the small school of the province, and taught 
to read; then put to Leviticus, then to read the weekly portion 
in Hebrew, then in the vernacular, and then in the Targum 
(A 7,8; B6; Cl). 

(iii.) Atten years he studies the Mishnah, beginning with the 
tractate Berakot of the Talmud, and going through the smaller 
tractates of the order Mo‘ed in the next three years (B 6, C 2). 

(iv.) At thirteen years the education of the ordinary boy is 
completed; that of the separated continues in the same school 
till the lad is sixteen, when he decides for himself whether he 
will devote his life to the Law, and, if so, goes up to the great 
school of the separated in the capital for another seven years 
(A 2,3; C3). 

(v.) The small school of the province is to be held in a two- 
story house, capable of holding 100 pupils, 10 teachers, anda 
rector to supervise. No teaching is to be done at home, and the 
rector must not reside at the school with his family, but must 
go home every Sabbath (B 6, A 5, B 3). : 

(vi.) The rector gives two lectures—one in the morning, one 
in the afternoon. The teachers go over each lesson twice with 
their classes [this probably refers to the great school of the 
capital]. At the end of each week there is repetition of the 
week’s work; similarly at the end of the month, and at the 
end of the summer and of the winter session. No teacher may 
take more than ten pupils, nor may he have any other calling 
than teaching (B 7; A 6, 10, 12). 

(vii.) The lads are encouraged to examine one another every 
evening in the day’s lessons. Duil scholars are to be sent away. 
so as not to keep back the more forward. Teaching is to be by 
book, not from memory. In winter the evening lessons are to 
be short, on account of the light (A 5, 7, 9, 11). 

(viii.) Every member of the community pays twelve pence 
yearly as school-fees, instead of the half-shekel of old. The 
great school is to be bought, and then let out to the separated. 
The separated pay for their lodging, and ashare of the teachers 
salaries. The rector gets 20 marks yearly, a teacher 8 (A 4; 
B |, 6). 


Nathan Hannover, in “Yewen Mezulah” (ed. Ven- 
ice, 1658, end), relates the history of the Chmielnick! 
massacres and describes the yeshiLah at that period: 
“Nearly all communities in Poland supported a ye 
shibah. They maintained the studentsand gave them 
out of the public funds fixed sums weekly for ordi- 
nary expenses. The bahurim taught the smaller 


597 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Yeshibah 


poys. A community consisting of fifty ‘ba‘ale bat- 
tim’ [= “householders”] supported about thirty 
students. In addition to receiving 
fixed stipends the students were in- 
vited as guests to the tables of the 
community, every household having 
invariably one or more such guests 
from the yeshibah. Consequently the 
number of hakamim increased to such an extent 
that very often there were found twenty hakamim 
bearing the title of ‘morenu’ or ‘haber’ in a com- 
munity of fifty householders. The rosh yeshibah 
was above all in rank. The terms of study were as 
follows: in summer from the ist of Iyyar to the 
15th of Ab, and in winter from the 1st of Heshwan 
to the 15th of Tebet, the intervals being devoted to 
private studies. In the first part of each season, 
namely, from the ist of Lyyar to Pentecost, and from 
the 1st of Heshwan to Hanukkah, the studies in the 
yeshibah consisted of Gemara with Rashi and tosa- 
fot, one page daily. This was called one halakah. 
The rosh yeshibah sat on a chair, and the students 
stood around him. The students prepared them- 
selves beforehand by carefully studying the halakah 
of the day, and then asked the rosh yeshibah to ex- 
plain the difficult passages. After he had answered, 
all kept silence, and he then discussed a ‘ hilluk,’ a 
pilpulistic review of the halakah in detail. This 
lasted till noon or a little later. The second half of 
the term was devoted to the study of Alfasi and the 
posekim [decisions and codes], particularly the four 
volumes of the Turim with commentaries. A few 
weeks before the term expired the rosh yeshibah per- 
mitted the best students to deliver a discourse, in 
order to familiarize them with the art of delivering 
a hilluk. The Talmud was studied in the order of 
the sedarim. Every rosh yeshibah had a ‘sham- 
mash’ [= “attendant ”], whose business was to see 
that the students in every class attended strictly to 
their studies. Every Thursday the students were 
ushered into the presence of the gabbai, who ex- 
amined them. For failure in the examination the 
student was sometimes chastised with a rod by the 
shammash and sometimes admonished in the pres- 
ence of the other students. In the last days of the 
term the pupils reviewed what they had learned 
during the term. When the session ended the 
students traveled with the rosh yeshibah to the 
fairs on market-days [“ yerid ”]: in summer to the 
fairs of Zaslav and Yaroslav, and in winter to the 
fairs of Lemberg and Lublin. The students were 
allowed to choose any yeshibah in those places dur- 
ing the fairs. The gathering of so many students 
at the fairs, where merchants congregated to sell or 
purchase goods, was the occasion of making hun- 
dreds of marriage engagements; the best students 
were selected on the recommendation of the rosh 
yeshibah, and the amount of dowry offered varied 
according to the student’s knowledge of the Tal- 
mud and his skill in delivering a hilluk. Both the 
Students and the rosh yeshibali were held in high 
esteem by rich and poor alike. The rosh yeshibah 
Teceived many presents in money and goods; if 
neither a Kohen nor a Levite, he was entitled to the 
third portion [“shelishi”] in the order of persons 
Called up to read the sidra. In leaving the syna- 


Yeshibah 
Culture, 
17th Cen- 
tury. 


gogue, the rosh yeshibah led the students, who were 
followed by the people. OnSabbaths and holy days 
he was visited by the prominent members of the 
community.” 

Yeshibot began to flourish again in the Holy Land 
in the sixteenth century—in Safed under Berab and 
Caro, and in Jerusalem under Leviibn Habib. Some 

private yeshibot were supported by 
In individual donors from abroad; and 
Palestine. this became the prevailing fashion. 
Two brothers named Vega in Leghorn 
supported the yeshibah of Jacob Hagiz in the sev- 
enteenth century. A document dated 1758 and 
copied by Hazan in his bibliography “ Ha-Ma‘alot 
li-Shelomoh ” (p. 102b, Alexandria, 1898) gives a list 
of the yeshibot in Jerusalem at that time and shows 
that a majority of them were supported by private 
charity. The list is interesting as to the details of 
management and the courses of study in the eight- 
eenth century among the Sephardim, and is as 
follows: 


Yeshibat Jacob Pereira: Subsidized by Jacob Pereira of Hol- 
land; income 1,200 piasters per annum; rosh yeshibah, Hakam 
Meyuhas b. Samuel, author of * Peri ha-Adamah,”’ aged 53; 380 
bahurim, 3 melamedim. Order of study: each student sepa- 
rately one halakah; in the afternoon same halakah by all to- 
gether, and also one chapter of Mishnah with commentaries. 

Yeshibat Neweh Shalom: Supported by Isaac di Mayo & Co. 
of Constantinople ; income 700 piasters; rosh yeshibah, Raphael 
Moses Bulah, author of ‘* Get Mekushshar,” etc,; 20 students, 2 
melamedim. Order of study: in the forenoon halakah; in 
the afternoon 5 folios of [Di Vida’s] ‘* Reshit Hokmah,” and 
Tur with “ Bet Yosef.”’ 

Yeshibat Yefa’er ‘Anawim : Supported by Joseph and Raphae} 
Franco of Leghorn; income 600 piasters ; rosh yeshibah, Abra- 
ham ibn Asher, etc. Orderof study: in the forenoon 3 chapters 
of Mishnah with commentaries. 

Yeshibat Hesed le-Abraham u-Binyan Shelomoh: Income 1,000 
piasters; rosh yeshibah, R. Zemah, etc.; 6 bahurim. Order of 
study: in the forenoon 3 hours halakah,.in the afternoon 3 
hours Tur. 

Yeshibat Damesek Eliezer: Supported by Eliezer Ashkenazi ; 
income 450 piasters; rosh yeshibah, Judah Nabon, etc.: 8 stu- 
dents. Order of study: all together one halakah lasting 1% 
hours; the rest of the day each one studies for himself; on 
Wednesday the pupils review what they have studied during 
the past week. 

Yeshibat Keneset Yisrael: Organized by Hayyim ibn ‘Attar 
and supported by donations from abroad; income 600 piasters ; 
rosh yeshibah, Hayyim Mundichi, etc.; 4 bahurim. Study: ha- 
lakah. 

Yeshibat Mordecai Taluk: Supported by Mordecai Taluk; in- 
come 400 piasters; rosh yeshibah, Jonah Nabon, etc.; 4 bahurim. 

Yeshibat Abraham Meyuhas: income 1,000 piasters; rosh ye- 
shibah, Meir Sornaga, ete.; 5 bahurim. Study: halakah 7 hours 
daily. 

Midrash ha-Hasidim ; Rosh yeshibah, Shalom Sherebi, etc. 


Among the rabbis was Abraham ha-Kohen Eskir, 
who never let midnight pass without study, and 
who studied all night on Sabbaths and holy days. 
Three other yeshibot were composed of laymen 
(“ba‘ale battim ”), who studied the Bible, Mishnah, 
and Musar (ethics), The Midrash ha-Hasidim is 
now called “ Bet E],” and is a congregation of caba- 
lists who study the Zohar and the works of Luria. 
The other yeshibot of the Sephardim are still sub- 
sidized by individual donors abroad. The yeshibot 
of the Ashkenazim were not established before the 
latter part of the nineteenth century. 

The drift of the Reform movement in Germany 
from the time of Mendelssohn, when the need of 
secular knowledge became apparent, caused the 
gradual decline of the yeshibot, until they were 


Yeshibah 


partly replaced by the rabbinical and theological 
seminaries. There is now notrace of the great yeshi- 
bot in France or elsewhere in western 
Decline of Europe. When civil rights were 
the granted to the Jews by France in 1831 
Yeshibah. there remained only the yeshibah in 
Metz, officially named “Collége Rab- 
binique,” which, like all other religious institutions, 
was supported out of the public budget. The ye- 
shibah still existed in Bohemia and Moravia, but 
had lost many of its former characteristics. 

The Reform movement on one side and the en- 
snaring Hasidic tendencies on the other caused the 
pupils of the Wilna Gaon to deliberate how they 
might preserve the true Jewish learning and perpet- 
uate the method and style of study inaugurated by 
the Gaon, who was rather opposed to pilpul and the 
hillukim as practised in the yeshibot of Poland. 
With this aim, R. Hayyim, the chief disciple of the 
Gaon, organized in 1803 the celebrated yeshibah of 

Volozhin, a smajl town in the govern- 
Volozhin ment of Wilna, and his own birth- 
Yeshibah. place. His chief object was to make 
the students independent of private 
charity; and, being a merchant and possessing con- 
siderable wealth, he provided at first for the comfort 
of the students out of his own means, maintaining 
some at his table and paying for the board and 
lodging of others. He started with ten students, 
and when the number became too large for his 
means, he issued appeals for assistance to the neigh- 
boring communities, which were promptly re- 
sponded to. At the time of his death in 1828 the 
number of students was about 100. The yeshibah 
was continued under the leadership of his son R. 
Tsaac and his son-in-law R. Hillel; and in 1854 
Naphtali Zebi Berlin, a son-in-law of R. Isaac, suc- 
ceeded to the position of rosh yeshibah of Volozhin. 
The Maskilim advocated the introduction into the 
yeshibah of secular sciences and modern methods of 
pedagogy; and the attention of the government 
having been drawn to the matter, it decided to close 
the yeshibah in 1879. Two years later Berlin suc- 
ceeded in inducing the government to revoke the 
edict, and reopened the yeshibah, which he con- 
ducted with renewed energy till 1891; it was then 
closed again by the government, which accused 
some of the students of having joined the revolu- 
tionary movement, After Berlin’s death in 1893 
the yeshibah was reopened under the management 
of Joseph Baer Soloveichik. At present (1905) 
there are about 200 students, and the rosh yeshibah 
is Raphael Schapiro. 

Under the leadership of Berlin the Volozhin ye- 
shibah attained its highest efficiency, having nearly 
400 students, among whom were about 60 perushim. 
The cost of its maintenance was about 40,000 rubles 
annually, which sum was collected by meshullahim 
in Russia and America. 
flocked to this yeshibah from all parts of Europe and 
even from America. The rich students simply fol- 
lowed the advice of the Mishnah: “ Wander forth to 
a home of the Torah” (Ab. iv. 18). Those students 
who received a regular allowance from home and 
paid their own expenses were known as “ kistnikers” 
(= “easy boarders”), while the poor students who 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Poor and rich students alike | 


598 


depended on the weekly allowance of the halukkah 
from the yeshibah fund were called “ wochernikers” 
(= “weeklies”). The amount ranged from 60 to 75 
copecks per week for the bahurim, and from 2 to 
3 rubles per week for the perushim, who sent about 
two-thirds of the allowance home to support their 
families. A special fund created by Brodsky draws 
an income which provides 20 perushim with 4 
rubles each per week. Books were furnished free by 
the yeshibah. The small stipend was not sufficient 
to provide food, lodging, and clothing for the indi- 
gent students, and the majority of them were obliged 
to lodge in the class-rooms of the yeshibah or its an- 
nex, sleeping on the floor, on the seats, or on the 
tables in both summer and winter, and having as 
bedding sacks of straw seldom furnished with linen, 
They endured great privation, as described in the 
injunction: “Eat a morsel of bread with salt, 
drink water by measure, sleep upon the ground, and 
live a life of tribulation whilst thou toilest in the 
Torah” (Ab. vi. 4). Some students were invited to 
board free one day in the week in the houses of the 
charitably disposed. In fact, the charitable spirit 
of the town was remarkable; the poorest washer- 
woman deemed it her duty to give board to one or 
two students systematically during one or two days 
a week, and there was hardly a Jewish family in 
the town that did not shelter in its house one or 
more students every night, these lodgers taking 
regular turns one night a week. The days for free 
lodging were called in the yeshibah vernacular 
“eating days.” 

The students in the yeshibah were grouped ac- 
cording to the cities whence they came. Thus one 
would be known as “Jtzel der Kovner” (Isaac 
of Kovno) and another as “ Getzil der Warsawer.” 
Some received the title “‘illui” (= “the excel- 
jent ”) or “matmid” (= “diligent student”), such a 
one being known, for example, as “Der Kovner 

‘THui” or “Der Lomzer Matmid,” as- 
Organiza- suming that only one from a town 


tion. was so designated. The title was 
given by the general consent of the 
students, They studied singly or in pairs, there be- 


ing no classes in the general sense of the term; the 
single pupils or pairs studied according to their 
grade of learning, asking explanations of difficult 
passages from those of a higher grade or from the 
rosh yeshibah. Nearly all studied the Talmud and 
poskim, and more especially the laws relating to 
civil and religious matters in common practise. 
The Haggadah of the Talmud was excluded from 
their studies. The only occasion on which the stu- 
dents were together was when the rosh yeshibah 
delivered his lecture, called “shi‘ur,” for a certain 
“sugya” (lesson) on a halakic subject, which lasted 
about two hours; after this the students discussed 
the subject. among themselves and with the rosh 
yeshibah. This generally took place in the after- 
noon session, but sometimes the assistant rosh yeshi- 
bah delivered a similar lecture in theforenoon. The 
rest of the session was spent in studying the subject 
of the shi‘ur beforehand, or in private study. 
Sometimes the rosh yeshibah would call in to see 
if the students attended to their studies. Besides 
there were “mashgihim ” (supervisors), whose duty 


599 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Yeshibah 


was to watch the class-rooms as monitors and keep 
the students from idling. They served also in the 
capacity of censors or inquisitors, especially to see 
that no student smuggled into the yeshibah Neo- 
Hebrew books or modern literature, such as novels 
or works that developed “liberal” views on relig- 
ion. Such books were characterized by the “ mash- 
giah ” as “terefah” and “pasul,” 2.¢., not fit to be 
read. When a student was detected reading sucha 
book he was reprimanded, fined, or suspended by 
the rosh yeshibah. The Volozhin mashgihim, how- 
ever, did not go beyond the enclosure of the school, 
and the student was not interfered with outside of 
the yeshibah when reading “sefarim hizonim” 
(books outside of the Jewish sphere), These su- 
pervisors even encouraged the students to acquire 
secular knowledge in private, but those in other 
yeshibot were more strict in this respect. 

The official hours of study extended from sunrise 
to sunset, time being allowed for prayers and meals; 
but the enthusiasm of some students knew no 
bounds, and they often studied till midnight. The 
yeshibah was open all night, and the cost of candles 
was a large item in its expenditure. Usually, how- 
ever, the night sessions were suspended between the 
15th of Iyyar and the 15th of Ab (three summer 
months) in compliance with the advice of R. Judah 
he-Hasid (“Sefer Hasidim,” § 565, old ed.). Vaca- 
tion time was in the holiday months of Nisan and 
Tishri, when the perushim went home to their fam- 
ilies and the bahurim to their parents to enjoy the 
holidays. Those who remained in Volozhin visited 
the house of the rosh yeshibah and entertained them- 
selves by singing “zemirot” and drinking “le-hay- 
yim,” z.e., toasting long life to the rosh yeshibah. 
“At the conclusion of every ‘zemer’ [song] a stu- 
dent knocks with his fist on the table and cries, 
‘Hurrah for the rabbi!’ and all answer, ‘ Hurrah, 
hurrah, hurrah!’” (“Ha-Shahar,” viii. 166, note). 
Another enjoyable occasion was at the completion 
of a “ masseket” or “seder” (Styyum), when all stu- 
dents and invited guests participated in an elaborate 
meal, 

In almost every Russian town with a large Jew- 
ish population there are yeshibot under the imme- 
diate supervision of the local rabbis, but account is 
taken here only of those which established a wide 
reputation and attracted students from the neigh- 

boring towns and foreign countries. 
Other The yeshibah of Minsk, presided over 

Yeshibot first by Aryeh Loeb, author of “Sha’a- 

in Russia. gat Aryeh” (d. 1785), and later by 

Joshua Eisik Harif, preceded the ye- 
Shibah of Volozhin. In 1831ayeshibah was founded 
at Wilna by a band of forty young scholars, and 
was known as the “Ferziglach”(= “party of 
forty”). The rosh yeshibah was David Cohen, the 
“Kosover.” In the same year a yeshibah named 
after R. Maila was organized there under the presi- 
dency of R. Mordecai and R. Eliezer Teitz. The 
Maila yeshibah still (1905) exists; and its cost of 
Maintenance is about 5,000 rubles annually (“ Ozar 
ha-Sifrut,” iv. 582; “Ha-Asif,” 1885, p. 149). Two 
Other yeshibot, one founded by Mordecai Melzer 
(Klatzki) and the other by Israel Salanter, were 
Opposed to each other in the mode of learning, the 


former adopting the style of pilpul and the latter 
that of peshat (logical reasoning). 

Other noted yeshibot are at Slonim, Mir, and 
Kisheshok. The yeshibah of Slobotka was organ- 
ized by Israel Salanter. The yeshibah at Kovno 
was opened in 1872 by Isaac Blazer (now in Jerusa- 
lem) under the auspices of Isaac Elhanan Spector, 
being attended mainly by perushim. In 1877 a 
banker of Berlin named Lachman donated 75,000 
rubles in property for the maintenance of this ye- 
Shibah (see “ Ha-Meliz,” 1888, Nos, 177, 186). The 
yeshibah at Vitebsk conducted by Zalman Landau, 
later rabbi in St. Petersburg, was noted for the 
method by which its students learned in company 
every halakah in Talmud according to the decision 
in the codes (= xnzo xaby Nn por). AtChelm 
(government of Kovuo) Simhah Siissel conducted a 
yeshibah with a somewhat more modern method 
(about 1880). In 1882 Isaac Jacob Reines proposed 
to meet the demandsof the government by establish- 
ing a yeshibah with a ten-year course, during which 
the student was to acquire the rabbinical knowledge 
necessary for ordination as a rabbi, and at the same 
time secure the secular education required of a gov- 
ernment, rabbi. The plan met with opposition, 
however, and after an experiment of four years the 
yeshibah was closed by the authorities. Reines 
opened at Lida in 1885 a regular yeshibah on the 
lines of that at Kovno. 

The Hasidim, who were always opposed to the 
yeshibah for spending time on dry legalism instead 
of in “devotion,” recently showed a conciliatory 
spirit and change of opinion by recognizing the 
worth of the yeshibah; and under the leadership of 
their “rebbe” and “zaddik,” Menahem Mendel of 
Lubavitz, they have organized the society Tomeke 
Temimim, which supports no less than four yeshibot. 
They are located at Lubavitz, Zembin, Dokshitz 
(government of Minsk), and Horoditch (government 
of Vitebsk), and are attended by a total of 200 stu- 
dents, with an expenditure of nearly 40,000 rubles 
per annum. 

Hungary is noted for its yeshibot, the most promi- 
nent of which is that of Presburg established by 
Moses Sofer, author of “Hatam Sofer.” Others are 

at Eisenstadt (Kis-Marton), Nyitra, 
In Papa, Mattersdorf (Nagy-Marton), 
Hungary. Szik-Udvarhely, Grosswardein (Nagy- 
Varad), Szatmar, Huszth, and twenty 
other places. These, however, have not established 
so high a reputation as have the Russian yeshibot. 
Ruben Brainin compares the type of the Russian 
yeshibah bahur with that of Hungary, and gives his 
opinion that “the former is more improved inter- 
nally [in mind] and the latter externally [in dress] ” 
(“Ha-Zofeh,” i., No. 219). 

Among the modern yeshibot in Jerusalem is the 
‘Ez Hayyim, organized in 1851, with Eliezer Dan, 
son-in-law of Joseph Scuwarz, as rosh yeshibah. 
This yeshibah has about 100 students and is con- 
nected with a Talmud Torah. It is patronized by 
Rabbi Samuel Salant (see Luncz,“ Luah,” 5664, pp. 
121-167). The yeshibah at Me’ah She‘arim, a suburb 
of Jerusalem, has about 100 students. The rosh 
yeshibah is Rabbi S. H. Hurwitz, known as the 
“Dubrowner.” Yeshibat Ohel Mosheh has about 35 


Yeshibah 
Yezer ha-Ra‘ 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


600 


students, and Jacob Urnstein is its rosh yeshibah. 
It was founded by R. Diskin. The principal yeshi- 
bah is the Torat Hayyim, with about 150 students, 
and Isaac Winegrad asrosh yeshibah. The Sephar- 
dim maintain the Tif’eret Yerushalayim and other 
private yeshibot. 

The yeshibah system was transplanted in Amer- 
ica by the Russian immigrants. The first yeshibah, 

‘Ez Hayyim (Talmudical academy), 
In was organized in 1886 in New York, 
America. and owns its school property at 85 
Henry street. Its general expense is 
$5,000 per annum, and the average attendance about 
175 students, with 6 melammedim teaching as many 
classes; namely, 2 for Humesh (Pentateuch) and 4 
for Talmud, consisting of the three Babot (Bb. K., B. 
M., B. B.) with Rashi. The hours of study are from 
9 A.M. to12 mM. and from 1 to 4 p.m. for Hebrew, 
and from 4 to6 p.m. for English secular subjects. 
Saturday is review day for the Hebrew studies of 
the week. The course of study requires from three 
to four years. 

Yeshibat Rabbenu Jacob Joseph, located at 197 
Henry street, New York, was organized in 1902. 
The president and general superintendent is Samuel 
Isaac Andron, and the principal R. Meir Hecht. 
There are about 250 students, with 8 teachers and as 
many classes, including 2 in English and 2in Tal- 
mud. Hebrew studies last from 8.80 a.m. to 12M. 
and from 1 to 3.80 p.m.; English studies from 4 to 
7pm. The course occupies three years. The Eng- 
lish students are prepared for entrance examinations 
for public grammar-school and college. 

The most important yeshibah in New York is 
Yeshibat Rabbi Isaac Elhanan (Theological Sem- 
inary Association), organized in 1897 and located at 
156 Henry street. It has about eighty students, 
ranging in age from thirteen to twenty-three. Dr. 
Philip (Hillel) Klein is president, and Nahum Dan 
Barhon is mashgiah, with Moses Léb Schapiro as 
rosh yeshibah and Solab and Hirschberg as his assist- 
ants. Hach student receives a stipend of $38 per 
week and clothing; expenditure about $15,000 per 
annum. The Talmud and posekim are the only sub- 
jects taught there, chief attention being given the 
treatises of the three Babot, Gittin, Ketubot, and 
Kiddushin. Of the Shulhan ‘Aruk only Yoreh 
De‘ah, Hoshen Mishpat, and Eben ha-‘Ezer are 
studied. After a course of three or four years the 
graduates receive semikah. One of the graduates, 
Naphtali Rosenberg, was elected rabbi of Syracuse, 
N. Y. This yeshibah is planned on the model of 
thatof Volozhin. Other yeshibot of less importance 
are in Boston, Philadelphia, Pittsburg, and Chicago. 

The advocates of the yeshibah system contend 
that it is still necessary to produce a true rabbinical 
training. Thus Isaac Hirsch Weiss says that it re- 
quires at least ten years of diligent study, and 
scrupulous and strict examination, before the hat- 
tarat hora’ah is issued to a candidate. Weiss ad- 
mits, however, the need for a modern rabbi to be 
familiar with modern knowledge and literature 
(“ Zikronotai,” pp. 78-83). Isaac Rabbinowitz, the 
Hebrew poet, remarks that experiments with the 
Rabbinerschule in Wilna and Jitomir have proved 
the impossibility of producing in the modern schools 


of learning acceptable rabbis for the old-fashioned 
Russian congregations (“Ha-Kerem,” p. 33, War- 
saw, 1887). See TauMup Torag. 


and Zevin, in Jewish Comment, 1908, Nos. 24-26; Ha-Ze 

1901, No. 247; Barditchewski, in Ha-Asif, 1887, p. 242: Ha- 
Kerem, pp. 33-82. For New York yeshibot: 8, Lederhandler, 
in New Era Itt. Magazine, March and April, 1905. 

J J. D. E. 


YESHU‘AH (JESHUAH) BEN ELIJAH 
HA-LEVI: African scholar and, perhaps, litur- 
gical poet; of unknown date. He collected the 
poems of JuDAH Ha-LEVI into a diwan, provi- 
ding the volume with an Arabic introduction and 
heading most of the poems with superscriptions in 
which both the contents and the occasion of each 
poem are indicated. In the introduction, which 
was translated into German by Geiger (“ Nachgelas- 
sene Schriften,” iii. 154), Yeshu‘ah says that he 
utilized three collections of his predecessors, Hiyya 
al-Ma‘arabi, David b. Maimon, and Abu Sa‘id ibn 
Alkash; but he added many more poems, for which 
he does not guarantee Judah’s authorship. Sachs 
(“ Religidse Poesie,” p. 290, note 2) identifies the 
subject of this article with the author of the two 
poems found in the Tripolitan Mahzor, one a “ piz- 
mon” beginning “ Ye‘erab sihi lifne kadosh” and 
signed “Yeshu‘ah,” and the other a “mustajab” 
beginning “Emune lIebab habinu” and signed 
“Yeshu‘ah Hazzan.” Both are to be recited on 
Yom Kippur night. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, p. 671; Landshuth, 
ee ha- Abodah, p. 132; Zunz, Literaturgesch. pp. 

E. C. M. SEL. 


YESHU‘AH (JESHUAH) BEN JOSEPH 
HA-LEVI: Algerian Talmudist of the fifteenth cen- 
tury; bornatTlemcen. In 1467, owing to the massa- 
cres of the Jews of Tlemcen committed by the 
Spaniards at that time, Yeshu‘ah, still a young man, 
fled from his native town, with the intention of re- 
turning thither when the troubles should be over. 
He arrived at Toledo about 1469, and there received 
the hospitality of Don Vidal ibn Labi, the head of a 
flourishing school in that city. Perceiving that the 
young Algerian possessed a profound knowledge of 
the Talmud, Don Vidal requested him to write a 
methodology of the Talmud, which he would estab- 
lish as the standard manual for the yeshibot. 
Yeshu‘ah accordingly wrote the “Halikot ‘Olam” 
(Lisbon or Spain, ¢. 1490), a methodology of the 
Talmud in five “ gates” (“she‘arim ”) or parts, each 
divided into chapters. The first gate treats of the 
order of the Mishnah and the manner of its compo- 
sition; the second, of the method of the Gemara; 
the third, of the method of the Mishnah; the fourth, 
of the hermeneuticrules; and the fifth, of the method 
of the halakic decisions. In his preface Yeshu‘ah 
praises his principal teacher, Jacob ha-Kohen Ash- 
kenazi, and his benefactor, Don Vidal, whom he 
also eulogizes in a metrical poem at the end of the 
preface. This work was republished severa: times; 
and in 1684 an edition was issued in Leyden witha 
Latin translation made by L’Empereur. Later, 
Henry Jacob Bashuysen reedited it with L’Em- 


601 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Yeshibah 
Yezer ha-Ra‘ 


pereur’s Latin translation and with notes of his 
own (Hanau, 1714). Finally, an adaptation from it 
was made by J. J. Struve under the title “ Logice 
Hebraicie Rudimenta” (Jena, 1697). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, p. 672; First, Bibl. 
Jud. ii. 64-65; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. cols. 1892-1393. 


E. C. M. SEL. 

YEVREISKAYA BIBLIOTEKA. Sce Rvs- 
sta, PERIODICALS. 

YEZER HA-RA‘: Evil inclination or impulse, 
popularly identified with the lusts of the flesh. 
The idea is derived from Gen. viii. 21: “the imag- 
ination of the heart of man is evil from his youth,” 
Yet from the use of the two “ yods ” in Gen. fi. 7, the 
Rabbis deduced that there are in man two Yezarim: 
the good (Yezer Tob) and the evil (Ber. 61a). 
Cain defended himself before God for having slain 
Abel by arguing that God had implanted in him the 
Yezer ha-Ra‘ (Tan., Bereshit, 25 [ed. Buber, p. 10]). 
“Tt lies at the door of the heart like a fly” (Ber. 61a; 
comp. BEELZEBUB). Yet ina way the Yezerha-Ra‘, 
like all things which God made (Gen. i. 31), is good. 
Without it, for example, a man would never marry, 
beget, build a house, or trade (Gen. R. ix. 9). There- 
fore, man is enjoined to love God with both the 
Yezarim implied in “with all thy heart” of the 
Shema‘ (Sifre, Deut. 82 fed. Friedmann, p. 78a]). 
It would appear that the Yezer Tob comes with 
reflection, and at the age of bar mizwah or confir- 
mation, because itis said to be thirteen years younger 
than the Yezer ha-Ra‘, which is an inborn impulse 
(Eccl. R. ix. 14). The Yezer Tob delivers the cita- 
del of the body from tbe Yezer ha-Ra‘ by means of 
temperance and good works (Ned. 32b). The “little 
city ” of Eccl. ix. 14, 15is interpreted by the Targum 
and Eccl. R. (ad loc.) as the kingdom of the heart, 
and the “great king” who comes against it as the 
Yezer ha-Ra’‘. 

According to the Rabbis, the Yezer ha-Ra‘ has 
seven different epithets in the Bible: evil (Gen. viii. 
21); uncircumcised (Deut. x. 16); unclean (Ps. li. 
12); the enemy (Prov. xxv. 21); stumbling-block 
(Isa. lvii. 14); stone (Ezek. xxxvi. 26); and hidden 
(Joel ii. 20). 

The greater the man the greater his Yezer ha-Ra'; 
and it is among the four things which God regretted 
to have created (Suk. 52a, b). It is identified with 
Satan and with the angel of death (B. B. 16a; 
comp. Maimonides, “ Moreh,” ii. 12, iii. 22). Against 
the Yezer ha-Ra‘ the Torah is the great antidote 
(Suk. 52b; Kid. 30b; Ab. R. N. 16). The Yezer 
ba-Ra‘ grows with a man, as is deduced from the 
parable in II Sam. xii. 4. At first it is a mere trav- 
eler; then it becomesa guest; andatlastit is the man 
himself (Suk. 52b). Yet the heart of man contains 
both the Yezer ha-Ra‘ and the Yezer Tob, as is de- 
duced by Midrash Tehillim from Ps. ix. 

“Yezer ha-Ra‘” does not refer exclusively to the 
body ; this can be inferred from its close association 
With the Yezer Tob. It undoubtedly leads to sen- 
sual sins with great power; hence 
both Akiba and Meir were saved from 
its influence only by heavenly inter- 
cession (Kid. 81a). It was toavoid the 
temptations of the Yezer ha-Ra‘ that women were 
ordered to take separate seats in the galleries of 


Charac- 
teristics. 


synagogues (Suk. 51b). Revenge and avarice are 
also given as the outcome of the Yezer ha-Ra’‘ (Sifre, 
Deut. 33 [ed. Friedmann, p. 74a]); and anger is an- 
other of its manifestations. Ps. Ixxxi. 10 (A. V. 9) 
is interpreted as referring to the Yezer to whose influ- 
ence one should not yield (Shab. 105b), submission 
being, therefore, compared to idolatry (Yer. Ned. 
Alb). It is with reference to anger that he is called 
mighty who overcomes his Yezer ha-Ra‘ (Ab. iv. 2). 
Vanity is still another form in which the Yezer ha- 
Ra‘ displaysitself. When the Yezer sees a conceited 
man it says: “He is mine” (Gen. R. xxii. 18), The 
Yezer ha-Ra‘ belongs only to this world, and does 
not exist in angels or other higher beings (Lev. R. 
xxvi.). It is for this reason that there is no eating 
or drinking, procreation or barter, envy or hatred, 
in the world to come (Ber. 17a; comp. Mark xii. 25, 
and synoptic parallels). 

In a discussion between Rabbi and the emperor 
Antoninus, the latter contends that the Yezer ha-Ra‘ 
comes to man at birth, and not before, and Rabbi 
agrees (Sanh. 91b). All the sportive deviltry of 
young children is attributed to the Yezer ha-Ra‘ 
(Eccl. R. iv.13). The Yezer ha-Ra‘ was not due to 
man, but to God as the Creator of all; but man is 
responsible for yielding to its influence, since he, as 
has been seen above, is able to put it to a good use. 
Hence the Yezer ha-Ra‘ is placed on a level with 
the woman and the child: the left hand should re- 
ject it, while the right hand draws it near (Sotah 
4%a; Sanh. 107b). Under the Second Temple the 
Yezer ha-Ra‘ continued to exist because needed in 
the world. The Rabbis interpret Neh. ix. 4s re- 
ferring to the call of the people: “ Wo, wo, it is the 
Yezer ha-Ra‘. He destroyed the sanctuary, killed 
the righteous, drove the Israelites out of their land, 
and still dances amongus, Why was he given unto 
us? Only that we may receive reward for conquer- 
ing him.” The Israelites are then reported to have 
got rid of the Yezer of idolatry and of the grosser 
forms of unchastity, but found it necessary to pre- 
serve the Yezer ha-Ra‘ lest the world should come to 
an end (Yoma 69b; comp. Sanh. 64a), It has been 
conjectured by Taylor that the clause in the Lord’s 
Prayer, “ Deliver us from evil,” is probably “ Deliver 
us from the evil Yezer” (“Sayings of the Jewish 
Fathers,” pp. 128-130, 186-192). 

There is a tendency to give personality and sepa- 
rate activity to the Yezer, as in the case of the 
angel of death and of Satan, with each of whom, 

indeed, it is identified (B. B. 16a). 

Personifi- Objections to the Law which in Sifra 
cation. 86a are attributed to the Yezer are 
in Yoma 67b attributed to Satan. 


According to R. Jonathan, the Yezer, like Satan, 


misleads man in this world, and testifies against him 
in the world to come (Suk. 52b). Hence in the 
prayers one asks to be delivered “from evil man 
and from evil act, from evil Yezer, from evil com- 
panion, from evil neighbor, and from Satan” (Ber. 
16b). Here, however, the Yezer is clearly distin- 
guished from Satan. On other occasions it is made 
exactly parallel to sin. Thus, in Gen. R. xxii. 11 
the parable of II Sam. xii. 4 is applied to sin, 
though elsewhere it is applied to the Yezer (see 
above). Similarly, Akiba interprets Isa, v. 18 as 


Yezer ha-Ra'‘ 
Yezirah, Sefer 


applying to sin, while Rab Ashi applies it to the 
Yezer (Suk. 52a). “At the beginning they are 
like the thread of the spinning web, at the end like 
a cart rope.” The connection of the Yezer with 
habit is exactly parallel to the growth of sin through 
habit. Man’s Yezer overpowers him every day 
(Kid, 30b). At first it befools him; then it dwells 
in him (comp. Hos. iv. 12, v. 4). So too Ps. 
Xxxvi. 2, “sin speaks to the wicked,” is applied to 
the Yezer ha-Ra‘ (Ab. R. N. 82). In the same pas- 
sage all men are divided into three classes: the 
righteous, under the rule of the Yezer Tob; the 
wicked, under the rule of the Yezer ha-Ra‘; and 
the middle class, ruled now by one, now by the 
other. According to others, there are only two 
classes: the righteous with the good Yezer; and the 
wicked, who submit to the evil Yezer (Eccl. R. iv. 
15, 16). The first part of Eccl. xi. 9 is said to re- 
late to the joy of youth derived from the Yezer 
ha-Ra‘; the latter part indicates that God will bring 
all transgressors under judgment to the Yezer Tob 
(Shab. 63a). . 

Just as iron can be made into all sorts of vessels 
if cast into the fire, so one can make the Yezer ha- 
Ra‘ useful by words of the Law; for it is learned 
from Prov. xxv. 21 that “if thine enemy be hungry 
[that is, “when the Yezer ha-Ra‘ prompts thee ”] 

give him bread to eat” (1.e., bread of 

The Law the Law; Pesik., ed. Buber, 80b). Both 

the Yezarim are to be utilized; similarly 
Antidote. a man having two oxen, one meant 
for plowing and the other not, puts the 
yokeupon both. The promise of Gen. iv. 7 isapplied 
to the Yezer ha-Ra‘ (Kid. 30b). There isa contrast of 
strength between the two Yezarim; hence, “ Blessed 
is he that considereth the poor ” (Ps. xli. 2) isapplied 
to him who makes the poor and weak Yezer Tob 
rule over the Yezer ha-Ra‘ (Lev. KR. xxxiv.). 
Though the latter is seemingly so powerful, resistance 
easily overcomes it, as Abraham found after it had 
brought about the Flood and the dispersion of the na- 
tions (Gen. xxii. 12). Ifa man find that the Yezer 
ha- Ra‘ is too strong for him, he should go to a place 
where he is not known, and not profane the name 
of heaven openly (Hag. 16a). The Law is like a 
plaster to the wound made by the Yezer ha-Ra‘; if 
the plaster is taken away, an evil ulcer will come 
forth (Kid. 30b). Or, again, the Law will wear away 
the Yezer aS water wears away stone (Suk. 52b). 
As the Law is called a stone(Ex. xxiv. 12), and the 
Yezer ha-Ra‘ also is called a stone (2b. xxxvi. 26), 
let. one stone guard the other stone (Cant. R. vi. 11). 
The stone of Gen. xxix. 2 is also compared to the 
Yezer ha-Ra‘: as the stone is rolled away from the 
mouth of the well, so the Yezer ha-Ra‘ departs 
when men go into the synagogue to drink of the 
Law (Gen. R, Ixx, 8); hence, the night prayer said 
in connection with the “Shema‘” includes the 
clause “let not the Yezer ha-Ra‘ rule in me” 
(Ber. 60b). 

God will finally destroy the Yezer ha-Ra’‘, as is 
promised in Ezek. xxxvi. 26. Yet to the righteous 
who have struggled against it, it will appear like a 
high mountain; but to the wicked, like a hair (Suk. 
52a). It is because the Yezer ha-Ra‘ anticipates 
this final punishment that it brings man to destruc- 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


602 


tion (Ab. R. N, 16). Meanwhile, like a stone (sea 

above), it gradually crumblesaway until it no longer 

forms a stumbling-block. 

While the expression “ yezer” is used both in Deut. 
xxxi. 21 and in Isa. xxvi. 3 for the disposition or 
mind, “heart” or “evil heart ” usually takes its place 

in Biblical theology as the seat and 

Rise of the power of temptation and sin in man. 

Idea. The first definitive passage in which 
the term occurs is in the lately recov- 

ered Hebrew text of Ecclus. (Sirach) xv. 14: “God 
created man from the beginning . . . and gave him 
into the hand of his Yezer.” Andin vi. 22(Heb.) man 
is compared to the fruit ofa tree, while his thoughts 
are according to his Yezer. So, too, the “ wicked 
heart” referred to in Ezra iv. 18 is analogous to the 

Yezer ha-Ra‘ in being offset by the Law and in not 

having power to overcome the Law, and also be- 

cause God will ultimately remove it. This is an 

approach to the dualism of Paul (Rom. vii. 7-24), 

but the contrast between the flesh and the spirit 

nowhere exists in Jewish theology, and is probably 
derived from Plato. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: F.C. Porter, The Yecer Hara, in Fale Bih- 
lical and Semitic Studies, pp. 91-156, New York, 1901 ; Taylor, 
Sayings of the Jewish Fathers, 2d ed., pp. 37, 68 ef seq., 70, 
77, 82, 98, 128-180, 140, 147-152, 186-192; Lazarus, Ethics of 
Judaism, § 238, 

E. C. J. 

YEZIRAH, SEFER (77'y" 15D = “Book of 
Creation”): The title of two esoteric books. Of 
these the older is also called “ Hilkot Yezirah ” (Rules 
of Creation), and is a thaumaturgical work that was 
popular in the Talmudic period. “On the eve of 
every Sabbath, Judah ha-Nasi’s pupils, Rab Hanina 
and Rab Hoshaiah, who devoted themselvesespecially 
to cosmogony, used to create a three-year-old calf by 
means of the ‘ Sefer Yezirah,’ and ate it on the Sab- 
bath” (Sanh. 65b, 67b). According to the tradition 
given by Rashi on both passages, this miracle was ac- 
complished by the letters of the Holy Name (“zeruf 
otiyyot”), and not by witchcraft. In like manner, 
according to Rab, Bezaleel, the architect of the Tab- 
ernacle in the wilderness, worked by the permuta- 
tions of the letters with which God created heaven 
and earth (Ber. 55a), AJl the miraculous creations 
attributed to other amoraim in Sanh. 65b and Yer. 
Sanh. 52d are ascribed by the commentators to the use 
of the same thaumaturgical book. Such a work, en- 
titled Koopuorozia (“ Creation of the World”), circulated 
in many forms among the Gnostics of the second 
century B.c., and was a combination, as Dieterich 
(“ Abraxas,” pp. 8-31) has shown, of many Jewish, 

Greek, and Egyptian names and ele- 

The Power ments. It formed also part of magic 
of papyri. Its basal idea is that the same 

the Name. mystic powers that wereat work in the 
creation of the world should also aid 

the magician in performing his miraculous feats (20. 

pp. 136 et seqg.), While in the cosmogony of ABRAX- 

As, however, the seven worlds were created by the 

emission of seven sounds followed by three others, the 

older cosmogonies, which were neare. their Egy ptian 
sources, make the twenty-eight letters corresponding 
to the twenty-eight daysof the astrological calendar 
the creative elements constituting both the names and 
the essence of the Deity (Reizenstein, “ Poimandres,” 


603 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Yezer ha-Ra' 
Yezirah, Sefer 


pp. 256-291). Both the macrocosm (the universe) 
and the microcosm (man) are viewed in this system 
as products of the combination and permutation of 
these mystic characters (7. pp. 261, 267), and such a 
use of the letters by the Jews for the formation of 
the Holy Name for thaumaturgical purposes is at- 
tested by magic papyri that quote an “Angelic 
Book of Moses,” which was full of allusions to Bib- 
jical names (Reizenstein, /.c. pp. 14, 56). 

While the mystic use of letters and numbers un- 
doubtedly points to a Babylonian origin, the idea of 
the creative power of the various sounds is Egyp- 
tian, aS well as the division of the letters into the 
three classes of vowels, mutes, and sonants is Hel- 
lenic, although this classification necessarily under- 
went certain changes when applied to 
the Hebrew letters. The origin of the 
“Sefer Yezirah ” is accordingly placed 
by Reizenstein (/.c. p. 291) in the second century 
B.c. Some data regarding the age of this system 
may also be derived from the work of Philo of 
Byblos on the Phenician letters, in which they are 
explained as symbols of the (Egyptian) gods and at 
the same time as cosmic “elements” (see Baudissin, 
“Studien zur Semitischen Religionsgeschichte,” i. 
18, 270). How far these mystic uses of the alphabet 
influenced the rabbis of the Talmudic period is still 
a problem. Rabof Babylonia combined the ten crea- 
tive potencies with the Forty-two-Lettered Name and 
the twelve letters which constitute the Holy Name 
(see Bacher, “Ag. Bab. Amor.” pp. 17-20), and R. 
Akiba in particular was credited with a knowledge 
of the mystic significance of the letters (Bacher, “Ag. 
Tan.” i. 847-348). When, therefore, the rational- 
istic “Sefer Yezirah” was developed from the thau- 
maturgical work of the same name, which was known 
only to a few, the authorship was ascribed to Akiba. 
The closing mishnah (vi. 15), however, expressly de- 
clares that Abraham was the recipient of the divine 
revelation of mystic lore; so that the oldest geonim 
(see Hai Gaon in the responsum cited in “ Kerem He- 
med,” viii. 57)and such philosophers as Saadia, Don- 
nolo, and Judah ha-Levi (“Cuzari,” iv. 25) never 
doubted that Abraham was the author of the book. 

It is noteworthy that in a manuscript (see Margo- 
liouth, “Catalogue of the Hebrew and Samaritan 
Manuscripts of the British Museum,” part IT,, p. 190) 
the “Sefer Yezirah” is called “ Hilkot Yezirah ” and 
leclared to be treated as esoteric lore not accessible to 
any but the really pious (comp. 2. p. 255, where it is 
mentioned as being used by Nahmanides for caba- 
listic purposes). K. 

The later “Sefer Yezirah” is devoted to specula- 
tions concerning God and the angels. The ascription 
of its authorship to R. Akiba, and even to Abraham, 
shows the high esteem which it enjoyed for centuries, 
It may even be said that this work had a greater in- 
fluence on the development of the Jewish mind than 

almost any other book after the com- 

Infimence. pletion of the Talmud. The Aristote- 
liar. Saadia, the Neoplatonist Ibn 

Gabirol, thespeculative cabalists of France, and the 
mystics of Germany deemed themselves justified in 
deriving their docttines from this remarkable work, 
althou ghit often suffered the same treatment as other 
Sacred books, since its commentators read into it far 


Origin. 


more thanthetextimplied. The“Sefer Yezirah” is 
exceedingly difficult to understand on account of its 
obscure, half-mystical style, and the difficulty is ren- 
dered still greater by the lack of a critical edition, the 
present text being admittedly much interpolated and 
altered. Hence there is a wide divergence of opinion 
regarding the age, origin, contents, and value of the 
book, since itis variously regarded as pre-Christian, 
Essene, Mishnaic, Talmudic, or geonic. 

As the book is the first speculative treatise in He- 
brew, and at the same time the earliest known work 
on the Hebrew language, the philological part may 

be discussed first, since it is necessary 


The for an elucidation of the philosophical 
Phonetic speculationsofthe work. The twenty- 
System. two letters of the Hebrew alphabet 


are classified both with reference to 

the position of the vocal organs in producing the 
sounds, and with regard to sonant intensity. In 
contrast to the Jewish grammarians, who assumed a 
special mode of articulation for each of the five 
groups of sounds, the “Sefer Yezirah” says that no 
sound can be produced without the tongue, to which 
the other organs of speech merely lend assistance. 
Hence the formation of the letters is described as 
follows: y"nns with the tip of the tongue and the 
throat; }"pia between the lips and the tip of the 
tongue; p’D*} in the middle ((?innve Sy by) of the 
tongue; n’xs04 by the tip of the tongue; and po"wot 
by the tongue, which lies flat and stretched, and 
by the teeth (ii. 8). The letters are distinguished, 
moreover, by the intensity of the sound necessary to 
produce them, and are accordingly divided into: 
mutes, which are unaccompanied by sound, such 
as, which the book calls nony 1h; sibilants, such 
as Y, which is therefore called npnww, the “ hiss- 
ing shin”; and aspirates, such as &, which holds a 
position between the mutes and sibilants, and is des- 
ignated as the “airy &, which holds the balance in 
the middle” (iv. 1; in some eds. ii. 1). Besides these 
three letters (w"DN), which are called “mothers,” a 
distinction is also drawn between the seven “ double ” 
letters (NNDDII35) and the twelve “simple” letters 
MiMiws)), the remaining characters of the alphabet. 
The linguistic theories of the author of the “Sefer 
Yezirah” are an integral component of his philos- 
ophy, its other parts being astrological and Gnostic 
cosmogony. The three letters w'tN are not only 
the three “mothers” from which the other letters of 
the alphabet are formed, but they are also symbolical 
figures for the three primordial elements, the sub- 
stances which underlie all existence. The mute 
1 is the symbol of the water in which the mute fish 
live; the hissing w corresponds to the hissing fire; 
and the airy & represents the air; while as the air 
occupies a middle position between the fire which 
reaches upward and the water which tends down- 
ward, so the & is placed between the mute and the 
hissing w. According to the “Sefer 
Yezirah,” the first emanation from the 
spirit of God was the myn (= “spirit,” 
“air”) that produced fire, which, inits 
turn, formed the genesis of water. In the begin- 
ning, however, these three substances had only a 
potential existence, and came into actual being only 
by means of the three letters w"oN; and as these are 


Cos- 
mogony. 


Yezirah, Sefer 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


604 


the principal parts of speech, so those three sub- 
stances are the elements from which the cosmos has 
been formed. The cosmos consists of three parts, 
the world, the year (or time), and man, which are com- 
bined in such a way that the three primordial ele- 
ments are contained in each of the three categories. 
The water formed the earth; heaven was produced 
from the fire; and the ny\y produced the air between 
heavenandearth. ‘The three seasons of the year, win- 
ter, summer, and the rainy season (9°)4), correspond 
to water, fire, and My in the same way as man con- 
sists of a head (corresponding to fire), torso (rep- 
resented by min), and the other parts of the body 
(equivalent to water). The seven double letters 
produced the seven planets, the “seven days,” and 
the seven apertures in man (two eyes, two ears, 
two nostrils, and one mouth), Again, as the seven 
double letters vary, being pronounced either hard 
or soft, so the seven planets are in continuous 
movement, approaching or receding from the earth. 
The “seven days,” in like manner, were created 
by the seven double letters because they change 
in time according to their relation to the planets. 
The seven apertures in man connect him with the 
outer world as the seven planets join heaven and 
earth. Hence these organs are subject to the in- 
fluence of the planets, the right eye being under 
Saturn, the left eye under Jupiter, and the like. 
The twelve “simple” letters created the twelve 
signs of the zodiac, whose relation to the earth 
is always simple or stable; and to them belong 
the twelve months in time, and the twelve “ leaders ” 
(O°9°19%) in man. The latter are those organs which 
perform functions in the body independent of the 
outside world, being the hands, feet, kidneys, gall, 
intestines, stomach, liver, pancreas, and spleen; and 
they are, accordingly, subject to the twelve signs of 
the zodiac. In its relation to the construction of the 
cosmos, matter consists of the three primordial ele- 
ments, which, however, are not chemically connected 


with one another, but modify one another only phys-. 


ically. Power (divayic) emanates from the seven 
and the twelve heavenly bodies, or, in other words, 
from the planets and the signs of the zodiac. The 
“dragon ” (Sp) rules over the world (matter and the 
heavenly bodies); the sphere (S953) rules time; and 
the heart rules over the human body. The author 
sums up this explanation in a single sentence: “The 
dragon is like to a king on his throne, the sphere 
like a king traveling in his country, and the heart 
like a king at war.” 

While the astrological cosmogony of the book 
contains few Jewish elements, an attempt is made, 
in the account of the creation, to give a Jewish col- 
oring to the Gnostic standpoint. To harmonize the 
Biblical statement of the creation “ex nihilo” with 
the doctrine of the primordial elements, the “Sefer 
Yezirah ” assumes a double creation, one ideal and 
the other real. The first postulate is 
the spirit of God, from which the pro- 
toty pes of matter emanated, the world 
being produced, in its turn, by the 
prototypes of the three primordial substances when 
they became realities. Simultaneously with the pro- 
totypes, orat least before the real world, space was 
produced, and it is here conceived as the three di- 


The 
Creation. 


mensions with their opposite directions. The spirit 
of God, the three primordial elements, and the six 
dimensions of space form the “ten Sefirot,” which, 
like the spirit of God, exist only ideally, being “ ten 
Sefirot without reality ” as the text designates them. 
Their name is possibly derived from the fact that as 
numbers express only the relations of two objects 
to each other, so the ten Sefirot are only abstractions 
and not realities. Again, as the numbers from two 
to ten are derived from the number one, so the ten 
Sefirot are derived from one, the spirit of God. The 
spirit of God, however, is not only the commence- 
ment but also the conclusion of the Sefirot, “their 
end being in their beginning and their beginning in 
their end, even as the flame is connected with the 
coal” (i. 7). Hence the Sefirot must not be conceived 
as emanations in the ordinary sense of the word, 
but rather as modifications of the spirit of God, 
which first changes to ny9, then becomes water, and 
finally fire, the last being no further removed from 
God than the first. Besides these abstract ten Se- 
firot, which are conceived only ideally, the twenty- 
two letters of the alphabet produced the material 
world, for they are real, and are the formative 
powers of allexistence and development. By means 
of these elements the actual creation of the world took 
place, and the ten Sefirot, which before this had only 
an ideal existence, became realities. This is, then, 
a modified form of the Talmudic doctrine that God 
created heaven and earth by means of letters (Ber. 
58a). The explanation on this point is very obscure, 
however, since the relation of the twenty-two letters 
to the ten Sefirot is not clearly defined. The first 
sentence of the book reads: “Thirty-two paths, 
marvels of wisdom, hath God engraved . . . ,” these 
paths being then explained as the ten Sefirot and the 
twenty-two letters. While the Sefirot are expressly 
designated as “abstracts” (nD b3), it is said of the 
letters: “ Twenty-two letters: He drew them, hewed 
them, combined them, weighed them, interchanged 
them, and through them produced the whole crea- 
tion and everything that is destined to come into 
being” (ii. 2). The basal theory of the letters ap- 
parently regards them neither as independent sub- 
stances nor yet as mere forms, so that they are, 
as it were, the connecting-link between essence and 
form. They are designated, therefore, as the instru- 
ments by which the real world, which consists of 
essence and form, was produced from the Sefirot, 
which are merely formless essences. 

In addition to the doctrine of the Sefirot and the 
letters, the theory of contrasts in nature, or of the 
syzygies (“pairs”), as they are called by the Gnos- 
tics, occupies a prominent place in the “Sefer Yezi- 

rah.” This doctrine is based on the 

Syzygies. assumption that the physical as well 

as the moral world consists of a series 

of contrasts mutually at war, yet pacified and equal- 
ized by the unity, God. Thus in the three proto- 
types of creation the contrasting elements fire and 
water are equalized by m4; corresponding to this 
are the three “mothers” among the letters, the mute 
4 contrasting with the hissing w, and both being 
equalized by &. Seven pairs of contrasts are enu- 
merated in the life of man: life and death, peace 
and strife, wisdom and folly, wealth and poverty: 


605 


beauty and ugliness, fertility and sterility, lordship 
and servitude (iv. 3). From these premises the 
“Sefer Yezirah” draws the important conclusion 
that “good and evil” have no real existence, for 
since everything in nature can exist only by means 
of its contrast, a thing may be called good or evil 
according to its influence over man by the natural 
course of the contrast. The Jewish bent of the au- 
thor’s mind comes out, however, in the concession 
that as man is a free moral agent, he is rewarded or 
punished for his actions. It must be noted, on the 
other hand, that the conceptions of heaven and hell 
are foreign to the book, the virtuous man being re- 
warded by a favorable attitude of nature, while the 
wicked finds it hostile to him. Notwithstanding 
the seeming unity of the book, its system is com- 
posed of divergent elements, and the differences of 
opinion regarding it can never be harmonized so 
long as emphasis is laid on any one component rather 
than on the book asa whole. The doctrine of the 
three primordial substances is doubtless an element 
of ancient Semitic theosophy, and was probably 
adopted by the Grecks from the Semites. In the 
seventh chapter of the “Timzus” Plato has the fol- 
lowing statement, which is very similar to the views 
expressed in the “Sefer Yezirah ” (iii. 3): “ And thus 
God placed water between fire and earth, and air in 
the middle ... and connected and thus joined 
heaven so that it became sensible to touch and 
sight.” Even the expression “mother” (D8) is 
found in Plato (/.c. xix.), who speaks of the “nurse” 
of creative force. The idea of the three substances 
is likewise found in mythological form in the Mid- 
rash (Ex. R. xv. 22) and in other midrashim of 
the geonic period (Midr. Konen, in Jellinek, “B. H.” 
ii. 23). 

Far more important is the similarity of the “Sefer 
Yezirah” to various Gnostic systems, to which Gratz 
has called special attention. As the “Sefer Yezi- 
rah” divides the Hebrew alphabet into three groups, 
so the Gnostic Marcus divided the Greek letters into 
three classes, regarded by him as the symbolic ema- 
nations of the three powers which include the whole 
number of the upper elements. Both systems at- 
tach great importance to the power of the combina- 

tions and permutations of the letters 

Gnostic in explaining the genesisand develop- 

Elements. ment of multiplicity from unity (comp. 

Irenzeus, “ Adversus Heereses,” i. 16). 
The Clementine writings present another form of 
gnosis which agrees in many points with the “Sefer 
Yezirah.” As in the latter, God is not only the be- 
ginning but also the end of all things, so in the 
former He is the épy74 and ré4oc of all that exists; 


and the Clementine writings furthermore teach that. 


the spirit of God is transformed into mveiua (= MY), 
and this into water, which becomes fire and rocks, 
thus agreeing with the “Sefer Yezirah,” where the 
spirit of God, my (= tvevua), water, and fire are the 
first four Sefirot (Uhlhorn, “Homilien und Recogni- 
tionen,” pp. 181-182; therocks inthe Clementine wri- 
tings correspond to the O'93Nin the “ Sefer Yezirah,” 
i.11). The remaining six Sefirot, or the limitations 
of space by the three dimensions in a twofold direc- 
tion, are also found in the Clementina, where God is 
described as the boundary of the universe and as the 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Yezirah, Sefer 


source of the six infinite dimensions (Hom. xvii. 9; 
comp. Lehman, “ Die Clementinischen Schriften,” p. 
377). Regarding points of contact between the 
“Sefer Yezirah” and Buddhistic doctrines see Ep- 
stein in “R.E. J.” xxviii. 101; and Rubin, “ Yesod 
Mistere ha-‘Akkum,” pp. 19-20. The “dragon,” 
which plays such an important part in the astrology 
of the book, is probably an ancient Semitic figure; 
at all events its name is not Arabic, as scholars have 
hitherto assumed, but either Aramaic or possibly a 
Babylonian loan-word (A. Harkavy, “Teli Atlia,” 
reprinted from “Ben ‘Ammi,” i. 27-85). 

The essential elements of the book are characteris- 
tic of the third or fourth century; for a work of this 
nature, composed in the geonic period, before the 
Jews had become acquainted with Arabic and Greek 
learning, could have been cast only in the form of 
Jewish gnosis, which remained stationary after the 
fourth century, if indeed it had not already become 
extinct. The date of the book, as re- 
gards its present form, resolves itself, 
therefore, into a problem of literature; 
for the contents were certainly derived from ancient 
gources. It must be borne in mind, however, that 
the Talmudic period contains absolutely nothing to 
show how abstract philosophical questions were 
treated in Hebrew; and since, moreover, the “Sefer 
Yezirah ” contains many new expressions that are 
not found in the earlier literature, there is nothing 
to disprove that the book was written in the 
sixth century. It may be noted that Kalir, who 
certainly lived before the ninth century, used not 
only the “Sefer Yezirah,” but also the Baraita of 
Samuel, which was written about the same time. 
Saadia advanced the view (end of the preface to his 
commentary on the “Sefer Yezirah ”) that the book 
was circulated orally for a long time before it was 
reduced to writing, his statement being somewhat 
more than an excuse for his free treatment of the 
text. 

As already stated, the date and origin of the book 
can not be definitely determined so long as there is 

no critical text of it. The editio prin- 

History of ceps (Mantua, 1562) contains two re- 
the Text. censions, which were used in the main 

by the commentators of the book as 

early as the middle of the tenth century. The 
shorter version (Mantua I.) was annotated by Du- 
nash ibn Tamim or by Jacob b. Nissim, while Saadia 
and Donnolo wrote commentaries on the longer re- 
cension (Mantua II.). The shorter version was also 
used by most of the later commentators, such as 
Judah b. Barzillai and Nahmanides, and it was, 
therefore, published in the ordinary editions. The 
longer recension, on the other hand, was little known, 
the form given in the editio princeps of the “Sefer 
Yezirah” being probably a copy of the text found 
in Donnolo’s commentary. Inaddition to these two 
principal recensions of the text, both versions con- 
tain a number of variant readings which have not 
yet been examined critically. As regards the rela- 
tion of the two recensions, it may be said that the 
longer form contains entire paragraphs which are 
not found in the shorter, while the divergent ar- 
rangement of the material often modifies the mean- 
ing essentially. Aithough the longer recension 


Date. 


Yezirah, Sefer 
Yigdal 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


606 


a a 


doubtless contains additions and interpolations which 
did not form part of the original text, it has many 
valuable readings which seem older and better than 
the corresponding passages in the shorter version, so 
that a critical edition of the text must consider both 
recensions. 

The history of the study of the “Sefer Yezirah ” 
is one of the most interesting in the records of Jew- 
ish literature. With the exception of the Bible, 
scarcely any other book has been the subject of so 
much annotation. Aristotelians, Neoplatonists, Tal- 
mudists, and cabalists have used the book as a 
source, or at least thought they did so. Two points 
must be taken into consideration in judging the im- 
portance of the work: the influence which it exerted 
on the development of Jewish philosophy, especially 

on its mystic side, and the reputation 

Jewish  whichit enjoyed for more than a thou- 

Study of sand years in most Jewish circles. 

the Book. This may best be illustrated by the 

following chronological list of authors 
who have interpreted the book or tried to do so: 
Saadia; Isaac Israeli; Dunash ibn Tamim (Jacob b. 
Nissim); Donnolo; Judah b. Barzillai; Judah ha- 
Levi; Abraham ibn Ezra; Eleazar of Worms: 
pseudo-Saadia (time and school of Eleazar); Abra- 
ham Abulatia; (pseudo-?) Abraham b, David; 
Nahmanides (although the work may be ascribed to 
him incorrectly); Judah b. Nissim of Fez; Moses 
Botarel; Moses b. Jacob ha-Goleh; Moses b. Jacob 
Cordovero; Isaac Luria; Elijah b. Solomon of 
Wilna; Isaac Haber; and Gershon Enoch b. Jacob. 
To these twenty commentators, who represent the 
period from the beginning of the tenth to the end of 
the nineteenth century and include scholars of the 
highest rank, must be added men like Hai Gaon, 
Rashi, and others who diligently studied the book. 

If Botarel’s statement may be credited, many com- 
mentaries were written on the “Sefer Yezirah ” iin 
the geonic period. It is far more difficult, however, 
to decide how many of the opinions and doctrines 
contained in the book influenced the views of later 
Jewish thinkers. The fact that scholars of so many 
different views quoted it in support of their theo- 
ries justifies the assumption that none of them 
really based his hypotheses on it, and this view is 
adopted by most modern scholars. It must be 
borne in mind, however, that an intimate relation 
exists between the “Sefer Yezirah” and the later 
mystics, and that, although there is a marked dif- 
ference between the Cabala and the “Sefer Yezirah ” 
as regards the theory of emanations, yet the system 
laid down in the latter is the first visible link in the 
development of cabalistic ideas. Instead of the im- 
mediate creation “ex nihilo,” both works postulate a 
series of emanations of mediums between God aud 
the universe; and both consider God as the first cause 
only, and not as the immediate efficient cause of the 
world. Although the Sefirot of the cabalists do not 
correspond to those of the “Sefer Yezirah,” yet the 
underlying problem is identical in both. The im- 
portance of the “Sefer Yezirah” for mysticism, 
finally, lies in the fact that the speculation about 
God and man had lost its sectarian character. This 
book, which does not even mention such words as 
“Israel” and “revelation,” taught the cabalists to 


reflect on “God,” and not merely on the “ Ruler of 
Israel.” 

A book of the same name, which, however, had 
nothing else in common with the “Sefer Yezirah,” 
was circulated among German mystics between the 
eleventh and thirteenth centuries. Judging from 
the examples collected by Epstein in “ Ha-Hoker,” 
ii. 1-5, it was a mystic and haggadic work on the 
six days of creation, and corresponded in part to the 
small Midrash Seder Rabbah de-Bereshit which was 
edited by Wertheimer (“ Batte Midrashot,” i. 1-81). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Editions and translations: Editio princeps, 
Mantua, 1562; other important editions: Amsterdam, 1642; 
Zolkiev, 1745: Korzee, 1779; Constantinople, 1791; Grodno, 
1806 (five commentaries); Warsaw, 1884 (nine commentaries); 
Goldschmidt, Das Buch der Schopfung ... Kritisch 
Redigirter Text, Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1804 (the edition, 
however, by no means represents a critical text). Transla- 
tions: Latin: Postell, Abraham Patriarchce Liber Iezirah, 
Paris, 1552: Pistor, Liber Iezirah, in Ars Cabalistica, 
Basel, 1557; Rittangel in the Amsterdam edition of 1642; 
German: Johann F. von Meyer. Das Buch Yezira, Leipsic, 
1830; English: I. Kalisch, A Sketch of the Talmud, New 
York, 1877; W. W. Westcott, Sepher Yezirah, London, 1893; 
French: Karppe, Etude sur les Origines ... du Zohar, 
pp. 139-158, Paris, 1901. Literature: Castelli, 12 Commento 
di Sabbatai Donnolo, Florence, 1880; Epstein, Studien 
zum Jezird-Buche, in Monatsschrift, xxxvii.; idem, 
Pseudo-Saadia, ib.; idem, Recherches sur le Sefer Yecira, 
in R. HE. J. xxviii.-xxix. (both articles also published sepa- 
rately); idem, in Monatsschrift, xx xix. 46-48, 184-186; Gratz, 
Gnosticismus und Judenthum, pp. 102-1382, Breslau, 1846; 
Franck, La Kabbale, pp. 53-66, 102-118, Paris, 1843 (German 
translation by Jellinek, pp. 57-65, Leipsic, 1844); Hamburger, 


R. B. T. Supplement, iii. 98-102; Jellinek, Beitrdge, i. 83-16; 
Rosenthal, in Keneset Yisrael, ii. 29-68; Steinschneider, in 
Berliner’s Magazin, xix. 79-85: idem, Cat. Bodl. cols. 552- 
554: Zedner, Cat. Hebr. Books Brit. Mus. p. 138; First, Bibl. 
Jud. i. 27-28: Bacher, Die Anfdnge der Hebriischen Gram- 
matik, pp. 20-23, Leipsic, 1895. 

K. L. G. 


YIBBUM. See LEVIRATE MARRIAGE. 


YIGDAL: The hymn which in the various rit- 
uals shares with ADoN ‘OLA the place of honor at 
the opening of the morning and the close of the 
evening service. It is based on the thirteen ARTI- 
CLES OF Parra (usually called the Thirteen Creeds) 
formulated by Moses ben Maimon, and was written 
by Daniel ben Judah Dayyan (Zunz, “ Literatur- 
gesch.” p. 507), who spent eight years in improving 
it, completing it in 1404 (S. D. Luzzatto, “ Mebo,” 
p. 18). This wasnot the only metrical presentment 
of the Creeds; but it has outlived all others, whether 
in Hebrew or in the vernacular. A translation is 
to be found in the Daily Prayer-Book. 

With the Ashkenazim only thirteen lines are sung, 
one for each creed; and the last, dealing with the 
resurrection of the dead, is solemnly repeated to 
complete the antiphony when the hymn is responso- 
rially sung by hazzan and congregation. The 
Sephardim, who sing the hymn in congregational 
unison throughout, use the following line as the 
fourteenth: “These be the thirteen bases of the 
Rule of Moses and the tenets of his Law.” 

“Yigdal” far surpasses “Adon ‘Olam” in the 
number of its traditional tunes and the length of 
time during which they have been traditional. In 
the Spanish ritual, in its Dutch- and English-speak- 
ing tradition, the hymn is often sung, according to the 

general Sephardic custom (comp. ¢.9. 

Sephardic Yan SHIMEKA), to sume “represent- 
Tunes. ative” melody of the particular day. 
Thus, for example, it is chanted at the 

close of evening service on New- Year to the tune of 
‘Er Sua‘aRE Razon. On Friday evening the Sab- 


607 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Pera, Sefer 


YIGDAL—A (Sephardic Festival ) 


Allegretto. 


to, Other verses 
similarly, 


YIGDAL—B (*‘ Leoni’’) 


a = === 


Hazzan: Yig - dal E- lo - him hay, we- yish - tab - bah, Nim-za we-en ‘et 


— : 
——3—_ ~~ — — 
+ __-_.-—_ @ 5—_- : ———__--|— @-2— -— ; —— 
—— ee ee ce ee ee 
Clipse me - Zi - ‘u - to, ConcRrEGaTION; E- had, we - en ya - hid ke - 
a se —— a 
p-— oF # et  — o 


yi - hu - = do, Ne‘ - lam, we-gam en sof..... le - ah’- du - to. 


YIGDAL—C (Penitential, ‘‘Polish’’) 


CTéS - - C0Cn - « -« 
De eRe] RIES (SOROS Lear MECCA ra (Arn a enna “EET 2 
2+ se ——— 
oa Soa ee 
ais Se 
Hazzan; Me - tim ye-hay-yeh El be ~ rob has- do: Ba - ruk...... ‘a-de ‘ad 


—=— —K 
—~9_:_* se 9 _|eo- 
—_— — — 
ee 
shem te - hil - la- to, Conarecation: Me-tim ye-hay-yeh El....  be- 


e = ; 
a a __ ee ee =e as DaraeS 


rob has - do: Ba - ruk ‘a - de ‘ad shem te - hil - la - to. 


Yigdal THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 608 


YIGDAL—D (Penitential, ‘South German’) 


Hazzan: Yig - dal E - lo- him hay, we - yish - tab - bah, Nim-za we-en... 


es ee * i iia. ee 


Se es ya an ers 


‘et el me- zi - ’u - to. ConcrecaTion:E - had, we-en ya - hid...... ke - 


law.... ke - dush - sha - to. ConerEcation: Kad-mon le- kol da - bar a - sher nib - 


é& ag Sg a ee 


ra, Ri - sbon we - en re - shit.... le - re - - shi - to. 


YIGDAL—E (Passover) 
a 


6422 SS SS SS SS 


Hazzan: Yig - dal E - lo-him hay, we - yish - tab- bab,.... Nim-za we- en 


poo nee SS aee 


me- zi - ‘a - to.... ConeREGaTiIon: E - had,. we-en ya~-hid ke- 


yi - - hu - do,.... Ne‘- lam.... we-gam en sof le - ah - du - to.... 


Last verses. Lento. 
4 


at: < F 
ye See cao re ee 
"A 5 
| tan ae aces Doe | ag 
ASE, mS (." ae" i eS (om, 
id —— ae” Nee 


Hazzan: Me - tim ye-hay-yeb EIl,.... be - rob has - do: Ba - ruk ‘a - 


609 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Yigdal 


dsc. ‘ad.... shem  te- hil - la - to..... CHorm: Me - tim ye - hay - yeh 
p ~ J BAssss. —_—___ s.. Torm. 
He ey ci a oo es CE A 2 
A a = a ee 2 
Se ct See a eNEEY Boe om __- 
bi earn 
| >) ee be - rob..... has - do..... (Ba - ruk ‘a - de...... ‘ad), Ba - 


: Reser AEy : o 
a Seen SSCS, SAAN EE El ee —e/_O - are ez 
tuk ‘a-de... ‘ad, Ba- ruk ‘a- de..... ‘ad shem te - hil - la -_ to. 


Yig - dal.... E - lo - him hay, we - yish...... tab - bah,......... Nim - 


| mf Con spirito. 


Hazzan: Yig - dal E - lo- him hay,.. we- yish - tab - bah, Nim-za we-en 


‘et el me- zi - ‘u - to.ConcrecaTion:E-chad, we-en ya - hid... ke- 


Yigdal 
Yishai ben Hezekiah 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


610 


rok...... e - law 


ke ~ dush - sha - to. Cona.: Kad- mon 


le - kol da ~- bar, ae 


sher nib - ra, Ri - shon 


bath “ Yigdal” is customarily sung to the same mel- 
ody as are “Adon ‘Olam” (see JEw. Encyc. 1. 206, 
melody A) and En KEeLovEenu. On the three fes- 
tivals the melody here transcribed under A is the 
tune favored. Its old Spanish character is evident. 
In the Ashkenazic ritual “ Yigdal,” though al- 
ways commencing the morning prayer, is not invari- 
ably sung at the close of the evening service on 
Sabbaths and festivals, being often, especially in 
Germany, replaced by “Adon ‘Olam.” In Po- 
lish use, however, it is more regularly employed as 
the closing hymn, while in the synagogues of north- 
western Germany, Holland, and England, where the 
influence of the Sephardic ritual has been felt by 
that of the Ashkenazim, “ Yigdal” is considered an 
integral portion of the Sabbath and 

Ashkena- festal evening prayer; and in London 
zic Tunes. for fully two centuries there has been 
allotted to the hymn, according to the 

occasion, a definite tradition of tunes, all of which 
are antiphonal between hazzan and congregation. 
The most familiar of these tunes is the Friday eve- 
ning “ Yigdal,” transcribed here under B. It has 
passed into the repertory of the Anglican and Non- 
conformist churches under the title of “ Leoni” (see 
Jew. Encyc, viii. 229), It is utilized also in Ger- 
many and in some parts of Poland and Bohemia as a 
festival “ Yigdal.” The melody may date from the 
seventeenth century or perhaps earlier. Next in 
importance comes the beautifuland plaintive air re- 
served for the solemn evenings of New-Year and 
Atonement, and introduced, in the spirit of Ps. 
exxxvii. 6, into the service of the Rejoicing of the 
Law. This melody, here transcribed under C, is 
constructed in the Oriental chromatic scale (EFG # 
ABCD # E) with its two augmented seconds (sec 
Music, SYNAGOGAL), and is the inspiration of some 
Polish precentor, dating perhaps from the early sev- 
enteenth century, and certainly having spread west- 


we - en 


le - re - shi - t0....... 


re - shit 


ward from the Slavonic region. In the German use 
of Bavaria and the Rhineland the old tradition has 
preserved a contrasting “ Yigdal ” for New-Year and 
Atonement that is of equally antique character, but 
built ona diatonic scale and reminiscent of the morn- 
ing service of the day. This interesting melody is 
here transcribed under D. 

For the evenings of the three festivals the old 
London tradition has preserved, from at least the 
early eighteenth century, three characteristic melo- 
dies, probably brought from north Germany or Bo- 
henia. That for the Passover, here transcribed 
under E, illustrates the old custom according to 
which the precentor solemnly dwells on the last 
creed, that on the resurrection of the dead (in this 
case to a “representative” theme common to Pass- 
over and to Purim), and is answered by the choris- 
ters with an expression of confident assurance. The 
choral response here given received its final sha- 
ping frem Mombach. The “ Yigdal” for Pentecost, 
trauscribed under F, is of a solemn tone, thus stri- 
kingly contrasting with those for the other festivals. 

The tune for Tabernacles, here transcribed under 
G, displays a gaiety quite rare in synagogal melody. 
It was employed by Isaac Nathan, in 1815, as the 
air for one of Lord Byron’s “Hebrew Melodies.” 
being set by him to the verses “The Wild Gazelle” 
in such a manner as to utilize the contrasting theme 
then chanted by the hazzan to the last line as in the 
Passover “ Yigdal.” Other old tunes for the hymn. 
such as the melody of Alsatian origin used ou the 
“Great Sabbath” before Passover, are preserved in 
local or family tradition (comp. ZEMIROT). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY : A. Baer, Ba‘al Tefillah, Nos. 2, 4382-433, 160- 
762, 774. 988-998. Frankfort-on-the-M”in, 1883; Cohen am 
Davis, Voice of Prayer and Praise, Nos. 28-29, 139-142, 19 
London, 1899. 
cr F. L. C. 


YIMLOK ADONATI: The tenth and final verse 
of Ps. cxlvi., which opens the series of Halleluiab 


611 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Yizgdal 
Yishai ben Hezekiah 


Psalms that conclude the Psalter. The verse is em- 
ployed as a response at prominent points in the lit- 
urgy, and is always the concluding response in the 
KEDUSHSHAH. In theriteof the Ashkenazim it also 
introduces (in association with Ps. xxii. 4 [8]) the 
responsory hymns in the KErosor, In the ritual of 
the Sephardim it is chanted four times, by officiant 
and congregation alternately, before the scroll is re- 
turned to the Ark during the singing of the proces- 
sional MizmMor LE-Dawip. The melody to which 
it is thus chanted is a quaint strain long preserved 
by tradition and doubtless of Peninsular origin. 


also a pupil of Saadia, and was the author of a com- 
mentary on Chronicles, some fragments of which 
were united by a compiler with writings of other 
commentators, amoung them Judah ibn Kuraish, the 
whole being edited by Kirchheim under the title 
“Ein Kommentar zur Chronik aus dem 10. Jahr- 
hundert ” (Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1874). There are 
extant only three fragments of Yir’am’s commen- 
tary: the first is taken from Saadia’s commentary ; 
the second isa haggadic ex planation of certain words ; 
and the third is an interpretation of the subject-mat- 
ter, as to which Yir’am is charged by the compiler 


YIMLOK ADONAITI 
(A)—OF THE SEPHARDIM (Before the Scroll Is Returned to the Ark) 
Maestoso. eer 
rs es el a Ere Sn Se . Is We ae Pe ee 
== os ==, |= aaa ae os oe Oe 
_—————— te tS rr 
Yim - lok A - do - nai le - ‘0 - - - - lam, E - lo- 


- dor: Ha-le - Iu - yah! 


(B)}-OF THE ASHKENAZIM (as Closing Response on Festivals) 


Maestoso. 
oy, aeaeaeS 2 a ee = — ee 
—— =e 2 ae ae ee ee 
——__ F—_—_ ——E 
Yim - lok A - do - nai. le - - lam, E - lo - ha - yik 
i Aeneas ERIE (Rees) Peres ears ee 
ae Oe gS a eS t= Shee 
- -—) _______@__|_____.__* = __ o_o l= 
yon le - dor wa - dor: Ha - le - lu - ot 


Among the Ashkenazim the tradition, handed down 
from the Middle Ages, was to recite “ Yimlok” ina 
monotone, closing with the cadence of the prayer- 
motive to which the remainder of the benedictions in 
the Standing Prayer were intoned by the precentor 
(comp. Music, SyNaGoGAL, Prayer- Motives). But 
On the festive days on which the HALLE. is chanted 
this monotone has long since developed into a tune- 
ful phrase shaped on the melody-type of the festival 


intonation. The two strains alluded to are given 
herewith. 
A. F. L. C. 


YIR’AM OF MAGDIEL: Italian Biblical com- 
mentator; lived at Rome in the tenth century. Yi- 
ram was styled “of Magdiel” in conformity with 
the rabbinical interpretation which refers the name 

“Magdiel ” (Gen. xxxvi. 48) to Rome(comp. Rashi 

@dloe.). He wasa junior contemporary and perhaps 


with not having thoroughly penetrated into the 
meaning of the passage. 


reer ae Vogelstein and Rieger, Gesch. der Juden in 
om, i. 


T. M. SEL. 

YISHAI (JESSE) BEN HEZEKIAH: Exi- 
larch of Damascus toward the end of the thirteenth 
century. He was a very prominent defender of 
the writings of Maimonides against the attacks of 
the anti-Maimonists. Thus, when he was informed 
of the agitation of the mystic Solomon Petit against 
the “Moreh,” he warned him, under the penalty of 
the ban, to cease vilifying Maimonides. Solomon 
Petit paid no heed to the threats of Yishai, and the 
latter convoked several rabbis, among them those 
of Safed, and in the month of Tammuz, 1286, wrote 
a formal excommunication of the agitator of Acre 
and his followers (see “Kerem Hemed,” ili. 169 e¢ 


Yishar Koheka 
Yizhak b. Eleazar 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


612 


seg., Where Yishai’s letter is published; Halberstam, 
in Kobak’s “Jeschurun,” vi. 66, however, declares 
that the year was 1291). The letter of excommuni- 
cation was stamped with the seal of the exilarch, 
representing a crouching lion with a hand raised 
over its head, and was signed by Yishai and twelve 
rabbis. It declared that whoever was in possession 
of any writing hostile to Maimonides should deliver 
it immediately to David Maimuni or to his son. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Besides the sources mentioned by F. Lazarus, 
in Briill’s Jahrb. x. 51; Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, p. 681; 
Gritz, Gesch. 3d ed., vii. 158, 166—167, note 8. 
J. M. SEL. 
YISHAR KOHEKA (“May thy strength be 
firm”): A frequent exclamation and expression of 
thanks. The first part of the formula is derived by 
Levy and Kohut from “yashar” = “to be firm or 


| Hebrew form “ yishar koheka” (Shab. 87a) and in the 


Aramaic form “ yishar heylak” (Shab. 58a, 62b; Lam, 
R. 52b; Gen. R. 54), and is now used, for example, asa 
response to the preacher after the sermon, to the haz- 
zan after the prayer, and to the priest after the priestly 
blessing, while it serves as a formula of thanks also, 
A. 8. O. 


YISRAEL NOSHA‘: A hymn composed by 
an early medieval writer named Shephatiah (Zunz, 
“Literaturgesch.” p. 235), and forming the pizmon, 
or chief responsory verses, in the selihot of one of 
the mornings in the week preceding the New- Year 
festival. It is chanted on the Monday in the Polish 
use and on the Tuesday in the German. The initial 
verse is employed also in the NE‘ILAu service of the 
former ritual. The melody is of particular interest 
as ope of the few metrical airs of medieval German 


eS SS SS Stet? 
— 


healthy.” The phrase occurs in the Talmud in the 
YISRAEL NOSHA*‘ 
Moderato. 
8. German 
Polish. —»_ 
mic “Het Scour aaeees moze 
Is - ra «+ el is sa + - 

S, Russian. 


aoe ee ee ne ee 
a a 
a rr 3 o—- eee? 


mf 
¥, 6h ee eo 
é: et a ee Re IRIE BRE ES, e-~ a ~o- = 
‘at ‘o - la ~ - mim Gam ha- yom yiw-wa-she -‘u mi - 
3 | m 
ERPS SS A ra. SE TER. MEAL TEASE NORTE HRS Si DELEOE SL SPRLE T Ee 
P. ——9- wa ee er ee ee uae ie a 
oo ee a ee a AIRS AALS SUPA OSE Si a as 
help. e - ter - - nal This day to pro-nounce for ei sal - 


cres. 
6. a ee 
pi “ - ka, Sho - ken 
cres 


From Thy throne 
cres, 


va - - tion, 


aa a cm 
Tee 
Se a Earn ica] GEE) TERS ae 
8. R. e-a = BB bd 


-———_ pe ie ee - 
fe sete] 


< oe 
su - per - - nal As Thou 
WES LSS tcas Lad Baie meEE GE, cS ae 
Sie == 


613 


origin which were constructed in scales of an East- 
ern character, Such were more familiar to those 
Jews resident in the region of the Greek Church, 
who came under the influence of the Byzantine 
rather than of the Roman plain-song. The melody 
exists in four parallel variants. In the English 
tradition the singing of the first verse in the closing 
service of the Day of Atonement has led to the 
modification of the concluding phrases of the tune 
by attraction into the melody employed for several 
other hymns similarly used in that service (comp. 
Ne‘1~tan [Hymn Tunes] and see “The Voice of 
Prayer and Praise,” No, 286, London, 1899). Of the 
other traditional forms of the air, that used in north- 
ern Germany appears nearest to the original. It 
falls in the key of the dominant of the minor scale, 
recalling the fourth Byzantine mode (in the vari- 
ety entitled Aéyeroc; comp. Bourgault-Ducoudray, 
“Etudes sur la Musique Ecclésiastique Grécque ”). 
In the Polish and South-Russian traditions the con- 
sistent sharpening of the leading note of the minor, 
so familiar in Hungarian Gypsy melody, brings 
the tonality with a form of the Oriental chromatic 
mode (see Music, SYNAGOGAL) and lends the air the 
wailing plaintiveness favored by the Jews of north- 


eastern Europe. 
A. F. L. C. 


* YIZHAK (ISAAC): Tanna of the early post- 
Hadrianic period (2d cent. c.E.); a halakic exegete 
whose Biblical exegesis mostly belongs to the Me- 
kilta and the Sifre, Inthe Tosefta he transmits say- 
ings in the name of Eliezer ben Hyrcanus (Ter. i. 1, 
15; ii. 5). He was a disciple of Ishmael, but asso- 
ciated also with the pupils of Akiba, with one of 
whom, named Nathan, he originated a halakah (Mek., 
Ex, xii. 2). He was also intimate with Jonathan 
and with the proselyte sons of Judah in the yeshi- 
bah of Simeon ben Ychai (Gen. R. xxxv.; M. K. 9a; 
Pesik. 87b). Of his non-halakic exegeses may be 
mentioned: on Ex. xii. 7: “The blood upon the 
doors at Passover shall serve the Egyptians as tor- 
tures for their souls” (Mek.); on Ex. xx. 9: “Count 
the days of the week after the Sabbath” (J.c.); on 
Deut. xiv. 11: “Unciean birds are called S\y, while 
Clean are called either mip or Way” (Sifre); on Ezek. 
i: “The paragraph treating of the chariot of God 


*Through a misunderstanding a number of Talmudic au- 
thorities named ‘‘ Isaac” were not treated under that heading : 
they are here entered under the transliterated Hebrew form of 
the name. 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Yishar Kohexa 
Yizghak b. Eleazar 


extends to the word sown only” (Hag. 18a). Another 

of his sayings is: “The prayer in need is adapted to 

all occasions ” (R. H. 18a). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bacher, Ag. Tan. ii. 387-399; Weiss, Hinleé- 
tung zur Mekilta, p. 33, Vienna, 1865; Frankel, Hodegetica 
in Mischnam, p. 208, note 3. ee 
J. Ss. O, 
YIZHAK BAR ADDA: Palestinian amora of 

uncertain period. He interpreted Ps. xcii. 13 as 

meaning that even as the shade of the palm-tree 
extends far and wide, so shall the reward of the 
pious extend to the future world (Shoher Tob to Ps. 
xcii.; Gen. R. xl, beginning). With reference to 

Ps. lvii. 9, he said that David procured an eolian 

harp in order that its tones might awaken him for 

midnight prayer (Ber. 4a). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bacher, Ag. Pal. Amor. iii. 767 and note 7, 
J. 8. O 
YIZHAK HA-BABLI: Palestinian amora. His 

period isunknown. Two haggadot of his are ex- 

tant. The king Melchizedek, who went to meet 

Abraham, was called Salem, says Yizhak, because 

he was perfect; that is, he had early submitted to 

circumcision (Gen. R. xliii. 7). With reference to 

Jacob’s promise, the amora interprets the words 

“Which my lips have uttered, and my mouth hath 

spoken when I was in trouble” (Ps. Ixvi. 14) by 

saying that one makes a vow when in need, in order 

to keep the commandments of the Toreh (Gen. R. 

Ixx. 1; Midrash Shemuel ii.). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bacher, Ag. Pal. Amor. ii. 209, iii. 768. 


J 5. O. 


YIZHAK OF CARTHAGE: In an edition of 
the Pesikta Rabbati by Buber (xiv. 64a) occurs the 
word "pp, written incorrectly for ‘pnp — 
katadlxn (“ punishment,” “penance”), Buber, how- 
ever, in his preface (p. 80) attempts to identify this 
with the name of one Yizhak of Carthage mentioned 
in Ber. 29a; but according to Bacher such a person 
never existed. The confusion may have arisen from 
the fact that Yer. Ber. 8a and Ta‘an. 65c mention 
an Abba of Carthage who transmitted in the name 
of R. Yizhak. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bacher, Ag. Pal. Amor, ii. 218, 225. 

J. 8. 0. 

YIZHAK B. ELEAZAR OF CZESAREA: 
Palestinian amora of the fourth century. He was 
a teacher of law in the old synagogue of Cesarea, 
where he was so loved by pupils and friends that 


Yizhak b, Eleazar 
Yighak Nappaha 


Jacob of Kefar Nibburaya placed him as high in this 
synagogue as is God Himself in the Temple of Zion 
(Yer. Bik. 65d; Midrash Shemuel vii. 6). The fol- 
lowing halakic decisions of his may be mentioned: 
one concerning sale and purchase, rendered to his 
pupil Hoshaiah b. Shammai (Yer. M. K. 8ib); 
another on religious law in a case referred to him by 
Samuel bar Abdimi (Yer. Shab. 16d); a ruling con- 
cerning fraud (Suk. 35b); instruction in regard to 
the writing of a letter of divorce (B. B. 1638a); hala- 
kic deduction to the effect that, although a tithe of 
dates need not be rendered, honey made from them 
must be tithed (Yer. Bik. 68d); decision concerning 
marital law (Yer. Kid. 63b); regarding signs for de- 
tecting murder upon finding a corpse (Yer. Naz. 
57d); and a halakah concerning the lifting of the 
terumah (Yer. Dem. 26b). He appears as a tradi- 
tionist of Jeremiah (Lev. R. xxxiii. 2) and of Nah- 
man bar Jacob (Yer. Shab. 9a), and was famed for 
his gastronomical art (Lam. R. to iii. 17; Yer. Ber. 
6ic; Yer. Hag. 78a). He gives examples of the 
ban from the Mishnah (Yer. M. K. 81a), and a pre- 
scription in accordance with them (Yer. Ta‘an. 
69b). 

In the vicinity of Caesarea is a cliff extending into 
the sea. One dayas Yizhak was walking along this 
cliff he saw a large bone on the ground, and tried 
several times to cover it with earth, so that no one 
should stumble over it; but his efforts were unsuc- 
cessful, as the bone became uncovered as fast as he 
heaped the earth upon it. He accordingly consid- 
ered the bone to be an instrument of God, and waited 
patiently to see what would happen. Soon after- 
ward animperial messenger named Veredarius came 
that way, stumbled on the bone, and died as a re- 
sult of his fall; this messenger had been sent to 
Cesarea bearing malicious edicts against the Jews 
(Gen. R. x. 7; Lev. R. xxii. 4; Num. R. xviii; Eccl. 
R. to v. 8). In answer to a question as to how it 
came about that two great prophets like Jeremiah 
and Daniel should suppress attributes of God which 
had been given Him by Moses himself, he said that 
these propliets knew that God was a lover of truth, 
and that any dissimulation on their part would have 
been punishable (Yer. Ber. 18c: Meg. 74c). He 
made a comparison between wisdom and humility 
(Yer. Shab. 8c); and he explained the expression 
Epon in Gen. xxv. 80 by a comparison with the 
insatiabilitvy of Rome, saying that Esau sat like a 
camel with jaws wide open and that Jacob had to 
fill his mouth with food (Pesik. R. xvi.; Pesik. 59a). 
Yizhak, moreover, connected the expression Oy} 
in Gen. xxvii. 41 with the word “senator,” in order 
more elearly to express Rome’s hatred of Judah 
(Yer. ‘Ab. Zarah 39c). 

Yizhak must be distinguished from an amora of 
the same name who lived half a century earlier, and 
in whose house Hiyya bar Abba, Ammi, and Yizhak 
Nappaha used to assemble to study (Hag. 26a; ‘Ab. 
Zarah 24a; M. K. 20a). This earlier amora deliv- 
ered a funeral address at the death of Johanan (M. 
K. 25b; but see Bacher [“ Ag. Pal. Amor.” iii. 718, 
note 4} for different version). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY : Frankel, Meho, p. 10va; Heilprin, Seder ha- 

Dorot, ii. 238; Bacher, 4g. Pal. Amor. iii. 717-719. 

J. 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


614 


YIZHAK BEN HAKOLA: Palestinian amora 
of the third century. He was a contemporary of 
Joshua ben Levi and Johanan, and belonged to the 
school of Eleazar ben Pedat. He transmitted hala- 
kot in the names of Abba ben Zabda, Judah JI. 
(Yer. ‘Er, 24d), Hezekiah (‘Orlah i. 2), and Simeon 
(Yer. Suk. i., end; Ket. ii. 8). There has been pre- 
served a haggadah by him dealing with the quarrel 
between the shepherds of Abimelech and those of 
Abraham, and with the settlement of the dispute 
(Gen. R. liv., end). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bacher, Ag. Pal. Amor. i. 109, ii. 206, iii, 588~ 


589; Frankel, Mebo, 107a; Heilprin, Seder ha-Dorot, ii. 238, 

J. &. O, 

YIZHAK BEN HIYYA THE SCRIBE: 
Palestinian amora of the fourth century; contem- 
porary of Mani. He was wel) known as a scribe, 
and was the author of a halakah in which he asserted 
that Torah scrolls might be written on various 
parchments, but that this rule did not apply in the 
case of tefillin and mezuzot (Yer. Meg. p. 71c). In 
the name of Johanan he transmitted a halakah rela- 
ting to the marriage law (Yer. Yeb. 14a). Three 
other haggadot by him have been preserved: (1) on 
the future fate of the good and the wicked (Gen. 
Rt. lxiv. 4); (2) explaining why Saul did not consult 
the Urim and Thummim instead of the witch of 
En-dor (Lev. R. xxvi. 7; Midr. Shemael xxiv. 6); 
and (3) setting forth that the Torah is compared to 
the tree of Jife (Prov. iii. 18) because it is equal 
in value to all living men (Midr. Shoher Tob to 
Ps. i. 19). 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bacher, Ag. Pal. Amor. iii. 449 (note 8), 716- 

717; Heilprin, Seder ha-Dorot, ii. 241. 

J. S. O. 

YIZHAK BAR JOSEPH: Palestinian amora 
of the third and fourth centuries. He was a pupil 
of Abbahu and of Johanan, and transmitted almost 
entirely in the name of the latter. It is related that 
he was once about to be killed by a spirit to which 
he was speaking, when a cedar-tree saved him 
(Sanh. 10{a; Rashi on the passage). It was said to 
be due to him that the Samaritans were declared to 
be a heathen people, the following narrative being 
told in this connection: “ Yizhak was once sent into 
the Samaritan district to purchase wine, and met 
there an old man who told him that no one in that 
region observed thelaws, The amora returned with 
this report to Abbahu, and the latter, together with 
Ammi and Assi, declared the Samaritans to be 
heathens” (Hul. 6a; comp. also Rashi and the Tosa- 
fot on the passage). 

In his teacher’s company Yizhak often visited 
Usha, by whom the takkanot were enacted; and he 
attended lectures in a yeshibah in that city (Kid. 50a; 
Pes. 72a). It was he who brought most of these 
takkanot to the knowledge of the Babylonians; he 
was in fact one of the most prominent intermediaries 
between Palestine and Babyloniain matters pertain- 
ing to religious decisions, and was greatly respected 
in the latter country, being on terms of intimate 
friendship with Abaye (Ber. 42b). 

Thirteen halakic decisions transmitted by Yizhak 
in the name of Johanan have been preserved: re 
garding circumcision on Yom Kippur (Yeb. 64b); 


{ onan undecided question (Shab. 45b); on the differ- 


615 


ence between Palestine and Babylonia with reference 
to ‘erub (Er. 22a); on the halizah (Yeb. 104a); on 
the testiinony of two witnesses beforea court of law 
(Sanh. da); five sentences regarding terefah (Hu). 
43a); on sexual intercourse (Niddah 65b); on sacri- 
fices (Tem. 26a); and on the gall and liver of slaugh- 
tered animals (Hul. 48a). He transmitted also three 
halakic maxims in the name of Yannai: two on the 
custom of washing the hands (Hul. 105b) and one 
on Nazir (Naz. 42b). 

In addition to his occasional journeys in Palestine 
in the company of Abbahu, Yizhak is once mentioned 
as undertaking a journey to Babylonia, where he 
associated with Abaye, as well as with Rabin and 
Pappa, the sons-in-law of Yizhak Nappaha (Hul. 
110a). Yizhak reiates that Judah I. had a private 
entrance to his yeshibah in order to spare his pu- 
pils the inconvenience of rising when he entered 
(Men. 38a). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bacher, Ag. Pal. Amor. i. 420; ii. 96, 211 ; iti. 
99, 402, 520; Heilprin, Seder ha-Dorot, ti. 240. 
ne Ss. O. 


YIZHAK BAR JUDAH: Babylonian amora 
of the fourth century; a junior contemporary of 
Ulla. He was educated at his father’s house in 
Pumbedita; and once when Ulla visited there the 
latter expressed displeasure at the fact that Yizhak 
was not yet married (Kid. 71b). Yizhak was once 
told by his father to go to Nehardea in order to see 
how Ulla pronounced the Habdalah benediction at 
the close of the Sabbath; but Yizhak sent Abaye 
in his place, and for so doing was severely repri- 
manded by his father (Pes. 104b). Yizhak was a 
pupil of various scholars. First he attended the 
lectures of Rabbah (Sheb. 36b), and later those of 
Rami bar Hama, whom he soon Jeft in order to 
study under R. Sheshet, Rami bitterly reproaching 
him for the slight. Among Yizhak’s nearest 
friends and companions may be mentioned Aha bar 
Hana; Samuel, son of Rabbah bar bar Hana (Sheb. 
86b); and Rami bar Samuel. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bacher, Ag. Pal. Amor. ii. 299; Heilprin, 


Seder ha-Dorot, ii. 242b. 
Je Ss. O. 


YIZHAK OF MAGDALA: Palestinian amora 
of the third century. He engaged in various mid- 
rashic controversies. Among them was one with 
Levi concerning I Kings vii. 50 (Cant. R. on iii. 
10), and another with Kahana concerning Joseph’s 
abstention from wine after his imprisonment by his 
brothers (Shab. 189a; Gen. R. xcii., xeviii.). With 
reference to the saying that the curse inflicted upon 
the world consists in the bringing forth of gnats, 


flies, and other insects, Yizhak states that even these © 


creatures are of use in the world (Gen. R. v. 9). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bacher, Ag. Pal. Amor, i, 443, ii, 448, iti. 
588; A. Perles, in Bet Talmud, i. 153; Heilprin, Seder ha- 


Dorot, p. 24a. 
J. Ss. O. 


-YIZHAK BEN MARYON: Palestinian amora 
of the third century; contemporary of Eleazar ben 
Pedat (Yer. Suk. 58a). He transmitted some hag- 
gadic maxims in the names of Hanina (Eccl. R. 
1x. 12) and Jose ben Hanina (Pesik. 99a). With 
reference to Gen. ii. 4 and 8 he remarked that since 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Yizhak b. Eleazar 
Yizhak Nappaha 


God is proud of His creation, no one may venture to 
find fault with it (Gen. R. xii.on xv. 5). Cumment- 
ing on II Sam. xx. 21, he states that he who of- 
fends a great man is just as guilty as he who offends 
the king himself (Eccl. R. on ix. 18). Other hag- 
gadic maxims of his have been preserved as fol- 
lows: on Gen. xxxi. 86 and I Sam. xx. 1 (Gen. R. 
Ixxiv. 10); on Ezek. xxi. 21 (Shoher Tob to Ps. 
Ixxvili. 19); on Job ii. 4 (Eccl. R. to iii. 9); and 
on Ruth ii, 14 (Lev. R. xxxiv. 8). 


eee we 


a: 8. O. 


YIZHAK BAR NAHMAN: Palestinian 
amora of the third century; a friend of Jacob bar 
Idi, together with whom he officiated as poor-law 
commissioner (Yer. Shek. 49a). The two friends 
often engaged in halakic controversies (Yer. Shab. 
14d). Yizhak twice transmits sayings by Joshua 
ben Levi on the conversion of purchased slaves. 
Ze‘era having addressed a question to him on this 
point (Yer. Yeb. 8d). He had a dispute with Ab- 
dima of Haifa concerning some question of religious 
law (Yer. Niddah 50a), and also engaged in a con- 
troversy with Simeon ben Pazzi (Meg. 28a). Ja- 
cob bar Aha transmits a saying in his name (Yer. 
Yeb. 12a), 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bacher, Ag. Pal. Amor. 1., ii., iii.; Heilprin, 


Seder ha-Dorot, ii. 241a. 
J. S. O. 


YIZHAK NAPPAHA: Palestinian amora of 
the third and feurth centuries. Heis found under the 
name “Nappaha” only in the Babylonian Talmud, 
not in the Palestinian. As a haggadist he stands in 
the foremost rank of his contemporaries. In the 
Babylonian Talmud he is identified with various 
other Yizhaks (Pes. 118b), and since that was due 
to the arbitrary action of a later amora, the real 
name of his father can no longer be determined. 
As regards the name “ Nappaha” (the smith), there 
had been an older Yizhak of the same name, 
who was rich and who is said to have owned five 
courts in Usha; it has not yet been possible, how- 
ever, to ascertain any relationship between the two, 
and if the elder was an ancestor of this Yizhak, 
the latter could well have inherited the name with- 
out ever having practised the trade. In the later 
midrashic literature he is called Yizhak Nappaha, 
whereas the older works call him only R. Yizhak. 

Although he was a pupil of Johanan, his associa- 
tions with the latter are indicated in only one pas- 
sage (B. M. 24b), which tells of his once appearing 
before Johanan. As a traditionist of the haggadah 

of Johanan, he appears only in the 
Relations Babylonian Talmud (Ber. 62b). He 
with was in Babylonia only temporarily, 

Johanan. probably soon after the death of Jo- 

hanan; and while there he visited in 
the house of the exilarch (M. K. 24b), together with 
Sheshet (7b. 24b) and Joseph (R. H. 8b; Shab. 52b). 
Raba quoted in his name (Ber. 82a; Tem. 15a); but 
sometimes tradition maintains that it is uncertain 
whether the sayings originated with Yizhak or with 
Raba (Sanh. 94a: Ned. 39a; Naz. 23b). Rabbin bar 
Adda also cites in his name (Ber. 6a; Pes. 8b). His 


Yizhak Nappaha 
Yizhaki : 


home was originally in Cresarea, but he afterward 
went to Tiberias to live. He associated intimately 
with Ammi, with whom he often discussed halakic 
questions (Sotah 34a; Men. 11b; Hag. 26a; Ber. 41a; 
Yoma 42b); and together they sometimes rendered 
decisions in matters pertaining to religious law (Hul. 
48b; Ned. 57b; Ber. 2%a). Yizhak, Abbahu, and 
Hanina bar Pappai constituted a board of judges 
(Ket. 84b; ‘Ab. Zarah 29b; Ber. 38a, b; B. K. 
117b; Git. 29b). Helbo referred to Yizhak two 
liturgical questions addressed to him from Galilee: 
the first question he answered immediately ; the sec- 
ond he expounded publicly in the seminary (Git. 
60a). <A thesis on the creation of light, formulated 
anonymously, was made public by R. Yizhak (Gen. 
R. iii., beginning). He also engaged in haggadic dis- 
cussions with the celebrated Levi (Gen. R. xix. 14; 
Pesik. R. xxiii., beginning; Ber. 4a; Yer. Ta’an. 65b); 
with Abba b, Kahana (Gen. R. xliii. 7; Lev. R. it. 
1; Midr. Teh. to Ps. xlix. 1); with Aha (Pesik. R. 
xv.; Gen. R. v.7; Yer. Pe’ah 15d); and with Hiyya 
bar Abba (Lev. R. xx.7; Pesik. R. xxii.). Among 
those who transmitted in the name of Yizhak were 
the famous halakist Haggai, the latter’s sons Jon- 
athan and Azariah (Gen. R. xxii. 18, xl. 6; Midr. 
Shemuel xxii., end), and Luliani ben Tabrin (Gen. 
R. passim ; Midr. Teh. to Ps. xxiv. 4; Yer. Meg. 
75¢). 

That Yizhak was a great authority on the Hala- 
kah, as well as on the Haggadah, is shown by an 
anecdote which is told and according to which Ammi 
and Assi would not let him speak, because the one 
wished to hear Halakah and the other Haggadah 
(B. K. 60b). So after telling them the celebrated story 
of the man who had two wives, one of whom pulled 
out all his white hairs because she was young, 
whereas the other extracted his black hairs because 
she was old, R. Yizhak presented to them a hagga- 
dah with a halakic background, in order to satisfy 
both at the same time. Yizhak, however, devoted 
himself to the Haggadah with more zeal, because 
he regarded it as a necessity in the adverse circum- 
stances of the Jews. ‘The poverty of the Palestin- 
ians had increased to such an extent that people no 
longer waited for the harvest, but ate the green ears 
of wheat (Gen. R. xx. 24); consequently they were 
in need of comfort and refreshment of soul (Pes. 
101b). Yizhak tried to make his lectures as effect- 
ive as possible, and they show him to have been an 
unusually forceful rhetorician and a skilful exegete. 

Yizhak’s haggadic material may be divided ac- 
cording to contents into the following four groups: 
I, Proverbs and dicta: concerning sins (Suk. 52a, 
b; Hay. 16a; Kid. 81a; Ber. 25a; R. H. 16b; Yoma 
87a; B. B. 9b; Pes. 190b); concerning the relation 
of man to God (Ned. 82a; Soten 48b; 
Ruth R. i. 2); on the relation of man to 
his fellow beings (B. M. 42a; Meg. 
28a; B. K. 98a); concerning prayer 
(Pes. 181a; Lev. R. xxx. 3; Midr. Shemuel i. 7; R. 
H. 16b; Yer. Kid. 61b; Yer. Ned. 41b); concerning 
study and the Law (Pes. 198a, b; Meg. 6b; Lev. R. 
ii. 1; Sanh. 21b, 24a; Hul. 91a: Yoma 77%a); con- 
cerning Israel (Pes. 165a; Gen. R. ]xiti. 8); concern- 
ing the nations (Esther R. i. 10; Lev. R. i. 14; Ex. 
R. xxxviii, 3); concerning Jerusalem (Pesik. R. xli. 


His 
Sayings. 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


616 


1; Pes. 6a). II. Exegesis: general (Sanh, 82a, 89a, 
95b; Tem. 16a; Yer. R. H. 57c; Gen. R. liii. 20; 
Hul. 9tb; Sotah 48b; B. B. 16a); halakic (Ber. 13b; 
Git, 59b; Pes. 31b; Yoma 77a; Yer. Sotah 17a); Bib- 
lical personages (Gen. R. xxxiv. 11, xxxix. 7, Iviii, 
7; Yeb. 64a); Biblical narratives (Sotah 34a; Deut, 
R. xi. 2; B. B. 91a; Midr. Teh. to Ps. vii. 13; Sanh. 
106b; Men. 58b; Esther BR. iii1.9; Pesik. R. xxxv. 1), 
JIJ. Homiletics (Gen. R. xix. 6, xxxviii. 7; Sanh, 
96a; B. M. 8%a; Yer. Sotah 17b; Ex. R. xliii. 4: Sanh. 
102a; Ber. 63b; Eccl. R. iti. 19; Tem. 16a; Yer, 
Ta‘an.65b; Hor. 10b). IV. Proems (Gen. R. iii. 1, 
lix. 2, Ixv. 7; Pes. 101b; Ex. R. xxxii. 5; Lev. R. 
xii. 2); maxims (Gen. R. Ivi. 1; Deut. R. ii. 27; 
Lev. R. xxxiv. 8); similes (Yer. R. H. 57b; Lev. 
R. v. 6; Ex. R. xv. 16; Yer. Ber. 18a; B. B. 74b), 
Messianic subjects (Eccl. R. i. 11: Deut. R. i. 19; 
‘Ab. Zarah 3b); eschatology (Lev. R. xiii. 3; Midr. 
Teh. to Ps. xlix. 1; Shab. 152a; B. M. 83b). 

According to the unanimous testimony of several 
writers of the tenth century, the gaon Hai b. David 
ascribed to Yizhak Nappaha the calculation of the 
Rabbinite calendar. The only fact known concern- 
ing Yizhak’s family is that his daughter married the 
Babylonian amora Pappa (Haul. 11a). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bacher, Ay. Pal. Amor. if. 205-295; Frankel, 
Mebo, pp. 106b-107a; Heilprin, Seder ha-Dorot, ii., s.v.; S. 
Pinsker, Likkute Kadmoniyyot, ii. 148-151; Al-Kirkisant, 
ed. Harkavy, in Publ. Kaisertiche Russische Archceolo- 

gische Gesellschaft, 1894, vii. 293; Weiss, Dor, iil. 98 et seq. 

S. O. 


J. 

YIZHAK BEN PARNAK:: Palestinian amora 
of uncertain period. Heis named asthe author of an 
apocry phal work entitled 037939 7295 }3 pny* 7 prs, 
which describes the events that take place at the 
death of a human being. When a man is dying 
three angels come to his bedside—the angel of death, 
the recording angel, and the guardian angel; and 
these three review his entire life. If he has beena 
pious man, three more angels appear: and while the 
struggle with death is going on one of these angels 
recites Isa. lvii. 1, the second 74. lvit. 2, and the 
third 2d. lviii. 8. At last four more angels descend 
to the bedside; and when the dying man cries out 
to the earth to help him, the first angel answers him 
with the words of Ps. xxiv. 1; when he implores 
the aid of his relatives, the second angel recites Ps. 
xlix. 8(A. V. 7); when he turns to his money for 
solace, the third angel answers him with Ps. xlix. 9 
(A. V. 8); and when he appeals to his good deeds, the 
fourth angel recites Isa. Iviii. 8. There is clearly 
some influence here of the Buddhist legend of “ The 
Three Friends ” (comp. “ Barlaam and Josaphat,” ed. 
Jacobs, Appendix). Yizhak’s father, Parnak, trans- 
mitted in the name of Johanan (Gen. R. liii., end; 
M. K. 9a; Shab. 14a; B. M. 83a). 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bacher, Ag. Pal. Amar. i. 219, note 3: iil. 

767—768 ; Jellinek, Bet ha-idrash, v. 48-49, Vienna, 1873. 

J. S, 0. 

YIZHAK BAR REDIFA: Palestinian amora 
of the fourth century; the transmitter of the hag- 
gadah of R. Ammi (Lev. R. xii., beginning; Ex. R. 
xlii., end: Yer. Shek. 48a; Ex. R. iii. to Ex. iii. 14). 
He once requested the amora Jeremiah to decide 4 
question, but received only an evasive reply (Yer. 
Sheb. 39a). He was the author of several explana- 
tions of the stories concerning Samson (Sotah 9b). 


617 


Especial mention should be made of his interpreta- 
tion of the word mapayN in Isa. tii. 16, which he 
derives from the Greek éyc (“serpent”), saying: 
“The women used to place myrrh and balsam in 
their shoes, and when meeting young men in the 
streets they stamped their feet so that a strong odor 
arose which awakened evil impulses in the youths, 
as though they were under the influence of a ser- 
pept’s poison ” (Shab. 62b). 

Yizhak transmitted dissertations on the salvation 
of the tribe of Benjamin, with reference to Judges 
xxi. 7 (B. B. 116a); on the list of idolatrous priests 
referred to in Hosea xiii. 2 (Sanh. 62a); on the pro- 
nunciation of the words “ Praised be the name of His 
glorious kingdom ” (1'5n"5"w'3) after the “Shema‘” 
(Pes. 56a); on the act of rising when the name of 
God is uttered, as deduced from Judges iii. 20 (Sanh. 
60a); and on the assumption of the sex of an ex- 
pected child, with reference to Lev. xii. 2 (Ber. 60a; 
Niddah 25b, 31a). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bacher, 4g. Pal. Amor. i. 518, note 1; ii. 151, 


note6: iii. 719-720; Rabbinoviez, Dikduke Soferim, ix. 169; 
epee Seder ha-Dorot, ii. 241; Frankel, Mebo, pp. 90a, 
b. 


J. S. O. 


YIZHAK BEN SAMUEL BEN MARTA: 
Babylonian amora of the third and fourth centuries. 
He was a pupil of R. Nahman, to whom he directed 
questions relating to sacrifice (Men. 81a) and to dif- 
ferentiation between sanctified and unsanctified 
things (Hul. 85a). In the name of Rab he trans- 
mitted sayings relating to the presentation of letters 
of divorce (Git. 18a, 63b), and to Rab’s method of 
pronouncing the Sabbatical benediction (Pes. 166a). 
Rabbah transmitted sayings of Yizhak’s (Meg. 16b); 
Ze‘era addressed him as “ Rabbenu ” (Hul. 30b); and 
Rami bar Hama directed a question to him (28. 35a). 
Yizhak once met Simlai in Nisibis, where he heard 
the latter denounce the free use of oi] among the 
Jews; and he later furnished a report of this denunci- 
ation (‘Ab. Zarah 36a; comp. Yer. ‘Ab. Zarah 41d). 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bacher, Ag. Pal. Amor. i. 569; Heilprin, 

Seder ha-Dorot, ii. 2389-240. 

J. S. O. 

YIZHAK BEN TABLATI: Palestinian amora 
of the fourth century ; a contemporary of Jacob ben 
Zabdai and Helbo, together with both of whom he 
was called upon to decide a question of religious law 
(Yer. Niddah 50a). When asked whether the law 
of Demai applied to the Syrian leek, he was unable 
to decide the question by himself, and had to seek 
the advice of R. Jose (Yer. Dem. 22d); and on another 
occasion, when a question relating to the divorce law 
was addressed to him, he had to refer it to Eleazar 
(Yer. Kid. 68c), A tradition handed down from the 
above-mentioned Eleazar was differently transmitted 
by the amoraim Jonah and Jose (Yer. Sheb. 38d). 

In the Babylonian Talmud (Pes, 113b) Yizhak has 
been identified with five other amoraim of similar 
name, but this has been refuted by Bacher, who dis- 
proved also the allegation of 8. Krauss that the names 
xdpn and x53 are identical. The Babylonian Tal- 
mud (Ned. 81b) mentions Yizhak as the transmitter 
of an interpretation of Mal. iii. 20. To him isascribed 
also the haggadic explanation identifying the name 
nad with the Temple, with reference to the paro- 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Yizhak Nappaha 
Yizhak1 : 


nomasia on nad and nabp, which latter word, mean- 
ing “to make white,” has been used with regard to 
the Temple in the sense of “atone.” Yizhak was the 
author, moreover, of haggadot on Deut. xxix. 10and 
Josh. x. 4 (Midr. Tan. to Deut. xxix.) and of a hag- 
gadah comparing Israel] to the stubborn princess (Pe- 
sik. R. xxviji.; Midr. Teh. to Ps. cxxxviiti. 5). 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bacher, Ag. Pal. Amor, iii. 120-722; idem, 
Ay. Tan. i. 26, note 2; S. Krauss, Lehnwérter, i. 77, 246; 
ees Mebo, p. 107; Heilprin, Seder ha-Dorot, pp. 237- 
J. Ss. O. 
YIZHAK BEN ZE‘ERA: Palestinian amora of 
the fourth century. He interpreted the word 5s 
in Ps. xix. 6, in connection with Gen. xviii. 11. as 
signifying that the descending sun resembles a drap 
of blood not larger than a mustard-seed (Lev. R. 
Xxxxi. 9). He is credited also with an interpretation 
of a verse of the Song of Solomon (vii. 10): but some 
confusion exists with regard to the name, that of 
Bar Nazira occurring instead of his in some pas- 
sages (Yeb. 97a; Bek. 31b). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bacher, Ag. Pal. Amor. i. 121, note 1: iii. 
(22; Heilprin, Seder ha-Dorot, p. 242. sO 
J Ss. O, 


YIZHAKTI. See Rasut. 

YIZHAKI, ABRAHAM: Turkish Talmudist; 
lived at Salonica toward the end of the sixteenth 
century. He was dayyan under Rabbi Solomon ha- 
Levi, after whom Yizhaki signed third under a de- 
cision issued in 1597, and second under a decision of 
1598. Yizhaki was the author of the work * Ahot 
Ketannah,” which is quoted in Joseph Almosnino’s 
“‘Hdut bi-Yehosef” (i., No. 54) and in Hasdai 
Perahya’s “Torat Hesed” (No. 65), and printed at 
the end of Jacob Hagiz’s “ Halakot Ketannot.” and 
which is erroneously ascribed by Heilprin (“Seder 
ha-Dorot,” iji., s.2.) to Michael b. Moses ha-Kohen. 
It is a work in four parts on the laws relative to the 
“pet” of a minor. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Benjacob, Ozar ha-Sefarim, p. 34, No. 646; 

Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, p. 30; Michael, Or ha-Huyyin, 


No. 141. 
J M. SEt. 


YIZHAKI, ABRAHAM BEN DAVID: Pal- 
estinian rabbi and anti-Shabbethaian; born in 1661; 
died at Jerusalem June 10, 1729; on his mother’s 
side a grandson of Abraham Azulai. He was a 
pupil of Moses Galante, and was in his turn the 
teacher of Moses Hagiz. Yizhakiwas prominent in 
opposition to the followers of Shabbethai Zebi, and 
exhorted the rabbis of Smyrna to investigate the 
writings of Miguel Cardoso. He signed the letter 
of excommunication launched against Nehemiah 
Hayyun by the rabbinate of Jerusalem in 1708. 
Later, Yizhaki was sent to Europe to collect con- 
tributions, and when at Constantinople he wrote a 
preface to Jacob Sason’s “Bene Ya‘akob.” In 1711 
he arrived at Leghorn, where he agitated strongly 
against Hayyun; and he did the same at Amster- 
dam in the following year, together with Zebi Ash- 
kenazi. On his way back to Jerusalem in 1714 Yiz- 
haki passed through Constantinople, where he joined 
the other rabbis in the excommunication of Hayyun. 

Of Yizhaki’s works, only the “Zera* Abraham,” 
responsa on the four Turim, was published (vol. 1., 
on Orah Hayyim and Yoreh De‘ah, Smyrna,1733: vol. 
ii., on Eben ha ‘Ezer and Hoshen Mishpat, Constan- 


Yizidro 
Yoma 


tinople, 1732) His other works are: “Iggeret Shib- 
bukin ” and “ Ketobet Ka‘akea‘,” both on Hayyun’s 
‘heresies; a work on Maimonides’ “Yad”; and no- 
velle on the Shulhan ‘Aruk. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, p. 30; Gratz, Gesch. 
3d ed., x. 311, 317, 320; First, Bibl. Jad. ii. 78; Michael, Or 
ha-Hayyim, No. 81. 

J M. SEL. 


YIZIDRO (YSIDRO), ABRAHAM GAB- 
BAI. See GABBAL. 


YOD (‘): Tenth letter of the Hebrew alphabet. 
The name seems to be connected with “ yad,” mean- 
ing “hand”; the Phenician “ yod” remotely resembles 
a hand inform. The letter isa palatal semivowel, 
identical in sound with the English “y.” Preceded 
by the cognate vowel “i” (= Eng. “ee”), it blends 
with it, the resulting combination being long “i.” 
With a preceding a-vowel it forms the diphthong 
“ai,” which in Hebrew (that language having pre- 
served no diphthongal sounds) has become “é” (= 
Eng. “ay”). As a radical, “ yod” sometimes inter- 
changes with “ waw.” Asanumeral, it has in the later 
usage the value 10. The Tetragrammaton is some- 
times represented by “yod,” its first letter. 

T: I. Br. 

YOKE. See AGRICULTURE. 

YOM, HA-. See PERIODICALS. 

YOM KIPPUR. See ATONEMENT, Day OF, 

YOM KIPPUR KATAN: The “ Minor Day of 
Atonement”; observed on the day preceding each 
Rosh Hodesh or New-Moon Day, the observance con- 
sisting of fasting and supplication, but being much 
less rigorous than that of Yom Kippur proper. The 
custom is of comparatively recent origin and is not 
mentioned in the Shulhan ‘Aruk. It appears to 
have been inaugurated in the sixteenth century at 
Safed by the cabalist Moses Cordovero (Da Silva, 
“Peri Hadash,” Rosh Hodesh, § 417), who called 
the fast “Yom Kippur Katan”; and it was in- 
eluded by Isaac Luria in his “Seder ha-Tefillah.” 
R. Isaiah Horowitz refers to it by that name, and 
says it should be observed by fasting and repentance: 
“Following the custom of the very pious, one must 
repent of his ways and make restitutions both in 
money and in personal acts, in order that he may 
enter the new month as pure as a new-born infant ” 
(“Shelah,” ed. Amsterdam, 1698, pp. 120b, 140a, 
179a), When Rosh Hodesh occurs on a Sabbath or 
Sunday, Yom Kippur Katan is observed on the pre- 
ceding Thursday. The fasting is not obligatory, and 
only the very pious observe that act of self-denial. 

The liturgy of the day, which consists of selihot, is 
recited at the Minhah prayerin theafternoon. Tallit 
and tefillin are adjusted, and if there are among the 
congregation ten persons who have fasted, they read 
from the scroll “ Wa-Yehal” (Ex. xxxii. 11 e¢ seq.). 
The selihot are taken partly from the collection used 
on the general fast-days and Yom Kippur, with the 
“Widdui ha-Gadol” (the great confession of sin by 
Rabbenu Nissim) and “ Ashamnu,” and also a beau- 
tiful poem written for the occasion by Leon of Mo- 
denaand beginning with “ Yomzeh.” Some congre- 
gations add * Abinu Malkenu.” The fast ends with 
the Minhah prayer. For the text see Baer, “‘Abo- 


dat Yisrael,” pp. 317-319; Emden’s Siddur “ Bet | 
| sefta, and in both Talmudim, treating of the divine 


Ya‘akob,” ed. Warsaw, pp. 212a~216b. 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


618 


a ee ty 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Moses Bruck, Pharisdisehe Voltkssitten und 
Ritualien, pp. 42-44, Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1840, 
Je J. D. E. 


YOM-TOB BEN ABRAHAM ISHBILI 
(called also RITBA, from the initials of his name, 
wor): Famous Talmudic commentator of the first 
half of the fourteenth century. Ue received bis name 
from the city of Seville; but was living at Alcolea de 
Cinca in 1842. He was gifted with a clear, acute 
mind, and was a pupil of Aaron ha-Levi and Solo- 
mon Adret at Barcelona, although it is doubtful 
whether he studied under Meir ha-Levi Abulafia 
also, as some scholars think (Perles, “RR. Salomo b. 
Abraham b. Adret,” p. 59, Breslau, 1868). He was 
engaged in a controversy with Rabbi Dan Asbke- 
nazi, who had emigrated to Spain. Yom-Tob’s vo- 
luminous works include valuable novelle on many 
of the Talmudic treatises, and commentaries on the 
writings of Alfasi and certain works of Nahmani- 
des. His published novelle include those on ‘Eru- 
bin, Ta‘anit, Mo‘ed Katan, Ketubot, and Baba 
Mezi‘a (Amsterdam, 1729; Prague, 1810), Ta‘anit 
and Mo‘ed Katan (Prague, 1811), Hullin (2. 1784), 
Gittin (Salonica, 1758), Yebamot (Leghorn, 1787), 
Shabbat (Salonica, 1806), Yoma (Constantinople, 
1754; Berlin, 1860), ‘Abodah Zarah (Ofen, 1824), 
and Rosh ha-Shanah (K6énigsberg, 1858). Most of 
the novelle have been collected under the title 
“Hiddushe ha-Ritba” (Lemberg, 1860-61), while 
extracts from his commentaries on haggadic pas- 
sages are quoted by the author of the “‘En 
Ya‘akob” (Berlin, 1709; Firth, 1766; etc.). The 
“Migdal ‘Oz” of Shem-Tob ibn Gaon and the 
“Maggid Mishneh” of Vidal of Tolosa have been 
erroneously ascribed to him. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Malachi b. Jacob ha-Kohen, Yad Mal aki, 
ed. Berlin, p. 181; Azulai, Shem ha-Gedolim, i. 72 et. seq.; 
Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 1406; Cassel, Lehrhuch der 
Jitdischen Gesch. und Literatur, p. 302; First, Bibl. Jud. 
j. 248; Zedner, Cat. Hebr. Books Brit. Mus. pp. 784 et seq. 


E. C. M. K. 


YOM-TOB BEN ISAAC OF JOIGNY (called 
also ha-Kodesh): Tosafist and liturgical poet who 
suffered martyrdom at York, England, in March, 
1190, as has been proved by Gritz (“Gesch.” vi. 
455). The Jews of York sought refuge in the for- 
tress from the fury of the populace; and after offer- 
ing a vain resistance for several days the most of 
them, on the advice of Yom-Tob ben Isaac, joined 
him in voluntary death. 

Yom-Tob was a pupil of R. Tam, and was promi- 
nent as a tosafist, being frequently mentioned with 
the epithet “ha-Kodesh” (= “the Holy” or “the 
Martyr”). He also was a Biblical exegete and a 
liturgical poet. His best-known productions are 
Omnam KEN, a hymn sung on the eve of the Day 
of Atonement, and a penitential prayer in fourteen 
stanzas. He wrote also an elegy beginning with 
the words “ Yah tishpok ” and lamenting the death. 
of the Jews of Blois who perished in 1071. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zunz, Z. G. pp. 52, 100; idem, Literatur- 

gesch. pp. 286 et seq... Gritz, Gesch. vi 265; Gross, Gallia 

Judaica, p. 252; R. EB. J. iii. 5; Tr. Jew. Hist. Soc. Eng. 

iii. 9 ef seq.: Jacobs, Jews of Angevin England, pp. 109-114, 


125, 421 (bibliography). 
J. M. K. 


YOMA: A treatise in the Mishnah, in the To- 


619 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Yizidro 
Yoma 


service on the Day of Atonement, of the fasting cere- 
mony on that day, and of other regulations pertain- 
ing to the occasion. In the Tosefta this treatise is 
entitled “Yom ha-Kippurim ” (Day of Atonement), 
while in the Mishnah (ed. Lowe), as well as by 
Sherira Gaon, it is called simply “Kippurim ” 
(Atonement). The Day of Atonement was known 
also as “ Yoma Rabba” (The Great Day), often 
shortened to “ Yoma” (The Day); hence this treatise 
was given the name of “ Yoma” in the Mishnah as 
well asin the Talmudim. In most Mishnah editions 
the treatise is the fifth in the order of Mo‘ed. It is 
divided into eight chapters, containing a total of 
sixty-one paragraphs. 

Ch. i.: On the high priest’s seven days of prepa- 
ration tor his service on the Day of Atonement; 
how the stipulated order of the sacrificial ceremony 
was read to him, and how the elders impressed upon 
him that he should proceed only according to the 

prescribed order, and not in harmony 
Contents: with Sadducean customs (§§ 1-5); re- 
Ch. i.-vili. garding the night of the Day of Atone- 
ment; if the high priest was a wise 
man and a scholar, he preached a sermon; if not, 
the sages present delivered a lecture or read from 
Holy Script, choosing only passages from the Ha- 
giographa; how the youag priests watched to see 
that the high priest did not fall asleep ($8 6-7); on 
the removal of the ashes from the altar upon the Day 
of Atonement and upon other days (§ 8). 

Ch. ti.: In connection with the rules regarding 
the removal of the ashes (i. 8), it is said that this 
duty originally devolved on all priests without any 
specific allotment, such distinction being introduced 
only in the course of time (§§ 1-2); other allotments 
made in order to distribute the Temple duties among 
the priests ($8 3-4); when the daily sacrifice 
(“tamid”) was offered, and regulations concerning 
other sacrifices (§§ 5-7). 

Ch. iii.: Further regulations regarding the divine 
service in the Temple on the Day of Atonement; 
how the high priest was to bathe five times and 
wash himself ten times on that day; regarding the 
various dresses he should wear for the different serv- 
ices (8 1-7); the presentation to the high priest 
of a bullock, and the confession of sin he was to 
speak while holding his hands on the bullock’s head 
(8 8); the casting of lots for the two he-goats; Ben 
Gamla had made two golden dice for this purpose, 
and was therefore mentioned with words of praise 
($ 9), as were also Ben Kattina, King Monobaz, 
Queen Helene, and Nicanor, who had all introduced 
improvements or embellishments in the sanctuary 
(§ 10); words of blame directed against the family 
of Garmu for being unwilling to teach others how 
to prepare the showbread; similar comment on the 
family of Abtinas for refusing to teach the method 
of compounding the incense (“ketoret”), and on 
Hugros (or Hugdos) ben Levi and Ben Kamzar, who 
refused to give instruction in singing and writing 
Tespectively ($ 11). 

Ch. iv.: How lots were cast by the high priest 
Over the two he-goats, one of which was slaugh- 
tered, while the other was sent to Azazel; how the 

igh priest marked the he-goats by placing a red 
Nbbon upon the head of one and around the neck of 


the other; the confession of sin pronounced by the 
high priest for the priestly caste ($$ 1-2); particu- 
lars of the incense-offering on the Day of Atone- 
ment; the ascension of the high priest to the altar, 
and his washing of hands and feet ($$ 3-6). 

Ch. v.: What was done in the sanctuary; the in- 
cense-offering; the sprinkling of the blood, first of 
the bullock, and later of the he-goat; the short 
prayer spoken by the high priest; the foundation- 
stone (“eben shetiyah ”) in the most holy part of the 
Temple, upon which the high priest, in the absence 
of the Ark of the Covenant from the Second Temple, 
placed the incense; the purification of the golden 
altar; and other regulations regarding the order of 
service on the Day of Atonement. 

Ch. vi.: What was done with the he-goat sent to 
Azazel; the confession of sin pronounced by the 
high priest for all Israel while he held his hands 
upon the head of the Azazel goat; who might lead 
the animal to Azazel ($$ 1-3); how the Babylonians 
present in Jerusalem used to pluck hair from Aza- 
zel’s goat; how the aristocratic Jerusalemites ac- 
companied the goat to the first halting-place; re- 
garding the ten stations in the journey from Jerusa- 
lem to the mountain-top from which the animal was 
thrown down; how it was thrown; how color-signals 
were used to make it known in Jerusalem and in the 
Temple that Azazel’s goat had reached the wilder- 
ness; how to the door of the Hekal was tied a red 
ribbon, which turned white when the goat had ar- 
rived in the wilderness ($§ 4-8). 

Ch. vii.: The ceremony attending the high priest’s 
reading from the Law; the paragraphs read by him, 
and what he repeated; the benediction pronounced 
by him; the remainder of his duties; the eight arti- 
cles of dress which he had to wear when conducting 
the service and when questioning the Urim and 
Thummim; on what occasions the Urim and Thum- 
mim were consulted. 

Ch. viii.: Regulations concerning fasting on the 
Day of Atonement; from what enjoyments one must 
abstain; the means by which atonement is made— 
through sin-offering, guilt-offering, death, Day of 
Atonement, and penance; cases in which no atone- 
ment takes place; sins against God are expiated 
through the Day of Atonement, while sins against 
one’s fellow men can be blotted out only when par- 
doned by those trespassed against. On the original 
form of this mishnaic treatise see Joseph Deren- 
bourg, in “R. E. J.” vi. 41 et seg. 

The Tosefta to this treatise is divided into five 
chapters, and contains additions to and amplifica- 
tions of the Mishnah, and also several haggadic and 
ethical maxims, among which the folowing may be 
mentioned: “ Ben ‘Azzai used to say, ‘ What belongs 
to you [z.e, “ What you have deserved ”] is given to 

you; by your name [?.e., “the name 


Tosefta you have made for yourself ”] you are 
and called; and on the place to which you 
Gemara. are entitled you are stationed. God 


forgets no one; and no man can take 
to himself that which is intended for another’ ” (ii, 
8). “He who induces others to lead good and pious 
lives will be prevented from committing any sin, in 
order that he may not be excluded from the future 
world while those taught by him partake therein. 


Yoma [tion 
Young Men’s Hebrew Associa- 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


620 


On the other hand, he who leads others to sin is 
prevented from doing penance, that he may not 
partake of the eternal life from which those seduced 
by him are excluded” (v. 10-11). The Tosefta 
defends those who in the Mishnah are blamed for 
refusing to give instruction, saying they did so 
because they feared that, if they imparted their 
knowledge, those whom they taught might use their 
attainments in the service of a temple of idolatry 
(ii. 5-8), Other items of interest in the Tosefta are 
an account of the miraculous saving of the Gate of 
Nicanor (ii. 4), and R. Jose’s assertion that he had 
seen in Rome the curtain from the sanctuary of the 
Temple in Jerusalem, and that it still had upon it 
stains caused by the sprinkling of blood by the high 
priests on the Day of Atonement (iil. 8). 

Both the Babylonian and the Palestinian Gemara 
discuss and explain the various mishnaic maxinis, 
and contain in addition a wealth of haggadic ex- 
planations and proverbs, as well as many interesting 
parables and narratives. The following passages 
from the Babylonian Gemara may be quoted here: 
“Tf one is told anything by another, he must keep 
it secret even though not explicitly requested to do 
so; only when he has received express permission 
may he relate it further” (4b). “The First Tem- 
ple stood for 410 years, during which time 18 high 
priests officiated successively ; the Second Temple 
stood 420 years, and during that time more than 300 
high priests officiated” (9a). “During the time of 
the Second Temple the people studied the Law, ob- 
served the commandments, and did deeds of char- 
ity; only the causeless hatred between the factions 
brought about the destruction of the Temple and 
the fall of the state” (9b). It is told how Hillel 
endeavored to study the Law in spite of his pov- 
erty, and how he, with danger to his life, attempted 
to attend the lectures of Shemaiah and Abtation. 
It is likewise related of Eleazar ben Harsum that, in 
spite of his wealth, he led a life of self-denial in 
order that he might study the Law (85b). Another 
interesting passage narrates how the Jews, on their 
return from Babylonia, succeeded in rooting out 
from among themselves the existing tendency to 
idolatry (69b). <A description is given (73b) of the 
mode of questioning the Urim and Thummim, and 
of the manner in which their replies became visi- 
ble upon the stones; the passage §§ 75a-76b tells 
how the manna fell, how thick it lay upon the 
ground, and how it tasted. It is related in § 83b 
that once when R. Meir, R. Judah, and R. Jose vis- 
ited an inn the first-named formed a correct estimate 
of the innkeeper’s character. 

ad J. Z. L. 
YORE: Capital town of Yorkshire, England, and 
seat of a metropolitansee. In the Angevin period it 
was the second city in the kingdom, and Jews flocked 
thither in considerable numbers. It is recorded 
that at the coronation of Richard I. two “noble” 
Jews of York, Joce and Benedict, went up to Lon- 
don, probably as a deputation from the York com- 
munity. During a riot which followed the festivi- 
tics Benedict was forced to submit to baptism, but 
was permitted by Richard to revert on the following 
day (Howden, “Chronica,” ed. Stubbs, iii, 14); he 
died shortly afterward at Northampton. Joce es- 


caped and returned to his home in York, which was 
looked upon as a royal residence on account of its 
strength and magnificence. He had been one of the 
agents of Aaron of Lincoln, among whose debtors 
was one Richard de Malbis, who in 1182 had paid 


| £4 out of the great debt which he owed to Aaron. 


De Malbis and others of the York nobles who were 
contemplating joining Richardin the Third Crusade 
took advantage of a fire that broke out in the city 
to raise a tumult against the Jews. The houses of 
Benedict and Joce were attacked, and the latter ob- 
tained the permission of the warden of York Castle 
to remove his wife and children and the rest of the 
Jews into the castle, where they were probably 
placed in Clifford’s Tower. This was surrounded 
by the mob, and when the warden left the castle the 
Jews in fear would not readmit bim. He appealed 
to the sheriff, who called out the county militia; 
and Clifford’s Tower was surrounded for several 
days. A certain Premonstratensian monk paced the 
walls each morning and took the sacrament, as if 
the work of hounding on the mob was a holy office. 
He was crushed by a stone thrown by the be- 
sieved Jews; this changed the wrath of the mob to 
a frenzied madness. When the Jews in Clifford’s 
Tower found that they had no alternative but to sub- 
mit to baptism or perish at the hands of the mob, 
Yom-Tosn oF JoIGNy, who had become their chief 
rabbi some time before, recalled the practise of 
their ancestors, and urged that they should kill 
themselves rather than surrender to the cruelty 
of their enemies. Those who disagreed were per- 
mitted to withdraw; and the remainder, having set 
fire to their garments and goods that these might 
not fall into the hands of the mob, found refuge in 
death. Joce with his own hand cut the throat of 

his wife, Hannah, with the knife used 
The in shehitah ; and finally Joce was killed 
Massacre. by Yom-Tob, who then stabbed him- 
self, being the only person cf the 
number to take upon himself the crime of suicide. 
In the morning the few who had withdrawn sum- 
moned the besiegers, who killed most of them, send- 
ing the remainder to London in the hands of the sher- 
iff. The mob searched the castle for the Jews’ deeds 
of indebtedness, and, not finding them, hastened to 
the minster and took the deeds from the cathedral 
treasury, thus showing the real motive of their 
acts. 

William de Longchamp, the ruler of the kingdom 
in Richard's absence, was much incensed at thisinsult 
to the royal dignity, the Jews being under the king's 
protection. He accordingly marched to York, im- 
posed heavy fines on fifty-two of the chief citizens, 
and banished Richard de Malbis and various mem- 
bers of the Percy, Faulconbridge, and Darrel fami- 
lies, who had clearly been the leaders of the riot, 
and each of whom, according to unimpeachable 
evidence, was indebted to the Jews. Richard de 
Malbis returned from Scotland ten years later, when 
he “ obtained warren ” for his lanc at Acaster Malbis, 
five miles south of York, the name of which still 
recalis the arch villain of the York tragedy. 

For some time after this there is no record of 
Jews at York. Among the contributions to the 
Northampton donum of 1194 none are mentioned 48 


€21 


coming from York, although it was the second city 
in the kingdom; but in the early part of the thir- 
teenth century Jews began again to 
settle there. In1208a Jewessof York 
was murdered, three Christians being 
suspected of the crime; a charge of 
murder was brought against them by Milo, her hus- 
band, while her brother Benedict brought a similar 
charge against Milo himself (“Select Pleas of the 
Crown,” Selden Society, i., Nos. 59, 108). Joce’s 
son, AARON OF York, became the chief Jew of the 
kingdom in the reign of Henry III., being presbyter, 
or chief rabbi, of England for a short time in 1237. 
The widow of Aaron of York claimed dower from 
Thomas Kyme of Northampton, and in 1270 at- 
tempted to re- 
coveraconsider- ; 
able number of 
debts due to her 
deceased hus- 
band (Rigg, 
“Select Pleas of 
the Jewish Ex- 
chequer,” pp. 
52-53, London, 
1902). When 
the regulation 
was issued per- 
mitting Jews to 
reside only in 
certain towns 
where arche 
were kept for 
the preservation 
of Jewish deeds, 
York was in- 
cluded in the 
list, showing 
that it was still 
an important 
center of Jewish 
commerce in 
1272. Among 
the eminent 
Jews of London 
mentioned at the 
time of the ex- 
pulsion was Bo- 
namy of York. 
Ou theex pulsion 
of the Jews from England the lands and chattels of 
those living in York fell into the king’s hands. The 
Jewish burial-ground at York was between St. Morris 
and the River Fosse, and the synagogue was on the 
north side of the Jubbergate, in close proximity to 
the castle, under the warden of which the Jews of 
the city were placed by the king’s authority. 

Since the return of the Jews to England there has 
been no congregation at York, but a few Jewish 
tailors have settled there in recent years (E. S. 
Rowntree, “ Poverty,a Study of Town Life,” p. 11, 
London, 1908), and for their benefit a synagogue was 
erected in the Aldwark in 1892. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Drake, Eboracum, pp. 37, 94-96, 228, 253-254, 
265, 277, 822; Raines, York, London, 1892, Index ; Hargrave, 


Pork, ii. 386-38, 558; Twyford and Griffiths, Reeards of 
Yori: Castie, pp. 25-85; BR. Davies, The Medieval Jews of 


Later 
History. 


et ee 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


ee a et re a a 


Clifford’s Tower, York, England. 
(From a photograph.) 


Yoma {tion 
Young Men’s Hebrew Associa- 


York, in Yorkshire Archeological and Topographical 
Journal, ili, 47-1975 J. T. Fowler, Certain Starrs, ib. pp. 
338-63; Jacobs, Jews of Angevin England, pp. 101, 112, 116— 
130, 238, 392. J 


YOSIPPON. See JosEPuts. 


YOUNG MEN’S HEBREW ASSOCIATION : 
Communal institution organized in various cities of 
the United States for the mental, moral, social, and 
physical improvement of Jewish young men. The 
first established was that in New York, which was 
organized on March 22, 1874, at the house of Dr. Sim- 
eon N. Leo. The board of directors was elected on 
May 3, 1874, and included Isaac 8. Isaacs, Adolph L. 
Sanger, Oscar S, Straus, Lewis May, and others. The 


first president was Lewis May (1874-76). On March 
27, 1876, the as- 
sociation re- 
moved from its 
temporary quar- 


ters to the Har- 
vard Rooms, 
Forty-second 
street and Sixth 
avenue. 

The functions 
of the New York 
branch are phil- 
anthropic and 
benevolent. The 
social work in- 
cludes public 
lectures by 
prominent  citi- 
zens, literary 
and debating 
meetings, free 
classes in Bible, 
Hebrew, stenog- 
raphy, book- 
keeping, me- 
chanical draw- 
ing, and other 
subjects, as well 
as in physical 
culture. <A li- 
brary was found- 
ed, and in 1886 
became the basis 
of the Aguilar 
Free Library, 
which was recently merged into the New York 
Public Library, For about ten years (1875-85) the 
association had rather varying fortunes; and in the 
following decade its affairs became so unsatisfactory 
that the question of disbanding was considered. A 
downtown branch was opened on the East Side, out 
of which in 1891 grew the Educational Alliance. 
In 1895, however, a reorganization took place; and 
on Jan. 10, 1897, Jacob H. Schiff presented the 
association with a new home at 861 Lexington 
avenue, which gift was followed on Dec. 20, 1898, 
by the donation of a new building at Ninety- 
second street and Lexington avenue, This struc- 
ture, which was dedicated on May 380, 1900, is 
provided with all modern requisites, including a 
library, reading-rooms (containing more than 9,000 


an 
: 


Young Men’s Hebrew Associa- 
Yudan {tion 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


622 


volumes for reference), a gymnasium, and rooms for 
recreation. in addition to evening classes in a 
large number of subjects, the association holds re- 
ligious services on Friday evenings, and has estab- 
lished a vacation camp. For the vear ending April 
30, 1905, the total attendance was no less than 166,- 
289; the income was $39,423.21; and the disburse- 
ments amounted to $38,673.32. Percival S. Menken 
has been president of the association since 1895. 

The Young Men’s Hebrew Association of New 
York city is the parent institution of similar organi- 
zations that have been established throughout the 
United States. In 1875 there was founded in the 
city of Philadelphia, Pa., a Young Men’s Hebrew 
Association, which has continued in existence to the 
present time, It is located in a rented building; 
and its activities consist principally in the delivery 
of public lectures during the winter season, an an- 
nual ball, and the encouragement of literature and 
of debating societies, besides numerous classes, a 
gymnasium, and entertainments. It also awards 
prizcs for essays; and several periodicals have been 
issued under its auspices. Joint public debates 
have been held at various times between the Phila- 
delphia association and that of New York. The 
former has a small library for the use of members. 

The Young Men’s Hebrew Association of New 
Orleans, La., has been established for a number of 
years. It is largely devoted to social purposes, and 
therefore performs for the most part the functions 
ofaclub. The handsome building occupied by the 
association for a number of years was recently des- 
troyed by fire; it contained a ballroom, a billiard- 
room, parlors, meeting-rooms, and alibrary. This is 
one of the principal Jewish organizations of the city. 

In St. Louis, Mo., there isa Young Men’s Hebrew 
Association of considerable size and importance. It 
attempts to combine the features of both the New 
Orleans and the New York organization; social pur- 
poses, however, predominate, and in its functions 
and activities it isaclub rather than a philanthropic 
association like the New York branch. 

San Francisco, Cal., has a Young Men’s Hebrew 
Association with a considerable membership. It is 
conducted practically ou the lines of the organiza- 
tion in New Orleans, being confined largely if not 
exclusively to club features. 

In Louisville, Ky., there is a Young Men’s He- 
brew Association; but it is not in a flourishing con- 
dition, and it seems to be very difficult to arouse in- 
terest in its welfare, 

In Washington, D. C., there was for a number of 
years a Young Men’s Hebrew Association; but for 
causes similar to those which affect the organization 
in Louisville, Ky., it was some time ago abandoned, 
and has not since been revived. 

Chicago, Il., has never had a Young Men’s He- 
brew Association of any significance, 

In addition to those mentioned above, there are 

numerous other Young Men’s Hebrew 


Smaller Associations of more or less impor- 
Institu- tance throughout the United States. 
tions. In Springtield, Mass., there is an asso- 


ciation which was established a few 
years ago and which is principally a social and liter- 
ary organization. Memphis, Tenn., has for a num- 


ber of years supported a Young Men's Hebrew 
Association, which follows closely in its methods the 
branch in New Orleans. It is one of the principal 
Jewish organizations in Memphis, and performs to 
a large extent the functions of a social club, dra- 
matic performances being among the entertainments 
provided by its members, 

The Young Men’s Hebrew Association of Boston, 
Mass., is now lecated in a home of its own, the gift 
of a public-spirited Jewish citizen, and has recently 
been reorganized, being devoted chiefly to philan- 
thropie and benevolent work. It maintains public 
classes, debating and literary societies, religious 
work, a library, reading-rooms, and other features, 
in all of which it follows closely the lead of the 
New York organization. 

In the following cities Young Men's Hebrew As- 
sociations have been established on a small scale, 
confining themselves principally to social activities 
and serving as small social clubs: Nashville, Tenn. ; 
Mobile, Ala.; Savannah, Ga.; Stamford, Conn.; 
Chelsea, Mass.; Wilkesbarre, Pa.; Salem, Mass. ; 
Milwaukee, Wis.; Baltimore, Md.; Newport News, 
Va.; Fort Worth, Tex.; and Newark, N. J. 

J P. 8. M. 

YOZEROT: The collective name for the piyyu- 
tim introduced in the recitation of the morning serv- 
ice on the festivals and on special Sabbaths through- 
out the year in the Northern rituals (sce Zunz, “8. 
P.” passim). These hymns are termed KERoxzor if 
intercalated in the repetition of the ‘AmMIpAH, but 
are called in turn “ Yozer” (creator), “ Ofan ” (angel), 
“Me’orah” (light), “Ahabah” (love), “Zulat” (be- 
sides), and “Ge’ullah ” (redemption) if introduced in 
the blessings which precede and follow the SHEema‘ 
at the points where these respective words. or sub- 
jects occur in the ordinary liturgy. The henedic- 
tion “ Yozer” coming first, its title has been extended 
to cover the whole class of introduced hymns, and, 
even further, the section of the service itself that 
centers around the “Shema‘” as a whole. The 
modern tendency is to omit the “ Yozerot ” because 
their recitation results in excessive prolongation of 
the services (comp. Hazzan and LirurGy). 

Owing to the: comparative lateness ef their adop- 
tion into the ritual, there is much less uniformity in 
the traditional melodies for these piyyutim than for 
any other section of the synagogal melody which 
dates from before the modern period. The scheme 
discussed under Krronor is sometimes followed; 
but more generally the hazzan founds his intona- 
tion, with much freedom of treatment, on the prayer- 
motive or mode) musical interpretation of the par- 
ticular service in which he is engaged (see Music, 
SynacoGaL). When he departs from it, his florid mel- 
ody isconceived in the spirit of modern instrumental 
virtuosity (comp. “An HA-RrsHonrM) or closely repro- 
duces the old-world folk-song of northern Europe 
(comp. Ma‘oz Zur). But while following the local 
tradition, he drawsa sharp distinction not merely be- 
tween the jubilant praise of the three festivals and 
the pleading supplication of the Daysof Penitence, 
but also between the historical reminiscence of the 
Sabbaths preceding Passover, with their proud ref- 
erence to the glories of the Temple ritual, and the 
agonized lameut of those coming between Passover 


623 


and Pentecost, with their distressful memory of the 
barbarity of the Crusaders and other persecutors of 
the dark Middle Ages. This latter sentiment often 
makesitself felt even amid the joyous melody of the 
festival days (comp. BERAH Dopt). 

Whatever may have been the melodies to which 
such piyyutim were chanted when first introduced, 
the great number of them in the Northern liturgies 
produced so much inconvenience by lengthening the 
service that the tunes were soon ignored, and the 
verses themselves were quickly read through in an 
undertone, only the concluding stanza being intoned 
by the hazzan (comp. Krrogpot). In the Sephardic 
ritual, however, the number of “ Yozerot ” isso small 
that the originally chosen musical scttings, also usu- 
ally of a folk-song character, have been retained in 
living tradition till the present (comp. ADONAI BE- 
Kon SHOFAR; ‘ET Sua‘aRE Razon; YAH SHIMEKA). 


A. F. L. C. 
YSIDRO, ABRAHAM GABBAI. See 
GABBAI. 


YUDAN: Palestinian amora of the fourth cen- 
tury. His name does not occur in the Babylonian 
Talmud, whereas it is often mentioned in the older 
Palestinian midrashim, as well as in the Jerusalem 
Talmud, where he is repeatedly referred toasa hala- 
kist (Pe’ah 16b; Dem. 25d; Kil. 29b; Ma‘as. Sh. 
52c; ‘Er. 20d; etc.). He was a pupil of Abba(Yer. 
Sotah 16c), and became a colleague of Jose, the 
principal of the school at Tiberias, with whom he 
often engaged in halakic controversies (Yer. Pe’ah 
1l6c; Sheb. 86d; Suk. 52a; etc.). He appears to 
have held the office of judge simultaneously with 
Jose, it being stated (Yer. Ket. 34b) that the latter 
once rendered alone a decision on a question of civil 
law ata time when Yudan had fled to Nawe. This 
statement concerning Yudan’s flight from Tiberias 
to Nawe, in Perma, is the only biographical datum 
known with regard to his career, no mention being 
made of his family relations, of his native place, or 
even of the name of his father. His own references to 
older contemporaries throw but little ight upon his 
personality. Mention is made of an objection rela- 
ting to a halakic thesis which Yudan 
personally brought to the attention of 
Ze‘era (Yer. Sanh. 24d); and several 
comments which Yudan made upon 
Ze‘era’s halakic maxims have been 
preserved (Yer. Suk. 54a; Yer. R. H. 57d; Yer. Ber. 
61b). Of his pupils, Mana, the son of Jonah, is the 
only one known (Yer. Pes. 38a; Ta‘an. 66a). Ona 
certain day Yudan did not visit the school, and 
Mana referred to him the halakic questions which 
had been brought up during the session (Yer. 
Git. 47a). 

This amora is one of the best-known transmitters 
of haggadic literature, he having handed down max- 
ims of many of the older amoraim, as Hanina, Joha- 
nan, Hama ben Haniua, Simeon b, Lakish, and Joshua 


Relations 
with 
Ze‘era. 


ben Levi. He often transmitted also tannaitic max- 
“ims. In many instances maxims originating with 


older amoraim have been ascribed to him (comp. 
Bacher, “Ag. Pal. Amor.” p. 242, note 8): and he often 
places transmitted maxims side by side with his own 
(Yer. Ber. 18a;Gen. R.ix.1). Together with hisown 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA ¥%0ung Men's Hebrew caer 


udan 10on 


haggadic maxims there are often handed down the 
divergent ex positions of other haggadists on the same 
subjects. Among the haggadists whose opinions are 
thus given by Yudan may be mentioned Huna, Bere- 
chiah, Phinehas, and Azariah (comp. Bacher, /.c.). 
His maxims extend to all branches of the Hagga- 
dah, and include exegetic and homiletic explanations 
of Biblical passages, as well as comments on Biblical 
personages and narratives, sentences relating to the 
study of the Law, and eschatological and Messianic 
sayings. 

Some of Yudan’s haggadic maxims may be men- 
tioned here. With reference to the atoning power of 
suffering, he remarks that if a slave is liberated be- 
cause of pain inflicted upon a single member of his 
body (Ex. xxi. 20), how much more entitled to liberty 
in the world to come is a man who has been afflicted 

with sufferings In his whole body? 
Haggadic (Gen. R. xcii. 1). He who publicly 
Maxims. tcachesthe Torah shall be found worthy 
to have the Holy Spirit rest upon him, 
even as it rested on Solomon, who, because he had 
preached the Torah, was thought worthy to write the 
books of Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and the Song of Sol- 
omon (Cant. R., Introduction, § 9). The words “ the 
law of the Lord ” in Isa. v. 24 refer to the written law, 
while “the word of the Holy One” in the same verse 
means the oral law (Pesik. 121b). To “the nations” 
—by which term the Christians are probably meant— 
the Sabbath has been given with the word “ Remem- 
ber” (Ex. xx. 8), because, although they remember 
that day, they do not keep it; but to Israel it was giv- 
en with the word “ Observe” (Deut. v. 12; Pesilk. R. 
xxiii. 115b). The visit to Seir promised by Jacob 
(Gen. xxxiii. 14) ig meant for the future, when the 
“saviors shall come up on Mount Zion” (Obadiah, 
verse 21; Yer. ‘Ab. Zarah 40c). The words “and man 
became a living [“hayyah”| soul” (Gen, il. 7) are ex- 
plained by Yudan as meaning that man was origi- 
nally created with a rudimentary tail, so that he re- 
sembled an animal (“hayyah ”); later, however, God 
removed this appendage in order that man’s dignity 
should not suffer (Gen. R. xiv., where the name “ Ju- 
dah” occurs erroneously for “ Yudan ”). 

Yudan often interpreted Biblical words according 
to their consonantal formation, without referring to 
their vowel-sounds (Gen. R. xxxv. 1, xxxviii. 8); 
and he also used the numerical values of the letters 
asa basis for explanations (2b. xxxix. 11, Ixxix. 1). 
He interpreted numbers in other ways, asserting, for 
instance, that the fact that the name of Barzillai oc- 
curs five times in II Sam. xix. 31-40 (corresponding 
to the five books of the Torah), teaches that he who 
supports the pious with the necessaries of life, as 
Barzillai sustained David (II Sam. xvii. 27), is re- 
garded as having kept all the precepts of the five 
books (Gen. R. lviii.). With regard to the sentence 
“T saw your fathers as the firstripe in the fig-tree at 
her first time ” (Hosea ix. 10), he remarked that even 
as one plucks first one fig from tlie fig-tree, then two, 
then three, and at lengtha whole basketful, so at first 
“Abraham was one” (Ezek, xxxiii. 24), then there 
were two (Abraham and Isaac), then three (Abraham, 
Isaac, and Jacob), and at length “the children of Is- 
rael were fruitful, and increased abundantly ” (Ex. i. 
7; Gen. R. xvi. 1). 


Yudan ben Ishmael 
Yusuf ibn Teshufin 


Many of Yudan’s exegetic interpretations give the 
correctand simple meanings of the words or passages 
to which they refer. Thus he explains, with regard 
to Ps. ix.18, that the word xb in the first part of the 

verse refers to the word 44NN in the 

Exegetic second part: “For even as the needy 

Inter- shall not always be forgotten, so shall 
pretations. not the expectation of the poor perish 
forever” (Midr. Teh. to Ps. ix.). In I 
Sam, xxiii, 27 the word aT pra) denotes a messenger, 
and not an angel (Midr. Shemuel x vii. 2); and the word 
D'NbyY in Ps. civ. 12 is to be interpreted “leaves” in 
analogy with the word pA‘py in Dan. iv. 9 (Midr. 
Teh. to Ps. civ. 9). Yudan also frequently employs 
parables, the following being a representative exam- 
ple: “Every one has a patron; and when he is in 
need he may not suddenly enter into the presence of 
his benefactor to ask for aid, but must wait at the 
-door while a slave or an inmate of the house carries 
his request before the master. God, however, is not 
such a patron; when man is in need he shall call 
neither upon Gabriel nor upon Michael, but upon 
‘God direct, who will hear him without any media- 
tors” (Yer. Ber. 13a). 
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Bacher, Ag. Pal. Amor, tii. 237-272. 

J. J. Z. UO. 

YUDAN BEN ISHMAEL: Palestinian amora 
of the third century; probably a brother of Yannai 
ben Ishmael. He solved the question whether in- 
structors in the Law should be paid for their services, 
by declaring that they ought to be remunerated for 
the time during which they might have earned some- 
thing by other work (Yer. Ned. 38c). The words “he 
weigheth the waters by measure (Job xx Vili. 25) were 
interpreted by him as implying the law of God, 
which is compared to water. The words of the Law 
are given to each individual by measure; one is ac- 
‘corded a knowledge of the Bible, another of the 
Mishnah, a third of the Halakah, and a fourth of 
the Haggadah, while many are learned in all (Lev. 

%, xv. 2, where “ben Ishmael” should be read in- 
stead of “ben Samuel”). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Frankel, Meho, p. 95a; Bacher, Ag. Pal. 
Amor. tit. 603-604 


J. Vi Za ke 

YUDAN BEN MANASSEH: Palestinian 
amora of the third century. One of his halakic 
maxims has been preserved in the Jerusalem Talmud 
(Kil, 27a), and the Babylonian Talmud contains two 
haggadic sayings by him, both based on the inter- 
pretation of a Biblical word with varied vocaliza- 
tion, and both referring to J Sam. ii. 2 (Meg. 14a; 
Ber. 10a; see “ Dikduke Soferim ” on both passages). 
In emphasizing the decorous mode of expression 
adopted in the Bible, Yudan declared that “even 
those passages which enumerate the characteristics 
of the unclean animals first give the marks of their 
cleanness” (comp. Lev. xi. 4-7); and this aphorism 
is frequently quoted in midrashic literature (Lev. 
R. xxvi. 1; Pesik. iv. [ed. Buber, p. 81a]; Num. R. 
xix. 1). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bacher, Ag. Pal. Amor. iii. 604. 
Ss J. Z. LL. 


YUDAN BEN SIMEON (called Judah ben 
‘Simeon in the Babylonian Talmud): Palestinian 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


624 


amora of the third century; a contemporary of Jo- 
hanan, who in his name transmits a ruling relating 
to the law of inheritance, as well as a discussion 
which took place between them (B. B. 114b-115a). 
Reference is often made to a controversy between 
Johanan and Yudan ben Simeon concerning written 
and oral law (Yer. Pe’ah 17a; Meg. 74d; Hag. 76d), 

Several haggadic interpretations of Yudan’s have 
been preserved; and of these many are of cosmo- 
gonic and cosmological content, while others refer 
to questions of natural history. Among the latter 
may be mentioned the following explanation of 
Job xxix. 18: “The phenix lives a thousand years; 
and at the end of that period its body shrinks, its 
feathers fall off, and only a kind of egg remains, 
From this egg new members grow, and the phe- 
nix returns to life” (Gen. R. xix. 5). The giant 
animals behemoth and leviathan, according to him, 
were created in order to serve as quarries for the 
pious in the future world. Those who have not 
seen the hunts and animal contests among the 
heathen peoples in this world will be found worthy 
to view the chase in the world to come (Lev. R. 
xiii. 3). In his haggadic interpretations Yudan em- 
ploys parables also, explaining, for example, Hosea 
xil. 4 by a beautiful allegory (Lev. R. xxvii. 6; 
Num. R. x. 1). Moreover, he made use of the system 
of NoTaRixon, interpreting the first word of the 
Decalogue, x5, by decomposing the letters, so that 
it read bx 31>), @.e., “learn thousands,” that is, 
“study the numberless words of the Law ” (Pesik. 
Xxii.). 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bacher, 4g. Pal. Amor. iii. 604-607. 

J. J. Z. 


YUDGHANITES: Members of the Jewish sect 
called “Al-Yudghaniyyah,” after the name of its 
founder, Yudghan or Judah of Hamadan, a disciple 
of Abu ‘Isa al-Isfahani. Shortly after the defeat 
of Abu ‘Isa and his followers, the ‘Isawites, at Rai 
(the ancient Rhage) early in the eighth century, 
Yudghan conceived the project of forming a new 
sect from the scattered followers of his master. 
More prudent than the founder of the ‘Isawite sect, 
Yudghan did not pretend to have been entrusted by 
God with the mission of delivering the Jews from 
the rule of the Gentiles and of making them politic- 
ally independent, but confined himself to the réle of 
a prophet and teacher, assuming the surname of 
“al-Ra‘i” (= “the Shepherd”; not “al-Da‘i,” as 
given erroneously by Shahrastani in his “ Kitab al- 
Milal wal-Nihal,” ed. Cureton, p. 168). 

Influenced by the doctrines of Surisa, which at 
that time began tospread among the Mohammedans 
in the land of the Magi, Yudghan set aside the literal 

meaning of the words of the Torah in 

Influence favor of a mystic or spiritual inter- 

of Sufism. pretation. Like the Sufis, he taught 

that all religious beliefs, such as those 
relating to paradise, hell, ete., are allegories; but. 
on the other hand, he opposed the Sufie doctrine of 
predestination, and declared that man is absolutely 
free in the choice of good and evil and is therefore 
responsible for his acticns. From among the tenets 
of the ‘Isawites Yudghan retained the prohibition 
of wine and animal food, and probably also the 12- 


625 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Yudan ben Ishmae] 
Yusuf ibn Teshufin 


—_——_—— OS SS -wW—-_ OO 


stitution of seven daily prayers instead of the three 
rabbinical ones. In opposition to the ancient tra- 
ditional view, according to which the Biblical ac- 
counts of God’s deeds and thoughts must be taken 
jiterally, he asserted, probably under the influence 
of the Motazilites, that one is not allowed to repre- 
gent God with material attributes, z.e., anthropo- 
morphically. Yudghan attached more importance 
to praying and fasting than tothe observance of the 
ceremonial laws. He held that the laws concerning 
the Sabbath and the festivals were not binding in 
the Diaspora, but were observed merely as a remem- 
brance, 

Like Abu ‘Isa, Yudghan declared that Jesus and 
Mohammed were prophets, and that each was sent 
asa missionary to his nation. According to Kirki- 
sani, both Abu ‘Isa and Yudghan took this attitude 
for diplomatic reasons; for had they not recognized 
the post-Biblical prophets, their own claim to pro- 
phetic inspiration would very likely have been chal- 
lenged. Yudghan gained many followers, who 
maintained their beliefs long after the death of their 
master. Their faith in him was so great that they 
declared he had not died, but would appear again 
in order to bring anew doctrine with him. Shahras- 
tani relates that after the death of Yudghan a fol- 

lower of his named Mushka founded 


‘+ Al- a new sect called “ Al-Mushkaniy yah.” 
Mushka- The tenets of the new sect were the 
niyyah.” sameasthose of the Yudghanites, with 


the single addition of an injunction 
to forcibly impose the doctrines of Yudghan upon 
all Jews. Mushka marched out of Hamadan with 
a troop of followers, but they were all killed in the 
vicinity of Koom (east of Hamadan and southwest 
of Teheran). 

According to some scholars, Saadia, in criticizing 
in his “Emunot we-De‘ot” (vi.) the belief in met- 
empsychosis of “the so-called Yehudim” (pp 
ON ON IPIW), had reference to the Yudghanites, 
who were still in existence in his time. Aljthough 
this is not impossible, as maintained by Rapoport 
(introduction to the “Hegyon ha-Nefesh” of Abra- 
ham bar Hiyya, p. lii.), it is highly improbable, 
Since no mention is made by either Shahrastani or 
Kirkisani of such a belief among the tenets of the 
Yudghanites. It is more probable that Saadia re- 
ferred not to a special Jewish sect, but to all those, 
among either the Karaites or the Rabbinites, who 
held to the doctrine of Pythagoras. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Shahrastani, Kitab al-Milal wal-Nihal, ed. 

Cureton, p. 168, London, 1846; Judah Hadassi, Eshkol ha- 

Kofer, § 49; Kirkisani, in Harkavy, Le-Korot ha-kittot be- 


Yisrael, in’ Graetz, Hist. Hebr. ed., iii. 508; Jellinek, Bei- 
ei p. 53; Gritz, Gesch. v. 191. LB 
5 R. 


ee SEFER HA-. See ZacvTo, 


BRAILAM, 


YULEE, DAVID LEVY: American politi- 
Clan ; borin St. Thomas, West Indies, in 1811; died 


XIT.—40 


in New York city Oct. 10, 1886. He went to Rich- 
mond, Va., where he applied himself to classical 
studies and the law. Later he removed to Florida 
and became a planter. He was elected asa delegate 
from Florida to the 27th and 28th Congresses as a 
Democrat, at that time bearing the name of Levy. 
He was later known as David Levy Yulee, and un- 
der this name was a delegate to the first state con- 
stitutional convention of Florida. ‘ He was twice 
elected United States senator from Floridaasa Dem- 
ocrat, serving from Dec., 1845, to 1851, and again 
from 1855 until his retirement on Jan. 21, 1861. He 
served also in the Confederate Congress, and was 
a prisoner of state at Fort Pulaski in 1865. After 
the Civil war he was president of the Atlantic and 
Gulf Railroad of Florida, and was interested in the 
financial and commercial growth of Fernandina and 
Cedar Keys, Fla. 

Bea tae ihe American Jewish Year Book, 5661 (1901), 


524; Biographical Congressional Dictionary, p. 651, 
Washington, D. C., 1903. 


A, A. 8. I. 


YULY (YULEE), SAMUEL: Moorish envoy 
to England; born in Mogador, Morocco, at the end 
of the eighteenth century ; died at Portsea, Engiand, 
in Jan., 1872. He was connected with the Guedella 
family, agents for the Sultan of Morocco and one of 
the wealthiest merchant firms in Mogador. In 1820 
Yuly went to England, as the accredited representa- 
tive of the Sultan of Morocco, with letters to the 
British government. He afterward resided perma- 
nently in England, but kept up a trading connec- 
tion With Mogador. See Morocco. 

J. G. L. 


YUSUF IBN NUH, ABU YA‘KUB. See 
JOSEPH B, NOAH HA- Basrt. 


YUSUF IBN TESHUFIN: Almoravid king 
of Spain in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. He 
was the only Almoravid ruler hostile to the Jews, 
aud he once endeavored to force Islam upon them. 
Passing through Lucena in 1105, he noticed the 
flourishing Jewish community there, and convoked 
its representatives, telling them that Mohammed had 
granted the Jews religious freedom only on condition 
that the Jewish Messiah should come within five 
hundred years after the Hegira, and that the Jews 
had agreed to embrace Islamif at the end of the 
half-millennium the Messiah had not appeared. 
He informed them further that as the term was 
then just at an end, he would withdraw from them 
his protection and declare them outlaws if they 
did not accept the religion established by the 
Prophet. The Jews of Lucena averted the danger, 
however, by presenting Yusuf, through his vizier 
‘Abd Allah ibn ‘Ali, with large sums of money. 


i aed Gritz, Gesch. 3d ed., vi. 99. 


M. SEL. 


Zabara 
Zacuto 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


626 


Z 


ZABARA, JOSEPH. Sce JosePH ZABARA. 


ZABDAI BEN LEVI: Palestinian amora of 
the first generation (third century). He belonged 
to the scholarly group of which Hoshaiah Rabbah 
was the chief (Yer. Dem. vii. 26a), and his halakot 
were transmitted by R. Johanan (Zeb. 28b; Ker. 
5a). Zabdai was particularly prominent in the 
Haggadah and in Biblical exegesis, in both of which 
he disputed with Rab, Joshua b. Levi, and Jose b. 
Petrus. Thus the words “Je-ruah ha-yom” (Gen, 
iii, 8; A. V., “in the cool of the day ”) are explained 
by Zabdai to mean “the side of the setting of the 
sun,” in opposition to Rab’s interpretation, “the 
side of the rising of the sun” (Gen. R. xix. 8). The 
phrase “ Ka-‘et hayyah ” (Gen, xviii. 14; A. V., “At 
the time appointed”) is explained by Zabdai as 
meaning “in a year from hence.” God made a 
scratch on the wall, saying that when a year later 
the sun should arrive at that mark Sarah would 
beara son(Pesik. R. 6{ed. Friedmann, p. 24b]; Tan., 
Wayera, 36; see also Pesik. xxv. 158a; Gen. R. 
Ixxiv. 11; Lev. R. vii. 2). 

Two proems to Lam, R. (Nos. 29 and 30) are by 
Zabdai; in the second of them he contrasts the dif- 
ferent. prayers of four kings with regard to their 
enemies. David prayed to God that he might over- 
take his foes and defeat them (Ps. xviii. 88); and his 
prayer was granted (I Sam, xxx.8). Asa prayed to 
God that he might pursue the enemy, but that God 
would smite him; and it was so (II Chron. xiv. 12). 
Jehoshaphat said that he was too feeble to pursue the 
enemy, and prayed God to exterminate the foe while 
he would sing the praises of his divine helper; and 
his prayer was satisfied (2b. xx. 22). Finally, Heze- 
kiah said that he had no strength even to sing the 
praises of God, but he prayed that his enemy might 
be routed while he himself would lie in his bed; and 
it so happened (II Kings xix. 35). It is related that 
Zabdai, having survived Joshua b. Levi, wished to 
see him inadream, Joshua accordingly appeared 
to him, and showed him people with faces raised 
and people with faces cast down. When Zabdai 
asked the reason for the difference in posture, Joshua 
answered that those who arrived there with the 
study of the Law in their memories had their faces 
raised, while those who had forgotten it had their 
faces cast down (Eccl. R. ix. 10). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bacher, Ag. Pal. Amor, tii. 640-642; Heil- 


prin, Seder ha-Dorot, ii. 
J: M. SEL. 


ZABIM (“Sufferers from Discharges”): Ninth 
tractate in the Mishnah and Tosefta of the sixth 
Talmudic order Tohorot. It deals with the unclean- 
ness caused by discharges from either man or 
woman, the regulations concerning which form the 
snbject of Lev. xv. According to the Pentateuchal 
Jaw, when a man has a running issue out of his 
flesh, or when a woman has a discharge of her blood 
beyond the time of her menstruation, such person is 
unclean. Anything upon which the sufferer sits, lies, 
or rides is unclean; so that any person sitting in the 


same seat, lying in the same couch, or riding in the 
same vehicle with one thus afilicted, or carrying any 
vessel which the sufferer has used, is unclean until 
the evening and must wash himself and his clothes 
in water. If a person having a discharge touches 
any one without having previously washed his or 
her hands, the individual! so touched is unclean until] 
the evening. An earthen vessel that has been 
touched by the sufferer must be broken; a wooden 
one that has been similarly detiled must be rinsed 
with water. After the discharge has ceased the 
afficted one must count seven days, and at the end 
of that term mnst wash his or her clothes and must 
take a bath in running water; and on the eighth 
day an offering of two doves must be brought, one 
for a sin-offering and one for a burnt offering. 

The treatise consists of five chapters, divided 
respectively into six, four, three, seven, and twelve 
paragraphsor mishnayot. It gives in detail all par- 
ticulars of uncleapnessand purification, specifies the 
degrees of the discharges which render an individ- 
ual subject to the laws stated above, and mentions 
what persons are subject to those laws and in 
what way they cause vesselsor other people to be- 
come unclean. Thecontentsof the respective chap- 
ters may be summarized as follows: 

Ch. i.: In order to be liable to all the laws men- 
tioned above, a “zab” must have his discharge three 
times, either all on one day or on two or three con- 
secutive days; consideration of the length of the in- 
tervals between the discharges. 

Ch. ii.: All are subject to the laws of Zabim, in- 
cluding proselytes, slaves, minors, deaf-mutes, and 
eunuchs; description of the different methods by 
which the zab is examined, and an explanation of 
the manner in which he makes people and things 
unclean by his touch, 

Ch. iii. andiv.: Specification of the different ways 
in whicha man ora woman suffering from a discharge 
makes unclean another person. For instance, ifa 
zab and aclean person sit together in a small boat or 
ride together ona beast, even though their garments 
do not come in contact the clean person becomes 
unclean by the pressure; but, according to R. Judah, 
if both of them sit ona tottering bench, the clean 
person does not become unclean. 

Ch. v.: The ways in which a person becomes un- 
clean by touching a zab, and also in which things 
become unclean through the touch of the zab and 
by touching other unclean things. 

J. M. SEL. 

ZABLUDOWSKI, ISRAEL (ISIDOR): 
Russian physician; born at Byelostok, in the govern- 
ment of Grodno, July 30,1850. Attheage of twelve 
he wrote a Hebrew novel entitled “ Ha-Yaldut we 
ha-Shaharut ” (Wilna, 1863). In 1869 he was ad- 
mitted to the military academy of medicine at St 
Petersburg (M.D. 1874), and seven years later was 
appointed physician in one of the military hospitals 
of southern Russia. During the Russo-Turkish 
war he served as chief physician of a Cossack regt 
ment near Plevna, and so distinguished himself bY 


627 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Zabara 
Zacuto 


bis work that Alexander IT. awarded him the second 

rank of the Order of Saint Stanislas. 

In the field-hospital Zabludowski’s attention was 
attracted to the massage treatment practised by a 
Bulgarian monk named Makari, and, adopting this 
as his specialty, he was sent abroad by the Russian 
government at the close of the war to perfect him- 
selfin the theory of massage. After visiting Vienna, 
Munich, Paris, Amsterdam, and Berlin, he returned 
to St. Petersburg in 1881, and was soon appointed 
chief physician in the hospital of the Preobrazhenski 
regiment of the imperial guards. He then began to 
make experiments in massage on persons in sound 
health, and published a voluminous treatise on this 
subject in the “ Voyenno-Meditzinski Zhurnal ” (St. 
Petersburg, 1882). In the same year Zabludowski 
settled in Berlin at the request of Bergmann, whose 
clinical assistant he became. There he published 
several essays on massage, and in 1884 lectured on 
this subject before the medical congress of Copen- 
hagen. He isalso the author of a long series of arti- 
cles on his specialty, including a description of a 
machine invented by him for the cure of writers’ 
cramp (“Berliner Klinische Wochenschrift,” 1886, 
Nos. 26 e¢ seg.). In 1896 he was appointed titular 
professor of massage in the University of Berlin, a 
position which he still (1905) holds. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Liebermann, in Ha-Meliz, xxviii., Nos. 213- 
214; Wohlener, ib. No. 62; Wrede, Das Geistige Berlin, iii., 
oe M. Seu. 
ZABLUDOWSKI, JEHIEL MICHAEL 

BEN HAYYIM: Russian Hebrew scholar and 

author; born at Byelostok, government of Grodno, 

in 1803; died there Nov. 14, 1869. Hedevoted him- 
self especially to the study of the Haggadah; and in 
addition to a long series of exegetical notes which 
he published in various periodicals, such as “ Ha-Mag- 
gid,” “ Ha-Meliz,” and “ Ha-Karmel,” he wrote two 
books: “ Mish‘an Mayim” (Wilna, 1861), a guide to 
the true meaning of the haggadic passages in the 

Talmud and Midrashim ; and “Me Mikal ” (2d. 1872), 

a commentary and critical notes on difficult passages 

in the Midrash Rabbot. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Ha-Meliz, ix. 320; Zeitlin, Bibl. Post-Men- 
dels. p. 325. 


J. M. SEL. 
ZACHARIAH OF KIEV. Sce JvupaizIne 
HEREsy, 


ZACUTO, ABRAHAM BEN SAMUEL: 
Spanish astronomer mathematician, and historian; 
born at Salamanca about 1450; died in Turkey after 
1310. An astronomer of wide-spread reputation, 


he was appointed professor at the university of his | 


hative city, and later at that of Saragossa. After 
the Spanish exile, Zacuto settled at Lisbon, where 
he was soon appointed court astronomer and _his- 
toriographer to John II. He retained his office un- 
der D. Manuel, and in this capacity he was consulted 
by the king regarding the practicability of the pro- 
jected expedition of Vasco da Gama, which he ap- 
Proved and encouraged. The ships fitted out for 
the expedition were provided with Zacuto’s newly 
Perfected astrolabe, which was the first to be made 
of iron instead of wood. The great services ren- 

fred by Zacuto did not protect him, however, from 


the persecutions inaugurated by Manuel at the in- 
stigation of Ferdinand and Isabella; and he and his 
son Samuel were forced to seek safety in flight. 
After an eventful voyage in which he was twice 
taken prisoner, Zacuto reached Tunis, where he 
lived until the Spanish invasion, when he fled to 
Turkey, residing there for the remainder of his life. 
In 1504, during his sojourn at Tunis, he wrote a 
chronological] history of the Jews from the Creation 
to 1600, making constant reference to Jewish litera- 
ture, and entitling his book “Sefer ha-Yuhasin.” 
In this Work Zacuto gives an account of the oral 
law as transmitted from Moses through the elders, 
prophets, sages, and the like, and also records the 
acts and monuments of the kings of Israel, as well 
as of some of the surrounding nations. In like 
manner space is given to the Babylonian captivity, 
the events which occurred during the 
His *‘ Yu- period of the Second Temple, the char- 
hasin.” acteristics of that period, the princes 
of the Captivity, and the rectors of the 
academies of Sura and Pumbedita, Although the 
author was far from discriminating as to his sources, 
and thus fell into many errors, his work is of great 
value to the student of Jewish literary history. 

The “Sefer ha-Yuhasin” was edited by Samuel 
Shalom with many omissions and additions of his 
own (Constantinople, 1566), and was reprinted at 
Cracow in 1581, at Amsterdam in 1717, and at Konigs- 
berg in 1857, while a complete edition was published 
by Filipowski in London in 1857. In 1473, while 
stillat Salamanca, Zacuto wrote his “ Bi’ur Luhot,” 
which was published in a Latin translation under the 
title “Almanach Perpetuum” by Joseph Vecinho 
(Leiria, 1496), who also rendered it into Spanish and 
appended it to his “She'erit Yosef.” Zacuto was like- 
wise the author of three other works: “Sefer Teku- 
nat Zakkut,” an astronomical work which is believed 
to be still extant in manuscript (see “ Ha-Shahar,” i., 
No. 12); “Arba‘im la-Binah,” a treatise on astrol- 
ogy; and “ Hosafot le-Sefer ha-‘Aruk,” a rabbinic 
Aramaic lexicon, of which an account is given by 
A. Geiger in “Z. D. M. G.” xii. 144, 


BIBLIOGRAPHY : De Rossi, Dizionario, s.v.; Lindo, The History 
of the Jews of Spain and Portugal, p. 267; Fuenn, Se- 
phardin, p. 452; Da Costa, Israel and the Gentiles, p. 284; 
Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 706; idem, Hebr. Uebers. p. 
984; Jost, Gesch. des Judenthums und Seiner Sekten, 11). 
113; Gratz, Gesch. ix. 18 et seqg.; Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, p. 
22: First, Bibl. Jud. tii. 200-201. 

J I. Br. 


ZACUTO, MOSES BEN MORDECAI (abbre- 
viated t’h1 = Rabbi Moses Zacuto): Cabalistic 
writer and poet; born about 1625; died at Mantua 
Oct. 1, 1697. It is generally supposed that his 
birthplace was Amsterdam, although, hike the Am- 
sterdam rabbi Saul Levi Morrerra, he probably 
lived in Venice, the residence of a brother oamed 
Nehemiah. He wasa pupil of Morteira, on whose 
death he composed a Jong elegy (edited by Kauf 
mann in “R. E. J.” xxxvii. 115 e¢ seg.), and he was 
also a fellow student of Baruch Spinoza. He was 
inclined to mysticism from his youth, and at one 
time fasted forty days that he might forget the 
Latin which he had learned, since, in his opinion, it 
could not be reconciled with cabalistic truths. To 
continue his Talmudic studies he went from Am- 
sterdam to Posen or Poland, as is clear from the let- 


Zacuto 
Zadok 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


628 


ter of recommendation which he gave at Venice in 
1672 to the delegates who had come to Italy to col- 
lect money for the oppressed Polish communities, 
It was his intention to make a pilgrimage to Pales- 
tine, but on the way he was persuaded to remain as 
rabbi in Venice, where he stayed, with the excep- 
tion of a short residence in Padua, from 1645 until 
the summer of 1673. He was then called to Mantua 
ata fixed salary of 300 ducats, and remained there 
until his death, twenty-four years later. His epi- 
taph is given by Wolf (“ Bibl. Hebr.” iv. 1200) and 
by Landshuth (“‘Ammude ha-‘Abodah,” p. 215). 

Zacuto applied himself with great diligence to the 
study of the Cabala under Hayyim Vital’s pupil 
Benjamin ha-Levi, who had come to Italy from 
Safed; and this remained the chief occupation of his 
life. He established a seminary for the study of the 
Cabala; and his favorite pupils, Benjamin ha-Kohen 
and Abraham Rovigo, often visited him for months 
at a time at Venice or Mantua, to investigate caba- 
listic mysteries. Zacuto was not without poetic tal- 
ent, but his verses seldom rise above mediocrity. 
He composed forty-seven liturgical poems, chiefly 
cabalistic, enumerated by Landshuth (l.¢. pp. 216 et 
seq.). Some of them have been printed in the festal 
hymns “Hen Kol Hadash,” edited by Moses Otto- 
lenghi (Amsterdam, 1712), and others have been in- 
corporated in different prayer-books. He wrote also 
penitential poems (“Tikkun Shobabim,” Venice, 
1712; Leghorn, 1740) for the service on the evening 
before the day of New Moon, as well as prayers 
for Hosha‘na Rabbah and similar occasions, all in 
the spirit of the Cabala. Zacuto was, moreover, 
the author of a poem containing a thousand words, 
each beginning with the letter “alef” (“Elef Al- 
pin”; printed with a commentary at the end of the 
“Iggerot ha-ReMeZ,” pp. 48 e¢ seg.); a long poem, 
“Tofteh ‘Aruk,” or “L’Inferno Figurato” (Venice, 
1715, 1744), in which he depicts the punishments of 
hell; and the oldest dramatic poem in the Hebrew 
language, which A, Berliner first edited under the 
title “ Yesod ‘Olam ” (Berlin, 1874). 

Other published works of Zacuto’s are “Shudda 
de-Dayyane,” a guide for decisions on commercial 
law (Mantua, 1678; reprinted in “Ha-Goren,” iii. 
181 et seg.); “Kol ha-ReMeZ” (published posthu- 
mously), a commentary on the Mishnah (which he 
knew by heart), with elucidations of the commen- 
taries of Bertinoro and others (Amsterdam, 1719); a 
collection of responsa with the decisions of contem- 
poraries (Venice, 1760); and “Iggerot ha-~-ReMeZ,” 
containing letters of cabalistic content written by 
himself and others (Leghorn, 1780). He edited and 
emended also the Zohar (Venice, 1663) and other 
writings. A considerable number of his works, 
such as @ commentary on the Jerusalem Talmud, 
homilies, and cabalistic writings, are still unpub- 
lished. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Azuwai, Shem ka-Gedolim, i. 153; De Barrios, 
Arbol de las Vidas, p. 78: Delitzsch, Zur Geschichte der 
Jiidischen Poesie, pp. 12 et seq.: Ha-Goren, iii. 175 et seq.: 
Gratz, Gesch. ix. 201 et seq., x. 170; Nepi-Ghirondi, Toledot 
Gedole Yisrael, p. 225; Steinschneider, rss Boal. cols. 1989- 
1992: Zunz, Literaturgesch, pp. 440 et seg.: First, Bibl. 
Jud. tii. 201 et sey.; Zedner. Cat. Hebr. Books Brit. Mus. 
Pp. ORK ef seq. 
de M. K. 


ZADDIK. See Hasipm. 


ZADDUKIM. See SADDUCEES. 


ZADOK: 1. A priest, perhaps the high priest 
during the reign of David. He was the son of Ahi- 
tub (II Sam. viii. 17), but the attempt to trace his 
genealogy back to Eleazar, the third son of Aaron, 
as opposed to Abiathar, his contemporary and col- 
league, who was regarded as a descendant of Eli 
and considered a member of the house of Ithamar, 
was first made by the Chronicler (I Chron. v. 30-34 
(A. V. vi. 4-8]; comp. vi. 85-38 [A. V. vi. 50-53]), 
thus assuring the preeminence of the Zadokites 
over the descendants of Eli. In the beginning of 
his career he was associated with Abiathar (II Sam, 
xx. 25) and with his son (2d. viii. 17; I Chron, xxiy, 
3, 6, 31). The hypothesis has accordingly been ad- 
vanced that Zadok officiated in the Tabernacle at. 
Gibeon (I Chron. xvi. 39; comp. I Kings iii. 4), 
while the sons of Eli were stationed as high priests 
at Jerusalem or, more probably, at Shiloh (comp. 
Keil on I Kings i. 8). Such a division of functions 
is very doubtful, however; and it is more plausible 
to suppose that Zadok gradually won equality of 
rank with the sons of Eli by his good fortune in 
gaining the favor of David. 

According to the somewhat improbable statement 
of the Chronicler, a certain Zadok, as a young man, 
had been one of those who joined David at Hebron 
and helped him win the crown of all Israel, his 
house then including twenty-two captains (I Chron. 
xli. 29); and Josephus expressly identifies this Zadok 
with the high priest of the same name (“ Ant.” vii. 
2, § 2). | 

During the rebellion of Absalom, Zadok gained 
still greater prominence. He and the Levites 
wished to accompany the fleeing David with the 
Ark of the Covenant, but the king begged them to 
remain at Jerusalem, where they could do him bet- 
ter service (II Sam. xv. 24-29; comp. 35), so that it 
actually happened that Ahimaaz, the son of Zadok, 
and Jonathan, the son of Abiathar, brought the king 
an important message (7b. xvii. 21). In all these 
passages Zadok is mentioned before Abiathar. Ac- 
cording tothe Hebrew text of II Sam. xv. 27, 
David addressed the priest with the words “ ha-ro’eh 
attah,” and the Vulgate consequently regards Zadok 
as a seer, although this interpretation is incorrect. 
These two difficult words are emended by Well- 
hausen to FAN WNW 137, thusimplying the prom- 
ise of the high-priesthood tohim. On the suppression 
of the rebellion, the king sent Zadok and Abiathar 
to the elders of Judah, urging them to hasten to bring 
the monarch back (¢. xix. 12). Zadok again mani- 
fested his loyalty to the king when he espoused the 
cause of Solomon against Adonijah (I Kings i. 8 e 
seqg.), and in his gratitude the new king appointed 
him sole high priest (7b. ii. 35). In his account of 
this event Josephus states (“ Ant.” viii. 1, & 3) that 
Zadok was a scion of the house of Phinehas, and 
consequently a descendant of Eleazar. 

Reliable historical data show that the high-priest- 
hood remained in the hands of the Zadokites from 
this time until the rise of the Maccabees. The de- 
scendants of Zadok increased in rank and influence, 
so that his son Azariah was one of the princes of 
Solomon (I Kings iv, 2), and the Ahimaaz who mar 


629 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Zacuto 
Zadok 


ried a daughter of Solomon was probably another of 
Zadok’s children (7). iv. 15). Either Zadok himself 
or his grandson was the ruler of the Aaronites 
(I Chron. xxvii. 17), and Jerusha, the mother of Jo- 
tham, is apparently termed the daughter of Zadok 
to emphasize her noble lineage, since her father may 
have been a descendant of the first Zadok (II Kings 
xv. 38; II Chron, xxvii. 1). A Zadok is also men- 
tioned in the genealogy of Joseph, the father of 
Jesus (Matt. i. 14). 

G. S. Kr, 

2. Sadducean Jeader. The only data concerning 
the origin of the Sadducees are based on certain 
deductions drawn from their name, for a late rab- 
binical source alone appears to be founded on actual 
knowledge. Two pupils of ANTIGONUS OF Soko 
are said to have misinterpreted their teacher’s state- 
ment that God should be worshiped without hope of 
reward as meaning that there is no recompense, either 
for good or for evil, in the world tocome. These 
two scholars, Zadok and Boethus, are accordingly 
regarded as the founders of the heresies of the Sap- 
DUCEES and the BoeTHusIANs (Ab. R. N. recension 
A, 5; recension B, 10). This statement is devoid of 
historicity, however, since it incorrectly postulates 
denial of the future life as the cardinal doctrine of 
the Sadducees, while it betrays also its lack of au- 
thenticity by making the origin of the Boethusians 
synchronous with the rise of Sadducecism, although 
the former sect derived its name from the high 
priest Boethus, who flourished during the reign of 
Herod. 

The only historical portion of this legend is the 
part which connects the origin of each of these 
heresies with a personal name, for the Hebrew 
D’pyty is derived from pyT¥ just as are D*DiN'2 from 
Din'3a and D'DNp'pN from OmppxN, while Herod 
was the eponym of the party of the HERODIANs. 

Geiger’s theory of the derivation of the name of 
the Sadducean party from the Biblical appellative 
“ Zadok ” is, therefore, the most probable one. This 
name py¥, which occurs ten times in Ezekiel, Ezra, 
and Nehemiah, is transliterated Zaddotvx throughout 
by the Septuagint in these books, as well as in other 
passages in Lucian’s version of the Septuagint. 
The same form appears in Josephus; and even 
a manuscript of the Mishnah (Codex De Rossi No. 
188) vocalizes the name of the rabbi Zadok DIN 
(= “Zadduk”). The only moot point is the prob- 
lem whether the appellation of the sect is to be de- 
rived from a Zadok who is no longer known or 
from the priestly family of the Zadokites. An un- 
known Zadok was assumed to be the founder of the 
Sadducees by Kuenen (though he later adopted the 
Opposing theory), Graetz, Montet, and Lagarde, 
while the second hypothesis, which is the more prob- 
able, was maintained by Geiger and Schiirer, and 
is now confirmed by the Hebrew Ben Sira (sec 
Schechter’s note in “The Wisdom of Ben Sira,” 
1899, p. 35). Athird conjecture, deriving the word 
from the adjective pyy, which was advocated in 
ancient times by Jerome and Epiphanius, and was 
defended more recently by Joseph Derenbourg and 
Hamburger, is untenable both on linguistic and on 
historical grounds. 

From the days of Solomon the descendants of the 


priest Zadok were regarded with great reverence, 
which must have been much increased by the Deu- 
teronomic legislation concentrating all cults at Jeru- 
salem. In Ezekiel’s prophetic vision the “sons of 
Zadok” are described as the only priests worthy to 
discharge their holy office (Ezek. x1, 46, xliii. 19. 
Xliv. 15, xlviii. 11); and although in the Second 
Temple certain prerogatives were allowed the sons 
of Ithamar, the Zadokites alone formed the priestly 
aristocracy, so that the Chronicler assigns twice as 
many priestly divisions to the Zadokite descendants 
of Eleazaras to the Ithamarites (I Chron. xxiv.). In 
Kcclesiasticus (Sirach), in like manner, the Zadokites 
alone receive praise (li. 12 [9], Hebr.). Despite the 
fact that those members of this powerful family who 
adopted the Sadducean doctrines were but few, they 
gave the teachings such support that the entire sect 
bore their name, and Josephus expressly states that 
scions of the priestly aristocracy, 7.e., the Zadok- 
ites, were preeminently adherents of Sadduceeism. 
See SADDUCEES. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Geiger, Urschrift, pp. 20, 102; Wellhausen, [. 


. G. 4th ed., p. 294; idem, Pharisder und Sadductier, Got- 
tingen, 1874; Schirer, Gesch. 3d ed., ti. 408-411. 


J. S. Kr. 


3. Tanna of priestly descent; father of Eleazar. 
He flourished in the years preceding and following 
the beginning of the common era. According 
to an account which must refer to him in the prime 
of life, he was taken as a captive to Rome, where he 
was sold to an aristocratic house. Its mistress at- 
tempted to force him to marry one of her beautiful 
slaves, but Zadok refused, claiming that not only 
did he belong to one of the most influential families 
of Jerusalem, but that he was of priestly lineage, 
whereupon his mistress gave him his freedom (Ab. 
R. N., ed. Schechter, p. 32a and note 11; Kid. 40a). 
A historical account dating from the time of the 
Temple vouches for the fact that he was a priest. 
During a sacrifice a strife broke out between two 
priests, perhaps brothers, because one had taken 
precedence of the other at the altar, and one of them 
was stabbed. There was great excitement among 
the congregation, whereupon Zadok ascended the 
steps of the “ulam,” from which the priests were 
accustomed to give the benediction, and there 
calmed the people by an address based on Deut. 
xxi. 1 e¢ seg. Since, however, it has been proved 
that only priests were allowed to mount the ulam, 
Zadok must have been a priest (Yoma 28a: Tosef., 
Yoma, i. 12; Yer. Yoma ii. 39d). 

Together with Eliezer b. Hyrcanus and Joshua 
b. Hananiah, Zadok was present at the marriage 
of the son of Gamalie] II.in Jabneh. On that occa- 
sion Gamaliel II. himself poured out the wine and 

handed it round. Joshua and Eliezer 

Zadok and began to praise Gamaliel, whereupon 

Gamaliel. Zadok became angry, declaring that 

they should not turn away from the 

worship of God, who had created everything for man, 

and worship a mortal (Kid. 82a), According to Ba- 

cher, however, this incident occurred not at a wed- 

ding, but at another feast, which Gamaliel gave to the 
scholars of Jabneh. 

The whole life of this tanna fell within the period 
of the dissolution of the Jewish state, and he de- 


Zadok Gaon 
Zalinski 


clared that he had fasted forty years in his endeavor 
to prevent the destruction of the Tempse. When 
this took place, however, Zadok had become so weak 
that Johanan b. Zakkai was obliged to appeal for 
him to Titus, who had him treated by a physician 
(Git. 56b; Lam. R, i. 5). Zadok moved to Jabneh 
together with Johanan b. Zakkai and other scholars, 
and his few halakot, found in ‘Eduy. vii. 1-5, date 
from this period. He was the most influential per- 
sonality in Gamaliel’s tribunal, and always sat at 
the right of the latter (Yer. Sanh. 19c), while on one 
occasion he was present at the eating of the sacrifi- 
cial lamb in Gamaliel’s house (Pes. 74a). Together 
with Johanan b. Zakkai and Gamaliel, he rendered a 
decision on the conditions under which food might 
be eaten outside the Tabernacle during the Feast of 
Weeks (Suk. 26b). Although he was theoretically 
an adherent of the principles of the Bet Shammai, 
in practise he always made his rulings in accordance 
with the Bet Hillel (Yeb. 15b). His motto in ethical 
matters was, “Do not make Icarning a crown to 
make thyself great thereby, nor a spade to dig with 
it” (Ab. iv. 5). The thirtieth chapter of the Tanna 
debe Eliyahu Rabbah relates that Zadok once came 
to the place where the Temple had formerly stood. 
In his grief at the desolation he reproached God 
Himself, whereupon he fell into a sleep in which he 
saw God and the angels mourning over the destruc- 
tion of Zion. The Pirke de-Rabbi Eli‘ezer ascribes 
to Zadok haggadic sayings concerning the descend- 
ants of the giants (ch. xxii.), the sacrifices of Cain and 
Abel (ch. xxi.), the Flood (ch. xxiii.), and Noah’s 
prayer in the ark (20.). 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bacher, Ag. Tan. i. 48-46: Derenbourg, Hist. 
pp. 342-344; Zacuto, Sefer Yuhasin ha-Shaiom, ed. Filipow- 
ski, pp. 32a, 76a, b; Frankel, Darke ha-Mishnah, pp. 70-71; 


Heilprin, Seder ha-Dorot, ii, 319-320; Biichler, Die Priester 
und der Cultus, p. 126, note 1, Vienna, 1895; Neubauer, G. T. 
iD, 


oe 


p. 3 

J. 8. O. 

ZADOK GAON (called also Isaac b. Ashi): 
Gaon of Sura from 820 to 821. On the basis of a re- 
sponsum quoted in the “ Sha‘are Zedek ” (iv. 311, No. 
2), Weiss refers to him as follows in his “Dor”: “If 
a case was brought before him and he found the de- 
fendant guilty, but was unable to inflict an adequate 
punishment, he would to say to him: ‘I charge thee 
to go to the man thou hast injured and implore his 
pardon or give him an indemnity.’ If the accused 
did not obey this injunction, he was excommuni- 
cated.” Zadok was one of the first geonim to take 
exception to many of the Talmudic regulations, 
although he inclined toward rigor rather than 
leniency in their application. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gritz, Gesch. 3d ed., v. 196; Weiss, Dor, iv. 

20, 43-45. 

8. S. O. 

ZADOK ‘IMANT or ‘AMANT (oxmy): Afri- 
can liturgical poet, who wrote the following eight 
poems that are found in the Tripolitan Mahzor: 
(1) “El hekal kodsho”; (2) “Le-bet el banu”; (3) 
“Ta-Adonai et. yom ha-shebi‘i berak ”; (4) “ Meholel 
kol be-kaw yashar”; (5) “Ezri yabi el me-‘ayin”; 
(6) “‘Ai rob ‘awoni”; (7) “‘Ammeka le-shahareka 
kamu”; (8) “ Kibo Elohim dibber be-kodsho.” No. 
3 consists of thirteen strophes, and each of the others 
consists of five strophes. Nos. 3, 4, 7, and 8 are to 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


630 


be recited on the Sabbaths of the month of Elul, 
Only No. 8 bears the complete signature pyqy 
sNDY; Ao. 7 is signed INKY, while all the others 
show only the name pry. Nos. 3 and 8 are both 
“mustajabs”; in the former every strophe begins 
with “la-Adonai” and terminates with “ Adonai,” 
while in the latter the strophes begin with “ki bo” 
and rime in “to.” 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zunz, Literaturgesch. pp. 598-599. 

J. M. SEt. 


ZAG. See BENVENISTE, Isaac; MALEA, Mefr 
DE; Issac IBN SID; ALFONSINE TABLES. 


ZAHALON (nomy) : A family of Spanish ori- 
gin; represented by members who, after the exile 
from Spain, settled in Italy and the Orient, where 
they distinguished themselves as rabbis and scholars. 

Abraham ben Isaac Zahalon: Talmudist 
and cabalist of the second half of the sixteenth 
century. He was the author of: “Yad Ha- 
ruzim,” on the Jewish and Mohammedan calendars 
(Venice, 1594-95); “ Yesha‘ Elohim,” interpretations 
of Esther compiled from earlier commentators (7. 
1595); and “ Marpe la-Nefesh,” a cabalistic disserta- 
tion on ethics, especially on penitence, according 
to the system of Isaac Luria (7b. 1595). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: First, Bib. Jud. iii. 541; Steinschneider, Cat. 

Bodt. col. 11; Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, p. 58. 

Jacob ben Isaac Zahalon: Italian rabbi and 
physician; born at Rome 1680; died at Ferrara 
1693. Acquiring early a high reputation both as 
physician and Talmudist, he was called to the rab- 
binate of Ferrara and held this position until his 
death. He was the author of the “ Ozar ha-Hayyim,” 
a medical work in thirteen parts, the last of which 
remained unpublished for lack of funds (Venice, 
1683), and of the “Margaliyyot Tobot,” an abridg- 
meut of the “ Hobot ha-Lebabot ” of Bahya b. Joseph 
ibn Pakuda, divided into thirty chapters correspond- 
ing to the number of days of the month, each chap- 
ter being followed by prayers for various occasions 
(to. 1665). In his preface Jacob enumerates the fol- 
lowing works which he left in manuscript: “ Mora- 
shah Kehillat Ya‘akob,” on Maimonides; “ Yeshu‘ot 
Ya‘akob,” a commentary on Isaiah; “Titten Emet 
le-Ya‘akob,” homilies on the Pentateuch; “Kol 
Ya‘akob,” an index to the Yalkut, called also “ Or 
ha-Darshanim ” (“ Ozrot Hayyim,” No. 30); “ Zaha- 
lah u-Rinnah,” on the Song of Solomon; “ Kohelet 
Ya‘akob,” on Ecclesiastes; “ Derushim ‘al-Daniel,” 
on Daniel; “ Milhemet Ya‘akob,” subject unknown; 
“Ozar ha-Shamayim,” on theology and philosophy; 
and “Shubu Elai,” on the Sarma‘ aud the benedic- 
tions which accompany it. 

Jacob was much consulted on halakic questions 
by his contemporaries. His decisions and responsa 
are found in the “Teshubot ha-Remez” of Moses 
Zacuto (§ 36), in the “Pahad Yizhak” (s.0. 3° J4 
INN DY mow) of Isaac Lampronti, and in the 
“‘Afar Ya‘akob” of Nathanael Segre; the last- 
named declares that Jacob was one of the three most 
learned men of his generation. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY : Nepi-Ghirondi, Toledot Gedole Yisrael, p. 130; 


Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 1263; Fuenn, Keneset Yisra 
p. 569; First, Bibl. Jud. iii. 541. 


631 


Mordecai ben Jacob Zahalon: Physician and 
rabbi of Ferrara; died there Nov. 30, 1748. He 
wrote the following works: “Megillat Naharot,” 
describing the miraculous rescue of the Jewish com- 
munity of Ferrara from the inundation that occurred 
in 1707 (Venice, 1707); “She’elot we-Teshubot Meziz 
u-Meliz,” a lecture delivered at the Talmud Torah 
of Ferrara onthe modulation of the priestly blessing 
(ib. 1715); and halakic decisions quoted by Lam- 
pronti in the “ Pahad Yizhak,” by Samson Morpurgo 
in his “Shemesh Zedakah” (“Yoreh De‘ah,” § 61), 
and by Raphael Meldola in his “Mayim Rabbim ” 
(*«Yoreh De‘ah,” § 7). Mordecai was a talented He- 
brew poet, and several of his religious verses on 
local events are still recited in the synagogue of 
Ferrara, while one of his sonnets isalso found at the 
head of the poem “ “Eden ‘Aruk.” 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Nepi-Ghirondi, Toledot Gedole Yisrael, pp. 
228, 235; Carmoly, Histoire des Médecins, p. 239; Stein- 
schneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 1675. 

Yom-Tob ben Akiba Zahalon: Talmudic 
scholar of Constantinople in the second half of the 
seventeenth century; grandson of Yom-Tob ben 
Moses. He was the author of “She’elot u-Teshu- 
bot,” containing 296 responsa and novell on the 
fifth and sixth chapters of the treatise Baba Mezi‘a 
(Venice, 1694). This collection includes many deci- 
sions made by his grandfather, to whom the author 
ascribes also a commentary on the Abot de-Rabbi 
Natan which is probably identical with that given by 
Azulai under the title “ Magen Abot.” 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Conforte, Kore ha-Dorot, p. 42a; Azulai, 
Shem ha-Gedolim, i. 74; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 
1414; Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, p. 444. 

J. I. Br. 

Yom-Tob ben Moses Zahalon: Palestinian 
Talmudist: rabbi at Safed; born in 1557; died 
about 16388. At the early age of twenty-five he was 
requested by Samuel Yafeh, a rabbi of Constantino- 
ple, to decide a difficult and complicated problem 
which had been referred to himself (Zahalon, Re- 
sponsa, No. 40); and he corresponded with most of 
the authorities of his time, one of his chief antago- 
nists being the elder Moses Galante. Although a 
‘Sephardi, Zahalon rendered a decision in favor of an 
Ashkenazic congregation in a controversy which 
arose between the Sephardim and Ashkenazim at 
Jerusalem, and in his love of truth he did not spare 
even his teacher, Joseph Caro (73, No. 288), declaring 
that the Shulhan ‘Aruk was written for children and 
laymen (7b. No. 76), Zahalon was the author of acom- 
mentary on Esther, entitled “Lekah Tob” (Safed, 
1577). He was the author of responsa and novelle 
which were published with a preface by his grandson 
Yom-Tob (Venice, 1694), and he mentions also a 
second part (2b. No. 102), of which nothing more is 
known. He likewise wrote a commentary on the 
Abot de-Rabbi Natan, entitled “ Magen Abot,” which 
is still extant in manuscript. In his preface to this 
latter work Zahalon terms himself Yom-Tob b. Moses 
ha-Sefardi, whence it is clear that the family came 
Originally from Spain, although it is not known when 
it emigrated or where Zahalon was born. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: De Rossi, Dizionarto, s.v.; Nepi-Ghirondi, 
Toledot Gedole Yisrael, p. 206: Dukes, in Orient, Lit. ix. 
346; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 1414. . 

E. ¢, L. Gre. 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Zadok Gaon 
Zalinski 


ZAKKAT: 1. Palestinian tanna of the second 
century ; contemporary of Judah ha-Nasi 1. and ap- 
parently a pupil of Simeon b. Yohai. He is men- 
tioned as having transmitted a halakah of R. Jacob 
and one of Simeon b. Yohai (Tosef., Yad. ii. 9; 
Shab. 79b); and he had a halakic controversy with 
Simeon b. Gamalicl and Simeon b, Eleazar, the 
former being the father and the latter the companion 
of Judah ha-Nasi (Ber. 25b). Zakkai was prominent 
in the Haggadah, where he is styled “Zakkai Rab- 
bah” (Zakkai the Great). He interpreted the words 
“we-yidgu la-rob” (Gen. xviii. 14) as referring to 
the haggadic statement that 600,000 children were 
once thrown into the river by command of Pharaoh, 
but were saved through the merits of Moses (Gen. 
R. xevii. 5; comp. Cant. R. vii. 5; Yalk., Isa. 472). 
Zakkai attained to a very great age, and when his 
pupils asked him through what virtue he lived so 
long, he said that he never called his neighbor by a 
nickname and never neglected to buy wine for the 
Kiddush of the Sabbath. His aged mother even 
once sold her cap to purchase wine for him, and 
when she died she left him 300 kegs of wine. while 
he himself bequeathed to his children 3,000 kegs 
(Meg. 27b). 

2. Babylonian amora of the third century. He 
emigrated to Palestine, where he was the chief lec- 
turer in R. Johanan’s school (‘Er. 9a; Yeb. 77b; 
Sanh. 62a; and elsewhere). In Sanh. 62a and in 
Yer. Shab. vii. 2, R. Johanan calls him “the Baby- 
lonian.” The press-house (RNAypp) which he left in 
Babylon was the meetiny-place of certain rabbis (‘Er. 
49a; B. B. 42b). From Palestine he sent a halakah to 
the exilarch Mar ‘Ukba (Ket. 87a), who transmitted 
a haggadah of Zakkai (Sanh. 70a). The latter seems 
to have been a good preacher; and in one of his ser- 
mons he gives an interpretation of Micah iv. 10 
(Yer. Suk. 54c). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bacher, 4g. Pal. Amor. tii, 642-643; Heil- 
prin, Seder ha-Dorot, ii. 


J. M. Set. 


ZALINSKI, EDMUND LOUIS GRAY: 
American soldier and inventor; born at Kurnich, 
Prussian Poland, Dec. 18, 1849. In 1853 his parents 
emigrated to the United Statesand settled in Seneca 
Falls, N. ¥. He was educated at the public sehool 
there and at the Syracuse highschool. In 1864 he en- 
tered the army as a volunteer, was promoted second 
lieutenant, Second New York Heavy Artillery, for 
gallantry at the battle of Hatcher’s Run, and served 
till the close of the war in 1865. Appointed second 
lieutenant, Fifth United States Artillery, in 1866, in 
the following year he was promoted first lieutenant. 
He was professor of military science at, the Massa- 
chusetts Institute of Technology from 1872 to 1876. 
In 1880 he graduated from the United States Artillery 
School at Fort Monroe, Va., and from the School 
of Submarine Mining at Willets Point, N. Y. He 
became captain in 1887, and in 1889 and 1890 
traveled in Europe to study military affairs. He 
did garrison duty at San Francisco in 1892, and retired 
from the service in 1894. 

Zalinski invented the pneumatic dynamite torpe- 
do-gun, an intrenching tool, a ramrod-bayonet, a 
telescopic sight for artillery, and a system of range- 


Zalinski 
Zangwill 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


632 


and position-finding for seacoast and artillery firing. 
He died March 10, 1909. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Who’s Who in America, 1905: Kipling, 
The Captive, in Trafics and Discoveries, London, 1904. 


A, EF. T. H. 


ZALINSKI, MOSES G.: American soldier; 
born in New York city Jan. 23, 1868; educated in the 
public schools. He joined the regular army as a pri- 
vate in 1885, and was appointed second lieutenant, 
Second Artillery, in 1889. Graduating from the Ar- 
tillery School in 1894, he became first lieutenant, 
Fourth Artillery, in 1895, and was transferred to the 
Second Artillery in the same year. In 1898 he was 
promoted captain and quartermaster, and since 1903 
has been stationed at Washington, D. C., as major- 


quartermaster. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: American Jewish Year Book, 5665, p. 2. 
A. F. T. H. 


ZALMUNNA: Midianite king defeated and 
slain by Gideon (Judges viii. 5-7, 10, 12, 15, 18, 21; 
Ps. Ixxxiii. 12 [A. V.11]). Zalmunna is always 
mentioned together with Zebah, who was also a 
Midianite king. 

E.G. H. B. P. 

ZAMENHOF, LAZARUS LUDWIG: Found- 
er of the universal language “ Esperanto”; born at 
Byelostok in Dec., 1859. His father, Markus Za- 
menhof, and his grandfather, Fabian Zamenhof, 
were teachers of French and German, the latter being 
the pioneer of general culture among the Jews of 
Byelostok. In 18738 Markus Zamenhof removed 
to Warsaw, where he became professor of German, 
first at the Veterinary Institute, and subsequently at 
the real-gymnasium. He was one of the three Jews 
of his time who held such an official appointment, 
and he becamea state councilor. He compiled many 
text-books, and was the author of a rabbinical phrase- 
book in Hebrew (i., Warsaw, 1905) and a polyglot 
phrase-book (i., 70. 1908). 

Zamenhof pursued general medical studies at War- 
saw and Moscow (M.D. 1884), and settled in Warsaw 
asanoculist. He later practised at Kherson and Grod- 
no, but in 1897 returned to Warsaw, where be now 
(1905) practises among the poorer Jews. 

Zamenhof’s reputation is due to the fact that he is 
the founder of Esperanto, the new universal lan- 
guage which has taken the place of Volaptik. The 
idea of an international form of speech 
was suggested to him by the polyglot 
character of his native town; four dif- 
ferent languages were spoken there, 
and to this fact he attributed the constant dissen- 
sions and misunderstandings which disturbed the 
city. In the gymnasium and at the university he 
threw himself heart and soul into the study of Jan- 
guages while pursuing his medical work; but the 
idea of Esperanto did not dawn on him at once. At 
one time he entertained the idea of mathematical 
construction, and later the claim of the dead lan- 
guages, especially Hebrew, appealed to him. For 
three years he worked at Yiddish and compiled a 
grammar which is still unpublished, hoping that, 
since Judseo-German was a modern tongue in use 
among millions of his coreligionists, it might be 
universalized. Discarding this idea in its turn, he 


Espe- 
ranto. 


finally reached the conclusion that no language 
could ever become a universal medium of commu- 
nication if it identified itself with any individual) 
nationality or country; it must be neutral. In 1878 
he succeeded in building up such a language on the 
basis of the Romance and Teutonic roots of modern 
European tongues, but it was not until 1887 that, after 
several unsuccessful attempts to find a publisher, 
he gave to the world his first brochure, published 
anonymously under the pen-name of “ Doktoro Espe- 
ranto” (Dr. Hopeful). 

The success of his pamphlet was immediate, and 
from that time to the present Esperanto has steadily 
increased in popularity. In the following year the 
Volaptik Society at Nuremberg ceased to exist, and 
its place was taken by the first Esperanto club. In 
1891 a second club was founded at Upsala, in 
Sweden; St. Petersburg followed, with branches at 
Odessa and in Siberia; France and Denmark joined 
the movement in 1897; and Brussels and Stockholm 
were included in the following year. The first Es- 
perantist group in Paris was started in 1900, and the 

next year Esperanto made its first offi- 
Spread of cial appearance on American soil in 
the the city of Montreal. Since then as- 
Movement. sociations for its study have been 
| founded in all parts of the world. 
There are now about 120 societies in existence, and 
the language is spoken by at least 200,000 persons. 
At the St. Louis Exposition it was accorded official 
recognition by the French sectional committee. 
There is a large and constantly increasing literature 
in Esperanto, and more than twenty journals are in 
circulation, including a braille monthly magazine for 
the blind, a Roman Catholic organ. a Socialist paper, 
and an “Jnternational Scientific Review.” Two 
plays of Shakespeare, “Hamlet” and “The Tem- 
pest,” have been rendered into Esperanto, the former 
by Zamenhof himself; and the language is also com- 
ing into commercial use. 

In compiling his universal language Zamenhof ap- 
pears to have regarded primarily the needs of his 
Yiddish-speaking coreligionists, whom he has de- 
scribed as “speechless, and therefore without hope 
of culture, scattered over the world, and hence un- 
able to understand one another, obliged to take their 
culture from strange and hostile sources.” 

In other writings and labors, unconnected with 
Esperanto, Zamenhof has manifested great interest 
in Jewish affairs. At one time he was an ardent 
Zionist, and established at Warsaw the first Zionist 
association (Friends of Zion). More mature reflec- 
tion, however, caused him to abandon the idea of 
a Jewish political nationality, and in 1901 he pub- 
lished a Russian pamphlet on Hillelism as a pro- 
ject for solving the Jewish question. The main 
contention of this work is that the troubles of the 
Jewish people are due to “the pseudo-Palestin- 
ian character of their religion”; Judaism should 
reform itself and become Hillelism, or, in other 
words, a pure monotheism with no other law than 
that of love of one’s neighbor. The new Jewish 
sect should, however, retain its ancient manners 
and customs, but as traditions, not as laws. It 
should also acquire some simple medium of inter- 
communication, which must not be Hebrew; and 


633 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Zalinski 
Zangwill 


it should obtain a geographical center, which 


would be the seat of a Jewish synod. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Esperanto and Its Originator, in New Era 
illustrated Magazine, Jan., De 


A I. H. 


ZAMOSZ, ABRAHAM BEN ISAAC HA- 
KOHEN: Polish rabbi and anti-Shabbethaian of 
the eighteenth century; rabbi of Tarly. He was 
very prominent in persecuting the Shabbethaians 
who had established themselves in Podolia, and on 
this subject he corresponded with Jacob Emden in 
1759 and 1760. In the quarre] between Jacob Em- 
den and Jonathan Eybeschiitz, Zamosz, as is evi- 
dent from his letters reproduced in Emden’s “Shot 
la-Sus,” sided with Emden. Zamosz was the author 
of “Bet Abraham ” (Berlin, 1753), a work containing 
two responsa followed by novelle on the Talmud. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, p. 22. 


J. M. SEt. 


ZAMOSZ, ISRAEL BEN MOSES HA- 
LEVI: Polish Talmudist and mathematician; born 
at Buberkiabout 1700; died at Brody April 20, 1772. 
He was appointed one of the lecturers in the yeshi- 
bah of Zamosz, but at the same time he occupied 
himself with the study of secular sciences, particu- 
larly with mathematics, and while there wrote many 
notes on the “ Yesod ‘Olam ” of Isaac Israeli and on 
the “Elim” of Joseph Delmedigo. During his resi- 
dence at Zamosz he also wrote his “ Arubbot ha- 
Shamayim ” (still unpublished), a work on descrip- 
tive geometry and astronomy, in which many 
hag gadot relating to cosmogony are explained, with 
a vindication of their accuracy. About 1742, after 
he had published his “ Nezah Yisrael,” Zamosz went 
to Berlin, where he remained several years. There 
he instructed Moses Mendelssohn in mathematics 
and logic, and his scholarship was much appreciated 
by Lessing (see Levinsohn, “Zerubbabel,” i, 68). 

Zamosz was a versatile writer, his knowledge 
comprising rabbinics, religious philosophy, and sec- 
ular sciences. The only works of his published 
during his lifetime were the “Nezah Yisrael” 
(Frank fort-on-the-Oder, 1741) and his edition of the 
“Ruah Hen” of Ibn Tibbon or Jacob Anatolio, to 
which he appended a commentary of his own (Jess- 
nitz, 1744). After his death appeared the “ Nezer 
ha-Dema‘” (Dyhernfurth, 1773), a work in poetical 
prose on man’s desire for luxury; the “Ozar Neb- 
mad” (Vienna, 1796), a commentary on the “Sefer 
ha-Kuzari” of Judah ha-Levi; and the “Tub ha- 
Lebanon ” (2b. 1809), a commentary on the “ Hobot 
ha-Lebabot” of Bahya b. Joseph. Like the “ Arub- 
bot ha-Shamayim,” his “Eben Yisrael,” a collection 
of responsa, is still unpublished (comp. Levinsohn, 
“Te‘uddah be- Yisrael,” ch. xlv.). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Carmoly, in Revue Orientale, ii. 333-334; D. 
Cassel, introduction to his edition of the Cuzart, p. xxxiii.; 
Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, pp. 670 et seq.; Steinschneider, Cat. 
Bodl. col. 1169; Zunz, in Liebermann’s Deutsches Volkska- 
lender, 1853, p. 69. 

J. M. SEL. 


ZAMOSZ, JOSEPH BEN JACOB ISAAC: 
Polish rabbi of. the eighteenth century; rabbi of 
Zamosz. He was the author of “Mishnat Haka- 
mim” (Lemberg, 1792), an analytical work on the 
commandments, based on the ancient authorities and 


showing which laws were derived from the Penta- 
teuch (“mi-dibre Torah”) and which were added by 
the scribes (“mi-dibre soferim ”). It is divided into 
two parts: “Yabin Shemu‘ah,” explaining the 
words of the ancients; and “ Zofnat Pa‘neah.” casu- 
istic novella. The work is followed by an appen- 
dix entitled “Ma‘alot ha-Middot” and composed of 
notes on the “Sefer ha-Madda‘” of Maimonides. In 
this book Zamosz mentions his “ Otot le-Mo‘adim.” 
which contained the laws, expressed in the form of 
responsa, concerning the Sabbath and holy days. 


_ BIBLIOGRAPHY: Benjacob, Ozar ha-Sefarim, p. 385: Fuenn,. 


Keneset Yisrael, p. 469; Steinschneider, Cat. Bod]. eo!. 1477, 

J M. Se). 

ZAMOSZ, ZEBI HIRSCH BEN BENJA- 
MIN: German rabbi; born in 1740; died at Altona 
in 1807. He was rabbi of several communities, in- 
cluding Brody and Glogau, and from 1808 until his 
death he held the rabbinate of the three communi- 
ties of Altona, Hamburg, and Wandsbeck. He was 
the author of several works, which consist for the 
most part of responsa and of notes on the Bible, 
Talmud, and casuists (“poskim”); but his only 
publication was a collection of his responsa on the 
Shulhan ‘Aruk, Orah Hayyim and Yoreh De‘ah, 
entitled “ Tif'eret Zebi” (Lemberg, 1811). Some of 
his responsa are also included in Meshullam Zal- 
man’s “Bigde Kehunnah” and in Isaac Abraham’s 
“Keter Kehunnah,” No. 9. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, pp. 281-282; Stein- 
schneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 2751. 
an M. SEt.. 


ZAMZAM: A sacred well in the mosque of 
Mecca; identified by Islamitic legend with the spring 
from which Hagar and Ishmael drank (Gen. xvi. 
14; see Abraham ibn Ezra’s commentary ad loc. and 
HaGaR IN ARABIC LITERATURE), Some Moham- 
medan Arabists explain the name as a reduplication 
of “zamm ” (= “fill, fill”), smce Hagar commanded 
Ishmael to fill the jar as soon as she saw the water. 
Sale (quoted by Hughes, “A Dictionary of Islam,” 
8.v.) interpreted it similarly, but thought that its ety- 
mology was Egyptian and meant “stay, stay.” since 
Hagar had bidden Ishmael to cease his wandering 
when she found the well. The spring is naturally re- 
garded as miraculous, and the water, which is held in 
high esteem, is used for drinking and ablutions. It is 
exported to distant countries, and religious Moslems. 
break their fasts with it; itis also applied to the eyes 
to brighten the sight, thus presenting a close analogy 
to the beverage of the Habdalah cup, with which 
many Jews moisten their eyes on the night of the Sab- 
bath. The water of Zamzam is likewise thought to 
aid students in the pronunciation of Arabic in non- 
Arabic countries. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hughes, Dictionary of Islam, s.v. 
s. M. SEL. 


ZANGWILL, ISRAEL: English man of let- 
ters; born in London Feb. 14, 1864. When he was 
young his parents moved to Bristol, where he at- 
tended the Red Cross School; and after their return 
to London he entered the Jews’ Free School, later 
becoming a teacher there and taking the degree of 


| B.A. at London University. A misunderstanding 


with the directors of the school caused him to re- 


Zangwill 
Zaphnath-Paaneah 


sien his position, and he then devoted himseif to lit- 
erature. He had already shown considerable taste 
in this direction, having edited and partly written 
as early as 1880 an annual called “Purim”; and 
shortly after leaving the Free School he published, 
under the pseudonym “J. Freeman Bell,” an elab- 
orate novel written in collaboration with Lewis 
Cowen and entitled “The Premier and the Painter ” 
(1888), a work some- 
what in the style of 
Lord Beaconsfield, 
but with passages 
of Dickensian humor 
and with an entirely 
original plot. He 
had been appointed 
editor of “ Ariel,” and 
for a time was asso- 
ciated with a number 
of young literati like 
Jerome K. Jerome 
and Robert Barr, who 
represented what was 
known as the “new 
humor.” This phase 
of his work was rep- 
resented by his 
“ Bachelors’ Club,” 
issued in 1891, and by “The Old Maids’ Club,” pro- 
duced in the following year, each of these books be- 
ing a series of fantastic sketches replete with the 
wit and humor of topsyturvydom. 

Meanwhile Zangwill had been contributing to the 
“Jewish Standard” (edited by H. 8. Lewis) a weekly 
causerie under the pseudonym “ Marshalik,” com- 
menting with freakish humor on communal iucidents. 
He gave evidence also of higher powers and touched 

a deeper note in two sketches, “Satan 

His Jewish Mekatrig” and “The Diary of a Me- 
Novels. = sliumad,” contributed to M. H. Myers’ 

“ Diary ” (1888-89) under the pseudo- 

nym “ Baroness von 8.,” and afterward reprinted in 
his “Ghetto Tragedies.” These and his other works 
(including a remarkable analysis of modern English 
Judaism in “J. Q. R.” i.) drew to him the attention 
of the Jewish Publication Society of America, and it 
requested him to write a novel on modern Jewish life, 
which commission he executed in the well-known 
“Children of the Ghetto, Being Pictures of a Peculiar 
People” (Philadelphia and London, 1892), a work 
that at once made him famous. The author’s pro- 
found knowledge of the life and problems of the 
ghetto, his command alike of pathos and of humor 
(especially in the first part of the book), his scintil- 
lating style, and the evidence of the application of a 
keenly logical intellect to the perplexities of modern 
Judaism place this book of Zangwill’s at the head 
of artistic presentations of the ghetto. It attracted 
very general attention, and was translated into Ger- 
man, Russian, Hebrew (in part), and Yiddish. This 
work was followed by “The King of Schnorrers ” 
(London, 1894), which also was translated into Yid- 
dish, and by “The Dreamers of the Ghetto” (1898); 
the former work applying to the London ghetto life 
of the eighteenth century the bizarreries of the “new 
hurnor,” the latter work dealing with a series of his- 


Israel Zangwill. 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


634 


toric scenes ranging from the times of Shabbethai 
Zebi and Spinoza to those of Lassalle and Disraeli. 
In “ The Dreamers of the Ghetto” Zangwill is not al- 
together successful in reproducing the past, but he 
showsa keen insight into the characters of such men 
as Solomon Maimon, Heine, and Beaconsfield. 

In general literature also Zaugwill has achieved 
considerable success. His novels “The Master” 
(1895), dealing with art life, and “ The Mantle of Eli- 
jab ” (1901), treating of imperialism and the political 
problems connected therewith, have been widely read ; 
and various shorter sketches, published by him in 

volumes entitled “They That Walk in 
In General Darkness” (1899) and “Gray Wig” 
Literature. (1903), show remarkable versatility 

and brilliance. He contributed to 
“The Pall Mall Gazette” a series of critical cause- 
ries, part of which were republished under the title 
“Without Prejudice” (London, 1896); and these 
perhaps show Zangwill’s powers in their most char- 
acteristic form. He hasalso published many poems 
and verses, including some striking translations from 
the medieval Jewish poets that are now being in- 
cluded in the authorized festival prayers of the Eng- 
lish Jewish congregations. Most of these poems 
have been collected under the title “ Blind Children” 
(London, 1908). 

Zangwill has written several dramatic sketches 
which have been produced with more or less suc- 
cess, among them curtain-raisers like “Six Persons,” 
“Three Penny Bits,” “The Revolting Daughter,” 
and “The Moment of Death,” a striking and origi- 
nal melodramatic study produced at Wallack’s 
Theater, New York, 1901. In addition he drama- 
tized his “ Children of the Ghetto,” which was pro- 
duced with successin the United States, where it ran 
for nearly a year. It was likewise produced at the 
Adelphi in London (1899); but the Boer war diverted 
public attention, and the play was withdrawn. 
Zangwill’s dramatization of his Christmas story 
“Merely Mary Ann,” written in 1893, was very well 
received both in England and in America (1904-5), 
and was followed by “Jinny the Carrier,” in the 
United States (1905). 

Zangwill has been a successful lecturer, traveling 
in that capacity in the United States (1898), through 
Great Britain, Ireland, and Holland, and to Jerusa- 
lem, which he visited in 1897, He has taken great 

interest in Zionism, and has attended 


As most of the congresses at Basel, at first 
Lecturer merely as a critic and onlooker, but 
and later being drawn into the movement, 
Zionist. of which he has become one of the 


leading spirits. He has written and 
lectured much on the subject, advocating in the 
United States (1904) and elsewhere the acceptance 
of the British government’s offer of an autonomous 
settlement in British East Africa. On the refusal of 
the Seventh Zionist Congress to consider any further 
offer of the kind, Zangwill formed a separate body, 
the Jewish Territorial Organization, intended 
to obtain, preferentially from the British govern- 
ment, an adequate tract of country in which per- 
secuted Jews can live their own life under Jewish 
conditions. Among those whom he has attracted 
to his views is Lucien Wolf, with whom he had 


635 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Zangwill 
Zaphnath-Paaneah 


previously had a somewhat sharp controversy on 
Zionism in the “Jewish Quarterly Review.” 

Zang will was one of the “ Wandering Jews” who 
met at the house of Asher I. Myers, and was one of 
the founders of the Maccabeeans. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Who's Who, 1905; New International En- 
cyclopedia; Brainin, in Ha-Metiz, 1897, p. 238; J. Lebowich, 
in Menorah, 1904, pp. 256-258; G. B. Burgin, in The Critic. 


New York, March, 1903; D. Phillipson, The Jew in English 
Fiction, 2d ed., 1902. J 


ZANGWILL, LOUIS: English novelist; born 
at Bristol, England, July 25, 1869; brother of Israel 
ZANGWILL. He waseducated at Jews’ Free School, 
and for a time acted as teacher there, but left to- 
gether with his brother, and set upa printing estab- 
lishment. Afterward, however, he turned to litera- 
ture, and produced, under the pseudonym “Z, Z.,” 
“A Dramain Dutch” (London, 1895), which attracted 
some attention for its local color. It was followed 
by “The World and a Man” (1896), “ The Beautiful 
Miss Brook” (1897), and “Cleo the Magnificent” 
(1899), all distinguished by a certain realistic vivid- 
ness and somewhat cynical humor. More recently 
he has produced a more sympathetic study, “One’s 
Womenkind ” (London, 1908). 

Zang will is a chess-player of high rank. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Who's Who, 1905. 


J. 

ZANTE: Island in the Mcditerranean Sea. Ac- 
cording to an unpublished study by Leonidas Zo, 
publisher of Zante, Jews did not settle there as a 
community until 1498; this statement is confirmed 
by the silence of Benjamin of Tudela. In that year, 
however, the republic of Venice offered special priv- 
ileges to those who wished to reside in the island, 
which had become depopulated asa result of the fre- 
quent Turkish invasions; and many Jews of Corfu, 
Patras, Lepanto, and other parts of Greece welcomed 
the opportunity. The Jewish families mentioned in 
the earliest published documents are those of Abdela 
(1499) and Mila (1510). In 1527 the Jewish popula- 
tien of the island was 240, but by 1555 it had dwin- 
dled to 140, although it had risen to 300 in 1809, Al- 
though the Jewish names of Zante are Romance in 
type, the Jews have alwaysspoken Greek ; and their 
features, like those of their coreligionists of Chalcis, 
are so purely Hellenic that Carres asserts that they 
“are genuine Greeks.” 

At present the community of Zante has no spiri- 
tual head, and the people in their poverty are con- 
Stantly emigrating, so that there are almost as many 
Zautiots in Corfu asin their native island. In both 
places the Zante Jews are usually tinsmiths. The 


Zante community possessed two synagogues, one 


Zantiot and the other Candiot, but the latter was des- 
troyed by an earthquake some years ago. The Zan- 
tiot synagogue was built in the latter part of the sev- 
enteenth century by Cretan Jews who had sought 
refuge in Zante froma revolution. Abraham Coen 
(b. 1670; d. 1729) is the only well-known rabbinical 
author of the island. He was a Cretan by ancestry, 
but was born in Zante, and graduated as a physician 
at the University.of Padua. In 1700 he published 
his “Derashot ‘al ha-Torah.” which was followed 
by bis “Kehunnat Abraham,” a paraphrase of the 

salms in various meters (Venice, 1719). In 1879 


M. Ventura of Corfu found a Hebrew poem by Coen 
inscribed on the wall of the Candiot synagogue, and 
later edited his discovery. 

During the period of Venetian dominion the Jews 
of Zante were subjected to the same restrictions as 
were their coreligionists throughout the republic, be- 
ing obliged to wear the BADGE, and losing all rights 
of citizenship, while they were forced to bear all civic 
burdens and to live in a‘ghetto. English control 
(1815-64) improved their status greatly, but they 
were still forbidden to become citizens, and the gates 
of the ghetto were not torn down until 1862. In 1864, 
however, when the island was annexed to Greece, the 
Jews of Zante were granted all civil and political 
rights. 

In connection with the riots of CorFu in 1891, 
serious excesses were committed against the Jews of 
Zante on May 1 of that year, during an ecclesiastical 
procession. The blood accusation of Corfu had ex- 
cited the population to such an extent that many Jews 
left the island. Archbishop Latas of Zante took oc- 
casion at the Parliament of Religions in Chicago, 
Sept. 23, 1893, to make a declaration against this 
caluinny, and he even appealed to the congress to 
give his protest its official sanction. 

D. M. C. 


ZANTE, ABRAHAM. See ABRAHAM BEN 
SHABBETHAI COHEN OF ZANTE. 


ZAPATEIRO, JOSEPH. 
JOSEPH. 


ZAPHNATH-PAANEAH: Name given by 
Pharaoh to Joseph (Gen. xli. 45). It seems to be an 
Egyptian name, but its etymology isin doubt. It 
is not plain on what (Hebrew ?) etymology the ear- 
liest explanations of Hebrew scholars were founded. 
Targum Onkelos gives the meaning of the name as 
“the man to whom mysteries are revealed ”; pseudo- 
Jonathan, “one who reveals mysteries”; Josephus 
(“ Ant.” ii. 6, 8 1), “a finder of mysteries.” Many 
other old writers offer similar definitions, and even 
the A. Y. has in the margin: “ Which in the Coptic 
signifies, ‘A revealer of secrets,’ or ‘ The man to 
whom secrets are revealed.’” There is, however, 
no Egyptian etymology by which these guesses can 
be supported. Jerome claims that his suggestion, 
“savior of the world,” rests on the Egyptian, and 
possibly the reading of the Septuagint has been fol- 
lowed by the authors of this etymology; the Coptic 
“eneh” = Egyptian “nh” (= “eternity,” “eternal ”), 
seems to be discernible, to which erroneously the 
later meaning of tlie Hebrew “‘olam” (“eternity,” 
“age”; later, “ world”) has been given, overlooking 
the “‘ayin.” Thus this inadmissible interpretation, 
which is accepted even by Jablonski, clearly be- 
trays rabbinical influence. 

Modern Egyptologists have tried a great inany 
untenable etymologies for the element “ Zaphnath,” 
but have mostly agreed that “ paancah” contains the 
Egyptian “p-‘6nh,” meaning “the life” (thus first 
Lepsius, “Chronologie,” i. 882). Steindorff’s expla- 
nation (in “Zeitschrift ftir Aegyptische Sprache,” 
xxvii. 42; modifying Krall’s etymology in “ Trans. 
7th Orientalist. Congr.” p. 110) differs somewhat; it 
is “ge(d)-p-nute(r)-ef-onh” = “ the god speaks, [and] 
he lives.” This has become popular, and is philo- 


See CAPATEIRO, 


zZzappert 
Zarfati 


logically possible; however, it does not convey the 
allusion to Joseph’s office or merits which we should 
expect. “P-‘6nh” (= “the life”) would still answer 
better in this respect; only “Zaphnath” does not 
admit a quite convincing explanation. The Septu- 
agint (Yov[or You |Gougaviy) and the Hexaplaric ver- 
sions, however, differ so widely from the Hebrew 
in the first half of the name that it may have been 
disfigured by copyists. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Marquardt, Philologus, vii. 676; Cheyne and 
Black, Eneyc. Bibl. col. 5879 (where a disfigured Hebrew 
original is suspected); Zeitschrift fitr Aegyptische 


Sprache, 1883, p. 59; Proc. Soc. Bibl. Arch. xx. 208 (where 
the other theories have been collected). 
W. M. M. 


BR. G. H. 


ZAPPERT, BRUNO: Austrian dramatist and 
journalist; born in Vienna Jan. 28, 1845; diced there 
Jan. 31, 1892. The Zappert family, many members 
of which have gained prominence as merchants, 
originally settled in Bohemia, and spread thence to 
Hungary and lower Austria. Bruno, who was the 
son of August Zappert, a manufacturer, received 
his early education at the gymnasium; and, though 
desiring a university training, he entered the Vienna 
commercial academy in 1862 with a view to fitting 
himself to continue the business of his father. The 
latter’s untimely death, however, caused him to 
change his plans, and he engaged in the publishing 
business in Vienna, beginning with Wallishauser, 
and in 1869 assuming the sole management of 
Hitgel’s house, which he conducted till 1877. He 
then took up dramatic literature, becoming secretary 
and artistic director of the Presburg theater, and 
later dramatist of the Carltheater in Vienna, where 
he worked for two years under Director Steiner, 
and for three years under Tatarezy. 

Zappert edited the “ Wiener Leben” (from 1879), 
Langer’s “Hans Jérgel” (1885-86), and the illus- 
trated “Wiener Wespen ” (1886-87); and he collabo- 
rated on other Vienna journals as feuilletonist. He 
also frequently collaborated for the theater, work- 
ing with Robert Genée, Costa, Jul. Rosen, Mann- 
stidt, Oeribaner, and others; and he wrote many 
comic and topical songs for the stage, as well as 
celebration plays and prologues. 

His principal plays were: “Zwischen Zwei Ue- 
beln,” musical farce in one act, with music by Franz 
Roth (1870; acted and published under the pseudo- 
nym “Zeno Brunner”); “ Die Czarin,” operetta in 
three acts, with music by Max Wolf (1872); “ Ein 
Hochgeborener,” popular piece in three acts, with 
music by H. Delin (1877); “Ein Junger Drahrer,” 
musical farce in three acts, with music by Paul 
Mestrozi (1878); “Rinicherl,” parody in one act, 
with music by Gothov-Griineke (1878); “ Cri-cri,” 
musical picture from life in one act (1879); “Die 
Gléckerln am Kornfeld,” parody on Robert Plan- 
quette’s “Les Cloches de Corneville,” with music 
by Gothov-Griineke (1879); “Eine Parforcejagd 
Durch Europa,” extravaganza in three tableaux, 
with music by Jul. Hopp (1879); “Ein Bohm in 
Amerika,” musical burlesque in six tableaux, with 
music by Gothov-Griineke (1880); “ Moderne Wei- 
ber,” musical farce in three tableaux, with music by 
Gothov-Griineke (1880); “Pressburger Luft,” mu- 
sical local farce in five tableaux (1882); “ Der Para- 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


836 


_ 


graphenritter,” musical farce in four acts (1888; 
published as “Doctor Schimmel”); “ Pamperl’s 
Abenteuer,” musical farce in three acts (1888); 
“Theaterblut,” musical farce in three acts (1883); 
“Papa Palugyay,” farce in one act (1884); Resch- 
fesch,” musical farcein one act (1884) ; “Sein Spezi,” 
musical farce in five acts, with music by Franz 
Roth (1884); “Beim Sacher,” musical farce in one 
act, with music by Paul Mestrozi (1887); (with 
Genée and Manustiidt) “ Der Glicksritter,” operetta 
in three acts, with music by Alf. Czibulika (1887); 
(with Genée) “Der Freibeuter,” operetta in three 
acts from the French, with music by Planquette 
(1888); (with Genée) “ Kin Deutschmeister,” operetta 
in three acts, with music by C. M. Ziehrer (1888-89) ; 
“Johann Nestroy,” musical popular piece in six 
tableaux (1888); (with Genée) “Die Jagd nach dem 
Gliicke,” operetta in three acts and an introduction, 
with music by Franz von Suppé (1888; printed asa 
text-book and translated into five languages); “ Das 
Lachende Wien,” farce in six tableaux, with intro- 
duction; (with Genée) “Die Herzogin von New- 
foundland,” operetta in three acts, with music by 
Ludwig Englinder; (with Genée) “Prinz Eugen,” 
operetta in three acts, with music by I. R. Kral; 
“Im Flug um die Welt,” fairy extravaganza (1891); 
etc. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Eisenberg, Das Geistige Wien, i. 957: Wurz- 
bach, Biographisches Lexikon, vol. 59; Alig. Zeit. des Jud. 


Nov. 2, 1888, No. 305, p. 4493 . 
S, N. D, 


ZAPPERT, GEORGE: Hungarian historian 
and archeologist; born in Alt-Ofen Dec. 7, 1806; 
died in Vienna Nov. 23, 1859. The son of well-to- 
do parents, Zappert was educated at the Pesth gym- 
nasium and at the University of Vienna. He began 
the study of medicine, but relinquished it after re- 
nouncing Judaism for Roman Catholicism in 1829, 
then taking up theology. This too he was forced 
to abandon in the second year, owing to deafness 
caused by a severe illness; and after this disappoint- 
ment, which he felt keenly, he devoted himself to 
what became his life-work, namely, the study of the 
Middle Ages. He led a retired life in Vienna; and 
it is noteworthy that he foretold the time of his 
death to the minute three days before it occurred, 
and that there have been in his family several cases 
of similar premonition. The Imperial Academy of 
Sciences elected him corresponding member on July 
28, 1851. 

Zappert published: “Gravure en Bois du XII. 
Siécle ” (Vienna, 1837 et seq.); “ Vita B. Petri Aco- 
tanti” (2b. 1839); and the following memoirs: 
“Ueber Antiquitétenfunde im Mittelalter ” (in “ Sitz- 
ungsberichte der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissen- 
schaften,” Nov., 1850); “ Epiphania, ein Beitrag zur 
Christlichen Kunstarchiologie” (¢b. xxi. 291-372); 
“Ueber Badewesen in Mittelalterlicher und Spiterer 
Zeit” (in “ Archiv fiir Kunde Oesterreichischer Ge 
schichtsquellen,” xxi. 5); “Ueber Sogenannte Ver- 
briiderungsbiicber in Nekrologicn im Mittelalter” 
(in “Sitzungsberichte der Kaiserlichen Akademie det 
Wissenschaften,” x. 417-463, xi. 5-183); “Ueber 
ein fir den Jugendunterricht des Kaisers Max lL 
Abgefasstes Lateinisches Gespriichsbtichlein ” (24. 
XXVili, 198-280); ete. 


637 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Zappert 
Zartfati 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Wurzbach, Biographisches Lerikon, vol. 59; 
Larousse, Dict.; Acte der Kaiserlichen Akademie (auto- 
biog.): Wiener Zeitschrift, 1859, No. 299; Fremden-Blatt 
(Vienna), 1867, No. 110. 

g. N. D. 
ZAPPERT, ISRAEL L.: Austrian philanthro- 
pist; elder brother of George and grandfather of 

Bruno Zappert; born at Prague in 1795; died there 

in 1865. He wasa grandson of Wolf Zappert, who 

was the founder of the family, aud who was twice 

court jeweler, the second time to Emperor Joseph II. 

(1765-90). Wolf, who was distinguished for both 

uprightness and business ability, made two fortunes, 

the first of which he expended to secure the revoca- 
tion of an order expelling the Jews from Trebitsch ; 
and when his coreligionists were driven out of 

Prague he alone was allowed to remain. In his will 

he founded twenty-two charitable institutions en- 

dowed with considerable funds, which were admin- 
istered by his son and, after him, by his grandson, 

the subject of this article. I. L. Zappert was also a 

director of many Jewish benevolent institutions in 

Prague, and himself founded several more, among 

them one for providing poor girls with dowries and 

trousseaux, and another for the care of the sick. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Wurzbach, Biographisches Lerikon, Vol. 59, 
g. 


ZARA‘AT. See LEPROsy. 


ZARFATI, ZAREFATI (“French”): Epithet 
frequently applied in rabbinical literature to Jews 
of French birth or descent. Among those so called 
may be mentioned: Meir Zarfati, whom Carmoly 
sought to identify with the Meir ha-Kohen of Nar- 
bonne who emigrated to Toledo, dying there in 
1263 (“ Ha-Karmel,” vii. 58); Abraham Zarfati, 
author of the “Tamid ha-Shahar,” copied by Abra- 
ham of Chinon about 1870; Perez jan, called 
uxdpp sMBWH, which probably indicates that he 
emigrated from his native country, France, to Cata- 
lonia; the physician Jacob b. Solomon Zarfati; 
and the mathematician Joseph b. Moses Zarfati. 
By far the most important Zarfati family, however, 
was that of Trapor (Trabotti), which seems to 
have originated in Trévoux in the department of the 
Ain, and to have settled in Italy in the second half 
of the fifteenth century. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Azulai, Shem ha-Gedolim, ed. Leghorn, pp. 
8a, 20b, 4]a; Berliner’s Magazin, ii. 16, 96; Conforte, Kore 
ha-Dorot, p. 39b et passim ; Gross, Gallia. Judaica, pp. 220- 


222, 5388, 576; Renan-Neubauer, Les Eerivains Juifs Fran- 


cvis, pp. 710, 801; R. BE. J. iv. 114, 208: Steinschneider, Cat. 

Bod. col. 2052; Zunz, Z. G. p. 166. 

E. C. S. K. 

Jacob ben Solomon Zarfati: Physician who 
lived, probably at Avignon, in the second half of 
the fourteenth century. He was a native of north- 
ern France, and is believed to have settled at Avi- 
gnon atter the banishment of the Jews. He was the 
author of a work entitled “Mishkenot Ya‘akob,” 
Which is still extant in manuscript (Bibliothéque 
Nationale, Paris, MS. No. 18%). This work is di- 
Vided into three books, which bear separate titles, as 
follows: (1) “Bet Ya‘akob,” containing allegorical 
interpretations of certain passages of the Penta- 
teuch; (2) “Yeshu‘ot Ya‘akob,” a treatise on the 
ten plagues of Egypt; (8) “Kehillat Ya‘akob,” a 
theological treatise on the laws, other than the Ten 

Ommandments, which are believed to have been 


given on Mount Sinai. An appendix, entitled “ Ebel 
Rabbati,” contains an account of the deaths of three 
children whom Zarfati lost in the space of three 
months during the plague of 1395. He was also the 
author of a treatise on the headache called in med- 
ical works “ vertigine” (Neubauer, “Cat. Bodl.” No. 
2588, 2). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Renan-Neubauer, Les Ecrivains Juifs Fran- 

gais, pp. 364 et sey. 

E. C. I. Br. 

Joseph ben Samuel Zarfati (called by Christian 
writers Josiphon, Giosifante, Giuseppo Gallo): 
Italian physician; Jived at Rome in the fifteenth and 
sixteenth centuries. He acquired early in life a great 
reputation in his profession; and the privileges that 
had been granted (1504) to his father by Pope Ju- 
lius IT. were extended to him. These were renewed 
in 1524 by Leo X., who expressed himself toward the 
Jewish physician in the most flattering terms. He 
was the more willing, said he in his patent, to grant 
these privileges as Joseph was no less magnanimous 
and no less skilful in his profession than was his 
father. 

Joseph was well versed in Hebrew, Aramaic, and 
Arabic, and was an accomplished Latinist and Hel- 
lenist ; he possessed also a wide knowledge of math- 
ematics and philosophy. He was the teacher of 
Teseo Ambrogio, subsequently professor of Oriental 
languages at the University of Bologna. Inu the lat- 
ter part of his life Joseph met with many misfortunes. 
An unfaithful servant fled to Constantinople with all 
his savings, Joseph pursued him thither, but was 
accused by the thief as a spy of the pope, and had 
to seek safety in flight. During the siege of Rome 
in 1527 Joseph was attacked by four robbers. He 
succeeded in escaping; but while endeavoring to 
reach Vicovaro he was stricken with the plague. Re- 
fused entrance to the city, he died without assistance 
in the open field. 

BIBLIOGRAPUY: Perio Valeriano, De Litteratorum Infelici- 
tate Libri Duo, pp. 19 et seq., Venice, 1620; Vogelstein and 


Rieger, Geschichte der Juden in Rom, ii. 85 and Index. 
G. I. Br. 


Samuel Zarfati. See Jew. Encyc. xi. 31b. 


ZARFATI: Oriental Jewish family, traced by 
the bibliographer Azulai toa line of French rabbis 
descended from Rashi through his grandson Rabbenu 
Tam. 

Elijah Zarfati: Moroccan Talmudist; chief 
rabbi of Fez about 1770; grandson of Samuel Zar- 
fati. 

Joseph Zarfati: Turkish rabbinical scholar; 
lived at Adrianople in the early part of the seven- 
teenth century. He was the author of a collection 
of sermons entitled “ Yad Yosef” (16177). 

Samuel Zarfati: Chiefrabbiof Fez in the eight- 
eenth century; died 1713; grandson of Vidal Zarfati 
If. He wrotea work entitled “Nimmuke Shemu’el,” 
in which he defended the opinions of Maimonides. 

Vidal Zarfati I.: Moroccan Talmudist; lived 
at Fez in the sixteenth century. He is the earliest 
known member of the family. 

Vidal Zarfati II.: Chief rabbi of Fez; grand- 
son of Vidal Zarfati I.: lived about 1660. He was 
the author of “Zuf Debash,” a commentary on the 
Talmud. 


Zarifa 
Zealots 


Zemah Zarfati: Talmudic author and chief 
rabbi of Tunis in the early part of the eightcenth 
century; remarkable for the number of his pupils. 
In the latter part of his life he dwelt for several 
years at Damascus; but his last days were passed at 
Jerusalem. Someof his manuscript notes were pub- 
lished in the latter part of the eighteenth century 
by Joseph Cohen Tanugi in his “Bene Yosef.” 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Azulai, Shem ha-Gedolim, s.v. 

D. M. Fr. 

ZARIFA: Name of a goddess mentioned in a 
single passage of the Talmud (‘Ab. Zarah 12a) as 
having been worshiped at Ashkelon. Kohut, Levy, 
and other Jewish lexicographers identify her with 
Serapis; but the Hebrew spelling would scem to im- 
ply that the deity was the goddess Sarapia or Sera- 
pia, another name of Isis Pharia, whose festival was 
celebrated in April (Preller, “ Rémische Mythologie,” 
3d _ed., ii. 382, Berlin, 1883). It is possible, how- 
ever, since Zarifa is mentioned in connection with 
Ashkelon, that she is to be identitied with Derceto, 
who was worshiped in that city (Diodorus Siculus, 
i. 4; Ovid, “Metamorphoses,” iv. 3), the term “za- 
rifa” (= “composite ”) being especially fitting for a 
goddess represented with a human head and the 
body of afish. Joseph Halévy, on the other hand, 
suggests (“Revue Sémitique,” vi. 177) that Zarifa 
represents the Babylonian divinity Zarpanit, wife of 
Marduk. Fora variant view see ASHKELON. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Krauss, Lehnworter, ii., 8.v.; Neubauer, G. T. 

p. 69, 

8, M. SEL. 

ZARKA. Sce ACCENTS IN HEBREW. 


ZARKO, JUDAH BEN ABRAHAM: He- 
brew poet distinguished for the elegance of his style; 
flourished at Rhodes in the sixteenth century. Dur- 
ing a residence at Constantinople he wrote his 
“Lehem Yehudah” (Constantinople, 1560), which 
contains an allegory on the soul, metrical and non- 
metrical poems, and epigrams directed against vari- 
ous celebrities, including Maimonides and Judah 
Sabara. A. letter written by him to congratulate 
Joseph Hamon on his marriage is given at the be- 
ginning of the anonymous Hebrew style-book “ Ye- 
feh Nof,” and some of his shorter poems have been 
published by Edelmann in his “ Dibre Ilefez ” (Lon- 
don, 1853). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY : Steinsechneider, Cat. Bodl. cols. 1371 et seg.; 
Gratz, Gesch, ix. 395; Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, p. 395. 


J. I. Br. 

ZARZA, SAMUEL IBN SENEH: Spanish 
philosopher; lived at Valencia in the second half of 
the fourteenth century. According to Zunz, his 
surname is derived from the Spanish town Zarza 
(= “thorn-bush”), and is accordingly synonymous 
with the Hebrew “seneh.” Of his life no details 
are known; for while in his notes on the “Sefer ha- 
Yuhasin” (ed. Filipowski, p. 226) Samuel Shalom 
states that Zarza was burned at the stake by the 
tribunal of Valencia on the denunciation of Isaac 
CAMPANTON, who accused him of denying the crea- 
tion of the world, historians have proved this asser- 
tion a mere legend. Although a comparatively un- 
important writer, if his two works may serve as a 
criterion, Zarza ranked high in the estimation of his 
contemporaries, so that the poet Solomon Reubeni 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


638 


of Barcelona and the astronomer Isaac ibn Al-Hadib 
composed poems in his honor. 

Zarza was the author of the “Mekor Hayyim,” a 
philosophical commentary on the Pentateuch (Man- 
tua, 1559); and of the “ Miklol Yofi,” a philosophical 
commentary devoted to the haggadot found in both 
Talmudim and divided into 151 chapters and seven 
parts (Neubauer, “Cat. Bodl, Hebr. MSS.” No. 
1296). In the introduction to the latter work Zarza 
draws a melancholy picture of the state of the Jews 
of Castile in his time, stating that in Toledo alone 
10,000 perished in the course of the war between Don 
Pedro and his brother Henry. In his “Mekor Hay- 
yim,” Zarza mentions four other writings of his which 
are no longer in existence: “’Taharat ha-~Kodesh,” 
on the principles of religion; “‘Ezem ha-Dat”; 
“Zeror ha-Mor”; and “Magen Abraham.” 
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. cols. 2496-98 ; Gratz, 

Geseh. 3d ed., Vili. 16, 23, 25-26. 

K, I. Br. 

ZARZAL, ABRAHAM IBN (called Zarzar 
by Arabic chroniclers): Spanish physician and as- 
tronomer; tlourished in the first half of the four- 
teenth century at the court of the Nasserites in Gra- 
nada, where a certain Pharez ben Abraham ibn Zar- 
zal, who may have been his father, was physician in 
ordinary (“ Monatsschrift,” xxxiii. 479; Steinschnei- 
der, “ Hebr. Uebers.” p. 272); died after 1369. Fear- 
ing that he might become involved in the murder 
of the minister Reduan, he retired to Castile, where 
his medical and astrological fame, as well as the 
recommendation of Mohammed IV. of Granada, who 
was in friendly relations with the King of Castile, 
won him the appointment of astrologer and plysi- 
cian in ordinary to Pedrothe Cruel. Abraham, who 
gained the favor of the king and was constantly 
near him, took every opportunity of smoothing over 
the difficulties between Castile and Granada. It is 
said that he, like other astrologers, prophesied to 
Pedro that the horoscope of his nativity destined 
him to become the mightiest king of Castile, to con- 
quer the Moors everywhere, and to capture Jerusa- 
lem. At Seville, a few weeks before his death, 
Pedro summoned Zarza} and said: “Abraham, why 
have the.events of my life been opposite to all that 
you and otherastrologers have prophesied tome? I 
bid you tell me the entire truth of all that I ask, 
concealing nothing.” Abraham replied: “ Your 
Majesty, if I tell the whole truth, may I be certain 
that you will not be offended thereby?” Having 
been reassured on this point, he continued: “Will 
one perspire who takes a very hot bath on a very 
cold day in January?” “Certainly,” replied the 
king. “Sucha result would be contrary to the gov- 
erning constellation,” said Abraham; “and itis the 
same with the horoscope of your nativity: yoursins 
and your government have brought about the direct 
opposite.” 

Abraham was actively interested in the religious 
and philosophic movements of the time; and he en- 
deavored to gain recognition for Judaism. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY : Juan Rodriguez de Cuenca, Sumario de los 
Reyes de Espayia, p. 75, Madrid, 1781; Rios, Hist. ii, 232 e 
seq., 255 et seqg.: Gratz, Gesch. 3d ed., vii. 356; Gedaliah ibn 
Yahya, Shalshelet ha-Kabhbalah, 88b (ed. Amsterdam) ; J& 
scnual ed. Kobak, vi. 201 ef seq.; Monatsschrift, xxxiil 

i7 et seq. 


8. M. K. 


639 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Zarifa 
Zealots 


ZARZAL, MOSES IBN: Spanish physician 
and poet; physician in ordinary to Henry III. of 
Castile; flourished in the latter half of the four- 
teenth and the first part of the fifteenth century ; 
son of Abraham ibn Zarzal. On March 6, 1405, he 
was at Toro, where he celebrated the birth of John IT. 
in a poem which is given in the “Cancionero de 
Baena ” (p. 222); and in 1889, 1400, and 1409 he re- 
sided in the Calle de Rehoyo at Segovia. The date 
of his death can not be determined; the epitaph 
found at Carmona stating that he died in 1482 is a 
forgery. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Juan Rodriguez de Cuenca, Sumario de los 
Reyes de Espatia, p. 75, Madrid, 1781; Kayserling, Sephar- 
dim, pp. 58 et seq., 383; Gratz, Gesch. viii. 47: Rios, Hstudios, 
p. 419; idem, Hist. ii. 423 ; Kayserling, Bibl. Eisp. -Port.-Jud. 
p. 111; Fidel Fita, Historia Hehbrea, i. 213 et seq.; Boletin 
Acad. Hist. ix. 316, 349; xvii. 172 et seq. 

g, M. K. 
 ZAUSMER, JACOB DAVID BEN ISAAC: 
Polish Masorite of the sixteenth and seventeenth 
centuries; rabbi of Zausmer, near Cracow ; died be- 
fore 1644. He was the author of the “Perush ha- 
Massorah ” and of the “ Ta‘ame ha-Massorah ” (Lu- 
blin, 1616); the former work elucidating Masoretic 
problems and forming a supplement to the “Sha‘ar 
Shibre Luhot” of Elijah Levita’s “ Massoret ha- 
Massoret,” while the “Ta‘ame ha-Massorah” was a 
commentary on the Masorah. <A revised and aug- 
mented edition was published by his son Judah 
Isaac Darshan (7). 1644), who speaks of his father 
as having died. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, p. 570; First, Bibl. 
Jud. iii. 545; Steinschneider, Cat. Bod. cols. 1 1266-68. 


J. M. SEL. 

ZAUSMER, JACOB BEN SAMUEL: Polish 
rabbi and preacher flourished at Zausmer in the 
seventeenth century. He was the author of the 
“Bet Ya‘akob ” (Dyhernfurth, 1696), a work contain- 
ing 174 responsa. In the preface he says that he 
wrote also “ Toledot Ya‘akob,” homilies on the Pen- 
tateuch arranged in the order of the parashiyyot. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, p. 570; First, Bibl. 
Jud. iii. 545; Steinschneider, Cat. Bod. col. 1268. 
J. M. SEt. 


ZAYIN (+): Seventh letter of the Hebrew alpha- 
bet. The meaning of the name is uncertain. In 
sound the letter is a sonant sibilant, its phonetic 
value corresponding to the English “z.” It inter- 
changes with the surd sibilant (“s”), and occurs 
only as a radical, never as a formative element, In 


the later period it has the numerical value 7. 
T. TI. Br. 


ZBARAZER. See EHRENKRANZ, BENJAMIN 
WOoLr. 
ZBITKOVER, SAMUEL. See Warsaw. 


ZEALOTS (licbrew, Kanna’im): Zealous de- 
fenders of the Law and of the national life of the 
Jewish people; name of a party opposing with re- 
lentless rigor any attempt to bring Judea under the 
dominion of idolatrous Rome, and especially of the 
. aggressive and fanatical war party from the time of 
Herod until the fall of Jerusalem and Masada. The 
members of this party bore also the name SIcaRu, 
from their custom of going about with daggers 
(“sicee ”) hidden beneath their cloaks, with which 
they would stab any one found committing a sac- 


rilegious act or anything provoking anti-Jewish 
feeling. 

Following Josephus (“B. J.” ii. 8, § 1; “Ant.” 
X viii. 1, $$ 1, 6), most writers consider that the Zeal- 
ots were a so-called fourth party founded by Judas 
the Galilean (see Gritz, “Gesch.” iii. 252, 259; 

Schiirer, “*Gesch.” 1st ed., i. 8, 486), 
Origin and This view is contradicted, however, 
Meaning hy the fact that Hezekiah, the father 
of of Judas the Galilean, had an organ- 
the Name. ized band of so-called “ robbers ” which 
made war against the Idumean Herod 
(“B. J.” i. 10, $5; “Ant.” xiv. 9, § 2), and also by 
the fact that the system of organized assassination 
practised by the Zealots was in existence during the 
reign of Herod, if not long before (see below). The 
name “ Kanna’im” (D5NIp; not “Kenaim” as given 
in Herzog-Hauck, “ Real-Encyc.” 1886, s.v. “Zelo- 
ten”) occurs twice in the Talmud: in Sanh. ix. 11 
and in Ab. R. N. vi. (where the other version has 
ppp [“Sicarii”]; see Schechter’s edition, pp. 31 
and 32). The former passage contains a statute, 
evidently of the Maccabean time, declaring that 
“ Whosoever steals the libation cup [Num. iv. 7] or 
curses one with the aid of the Holy Name [Lev. 
xxiv. 16, Sifra] or las sexual intercourse with a 
Syrian [heathen] woman shall be felled by the Kan- 
na’im or Zealots.” This is explained in the Talmud 
(Sanh, 82a, b; Yer. Sanh. ix. 27b) to mean that, while 
the acts mentioned are not causes for criminal pro- 
cedure, they fall into the same category as did the 
crime of Zimri the son of Salu, whom Phinehas, be- 
cause “he was zealous for his God,” slew flagrante 
delicto (Num. xxv. 11-14). Phinehas is set up as 
a pattern, being called “Kanna’i ben Kanna’i” (a 
Zealot, the son of a Zealot), inasmuch as he followed 
the example of Levi, the son of Jacob, who avenged 
the crime perpetrated upon Dinah by killing the 
men of Shechem (Sifre, Num. 131; Sanh, 82b; comp. 
Book of Jubilees, xxx. 18, 23, where Levi is said to 
have been chosen for the priesthood because he was 
zealous in executing vengeance upon the enemies of 
Israel], and Judith ix. 2-4, where Simeon as ancestor 
of Judith is praised for his zealous act), 

This unfailing “zeal for the Law” became the 
standard of piety in the days of the Maccabean 
struggle against the Hellenizers, Thus itis asserted 
that when Mattathias slew the Jew whom he saw 
sacrificing to an idol, “he dealt zealously for the 
law of God, as did Phinehas unto Zimri the son of 
Salu”; and Mattathias’ claim of descent from Phin- 
ehas implies that, like the latter, he obtained for 
his house the covenant of an everlasting priesthood 
(I Mace. ii. 24, 26, 54). Mattathias’ call, “ Whoso- 
ever is zealous of the Law, and maintaineth the cove- 
nant, let him follow me” (7b. verse 27; comp. verses 
43-45), whether authentic or not, is practically a 
recognition of a league of Kanna’im or Zealots, no 
matter when or by whom the First Book of Macca- 

bees was written. Similarly Elijah 

Phinehas also is Jauded for his zeal for the Law 
the Model (2d. verse 58; comp. I Kings xix. 10, 14; 
Zealot. Ecclus. [Sirach] xlviii. 2); and later 
haggadists declared Phinehas and Eli- 

jah to have been the same person (Targ. Yer. to Ex. 
vi. 18; Pirke R. El, xxix., xlvii.). That Phinehas 


Zealots 


was regarded during the Maccabean reign as the 
type of true (priestly) piety, in contradistinction to 
the Hellenizing Sadducees typified by Zimri, may be 
learned from the warning said to have been addressed 
by King Janneeus on his deathbed to his wife: “ Fear 
not the Pharisees nor the Sadducees {non-Pharisees], 
but the hypocrites who conduct themselves like 
Zimri and expect the reward of Phinehas” (So- 
tah 22b). 

Originally the name “ Kanna’im” or “Zealots” 
signified religious fanatics; and as the Talmudic 
traditions ascribe the rigorous laws concerning mar- 
riage with a non-Jewess (Sanh. 82a) to the Hasidsean 
bet din of the Hasmoneans, so probably to the Zeal- 
ots of the Maccabean time are due the rabbinical 
laws governing the relations of Jews to idolaters, 
as well as those concerning idols, such as the pro- 
hibition of all kinds of images (Mek., Yitro, 6) and 
even the mere looking upon them, or of the use of 
the shadow of an idol (Tosef., Shab. xvii. ; ‘Ab. Zarah 
iii. 8), or of the imitation of heathen (Amorite) cus- 
toms (Shab. vi. 10; Tosef.,Shab. vi.). The divine 
attribute “El kanna” (= “a jealous God”; Ex. xx. 
5; Mek., Yitro, ¢.c.) is significantly explained as 
denoting that, while God is merciful and forgiving 
in regard to every other transgression, He exacts 
vengeance in the case of idolatry: “As longas there 
is idolatry in the world, there is divine wrath” 
(Sifre, Deut. 96; Sanh. x. 6; comp. I Macc. iii. 8). 

Regarding the original Zealots or Kanna’im, the 
source from which Josephus derived his description 
of the Essenes, and which has been preserved in more 
complete form in Hippolytus, “Origenis Philoso- 
phumena sive Omnium Heresium Refutatio,” ix. 
26 (ed. Dunker, 1859, p. 482; comp. Jew. Encyc. 
v. 228-230), has the following: 

‘**Some of these [Essenes] observe a still more rigid practise 
in not handling or looking at a coin bearing an image, saying 
that one should neither carry nor look at nor fashion any image ; 
nor will they enter a city at the gate of which statues are 
erected, since they consider it unlawful to walk under an 
image [comp. Sifra, Kedoshim,i.; Shab. 149a; Yer. ‘Ab. Zarah 
iii. 42b~43b}. Others threaten to slay any uncircumcised Gentile 
who listens to a discourse on God and His laws, unless he under- 
goes the rite of circumcision f[comp. Sanh. 59a; Sifre, Deut. 
845]: should he refuse to do so, they kill him instantly. From 
this practise they have received the name of ‘Zealots’ or ‘ Si- 
cari.’ Others again call no one Lord except God, even though 
one should torture or kill them.” 

It is only this last point which Josephus singles 
out as the doctrine of the Zealots of his day (“B. J.” 
ii. 8. $1; “Ant.” xviii. 1, 8§ 1-6) in order to give 
them the character of political extremists; the rest 
he omits, Buteven here he misstates the facts. The 
principle that God alone is King is essentially a re- 
ligious one. It found expression in the older liturgy 
(comp. “Beside Thee we have no King,” in “Emet 
we-Yazzib”™, “Rule Thou alone over us,” in the 
eleventh benediction of the “Shemoneh ‘Esreh”: 
“And be Thou alone King over us,” in “U-Beken 
Ten Pahdeka”; “We have no King besides Thee,” 
in“ Abinu Malkenu ” and in “ Yir’u ‘Enenu”), Ex- 
pressed in I Sam. viii. 7, and deemed by the Rabbis 
to be expressed also in Num. xxiii. 21 and Deut. 
xxxiii. 5 (see Targ. to Sifre, Deut. 346; Musaf of 
Rosh ha-Shanah; comp. also ITI SibyHines, ii. ; ITY 
Macc. ii. 4), it was to be pronounced in the “Shema‘ ” 
twice a day (Ber. ii. 1: Friedmann in his edition of 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


640 


Sifre, p. 72b, note, erroneously ascribes the institu- 
tion to the time of the Roman oppression). As early 
as 63 B.c. the Pharisaic elders in the name of the na- 
tion declared to Pompey that it was not befitting for 
them to be ruled by a king, because the form of gov- 
ernment received from their forefathers was that of 
subjection to the priests of the God they worshiped, 
whereas the present descendants of the priests 
(Hyreanus and Aristobulus) sought to introduce an- 
other form of government which would make slaves 
of them (Josephus, “ Ant.” xiii. 8, § 2). The king- 
ship of God is indeed especially accentuated in the 
Psalms of Solomon, composed at that time (ii. 36; 
v. 22; vii. 8; xvii. 1, 32, 38, 51). “Hither God is 
your king or Nebuchadnezzar” (Sifra, Kedoshim, 
at the close); “ Whoso takes upon himself the yoke 
of the Torah will have the yoke of the worldly 
power removed from him,” says R. Nehunya ben 
ha-Kanah (“the Zealot ”; see Geiger’s “ Zeitschrift,” 
ii, 88; comp. Ab. R. N. xx. [ed. Schechter, p. 72]); 
“ My mother’s sons were incensed against me ” (Cant, 
i. 6); “These are Sanhedrin” [“ Boulai”] of Judea 
who cast off the yoke of the Holy One and set over 
themselvesa human king.” Seealso Philo’s descrip- 
tion of the Essenes in “Quod Probus Liber Est,” 
§§ 12-13: “They condemn masters; even their most 
cruel and treacherous oppressor [Herod] could not 
but look upon them as free men.” 

The reign of the Jdumean Herod gave the impetus 
for the organization of the Zealots as a political 
party. Shemaiah and Abtalion (Ptollion), as mem- 
bers of the Sanhedrin, at first opposed Herod, but 
seem to have preferred a passive resignation in the end 

(Josephus, “ Ant.” xiv. 9,84; xv.1,§ 


Organiza- 1;xv.7,§10;xv. 10,34); though there 
tion asa were those who “ could by no torments 


Political 
Party. 


be forced to call him [Herod] king,” 
and who persisted in opposing his gov- 
ernment. Hezekiah and his so-called 
“band of robbers,” who were the first to fall as vic- 
tims under Herod’s bloodthirsty rule (“ B. J.” i. 10, 
85; “Ant.” xiv. 9, 8S 2-3), were by no means common 
robbers. Josephus, following his sources, bestows 
the name of “robbers” upon all the ardent patriots 
who would not endure the reign of the usurper and 
who fled with their wives and children to the caves and 
fortresses of Galilee to fight and to die for their con- 
viction and their freedom (“ Ant.” xiv. 15, $& 4-6; 
xv. 8, §$ 3-4; xvii. 10, $8 5-8; xx. 8, §$ 5-6; “B. J.” 
i. 18, $ 1; ii. 18, $§ 2-4; iv. 4, $3; and elsewhere). 
All these “robbers” were in reality Zealots. Jose- 
phus relates of one of them that he slew his wife and 
his seven sons rather than allow them to be slaves to 
the Idumean Herod (“ Ant.” xiv. 15, §5; “B. J" i 
16, § 4); this man is possibly identical with Taxo, 
the Levite mentioned in the “Assumptio Mosis,” 
ix. 1-7, as undergoing a martyr’s death in a cave 
with his seven sons, saying: “ Let us die rather than 
transgress the commands of the Lord of Lords, the 
God of our fathers; for if we do this our blood will 
be avenged before the Lord” (comp. Charles, “The 
Assumption of Moses,” 1897, p. 36, who suggests 
the original reading xopn [the Zealot ”] in place 
of NDpPN, which he considers a corruption of the 
copyist; see also Schiirer, “Gesch.” Ist ed., iii. 3, 
217, and Charles, J.c. pp. lv.-Iviii.). Sepphoris 12 


641 


Galilee seems to have been the main fortress in which 
the Zealots concentrated their forces (“ Ant.” xiv. 
15, $4; xvii. 10, § 5). 

It was for the sake of punishing the crimes of 
idolatry and bloodshed committed by Herod that 
the Zealots of Jerusalem first appeared with daggers 
(“sice ”) hidden underneath their cloaks, bent upon 
slaying the Idumean despot. Josephus relates 
(* Ant.” xv. 8, $$ 1-4) that it was the introduction 
of Roman institutions entirely antag- 
onistic to the spirit of Judaism, such 
as the gymnasium, the arena, and, 
above ali, the trophies (that is, images 
to which homage was to be paid), which provoked 
the indignation of the people. Ten citizens of Jeru- 
salem swore vengeance against Herod as an enemy 
of the nation, and, with concealed daggers, went 
into the theater, where Herod was supposed to be, 
in order to slay him there. Owing, however, to his 
system of espionage, Herod was informed of the con- 
spiracy in time, and so escaped, while the conspira- 
tors suffered death with great torture, but gloried in 
their martyrdom. The people sympathized with 
them, and in their wrath tore to pieces the spy who 
had discovered the plot. Another outburst of in- 
dignation on the part of the Zealots occurred when 
Herod, toward the end of his life, placed a large 
golden eagle over the great gate ofthe Temple. Two 
masters of the Law, Judah ben Sarifai and Matta- 
thias ben Margalot, exhorted their disciples to sacri- 
fice their lives rather than allow this violation of the 
Mosaic law, which forbids as idolatry the use of 
such images; and forty young men with these two 
teachers at their head pulled down the golden eagle, 
for which act the entire company suffered the cruel 
penalty of death by fire inflicted by order of Herod 
(“B. J.” i. 88, § 2; “Ant.” xvii. 6, $$ 2-4). 

The spirit of this Zealot movement, however, was 
not crushed. No sooner had Herod died (4¢.£.) than 
the people cried out for revenge (“ Ant.” xvii. 9, 
8 1)and gave Archelausno peace. Judea was full of 
robber bands, says Josephus (/.c. 10, § 8), the lead- 
ersof which each desired to bea king. It was then 

that Judas, the son of Hezekiah, the 
Judas, above-mentioned robber-captain, or- 
the Zealot ganized his forces for revolt, first, it 

Leader. seems, against the Herodian dynasty, 

and then, when Quirinus introduced 
the census, against submission to the rule of Rome 
and its taxation. Little reliance, however, can be 
placed upon Josephus regarding the character of 
Judas: at one point this author describes him as a lead- 
er “desirous only of the royal title” and bent upon 
“pillaging and destroying people’s property ” with 


The 
Sicaril. 


the aid of “a multitude of men of profligate char- 


acter”; elsewhere (“B. J.” ii. 8, § 1; “Ant.” 
Xvili. 1, $$ 1, 6; comp. “B. J.” ii. 17, § 8) he 
Mentions Judas as “the founder of the fourth sect 
of Jewish philosophy, who taught that God is the 
only Ruler and Lord, and neither death nor any 
dread should make them call any man Lord”; 
and at the same time he says, “The nation was 
Infected with their doctrine to an incredible de- 
gtee, which became the cause of its many misfor- 
tunes, the robberies and murders committed.” 
UDAS THE GALILEAN, the son of Hezekiah, is spo- 
XIJ.—41 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Zealots 


ken of in Eccl. R. i, 11 as one of the scholarly Hasi- 
dim to whom in the world to come God shall join 
a band of the righteous to place him at His side be- 
cause he failed to receive due homage as a martyr 
(see Derenbourg, “ Palestine,” p. 161). 

It was under the leadership of Judas and of his 
sons and grandson that the Zealots became an ag- 
gressive and relentless political party which would 
brook no compromise and would have no peace with 
Rome. They were those who would bring about 
“the kingdom of heaven,” that is, the kingship of 
God, “by force and violence” (Matt. xi. 12). Of 
Judas’ three sons, Jacob and Simon fell as martyrs 
to their cause in opposing the Roman rule under Ti- 
berius Alexander (“ Ant.” xx. 5, § 2); his other son, 
Menahem, was the chief leader of the revolt in 66, 
and was slain on account of his tyranny by rivalsin 
ais own party when, surrounded with royal pomp, 
he went up to the Temple to be crowned (“B. J.” 
il. 17, $$ 8-9; comp. 7. § 8 and “ Vita,” § 5). Rab- 
binical tradition alludes to Menahem’s Messiahship 
when stating that the Messiah’s name is Menahem 
the son of Hezekiah (Sanh. 98b); and according to 
Geiger (“ Zeitschrift,” vii. 176-178), he is the one 
who went up with eighty couples of disciples of the 
Law equipped with golden armor and crying out: 
“Write upon the horn of the ox, ‘Ye [yielding 
Pharisees] have no share in the God of Israel!’” 
(Yer. Hag. ii. 77b). His kinsman and successor at 
Masada was the Zealot leader Eleazar ben Jair (“B. 
J.” ii. 17, $8 9-10; vii. 9). In the speech attributed 
to him he declares that it isa glorious privilege to 
die for the principle that none but God is the true 
Ruler of mankind, and that rather than yield to 
Rome, which is slavery, men should slay their wives 
and children and themselves, since their souls will 
live forever (2b. 8, §§ 6-7). This is certainly not 
the language and conduct of the leader of a band of 
“robbers,” as Josephus persists in calling this party. 
In their opposition to Rome the Zealots were clearly 
inspired by religious motives (Geiger, “ Zeitschrift,” 
v. 268 ef seg.; Griitz, “Gesch.” iii. 4, 259, 795-7977). 

As stated by Josephus (“B. J.” iv. 3, § 9), they 
boastfully called themselves by the name of “ Kan- 
na’im” (Zealots) on account of their religious zeal, 
The right of the Kanna’im to assassinate any non- 
Jew who dared to enter the consecrated parts of the 
Temple was officially recognized in a statute in- 
scribed upon the Temple wall and discovered by 
Clermont-Ganneau in 1871 (see Schiirer, “Gesch.” 
Ist ed., ii, 3, 274; comp. Josephus, “B. J.” vi. 2, 
$4; both Derenbourg and Gritz [“ Gesch.” iii. 4, 225] 
misunderstood the passage). “Kanna’im” was the 
name for those zealous for the honor and sanctity cf 
the Law as well as of the sanctuary, and for this 
reason they at first met with the support and en- 
couragement of the people and of the Pharisaic 
leaders, particularly those of the rigid school of 
Shammai. It was only after they had been so car- 
ried away by their fanatic zeal as to become wanton 
destroyers of life and property throughout the land 
that they were denounced as heretic Galileans (Yad. 
iv. 8) and “murderers” (p°3n¥"Nn; Sotah ix. 9) and 
that their principles were repudiated by the peace- 
loving Pharisees. 

When, in the year 5, Judas of Gamala in Galilee 


Zealots 
Zebahim 


started his organized opposition to Rome, he was 
joined by one of the leaders of the Pharisees, R. 
Zadok, a disciple of Shammai and one of the fiery 
patriots and popular heroes who lived to witness 
the tragic end of Jerusalem (“ Ant.” xvii. 11; Git. 
56a: Gritz, “Gesch.” iii. 4, 259, 796, and I. H. 
Weiss, “Dor Dor we-Dorshaw,” i. 177, against 
Geiger, “Zeitschrift,” v. 268). The 
Their tuking of the census by Quirinus, the 
History. Roman procurator, for the purpose 
of taxation was regarded as a sign 
of Roman enslavement; and the Zealots’ cal) for 
stubborn resistance to the oppressor was responded 
to enthusiastically. The anti-Roman spirit of the 
Zealots, as Gratz has shown (/.c.), found its echo 
chiefly in the school of Shammai, whose members 
did not shrink from resorting to the sword as the 
ultimate authority in matters of the Law when anti- 
heathen measures were to be adopted (Shab. 17a; 
Weiss, i.c. p. 186). A great many of the laws that 
are so strikingly hostile to idols and idolaters (‘Ab. 
Zarah 20a; Tosef., ‘Ab. Zarah, iii. 3; Sanh. 63b; 
and ejsewhere) appear to have emanated from these 
times of warfare against Rome (Gritz, “Gesch.” 
iii, 4, 471), though such views were expressed as 
early as the time of John Hyrcanus (see JUBILEES, 
Boox or). 

The call for political activity was renewed with 
greater force when, after the death of Agrippa I. 
in the year 44, Judea became more emphatically a 
province of Rome and the Sanhedrin at Jerusalem 
was again deprived of its jurisdiction. Numerous 
bands of Zealots under the leadership of Tholomy, 
Amram, Hanibas (Tahina 7), aud Eleazar (see below) 
roamed through the land, fanning local strifes into 
wars of rebellion; but in every case they were ulti- 
mately defeated, and their leaders were either be- 
headed or banished for a time (“ Ant.” xx. 1, § 1). 
Soon afterward Jacob and Simon, sons of Judas the 
Galilean, as mentioned ahove, organized a revolt 
against Tiberius Alexander, and paid the penalty 
of crucifixion (47). But matters reached a climax 
under the procurators Cumanus, Felix, and Florus 
(49-64), who vied with one another in bloodthirsty 
cruelty and tyranny when the Zeajot leaders, in their 
desperate struggle against the overwhelming power 
of an implacable enemy, resorted to extreme meas- 
ures in order to force the people to action. 

Three men are singled out by Josephus and in 
rabbinical tradition as having shown boundless feroc- 
ity in their warfare against Rome and Romanizers: 
ELEAZAR B. Dinas, Amram (“ Ant.” xx. 1, § 1; 8, 
§ 5), and Tahina (Josephus has “ Hanibas,” not 
“Hannibal” as Gritz reads, and in “B. J.” ii. 18, 
§ 4,“ Alexander”; comp. Sotah ix. 9: Cant. R. iii. 5; 
Gratz, “Gesch.” iii. 4, 431). Of Eleazar ben Dinai 
and Amram it is said in the last-cited passage that 
“they desired to urge the Messianic deliverance of 
Israel, but fell in the attempt.” Regarding Eleazar 
ben Dinai (comp. Kil. v. 10) and Tahina (called also 
the “ Pharisaic saint”), R. Johanan b. Zakkai relates 
in Sotah d.c. that, on account of the frequent mur- 
ders committed by them and which won them the 
epithet of “murderers,” the Mosaic law concerning 
expiation for unknown slain ones (“‘eglah ‘arufah ”) 
was Set in abeyance. Obviously Josephus misrep- 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


642 


resents these Zealot leaders, who, while tyrannical 
and cruel, were certainly no “robbers.” However, 
theirdealings with property, especially 
that belonging to those suspected of 
friendliness to Rome, created anarchy 
throughout the land, as may be learned 
from the rabbinical legislation con- 
cerning the “sikarikon” (Git. v. 6, 55b; Yer. Git, 
v. 47b). One of these, named Doras and mentioned 
by Josephus (/.c.), has become, like Eleazar ben Dinai, 
proverbial in rabbinical literature (Men. 5%a; Yer. 
Shab. 14a, where he is mentioned as a type of a vo- 
racious eater). 

As the oppression of the Roman procurators in- 
creased, so also the passion and violence of the Zeal- 
ots grew in intensity, affecting all the discontented, 
while one pseudo-Messiah after another appeared 
arousing the hope of the people for deliverance 
from the Roman yoke (“ Ant.” xx. 5,8 1; 9, § 10; 
“B. J.” ii. 18,8 5). It was quite natural that under 
the name of Sicarii all kinds of corrupt elements, 
men eager for pillage and murder, should join the 
party, spreading terror through the land. Finally 
the barbarities of Albinus and, above all, of Gessius 
Florus precipitated the crisis and played into the 
hands of the terrorists (“ Ant.” xx. 9-11; “B. J.” ii. 
14-15), The issue was between the peace party, 
which was willing to yield to cruel Rome, and the 
war party, which, while relying on God’s help, de- 
manded bold action; and under the Jeadership of the 
priestly governor of the Temple, Eleazar ben Ana- 
nia, who refused to receive gifts from or offer sac- 
rifice on behalf of Rome, the latter party prevailed 
(“B. J.” li. 17, § 2), another priest belonging to the 
Shammaite party, Zachariah b. Amphicalos, having 
decided in favor of Eleazar (Tosef., Shab. xvii. 6; Git. 
56a; Gritz, “Gesch.” iii. 4, 458-458, 818). At this 
opportune time Menahem, the son of Judas the Gali- 
lean, seized the fortress Masada in Galilee, killed the 
Roman garrison, and then drove the Romans out of 
other fortresses; and finally his kinsman and succes- 
sor as master of Masada, Eleazar ben Jair, took up 
the war of rebellion against Rome and carried it to 
the very end (“B. J.” ii. 17, $8 2, 7,10). True to the 
Shammaite principle that warfare against the hea- 
then possessors of Palestine is permitted even on the 
Sabbath (Shab. 19a; Gratz, U.c. pp. 796-797), the war 
was carried on by the Zealots on that day (“B. J.” 
ii. 19, § 2), and the Romans were every where over- 
powered and annihilated, Simon bar Giora being one 
of the heroic leaders whom none could resist. The 
whole army of Cestius, who had brought twelve 
legions from Antioch to retrieve the defeat of the 

Roman garrison, was annihilated by 

Zealots the Zealots under the leadership of Bar 
Annihilate Giora and Eleazar ben Simon the priest. 

Cestius’ The Maccabean days seemed to have 

Army. returned; and the patriots of Jerusa- 

lem celebrated the year 66 as the year 
of Israel’s deliverance from Rome, and commemo- 
rated it with coins bearing the names of Eleazar 
the priest and Simon the prince (Bar Giora [7], 
or Simon ben Gamaliel as Gritz has it; “B. J.” ii. 
19, && 1 et seg., 20, 88 1-5; Gritz, Le. pp. 469-470, 
509, 818-841). 
The news of the victory of the Zealots in Jerusa 


Misrepre- 
sented by 
Josephus. 


643 


lem set the whole province of Galilee ablaze. Al- 
ways a hotbed of revolution, it at once began an in- 
surrection, and its thousands soon rallied round the 
fiery Zealot leaders John ben Levi of Giscala (“ Gush- 
halab ”), Justus the son of Pistus, Joshua ben Saphia 
of Tiberias, and Joseph of Gamala (“B. J.” ii. 21, 
G1; iv. 4, $13; “Vita,” §§ 12, 27, 35-36). Only 
Sepphoris, acity full of aliens, obstinately refused to 
join therevolution. Josephus wassent by the Jeru- 
salem Sanhedrin, composed chiefly of Zealots, for 
the purpose of prevailing upon the Sepphorites to 
abandon the cause of Agrippa II. and Rome, and to 
help Galilee work hand in hand with the authorities 
at Jerusalem in the liberation of Judea; but he de- 
ceived the Zealots and played into the hands first of 
Agrippa and then of Rome. His “De Bello Juda- 
ico” and his “Vita,” written for the purpose of 
pleasing his Roman masters, are full of asper- 
sions upon the character of the Zealots and their 
leaders. 

The year 67 saw the beginning of the great war 
with the Roman legions, first under Vespasian and 

then under Titus; and Galilee was at 
The Final the outset chosen as the seat of war, 
Stage. The Zealots fought with almost super- 
human powers against warriors trained 
in countless battles waged in all parts of the known 
world, and when they succumbed to superior mili- 
tary skill and overwhelming numbers, often only 
after some act of treachery within the Jewish camp, 
they died with a fortitude and a spirit of heroic 
martyrdom which amazed and overawed their vic- 
tors. Josephus’ own description of the tragic end 
of the last great Zealot leader, Eleazar ben Jair, and 
his men after the siege and final capture of Masada 
(“B. J.” vii. 8-9) is the best refutation of his mali- 
cious charges against them. 

At the siege of Jerusalem the Zealots were not 
deterred even by the defeat in Galilee and the terri- 
ble massacre of their compatriots; their faith in the 
final victory of the Holy City and its massive walls 
remained unshaken, But there were too much 
enmity and strife between them and the ruling body, 
the Sanhedrin, which they distrusted ; and their own 
leaders were also divided. Instead of working after 
the clearly mapped-out plan of one powerful leader, 
they had their forces split up into sections, one under 
Simon bar Giora, another under Eleazar ben Simon 
and Simon b. Jair (Ezron), a third under John of 
Giscala, and a fourth, consisting chiefly of semi- 
barbarous Idumeans, under Jacob ben Sosas and 
Simon ben Kathla (“B. J.” v. 6, $8 2-3; vi. 1). In 
order to force the wealthy and more peaceably in- 
Clined citizens to action, the Zealots in their fury set 


fire to the storehouses containing the corn needed 


for the support of the people during the siege (“B. 
J.” v. 1, $4). This tragic event is recorded in Ab. 
R. N. vi. (ed. Schechter, p. 82), the only Talmud. 
ical passage that mentions the Kanna’im asa political 
Party. The second version (ed. Schechter, p. 31) 
has “ Sicarii” instead, and agrees with Git. 56, Lam. 
R. i. 5, and Eccl. R. vii. 11 in mentioning three rich 
men of Jerusalem who, being inclined to make 
beace with the Romans, had their storehouses 
burned by the Zealots: namely, Ben Kalba Shabua‘, 
Ben Zizit ha-Kassat, and Nicodemus (Nikomedes ben 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Zealots 
Zebahim 


Gorion; see Griitz, /.c. pp. 527-528; Derenbourg, f.c. 
p. 284). In Eccl. R. vii. 11 the instigation of the 
burning of the storehouses is ascribed to the leader 
of the Zealots (“Resh Barione”; see the articles 
ABBA SAKKARA and BEN BaTIAH). 

Simon bar Giora and John of Giscala survived the 
fall of Jerusalem, and were taken as captives to 
Rome to glorify Titus’ triumph; the former, with a 
rope around his head, was dragged to the Forum and 
cast down from the Tarpeian rock (“B. J.” v. 5, § 6). 
Most of the Zealots fell under the sword or other in- 
struments of death and torture at the hands of the 
Romans, and such as fled to Alexandria or Cyrenaica 
roused by their unyielding hostility to Rome the 
opposition of those eager for peace, until they too 
finally met the same tragic fate (“B. J.” vii. 6, 
S$ 1-5; 10, §§ 1-4). Itwasa desperate and mad spirit 
of defiance which animated them all and made them 
prefer horrible torture and death to Roman servi- 
tude. History has declared itself in favor of the 
Pharisees, who deemed the schoolhouse (see Jo- 
HANAN BEN ZakKKaAlI) of more vital importance to 
the Jews than state and Temple; but the Zealot, 
too, deserves due recognition for his sublime type 
of steadfastness, as George Eliot points out in her 
“Impressions of Theophrastus Such” (1879, p. 212). 

Among the disciples of Jesus there is mentioned 
a Simon the Zealot (Luke vi. 15; Acts i. 18); for the 
same person Matt. x. 4and Mark iii. 18 have “the 
Canaanite,” obviously a corruption of 9~9pn (“ ha- 
Kanna’it” = “the Zealot ”). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hamburger, R. B. T. ii. 1286-1296: Gratz, 
Gesch. iii. 4and Index. K 


ZEBAHIM (“Animal Sacrifices”): Treatise in 
the Mishnah, the Tosefta, and the Babylonian Tal- 
mud, dealing mainly with the laws and regulations 
to be observed in making animal offerings. In the 
Tosefta this treatise is called “ Korbanot ” (Sacrifices), 
while its older name, used in the Talmud (B. 
M. 109b), is “Shehitat Kodashim ” (Slaughtering of 
Consecrated Animals). It is the first treatise in 
the order Kodashim, and consists of fourteen chap- 
ters divided into 101 paragraphs. 

Ch. i.: Setting forth the intention necessary in the 
bringing of a sacrifice; the Passover sacrifice must 
be slaughtered at the proper time; by what acts 

performed with improper intention 


Mishnah. the sacrifice becomes unfit (“ pasul ”). 
Contents: Ch. it.: What makes a sacrifice un- 
i.-vil. fit, and what makes it an abomination 


(“piggul”); a sacrifice becomes piggul 
when the one who brings it intends to partake of it 
or to offer a part thereof later than the time pre- 
scribed by law. 

Ch. iii.: Enumerating oversightsin spite of which 
the sacrifice remains fit; the only wrongful inten- 
tions that can render the sacrifice unfit are the inten- 
tions to eat of the sacrifice later than the lawful time 
or in a place other than that stipulated by law. Pass- 
over sacrifices and sin-offerings are rendered unfit 
when not siaughtered with the proper intentions of 
making them Passover sacrifices or sin-offerings. 

Ch. iv.: The sprinkling of the blood; the points 
of distinction between a sacrifice consecrated by 
heathen and one consecrated by Israelites; defini- 


Zebahim 
Zechariah 


tion of the correct intentions necessary in the bring- 
ing of a sacrifice. 

Ch. v.: Where the various animals are slaughtered 
according to their different degrees of holiness; 
where and how their blood must be sprinkled; 
where and for how long their flesh may be eaten. 

Ch. vi.: Continuation of ch. v.: on the prepara- 
tion and delivering of a sin-offering consisting of 
birds. 

Ch, vii.: Further regulations concerning the sac- 
rifice of birds. 

Ch. vili.: Rules governing cases in which differ- 
ent animals or parts of different animals have been 
mingled, or in which the blood of one 
sacrifice has been mixed with that of 
another. 

Chi. ix.: In which cases that which 
has been placed on the altar may not be removed; 
things which in some instances the altar, the ladder, 
and the sanctified vessels render holy, and the cases 
in which they have no sanctifying powers. 

Ch. x.: The order of the various sacrifices; which 
sacrifices precede others with regard to time, and 
also in degree of holiness; thus, the daily burnt of- 
fering (“tamid”) precedes the additional offering 
(“musaf ”) brought on Sabbaths and festivals; how 
the priests partake of the sacrificial meat. 

Ch. xi.: Cases In which a garment or utensil 
stained by the blood of a sacrificed animal may be 
washed, and when it may not be washed; on the 
cleansing of the vessels according to the flesh of dif- 
ferent sacrifices which has been prepared in them. 

Ch. xii.: Priests who do not partake of the flesh 
of the sacrifices; in which cases the skins belong to 
those who bring the sacrifices, and in which to the 
priests; exceptions among the latter cases; where 
the bullocks and he-goats are burned, and under 
what conditions the garments of those who attend to 
the burning are rendered unclean. 

Ch. xiii.: Various offenses that may occur in con- 
nection with sacrifices. 

Ch. xiv.: Regulations concerning the bringing of 
a sacrifice outside of the Temple in Jerusalem; be- 
fore the erection of the Tabernacle it was permitted 
to sacrifice on the high places (“bamot”), and the 
first-born officiated as priests; but after the erecting 
of the Tabernacle this was forbidden, and the priests 
of the family of Aaron officiated; the sacrificing on 
high places was again permitted in Gilgal, but was 
anew prohibited in Shiloh; in Nob and in Gibeon 
permission was once more granted, but the practise 
was finally forbidden when the Temple was built in 
Jerusalem; description of the sanctuary in Shiloh. 

The Tosefta to this treatise is divided into thirteen 
chapters, and contains not onlv elucidating amplifi- 
cations of the Mishnah, but also several interesting 


Contents: 
Vill.-xiv. 


maxims. Mention may be made of 
The R. Tarfon’s acknowledgment of the 
Tosefta. wisdom of R. Akiba (i. 8), to whom 


he says: “I have heard, but did not 
know how to explain; you, however, explain, and 
your interpretation is in accord with the tradi- 
tional Halakah. Therefore, he who disagrees with 
you is as though he had parted with life.” Ch. vi. 
11 contains a description of the altar; and xi. 1 in- 
terprets the name of the meal-offering (“shelamim ”) 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


644 


as being derived from “shalom” (peace), explaining 
that at this sacrifice the altar, the priests, and the 
offerer of the sacritice all receive a part thereof, so 
that all are satisticd. Ch. xii. 6 sets forth the 
length of the various periods during which the sanc. 
tuary was in the wilderness, in Gilgal, in Shiloh, in 
Nob and Gibeon, and in Jerusalem. 

The Gemara of the Babylonian Talmud discusses 
and explains the several mishuayot, and contains 
besides some interesting haggadic interpretations 
and maxims. <A description is given of the manner 
in which David decided upon the place where the 
Temple should be built (§ d4b). When the Jews 
returned from the Babylonian exile there were among 
them three prophets: one pointed out to the people 
the place where the altar had formerly stood and 
where it should again be erected; the second told 
them that they might sacrifice, although the Temple 
had not yet been built; and the third instructed 
them that the Torah should be written in square 
characters ($ 62a). A description is also given of 
how, during the revelation on Mt. Sinai, the voice 
of God was heard by all the nations, and how they 
became frightened and went to Balaam, who ex- 
plained to them the import of the noise (§ 116a). 

J J, Z. I. 


ZEBA’OT ADONATI. See Aponat. 


ZEBEDEE (Ze3edaieg; apparently from the He- 
brew Aa = “the gift of YuwH”): Father of the 
aposties James and John, and husband of Salome; 
a native of Galilee and a fisherman by calling (Matt. 
iv. 21, xxvii. 56; Mark xv. 40). It seems from the 
mention of his boat and hired servants (28. i. 20) that 
Zebedee was a man of some means, although he had 
to work himself, 

J. M. SEL, 

ZEBI BEN AARON. See KAIDANOVER, ZEBI 
HIRscu. 

ZEBI ASHKENAZI. See ASHKENAZI, ZEBI 
Hirscu BEN JAcos. 

ZEBI HIRSCH BEN HAYYIM: Dayyan 
and hazzan at Posen toward the end of the seven- 
teenth century. Under the title “Sefer Or Yashar” 
he edited (Amsterdam, 1709) an Ashkenazic ritual, 
to which he appended notes of his own, various 
commentaries collected from ancient authorities, the 
annotations of Isaac Luria, the dinim that are in 
daily use, and ethical dissertations taken from the 
“Hobot ha-Lebabot,” “Reshit Hokmah,” and “ To- 
ze’ot Hayyim.” Zebi Hirsch is not to be confounded 
with a printer of Wilmersdorf of similar name. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Nepi-Ghirondi, Toledot Gedole Yisrael, Pp. 

298 ; Steinschneider, Cat. Boal. col. 2751. 

J. I. Br. 

ZEBI HIRSCH BEN ISAAC JACOB: Sho- 
het at Cracow in the sixteenth century; a pupil of 
Moses Isserles. He was the author of “ Haggahot 
le-Sefer Shehitah u-Bedikah ” (Cracow, 1631; n.p. 
1723; Amsterdam, 1745: Zolkiev, 1793), annotations 
appended to Jacob Weil’s work on the laws govern- 
ing the slaughtering of animals and the examination 
of the lungs. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Nepi-Ghirond1. Toledot Gedole Yisrael, P- 
ae Flirst, Bibl. Jud. i, 396; Steinscuneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 
51s 
J. I. Br. 


645 


ZEBI HIRSCH BEN JOSEPH BEN ZEBI 
BHA-KOHEN: Polish Talmudist of the seventeenth 
century; studied for some time at Cracow under 
Yom-Tob Lipmann Heller. He was the author of 
“Nahalat Zebi” (Venice, 1661), a commentary on 
Joseph Caro’s Shulhan ‘Aruk, Eben ha-‘Ezer, and 
of “‘Ateret Zebi,” a commentary on Orah Hayyim. 
Zebi left several works in manuscript, among which 
are commentaries on the two remaining parts of the 
Shulhan ‘Aruk. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: First, Bibl. Jud. i, 395; Steinschneider, Cat. 

Bodl. col. 2755. 


J: I. Br. 


ZEBI HIRSCH B. SIMON: Lithuanian Tal- 
mudist; lived in the middle of the eighteenth cen- 
tury. He was dayyan and preacher in the commu- 
nity of Vitebsk during the rabbinates of R. Isaiah 
and R. Lob, and was known as one of the first 
Talmudic authoritiesin that part of Lithuania. He 
corresponded with many rabbis who consulted him 
on difficult ritual questions. Of his numerous 
writings only one has been printed: “Hadrat Ze- 
kenim ” (Dubrovna, 1802), edited by his grandsons 
Joshua and Abraham b. Meir. This work, in- 
tended as a codification of the halakot enacted dur- 
ing the period following the compilation of the 
Shulhan ‘Aruk, does not treat the subject fully, 
the printed part developing inadequately the sub- 
jects contained in the first 200 paragraphs of the 
Shulhan ‘Aruk, Yoreh De‘ah. The unpublished 
part of the “Hadrat Zekenim” contains novelle 
on Berakot and on all treatises of the order 
Mo‘ed. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hadrat Zekenim, Introduction and notes of 
approbation. 


E. C, I. G. 


ZEBID: 1. Babylonian amora of the fourth cen- 
tury; a contemporary of Abaye, whose halakot he 
transmitted, and of whom he was perhaps a pupil 
(Ber. 46b; Sotah 32b; e¢ passim), Zebid also trans- 
mitted the halakot of Raba and R. Nahman (B. K. 
84a; B. M. 17a), but he particularly preferred the 
decisions of Abaye, and it is narrated (‘Ab. Zarah 38b) 
that his adherence to Abaye caused hisdeath. When 
the people of the exilarch once questioned R. Hiyya 
Parwa’ah regarding a certain halakah, he answered 
that Hezekiah and Bar Kappara had interpreted it, 
while R. Johanan had decided to the contrary, and 
that as the authorities thus stood two to one, the law 
would have to be interpreted according to the ma- 
jority. Zebid said, however, “Do not listen to 
‘him, for Abaye decided according to R. Johanan”; 
whereupon the people of the exilarch forced Zebid 
to drink a cup of vinegar, which caused his death. 
R. Hinena b. R. Ika is recorded as his opponent in 
halakic decisions (Me‘i. 19a). Zebid particularly 
explained to his pupils the baraitot of R. Hoshaiah 
or Oshaya (“bi-debe R. Osha‘ya”; ‘Ab. Zarah 6b, 
06a; B. M. 92b; et passim). 

2. Contemporary of the preceding, and generally 


Called Zebid of Nehardea (Kid. 72b; comp. Rashi - 


ad loc.), He was for eight vears head of the yeshi- 
bah of Pumbedita; and among his pupils were 
Amemar, Huna b. Nathan, and R. Kahana (Kid. 
Le.; B. M. 73b; Yeb. 18b; and elsewhere). At his 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Zebahim 
Zechariah 


death R. Kahana delivered his funeral oration at 
Pum Nahara (M. K. 27b). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Heilprin, Seder ha-Dorot, ii. 
J. M. SEL. 


ZEBU‘IM. See Hypocrisy. 


ZEBULUN: The sixth son of Leah (Gen. xxx. 
20), and hence the name of the tribe descended from 
him (Num. i. 9, vii. 24, x. 16; Ps. Ixviii. 28 (A. V. 
27]). In the division of the land Zebulun was as- 
signed districts north of Issachar (Josh. xix. 11) and 
west and south of Naphtali (2d. verse 3£) and east of 
Asher (2), verse 27). Still, Gen, xlix. 18 and Deut. 
XXxili. 18 e¢ seg. suggest that Zebulun must have 
possessed also territory bordering ou the sea; and, 
indeed, the boundaries detailed in Josh. xix. are 
unintelligible. Zebulun’s possessions were not ex: 
tensive, but were fertile and were crossed by impor- 
tant roads from the Jordan to the Mediterranean. 
This fact explains the reference to Zebulun’s com- 
merce With other clans, even such as were not He- 
brews (“‘ammim”; Deut. xxxiii. 19; sce Josephus, 
“Ant.” v. 1, § 22), with whom at Mount Tapor 
Zebulun entered into commercial covenant relations 
(Deut. 2.c.) = “ zibhe-zedek,” allusion to which the 
author of the verse seemingly recognizes by asso- 
nance in the name “ Zebulun” (with “zebah”). Re- 
ported as rather populous while in the wilderness 
(Num, i. 30, xxvi. 26), Zebulun seems tater to have 
had within its borders numerous Canaanites (Judges 
i. 30; Isa. viii. 23). Its prowess is mentioned in the 
song of Deborah (Judges v. 14, 18; comp. 7, iv. 6, 
10; vi. 85). One of the judges, Elon, is said to 
have been of the tribe (Judges xii. 11). It is prob- 
able that Zebulun at a comparatively early period was 
incorporated in Issachar or Asher (see omission of 
Zebulun in I Kings iv., xv. 20; Il Kings xii. 18). 
The territory was annexed to the Assyrian empire 
in 734-733 by Tiglath-pileser. E. G. If. 


ZECHARIAH: One of the Minor Prophets, to 
whom is attributed the collection of prophecies and 
apocalyptic visions constituting the book bearing 
his name. He wasason of Berechiah and a grand- 
son of Iddo (Zech. i. 1), and was loosely called the 
son of Iddo (Ezra v. 1, vi. 14); the latter was possi- 
bly identical with the Iddo mentioned as high priest 
in Neh. xii. 4, which would make the prophet him- 
self the high priest named in Neh. xii. 16. Zecha- 
riah was probably born during the Captivity, but 
was brought back early to Palestine. He began his 
prophetic ministry in the second year of King Darius 
Hystaspes, a little later than HaGear (Zech. i. 1; 
Hag. i. 1), his preoccupation being the rebuilding of 
the Temple. According to the contents of that part 
of the book which without doubt is by him (i.-viii. ; 
see ZECHARIAH, Book OoF—CRITICAL VIEW), Zecha- 
riah received YHwH’s messages largely through the 
medium of visions (i. 8; ti. 2, 5: and elsewhere), 
which excited his curiosity, and which, in answer to 
his inquiries, were interpreted to him as significant 
movitions bearing on the condition of the colony 
and the timeliness of proceeding with the rearing of 
the sanctuary (i. 16, ii. 14). He appeals for loyalty 
on the part of Joshua the high priest toward the 
Messianic prince, the “ Branch” (iii. 8) or ZERUBBA- 
BEL (iv. 9). As the mediator of his visions, the 


Zechariah, Book of 
Zechariah ha-Kohen 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


646 


prophet names an angel of YuwnH, called sometimes 
“the” angel, and it is he who introduces also “the” 
SATAN in the réle of a mischief-maker confirming the 
people’s hesitation and discouraged mood (iii. 1, 2). 
His method thus borders on the apocalyptic. His 
style is not lacking in directness in some passages, 
but in others it leans toward involved obscurity. 
Zechariah, however, proves himself to be an uncom- 
promising critic of the ritual substitutes for true 
piety, such as fasting and mourning (vii. 5); and he 
reiterates the admonitions for mercy and righteous- 
ness, which according to the Prophets constitute the 
essence of the service of YHwui (vii. 8, 9). For neg- 
lect of this service Israel was visited with the suf- 
ferings that befell it (vii. 13,14). Jerusalem is to be 
called the city of truth (viii. 3), and shall dwell in 
peace, so that old men and old women shall be 
found in its streets (verse 4), together with boys and 
girls (verse 5), and prosperity shall abound in the 
land (verses 7 et seq.). 

While Zechariah lacks originality, he is distin- 
guished from his contemporaries by the “gift of 
plain speech” (G. A. Smith). But while some of 
the obscurities and repetitions which mark his vis- 
ions are probably due to other hands, there remain 
enough of these defects that come from him to indi- 
cate that the visions were not the spontaneous out- 
flow of ecstasy, but the labored effort of a strained 
and artificial imagination. He was a prophet, but 
of a period when prophecy was rapidly running to 
its own extinction. BE. G. H 


ZECHARIAH, BOOK OF.—Biblical Data: 
Prophetical book composed of fourteen chapters; 
the eleventh in the order of the Minor Prophets, fol- 
lowing Haggai and preceding Malachi. Ch. i.-viii. 
comprise three prophecies: (1) an introduction (i. 
1-6); (2) a complex of visions (i. 7-vi.); and (8) the 
seed of Peace (vii.—-viii.). 

(1) The introduction, dated in the eighth month 
of the second year of King Darius, is an admonition 
to repentance addressed to the people and rendered 
impressive by reference to the consequences of dis- 
obedience, of which the experience of the fathers is 
a@ witness. 

(2) This introductory exhortation is followed on 
the twenty-fourth day of the month of Shebat by 
eight symbolic visions: (@) angel-horsemen (i, 7-17); 
(6) the four horns and the four smiths 
(i. 18-21 [English], ii. 1-4 [Hebrew]); 
(c) the city of peace (ii. 1-5 [English]); 
(d) the high priest and the Satan (iii.); (e) the Tem- 
ple candlestick and the olive-trees (iv.); (f) the 
winged scroll (v. 1-4); (g) the woman in the barrel 
(v. 5-11); (A) the chariots of the four winds (vi. 1-8). 
To these is added a historical appendix, in which 
the prophet speaks of the divine command to turn 
the gold and silver offered by some of the exiles into 
a crown for Joshua (or Zerubbabel ?), and reiterates 
the promise of the Messiah (vi. 9-15). 

(8) The next two chapters (vii.-viii.) are devoted 
to censuring fasting and mourning (vii.) when obe- 
dience to God’s moral law is essential, and to descri- 
bing the Messianic future. 

Ch. ix.~xiv. contain: 

(1) A prophecy concerning the judgment about to 


Contents. 


fall upon Damascus, Hamath, Tyre, Zidon, and the 
cities of the Philistines (ix.). 

(2) Exhortation of the people to seek help not 
from TERAPHIM and diviners but from YHwuH. 

(8) Announcement of war upon unworthy tyrants, 
followed by an allegory in which the faithless peo- 
ple is censured and the brotherhood between Israel 
and Judah is declared to be at an end; fate of the 
unworthy shepherd (xi.). To this chapter xiii. 7-9 
seems to belong, as descriptive of a process of puri- 
fication by the sword and fire, two-thirds of the peo- 
ple being consumed. 

(4) Judah versus Jerusalem (xii. 1-7). 

(5) Results, four in number, of Jerusalem’s deliv- 
erance (xii. 8~xiii. 6). 

(6) The judgment of the heathen and the sancti- 

fication of Jerusalem (xiv.). 
——Critical View: Inspection of its contents 
shows immediately that the book readily divides 
into two parts; namely, i.-viii. and ix.~xiv., each 
of which is distinguished from the other by its 
method of presenting the subject and by the range 
of the subject presented. In the first part Israel 
is the object of solicitude; and to encourage it to 
proceed with the rearing of the Temple and to secure 
the recognition of Zerubbabel and Joshua are the 
purposes of the prophecy. Visions, which are de- 
scribed and construed so as to indicate Yuwu’s 
approval of the prophet’s anxiety, predominate as 
the mediums of the prophetic message, and the lesson 
is fortified by appeals to Israel’s past history, while 
stress is laid on righteousness versus ritualism. The 
date is definitely assigned to the second year of King 
Darius Hystaspes. The historical background is the 
condition which confronted the Jews who first re- 
turned from the Exile (see, however, Koster’s “ Her- 
stel von Israel,” 1894). Some event—according to 
Stade, the revolt of Smerdis; but more probably the 
second conquest of Babylon under Darius—seems to 
have inspired buoyant hopes in the otherwise de- 
spondent congregation in Jerusalem, thus raising 
their Messianic expectations (Zech. ii. 10[A. V. 6] e¢ 
seq. vi. 8) to a firm belief in the reestablishing of Da- 
vid’s throne and the universal acknowledgment of 
the supremacy of YHwuH. Angels and Satan are 
intermediaries and actors. | 

In the second part the method is radically differ- 
ent. Apocalyptic visions are altogether lacking, 

and historical data and chronological 
The Second material are absent. The style is fan- 
Zechariah. tastic and contains many obscure allu- 

sions. That the two parts are widely 
divergent in date and authorship is admitted by all 
modern critics, but while there is general agreement 
that the first part is by the prophet Zechariah, no 
harmony has yet been attained concerning the iden- 
tity or the date of the second part. 

Many recent commentators regard the second part 
as older than the first, and as preexilicindate, They 
would divide it, furthermore, into at least two parts, 
ix.-xi. and xii.-xiv., the former by an author con- 
temporary with Amos and Hosea. This assignment 
is based on the facts that both Israel and Judah are 
mentioned, and that the names of Assyria, Egypt, 
and the contiguous nations are juxtaposed, much as 
they are in Amos. The sins censured are fals¢ 


647 


prophecy and idolatry (xiii. 1-6). This group of 
chapters (xii.-xiv.), containing the denunciations 
familiar in all preexilic prophets, is regarded as later 
than the other division, since only Judah is men- 
tioned. It is therefore assigned to the period after 
the fallof the Northern Kingdom, and more specific- 
ally, on account of xii. 11, to the last days of the 

Southern Kingdom after the battle of Megiddo and 

the death of King Josiah. 

Other scholars have argued with much plausibil- 
ity for the hypothesis that the second part belongs 

toa very late period of Jewish history. 

Date of the In the first place, the theology (see 

Second EscuatTo.ocy) of these chapters shows 
Zechariah. tendencies which are not found in 

Amos, Hosea, Isaiah, or Jeremiah, but 
are due to Ezekiel’s influence, such as the war on 

Jerusalem preceding the Messianictriumph. Again, 

the Temple service (xiv.) is focal even in the Mes- 

sianic age, and this suggests the religious atmos- 
phere of the Sadducean and Maccabean theocracy 
with Zion as its technical designation. A mixture 
of races is also mentioned, a reminiscence of condi- 
tions described by Nehemiah (Neh. xiii. 23 eé segq.), 
while deliverance from Babylonian exile underlies 
such promises as occur in ix. 12. The advent ofa 
king is expected, though as yet only a Davidic fam- 

ily is known in Jerusalem (xii. 7, 12). 

The second part of the book may thus be recog- 
nized to be a compilation rather than a unit, all its 
components being post-exilic in character. Two 
groups, ix.-xi. and xii.-xiv., are clearly indicated. 
The second group (xii.-xiv.) is eschatological and 
has no individual coloring, although from the con- 
trast between Jerusalem and the country of Judah a 
situation may be inferred which recalls the conditions 
of the early stages of the Maccabean rebellion. The 
first group may likewise be subdivided into two sec- 
tions, ix. 1-xi. 3and xi. 4-17 and xiii. 7-9. The Greeks 
(see JAVAN) are described in ix. 13 as enemies of 
Judea, and the Assyrians and Egyptians are similarly 
mentioned in x., these names denoting the Syrians 
(SELEUCID#&) and the Ptolemies. In ix. 1-2 Damas- 
cus, Hamath, and Hadrach are seats of the Seleucid 
kings, a situation which is known to have existed 
in 200-165 B.c. The internal conditions of the Jew- 
ish community immediately before the Maccabean 
uprising appear in the second subdivision, where 
the shepherds are the tax-farmers (see ‘ToBIaDs; 
MENELAUS). In xi. 13 there seems to be an allusion 
to Hyrcanvs, son of Tobias, who was an exception 
among the rapacious shepherds. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Wright, Zechariah and His Prophecies, 2d 
ed., London, 1879, which gives earlier literature; Stade, 
Deuterozachariah, in Zeitschrift fiir Alttestamenttiche 
Wissenschaft, 1881-82: the commentaries by Marti, Nowack, 
and Wellhausen ; G. A. Smith, Twelve Prophets, ii.; Breden- 
kamp, Der Prophet Sacharya, 1879; Sellin, Studien zur 
Enistehungszeit der Jiidischen Gemeinde, 1901; Stark, Un- 


tersuchungen ther die Komposition und Abfassungszeit 
von Zachariah, 1891, ix.-xiv. 
E. G. H. 


ZECHARIAH BEN ABKILUS (Amphika- 
los): Palestinian scholar and one of the leaders of 
the ZEALoTs; lived in Jerusalem at the time of the 
destruction of the Second Temple. According to the 
Talmud, the authority which he enjoyed among the 
Tabbis of Jerusalem was the cause of the downfall 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Zechariah, Book of 
Zechariah ha-Kohen 


of the city. Zechariah was present at the banquet 
famous for the affair of KaMza and Bak Kamza 
(comp. Josephus, “ Vita,” § 10}; and though his influ- 
ence might have prevented the disgrace of Bar Kam- 
za, he did not cxerciseit. Again, when the emperor 
sent a blemished calf as an offering to the Temple, 
the Hillelites would have accepted it to frustrate Bar 
Kamza, had not Zechariah, acting in the interest of 
the school of Shammai, given a casting vote, or (ac- 
cording to Lam. R. iv. 2) refrained from voting, and 
thus rendered the decision negative. The people 
wished to kil! Bar Kamza so that he should not be 
able to tell the emperor of the refusal, but Zechariah 
once more restrained them from carrying out their de- 
sign. R. Johanan, on the other hand, or, according 
to another source, R. Jose, declared that the humility 
of Zechariah b. Abkilus, in refusing to cast his vote, 
caused the destruction of the Temple (Git. 56a; 
Tosef., Shab. xvi. [xvii.] 6; Lam. R.iv. 2). Heisre- 
corded as following neither the Bet Hillel nor the Bet 
Shammai with regard to holding date-stones on the 
Sabbath (Shab. 148; Tosef., Shab. .c.). He is prob- 
ably referred to by Josephus (“B. J.” ii. 17, 8$ 2-3). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gratz, Gesch. iii. 458, 509, 817-819; Deren- 


bourg, Hist. p. 257. 
E. C. M. Seu.—K. 


ZECHARIAH BEN JEHOIADA.—Biblical 
Data: A reforming priest who lived under King 
Joash of Judah. He reproved the idolaters, an- 
nouncing God’s judgment against them; and a con- 
spiracy was formed against him that resulted in his 
being stoned in the court of the Temple at the com- 
mand of the king, who “remembered not the kind- 
ness which Jehoiada his father had done to him” (II 
Chron. xxiv. 22). Zechariah’s dying words were: 
“YuwuH look upon it, and require it” (7b. verses 
20-22). 

E. G. H. B. P. 
-——In Rabbinical Literature: According tothe 
Rabbis, Zechariah was the son-in-law of the king, 
and, being also a priest, prophet, and judge, he 
dared censure the monarch. He was killed in the 
priests’ courtyard of the Temple on a Sabbath 
which was likewise the Day of Atonement. Later, 
when NEBUZAR-ADAN Came to destroy the Temple, 
Zechariah’s blood began to boil. The Assyrian asked 
the Jews what that phenomenon meant, but when 
they replied that it was the blood of sacrifices, he 
proved the falsity of their answer. The Jews then 
told him the truth, and Nebuzar-adan, wishing to 
appease Zechariah’s blood, slew in succession the 
Great and Small Sanhedrins, the young priests, and 
school-children, till the number of the dead was 
940,000. Still the blood continued to boil, where- 
upon Nebuzar-adan cried: “Zechariah, Zechariah! 
for thee havelI slain the best of them; wouldst thou 
that I destroy them all?” And at these words the 
blood ceased to effervesce (Git. 57b; Sanh. 96b; 
Lam. R. iv. 13). 

E. ¢. M. SEL. 


ZECHARIAH HA-KOHEN: Greek or Turk- 
ish Biblical commentator and liturgical poet of the 
fifteenth century ; maternal grandfather of Menahem 
ben Moses Tamar. According to the latter (“Tan- 
humot El,” ch. x.), Zechariah wrote a pamphlet 


Zechariah Mendel 
Zedekiah 


(“kontres”) in which he refutes Nahmanides’ stric- 
tures on Ibn Ezra’s commentary on the Pentateuch, 
citations from which relating to the weekly lesson 
Wayiggash are made by Menahem in his commen- 
tary on Ruth. Hebrew MS. No. 249, 1 of the Vati- 
can Library is a work by a certain Zechariah ha- 
Kohen refuting Nahmanides’ strictures (“ hassagot ”) 
on Maimonides’ “Sefer ha-Mizwot,” and its author 
is probably identical with the subject of this article. 
In this work, written in 1451, Zechariah is styled “ the 
philosopher.” He wrote two “ tahanunim” beginning 
respectively “Anan adon ‘olam” and “ Zebah n-min- 
hah ne‘edaru,” both to be recited on Rosh ha-Shanah 
before the blowing of the shofar; and he produced 
also a metrical poem beginning “ Be-‘ikkarim yeka- 
rim la-bekarim,” on the thirteen Articles of Faith, all 
the words riming in O™. Moreover, a manuscript 
formerly in the possession of Osias Schorr contains 
several poems by Zechariah ha-Kohen. One poem 
beginning “Torat emet amun” and published by 
Schorr (in “ He-Haluz,” ii. 162) and by Geiger (in his 
“ Judische Dichter,” p. 28, Hebr.) is also Zechariah’s, 
although both scholars, misled by a difference in 
handwriting, ascribed it to another poet. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Fuenn, Heneset Yisrael, p. 314; Steinschnei- 
der, Cat. Leyden, p. 148, note 1, Leyden, 1858; Zunz, Litéra- 
turgesch. pp. 378-379, 650. 
J. M. SEL. 
ZECHARIAH MENDEL BEN ARYEH 
LOB: Polish Talmudist of the cighteenth century ; 
a native of Cracow, and in later life chief rabbi and 
head of the yeshibah at Belz, Galicia. He was the 
author of “ Be’er Heteb,” a well-known commentary 
on the Shulhan ‘Aruk, Yoreh De‘ah, and Hoshen 
Mishpat (first edition of the first part, Amsterdam, 
1754; of the second, 2. 1764); the work is prin- 
cipally a compendium of the “Sifte Kohen” and 
“Ture Zahab.” 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Azulai, Shem ha-Gedolim, ii, s.v. Be’er 

Heteb; Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, p. 318. 

J. M. SEt. 
ZECHARIAH MENDEL BEN ARYEH 
LOB: Galician and German preacher and scholar; 
born at Podhaice in the early part of the eighteenth 
century: died at Frankfort-on-the-Oder Dec. 20, 
1791. He was of the same family as Solomon Luria 
and Moses Isserles, who traced their genealogy to 
Rashi. Zechariah Mendel’s principal teacher was 
Jacob Joshua, author of “Pene Yehoshua‘.” Zech- 
ariah Mendel was preacher in the Talmud Torah at 
Frankfort-on-the-Oder. He left many writings, of 
which only the following three have been published 
(at Frankfort-on-the-Oder): “Menorat Zekaryah ” 
(1776), a work containing novelle on the treatise 
Shabbat and homilies for the Sabbath and holy days; 
“Zekaryah Meshullam” (1779), a sequel to the pre- 
ceding work, and containing novella on the Tal- 
mud; “Zekaryah ha-Mebin” (1791), a guide to re- 
ligious philosophy and to the knowledge of the true 
Cabala. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, p. 31d; First, Bibl. 

Jud. iii. 305. 

J. M. SE. 

ZECHARIAH IBN SA‘ID AL-YAMANT: 
Author of an Arabic version of the “ Yosippon”; 
flourished in the tenth oreleventh century. His ver- 
sion exists in three recensions: (1) in several manu- 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


648 


scripts which yet await thorough examination: (2) 
an abbreviated text printed in the Paris and London 
polyglots (1645, 1657) as II Maccabees (“ Kitab al- 
Makabiyyin ”), the term “ Maccabees ” here connoting 
the entire Hasmonean dynasty, since the book be- 
gins with the death of Alexander the Great and ends 
with the destruction of Jerusalem by Titus; and (8) 
an abstract printed under the title“ Ta’rikb Yosippus 
al-Yahudi” (Beirut, 1873), According to 4 manu- 
script at Leyden (No. 1982), Ibn Hazm (d. 1063) was 
acquainted with the Arabic translation from the 
Hebrew. From an investigation of the Arabic ver- 
sion as contained in two Parisian manuscripts (No. 
1906; De Slane, No. 287), Wellhausen has reached 
the conclusion (“ Der Arabische Josippus,” in “ Ab- 
handlungen der KGniglichen Gesellschaft der Wis- 
senschaften zu Gottingen,” new series, i, 1-50, Ber- 
lin, 1897) that the translator was aun Egyptian Jew 
who made his Arabic version from the Hebrew. 
Wellhausen believes, furthermore, that the Arabic 
and existing Hebrew texts have a common origin, 
and that the Arabic of the manuscripts is nearer to 
II Maccabees than to the Hebrew version; while all 
three are to be considered independent recensions 
and valueless as historical documents. Despite Well- 
hausen’s researches, however, the relation of the 
Arabic “ Yosippon” to the Hebrew text isa problem 
still unsolved. The Arabic recension was probably 
the source of the Ethiopic “Ziena Aibud” (comp. 
Goldschmidt, “ Die Aethiopischen Handschriften der 
Stadtbibliothek zu Frankfurt-am-Main,” pp. 5e¢ seq., 
Berlin, 1897; Wright, “ Catalogue of Ethiopic Manu- 
scripts in the British Museum,” No. ceclxxviii.). 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider, Die Arahische Literatur der 
Juden, § 71, Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1902; Vogelstein and 


Rieger, Gesch. der Juden in Rom, i. 483. See also JOSEPH 
BEN GORION, 


8. M. Sec. 

ZECHARIAH BEN SOLOMON ZEBSIL 
(= “Shabbethai”) ASHKENAZI: German Tal- 
mudist of the sixteenth century; rabbi of the Ash- 
kenazic community at Jerusalem, where he died. 
He was the father-in-law of Joseph Caro, who 
speaks of him as of one well versed in rabbinics 
(Joseph Caro, “Abkat Rokel,” No. 29). His signa- 
ture has been found with that of David b. Zimra 
under a halakic decision (4b. No. 115). In 1565 a 
case of halizah was the occasion of a controversy 
between Zechariah and his companions on the one 
side and David b. Zimra on the other. The brother 
of the deceased, an Ashkenazic Jew who lived in 
Palestine and who already had a wife, married the 
widow instead of performing the rite of halizah, 
which was contrary to the Ashkenazic custom; and 
Zechariah and his companions put him under the 
ban. David b. Zimra, on the contrary, argued that 
as the man Jived in a country where polygamy was 
not forbidden, the Ashkenazic rabbis had no right 
toexcommunicatehim. The other Sephardic rabbis, 
however, declared that Zechariah and his compan- 
ions were right (“Bet Yosef,” Hilkot “ Yibbum wa- 
Halizah ”). 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Azulai, Shem ha-Gedoltim, i S. Frumkin, 

Eben Shemuel, p. 60; Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, p. 314. 

J. M, SEL. 

ZEDAKAH BOX: A receptacle in which vol- 
untary charitable contributions are deposited. The 


649 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Zechariah Mendel 
Zedekiah 


earliest mention of such a device is in connection 
with Jehoiada the priest, who prepared a chest 
with a hole in the lid and placed it beside the altar 
opposite the general entrance at the south side of 
the Temple; in this chest 
all contributions were 
deposited to forma fund 
for repairing the sacred 
edifice (II Kings xii. 10). 
According to the Mish- 
nah, there were in the 
Second Temple thirteen 
boxes shaped lke a horn 
(“shofar”), being broad 
at the bottom and nar- 
row at the top, where 
the coins were dropped 
in. The money placed 
in them was used for 
different sacrifices in the 
Temple and for chari- 
table purposes. In later 
times the charity box 
was called “kuppah shel 
zedakah,” ?@.¢., charity 
basket, or receptacle for 
the communal fund con- 
tributed to provide sus- 
tenance for the poor 
every Friday (Pe’ah viii. 
7; B. B. 8b). 

From time immemo- 
rial the synagogue and 
bet ha-midrash were 
provided with sets of charity boxes, each bear- 
ing an inscription designating the purpose for 
which the money was collected. Among these 
boxes were one for “ bedek ha-bayit” (repairs of the 
synagogue), one for candles in the bet ha-midrash, a 
third for the Talmud Torah, a fourth for “ malbish 


ik NEE, EEA ED 
iL eee 
Wooden Zedakah Box in the 
Synagogue at Lutomiersk, 


Russia. 
(From Bersohn, ‘Kilka Slow.’’) 


f te re a NE LET np 


Zedakah Box. 


(Designed by Leo Horovitz.) 


‘arummim ” (= “to clothe the naked,” 7.e., to provide 
clothing forthe poor), and a fifth for “ gemilat hasa- 
dim” (loans without interest to the poor). One spe- 
cial box was marked “ mattan ba-seter ” (= “a gift in 
secret”; comp. Prov. xxi. 14), in which large sums 
Were often placed by anonymous donors, who some- 


times specified how the money should be distributed. 
The charity boxes were under the supervision of a 
board of trustees called “gabba’im.” A charity box 
is carried in front of afuneral by the shammash 
(beadle), who recites “Zedakah tazzil mi-mawet” 
(= “ Righteousness [charity] delivereth from death ” ; 
Prov. x. 2). Charity boxes are also placed in pri- 
vate houses for the support of the yeshibot, hospitals, 
orphan asylums, etc., of the Holy Land, the funds 
being collected by the meshullahim of the various 
institutions. See CHARITY; HALUKKAN. 
J. J. D. E. 


ZEDEK, JOSEPH KOHEN-: <Austro-English 
rabbinical scholar and preacher; born in Lemberg 
1827; died in London 1903, His family claimed to 
trace its ancestry back to the exilarchs through Sol- 
omon Luria and Moses Isserles. Zedek was in- 
structed by Joseph Saul Nathansohn, chief rabbi of 
Lemberg, and attended also the yeshibah of Joseph 
Yekeles, rabbi of Yavorov, While at Lemberg he 
produced a number of Hebrew poems of a patriotic 
character, and edited a volume of collectanea in 
honor of Sir Moses Montefiore, entitled “Neweh 
Tehillah” (Lemberg, 1869). He likewise edited at 
Lemberg the Hebrew periodicals “ Meged Yerahim ” 
(1855-57), “Ozar Hokmah ” (1859-65), and “ Ha-Ye- 
hudi ha-Nizhi” (1866). Zedek wasa fluent preacher 
in Hebrew, and occupied temporary positions at 
Cracow and Altona, as well as at Frankfort-on-the- 
Main, where he issued the first numbers of another 
Hebrew periodical, “Or Torah” (1874). He went to 
London in 1875, and in that city he published the 
following works: “ Mussar Haskel ” (1878), a collec- 
tion of his sermons; “Or Hadash” (1881); “ Ha- 
Torah weha-Mizwah” (1884); and a collection of re- 
sponsa entitled “ Crim we-Tummim.” He moreover 
edited Joseph Cohen’s “ Dibre ha-Yamim ” (1859), 
Kalonymus’ “Eben Bohan” (1865), and a curious ac- 
count of a blood accusation at Granada in 1845 under 
the title “Ohole Shem” (London, 1883). During 
his later years this scholar collected a mass of mate- 
rial for a biographical and literary history of Eng- 
lish rabbis, and published a volume of “ Biograph- 
ical Sketches of Eminent Jewish Fannilies ” (2. 1897). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zeitlin, Bibl. Post-Mendels. pp. 179-182; 
The Jewish Year Book, 3668, p. 308. J 


ZEDEKIAH: 1. One of the four hundred 
prophets (I Kings xxii. 11, 24, 25) whom Ahab sum- 
moned to inquire of them before Jehoshaphat 
whether he should attack the Syrians in battle at 
Ramoth-gilead. Zedekiah appeared as a rival of 
Micaiah, whom Ahab always feared, and who on 
this occasion ironically foretold Israel’s defeat. Zed- 
ekiah struck him on the cheek because he explained 
by a figure that the words of the four hundred 
prophets were inspired by a lying spirit. Micaiah’s 
reply was that his rival should see a verification of 
the adverse prophecy with his own eyes. 

2. One of the evil men of Israel in the Captivity, 
whose false utterances and immoral acts aroused 
even Nebuchadrezzar, King of Babylon, to such a 
pitch of wrath that he ordered them to be roasted 
in the fire (Jer. xxix. 21-23), probably in some such 
fiery furnace as that mentioned in Daniel. 

3. The last king of Judah. Hewas the youngest 


Zedekiah 
Ze‘era 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


650 


son of Josiah and full brother of Jehoahaz (IT Kings 
xxiii. 81, xxiv, 18), the first son of Josiah to reign, 
who was carried captive to Egypt by Pharaoh- 
Necho in 608 B.c. (2d, xxiii. 33). Zedekiah’s real 
name was “ Mattaniah ” (2b. xxiv. 17), but Nebuchad- 
rezzar, who enthroned him (in 597) in the place of 
the rebellious and captive Jehoiachin, his nephew, 
changed it to “Zedekiah” (= “righteousness of 
Jah”). The new king assumed the throne under 
the sovereignty of Nebuchadrezzar; and an abun- 
dance of materia) descriptive of the events of his 
reign is furnished in IL Kings (xxiv. 17-xxv. 7%), in 
II Chronicles (xxxvi. 10-21), and in more than a 
dozen chapters of Jeremiah. The eleven years of 
Zedekiah’s reign were notable for a steady decline 
in Judah’s power and for the desperate efforts of 
Jeremiah to avert the coming disaster. As a ruler 
he was pliant in the hands of his princes and of Jer- 
emiah, yielding readily to the influence of any ad- 
viser, whether prince or prophet. He made a jour- 
ney to Babylon in the fourth year of his reign to 
assure Nebuchadrezzar that he would stand by his 
oath (Jer. li. 59); but the undying ambitions of the 
Egyptian kings kept turning toward Asia, and Zed- 
ekiah, with his usual wavering policy, could no 
longer resist the persuasions of Hophra(Apries), King 
of Egypt (589-569 3B.c.), and in 588 B.c. broke off 
his allegiance to Nebuchadrezzar. This brought the 
Babylonian army against Jerusalem; but it had no 
sooner settled down toa siege than Judah’s Egyp- 
tian ally appeared from the southwest. The Baby- 
lonians hastily raised the siege and gave Hophra’s 
army such a blow that it retired to the land of the 
Nile. The siege of Jerusalem was then resumed, 
and after an investment of one and one-half years 
the walls yielded. Zedekiah and his retinue escaped 
through some hidden gate and fled toward the Jor- 
dan; but the Babylonians overtook him on the plains 
of Jericho, and carried him captive to the King of 
Babylon, whose headquarters were at Riblah. Here 
Zedekiah’s sons, heirs to the throne, were slain in 
his presence, his own eyes were put out, and he was 
bound with fetters and taken to Babylon as an ig- 
nominious rebel prisoner. Asaresult of his conspir- 
acies Jerusalem was taken, plundered, and burned; 
its best population was deported to Babylon as cap- 
tives; the Jewish kingdom perished; and Israel 
ceased to exist as an independent nation. Zedekiah 
passed the remainder of his days in a Babylonian 
dungeon. 
B. G. H. IT. M. P. 


ZEDEKIAH BEN ABRAHAM. See Anaw, 
ZEDEKIAH BEN ABRAHAM. 


ZEDEKIAH BEN BENJAMIN: Italian 
Talmudist and liturgist; lived in Rome in the thir- 
teenth century ; died after 1280; elder cousin of Zed- 
ekiah b. Abraham ANaw, by whom he is often 
quoted in the “Shibbole ha-Leket.” Zedekiah b. 
Benjamin was a pupil of Meir b. Moses at Rome; 
and he later went to Germany and studied under the 
tosafist Abigdor b. Elijah ha-Kohen, whom he 
often consulted afterward (“Shibbole ha-Leket,” i. 
266, ii. 40). Abraham of Pesaro speaks of Zedekiah 
as his companion (2d. ii. 6). As Abraham Abulafia 
mentions one Zedekiah among his disciples and fol- 


lowers, certain scholars suppose that this was Zede- 
kiah b. Benjamin. He was the author of several 
selihot found in MS. No. 42 of the Foa collection. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Vogelstein and Rieger, Geach. der Juden in 

Rom, i. 249, 267, 273, 376, 378; Zunz, Literaturgesch. p. 357, 

J. M. SEL. 

ZEDERBAUM, ALEXANDER OSSYPO. 
VITCH: Russian Hebrew journalist; born in Sam- 
ostye, Lublin, 1816; died in St. Petersburg 1893; 
founder and editor of “Ha-Meliz,” and other pe- 
riodicals published in the Russian and Yiddish 
languages. A son of poor parents, he was in his 
early youth apprenticed to a tailor, but through 
energy and assiduity he succeeded in acquiring a 
knowledge of Hebrew literature, and of the Russian, 
Polish, and German languages. He married in Lu- 
blin, and in 1840 left his native town for Odessa, then 
the “Mecca” of the HAskALAH movement. He ob- 
tained there a commercial position, made the ac- 
quaintance of the Maskilim of the city, and in his 
leisure hours continued to work for his self-educa- 
tion. Later he opened a clothing-store, and was 
himself cutter in his tailoring-shop. 

In 1860 Zederbaum succeeded in obtaining the 
government’s permission to publish “ Ha-Meliz,” 
the first Hebrew periodical issued in Russia; and 
three years later he began publishing the pioneer 
Yiddish journal “Kol Mebasser.” After an exist- 
ence of eight years the latter paper was suppressed 
by the government, whereupon Zederbaum went to 
St. Petersburg, obtaining permission to transfer the 
headquarters of “Hfa-Meliz” to that city. He 
was also granted permission to do his own printing, 
and to publish, besides “ Ha-Meliz,” a Russian 
weekly (“ Vyestnik Ruskich Yedreed ”), which, how- 
ever, enjoyed only a short existence, as did also the 
“Razsvyet,” which he started a few years later. In 
1881 he founded the “ Volksblatt,” a daily Yiddish 
journal which existed for eight years, although Ze- 
derbaum was its editor for only a few years. 

Zederbaum was the author of “Keter Kehunnah” 
and “Ben ha-Mezarim,” but neither of these works 
met with any success. His chief significance lies 
in the fact that he was a champion of the Haskalah. | 
His Yiddish periodical “Kol Mebasser” offered an 
opportunity for many of the best jargon-writers to 
develop their talents; and among these may be men- 
tioned Linetzky, Abramowitch, Spector, and Sho- 
lem Aleichem. 

Zederbaum exercised considerable influence in 
government circles, and it was due to his interces- 
sion that an impartial judgment was obtained for 
many Jewish families accused of ritual murder in 
Kutais; he disclosed also the ignorance of the Rus- 
sian anti-Semite Lutostansky, whose pamphlets 
threatened to become dangerous for the Russian 
Jews. The Palestine Association of Odessa, which 
aids the Jewish colonists in Syria and Palestine, 
owes its existence to Zederbaum’s activity. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Khronika Voskhoda., 1893, Nos. 35-36: Soko- 
low, Sefer ha-Zikkaron, 1890; Wiener, History of Yiddish 
Literature; Brainin, Zikronot, 1899; Friedberg, in Sefer 
ha-Shanah, 1900. 


J. S. Hv. 

ZEDNER, JOSEPH: German bibliographer 
and librarian; born at Gross-Glogau Feb. 10, 1804: 
died at Berlin Oct. 10, 1871. After completing his 


651 


education, he acted as teacher in the Jewish school 
in Strelitz (Mecklenburg), where the famous German 
lexicographer Daniel Sanders was his pupil. In 
1832 he became a tutor in the family of the book- 
seller A. Asher in Berlin, and later engaged in the 
book-trade himself; but being unsuccessful he ac- 
cepted in 1845 a position as librarian of the Hebrew 
department of the British Museum in London, where 
he remained till 1869, when ill health compelled him 
to resign and to retire to Berlin, where he spent the 
last two years of his life. Shortly after hisappoint- 
ment, the British Museum acquired the library of 
the bibliophile Heimann J. Michael of Hamburg, 
which Zedner catalogued. 

Zedner was the author of the following works: 
“Auswahl Historischer Stiicke aus Hebraischen 
Schriftstellern vom Zweiten Jahrhundert bis in die 
Gegenwart, mit Vocalisiertem Texte, Deutscher Ue- 
bersetzung und Anmerkungen” (Berlin, 1840); 
“Catalogue of the Hebrew Books in the Library of 
the British Museum” (London, 1867); and “ Ein 
Fragment aus dem Letzten Gesange von Reineke 
Fuchs ” (Berlin, 1871), a poetical satire on Napoleon 
Ili. fe contributed to Asher’s edition of the Trav- 
els of Benjamin of Tudela (London, 1840), and wrote 
poems on two collections of portraits (“ Ehret die 
Frauen,” and “ Edelsteine und Perlen,” Berliu, 1836- 
45). While in London, he published a second edition 
of Ibn Ezra’s commentary on the Book of Esther, 
to which he wrote an introduction entitled “ Wa- 
Yosef Abraham.” 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider, in Magazin ftir die Litera- 
tur des Auslandes, 1871, No. 44, abstracts of which are given 
in Allg. Zeit. des Jud. 1871, pp. 116-118, and in Generalan- 
zeiger fiir die Gesammten Interessen des Judentums, Ber- 
lin, Feb. 22, 1904. 

8. D. 

ZEEBI, ISRAEL: Prominent Talmudist; son 
of Benjamin Zeebi, and on his mother’s side a grand- 
son of Abraham Azulai; born at Hebron in 1651; 
died in 1731. Benjamin dying when Israel was but 
four years old, the latter was educated by his 
mother; and at the age of eighteen he married a 
daughter of Abraham Cuenc ui (see Gritz, “Gesch.” 
x. 468, note 6). For about thirty years he officiated 
as chief rabbi of Hebron. Itis said that he was a 
partizan of Nehemiah Hiyya Hayyun. He cor- 
responded with Abraham Yizhaki, Moses Hayyun, 
Ephraim Nabon, Jeshua Shababo, and other au- 
thorities. Zeebi’s full name was Abraham Israel; 
the first pranomen he seems to have assuined in 
later years, probably after an illness. At his death 
he left one son, Isaac, who published at Smyrna 
in 1758 “ Urim Gedolim,” a volume of responsa, and 
“Or lf Yesharim,” a collection of homilies, both 
works being by his father. | 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Azulai, Shem ha-Gedolim, s.v. Abraham, 

Azulai, and Israel Zeebi. 

E. C. L. Gri. 

ZE°ENAH U-RE’ENAH or TEUTSCH HU- 
MESH: Judso-German paraphrase of the Penta- 
teuch, the Haftarot, and the Five Megillot, written 
by Jacob b. Isaac of Janow, who flourished in 
the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The work 
18 enriched with many haggadot taken either directly 
from the Midrash or from such homiletic commen- 
faries as the “Toledot Yizhak,” “Zeror ha-Mor,” 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Zedekiah 
Ze‘era 


“ Hazekuni,” and others. Very often the weekly 
lesson begins with a verse from Proverbsand is sup- 
plemented by extracts from the commentary of 
Bahya b. Asher and narratives found in various 
midrashim and other “Ma‘aseh” collections. It is 
very likely that such a paraphrase was originally 
entitled “Teutsch Humesh,” as it is still often called; 
but as the first printer placed on the title-page as a 
motto the words of Cant. iii. 11: “ Ze’enah u-re’enah 
benot Ziyyon” (= “Go out and see, ye daughters of 
Zion”), and as the book was particularly intended 
for use by women, it came to be known by the first 
two words of this motto. Although a work of this 
kind had been compiled previously by Isaac B. 
SAMSON HA-KOHEN at Prague, yet the “Ze’enah u- 
Re’enah ” of Jacob b. Isaac far surpassed it in pop- 
ularity, and it has continued until the present to be 
the most favored literary work with Jewish women. 
Neither the date nor the place of the first edition 
can be determined with certainty, but the edition of 
Cracow, 1620, seems to have been the second, and 
two years later the book was reedited in Basel, 
which shows that the editions were soon exhausted. 
Since then it has been very often reedited, and in the 
later editions (from that of Amsterdam, 1711, on- 
ward) there were added the Targum of Shir ha- 
Shirim in Juds#o-German by Issachar Bermann ha- 
Kohen, and Targum Sheni in Judeo-German by 
Simeon ben Meshullam. John Saubert translated 
into Latin the first parashah or Bereshit (Helmstedt, 
1660; reproduced by Wolf in “Bibi. Hebr.” iii. 474 
et seqg.), and Alexandre Créhange adapted from it his 
“Ta Semaine Israélite, ou le Tseena Ourena Mo- 
derne,” etc. (Paris, 1846). As to Jacob b. Isaac, the 
author, Steinschneider thinks (“Cat. Bodl.” col. 
1216) that he died at Janow shortly before 1623. 
Jacob b. Isaac wrote besides: “Sefer ha-Maggid” 
(Prague, 1576), a work of the same kind as the 
“Ze’enah u-Re’enah,” and treating of the Prophets 
and the Hagiographa, with the exception of Chron- 
icles; “Shoresh Ya‘akob” (Cracow, 1585), a refer- 
ence index for the laws contained in the Shulhan 
‘Aruk, Yoreh De‘ah; “Meliz Yosher” (Lublin, 
1622), Judeo-German homilies on the Pentateuch, 
being a supplement to the “ Ze’enah u-Re’enah.” 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Fiirst, Bibl. Jud. ii. 19-20; Steinschneider, 
Cat. Bodl. cols, 1215 et seq.; idem, Jewish Literature, p. 238. 


J; M. SEL. 


ZE‘ERA: Palestinian amora of the third gener- 
ation; born in Babylonia, where he spent his carly 
youth. He was a pupil of Hisda (Ber. 49a), of 
Huna (2d.), and of Judah b. Ezekiel in Pumbedita. 
He associated also with other prominent teachers of 
the Babylonian school, as Nahman b. Jacob (Yer. 
Ber. 8c), Hamnuna (Zeb. 105b; Ber. 24b), and She- 
shet, who called him a great man (gabra rabba”; 
‘Er. 66a). His love for the Holy Land led him to 
decide upon leaving his native country and emigra- 
ting to Palestine. This resolve, however, he kept 
secret from his teacher Judah, who disapproved of 

any emigration from Babylonia, Be- 

Love of foreleaving, hespied upon Judah while 
Holy Land. the latter was bathing, and the words 

which he then overheard he took with 
him as a valuable and tnstructive memento (Shab. 
41a; Ket. 110b). A favorable dream, in which he 


Ze‘era 
Zeitlin 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


652 


was told that his sins had been forgiven, encouraged 
him to undertake the journey to the Holy Land 
(Ber. 57a); and before starting he spent a hundred 
days in fasting, in order to forget the dialectic 
method of instruction of the Babylonian schools, 
that this might not handicap him in Palestine (B. 
M. 85a). His journey took him through Akrokonia, 
where he met Hiyya b. Ashi (‘Ab. Zarah 16b), and 
through Sura (70.). When he reached the River 
Jordan he could not control his impatience, but 
passed through the water without removing his 
clothes. When jeered at by an unbeliever who stood 
by, he answered, “Why should not I be impatient 
when I pursue a blessing which was denied even to 
Moses and Aaron?” (Yer. Sheb. 35c). 

Ze‘era’s arrival in Palestine and his first expe- 
riences there have been recorded in various anec- 
dotes. He was small of stature and of dark com- 
plexion, for which reason Assi called him “ Black 
Pot” (‘Ab. Zarah 16b), according to an expression 
current in Babylonia (comp. Meg. 14b; Pes. 88a; 
Ber. 50a); this name probably also contained an al- 
Jusion to his sputteriug manner of speech. With 
reference to a malformation of his legs, he was 

called “the little one with shrunken 
Arrival in legs,” or “the dark, burned one with 
Palestine. the stubby legs” (comp. Bacher, “Ag. 

Pal. Amor.” iii. 7, note 2). With these 
nicknames is connected a legend which throws light 
upon Ze‘era’s ascetic piety (B. M. 85a). In Palestine 
he associated with all the prominent scholars. Elea- 
zar b, Pedat was still living at the time (Niddah 48), 
and from him Ze‘era received valuable instruction 
(Yer. Ter. 47d). His most intimate friends were 
Assi and Hiyya b. Abba. In his intercourse with 
Assi he was generally the one who asked questions; 
and on one occasion Assi made known his approval 
of one of Ze‘era’s questions by saying: “Right you 
are, Babylonian; you have understood it correctly ” 
(Yer. Shab. 7c). Ze‘era especially acknowledged 
the authority of Ammi, the principal of the school 
at, Tiberias; and it is related that he asked Ammi to 
decide questions pertaining toreligious law that had 
been addressed to himself (Yer. Dem. 25b; Yer. 
Shab. 8a; Yer. Yeb. 72d). Ze‘cra was highly es- 
teemed by Abbabu, the rector at Cesarea, of 
whom he considered himself a pupil. He was or- 
dained rabbi, a distinction usually denied to mem- 
bers of the Babylonian school; and though in the 
beginning he refused this honor (Yer. Bik. 65c), he 
later accepted it on learning of the atoning powers 
connected with the dignity (Sanh. 14a). His insig- 
nificant appearance was humorously referred to 
when at his ordination he was greeted with the words 
of a wedding-song: “Without rouge and without 
ornament, but withal a lovable gazel” (Ket. 17a). 

With regard to Ze‘era’s private vocation, the 

only facts known are that he once traded 
Social Con-~ in linen, and that he asked Abbahu 
dition and how far he might go in improving the 

Family outward appearance of his goods with- 

Life. out rendering himself Jiable in the 
slightest degree to a charge of fraud 

(Yer. B. M. 9d). Information regarding his family 
relations is also very scanty; itis asserted that he be- 


came an orphanat an early age(Yer. Pe’ah 15c), and | 


that his wedding was celebrated during the Feast of 
Tabernacles (Suk. 25b); and he had oneson, Ahabahor 
Ahava, who has become well known through various 
haggadic maxims (comp. Bacher, /.¢, iii. 651-659), 
Ze‘era occupies a prominent place in the Halakah 
as well as in the Haggadah: with regard to the 
former he is especially distinguished for the correct- 
ness and knowledge with which he transmits older 
maxims. Among his haggadic sayings the follow- 
ing may be mentioned as throwing light upon his 
high moral standpoint: “He who has never sinned 
is worthy of reward only if he has withstood tempta- 
tion to do so” (Yer. Kid, 61d); “Qne should never 
promise a child anything whicb one does not intend 
to give it, because this would accustom the child to 
untruthfulness” (Suk. 46b).. Onaccount of his lofty 
morals and piety Ze*era was honored with the name 
“the pious Babylonian.” Among his neighbors were 
several people known for their wickedness, but Ze‘era 
treated them with kindness in order to lead them to 
moral reformation. When he died, these people 
said, “Hitherto Ze‘era has prayed for us, but who 
will pray for us now?” This reflection so moved 
their hearts that they really were led to do penance 
(Sauh. 37a), That Ze‘era enjoyed the respect of his 
contemporaries is evidenced by the comment upon 
his death written by an elegist: “Babylonia gave 
him birth; Palestine had the pleasure of rearing 
him; ‘ Wo is me,’ says Tiberias, for she has lost her 
precious jewel” (M. K. 75b). 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bacher, Ag. Pal. Amor. iii. 1-34: Heilprin, 


Seder ha-Dorot, ii. 117~120. 
J Ji Dios Laz 


ZEFIRAH, HA-. See PERIODICALS. 


ZE‘IRI: Amora of the third century; born in 
Babylonia. He sojourned for a long time in Alex- 
andria, and later went to Palestine, where he became 
a pupil of Rabbi Johanan. In the name of Hanina 
b. Hama he transmitted the maxim that he who in 
the presence of a teacher ventures to decide a legal 
question, is a trespasser (‘Er. 3a). He also trans- 
mitted a saying by Hanina to the effect that the 
Messiah would not arrive until all the arrogant ones 
had disappeared (Sanh. 98a). During his sojourn in 
Alexandria he purchased a mule which, when he led 
it to water, was transformed into a bridge-board, 
the water having lifted the spell which rested on 
the animal. The purchase-money was refunded to 
Ze‘iri, and he was advised to apply the water-test 
thenceforth to everything he purchased, in order to 
ascertain whether it had been charmed (24. 67b). 
When Eleazar arrived in Palestine he sought infor- 
mation from Ze ‘iri concerning men known in ancient 
traditions (B. B. 87a). Ze‘iri was praised by Raba 
as an exegete of the Mishnah (Zeb. 43b). He was 
proffered the daughter of Rabbi Johanan for a wife, 
but refused because he was a Babylonian and she 4 
Palestinian (Kid. 71b). Among those who trans- 
mitted in his name may be mentioned Rabbi Hisda 
(Ber. 48a), R. Judah (‘Ab. Zarah 61b; Men. 21a), 
R. Joseph (Ned. 46b), R. Nahman (‘Ab. Zarah 61b); 
and Rabbah (Ned. 46a), 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bacher, 4g. Pal. Amor, iii, 644; Heilprid. 
Seder ha-Dorot, ii. 123a; Blau, Altjtidisehes Zauberwesélh 
p. 158, note 5, Strasburg, 1898; Vuhasiz, ed. Filipowskl, P 


134b. 
J. Sg. O. 


@ 


653 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Ze‘era 
Zeitlin 


ZEISEL, SIMON: Austrian chemist; born at 
Lomnitz, Moravia, April 11, 1854; educated at the 
German gymnasium of Briinn and atthe University of 
Vienna (Ph.D. 1879). He established himself as 
privat-docent for chemistry at the same university 
in 1887, and in 1892 wasappointed assistant professor 
of general and agricultural chemistry at the agricul- 
tural high school of Vienna, where he became full 
professor seven years later (1899). In addition to 
monographs in technical periodicals, Zeisel is the 
author of “Die Chemie in Gemeinverstindlicher 
Darstellung ” (Vienna, 1890). 
er aaa : Eisenberg, Das Geistige Wien, ii. 574, Vienna, 


i F. T. HH. 


ZEISLER, SIGMUND: American jurist; born 
at Bielitz, Austria, April 11, 1860; educated at the 
University of Vienna and at the Northwestern Uni- 
versity, Chicago. He was admitted to the Chicago 
bar, and was associate counsel for the defense in the 
anarchist cases of 1886 and 1887. In 1893 he was 
elected chief assistant corporation counsel for Chi- 
cago, but resigned his position in 1894 on account 
of ill health. After traveling for several months 
in Europe, he returned to Chicago, where he has 
since been engaged in private practise. Zeisler is a 
prominent Democrat, and took an active part in 
the presidential campaigns of 1896 and 1900. He 
has contributed to reviews and law journals. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: American Jewish Year Bock, 5665, p. 211, 
A F. T. H. 


ZEISSL, HERMANN VON: Austrian derma- 
tologist; born at Vierzighuben near Zwittau, Mora- 
via, Sept. 22, 1817; died at Vienna Sept. 23, 1884; 
educated at the University of Vienna (M.D. 1846). 
In 1846 he was appointed assistant in the ophthal- 
mological, surgical, and dermatological hospitals of 
the University of Vienna, and four years later he es- 
tablished a practise and was admitted to the med- 
ical faculty of the university as privat-docent. He 
soon became an authority on skin-diseases and sy ph- 
ilis. In 1861 he was appointed assistant professor, 
and in 1869 he became professor and chief physician, 
of the second department for syphilis at the general 


hospital. These positions he held until his resigna- 
tion in 18838. He was knighted by the Austrian 
emperor. 


Zeiss| wrote many essays for the medical jour- 
nals, and was the author of the following works: 
“Compendium der Pathologie und Therapie der 
Tertiiiren Syphilis und Einfachen Venerischen 
Krankheiten ” (Vienna, 1850); “ Lehrbuch der Consti- 
tutionellen Syphilis fiir Aerzte und Hérer der Medi- 
zin” (Erlangen, 1864); “Lehrbuch der Syphilis und 
der mit Dieser Verwandten Oertlichen Venerischen 
Krankheiten ” (Stuttgart, 1875); and “ Grundriss der 
Pathologie und Therapie der Syphilis” (4d. 1876). 
The last two works have been translated into Rus- 
sian, Dutch, English, and Italian. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Hirsch, Biog. Lex. s.v. 
8 F. T. H. 

ZEIT, DIE. See PERIODICALS. 

ZEITGEIST, DER. See PERIODICALS. 


ZEITLIN, JOSHUA: Russian rabbinical schol- 
a and philanthropist; born at Shklov in 1742: died 


at Kherson Aug. 18, 1822. He was a pupil of the 
casuist Aryeh Loeb, the author of “Sha’agat 
Aryeh”; and, being an expert in political economy, 
he stood in close relations with Prince Potemkin, 
the favorite of Catherine II. During the Turko-Rus- 
sian war Zeitlin furnished the Russian army with 
various supplies, and managed that business so clev- 
erly that he was afterward appointed imperial court 
councilor (“nadvorny sovyetnik ”). 

On retiring from business Zeitlin resided on his 
estate Ustzia, where he was consulted by the rabbis 
with regard to rabbinical questions. He rendered 
pecuniary assistance to many Talmudists and schol- 
ars, and supported a magnificent bet ha-midrash, in 
which many Jewish writers were provided with all 
the necessaries of life, so that they could pursue their 
vocations without trammel of any kind. Among 
writers who benefited by his generosity may be 
mentioned: R. Nahum, author of “Tosafot Bik- 
kurim”; Mendel Lepin, author of “ Heshbon ha- 
Nefesh”; and the physician Baruch Schick. Zeitlin 
was the author of annotations to the “Sefer Mizwot 
Katan,” printed with the text (Kopys, 1820), and 
supplemented by some of his responsa. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Fuenn, Kiryah Ne’emanah, p. 277; idem, 

Keneset Yisrael, p. 431. 

J. M. SEL. 

ZEITLIN, JOSHUA B. AARON: Russian 
scholar and philanthropist; born at Kiev Oct. 10, 
1823; dicd at Dresden Jan. 11, 1888. While he was 
still young his parents removed to Chernobyl], where 
he associated with the Hasrpim, later devoting him- 
self to the study of secular sciences as well as the He- 
brew language and literature. He was married at 
Slutsk, where he studied for some time with Sam- 
uel Simchowitz, with whom he later engaged in 
business. Leaving Slutsk, Zeitlin resided for several 
years in St. Petersburg, and afterward settled in 
Moscow, where he became prominent asa benefactor 
of Talmudic students and Maskilim. During the 
Russo-Turkish war he was a contractor for the Rus- 
sian army, and on Aug. 1, 1879, Czar Alexander II. 
awarded him a medal in recognition of his services. 

In 1888 Zeitlin left Russia and settled in Dresden, 
where he collected a large library, which he placed 
at the disposal of Talmudic students. In the begin- 
ning of 1887 he undertook a journey to the Holy 
Land, where he celebrated the Passover. He visited 
Jerusalem and Hebron, and took great interest in 
the Jewish antiquities, as well as in the agricultural 
colonies of Palestine, to which he bequeathed 50,000 
francs, in addition to many bequests to educational 
institutions. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: I. Graber, in Ozar ha-Sifrut, ii., part 2, pp. 
279-280; S. Mandelkern,in Keneset Yisrael, tii. 219 et seq.; 
Ha-Meliz, xxviii. 44. 

J. M. SEL. 

ZEITLIN, WILLIAM: Russian scholar and 
bibliographer; born at Homel, government of Mo- 
ghilef, about the middle of the nineteenth century, 

He is known especially as the author of “Kiryat 

Sefer,” or “ Bibliotheca Hebraica Post-Mendelssohn- 

jana” (Leitpsic, 1891-95), a bibliographical dictionary 

of modern Hebrew literature from the beginning of 

Mendelssohn’s epoch until 1890. The compilation of 

this work occupied Zeitlin for twenty years. He 


Zeitschrift : 
Zemah ben Hayyim 


made extensive use of Benjacob’s “ Ozar ha-Sefarim ” 
and of Fitrst’s “Bibliotheca Judaica,” and visited 
Wilna and Warsaw, the centers of the Hebrew book 
market, as well as many university cities—as K6- 
nigsberg, Berlin, Geneva, and Paris—from the libra- 
ries of which he gathered additional material for his 
work. The “Kiryat Sefer ” indexes not only works 
in book form, but also important periodical articles, 
biographical sketches, and scientific essays, in addi- 
tion to giving biographical notes on several authors. 
Zeitlin had previously prepared an index of works 
written on the Jewish calendar, in which he enumer- 
ates seventy-seven Hebrew works; this index was 
published by Hayyim Jonah Gurland in “ Yevreiski 
Kalendar ” (St. Petersburg, 1882). In the “ Zeit. fiir 
Hebr. Bibl.” (ix. 3-4) Zeitlin has recently published 
an alphabetical list of anagrams and pseudonyms 
of modern Hebrew writers; and he is a contributor 
to several Hebrew periodicals, writing mostly bio- 
graphical articles. 

J. M. SEL. 

ZEITSCHRIFT FUR DIE GESCHICHTE 
DER JUDEN IN DEUTSCHLAND. See 
PERIODICALS. 

ZEITSCHRIFT FUR DIE RELIGIOSEN 
INTERESSEN DES JUDENTHUMS. ‘See 
PERIODICALS, 


ZEITSCHRIFT FUR DIE WISSEN- | 


SCHAFT DES JUDENTHUMS. See PrEnriop- 
ICALS. 


ZEITUNG. See PERIODICALS. 


ZEKOR BERIT: A poem by GERSHOM BEN 
JUDAH (960-1040), the “ Light of the Exile” (Zunz, 
“Literaturgesch.” p. 239); it is chanted in the SEx1- 
wot of the Northern rituals as the central hymn of 
the early penitential prayers on the eve of New- 
Year, to which day the hymn has given its name in 
familiar Jewish parlance. Other hymns with the 
same commencement, which bases an appeal for the 
redemption of the remnant of Israel on the remem- 


ZEKOR 


~ Allegretto moderato. 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


654 


brance of the merits of the Patriarchs, were after- 
ward written by Kalonymus ben Judah and Samuel] 
ben Majo (Zunz, é.c. pp. 255, 263), and were also 
adopted into some rituals. The hymn of Gershom 
is specially honored in the Polish ritual by being 
placed at the head of the extracts from the hymns 
in the selihot quoted in the course of the NrE‘iLag 
service. It is there always chanted to an old air 
which obviously originated in western Europe, and 
which presents points of resemblance to some of the 
minnelieder of the twelfth century. The commence- 
ment of the second verse, on which the others are 
modeled, should be compared with the melodies 
transcribed under SHOFET Kor HA-AREZ. 
8. F. L. C. 


ZELAZOWSKA, CATHERINE: Polish con- 
vert to Judaism; born in 1460; martyred at Cracow 
in 1540. She was the widow of an alderman of 
Cracow; and at the time when, influenced by the 
Bible, Polish Christendom was divided into differ- 
ent sects, she foilowed the example of the daughter 
of Nicholas Radziwill and embraced Judaism. Peter 
Gamrat, Bishop of Cracow, condemned her to be 
burned, and, though eighty years old, she went 
gladly to meet a martyr’s death. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gratz, Gesch. 3d ed., ix. 454; Sternberg, 
Gesch. der Juden in Pole, p. 56. 
J. M. SEt. 


ZELMAN, SAMUELE VITA: Austro-Italian 
poet; born at Triest in 1808; died there in 1885. He 
was educated at the rabbinical college of Padua, 
where he was the favorite pupil of Samuel David 
Luzzatto. He was the author of the following 
works: “Kinah on the death of S. D. Luzzatto” 
(Padua, 1865); “Primi Disecorsi di Rab Melza” 
(Triest, 1854); “ Le Parole di un Ignorante ai Dotti,” 
directed against demagogic writers (2b. 1855); Ha- 
Nizzanim,” a collection of Hebrew poems (2d. n.d.). 
A complete edition of his Hebrew essays, hymns, 
letters, elegiac poems, etc., was published by Vit- 
torio Castiglione under the title “ Ne‘im Zemirot 


BERIT 


es. 6 
ae. a a wo 
1. Ze - kor be-rit A-bra - ham, wa-‘a- ke - dat Yiz - _ hak, We- ha- 
Re - mem-ber A - bra-ham’s covenant,and how I - saac was bound, And ree 
eS 
sheb she - but o - ho - le Ya -‘a - kob Leieaeie we - ho -. shi- 
store the  tents.... of Ja - cob e@ - iled........... And save us 
———S—— Oil. PN de mf In tempo. 
; ees ,, RASS ees 4 -@ = 
| = ee ——— 
—_o-.—__y-—_ 
t 
‘oO - nu le - ma - ‘an she - me - ka. 2.Go - ’el ha - zak, le - 
sure - ly...... for Thy great Name's sake. Thou might - y Help, for 


Zeitschrift 


655 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Zemah ben Hayyim 
ee RSIS ee 
a ay . 
SS ee “Fe —~ ext Ra area as SN) a 
a Oe Ce a — —# = ee 
ma-‘an-ka fe-de - nu; WHe -’eh... ki a - ze - lat.... ya-de- nu; 
Thine own sake re- lease us; Be - hold,... how weak - ness doth... de- crease us; 


be - du 


our saints 


—_—_g-—_—_—- 
ba - - ‘a - de - nu: We - 
help...... should ease us: Then 


ha - si - de - nu; Maf- gi - a‘ & - - 


do.... 


shub 
turn in 


cease us; And none is Uf cass be 


We -ho - shi - ‘e 


rit Yis-ra - el, 
rem - nant for - lorn, 


And do Thou save 


Shemu’el o Yelid Kinnor” (2d. 1866). Some of his 

Hebrew poems are contained in the periodicals 

“Bikkure ha-‘Ittim ” (vol. xi.) and “ Mosé” (vols. v. 

and vili.). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Corriere Israelitico, xxiv. 188; Furst, Bibl. 
Jud. iii. 748; Mosé, viii. 415; Ozgar Nehmad, i. 63; Stein- 
schneider, Cat. Boal. col. 2760. Uc 
s iG, 


ZELOPHEHAD (4nnby).—Biblical Data: A 
Manassite who in one passage is called the son of 
Hepher, the son of Gilead, the grandson of Manas- 
sch (Num. xxvi. 29-383), and in another is set down 
as the second son of Manasseh (I Chron. vii. 15). 
The etymology of the name is very doubtful; some 
scholars think that the root is Syriac and means 
“first rupture,” indicating that he was a first-born 
son (comp. ZELOPHEHAD IN RABBINICAL LITERA- 
TURE). But the Septuagint Larnaad or Largadd (B 
in Chron., Laroudd) shows that the Hebrew was 
vocalized snaby (= “the shadow [or “ protection ”] 


of terror”). Zelophehad died in the wilderness and 
left five daughters, who subsequently claimed the 
inheritance of their father. Knowing that those 
who took part in the revolt of Korah were exceed- 
ingly objectionable to Moses, Zelophehad’s daugh- 


ters argued that their father was not of Korah’s as-. 


sembly, but that he “died in his own sin.” Moses 
consulted YuwuH about the matter, and was ordered 
to satisfy the daughters’ demand. Thus after the 
Conquest of the Jand under Joshua, Zelophehad’s 
daughters obtained their father’s lot (Num. xxvii. 
1-7, xxxvi. 2-12; Josh. xvii. 3). 
od M. SEL. 

———In Rabbinical Literature: Zelophehad and 
his father, Hepher; were among those who went out 
from Egypt, and consequently each of them had 
hig Dart in the land. Zelophehad, as the first-born 


she - me - ka. 
sake. 


nu tle - ma- ‘an 


us for Thy.... 


great Name’s.... 


son, had two parts in his father’s lot, so that his 
daughters inherited “three shares ” in the land (Sifre, 
Num. 133; B. B. 116b; Num. R. xxi. 18). The 
Rabbis interpret Num. xxvii. 8 as meaning that 
Zelophehad was not among those who murmured 
against God (Num. xi. 1 e¢ seg.), nor among those 
who revolted against Him at the time of the spies 
(46. xiv. 1 et seg.), nor of the company of Korah; for 
none of these three classes had a part in the land 
(Sifre, 2.c.; B. B.18b). The Rabbis, however, do 
not agree as to whether Zelophehad himself was a 
good man; for while he was righteous according 
to the anonymous opinion of the Sifre, R. Nathan 
concludes that he was wicked (Sifre, /.¢.). In any 
case, the words “died in his own sin” (Num. 
XXvii. 8) are interpreted as meaning that while he 
did not induce others to sin, he himself sinned, for 
which he was punished. According to R. Akiba, 
Zelophehad was the man who was stoned to death 
for gathering sticks upon the Sabbath-day (Num. 
xv. 32-36), while according to Judah b. Bathyra, 
he was one of those who “presumed to go up unto 
the hilltop,” and who were smitten by the Amalek- 
ites and Canaanites (ib. xiv. 44-45; Sifre, Num. 
118, 1883; Shab. 96b). As both events took place in 
the second year after the Exodus, the youngest of 
Zelophehad’s daughters at the time they claimed 
their father’s inheritance was at least forty years 
old. They were not yet married (comp. Num. 
XXXxvi. 6, 11) because they had been waiting for men 
suitable to be their husbands (B. B. 119b). 
J. M. Set. 


ZEMAH BEN HAYYIM: Gaon of Sura 
from 889 to 895. He was the stepbrother and suc- 
cessor of Nahshon ben Zadok, and has become 
known especially through the reply which he made 


Z h wer 
Zemah | THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 656 
to the inquiry of the Kairwanites regarding Eldad | proselyte” (“ger zedek”; “Cat. Oppenheimer,” 


ha-Dani. This responsum, which appeared in part 

in the first edition of the “Shalshelet ha-Kabbalah ” 

(Venice, 1480), was republished as compietely as 

possible by A. Epstein in Vienna in his “ Eldad ha- 

Dani.” It embraces nine points and concludes with 

an apology for Eldad’s forgetfulness. According 

to Epstein, only one other responsum by Zemah has 
been published; it is given in the Constantinople 
edition of the “Pardes,” and ends with the same 
words as does the first-mentioned responsum: 

Seow jy" nwo. Weiss, however, ascribes to this 

gaon also the authorship of responsa in “Sha‘are 

Zedek ” (iv., No. 14) and in the compilation “ Hemdah 

Genuzah ” (Nos. 58-61, 111-131). Nothing is known 

of the gaon’s personal career. 

‘BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. Epstein, Hidad ha-Dani, pp. 6-10, Pres- 
burg, 1891; Reifmann, in Ha-Karmel, viti., No. 32; Monats 
sehrift, 1874 , p. 553: Frankel, ib. 1878, p. 493 ; Gratz, Gesch. 

Y. 243-245: Weiss, Dor, iv. 124, 264. 
* 8. O, 
ZEMAH, JACOB BEN HAYYIM: Portu- 
guese cabalist and physician; died at Jerusalem in 
the second half of the seventeenth century. He re- 

ceived a medical training in his native country as a 

Marano, but fled about 1619 to Safed and devoted 

himself to the Talmud and the casuists (“ posekim ”) 

until 1625; then he went to Damascus, where for 
eighteen years he studied the Cabala fromthe Zohar 
and the writings of Isaac Luria and Hayyim Vital. 

He finally settled at Jerusalem and opened a yeshi- 

bah for the study of the Zohar and other cabalistic 

works, David ConForTE being for some time one of 
his pupils (“ Kore ha-Dorot,” pp. 36a, 49a). Jacob 

Zemah was one of the greatest cabalists of his period 

and was a prolific author, his works including trea- 

tises of his own as well as compilations of the wri- 
tings of Hayyim Vital. He produced twenty 
works, of which only two have been published. 

‘The first of these is the “Kol ba-Ramah” (Korez, 

1785), a commentary on the “Idra,” which he 

began in 1643, and for which he utilized the com- 

mentary of Hayyim Vital. In the preface to this 
work he maintained that the coming of the Messiah 
depended on repentance (“teshubah”) and on the 
study of the Cabala from the Zohar and the writings 
of Isaac Luria, the delay in the advent of the Mes- 
siah being due to the fact that schools for such 
study had not been established in every town. 

His second published work is the “Nagid u-Mezaw- 

weh” (Amsterdam, 1712), on the mystical meaning 

of the prayers, this being an abridgment of a com- 

pendium which Zemah composed on the basis of a 

more comprehensive treatise. Among his unpub- 

lished works, special mention may be made of the 

“Ronnu le-Ya‘akob,” in which he calls himself “ the 


No. 1062 Q). This treatise consists of notes recorded 
while studying under Samuel Vital and supplemented 
by his own additions. In his compilation of Hayyim 
Vital’s writings, Zemah pretended to have discov- 
ered many works of Vital which were unknown to 
the latter’s son Samuel. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Azulai, Shem ha-Gedolim, i., ti. s.v. Gilgulim, 
et passim ; Carmoly, in Revue Orientale, li. 287; Fuenn, 
Keneset ¥. israel, p. 510; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 1268" 


E. ¢, . SEL. 

ZEMAH BEN KAFNAT: Gaonof Pumbedita 
from 936 to 9388, at the time when Saadia had been 
reinstated in the gaonate of Sura after his excom- 
munication. Nothing is known concerning his life 
or his works. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Letter of Sherira, in Neubauer’s Anecdota 
Bronicusa, i. 40; Gratz, Gesch. v. 276-277 ; Weiss, Dor, iv. 160, 


J. ; S. O. 
ZEMATUS, MAGISTER. See Micaarr sz, 
SHABBETHAI. 


ZEMIROT (“songs”): A term applied by the 
Sephardim to the Psalms in the earlier sections of 
the morning service. The Ashkenazim, on the 
other hand, style them “pesuke de-zimra” (= 
“verses of song”), and the term “zemirot” more 
especially designates the Hebrew hymns chanted in 
the domestic circle, particularly those which precede 
or follow the grace after the chief meal on the eve 
and the afternoon of the Sabbath. Music at table 
was a regular feature in ancient Jewish life, and 
the Mishnah expressly states (Sotah ix. 11) that it 
was discontinued only asa mark of mourning for the 
abolition of the Sanhedrin. Even then 
the later Rabbis found it necessary to 
insist emphatically on abstention from 
such domestic melodies (comp. Sotah 
48a), although there were never serious objections 
to them when they were devotional in character 
(comp. Music, Synacoea). The singing of hymns 
at the table (probably selected psalms like Ps, 
CXxXVi. and cxxxvii., which are now used on Sab- 
baths and on week-days respectively) seems to have 
been known in the days of the later Midrash, but the 
ancient custom afterward received a powerful im- 
petus from the spread of the CaBALA and the belief 
in the visits of celestial guests on the Sabbath (comp. 
Zohar, pp. 252b, 272b, et passim). In the sixteenth 
century many compilations of such hymns were 
published, especially at Amsterdam and Constanti-. 
nople. Gradually, however, two favorite collections 
were formed, one for the Sabbath evening meal and 
the other forthe Sabbath afternoon. A third group 
was selected for chanting at the close of the Sabbath 
in order that the “sacred season” might be prolonged 
at the expense of the “ profane” (Shab. 118b; Shul- 


Sabbath 
Hymns. 


ZEMIROT—Melodies at Grace 
GRACE AFTER MEALS 


A Allegretio. 


Ps, cxxvr: 1. When Zi- on’s_ bond - age 
4. Turn now our bond - age, 


ee back was 
Lord, and re - store 


eS 
2S o— 


turn - ing, were like 


us, the tor - mae 


i 


ane THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA gomen. 


men that do dream. 2. Then, fill’d with langh-ter, our tongue ex - ult - ed, 
in the south plain. 5. They that in seed-time in tears are sow - ing, 


aS Sena a eee eee 


And our eyes with glad smilesdid gleam: Then did they de - clare a-mong the 
Joy in reap - ing - time yet may gain. 6. When he go - eth forth, the sow~-er 


na - tions: ‘Great things hath the Lord for these men wrought!” Great things hath the 
weep-eth, In his hands a_ store of pre-cious seed; When he com-eth | 


eS Se aa === aaa oe = = 


Lord wrought for His peo - ple, Joy to faith-ful ones by them is wrought. 


back, he shall be sing - ing, Good - ly sheavesbe bear-ing for his meed. 
B Moderato. 
1: CEL D ENCE 
Pe. Soe! GOES 
SHort Versicugs: Bo - neh be - ra - ha-maw Ye- ru - sha - la - yim: A - men. 
Pleats 
=== eo 
nie Latig - dol ye - shu - mal - ko; we -‘o = seb vues cae - sed 


& — ay aa 


lime - shi - ho, le - Da - wid u - le-zar - ‘o..,. ‘ad ‘o - lam, © - 


seh sha - lom bime - ro - maw, Hu ya - ‘a - seh sha - lom ‘Qs 


Zemirot THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 658 


we, 


SABBATH REST 


1. This day is to our _ race Of all sea-sonsthe best, Re - plete with ev - 'ry 
2. The lives torn with dis - tress, With sweet sol-ace it heals, With fresh spir-it doth 
3. This day, more than all else, Did God ho-ly de- clare, When He whose love it 


grace, The day that brings us rest; Q come, most wel-come guest, Re - 
bless The soul that an - guish feels; A - way sor-row it steals From 
tells, Com - pleted His work so fair. The hearts full of de - epair In 
ee a ae = 
=e oe peat ee anes ee ales Sete lent aa Seereser re 
fresh each wea-ry breast! A light anda _ joy to us is Sab-bath rest. 
hearts sad-ly op -pressed: A light anda _ joy to us is Sab-bath rest. 
its qui-et are blessed: A light anda joy to us is Sab-bath rest. 


AIRS OF THE HASIDIM 
A Allegretto con moto. 


fe ener ener TaD CeO. Bear eee, ey a 
a= ee, ee 
y Acaaiiaaled Gace Gael ATE <a 
Ai! di- di- dy did-dy did-dy di! Ai! did-dy did-dy did-dy did-dy di! 
———___1——-— ss Sig tot 
ee ee ae ee eee 
ss ee eee og oo 
Ai! di-di- dy did-dy did-dy di! Ail did-dy did-dy did-dy did-dy di! 


B Andantino. 


Ai, ai, ai! al i 


ai, 1, ai, ai, 


(Rernain. If the Sab- bath I shall keep, God will then.... my guardian be: An e- ter- nal 


659 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Zemirot 


—# 6-4 | | o_ |? 2 oo a ora i _o_ 9-92. 
area: pe ee ee 


’Twixt Him and me. 


e - nantand sign, 


There-on one must not trade, Nor 


——r — i 


—~ 

: a. ae eae = = ae ee ear ae rr 
tee ee | ee e-9- 5 st oe ss] 
—-_ ae — oa ae a —_ oe 

: : : Nee 


on.... jour - 


ney, Nor talk on mat - ters of 


the state, Nor of the 


fee. So let me speak of 


han ‘Aruk, Orah Hayyim, 293, 1), and that the de- 
parting Queen Sabbath might be escorted on her 
way with protracted song (comp. Zohar, p. 208a). 
These collections of hymns are still published in 
such old-fashioned prayer-books as the one contain- 
ing the “Derek ha-Hayyim” of JACOB BEN JACOB 
Mosks oF Lissa. The authors are among the latest 
of the payyetanim, and the only early medieval 
hymn in the collections is the “Baruk Adonai Yom 
Yom” of SrMEon B. Isaac B. ABUN. 

Even later in origin than the hymns are the melo- 
dies. Indeed, the ordinary head of a household 
could scarcely be expected to do more than repeat 
in the domestic circle the folk-songs which he 
heard in the workaday world outside. With the 
growing elaboration of the florid chant of the haz- 
zan, it would be difficult for the children at the table 
even toapproximate the intricate ornamental vocali- 
zation heard in the synagogue; nor 
would they be able to analyze the in- 
tonations and detect the basis on which 
they were constructed. Jewish characteristics are 
manifested chiefly in occasional phrases of synagogal 
character in which the traditional melody diverges 
from its folk-song model (comp. EN KELOHEND). 
It was the introduction of these occasional Hebraic 
phrases into the popular melodies of Gentile neigh- 
bors which Chopin deplored when he wrote (F. 
Niecks, “Chopin,” i. 188): “Poor Polish airs! you 
do not in the least suspect how you will be inter- 
larded with Majufes” (the Judzo-Polish pronuncia- 
tion of “Mah Yafit,” the opening words of a hymn 
by Mordecai ben Isaac for the eve of the Sabbath, 
One of the most popular zemirot), The most 
‘Wide-spread melodies for the zemirot are those short 
Phrases introduced into the chanting of the grace 
after meals when three or more adult males are pres- 
ent (comp. ‘AL HET). They are South-German in 
Origin, and recall many of the snatches of tune built 
Into the fabric of the Passover home-service. Even 


Melodies. 


God’s great 


‘or even Polish Jews. 


Nor of...... one’s 


fairs, 


Law.... t0........ make wise me. 


where other zemirot are not sung, the psalm pre- 
ceding the grace is at least chanted. One of the 
best-known melodies for it is here transcribed. Its 
instrumental model may perhaps be identified in a 
violin composition of the eighteenth century. 

When the whole collection of zemirot is used, 
they are not chanted to definite melodies, but are 
read in a sort of cantillation (comp. OREN), and 
where a selection is made, the most frequent air isa 
German melody employed either with the “Yom 
Zeh le- Yisrael” of Isaac Luria or with the anony- 
mous “ Zur mi-Shello Akalnu.” 

A favorite melody, often used with “Mah Yafit,” 
may be added as an example of the Sabbath-melody 
popular among the Hastp1m of southern Poland 
and Galicia. Together with the melody which fol- 
lows it, it was first transcribed by Lewandowski 
(comp. his “ Hebrijische Melodien,” op. 32, Berlin, 
1882) as typical of its class. 

The Hasidim affect the chanting both of zemirot 
and of “songs without words,” or melodies set to 
meaningless sounds; nor are these cantillations 
restricted to the Sabbath table, since they aim at 
expressing the joy of the spirit upon all occasions. 
Two such airs, one from Russia and the other from 
Jerusalem, are here transcribed. Their recent Sla- 


-vonie origin is obvious 


The Sephardic tunes for the zemirot are sung in 
a more florid fashion than is usual among German 
They include many tender 
airs, of which that for “Ki Eshmerah Shabbat ” (a 
poem often incorrectly attributed to Abraham IBN 
Ezra) may be instanced. 

Sephardic tradition is particularly rich in melodies 
for the conclusion of the Sabbath. One has already 
been given elsewhere (see Ha-Magspi!1), and another, 
the air to BrEMoza’E MENUHAH, also is well worth 
presentation. 

Some of the original melodies for the zemirot may 
well have been composed or adapted by the authors 


Zend-Avesta 
Zer ffi 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


660 


of the verses, especially in the case of Israel ben 
Moses Nagara, whom Delitzsch calls the founder 
of the Jerusalem rite, and who wrote no less 
than 650 hymns after selecting from the folk- 
songs of the Levant the melodies for his verses. Inu 
his compilations, first published at Safed in 1587, 
the zemirot are arranged according to the order of the 
Perso-Arabic modes in which fall the melodies to 
which they were set, while the original Arabic, 
Turkish, Greek, Rumanian, Spanish, and Italian 
titles are prefixed to his Hebrew verses. His hymns 
“Yah Ribbon ‘Olam” and “ Yiggaleh Kebod Malku- 
teka” are frequently chanted as zemirot, especially 
among the Hasidim, but are set to melodies of much 
later date. Indeed, for the reasons stated at the be- 
ginning of this article, there are few zemirot which 
retain the same melody for more than two genera- 
tions. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zunz, Literaturgesch. pp. 306, 364, 419, 484— 
486, 490, 511, 540, 546, 555, 565, 579, 583, 584, 591, 595, 597. 
J. F. L. C. 


ZEND-AVESTA. See AVESTA. 


ZENOBIA SEPTIMIA: Empress of Palmyra; 
regent (from 267 to 278) for her minor son Vollaba- 
thus, who had been appointed imperator by the 
emperor Aurelian. Zenobia appears to have been 
friendly to the Jews; and according to some accounts, 
which, however, lack authentication, she was herself 
of Jewish descent. That she came into close rela- 
tions with the Jews is shown by Yer. Ta‘an. viii. 46b 
(see also PALMYRA). Within a brief space of time 
she so extended her dominion over the whole of 
Egyptand Syria that Aurelian feared lest she should 
renounce her allegiance to Rome, and he accordingly 
made war on her in 272, conquered her, and led her 
and her son in golden chains in triumph through 
Rome, although he treated her with leniency and 
gave her a villa on the Tiber. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gritz, Gesch. 3d ed., iv. 273-276; Hamburger, 
R.B. T.1., 8.¥. Thadmor. 


s, S. O. 

ZEPHANIAH: One of the twelve Minor Proph- 
ets who describes himself as “the son of Cushi, the 
son of Gedaliah, the son of Amariah, the son of 
Hezekiah, in the days of Josiah, the son of Amon, 
King of Judah” (Zeph. i. 1). He seems, therefore, 
to have been a descendant of Hezekiah, King of 
Judah, since otherwise only the name of his father 
would have been given (comp. Isa. i. 1; Ezek. i. 3; 
Joeli. 1). If he was of royal descent, he probably 
lived in Jerusalem; and evidence of this is seen in 
his prophecies, where he describes various parts of 
the city. According to the first verse of the book 
which bears his name, he flourished during the reign 
of Josiah, and on the basis of his utterances the ma- 
jority of modern scholars date his activity prior to 
the reforms so rigorously inaugurated and promul- 
gated after 621, the pictures of corruption and 
the approaching foe being most appropriately re- 
ferred to the situation in Judah during the early 
years of Josiah and the Scythian invasion. 

The contents of the book of this prophet fall into 
two parts: i. 1-iii. 8, the coming judgment on the 
world, including Israel and the nations; and iii. 9- 
20, a promise of universal salvation. Zephaniah’s 


special denunciations are directed against false wor- 
ship andirreligion. The calamity will find every one, 
even in the hiding-places of Jerusalem; Philistia, 
Moab, Ammon, Cush, and Assyria shall be over. 
whelmed by punishment and disaster; Jerusalem in 
particular, being rebellious, corrupt, and disobedient 
to the word of Yuwug, shall fall under the divine 
wrath. Yet, on the other hand, God’s promise is 
made known to the nations, that He will so purify 
them that they may call on Him, and all shall bring 
Him offerings. After the storm of judgment Israel 
shall be humble, and shall trust in Yuwus# alone. 
New social conditions shall arise, and justice and 
righteousness shall prevail, so that the redeemed 
shall rejoice in the Lord. 

Zephaniah is a forceful book. Its language ig 
vigorous and picturesque, and betrays an acquaint- 
auce with the Earlier Prophets. The ideas most em- 
phasized are the providential control of the nations 
of the world, the necessity of purity and justice as 
opposed to the prevalent corruption and injustice of 
the day, and the refining value of judgment and 
suffering. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Davidson, Nahum, Hahakkuk, and Zepha- 
niah, in The Cambridge Bible for Schools, 1896; Nowack, 
Die Kleinen Propheten, in Handkommentar zum Alten 
Testament, 1897: Smith, The Book of the Twelve Prophets, 
ii., in The Expositor’s Bible, 1898. 

E. G. H. I. M. P. 
ZEPHANIAH BEN MORDECAI TROKI: 

Karaite scholar and author; flourisbed during the 

latter part of the sixteenth century; brother of Jo- 

seph b. Mordecai Troki. He was the author of 

“Kiddush ha-Hodesh we-Sod ha-‘Ibbur,” a work on 

the calendar, and of responsa on the laws govern- 

ing SuHenitan. Both works are mentioned by Sim- 
hah Luzki in his “Orah Zaddikim.” 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: First, Gesch. des Karderthums, iii. 39; idem, 
Bibl. Jud. iii, 448; Gottlober, Bikkoret lte-Toledot ha-Kara- 
‘im, p, 209. 

M. Seu. 


ZERAHIAH BEN ISAAC HA-LEVI GE- 
RONDI (known as ZeRaH and ReZBI): Tal- 
mudic author and liturgical poet of the twelfth cen- 
tury; disciple of Moses ben Joseph of Narbonne. 
Azulai and many others, influenced by the statement 
of Zacuto (“Sefer ha-Yuhasin,” ed. Filopowski, p. 
218) that Zerahiah completed in 1150 his “Sefer ha- 
Ma’or,” which he is known to have begun at the age 
of nineteen, give 1131 as the year of his birth. This 
date can scarcely be correct, however, since the 
“Sefer ha-Ma’or ” mentions the commentaries of Ja- 
cob Tamand Samuel ben Meir, which could not have 
been known so early in Provence. It is equally im- 
probable that he died in 1186, as is asserted by Judah 
ibn Verga (“Shebet Yehudah,” ed. Hanover, p. 112). 
Zerahiah belonged to a prominent Spanish family 
called Yizhari of Gerona, but early in life he left 
his native place, where he seems to have had many 
enemies, and settled at Lunel. There he appears to 
have devoted himself to teaching, his pupils inclu- 
ding Samuel ibn Tibbon, son of Judah ibn Tib- 
bon, who, in his ethical will, freely recognized Zera- 
hiah asa greater scholar than himself. Zerahiah was 
not only a thorough Talmudist of great erudition, 
with an analytic and synthetic mind, but he was 
also deeply versed in Arabic literature, in philoso” 


661 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Zend-Avesta 
Zerffi 


phy, aud in astronomy, and was, above all, a gifted 
poet, combining elegance of style with elevation of 
sentiment. 

Zerahiah’s chief work was the “Sefer ha-Ma’or,” 
which he began at the age of nineteen and completed 
late in life. It contains a critique of Alfasi as well 

as additions to his Halakot, and is di- 
The ‘‘Sefer vided into two parts, the first, entitled 
ha-Ma/’or.” “Ha-Ma’or ha-Katan,” comprising the 

Seder Mo‘ed and the treatises Berakot 
and Hullin, and the second, called “ Ha-Ma’or ha- 
Gadol,” embracing the Sedarim Nashimand Nezikin. 
In this work the author displays great erudition and 
a fine critical sense which recognizes no other au- 
thority than logical reasoning. His independence 
displeased the conservatives, however, and refuta- 
tions of his criticisms were written by Nahmanides 
under the title “Milhamot Adonai,” and by Abra- 
ham ben David of Posquiéres (RABaD), who alluded 
in his harsh fashion to Zerahiah as an immature 
youth who had had the audacity to criticize his 
master, and even accused him of having appropriated 
some of his (RABaD’s) own interpretations without 
mentioning the author. A justification of Zerahiah’s 
critique was written by Ezra Malki under the title 
“Shemen la-Ma’or,” and since 1552 the “Sefer ha- 
Ma’or” has always been printed together with Al fasi. 

As a sequel to his “Sefer ha-Ma’or” Zerahiah 
composed the “Sefer ha-Zaba,” in which he ex- 
pounded the methodology of the Talmud, and at the 
same time endeavored to show that Alfasi had not 
observed the principles laid down in the Talmud for 
halakic interpretation. This work, like its prede- 
cessor, was criticized by Nahmanides, 
who justified Alfasi. Both the “Sefer 
ha-Zaba” and the criticism of Nah- 
manides were inserted in the “Sefer 
Temim De‘im” ($$ 225, 226, Venice, 1622), and were 
also published separately at Shklov in 1803. Zera- 
hiah was likewise the author of the following works: 
“Hilkot Shehitah u-Bedikah,” mentioned in the 
“Sefer ha-Ma’or” at the end of the first chapter on 
the treatise Hullin; “ Hassagot ‘al Ba‘ale ha-Nefesh,” 
a critique of RABaD’s treatise on the la‘/s relating 
to women, published in part with the “ Ba‘ale ha-Ne- 
fesh” (Venice, 1741; Berlin, 1762); “ Dibre Ribot,” 
a controversy with RABaD on civil jurisprudence, 
mentioned in the “Sefer ha-Ma’or” on Baba Mezi‘a 
and cited in part by Bezaleel Ashkenaziin his “Shit- 
tah Mekubbezet” on Baba Mezi‘a, p. 98a; “ Sela‘ ha- 
Mahalokot,” mentioned in the “Sefer ha-Ma’or” at 
the end of the first chapter of Shebu‘ot; “ Pithe 
Niddah,” quoted by the author’s grandson in his 
“Bedek ha-Bayit” (vii. 3); a dissertation on the 
Mishnah Kinnim, published at Constantinople in 
1795; and responsa, mentioned in the “Sefer ha- 
Ma’or” at the end of the second chapter of Gittin 
and quoted in the “Sefer ha-Terumot ” (xlv. 1). Ze- 
rahiah was the author of numerous liturgical poems, 
eighteen of which are found in the Sephardic Mahzor. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zunz, Z. G. p. 476: idem, in Allg. Zeit. des 
Jud. iti. 679; Sachs, Religijse Poesie, p. 257; Dukes, in Ori- 
ent, Lit. ix. 760: Landshuth, “Ammude ha-'Abodah, p. 68; 
Reifmann,. Toledot R. Zerahyah ha-Lewi, Prague, 1853 ; Car- 
moly, La France Israélite, p. 107 ; Steinsehneider, Cat. Bodl. 
Cols. 2589-2593: Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, p.d570; Gross, Gallia 
Judaica, pp. 255, 282 ; Michael, Or ha-Hayyim, p. 367, No. 826. 
J 


Other 
Works. 


I. Br. 


ZERAHIAH HA-YEWANI (RaZaH): By- 
zantine ethical writer of the thirteenth or fourteenth 
century. Of his life no details are known, except 
that he was the author of an ethical work entitled 
“Sefer ha-Yashar,” which was confused with Jacob 
Tam’s halakic work of the same name and errone- 
ously attributed to the renowned tosafist. This 
error was detected by Menahem of Lonzano, who, in 
his poem “ Derek Hayyim” (“Shete Yadot,” p. 122), 
expressly states that the ethical work in question 
belonged to Zerahiah. Lonzano did not succeed, 
however, in correctly establishing the identity of its 
author, fora second error immediately arose. Since 
Zerahiah ha-Yewani had the same initials as Zera- 
hiah ha-Levi Gerondi, the author of the well-known 
“ Sefer ha-Ma’or,” the “Sefer ha-Yashar ” was attrib- 
uted by some bibliographers to the latter, 

The “Sefer ha-Yashar” is divided into eighteen 
short chapters, and treats of the ethical principles 
which underlie the relation of man to God. It is 
an imitation of Bahya’s “ Hobot ha-Lebabot,” which 
Zerahiah acknowledges in his preface that he had 
studied, although he found it too long and too pro- 
found for the average reader. The indebtedness of 
the “Sefer ha-Yashar” to the “ Hobot ha-Lebabot ” 
is especially evident in the first chapter, entitled 
“Sod Beri’at ‘Olam,” which is simply a brief sum- 
mary of the chapters called “Sha‘ar ha-Yihud” and 
“Sha‘ar ha-Behinah” in Bahya’s work. The “Sefer 
ha-Yashar” was first published at Constantinople in 
1526, and since then has passed through twenty-four 
editions. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: De Rossi, Dizionario,s.v. Tam, Jacoh ; Nach- 
man Krochmal, in Kerem Hemed, iv. 272: Carmoly, in Jost’s 
Annalen, i. 155; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. cols. 2586-2588. 


J, I, Br. 


ZERA‘IM (“Seeds”): The first order of the 
Mishnah, containing eleven treatises: Berakot, 
Pe’ah, Demai, Kil’ayim, Shebi‘it, Terumot, Ma‘ase- 
rot, Ma‘aser Sheni, Hallah, ‘Orlah, and Bikkurim. 
With the exception of the first, all these treatises, as 
is implied by the name of the order, deal with the 
laws governing agriculture and farm products. 

E. C. J. Z. I. 


ZERED, BROOK or VALLEY OF: One of 
the stations of the Israelites in the wilderness, indi- 
cated as the end of the thirty-eighth year of wan- 
dering (Num, xxi. 12; Deut. ii. 18-14), The Tar- 
gum of pseudo-Jonathan renders the name by 
“valley where willows grow,” and thus apparently 
etymologizes it by the Talmudic Nn Wy, which is 
confirmed by the Septuagint reading Zdper, The 
location of Zered is given as east of the Jordan on 
the border between Moab and Edom before one cross- 
es the River Arnon. Most modern scholars, inclu- 
ding Dillmann, identify it with the Wadi Karak, a 
deep and narrow ravine running northwest to the 
Dead Sea. 

J. M. Set, 

ZERFFI, GUSTAV (real name, Hirsch): 
Hungarian journalist and revolutionist; born in 
Hungary about 1820. He was the author of 
“Wiener Lichtbilder und Schattenspiele,” with 
twelve caricatures (Vienna, 1848); and as editor of 
“ Der Ungar” in 1848, he became conspicuous by his 
attacks upon the Germans and the imperial family. 


Zerika 
Zhitomir 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


662 


With Csernatoni, Stancsits. Zanetti, Steinitz, and 
others he set the tone for the revolutionists, and in 
1848 he was Schweichel’s captain and adjutant in 
the honved army. On the failure of the revolution 
he fled to Belgrade (1849), where he entered the 
service of the French consul. In 1850 he translated 
Kossuth’s complete works into German for the 
“ Wuropaische Bibliothek der Neuen Belletristischen 
Litteratur” (eccxxii., ceexlvii., cecxlix.), and two 
years later he visited Paris, going in 1853 to Lon- 
don, where he became a member of the Royal Med- 
ical College, and afterward secretary of the Ger- 
man National Association. He resigned this post 
under suspicion, however, although he was still in 
London in 1863. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Wurzbach, Biographisches Lexikon, lix.,8.V.3 
Die Presse, No. 355, feuilleton (Vienna, 1863) ; Die Geissel, 
No. 155 (Vienna, July 3, 1849). 

Ss N. D. 


ZERIKA: Palestinian amora of the fourth cen- 
tury; a pupil of Eleazar, whose halakic maxims he 
transmitted (Sotah 4b; Zeb. 93b; Men. 7b, 86b), and 
of Ammi (see Hul. 46a). He was a colleague of 
Abba, with whom he decided the controversy of 
Judah I. and Nathan on the problem whether the 
night should be divided into three or four watches 
(Yer. Ber. 2d), and by whom he was informed of a 
correction in a halakic tradition given by Ammi (B. 
B. 1380b). He was also acquainted with Ze‘era (Yer. 
Bezah 60c), and especially with Jeremiah (Men. 88b; 
Suk. 87b). In Babylonia it was said that he had 
called Safra’s attention to the difference between the 
modesty of “pious Palestine” and the audacity of 
“bold Babylonia” on the occasion of the prayer for 
rain (Ta‘an. 23b). No haggadic maxims of Zerika’s 
have been preserved, the only saying ascribed to him 
being one belonging really to Hidka, whose name 
was incorrectly transliterated “ Zerika ” (comp. Hag. 
16a, where the correct name, “ Hidka,” is given). 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bacher, Ag. Pal. Amor. iii. 754-755, 

E. C. ; 

ZEROR, RAPHAEL JEDIDIAH SOLO- 
MON BEN JESHUA: Algerian rabbi; born at 
Algiers Sept. 8, 1681; died there Dec. 21, 1737. He 
was a descendant of a family of distinguished Tal- 
mudists, and his grandfather, Solomon Zeror, 
was, like himself, chief rabbi of Algiers. Together 
with the other rabbis of his city he signed the ban 
against Nehemiah Hayyun (comp. Nepi-Ghirondi, 
“Toledot Gedole Yisrael,” p. 280). Zeror studied 
secular sciences, devoting himself especially to 
logic, physics, and geography, and he likewise oc- 
cupied himself much with poetry in addition to ac- 
quiring a reputation asaskilful physician and carry- 
ing-on an extensive commerce by both sea and land. 
Some of his responsa and novellz were collected by 
his pupil Judah ‘Ayyashi, and were published under 
the title “ Peri Zaddik ” (Leghorn, 1748), the edition 
being preceded by a preface written by Zeror’s pupils 
and contemporaries. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bloch, Inscriptions Tumulaires, pp. 45 et 
seq., Paris, 1888 ; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 2126. 


J. M. Set. 

ZERUBBABEL: Son of Shealtiel (Ezra iii. 2, 
8; Hag. i. 1; “ Pedaiah” in I Chron. iii. 19is probably 
a scribal error) and grandson of Jehoiachin. The 
name is either the Hebrew $23 yrvt (= “begotten of 


{in} Babylon”), although compounds with the pas- 
sive participle, frequent in Assyrian, are rarely, if 
ever, found in Hebrew; or, more probably, it is 
the Assyro-Babylonian “Zeru-Babel” (= “seed or 
offspring of Babylon”). It is a moot question 
whether or not he was identical with SHESHBAZZAR, 
“the prince of Judah ” and leader of the first great 
band of exiles returning to Jerusalem from Baby- 
Jon under Cyrus (Ezra i. 8). On the one hand, it is 
urged that he is regarded asthe head of the commu- 
nity of returned exiles (Ezra iv. 2), that he is asso- 
ciated in this capacity with the high priest Jeshua 
in the general administration (Ezra iil. 2, 8; iv. 3; 
v.2; Hag. i. 1; Zech. jii.-iv.), and that the same 
title of governor (“pehah”) of Judah is given him 
by the prophet Haggai (i. 1; ii. 2, 21) as is attrib- 
uted to Sheshbazzar by Ezra (v. 14); while it is sup- 
posed that he, like Daniel, bore a double name, the 
Hebrew “Zerubbabel ” and the Babylonian “Shesh- 
bazzar.” In opposition to this view it is pointed out 
that “Zerubbabel ” is in all probability a Baby ionian 
naine, and that no hint of this identity is given in 
those portions of Ezra in which both names occur. It 
has been suggested that “Sheshbazzar ” may be iden- 
tical with “Shenazar” (I Chron. iii. 18), one of the 
sons of Jehoiachin and an uncle of Zerubbabel. In 
that case it might be supposed that the nephew took 
a& prominent part in the reorganization of the com- 
munity and shortly afterward succeeded to the gov- 
ernorship. Atall events, Zerubbabel was governor 
of Judah in the second year of Darius Hystaspis 
(520 B.c.; Hag. i. 1, 14; ii. 2). According to the 
story of the chronicler in Ezra iii.-iv. 5, Zerubbabel, 
together with the high priest Jeshua and others, 
erected an altar for burnt offerings in the seventh 
month, offered morning and evening sacrifices, and 
kept the Feast of Tabernacles, Inthe second month 
of the second year of the return they laid the founda- 
tion of the Temple, but the opposition of “ the ad ver- 
saries of Judah and Benjamin ” (either descendants 
of Jews who had not gone into exile or interlopers 
who showed hostility to the returning exiles) caused 
a delay of seventeen years. Roused to fresh activity 
by the prophets Haggai and Zechariah, work was 
resumed in the second year of Darius (520 B.c.), 
but fresh obstacles were encountered in the suspi- 
cions of Tatnai, “governor beyond the river” (Rf. 
V.), and an appeal was made to Darius, who promul- 
gated a decree authorizing the completion of the 
work. The Temple was finished and dedicated four 
years later (Ezra v.-vi.). Nothing further is cer- 
tainly known of Zerubbabel, although a Jewish tra- 
dition says that he returned to Babylon and died 
there. His sons are named in I Chron. iii. 19, 
and in Ecclus. (Sirach) xlix. 11 his name appears in 
the list of the famous men of Israel. 

In I Esdras iv. 13-63, followed by Josephus 
(“ Ant.” xi. 8, $8 5-9), a story, which appears to lack 
historicity, is told to the effect that Zerubbabel was 
a soldier in the body-guard of Darius Hystaspis and 
commended himself to the king’s notice by his ready 
wit, receiving as his reward permission to go t0 
Jerusalem and rebuild the Temple. In recent times 
interest has been aroused by the ingenious hypothe 
sis of Sellin (“Serubbabel: ein Beitrag zur Ge 
schichte der Messianischen Erwartung,” 1898), wh? 


663 


endeavors to show that Zerubbabel was actually 
made King of Judah, but was overthrown and put 
to death by the Persians. This kingdom, he be- 
lieves, was regarded as Messianic, and in Isa. iii. he 
sees ab allusion to Zerubbabel’s martyrdom. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY : Ryle, Ezraand Nehemiah, in The Cambridye 
Bible for Schools, Cambridge, 1893; Van Hounacke, Zoroba- 
bel et le Second Temple, Paris, 1892; Sayce, Higher Criti- 
cism and the Verdict of the Monuments, pp. 39 et seq., 
London, 1894: Wellhausen, J. J. G. 3d ed.; Schrader, Die 
Dauer des Zweiten Tempelbaues, in Studien und Kritiken, 
4867, pp. 460-304 ; Koster’s Het Herstel van Israel in het Per- 
Asche Tijdvak, 1894. 

E, G. H. J. F. MeL. 


ZEVAST. See WI. 


ZHIDOVSTVUYUSHCHAYA YERES. See 
JUDAIZING HERESY. 

ZHITOMIR (JITOMIR): Russian city ; capital 
of the government of Volhynia. It is one of the 
oldest towns in European Russia, having become 
part of Lithuania in 1320 and being one of its promi- 
nent towns in the middle of the fifteenth century. 
As late as the middle of the seventeenth century, 
however, there were probably no Jews there, or else 
their number was very small, for the destruction of 
the city during the uprising under CHMIELNICKI in 
1648 is not mentioned in the records of the Vol- 
hynian massacres of that year. When Zhitomir 
became part of Russia in 1778, it had a large 
Jewish community, and was a center of the Hasidic 
movement. In 1861 it had 13,299 Jews in a total 
population of 40,564, and owned one large syna- 
gogue and twenty-six small ones. In 1891 the Jews 
numbered 24,062 out of a total population of 69,785, 
while the number of large synagogues had increased 
to three and the small batte ha-midrashot to forty-six. 

The Russian government regards Zhitomir as 
the central point of the Jewish population of 
southwestern Russia, as Wilna is considered the 
Jewish center of the northwestern part of the coun- 
try. The printing of Hebrew books was permitted 
only in these two cities during the monopoly of 
Hebrew printing from 1845 to 1862, and both of 
them were also chosen as the seats of the two rab- 
binical schools which were established by the gov- 
ernment in 1848 in pursuance of its plans to force 
secular education on the Jews of Russia in accord- 
ance with the program of the Teutonized Russian 
HasKALAH movement. The rabbinical school of 
Zhitomir was considered the more Jewish, or 
rather the less Russianized, of the two (see “ Ha- 
Meliz,” 1868, No. 40). Its first head master was 
Jacob EICHENBAUM, who wassucceeded by Hayyim 
Selig SLontmskr in 1862. The latter remained at 
the head of the school until it was closed (together 
with the one at Wilna) in 1873 because of its failure 
to provide rabbis with a secular education who 
should be acceptable to the Jewish communities. 
Suchastover, Gottlober, Lerner, and Zweifel were 
among the best-known teachers of the rabbinical 
school at Zhitomir, while Goldfaden, Mandelkern, 
and Paperna were among the students who later be- 
came famous in the Jewish world. 

The teachers’ institutes which were substituted 
for the rabbinical schools were scarcely more satis- 
factory, and the one in Zhitomir, which was proba- 
bly the worst-managed Jewish institution in Russia 
of which there is any record (see Prelooker, “Un- 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Zerika 
Zhitomir 


der the Czar and Queen Victoria,” pp. 8-21, Lon- 
don, 1895), and of which Jonas Gurland was in- 
spector from 1873 to 1880, was closed in 1885, The 
present educational institutions of the Jewish com- 
munity include a Talmud Torah, a “ government 
school” for boys, a girls’ school, and several ad- 
mirable private schools for both sexes. The other 
Jewish communal institutions of Zhitomir are con- 
sidered to rank above the average in excellence. 

Wolf (d. 1800), author of the “Or ha-Meir” (Ko- 
retz, 1795), a pupil of Bar of Meseritz and one of 
the leaders of early Hasidism, and Abraham Bar 
Mavruch, “rosh bet din” oracting rabbiof Zhitomir 
in the first half of the nineteenth century and author 
of the “Bat ‘Ayin” (Zhitomir, 1850), are two of the 
few noteworthy rabbinical authorities of Zhitomir; 
indeed, the town has never been a center of rab- 
binical learning. Its best-known “crown rabbis” 
have been Lev Bienstok, Kulisher, and the present 
(1905) incumbent, 8. Skomorovsky, who has held 
this position for nearly fifteen years. Hayyim Nah- 
man Bialik (b. in Radi, Volhynia, 1878), who is con- 
sidered the ablest of the younger Neo-Hebrew poets, 
was educated in Zhitomir. 

About twenty Jews were killed and a large num- 
ber were wounded during the disturbances which 
occurred in Zhitomir on May 7 and 8, 1905, when 
the section of the city known as “ Podol” was dev- 
astated. Among the dead was Nicholas Blinov, 
a Christian student, who fell while defending the 
Jews, and thus acted in real life the part of “ Boris” 
in Chirikev’s drama “ Yevrei,” which he had often 
played as an amateur on the stage. Ten young 
Jews who started from a neighboring town to assist 
the Jews of Zhitomir were killed in the village of 
Troyanov, near the city. After the massacre of 
Zhitomir a committee was organized to collect 
money for the families of those who had been 
killed; it received about 33,000 rubles from Rus- 
sia, 9,500 from England, 1,500 from Germany, and 
6,000 from the United States. 

The district of Zhitomir outside the city con- 
tains 22,686 Jews in a total population of 281,378. 
— Typography: The earliest Hebrew book 
printed in Zhitomir bears the date of 1804. After the 
misfortune which befell Moses ScuaPino at Slavuta 
(comp. Hillel Noah Steinschneider, “‘Or Wilna,” 
pp. 21-27, Wilna, 1900) and the suppression, by 
the Russian government, of ajl Hebrew printing- 
offices in Russia, excepting Wilna, about eight 
years passed before the brothers Hanina Lippa, 
Aryeh Loeb, and Joshua Heschel, “ grandchildren of 
the rabbi of Slavuta,” were permitted to establish a 
Hebrew printing-office in Zhitomir which was a re- 
vival of the Slavuta office, with the same beautiful 
type for which that establishment had been famous. 
In the sixties the Schapiros published at Zhitomir 
the finest edition of the Babylonian Talmud which 
had appeared in Russia until that time. Abraham 
Shalom Shadow and Isaac Moses Baxst also con- 
ducted printing establishments in Zhitomir in the 
second half of the nineteenth century. | 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, p. 9; Ha-Shahar, 
vi. 585-586; Razsvyet, 1880, No. 26; Sokolow, Sefer ha- 
Shanah, pp. 60 et seq.; Zweifel, Shalom ‘al- Yisrael, i. 69-73 
(quotations from the Or ha-Meir of Wolf of Zhitomir). 


H. R. P. WI. 


Zidon 
Zionides 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


664 


ZIDON (SIDON): 1. Eldest son of Canaan 
(Gen. x. 15; I Chron. i. 18). 

2. According to Strabo (xvi. 2), the oldest city 
of Canaan; situated twenty miles south of Beirut. 
Its territory extended from the slopes of the Lebanon 
to the coast, and was bounded on the south by 
Asher and Zebulun (Gen, xlix. 18; Josh. xix. 25). 
In its flourishing period the city had a winter and a 
summer harbor, which are now filled with sand. 
The city is said to have been called after the eldest 
son of Canaan (Gen. x. 19; Josephus, “Ant.” i. 10, 
8 2); but the name may also have been derived from 
the extensive fisheries (11¥) in which the inhabitants 
engaged. It was ruled by independent kings (Jer. 
xxvii. 3), and had its own cult (Judges x. 6; II 
Kings xxiii. 13). It had this advantage over Tyre, 
that it entered into relations with the Israelites when 
its king, Ethbaal, married his daughter Jezebel to 
Ahab (I Kings xvi. 31). 

The prophets of Israel were continually referring 
to the great importance of Zidon as a commercial 
city (Isa. xxiii. 2, 4, 12; Joel iv. (A. V. iii.] 4-7). 
It lost this position when Nebuchadnezzar con- 
quered Palestine and part of Phenicia. Ezekiel’s 
prophecy referring to it (Ezek, xxviii, 20-24) dates 
from a later time. Isaiah (xxiii. 1-14, according to 
Duhm; xxiv. 10, according to Cheyne) refers to the 
destruction of the city by Artaxerxes Ochus in 851 
B.c. There are also various references in the Tal- 
mud to the city. Ze‘era says (Meg. 6a): “The tribe 
of Zebulun, which borders upon Sidon, complains of 
its mountainous country, with its superabundance 
of streams and seacoast, and isanswered by reference 
to Deut. xxxiii. 19, pointing out the advantages of 
this region”: “sefune” is said to mean the murex 
from which the purple dye stb is obtained; “te- 
mune” is said to be an allusion to the abundance 
of fish; and “hol” is said to refer to the Phenician 
glass which is made from the sands. In the seventh 
eentury Zidon was identified with Zeboud in Galilee 
or with Bagdal of Yo (4 Gaon; Gen. R. xcviii. 16). 

Down to the middle of the nineteenth century 
the population did not exceed 8,000 inhabitants, but 
this number has increased to 15,000 within the last 
fifty years; of this number about 10,000 are Mo- 
hammedans, and 800 Jews. The latter are very 
poor, and are dependent almost entirely upon the 
HaALuKKAH. Zidon is still considered to be outside 
the Pale of Palestine; and pious Jews direct their 
bodies to be taken after death to a more southerly 
city. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sepp, Jerusalem und das Heilige Land, ti. 


450-466, Ratisbon, 1876; Neubauer, G. T. pp. 294-295 ; Schwarz, 


The. Holy Land, p. 174. For data on the halukkah see Die 
Jildische Presse (Mayence), 1897, passim. 


di Ss. O. 


ZIEGLER, IGNAZ: Austrian rabbi; born at 
Also-Kubin, Hungary, Sept. 29, 1861; educated at 
the Rabbinical Seminary and at the University of 
Budapest (Ph.D. 1888). Immediately after his 
graduation he was called to the rabbinate of Carls- 
bad, a position which he still (1905) holds. Through 
his efforts the Kaiser Franz Josef Regierungs-Jubi- 
lium Hospiz was erected at Carlsbad, at a cost of 
500,000 Austrian crowns, to provide food, shelter, 
and medical treatment for indigent Jews who come 


to that city in large numbers in search of health, 
This institution was opened May 1, 1903. Ziegler’s 
works are as follows: a Hungarian dissertation on 
the prophet Malachi (Budapest, 1888); “ Religidse 
Disputationen im Mittelalter” (Frankfort-on-the. 
Main, 1894); “Geschichte des Judentums” (Prague, 
1900); and “Die Kénigsgleichnisse im Midrasch” 
(Breslau, 1903). 
g. H. M. 


ZIKLAG: Simeonitic town which, after the 
union of the tribes of Simeon and Judah, became 
Judean; first mentioned in the account of the terri- 
tory and borders of the individual tribes (Josh. xv. 
31, xix. 5). In the early part of the regal period 
Ziklag came into the possession of the Philistines, 
who retained it until King Achish gave it to his 
vassal David as a place of residence (I Sam. xxvii. 
6; II Sam. i. 1, iv. 10; I Chron. xii. 1, 20). It was 
invaded and burned by the Amalekites when David 
joined the Philistine king in war (I Sam. xxx. 1-26), 
and after the return from the first Exile it was one 
of the towns assigned to the Judeans (Neh. xi. 28). 
The town has not yet been identified, although Con- 
der and Kitchener believe that its ruins are repre- 
sented by the remains called Zuhailika, discovered 
by them in 1877, and lying on three low hills east- 
southeast of Gaza and four miles north of Wadi 
al-Shari‘ah. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Riehm, Handw6rterhbuch, 2d ed., p. 1866b 3 
Buhl, Geographie des Aiten Paldstina, Berlin, 1896. 


Ae S. O. 


ZILZER, ANTAL (ANTON): Hungarian 
painter; born at Budapest in 1861. He was a pupil 
of Rauscher, Gregusz, and Szekely at the national 
model school of design, and later studied at the 
Munich Academy under Raupp, Hackl, Seitz, and 
Herterich, completing hiseducation at Berlin, Paris, 
and London. He devoted himself especially to por- 
traits, and received the Munich gold medal in 1887. 
His paintings include: “Alone in the Woods”; 
“ Ludwig IT. on His Funeral Bier”; “ Forest Idyls”; 
and “Sunset on the Lake of Constance.” 


BIBLIOGRAPHY : Singer, Allgemeines Ktinstler-Lexicon, V.,8.0. 
8. N. D. 


ZIMMER, NATHAN LOB DAVID: Eng- 
lish pietist and scholar; born at Firth, Bavaria, in 
March, 1831; died at London Jan. 10, 1895. He was 
noted in London for his intense piety, which he 
probably inherited from his father, who was a fer- 
vent zaddik. Zimmer went to England about 1850 
and entered business. He was primarily engrossed 
with the study of the Law, however, and especially 
with the more occult commentaries, every moment 
not absolutely needed for worldly objects being 
devoted to contemplation and to study of the higher 
life as revealed in the Cabala. His knowledge of 
the Cabalu, and especially of gematria, was pro- 
found, and astronomical calculations also had 4 
strong attraction for him. He compiled an elabo- 
rate genealogical table of the chief rabbis of Eng- 
land and was a frequent contributor to the Jewish 
periodical press on questions of astronomical calcula- 
tion and of ritual. He wasone of the original found- 
ers of the London Federation of Synagogues, and is 


665 


supposed to be the original of Harlkammer in Zang- 

will’s “ Children of the Ghetto.” 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jew. Chron. Jan. 14, 1895; Jew. World, Jan. 
14, 1895. 


4 


; G. L. 


ZIMMERN, HELEN: German authoress; born 
at Hamburg March 25, 1846. She went to England 
at anearly age, and resided there till 1887, when she 
removed to Florence. She has written lives of Scho- 
penhauer (1873), Maria Edgeworth (1883), and Sir 
Laurence Alma-Tadema (1902), and has also trans- 
lated “ Tales from the Eddas ” (1882), “The Epic of 
Kings” (1882), “Comedies of Goldoni” (1892), and 
the “ Pentamerone ” (1893). She likewise contributed 
a volume on the Hansa towns to “The Story of the 
Nations ” series (1899). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Who’s Who, 1905; New International En- 
eyclopedia, 8.v. 


g, J. 
ZIMRAT HA-AREZ. See PERIODICALS. 


ZIMRI: 1. Sonof Zerah and grandson of Judah 
(I Chron. ii. 6), identical with Zabdi (Jos. vii. 1). 

2. Son of Salu, a prince of the Simeonites. In 
the wilderness the Israelites were smitten at Shittim 
for worshiping Baal-peor, and while they were 
weeping before the door of the Tabernacle, Zimri 
took a Midianite woman named Cozbi, the daugh- 
ter of Zur, in the presence of Moses and all the peo- 
ple. Thereupon Phinehas, the grandson of Aaron, 
seized a javelin, went into Zimri’s tent, and slew 
the guilty pair (Num. xxv. 6-14). 

3. Son of Jehoadah or Jarah (I Chron. viii. 36, ix. 
42). He was a Benjamite and adescendant of Saul. 

4. King of Israel for seven days; originally the 
captain of half the chariots of King Elah. He 
gained the throne by the murder of his master as Elah 
was reveling in the house of Arza, his steward, at 
Tirzah. In the midst of the festivity Zimri killed 
the king and all the house of Baasha, the predeces- 
sor of Elah; but when the army, then engaged in 
the siege of the Philistine town of Gibbethon, heard 
of the assassination, it immediately proclaimed its 
general Omri king. He marched at once against 
Tirzah and took the city, whereupon Zimri retreated 
to the royal palace, set it on fire, and perished in the 
flames (I Kings xvi. 9-20). 

5. In Jer. xxv. 25 “kings of Zimri” are men- 
tioned together with Elamitic and Median sover- 
eigns. This Zimri may be identical with Zimran, a 
son of Abraham by Keturah (Gen. xxv. 2). 

E. G. H. B. P. 


ZIN (j¥): Frontier post of Judah on the south, 
mentioned in the description (Num. xxxiv.4; Josh. 
xv. 8) of the frontier between the “ascent of 
AKRABBIM” and Kadesh-barnea. The desert of Zin 
derived its name from this place. Kadesh-barnea 
was situated in this desert (Num. xiii. 2, xxxiii. 
36; Deut, xxxii. 51; Josh. xv. 1, 3; comp. Num. 
xx. 1, xxvii. 14; Deut. xxxii. 51); and one pas- 
Sage (Num. xxxiil. 86) reads, “the wilderness of 
Zin which is Kadesh.” The phrase “the wilderness 
of Kadesh,” which occurs only once (Ps. xxix. 8), 
tefers possibly not to any definite geographical 
locality, but to the region around Kadesh. The 
Statement found in Num. xiii. 26, that Kadesh is 
Situated in the wilderness of Paran, is due to the 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Zidon 
Zionides 


fact that, of the two sources combined in that chap- 
ter, one (P) says that the spies started from the 
wilderness of Paran, and the other (JE) that they 
set out from Paran. The wilderness of Zin ad- 
joined the wilderness of Paran on the north; 
hence it must be assigned to a locality immediately 
south of the southern part of Judah, on the plateau 
or on the mountain region (Josephus mentions the 
“mountains of Sin”) in which the ‘Azazime Bedou- 
ins now pitch their tents. 
E. G. H. 


ZINC. See Brass, 
ZION. See JERUSALEM. 
ZION. See PERIODICALS. 


ZIONIDES or SONGS OF ZION (Hebr. Shire 
Ziyyon): Thesongsof Zion, z.e., the lyrical hymns 
which express the longing of the Jewish nation to 
see the hill of Zion and the city of Jerusalem shine 
again in all their former glory, date back to the 
time immediately after the destruction of Solomon’s 
Temple. Since that period the poets and singers of 
Israel have devoted their best talent to painting in 
the most brilliant colors the ancient glories of Zion. 
By far the greater number of these songs unite in 
voicing a heartfelt desire to see the nation, the city 
of Jerusalem, Mount Zion, and the Temple restored 
to their former splendor. The oldest song of Zion 
in Jewish literature was written in the fifth century 
B.c., and is a lamentation that the enemy compels 
Israel to live on foreign soil; this is the celebrated 
Ps. cxxxvii. 1-8. A similar Zionide of the same 
period is Ps. exxvi.; in it the poet, full of hope, 
sings of the day when the Captivity shall be over 
and the joyfully returning exiles shall sing a new 
song of Zion. The elegy ending with a desire for 
deliverance, which is found in the fifth chapter of 
Lamentations, dates probably from the first pre- 
Christian century. 

During the Middle Ages, Zionides from the pens 
of the greatest poets formed the chief comfort and 
consolation of the people. As early as the time of 
Ibn Gabirol (11th cent.) songs of Zion 
were incorporated in the liturgy, 
partly as lamentations for the Ninth of 
Aband partly astefillotand piyyutim. 
Among the songs of lamentation for Zion which are 
sung on the Ninth of Ab the following may be spe- 
cially referred to: a song beginning with the words 
+99 sb saa ar Sb and giving a vivid descrip- 
tion of the destruction of Zion; the well-known song 
which begins with the words "3}N¥yD inn by wow 
‘1, and in which Samaria and Jerusalem try to ex- 
cel each other in the description of the misfortune 
which has fallen upon them; and, above all, the song 
with the refrain: 


I. Be. 


Ibn 
Gabirol. 


myn py ‘Se 
MAYA NWN wd 
py novn mdinasy 
mys Sya Sy 


(“Zion and her cities wail like a woman in childbirth, 
and like a virgin clothed in sackcloth for the man of 
her youthful choice”). Of other tefillot and piyyu- 
tim may be mentioned the song beginning: 


Zionides 
Zionism 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


666 


mo5a yows mona Sip 
nyeandy ovyd mwa yas 


aud several strophes of the song “Lekah Dodi,” 
composed by Solomon ha-Levi and incorporated in 
the Sabbath eve service. 

The most important of [bn Gabirol’s Zionides are 
the poem beginning with the words: 


sn mby 
a1 yd 

“IBN TWN 
mm yn 


(“Send a prince to the condemned people which is 
scattered hither and thither”) and that beginning: 


SDN? Ay 
3DD) TWN 
$39 33 
yy Dd 


(“Turn thy face, O God, to the conquered, who is 
delivered up into the hand of Babel and of Seir ”). 
Judah ha-Levi (1140) was the author of the Zion- 
ide beginning: 
** Zion, wilt thou not send a greeting to thy captives, 
Who greet thee as the remnant of thy flocks? 
From West to East, from North to South, a greeting, 
From far and near, take thou on all sides. 


A greeting sends the captive of desire, who sheds his tears 
Like dew on Hermon; would they might fall on thy hills.”’ 


Besides this song, which has been translated into 
nearly all Kuropean languages in prose and in verse, 
Judah wrote several shorter songs, chief of which 
are JAD ADI ‘DIN M7. 2d (“ My heart is in the 
East, although I am at the end of the West”) and 
S300 WY Wot ‘monn ovdenw (“Sigh, O Jerusa- 
lem, and shed thy tears, O Zion ”). 

Among other medieval writers of this class may 
be mentioned Abraham ibn Ezra, whocomposed the 
Zionide 5m may aw AyD ODP ‘mdN (“O God, 
who art enthroned in the East, appease the mourn- 
ing dove”); Judah al-Harizi (13th cent.), author of 
the song oby sys aby (“Peace be 
to the city of Salem [Jerusalem] ”); 
and Israel Najara (16th cent.), who 
wrote the song yw’ yy 7OND M5 
(“May the flower of salvation bloom like a palm ”). 
In more modern times Samuel David Luzzatto wrote: 


sa s26 
TNS 3 
YASY IN 
was we 
(“My heart, my heart is full of pain; see, my 
grief is an ancient one”); and equally well known 
is Joseph Almanzi’s 


Various 
Authors. 


mp Son 
7 Nah 
Spo NPI 
n° by be 
(“From all corners comes rejoicing on the day of 
celebration to God, who is good ”). 


The most prominent Hebrew poets have written 
Zionides, among the number being M. 8S. Rabener, 


Micah Levisohn, Judah Loeb Gordon, S. Mandel- 
kern, M. M. Dolitzky, and N. H. Imber. Countless 
songs have been produced under the influence of 
Zionism: of these may be mentioned the song 
adopted by all the Zionists of the world as their 
national song, and beginning with the words 
“There, where a slender cedar kisses the clouds”; 
the song of the academic society Kadimah in Aus- 
tria, “Knowest thou whence freedom comes?” ; the 
song of the united Zionists, “Sluchajcie bracia 
guesni tij”; and “Ha-Tikwah” (Hope), composed 
by N. H. Imber, which has the refrain: 


Men AIAN Xd Ty 

MIVA MPH 

amax yard aw 

non WI Wd VY 
(“Our hope has not yet gone, the old hope to return 
to the land of our fathers, to the city where David 

lived ”). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY : Kinnor Ziyyon, Warsaw, 1900 (collection of all 
the Zionides from the oldest times to the present day {Hebr.]); 
Yevreiskyie Motivy, Grodno, 1900; Heinrich Loewe, Lieder- 


buch ftir Jtidische Vereine, Cologne, 1898; Jacobs, Jewish 
Ideals, p. 131. 5 oO 
J. ; : 


ZIONISM: Movement locking toward the segre- 
gation of the Jewish people upon a national basis 
and ina particular home of its own; specifically, the 
modern form of the movement that seeks for the 
Jews “a publicly and legally assured home in Pal- 
estine,” as initiated by Theodor Herzl in 1896, and 
since then dominating Jewish history. It seems 
that the designation, to distinguish the movement 
from the activity of the Chovevei Zion, was first used 
by Matthias Acher (Birnbaum) in his paper “Selbst- 
emancipation,” 1886 (see “Ost und West,” 1902, p. 
576; Ahad ha-‘Am, “‘Al Parashat Derakim,” p. 98, 
Berlin, 1903 ). 

The idea of a return of the Jews to Palestine has 
its roots in many passages of Holy Writ. It is an 
integral part of the doctrine that deals with the 
Messianic time, as is seen in the con- 
stantly recurring expression, “shub 
shebut ” or “ heshib shebut,” used both 
of Israel and of Judah (Jer. xxx. 7, 1; 
Ezek. xxxix. 25; Lam. ii. 14; Hos. vi. 11; Joel 
iv. 1 e¢ al.). The Dispersion was deemed merely 
temporal: “The days come... that... I will 
bring again the captivity of my people of Israel, and 
they shall build the waste cities and inhabit them; 
and they shall plant vineyards, and drink the wine 
thereof . . . and I will plant them upon their land, 
and they shall no more be pulled up out of their 
land ” (Amosix. 14; comp. Zeph. iii. 20); and “1 will 
bring them again also out of the land of Egypt, and 
gather them out of Assyria; and I will bring them 
into the land of Gilead and Lebanon” (Zech. x. 10; 
comp. Isa. xi. 11). In like strain the Psalmist sings, 
“O that the salvation of Israel were come out of Zion! 
When the Lord bringeth back the captivity of his 
people, Jacob shall rejoice, and Israel shail be glad” 
(Ps. xiv. 7; comp. cvii. 2, 3). According to Isaiah 
(ii. 1-4) and Micah (iv. 1-4), Jerusalem was to be 4 
religious center from which the Law and the word of 
the Law were to go forth. In a dogmatic form this 
doctrine is more precisely stated in Deut. xxx. 1-5. 


Biblical 
Basis. 


667 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Zionides 
Zionism 


The belief that the Messiah will collect the scattered 
hosts (Syay by yma) is often expressed in Tal- 
mudic and midrashic writings; even though more 
universalistic tendencies made themselves felt, espe- 
cially in parts of the Apocryphal literature (see JEw. 
Encyc. viii. 507, s.o. Mrssian) Among Jewish 
philosophers the theory held that the 
Relation to Messiah b. Joseph “will gather the 
Mes- children of Israel around him, march to 
sianism. Jerusalem, and there, after overcoming 
the hostile powers, reestablish the Tem- 
ple-worship and set up his own dominion” (2d. p. 
5i1b). This has remained the doctrine of Orthodox 
Judaism; as Friedlander expresses it in his “ Jewish 
Religion ” (p. 161): “ There are some theologians who 
assume the Messianic period to be the most perfect 
state of civilization, but do not believe in the restora- 
tion of the kingdom of David, the rebuilding of the 
Temple, or the repossession of Palestine by the 
Jews. They altogether reject the national hope of 
the Jews. These theologians either misinterpret or 
wholly ignore the teachings of the Bible and the di- 
vine promises made through the men of God.” 

The Reform wing of the Synagogue, however, re- 
jects this doctrine; and the Conference of Rabbis that 
sut in Frankfort-on-the-Main July 15-28, 1845, de- 
cided to eliminate from the ritual “ the prayers for the 
return to the land of our forefathers and for the res- 
toration of the Jewish state.” The Philadelphia 
Conference, Nov. 3-6, 1869, adopted as the first sec- 
tion of its statement of principles the following: 
“The Messianic aim of Israel is not the restoration 
of the old Jewish state undera descendant of David, 
involving a second separation from the nations of 
the earth, but the union of all the children of God 
in the confession of the unity of God, so as to real- 
ize the unity of all rational creatures, and their call 

to moral sanctification.” This was re- 

Rejected affirmed at the Pittsburg Conference, 
by Reform Nov. 16-18, 1885, in the following 

Judaism. words: “We consider ourselves no 

longer a nation, but a religious com- 

munity; and we therefore expect neither a return to 

Palestine, nor a sacrificial worship under the sons of 

Aaron, nor the restoration of any of the laws con- 
cerning a Jewish state.” 

Historically, the hope of a restoration, of a renewed 
national existence, and of a return to Palestine has 
existed among the Jewish people from olden times. 
After the first Exile, the Jews in Babylonia looked 
forward continually to the reestablishment of their 
ancient kingdom. However much the Jews spread 
from land to land, and however wide the dispersion 
and consequent Diaspora became, this hope con- 


tinued to burn brightly; and from time to time at- 


tempts were made to realize it. The destruction of 
the Temple by Titus and Vespasian (70 c.E.) was per- 
haps the most powerful factor in driving the Jews 
east, south, and west. Nevertheless, in a short time 
the hope of a restoration was kindled anew. Theri- 
Sings under Akiba and Bar Kokba (118) soon followed; 
and the Jews drenched the soil of Palestine with their 
blood in the vain. attempt to regain their national 
freedom against the heavy hand of the Roman 
Power. Despite these checks, the idea of the restora- 
tion persisted and became a matter of dogmatic be- 


lief; as such it finds expression in Jewish literature, 
both prose and poetic. The Talmudic writings asa 
whole, while making suitable provision for the ac- 
tual circumstances under which the Jews lived, are 
based upon the idea that at some time the ancient 
order of things will be reestablished, and the old 
laws and customs come again into vogue. These 
hopes found expression in numerous prayers which 
from time to time were inserted in 
In the ritual. Various calculations were 
Talmudic made as to when this time would ar- 
Times. rive, ¢.g., inthe eighth century (“ Rev- 
elations of R. Simeon b. Yohai”) and 
in the eleventh century (Apoc. Zerubbabel; see 
Zunz, “Hrlésungsjahre,” in “G. 8.” iii, 224; Poz- 
nanski in “Monatsschrift,” 1901). The idea was 
given a philosophic basis by those who treated of 
Jewish theology. And the singers, both of the Syn- 
agogue and the home, were fervid in their lament 
for the glory that was past and in their hopes for 
the dignity that was to come (see ZIONIDES). 

But the outward condition in which the Jews lived 
so many centuries made it impossible for them to 
think of realizing in fact that which they hoped 
and prayed for. The supernatural accessories with 
which theology had clothed the idea of the resto- 
ration also palsied any effort that might have been 
made. The Deity was supposed to lead the way; 
and the hand of man remained inert. From time 
to time, it is true, individual Jews or bands of Jews 
journeyed to Palestine, there either to lay their bones 
in sacred soil or to await the coming of the Mes- 
Siah (see PILGRIMAGE). Only fitfully and at pe- 
riods far distant from one another was any attempt 
made to anticipate Providence and to venture such 
a restoration ona practical basis. And even in such 
cases it was not always Palestine that was selected 
for the first attempt, because of the practical diffi- 
culties which were known to inhere in 
any such a scheme. An attempt of 
this kind was that of Joseph Nast in 
the middle of the sixteenth century, 
both in his endeavor to gain from the Republic of 
Venice an island to which the Portuguese Jews 
might emigrate and in his proclamation to the Jews 
of the Roman Campagna asking them to emigrate 
to Palestine. 

By the side of such projects there were others of 
a more fantastic character. In 1540 an Augsburg 
Jew attempted to form a Jewish state upon a Mes- 
sianic basis (see “ Anzeiger des Deutschen Nat. Mu- 
seums,” 1894, p. 103). Of schemes based upon Mes- 
sianic speculations and purely religious hopes, the 
most important was that of SHABBETHAI ZEBI 
(1626-76), who, personating the Messiah, announced 
that he would restore Israel to the Promised Land. 
How ardent and true the belief in the restoration 
was in the hearts of the Jews may be seen from the 
fact that numerous communities were ready to fol- 
low the impostor’slead. Even such men as Spinoza 
believed in the possibility of the accomplishment of 
the project; andafter Zebi’s fraud had been discov- 
ered, the belief in the impending restoration lingered 
for many years. 

The problem. however, was attacked also from 
the philanthropic point of view. The condition of 


Joseph 
Nasi. 


Zionism 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


668 


the Jews in many parts of Europe occasioned well- 
meaning and charitable persons to seek some means 
of settling them under such conditions as would in- 
sure to them repose and freedom from persecution. 
Of such a kind was the project elaborated in England 
about 1654, an account of which is contained in the 
Egerton collection of manuscripts in the British Mu- 
seum. This account is entitled “ Privileges Granted 
to the People of the Hebrew Nation 
That Are to Goe to the Wilde Cust,” 
and, according to Lucien Wolf, has 
reference to a Jewish settlement in 
Surinam. Such colonicsas these with 
far-reaching administrative rights had 
been established in Curacao in 1652 under the au- 
thority of the Dutch West India Company, and in 1659 
in Cayenne by the French West India Company 
(“Tr. Jew. Hist. Soc. Eng.” iii. 82). In 1749 
Maurice de Saxe, a natural son of August IT. of Po- 
land, had in mind a project to make himself king of 
a Jewish state which was to be founded in South 
America (M. Kohler, in “Menorah,” June, 1892). 
The invitation of Napoleon to the Jews of Asia and 
Africa to settle again in Jerusalem under his egis 
(see “ Moniteur Universelle,” No. 243) was a polit- 
ical document and not meant to be taken seriously. 
Even Mendelssohn was approached with a proposal 
of a similar nature made by an unknown friend in 
the year 1770. He refused to entertain the project 
on the ground that the oppression under which 
the Jews had been living for so many centuries had 
robbed their spirit of all “vigueur,” that they were 
too scattered to work in common, that the project 
would cost too much money, and that it would 
need a general consent of the great powers of 
Europe (“Gesammelte Schriften,” v. 493, Leipsic, 
1844). <A like measure was elaborated in 1819 by 
W. D. Robinson, who proposed the formation of a 
Jewish settlement in the upper Mississippi and 
Missouri territory; and in 1850 the American consul 
in Jerusalem, Warder Cresson, a convert to Juda- 
ism under the name ot Michael C. Boaz Israel, es- 
tablished a Jewish agricultural colony near Jerusa- 
lem, enlisting in its support the Rev, Isaac Leeser 
of Philadelphia, and L. Philippson of Magdeburg 
(M. Kohler, in “Publ. Am, Jew, Hist. Soc.” No. viii., 
p. 80). The most persistent advocate, however, of 
such schemes was Mordecai M. Noan (see also 
ARARAT). As early asthe year 1818 he actively 
propagated the idea of the necessary restoration 
of the Jews to Palestine, In a “ Discourse on the 
Restoration of the Jews,” delivered in 1845 before 
a Christian audience in the city of New York, he 
: showed the wide range of his political 
Mordecai views, and laid down the chief prin- 
Noah. ciples upon which a return of the 
Jews to Palestine could be effected. 

In developing this idea, he conceived a plan fora 
preliminary settlement named “ Ararat” on Grand 
Island in the Niagara River, near Buffalo. On Jan. 
19, 1820, Noah’s memorial to the New York legis- 
lature, praying for the sale to him of Grand Island, 
was presented. This project aroused much interest 
in Kuropealso. Of course nothing definite came of it 
(1b. No. viil., pp. 84e¢ seg.; No. x., p. 172; No. xi., p. 
182); though in 1873 the London “ Jewish Chronicle ” 


Colonizing 
Attempts 
Outside 
Palestine. 


editorially suggested a Jewish colony in the United 
States upon a plan similar to that of Noah (July 4, 
p. 283). 

All these projects of the preliminary stage were 
bound to fail because the Jewish people had not been 
educated to understand their true position in the 
modern world, nor had they been sufficiently stimu- 
lated by the great waves of feeling that had swept 
through Europe. The two influences that made 
themselves felt in such manner as to form the first 
stage in the development of modern Zionism were 
the rise of a strong nationalistic sentiment and the 
development of anti-Semitism. The last part of the 
eighteenth century and the first half of the nine- 
teenth are characterized in Europe by a strong sen- 
timent of cosmopolitanism which even exceeded the 
bounds of rational development. It was a natural 
reaction against the arbitrary grouping of national- 
ities which ignored all racial affiliations and was 
based simply upon political necessities, The swing 
of the pendulum went too far; and the counter-reac- 

tion in favor of personal freedom made 

Rise of itself felt throughout the whole of the 
Nationalist first half of the nineteenth century, 
Sentiment. The idea of personal freedom brought 

in its wake the desire for racial free- 
dom. The action of Switzerland, Hungary, and the 
various Balkan states, the attempt of Ireland to free 
itself from British rule, the unification of Italy and 
Germany upon racial lines, were bound to react upon 
the Jews. Upon the continent of Europe many of 
them had been in the front ranks of those who had 
fought for this racial freedom. The Jews little 
thought that the weapons which they had used 
against others would be turned against themselves, 
and would create within their own ranks a longing 
for racial unity and a communal life. 

Under these influences there arose gradually, es- 
pecially among the younger generation in eastern 
Europe, a sentiment in favor of Jewish national ex- 
istence, which carried in its wake many of the 
brightest and most advanced Jewsof theday. And 
the opening up of the Eastern question brought the 
needs of certain parts of the Ottoman empire promi- 
nently before Europe. The historian Joseph Sal- 
vador as early as 1880 believed in the possibility 
that a congress of European powers might restore 
Palestine to the Jews; and the founders of the Alli- 
ance Israélite Universelle had a similar idea in their 
minds when, under Albert Conn and Charles NET- 
TER, the work of colonizing Jews in Palestine was 
taken up, and the agricultural school Mikweh Yis- 
rael was founded near Jaffa. 

In 1852 Hollingsworth, an Englishman, urged the 
establishment of a Jewish state, because of the ne- 
cessity of safeguarding the overland route to India; 
and in 1864 there appeared in Geneva a pamphlet 
entitled “ Devoir des Nations de Rendre au Peuple 
Juif Sa Nationalité,” which occasioned a lengthy 

discussion in the “ Archives Israélites.” 


French It was ascribed to Abraham Pétavel, 8 
An- Christian clergyman and professor 12 


ticipations. Neuchatel. Pétavel wasa member of 

the Alliance Israélite Universelle, al 
though he was openly and honestly interested 12 
the conversion of the Jews. Though he denied the 


669 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Zionism 


authorship of the pamphlet, it was generally be- 
lieved to have been his work, especially as he pub- 
lished at the same time a long poem, “La Fille de 
Sion ou la Rétablissement d’Israt]” (Paris, 1864). 
The “Archives” declared itself strongly opposed 
to the project; but Lazar Lévy-Bing, a banker of 
Nancy and later a member of the legislature (July 
2, 1871), wrote warmly in favor of Jewish national- 
ism, With no thought of the economic condition of 
the Jews of his day. Jerusalem, he hoped, might 
become the ideal center of the world. Undoubtedly 
influenced by Pétavel, a Jew, J. Frankel, published 
in Strasburg in 1868 a pamphlet with the title “Du 
Rétablissement dela Nationalité Juive.” Theauthor, 
impressed on the one hand by the national move- 
ments of his time and on the other by the insecure 
conditions under which the Jews of eastern Europe 
lived, pleaded boldly and openly for the reconstitu- 
tion of a Jewish state in Palestine by the purchase 
of the country from Turkey. “Should Palestine 
prove to be impossible,” he adds, “we must seek 
elsewhere in any part of the globe some fixed home 
for the Jews; for the essential point is that they be 
at home and independent of other nations,” thus 
approaching in a measure the modern territorialists 
{see below). 

Various schemes with a similar end in view were 
elaborated. Between 1835 and 1840 Moritz Stein- 
schneider was among those who founded in Prague 

a student society for the purpose of 

In propagating the idea of a Jewish state 
Austria. in Palestine; and in the latter year 
an anonymous writer in the “ Orient” 

(No. xxvi., p. 200) published an appeal to his breth- 
ren to make an attempt to procure Syria for the Jews 
under Turkish sovereignty while the blood persecu- 
tion in Damascus was still fresh in memory; and in 
1847 Barthélémy published in “ Le Siécle ” a lengthy 
poem inviting the Rothschilds to restore the kingdom 
of Judah to its former glory. Judah ben Solomon Al- 
kalai, rabbiin Semlin, Croatia, published his “ Goral 
Ladonai,” Vienna, 1857 (2d ed., Amsterdam, 1858), in 
which he advocated the formation of a joint-stock 
company for the purpose of inducing the sultan to 
cede Palestine to the Jews as a tributary state. In 
similar manner Luzzatto, in Padua, wrote in 1854 
to Albert Cohn, “Palestine must be colonized and 
worked by the Jews in order that it may live again 
commercially and agriculturally.” The journeys of 
Sir Moses MontTEFIORE and Adolphe CrEMIEUX to 
Palestine increased the interest of the Jews in their 
ancient home, and brought the matter prominently 
before the public. The founder of the Geneva Con- 
vention, Henry Dunant, worked incessantly with a 


Similar object in view. He tried to interest in such. 


projects the Alliance Israélite Universelle (1863), the 
Anglo-Jewish Association in London, and the Jews 
of Berlin (1866), even founding two societies for that 
purpose, the International Palestine Society and, 
in 1876, the Syrian and Palestine Colonization Soci- 
ety. All his efforts failed to evoke a response. A 
like fate befell both the project of Sir Moses Monte- 
fiore, who in 1840 laid before Mohammed Alia plan 
to colonize Jews in Palestine, and that of Lord 
Shaftesbury, associated with the Society for the Re- 
lief of Persecuted Jews. In the year 1870 Bencdetto 


Musolino, a Christian and a fervent Italian patriot, 
worked out a complete plan for the establishment 
of a Jewish state in Palestine, demonstrating the ad- 
vantage of such a state not only to the Jews, but 
also to the Ottoman empire and to England. In 
vain he tried to interest Lord Palmerston and the 
Rothschilds in the plan. Even his work “La Ge- 
rusalemme e il Popolo Ebreo ” remained unpub- 
lished (“The Maccabeean,” 1905, p. 225). Nor was 
Laurence Oliphant (1829-88), the English traveler 
and politician, more successful. In 1879, after hav- 
ing vainly attempted to procure from the Porte the 
concession of the Euphrates Valley Railway, on the 
sides of which he had proposed to settle Russian 
Jews, he conceived the idea of a Jewish settlement in 
Palestine, in the land of Gilead. A society was to 
be formed witha capital of 10,000,000rubles. Upon 
1,000,000 to 1,500,000 acres the Jewish proletariat of 
Poland, Lithuania, Rumania, and Asiatic Turkey 
were to be colonized, and an agrarian bank was to be 
founded. Oliphant failed both in 1879 and in 1882 
to obtain the permission of the sultan to such a plan. 

Among the early writers who pleaded for the re- 
patriation of Palestine by the Jews 
were David b. Dob Baer GorpDon 
(1826-86), Zebi Hirsch KaLIscCHER 
(1795-1874), Biijah Guttmacher, Moses 
Hess, and the historian Heinrich Graktz. This 
movement in course of time assumed the name of 
CHOVEVEI Zion. Gordon and Hess were its intel- 
lectual leaders, the first publishing in the year 1871 
in his paper “ Ha-Maggid” a number of articles on 
the colonization of Palestine as the basis for the 
future regencration of Judaism. Hess wrote his 
“Rom und Jerusalem” in 1862, which book has re- 
mained one of the foundation works in Zionist litera- 
ture; though a later edition of the work was burned 
by his family, in order to rid the world of this “scan- 
dal” (“Die Welt,” ii., No. 9, p. 16). He confidently 
hoped for the assistance of France in the founding 
of such colonies. Kalischer, who lived in Thorn, 
was perhaps the first practical Zionist. His “ Deri- 
shat Ziyyon” (Lyck, 1862) deals with the religious 
and theological problems involved. He advocated 
the colonization of Palestine, the cultivation of land 
there, and the founding of an agricultural school and 
of a Jewish military guard. He held that the sal- 
vation promised by the Prophets could come only 
gradually and by self-help on the part of the Jews. 
He traveled extensively inaid of these ideas; caused 
the first colonization society to be established in 
Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1861; and had some influ- 
ence in the work that Charles Netter did in Palestine. 
Many Orthodox rabbis joined in this movement, 
e.g., J. Schwarz, S. Schwarz, and Hildesheimer. 
Rabbi Goldschmidt of Leipsic, writing in the “ Allg. 
Zeit. des Jud.,” referred to the colonization of the 
Holy Land as a “tatsachlich heilige Sache”; and in 
such cities as Brody, Tarnopol, and Vienna societies 
were founded for the purpose of studying the He- 
brew language. 

Two years after the appearance of Hess’s “Rom 
und Jerusalem,” and undoubtedly influenced by it, 
Graetz published in the “Jahrbuch fir Jsraeliten ” 
(1863-64) an essay entitled “Die Verjiingung des 
Jiidischen Stammes,” in which he tried to show his- 


Moses 
Hess. 


Zionism 


torically that the Jewish nation was its own Messiah, 

and should bring about its own rejuvenescence and 

redemption, without waiting for the 

Heinrich coming of a single person as redeem- 

Graetz. cr. The violent conflict engendered 

by this essay reechoed even in the 

courts of law (see T. Zlocisti in “ Jiidischer Volks- 

kalender,” pp. 9 e¢ seg., Briinn, 1903-4, where 
Graetz’s essay has been reproduced). 

Toward the end of the seventies in the nineteenth 
century the national movement commenced to gain 
ground still further among the Jews. This was due 
to a recrudescence of national sentiment in Europe, 
as a result of which the Servians, the Bulgarians, 
and the Rumanians had gained complete liberty. 
Pinsker had not looked specifically to Palestine as a 
possible home for the Jews; but Jewish sentiment 
quickly led others in that direction. Ben Yehudah 
published in “ Ha-Shahar ” (1879) a series of articles 
proposing the colonization of the Holy Land and 
the gradual centralization of the Jews there as the 
only means to save both Jews and Judaism; and 
Isaac ROLF in 1883 wrote his standard work “ Aru- 
hat Bat ‘Ammi” onthesame lines. Christian writers 
also became affected with the idea, which was thus 
brought prominently before the world. The rise of 
this national sentiment in Russia is closely connected 
with the names of Moses Lib LILIENBLUM and Perez 
SMOLENSKIN. The riots of 1880 and 1881 turned the 
attention of these authors to the Jewish question. 
The first in his “ Derek la-‘Abor Golim ” and the sec- 
ond in his “‘Am ‘Olam,” and in his journal “ Ha-Sha- 
har” (even before 1880), gave literary expression to 
the national hopes. To these names must be added 
that of Lev Osipovitch Levanda. In England Dis- 
raeli had already declared that “race is the key of 
history,” and George Eliot wrote her “Daniel De- 
ronda” in 1876, and in 1879 her “Impressions of 
Theophrastus Such,” the last chapter of which is 
entitled “The Modern Hep! Hep! Hep!” (repub- 
lished by the Federation of American Zionists, 
1899). In this she makes the Jew say, “The effect 
of our separateness will not be completed and have 

its highest transformation unless our 


George race takes on again the character of a 
Eliot’s nationality. That is the fulfilment of 
‘*‘Daniel the religious trust that molded them 
Deronda.” into a people.” “Daniel Deronda” 


was enthusiastically reviewed in the 
“ Monatsschrift” (1877, pp. 172 et seg.) by David 
Kaufmann, who added, “Who will dare to say 
what may not result from this rising flood of 
feelings in the heart of the Jews, who will dare to 
insist that the imponderable mass of indefinite feel- 
ings and vague impulses which in the march of cen- 
turies has rather increased than decreased in the 
soul of the Jewish people, will pass off without 
leaving any trace?” In like manner Joseph Jacobs 
reviewed the work, addiug, “ And Mordecai’s views 
of the resumption of the soil of the Holy Land by 
the holy people are the only logical position of a 
Jew who desires that the long travail of the ages 
shall not end in the total disappearance of the race ” 
(“Jewish Ideals,” p. 80). Influenced by “Daniel 
Deronda,” Gustav Cohen of Hamburg privately 
printed his “Die Judenfrage und die Zukunft” 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


670 


(1891, 1896), in which he developed the theory there 
expounded to its logical Zionistic conclusion. In 
the United States, a Jewess, Emma LAZARUS, moved 
by the immigration of large numbers of Russian 
Jews to America, wrote a stirring series of articles 
in the “American Hebrew ” (1882, 1883) pleading 
for an independent Jewish nationality and a Jew- 
ish home in Palestine (“An Epistle to the He- 
brews”; republished by the Federation of American 
Zionists, 1900). 

The result of all this agitation was the founding 
of various colonization societies, not only in Russia 
(under the leadership of 8S. P. Rabinowitz, Pinsker, 
H. Schapira, Lilienblum, Max Mandelstamm, and 
Kalonymus Wissotzky), butalsoin Germany, France, 
England, and America; ¢.g., the Central Committee 
at Galatz, the Esra at Berlin, the Chovevei Zion in 

London, the Shawe Zion in the United 


The States, and the Yishshub Erez Yis- 
Chovevei rael in Paris. The first Palestinian. 
Zion. colony was founded in 1874; but the 


work did not commence in earnest till 
1879. At the conference of the Chovevei Zion and 
of other societies, held at Kattowitz on Nov. 6, 
1884, to regulate the help sent to the colonists, no 
less than fifty bodies were represented. A second 
conference was held in Drusgenik on June 15, 1887; 
and a third in Wilna, in 1889, at which thirty-five 
societies were represented and thirty-eight delegates 
were present, In 1891-92 Paul Friedmann made an 
unsuccessful attempt to establish a Jewish colony 
in Midian (see JEw. Encyc. v. 519, s.v. FRIEDMANN, 
Pav1). The growth of the colonization movement 
upon philanthropic principles reached its height in 
1894, when it was arrested largely by the fact that 
the Turkish authorities made it difficult for Jews to 
enter Palestine (see JEw. ENncyc. iv. 47, s.v. CHOVE- 
VEI Zion). Even Baron de Hirsch was not in prin- 
ciple opposed to colonization in the Holy Land, 
as he told a deputation on July 22, 1891; he desired 
that a searching inquiry should first be made into its 
feasibility. He promised to aid any negotiations 
that should be undertaken in Constantinople if the 
report of a commission proved favorable (“ The 
Maccabeean,” p. 118, New York, 1904). | 
The second influence working to produce the 
modern Zionist movement was the rise and exten- 
sion of ANTI-SemriTismM. The Jews had imagined 
that with their political emancipation, 
Influence and, with the destruction of the walls 
of Anti- of the ancient ghettos, their entrance 
Semitism. into the comity of nations, the com- 
plete subsidence of the ancient “ odium 
Judaicum” would result. In this they were sadly 
disappointed. Political liberty did not give them 
social equality; and the newly arisen nationalistic 
sentiment turned fiercely against them. At the 
very moment when their own dormant national 
feeling had been aroused, and when the work of 
colonization in Palestine had sent a thrill of fervor 
through the Jewish masses, the anti-Semitic move- 
ment grew in intensity. From 1881 it pursued its 
victorious march through Europe. The strength of 
the movement in eastern Europe was at first under- 
rated in the hope that it would give way before the 
advance of culture and education in those countrieé. 


671 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Zionism 


This hope was doomed to failure; and when states 
like Germany, Austria, and France joined in it act- 
ively, with the more or less overt cooperation of 
the governments of the day, a reaction among Jews 
was bound to take place. Most of the latter, it is 
true, continued to hope that the phenomenon was 
but a passing one; but a small band in western 
Europe and in America sought its cause in sources 
that were deeper than a passing whim. They 
thought to find it in the impossibility felt by vari- 
ous peoples to assimilate the Jews and at the 
same time to allow them that measure of individual 
and collective freedom which the Jews considered 
necessary for the preservation of their individual 
character. In addition, they had witnessed the re- 
sults of the attempt made by many of their brethren 
to meet fully the demands of the outside world. 
The consequence had been the almost complete con- 
version to Christianity of many of the leading fam- 
ilies in the Mendelssohn epoch, and the loosening of 
the bondsthat held the Jews together, which meant, 
if continued, the absorption of the Jews in the gen- 
eral population and the disappearance of Judaism 
asa distinctive faith. To meet anti-Semitism the 
- great Jewish communities, contenting themselves 
with an attempt to ward off the blows as they fell 
successively, offered in general a passive resistance, 
to which many noble-minded Christians contributed 
in the German and Austrian societies for repelling 
anti-Semitism (see VEREIN ZUR ABWEHR DES 
ANTI-SEMITISMUs). On the other hand, the small 
band referred toabove took up a more positive atti- 
tude, and found the answer to militant anti-Semitism 
in a recurrence to what they considered the basis of 
Jewish life—the idea of the continued national exist- 
ence of the Jews as a people. This current among 
the Jews of modern Western culture combined with 
the two other currents, that of the national Jewish 
revival and that of the philanthropic colonization 
of Palestine, to form the modern Zionist movement. 
It was at this time that Theodor HERZL, brooding 
over the strong rise of anti-Semitism in his own 
Austrian home and in Paris, in which city he was 
then living, wrote his “Judenstaat.” According 
to his own statement, it was conceived and written 
during the last two months of his stay in Paris in 
the year 1895, as a private expression 


Herzl’s of his opinion, and to be shown only 
‘“‘Juden- to a small circle of his friends. One 
staat.” of these friends, after reading the 


pamphlet, declared its author to be of 
unsound mind. Any active agitation or discussion 
of the principles laid down in the book was far 
from Herzl’s purpose. It was only in the spring 
of 1896 that the “Judenstaat” was published in 
Vienna. Translations of it were soon made into 
French, English, and Hebrew; and the original 
German has now (1905) gone through five editions 
(see also “Theodor Herzl’s Zionistische Schriften,” 
Berlin, 1905). The theories here laid down and the 
Propositions made for their realization may be 
summed up in the following statement: 

Starting with the fact that anti-Semitism is a con- 
tinually growing ‘menace both to the Jews and to 
the world at large and is ineradicable, that the Jews 
are a people that are not permitted to merge into 


the social life around them, that true assimilation is 
possible only by means of intermarriage, he comes 
to the conclusion that it is necessary for the Jews, 
if they wish to preserve themselves, to have as their 
own some portion of the globe large enough for them 
to foregather therein and to build up a definite home. 
For the accomplishment of this object he suggests 
the formation of a “Society of Jews,” which shall 
take up the preliminary scientific and political work, 
and of a “Jewish Company” similar to the great 
English and French trading companies, with a capi- 
tal of £50,000,000 and having its center in London. 
The company was to develop the work prepared by 
the Society of Jews, and to organize the new com- 
munity. Asa possible territory for such an ingath- 
ering Herzl suggested either Argentina or Palestine; 
the incoming was to be brought about not by in- 
filtration, but by organized immigration; and if 
Palestine was to be chosen, the sanctuaries of other 
religious faiths were to be made extraterritorial. It 
will be seen that the religious sanction, which had 
been the mainspring of the Orthodox Jewish hope 
in the restoration, was entirely wanting. The prob- 
lem was attacked simply from its economic and 
political sides. In course of time, and as Herzl 
came into closer contact with his Jewish brethren 
than he had been before, he began to recognize the 
value of the religious sanction, as far as a large sec- 
tion of the Jewish people was concerned, and to see 
that the Jewish national consciousness was bound in- 
dissolubly to Palestine. The absolute separation, 
however, of church and state remained one of the 
fundamental ideas of his project; the arrangements 
between the Ottoman government and the Jews was 
to be in the form of a charter granted to the latter 
upon a purely political and mercantile basis. 

It was largely through the instrumentality of 
Israel Zangwill that Herzl was induced tu present 
his project publicly to the Jewish world. He was 
received by the Maccabeeansin London Nov. 24, 1895. 
In a preliminary letter to the “Jewish Chronicle” 
(London, Jan. 17, 1896) he laid down the principal 

features of his plan; and on July 6, 

Herzl’s 1896, he was able to present the project 

Reception in person to the Maccaheeans. A)- 
in London. though his “Judenstaat” had been 

translated (by Sylvie d’Avigdor) into 
English, and despite the publicity given to it by his 
appearance in London, the Jewsin England, and even 
the old Chovevei Zion, refused to approve the new 
expression given to the old hope. On the Continent, 
however, such men as Max Nordau and Alexander 
Marmorek in Paris, Dr. Max Bodenheimer in Cologne, 
Prof. M. Mandelstamm in Kiev, and a number of 
other intellectuals came to his support. 

However much Herzl had wished to remain in his 
purely literary career as feuilletonist, dramatist, and 
journalist, circumstances proved too strong. He 
had touched the core of the Jewish question as 
many of his brethren saw it, and reached the heart 
of the Jewish people. The wave of enthusiasm 
gradually pushed him forward and bore him high 
upon its crest. The first to take up the “Juden- 
staat” as a realizable program was the Zion So- 
ciety in Vienna. Several thousand names were 
subscribed to an address sent out by Drs, M. T. 


Zionism 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


672 


Schnirer and Oser Kokesch calling for the forma- 
tion of a “Society of Jews” to be founded in July, 
1896, in London; and a letter of adhesion to Herzl’s 
principles was forwarded in the month of May to 
Herzl by the above-named as representing their so- 
ciety. According to Lucien Wolf (“Encyce. Brit.” 
s.v. “Zionism ”) the Sultan of Turkey, having heard 
of Herzl’s publication, sent a private messenger, the 
Chevalier de Newlinsky, in May, 1896, with the offer 
of a charter of Palestine for the Jews if they would 
use their influence to stop the agitation consequent 
upon the Armenian massacres, The offer was re- 
fused. 

Herzl’s call for the First Zionist Congress, which 
was to have been held in Munich in 1898, brought 
the whole subject prominently and forcibly before 
the Jewish public. In some quarters it was sup- 
posed that the gathering was to deal with general 
Jewish questions, and not specifically with Zionism 
(Bambus, in “ Allg. Zeit. des Jud.” April 28, 1897)— 
a misconception which could not possibly be due to 
those who had issued the call. But misconceptions 
were apt to occur, since feeling ran high on the part 
of both those who favored and those who opposed the 
Zionist proposition. It may be said at the outset 
that the Jewish people did not answer to the cal! of 
Dr. Herz] as he and his followers had expected. 
Only in certain quarters did there gather around him 
Jews who had been in a measure prepared for his 
coming. Those who had been affected by the Jew- 
ish national idea naturally looked to him as their 
standard-bearer. The Jewish masses, groaning un- 
der oppression in eastern Europe, saw in him their 
possible savior; and those of them who had escaped 
to western Europe and America were not slow to 
follow the lead of their brethren left behind. In 
addition to these a comparatively small number 
of intellectuals came to Herzl’s aid. Some were 
moved thereto either by the results of the aca- 
demic discussion of the questions involved, or by a 
reawakened feeling of attachment to old scenes and 
thoughts from which they had become estranged. 
Others in their own persons or in their immediate 
surroundings had felt the sting of anti-Semitism ; 
while a Jarge number were attracted to the new 
movement from a feeling of benevolent compas- 
sion for the sufferings of their more unfortunate 
brethren. 

Opposition to Zionism arose from many quarters; 
and even as the movement embraced within its fold 
Jews of various religious convictions, so did the op- 
position emanate from different points of the horizon. 
Orthodox Judaism in Europe at first held severely 
aloof, believing that because some of the leaders were 
non-observantsof Jewish ceremonial, the whole move- 
ment set rather away from than toward positive Juda- 

ism. It was supposed to be forcing the 
Opposition. hand of Providence and to be contrary 

to the positive teachings of Orthodox 
Judaism in regard to the coming of the Messiah and 
the providential work of God in bringing about the 
restoration. In Russia the extreme Orthodox syna- 
gogue, not content with a simple protest, organized 
an active opposition which had for its center the Pol- 
tava rabbi Akiba Rabinowitz and the magazine “ Ha- 
Peles” in Wilna. <A library opened there by the 


Zionists on April 14, 1902, had to be closed fora time, 
In common parlance this opposition was spoken of 
as the “ Black Cabinet ” (Lishkabh ha-Shehorah). 

A more theological aspect was given to the oppo- 
sition by some of the European rabbis. Dr. Giide- 
mann, chief rabbiof Vienna, in his “ National-Juden- 
thum ” (Leipsic and Vienna, 1897) says that Israel has 
been since the Dispersion a purely religious commu. 
nity, aleader of peoples; that its historical task hag 
consisted in opposing the idea of nationalism; and 
that if Judaism should reawaken in all its adherents 
the endeavor again to become a nation, it would be 
committing suicide, According to Giidemann, the 
vocation of Israel lies in the spiritual impress that it 
has been able to put upon humanity and in its en- 
deavor to further the Messianic time which shall 
conciliate nations to one another. He holds that 
Judaism has acclimatized itself everywhere; that 
Zion is only a symbol of its own and mankind’s 
future; that in this sense the word is used in the 
prayer-book of the Synagogue, and that true Zion- 
ism can not be separated from the future of hu- 
manity. In a similar spirit K. Kohler formulates 
his opposition to Zionism. He does not call himself 
an anti-Zionist; but believes that in a positive way 
Judaism has another future before it. For him 
Judaism is a religious truth entrusted to a nation 
destined to interlink all nations and sects, classes 
and races of men; its duty is to be a cosmo- 
politan factor of humanity, basing itself upon the 
Biblical passage, “ Ye shall be unto Me a kingdom 
of priests and a holy nation.” “The mission of the 
Jew ig not only spiritual or religious in character; 
it is social and intellectual as well, and the true 
Zionism demands of the Jews to be martyrs in the 
cause of truth and justice and peace until the Lord 
is one and the world one.” He repudiates the idea 
that Judea is the home of the Jew—an idea which 
“unhomes” the Jew all over the wide earth—and 
holds the entire propaganda a Utopian dream because 
even if Turkey were willing, none of the great powers 
of Christendom would concede the Holy Land to the 
Jew; that the high temperature of Palestine would 
no longer afford him a congenial and healthful soil; 
that Palestine has poor prospects of ever becoming 
a leading state and of attracting Jewish capital; that 
the incongruous elements of which a Jewish state 
would be composed would militate against a har- 
monious blending into one great commonwealth; 
and that so petty a commonwealth would be unable 
to cope successfully with the hostile forces arrayed 
against it. However, he looks with favor upon the 
colonization of Palestine by the Jews, and sees the 
“possibility of Zionism leading to a united Judaism 
and a pan-Judean congress” (see “The Judeans,” 
pp. 68 et seg., New York, 1899). Claude Montefiore 
proclaimed himself a convinced and determined an- 
tagonist of the plan on the ground that Zionism is 
calculated to beget and foster anti-Semitic feelings, 
more especially when it is looked upon as a glorious 
ideal instead of a mournful necessity. The Jews, he 
thinks, are to fight the good fight, not to despair, but 
with self-purification and brave endurance to await 
the better time that civilization will] shortly bring, 
when their fellow citizens will claim them as theil 
own (76. pp. 86 et seq.). 


673 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Zionism 


Strong denunciations of Zionism were heard, espe- 
cially in Germany. The appearance of the party 
organ “Die Welt” was declared to be a misfortune 
(“Allg. Zeit. des Jud.” June 11, 1897); G. Kar- 
peles maintaining even that Judaism was no relig- 
ion, but a “sittliche Weltanschauung und geschicht- 
liche Thatsache” (“ Die Welt,” 1905, No. viii.). In 
the name of the Association of Jewish Rabbis of Ger- 
many, S. Maybaum (Berlin) and H. Vogelstein 
(Stettin) issued a protest against the Zionists, who 
were declared to be “ fanatics from Russia and youth- 
ful, hot-headed students.” In a preliminary com- 
munication the protesters laid down the following 
principles: that the Jews are nothing more than a 
religious body, and those in Germany national Ger- 
mans, though as such faithful to the divine religion 
of Sinai. They demanded a united protest of all the 
German congregations against political Zionism; 
anti-agitation to counteract that of the Zionists; and 
a public declaration of all societies composed of 
rabbis and teachers against the movement. Dr. 
Leimdorfer (Hamburg) associated himself with this 
protest (7b. June 11 and July 2, 1897). In Hanover 
the advocate Dr. Meyer proposed in addition an 
anti-Zionist mecting in Berlin at which the Jews 
should proclaim their German patriotic sentiments 
and in this way disarm the Zionists (2d.). No such 
action, however, seems to have been taken; though, 
in England, several rabbis were inhibited by the 
chief rabbi from preaching on Zionism, and the ha- 
ham M. Gaster was prevented by the Mahamad of the 
Spanish and Portuguese congregation from touching 
on the subject in his official capacity (1899). The 

formal protest appeared in the “ All- 

Protest gemeine Zeitung des Judenthums,” 
of German July 16, 1897, signed by the Board of 

Rabbis. Ministers. It states, first, that the at- 

tempts of the Zionists to found a Jew- 
ish national state in Palestine are contrary to the 
Messianic promises of Judaism as laid down in Holy 
Writ and inthe later religious authorities; secondly, 
that Judaism demands of its adherents to serve the 
state in which they live and in every way to further 
its national interests; thirdly, that no opposition 
thereto can be seen in the noble plan to colonize Pales- 
tine with Jewish agriculturists, because that plan 
has no connection with the founding of a national 
state. In the same spirit the Conference of Ameri- 
can Rabbis, which met at Richmond, Va., on Dec, 31, 
1898, declared itself as opposed to the whole Zionist 
movement on the ground (as one of the members 
stated) “that America was the Jews’ Jerusalem and 
Washington their Zion.” 

A like uncompromising attitude against Zionism 
has been taken in England by Lucien Wolf. 
ing with a bias not indistinctly favorable to the plan 
as formulated by Herzl, he has come to hold not only 
the impracticability of the scheme, but the untena- 
bleness of its premises. He believes that the Jews 
are of Aryan origin and that they are not anthropo- 
logically a separate race (a view held also by Solo- 
mon Reinach; see “R. EB. J.” xivii. 1), and that at 
a later time only a centrietal anthropological 
Movement set in; -that there is peril in Zionism, in 
that it is the natural and abiding ally of anti-Semi- 
tism and its most powerful justification; that it is 


XIT.—43 


Start-. 


an attempt to turn back the course of modern Jew- 
ish history; that it is “an ignorant and narrow- 
minded view of a great problem—ignorant because 
it takes no account of the decisive element of prog- 
ress in history; and narrow-minded because it con- 
founds a political memory with a religious ideal.” 
As a means of alleviating Jewish distress in eastern 
Europe, Wolf considers it inadequate and in a certain 
sense unnecessary. The chances of emancipation in 
Russia he holds to be by no means desperate; and the 
Rumanian Jewish question he thinks is greatly im- 
proved and “a manageable one.” The mission of the 

Jew is the Mendelssohnian one: to 


Lucien showanexample tothe nations, to take 
Wolf and its stand on lofty toleration and real 
Laurie universalism, and “its highest tradi- 
Magnus. tional ideal is undoubtedly national, 


but it is not the nation of a kept prin- 
cipality but the holy nation of a kingdom of priests” 
(“ The Zionist Peril,” in “J. Q. R.” xvii. 1-25). 
From the point of view of its effect upon the 
status of Jews in western Europe and America, 
Zionism has been strongly criticized by Laurie Mag- 
nus. This criticism may be summed up in the fol- 
lowing extract: 


**A flight which is no flight, an abandonment, and an evacua- 
tion—this is the modern rendering of the Messianic hope: in- 
stead of Gentiles coming to the light, Dr. Herzl offers the petty 
picture of Jews content, like foreign visitors, with a ‘ favorable 
welcome and treatment.’ We have called this a travesty of 
Judaism. Butit is more than satire—it is treason. Dr. Herzl 
and those who think with him are traitors to the history of the 
Jews, which they misread and misinterpret. They are them- 
selves part authors of the anti-Semitism which they profess to 
slay. For how can the European countries which the Jews pro- 
pose to ‘abandon’ justify their retention of the Jews? And 
why should civil equality have been won by the strenuous exer- 
tion of the Jews, if the Jews themselves be the first to ‘evacu- 
ate’ their position, and to claim the bare courtesy of *foreign 
visitors’?°’ (** Aspects of the Jewish Question,” p. 18, London, 
1902). 


This is also practically the position taken by Prof. 
Ludwig Geiger, the leader of the liberal Jews in 
Berlin, though with more special reference to the 
particular country in which he lives. He says: 


“ Zionism is as dangerous to the German spirit [‘* Deutsch- 
thum’’] as are social democracy and ultramontanism. It has 
something of each: of the one its radicalism, of the other its 
ultramontanism [‘*Jenseitige ’*], tbe desire for a fatherland other 
than that belonging to it by language and culture. . . . Zionism 
may be able to raise its army up to hundreds of thousands, if no 
hindrance is placed in its way. Just as we are warned against 
ultramontane works on history and Social-Democratic teachings, 
so must we be warned against Zionistic sophisms [‘‘Afterweis- 
heit ’]. The German Jew who has a yoice in German literature 
must, as he has been accustomed to for the last century and a 
half, look upon Germany alone as his fatherland, upon the Ger- 
man language as his mother tongue; and the future of that 
nation must remain the only one upon which he bases his hopes. 
Any desire to form together with his coreligionists a people out- 
side of Germany is, not to speak of its impracticability, down- 
right thanklessness toward the nation in whose midst he lives 
—a chimera; for the German Jew is a German in his national 
peculiarities, and Zion is for him the land only of the past, pot 
of the future.” 


No opponent of Zionism has dared to say what 
Geiger adds: 


“The withdrawal of citizen’s rights appears to be the neces- 
sary consequence of German legislation against Zionism, the 
only answer that the German national conscience can give” 
(see **Stimmen der Wahrheit,’ pp. 165 et seg., Berlin, 1905). 


Zionism 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


674 


While criticisms such as these touched upon the 
basal principles of Zionism, other criticisms dealt in 
charges which are evidence of the 
Minor strong feeling raised on all sides in 
Objections. Jewry by the successive progress of 
the Zionist movement. The “ Univers 

Israélite ” summed up the matter in saying: 


‘The long and short of it is, Zionists and anti-Semites are one 
and the same.”’ The *‘ Reform Advocate’ of Chicago spoke of 
the ** Anti-Semites, his [Herzl’s] friends’*’ (March 12, 1898). A 
rabbi in Marburg classed Zionism as ** Messiasschwirmerei ”’ ; 
and the traveler Edward Glaser believed that Zionism was put 
forward by the British government in order to break up Turkey 
and form a buffer state. The hakam bashi in Constantinople 
posted a notice in the synagogue putting the Hebrew paper 
** Ha-Zefirah ’’ under the ban ; and Dr. Bloch, editor of the Vienna 
** Wochenschrift,”’ first endeavored to procure asubvention from 
the Zionists, offering to give up eight pages of his newspaper to 
the cause, if ‘* Die Welt *’ ceased to appear (** Die Welt,”’ ii., No. 
48); failing which, he became a most determined opponent. S. 
Bernfeld's *‘Am Ende des Jahrhunderts’ (1899) has a bare 
mention of Zionism and the congresses; while that portion of 
the year’s review by Martin Philippsohn in the * Jahrbuch fiir 
Jiidische Geschichte,’ 1898, mentioning the Basel Congress of 
1897, was stricken out by the editor, G. Karpeles. When the 
* Trust”? was founded, the report was spread that each of the di- 
rectors was to have a bonus of 100,000 marks for passing the stat- 
utes, and that the sole object of the corporation was to combat 
Orthodoxy. The London ‘ Financial News” (April 28, 1899, p. 
872) spoke of the *‘ harebrained and irresponsible promoters of 
the ridiculous Trust.” 


In the United States, too, the opposition grew 
apace. 


The “Reform Advocate” in Chicago suggested editorially 
that the real object of Herz! and Nordau was to possess them- 
selves of the savings of their poorer brethren. Isaac M. Wise, 
president of the Hebrew Union College, thought that the Zion- 
ists were ** traitors, hypocrites, or fantastic fools whose thoughts, 
sentiments. and actions are in constant contradiction to one an- 
other” (* Hebrew Union College Journal,” Dec., 1899, p. 47); 
while Rabbi Samfleild wrote in the ** Jewish Spectator ” that ** Zi- 
onism isan abnormal eruption of perverted sentiment.”’ Prof. 
Louis Grossman held that the “‘ Zionistic agitation contradicts 
everything that is typical of Jews and Judaism,’ and that the 
**Zionistic movement is a mark of ingenuity, and does not come 
out of the heart of Judaism, either ancient or contemporary "' 
(*' Hebrew Union College Journal,” Dec., 1899, p. 72). 


On the other hand, the attitude of the Christian 
world toward Zionism has been in nearly every case 
one of cordia! attention; in some quarters, even one 

of active furtherance. While those of 

Christian the more important daily papers that 

Attitude. werein Jewish hands either accorded 

the movement scanty attention or 

were absolutely silent (the Vienna “Neue Freie 
Presse,” of which Herzl was feuilleton editor, never 
mentioned the word “Zionism” as long as Herzl 
lived), the other great dailies of the world freely 
opened their columns to news of the movement, as 
did also the great monthlies and quarterlies in Eng- 
land and the United States (e.g., “Contemporary 
Review,” “ Nineteenth Century,” “Forum,” “Fort- 
nightly Review,” “ North American Review,” “In- 
ternational Review,” and “Century ”). In Oct., 
1897, the London “ Daily Chronicle” and the “Pall 
Mall Gazette” publicly accepted the Zionist pro- 
gram and advocated the calling of a general Euro- 
pean Congress. Many Christians, it is true, were 
led to such a course by religious hopes of a Mes- 
sianic return of the Jews to Palestine and their 
possible conversion there; although the German 
“Allgemeine Missions Conferenz” declared that 


“Zionism will not hasten the conversion of Israel, 
but rather delay it” (“ Nathaniel,” 1901). Others, 
however, had a sincere desire to advance this at- 
tempt at Jewish self-help. 

In addition to those mentioned above who had 
been actively engaged in one project or another, 
there area large number who by their voice and oth- 
erwise have encouraged Zionism. As early as 1885 
Prof. K. Furrer of Zurich University spurred on the 
Russian Jewish students to work for the colonization 
of Palestine by the Jews; and in 1904 Secretary John 
Hay of the United States deciared in an interview that 
Zionism was in his opinion quite consistent with 
American patriotism. The Grand Duke of Baden on 
Aug. 4, 1899, uttered these words to Dr. A. Berliner: 
“The movement is an important one and deserves vig- 
orous assistance.” The Preraphaelite painter Hol- 
man Hunt was one of the first to greet Herzi’s pro- 
posal in London (1896) with friendly assistance. He 
has done the same (1905) to Israel Zangwill and the 
Territorialists. The Rev. W. H. Hechler of Vienna 
has been a constant attendant at the congresses, and 
has been of actual assistance in other directions, 
Prof. F. Heman of Basel, the author of “Das Auf- 
wachen der Jiidischen Nation ” (Basel, 1899), also de- 
serves mention, as he sees in Zionism a conciliatory 
force, bringing Jews and Christians nearer to each 
other. Among those who have publicly pronounced 
themselves in favor of Zionism may be mentioned 
Leon Bourgois, the Rumanian premier Stourdza, 
Baron Maxim Manteuffel, Bertha von Suttner, Felix 
Dahn, Karl Peters, Prof. T. A. Masaryk, Bjérnst- 
jerne Bjérnsen, Rider Haggard, Hall Caine, Maxim 
Gorki, and Prof. Thomas Davidson. The philoso- 
pher Edward von Hartmann, however, is of opinion 
that Zionism plays into the hands of the anti-Sem- 
ites, and August Rohling in his “Auf nach Zion” 
(1901) did indeed give color to this idea; but the con- 
ference of political anti-Semites in Hamburg in the 
year 1899 declared it necessary to oppose the move- 
ment, as it awakened sympathy for the Jews among 
the Christian population. The theological faculty 
of the University of Geneva set as the subject for 
the prize essay of the year 1905 the theme “Le Si- 
onisme et Ses Aspirations Actuelles.” A collection of 
opinions has been published by Emil Kronberger, 
“Zionisten und Christen,” Leipsic, 1900, and by 
Hugo Hoppe, “Herrvorragende Nichtjuden tiber 
den Zionismus,” Konigsberg, 1904. 

Though the number of shekel-paying Zionists has 
increased largely year by year, the opposition 
sketched above has hardly diminished, except in the 
case of those whose spokesman has been Lucien 
Wolf (see below). A large section of Orthodox 
Jewry stil] sees in Zionism or rather in its promoters 
a danger to established custom and time-honored 
rites, despite the fact that a specific resolution of the 
Second Basel Congress declared that Zionism would 
do nothing to militate against such customs and 
such rites. The Orthodox rabbis at Grodno in 1908 
declared themselves opposed to the movement, 45 
did a number of Hungarian rabbis in 1904. On the 
other hand, the Haside Ziyyon of Lodz is made UP 
of Hasidim; and such men as Samuel Mohilewel 
Chief Rabbi J. H. Dinner in Holland, the habam 
M. Gaster in England, and H. Pereira Mendes # 


675 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Zionism 


New York have joined the Zionist ranks. The stum- 
bling-block has been the “ Kultur-Frage,” the ques- 
tion of the relation of Zionism to mod- 


The ern education and to the modern point 
‘‘Kultur- of view. The useof the word “ Kultur” 
Frage.” in this connection was unfortunate, 


as the east-European Jew had been 
led to regard this term as connoting certain distinct- 
ive and anti-religious tendencies of modern society. 
The doubt has remained, despite all attempts to clear 
up the difficulty by definition. The question was 
mooted at the First Basel Congress (on the proposi- 
tion of Birnbaum), but was really taken up at the 
Third, Fourth, and Fifth Congresses, at the last of 
which jt was made part of the party’s program. 
The advocacy of physical and mental advancement 
upon modern lines, has provoked the opposition of 
a large body of Orthodox Jews, who otherwise 
might have joined the Zionist body, as the idea of 
the restoration still forms a part of their theolog- 
ical equipment. The Jews connected with Reform 
synagogues, and those outside any distinctively 
Jewish organization, in most cases still look upon 
Zionism as a reaction, not only from a theological 
point of view, but from the standpoint of general 
culture as wel]; and this last, despite the reiterated 
pronouncements made at variouscongresses. In his 
opening address at the First Congress Herzl said: 
“We have no thought of giving up even one foot of 
the culture that we have acquired; on the contrary, 
we wish to broaden that culture,” and at the Third 
Congress he added, “ We desire to lift ourselves up 
to a higher moral plane, to open up new means of 
communication between nations and prepare the 
way for social justice. Just as the poet weaves 
songs out of his own pain, so shall we prepare from 
out of our own suffering the advancement of man- 
kind in whose service we are.” In fact, a formal 
resolution was adopted at the Second Congress to this 
effect: “Zionism seeks not only the economic and 
political but also the spiritual rebirth of the Jewish 
people and must ever remain upon the stand of 
modern culture, whose achievements it highly 
values.” 

To a still larger number of Jews, who might 
perhaps sympathize with Zionism, the seeming 
impracticability of carrying out the platform and 
the supposed insuperable difficulties in finding a 
home for the Jews in and around Palestine, coupled 
with the peculiar political circumstances which ren- 
der those countries the bone of contention among the 
European powers, stand in the way; though some 
of those who now stand aloof have shown a readi- 
ness to join the Zionist ranks if another, and to their 


eyes more practical, policy should be evolved—e.g., | 


that connected with the offer of territory in East 
Africa (see below). 
In spite of all opposition Herzl continued the 
elaboration of the policy set forth in the “Juden- 
| staat.” The first part of his program 
The Basel was the calling of a congress of such 
Congress. Jews and such Jewish organizations 
as sympathized with the new move- 
ment. This congress was to have been held in 
Munich; but the Kultusvorstand of the Munich 
Congregation memorialized the committee that had 


it in charge, asking them to change its venue. In 
face of this determined attitude on the part of the 
leaders of the community, the place of meeting was 
changed in July to Basel. At this congress there 
were 204 delegates. It is notable that the B’nai 
B'rith lodges in Rumania sent two delegates; while 
the English Chovevei Zion organizations were not 
represented, on the ground that the congress was 
“dangerous.” Additional difficulties attended the 
holding of this congress. Part vii. of the first vol- 
ume of “ Die Welt” had been confiscated by the Aus- 
trian authorities. Most of the Jewish newspapers of 
Europe had been actively opposed to Zionism, while 
that part of the daily press which was in any way 
controlled by Jews pursued a consistent policy of 
silence. Among the delegates there were represent- 
atives of the various Jewish national bodies, though 
most of the members came in their private capacity. 
The great Jewish beneficiary organizations of Europe 
and America were entirely without representation ; 
and, with one or two exceptions, they kept them- 
selves entirely free from any connection with Zion- 
ism. However, a number of noted Christians, 
whose interest was either purely humanitarian or 
theological, testified by their attendance to the 
kindly interest which large sections of the non-Jew- 
ish world brought to the new movement. Among 
such were Dunant, the founder of the Red Cross So- 
ciety; the Rev. M. Mitchell; the Rev. Mr. Hechler, 
chaplain to the British embassy in Vienna; Baron 
Manteuffel; Col. Count Bentinck; and Dr. Johannes 
Lipsius, the editor of “Der Christliche Orient.” 
This First Congress wasin the main a manifestation; 
though the organization of the movement was com- 
menced there and a number of propositions made 
which were carried out at a subsequent period; ¢.¢., 
the promotion of the study of the Hebrew language 
and literature, in the discussion of which the plan 
for a proposed Jewish high school in Jaffa or Jeru- 
salem was brought forward; the formation of a 
general Hebrew school organization and a special 
literature commission (Chief Rabbi Ehrenpreis of 
Bulgaria); the formation of a Jewish national fund 
(Professor Shapira of Heidelberg). At this congress 
the Basel Program was drawn up, which states the 
object of Zionism to be “the establishing for the 
Jewish people a publicly and legally assured home 
in Palestine” (see Th. Herzl in the “Contemporary 
Review,” 1897, pp. 587-600; German translation, 
“Der Baseler Congress,” Vienna, 1897). 

Between the First and Second Congresses the Ac- 
tions Committee elected at the former busied itself 
with furthering the propaganda by means of a num- 
ber of pamphlets, such as the addresses of Herz! and 

Nordau at the First Congress; “Das 


Propa- Endeder Juden Noth,” by York-Stein- 
ganda — er, in German, Hebrew, and Yiddish; 
After the Nordau’s “Ueber die Gegner des Zi- 
First onismus”; and a pamphlet setting 
Congress. forth the aims of Zionism, printed in 
Hebrew, Arabic, and French for use in 

the East. It furthered also the organization of the 


various groups that had sprung up; and it took the 
first measures for the founding of the Jewish Co- 
lonial Trust. A prefatory conference of the Actions 
Committee, together with some of the leaders from 


Zionism 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


676 


various countries, was held in Vienna in April, 1898; 
and the Second Congress met in Basel Aug. 28-31 
of that year. The spread of the movement may be 
gaged by the number of Zionist societies and groups 
that had come into being since the First Congress: 


Me Ot ee i (ae 

Country. | S zis | Country. 2 = 13 

| a ei A & 

RUSSIA... eases | oO] 23/373); France......... 3 | 3 
AMUSE sia: ii rees (176) 42/218}) Belgium........| 2 2 
Hungary ........ | 32 | 228 | 260 |} Turkey......... 2 | 2 
Rumania.......- 100| 27/127 {| Denmark....... 1 a 
England......... 2) 14) 261) Servia.......... 1 1 
Germany........ Bd}.e--| 2)1| GFOCCE .....c0ee 1 1 
Tall  wexctwecnes 12) SD AL RGD cvisccaess 2 2 
Bulgaria......... 15} 1| 161) The Transvaal..| 6] .. 6 
Switzerland ..... 6 6 ||\*America........ 50 | 10 | 60 


| 
* New York, 26; Chicago, 8. 


A Russian preliminary conference had been held 
in Warsaw at which about 140 delegates took part, 
anda second one was held at Basel, those attending 
being Orthodox rabbis, presided over by Haham M. 
Gaster of London. More than forty telegrams of 
adhesion were received from Orthodox rabbis; and 
besides a number of crown rabbis of Russia, there 
were also present representatives of the Hasidim. 
A special colonization committee was appointed 
with a view to furthering colonization on the basis 
of the consent of the Turkish government; and an 
agreement was reached as to the formation of the 
Jewish Colonial Trust, a committee of nine being 
appointed for that purpose, with D. Wolfssohn 
of Cologne at the head. The founding of a general 
Hebrew-speaking nation was proposed by Chief 
Rabbi Ehrenpreis of Bulgaria; and the resolution 
on “Kultur,” proposed by Haham Gaster, to which 
reference has been made above, was accepted. 

The Third Congress likewise met in Basel, Aug. 
15-18, 1899. It was here that Herz] announced that 

his endeavors were centered upon re- 
The Third ceivings charter from the sultan. The 
and Fourth report of the Actions Committee 


Con- showed that the number of societies in 
gresses. Russia (877) had increased by 30 per 
cent and in other countries by 25 per 

cent. The shekel-payers numbered more than 100,- 


000, which meant that probably a quarter of a million 
Jews were actively identified with the Zionist move- 
ment. All the Chovevei Zionists in Rumania had be- 
come members of the congress. A new scheme of or- 
ganization was submitted, which had forits object the 
building up of the inner structure of the movement. 
The“ Kultur” question was further discussed, in the 
attempt to make it clear that “Kultur” in no way 
militated against Judaism in any form. The question 
of colonizaticn in Cyprus was brought up by Davis 
Trietsch, who had held a preliminary conference to 
consider the proposal; but he was not allowed to 
proceed with the question in open congress, the great 
majority of the members being decidedly averse to 
even a consideration of the proposal. 

The Fourth Congress was transferred to London, 
where it met in Queen’s Hall Aug. 18-16, 1900. 
The transfer was made with a view to influencing 
British public opinion still further, as in no country 
had the Zionist propaganda been received by the 


general public with more understanding or with 
greatersympathy. During the year that had elapsed 
the Russian societies had increased to 1,034, those of 
England to 38, and those of the United States to 
135; while in a small country like Bulgaria there 
were no less than 42 such societies. 

The hopes of the Zionist. body in regard to Pales. 
tine and the good intentions of the sovereign power 
there were somewhat dampened by the instructions 
sent by the Porte in Nov., 1900, making it impossi- 
ble for Jewish visitors to Palestine to remain there 
for a period longer than three months, The Italian 
government immediately protested that it made no 
difference between its Jewish and its Christian sub- 
jects; and the matter having been brought to the 
attention of Secretary Hay, the American ambassa- 
dor in Constantinople was on Feb. 28, 1901, in- 
structed to make a similar protest in the name of 
the United States government. This action by the 
Porte, which was merely the revival of a regulation 
that had been issued about fifteen or twenty years 
previously, was in many quarters said to have been 
due to the renewed Zionist activity; but on May 17, 
1901, the sultan himself received Herzl in audience, 
the latter being accompanied by two other mem- 

bers of the Actions Committee, Da- 

Herzl’s vid Wolfssohn and Oscar Marmorek. 

Interview Herzl was received on two further 
with occasions; and upon leaving, the sul- 
the Sultan. tan conferred upon him the grand cor- 
don of the Order of the Mejidie. From 
Constantinople Herz} went to London, where on 
June 11, 1901, he was again received by the Macca- 
beeans, on which occasion he spoke with much confi- 
dence of the success of his mission to the sultan and 
asked the Jewish people for £1,500,000 in addition 
to the money in the bank for the purpose of obtain- 
ing the charter. But the Jewish people kept silent; 
and the negotiations which had proceeded so far 
were for the moment in abeyance. 

The Fifth Congress was held at Basel in 1901, this 
time during the winter, Dec. 26-30. The new or- 
ganization statutes were here finally accepted. They 
called for a meeting of the congress once every two 


years; and in the interval between the congresses @ 


meeting of the Larger Actions Committee and the 
leaders in the various countries was to be held. It 
was also decided that a new territorial organization 
could be founded in any land if 5,000 shekel-payers 
demanded the same. All arrangements for opening 
the bank had been made: resolutions were passed to 
give asubvention to the Nationa) Library in Jerusa- 
Jem, and as to the necessity of a Hebrew encyclope- 
dia and the founding of a statistical bureau. A se- 
vere criticism of the Baron de Hirsch Trust was made 
by J. Zangwill, but his motion was not put before the 
congress. There was again along “ Kultur” debate, 
which ended in the following pronouncement: “The 

congress declares spiritual amelioration 


Zangwill [“kulturelle Hebung”], z.¢., the edu- 
atthe cation of the Jewish people along na- 
Fourth tional lines, to be one of the chief ele- 
Congress. mentsof the Zionist program, and lays 


it as a duty upon every Zionist [0 
work toward thatend.” During this congress thirty- 
seven delegates, comprising the Democratic Fraction, 


-- + ene, 
an te an HA Ok nee 
a, 


677 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Zionism 


headed by Berthold Feiwel, being dissatisfied with 
the ruling of the president, left the congress ina body, 
but returned after the demonstration had been made. 

On July 10, 1902, Herzl appeared before the Royal 
Immigration Commission, sitting in London, to deter- 
mine what measures, if any, should be taken to pre. 
vent the large influx of a foreign proletariat into 
England. Herzl’s plea was for a regulation of im- 
migration, as far as 
the Jews were con- 
cerned, rather at its 
source in eastern 
Europe than at its 
outlet in western Eu- 
rope and America. 
In the summer of the 
same year a deputa- 
tion of the German 
Zionist body was re- 
ceived in audience 
at Carlsruhe by the 
Grand Duke of Ba- 
den, who has on sev- 
eral occasions testified 
to his deep interest 
in the movement. 

In the autumn of 
1898 and after pre- 
liminary audiences in 
Potsdam and Con- 
stantinople, Emperor 
William II. of Ger- 
many publicly re- 
ceived a Zionist depu- 
tation in Palestine. 
The delegation con- 
sisted of Dr. Theodor 
Herzl, Dr. M. T. 
Schnirer, D. Wolfs- 
sohn, Dr. M. Boden- 
heimer, and Engineer 
Seidener, president of 
the Zionist groups in 
Germany; and, after 
an introductory 
greeting on Oct. 28 at 
the Colony Mikweh 
Yisrael near Jaffa, it 
was received on Nov, 
2 in the imperial tent 
in Jerusalem, State 
Secretary von Biilow 
being present. Inan- 
Swer to the address 
presented, the em- 
peror said that “all such endeavors, as aiming at 
the promotion of Palestinian agriculture to the 
weal of the Turkish empire, and having due re- 
Spect to the sovereignty of the sultan, might be 
sure of his good-will and interest.” 

Both at this time and subsequently Herzl had 
interviews with the sultan. His original program 
Meant an understanding with that rulerupon the 
basis of a regulation of the Turkish finances (“ Die 
Welt,” i., No.1). He tried also to impress upon the 
Sultan the perfect loyalty of the Zionist body, as 


Ny 


Ws 
At 


AY wi 1 
Neat x 


Interview Between William II. of Germany and Theodor Herzl 
Outside of Jerusalem, 1902. 
(From a photograph.) 


° \ 
rch tit AAAS 


shown in the public manner in which it dealt with 
the problem and in its opposition to any form of 
small colonization which meant the smuggling in of 
Jews to Palestine against the wishes of the sovereign 
power, as well as the value to Turkey of an indus- 
trious, law-abiding, and progressive element in the 
country. The concessions on the part of the sultan 
were to be in the form of a charter, the Turkish 
government afford- 
ing the Jews a large 
amount of municipal 
self-government, the 
Jews on their part 
paying a certain sum 
upon the delivery of 
the concession and a 
yearly tribute after 
that. Thestatus was 
to be similar to that 
of the Island of Sa- 
mos, which, on ac- 
count of the part it 
had taken in the lib- 
eration of Greece in 
1821, was accorded 
on Dec. 11, 1882, 
through the _ inter- 
vention of England, 
France, and Russia, 
a Christian autono- 
mous prince, having 
his own army, flag, 
and congress, and 


Ou YY). ; 
ia ! i“ Nie | paying to the sultan 


a yearly tribute of 
300,000 piasters (W. 


Miller, in “The 
Speaker,” 1898, p. 
579). Though upon 
several occasions 
Herzl believed him- 
self near to the reali- 
zation of his policy, 
it failed because of 
the lack cf monetary 
support from the 
Jews. Ata later pe- 
riod the sultan pro- 
posed a scattered col- 
onization of the Jews 
in the Turkish em- 
pire, which Herzl 
was bound to refuse, 
as being incompat- 
ible with the Basel 
Program and the needs of the Jewish national move- 
ment (“Protokoll” of the Sixth Zionist Congress, 
p. 6). 

In October of the same year (1898) negotiations 
were opened with some members of the English gov- 
ernment for a land concession in the Sinai Penin- 
sula. These negotiations were continued in Cairo by 
L. J. Greenberg with Lord Cromer and the Egyptian 
government. A commission, consisting of Engineer 
Kessler, Architect Marmorek, Captain Goldsmid, 
Engineer Stephens, Professor Laurant, Dr. 8. Soskin, 


i 
be 
TRE 


Zionism 


Dr. Hillel Joffe, and Mr. Humphreys, representing 
the Egyptian government, left Egypt at the be- 
ginning of 1908 to make an exhaustive study of the 
territory under consideration ; and it returned toward 
the end of March. The Egyptian government, 
although in part agreeing to the demands for a 
Jewish administration and extended municipal] pow- 
ers in the proposed settlement at Al ‘Arish, felt it- 
self not warranted in agreeing to the concession 
on account of the lack of water, which would neces- 
sitate the use of a certain portion of the Nile. It 
may be added that the Jewish Colonization Associ- 
ation had shown itself not unwilling to Jend its as- 
sistance, had the concession been granted (“Die 
Welt,” 1904, No. 1). 

Russia having furnished the greatest number of 
Zionists, the trend of sentiment in that country may 

briefly be indicated. At the Minsk 
Zionism in Congress held in Sept., 1902, 500 dele- 
Russia. gatesattended, representing the Ortho- 
dox Party, the Democratic Fraction, 
a so-called Center Party, and the socialistic Bund. 
At this meeting the relation of orthodoxy to radical- 
ism, the “ Kultur” question, and especially coloniza- 
tion in Palestine were discussed. The congress was 
not indisposed to unite with non-Zionist coloniza- 
tion societies for the immediate purchase of land in 
Palestine, thus making the first break in the rigidity 
of the Basel Platform. Resolutions were passed to the 
effect that all moneys belonging to the National 
Fund should be used only for the purchasing of land 
in Palestine, and that the paragraphs of the National 
Fund statutes should be so changed as to preclude 
the collection of capital to which restrictions were 
attached (see M. Nurock, “Der i. Allrussische 
Zionisten-Congress in Minsk,” Riga, 1902). 

The year 1908 is memorable in the annals of Zion- 
ism. On June24, Von Plehve, the Russian minister 
of the interior, issued a secret circular to the gov- 
ernors, city prefects, and chicfs of police, putting a 
ban upon all Zionist meetings and forbidding all 
collections for Zionist purposes. The moneys belong- 
ing to the Trust and to the Jewish National Fund, 
and the shekel collections were to be turned over to 
the Odessa society for assisting Jewish agriculturists 
in Palestine. The reason given for this action was 
the supposed impossibility of realizing the Zionist 
program except in the distant future; but the real 
motive was the fear that Jewish Socialists might 
make use of the Zionist platform for the propagation 
of their theories (“ The Times,” London, Sept. 2 and 
11). This, together with the distressing condition of 
the Jews in general in that country, induced Herzl to 
visit Russia early in Aug., 1903. He there had inter- 
views with Witte and Von Plehve, and was joy- 
fully acclaimed by the Jewish prole- 
tariat of the cities through which he 
passed. The result of his interview 
with Von Plehve is given in a letter 
to Herzl dated Aug. 12, and published 
at the Sixth Zionist Congress. In it 
Von Plehve promises that if the Zionistic movement 
confines its agitation to the creation of an independ- 
ent state in Palestine and to the organized emigra- 
tion from Russia of acertain number of Jewish in- 
habitants, the Russian government will give its 


Herzl’s 
Interview 
with Von 

Plehve. 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


678 


moral and material support to Zionist negotiations at 
Constantinople, and will facilitate the work of the 
emigration societies with certain moneys contrib- 
uted by the Jews of Russia (“ Die Welt,” Aug. 25, 
1903). 

Ever since the negotiations in regard to Al ‘Arish, 
Herzl and his agents had kept in contact with the 
English government. The project to effect a Jew- 
ish colonization in the East-African Protectorate 
seems not to have been an entire surprise. In the 
“Jewish Chronicle” of July, 1903, it was mooted 
by Robert T. Yates. It was, however, in no way 
sought by the Zionist leaders, but was spontaneously 
offered to Dr. Herzl by Joseph Chamberlain, after 
the latter’s visit to South Africa upon the close of 
the Boer war. In an official letter dated from the 
Foreign Office, Aug. 14, 1903, Clement Hill wrote 
to L. J. Greenberg in regard to “ the form of an agree- 
ment which Dr. Herzl proposes should be entered into 
between His Majesty’s government and the Jewish 
Colonial Trust, Ltd., for the establishment of a Jew- 
ish settlement in East Africa.” Hill was directed by 
the Marquis of Lansdowne to say: 

‘**That he has studied the question with the interest which 
His Majesty’s government must always take in any well consid- 
ered scheme for the amelioration of the position of the Jewish 
race... If asitecan be found which the Trust and His Maj- 

esty’s Commissioner consider suitable and 

The East- which commends itself to his government, 

African Lord Lansdowne will be prepared to entertain 
Project and favorably proposals for the establishment of 

the Sixth a Jewish colony or settlement on conditions 

Congress. which will enable the members to observe 

their national customs ... the details of the 
scheme comprising as its main features the grant of a consider- 
able area of land, the appointment of a Jewish official as the 
chief of the local administration, and permission to the colony 
to have a free hand in regard to municipal legislation as to the 
management of religious and purely domestic matters, such 
local autonomy being conditional upon the right of His Maj- 
esty’s government to exercise general control.” 


The Sixth Congress drew near without a shadow 
to presage the storms that were coming. It was 
held in Basel Aug. 23-28, 1903. It is true that on 
Aug. 22 a preliminary meeting was convened, in 
which the Government Party was severely criticized 
by Alfred Nossig, who pleaded for “national educa- 
tion ” as being more important and of more imme- — 
diate necessity than the acquisition of territory; but 
such criticism on the part of the opposition was ex- 
pected. Although the basis of representation had 
been raised to 200 shekel-payers, no less than 592 dele- 
gates and more than 2,000 spectators were present. 
The announcement by Herzl of his interview with 
Von Plehve created a sensation among the Russian 
delegates, especially among those of Socialistic pro- 
clivitities; while the offer made by the British gov- 
ernment was received with very varied feelings, In 
his address Herzl distinctly said: “East Africa is 
indeed not Zion and can never become it”; and 
in an eloquent oration Max Nordau spoke of such 
a possible settlement simply as a“ Nachtasyl.” The 
Democratic Fraction as a whole was againstthe propo- 
sition, as were the majority of the Russian delegates. 
Feeling ran very high, and at one time threatened 
even todisrupt the meeting. The proposition before 
the congress was that a commission should be sent 
out to examine the territory in East Africa, and that 
before a final vote was taken on the merits of the 


679 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Zionism 


question a special congress should be called for that 
purpose. After several days of argument a vote 
was taken which showed 295 affirmative and 178 
negative, 90 withholding their votes entirely. This 
vote represented the view of the congress not 
as to the advisability of accepting the offer of the 
British government, but merely as to the proper 
spirit in which so generous an offer ought to be re- 
ceived and upon the political necessities of the mo- 
ment. Nevertheless, it was taken to have a much 
wider meaning; and although a rider was attached 
to the resolution prohibiting the use of any shekel 
moneys or any property of the Trust for the purpose 
of the expedition, the Russian members of the Ac- 
tions Committee and a number of Russian delegates 
persisted in misunderstanding the purport of the 
vote and created a demonstration by publicly leaving 
the congress. 

The East-African proposal acted like a firebrand 
in the Zionist camp. It threatened to divide the 
party into two opposed halves, and meetings of pro- 

test and discussion were every where 


The East- held. The misunderstanding would 
African not down. On the one hand, some 

Com- groups in Rumania went so far as to 
mission. commence preparations to leave for 


East Africa; and a special warning 
had to be issued by the Actions Committee. On 
the other hand, the inhibition placed upon Zionist 
moneys for the purposes of the commission caused 
along delay in the formation and despatch of that 
body. InSept., 1903, the Jewish Colonization Asso- 
ciation was asked to bear one-half of the expense 
of the commission; and it consented to do so on the 
understanding that any settlement made in East 
Africa should be only in the way of simple colo- 
nization, and should have no political character what- 
soever. This necessitated the withdrawal of the 
request, the greater part of the expense of the com- 
mission being at a later time borne by Christian 
friends of the movement. It was also noted that a 
strong opposition manifested itself in East Africa. 
Lord Delamere, the high commissioner, sent a cable 
protest (“ Times,” London, Aug. 28), which protest 
was endorsed by Lord Hindlip and Sir Harry H. 
Johnston (20. Sept. 2); the latter, however, changed 
his position later on (“ Die Welt,” 1904, p. 42). Pop- 
ular feeling had been so roused among the Jews that 
on Dec. 19, 1903, a Russian student of unsound 
mind, Haim Selik Loubau, made an attempt upon 
the life of Max Nordau at the Zionist ball given in 
the Salle Charras in Paris. 

Simultaneously with the Sixth General Congress 
the first Jewish congress was held in Palestine. It 
was organized and Ied by Usishkin. Seventy del- 
egates and sixty teachers met in the colony Zikron 
Ya‘akob. It was intended to be a Basel congress in 
miniature. 


Anorganization was founded, to which all Jews in Palestine 
were to belong who were above eighteen years of age and who 
paid one franc a year. The delegates were to meet once a 
year. chosen by groups of fifty. for which purpose Palestine was 
divided into six sections : 

1. Jerusalem, Hebron, Mozah, and Artuf. 

2. The colonies around Ramleh. 

3. Jaffa and Petah Tikwah. 

4, Nazareth, Tiberias, and the colonies in the neighborhood. 

5. Hudairiyah, Zikron Ya‘akob, and Haifa, 


6. Safed and the Galilean colonies. 

There Was to be an actions coimnmittee of twenty-three mem- 
bers and an extra-Palestinian committee containing represen- 
tatives of the Odessa body, the Jewish Colonization Association, 
the Alliance Israélite, the Esra, and Baron Edmond Rotbsehild. 
It is not Known that the organization was perfected or that 
either it or its committees ever held further meetings. 


The Russian members of the Actions Committee 
when they returned home were not inactive. In 
Oct., 1908, most of them held a secret conference at 
Kharkof, at which they resolved to send a commit- 
tee to Vienna to demand of. Herzl a written promise 
to relinquish the East-African project before the con- 
vening of the Seventh Congress, and in his capacity 
as a leader of the Zionists to engage in no further 
territorial projects. He was formally to promise 
also to take up the work in Palestine and the acqui- 
sition of land there and in Syria with the moneys of 
the National Fund. An organization of the Rus- 
sian Actions Committee was determined upon in 
order to give it greater weight in the Zionist delib- 


erations. If Herzl should refuse to give the prom- 
ises demanded, the Russians were to 
Rise of refrain from sending further contribu- 


Territorial- tions to Vienna and to commence an 
ism. active propaganda against the Govern- 
ment Party. It was this conference 
that invented the name “Territorialism.” This un- 
doubted revolutionary action on the part of many 
members of the Larger Actions Committee living in 
Russia was received with an outburst of protests 
from Zionist organizations throughout the world, 
some of which came from St. Petersburg, Odessa, 
Warsaw, and Baku. The delegation of the Khar- 
kof Conference, consisting of A. A. Belkowsky, S. 
J. Rosenbaum, and W. J. Temkin, went to Vienna 
and met a session of the Larger Actions Committee on 
April 11, 1904. Everything was done to convince 
the Russian members not only of the illegality of the 
position they had taken, but also of the groundless- 
ness Of their fears that either Herzl or the Actions 
Committee had swerved one iota from the Basel 
Platform; and the resolutions of the Kharkof Con- 
ference were allowed to pass without action. 

They were, however, to leave an indelible mark 
upon the Zionist movement asa whole. The oppo- 
sition to the proposed offer of the English govern- 
ment in many quarters turned into opposition 
against the president of the congress. He was bit- 
terly attacked, notably by Haham M. Gaster of 
London; and he felt deeply the exposed position in 
which he had been placed. For some time past the 
cares of the great Zionist movement had weighed too 
heavily upon him. At the Sixth Congress he had 
complained that his physical powers were unequal 
to the task, and that an affection of the heart made 
the great work more difficult than it otherwise 
would have been. Still he was unremitting in his 
labors. On Oct. 11, 1908, the King of Italy re- 
ceived Rabbi S. Margulies of Florence in the inter- 
ests of Zionism, and on Jan. 25 following Herzl had 

audience both of the king and of Tit- 

Death of toni, the Italian Minister of Foreign Af- 

Herzl. fairs. On thisoccasion he saw alsothe 
pope and Cardinal Merry del Val. On 

July 3, 1904, Herzl breathed his last, a martyr to the 
Jewish cause. There is no doubt that the discussions 


Zionism 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


680 


and misrepresentations consequent upon the East- 
African proposal aggravated the disease that was 
slowly mastering his body. Perhaps the only Jew- 
ish statesman of modern times who had devoted him- 
self to the service of his people, he had done more 
than any single person or group of persons to give 
the cause dignity and standing. He had been able 
to unite upon a common ground factors of varying 
opinions and divergent interests. His fascinating 
personality and his diplomatic tact had made him 
the spokesman of his brethren. He had found the 
Jewish question a philanthropic and at best an agri- 
cultural one. He left it an economic and diplo- 
matic one. Whatever his merit as a German lit- 
terateur may have been (and this was testified to most 
bountifully at his death), as an upholder of Jewish 
ideals and a liberator of his people from mental and 
moral serfdom he stands almost unique in Jewish 
annals. 

The death of Herzl naturally created consterna- 
tion within the Zionist body. He had united so 
much in his own person that he took upon bimself 
alone many of the burdens that others should 
have borne with him. The question of his succes- 
sor as chairman of the Actions Committee and as 
president of the congress naturally preoccupied all 
minds. On Aug. 16, 1904, a meeting of the Larger 
Actions Committee was called to take over the affairs 
of the organization, and on the 17th the annual con- 
ference was held. An additional commission to the 
Smaller Actions Committee was elected, consisting 
of Nordau, Wolfssohn, Katzenelensohn, Warburg, 
Tschlenow, Usishkin, Alexander Marmorek, Boden- 
heimer, and Greenberg, although no provision for 
such a commission was contained in the constitution. 
On Nov. 18, 1904, a Zionist deputation, consisting 
of N. Katzenelensohn, J. Jasinowsky, Tschlenow, 
and Belkowsky, had an interview with Sviatopolk- 
Mirsky, the new Russian Minister of the Interior; 
and on Dec. 4 and 5 Dr. N. Bodenheimer and others, 
representing the Actions Committee, attended a 
meeting in Frankfort-on-the-Main for the purpose 
of regulating the emigration of Jews from Russia, 
In Jan., 1905, the Larger Actions Committee again 
sat in Vienna, and it was resolved to legalize the 
National Fund in London under the control of the 
Jewish Colonial Trust. The Russian Zionists mean- 
while commenced to arm themselves for the strug- 
gle which it was foreseen would arise at the Seventh 
Congress. On Jan. 14, 1905, a conference of forty- 
seven persons was held in Wilna, at which it was 
resolved that “as regards the view which con- 
siders it possible to realize the ultimate aim of 
Zionism in a country other than Palestine, it is agreed 
that such a view is opposed to both the historic ideal 
of Zionism and the Basel Platform.” 

The East-African Commission of Inquiry which 
had beensentout on Dec. 25, 1902, after the committee 
of nine members appointed by the congress of that 
year had examined the project in Europe, was com- 
posed of Major A. St. H. Gibbons, Prof. Alfred Kaiser, 
and Engineer M. Wilbusch. The British govern- 
ment had proposed to leave the delimitation of the 
proposed Jewish settlement to the commission and 
to the authorities in British East Africa. Herzl, 
however, preferred that the government should 


offer a definite territory, which it did after com- 
municating with the high commissioner. This 
territory is known as the Guas Ngishu 

Question of Plateau, covering “an area of about 
the Guas 6,000 square miles, bounded in the 

Ngishu north by a line running parallel to 

Plateau. the equator, and the starting-point of 

which is the Keremkie, a western 
tributary of the Kerio River, which flows into Lake 
Rudolf. In the west it is bounded by the line of 
the meridian, which is to be counted from the Kis- 
simchanga Mountain to the equator, and which ter- 
minates at the Maragolia Hills. In the south the 
boundary-line as far as the main slope of the so- 
called Rift Valley, the great East-African depres- 
sion, is formed by the equator, from which point 
the eastern boundary-line is drawn almost due 
north along the Elgeyo escarpment as far as the 
above-mentioned Keremkie River.” The report of 
the commission was presented to the Actions Com- 
mittee May 16, 1903, and has been printed as a 
Zionist Blue Book in English and German (London, 
1905). The opinions of the members of the commis- 
sion were divided; but in general the territory 
offered was found to be insufficient for a large num- 
ber of Jewish settlers, and to be fit rather for grazing 
than for agriculture. 

The Seventh Congress met in Basel on July 27, 
1905, the first anniversary of the funeral of Theo- 
dor Herzl. Over 800 delegates had been elected, of 
whom more than 600 attended. As had been antic- 

ipated, the sessions were particularly 


The exciting ; indeed, at times they became 
Seventh turbulent. The various parties had 
Congress. previously made preparations, the 


Ziy yone Zionists having held a prelim- 
inary conference in Freiburg. Dr. Max Nordau was 
elected president. Perhaps the most interesting re- 
port presented to the congress was that of the Pal- 
estine Commission. It told of the publication of its 
organ “Altneuland,” of a geological expedition, of 
meteorological observation stations established, of 
the mission of Dr. 8. Soskin to Palestine and Syria 
in the interests of the culture of cotton there, and of 
the lecture courses on colonization held at Kéthen 
(March 27-April 8, 1905) in connection with the 
local technical institute. The real interest of 
the congress lay, however, in the vote that was to 
be taken on the report of the East-African Commis- 
sion. Several days were spent in its discussion, and 
on July 30 the special congress was held provided 
for in the resolution of the Sixth Congress. The 
conclusion was foregone. The Actions Committee 
had, upon receipt of the commission’s report, 
given its opinion that the proffered land was not 
sufficient in extent and resources for colonization on 
a large scale; and the Government Party, together 
with the Ziyyone Zionists and the Mizrahi faction, 
was known to be largely in the majority. Various 
resolutions dealing with the subject were offered; 
and the following compromise was finally pro- 
posed by Alexander Marmorek in the name of the 
Actions Committee: 

‘The Seventh Zionist Congress declares: The Zionist organi- 


zation stands firmly by the fundamental principle of the Basel 
Program, namely, “The establishment of a legally secured, 


681 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Zionism 


publicly recognized home for the Jewish people in Palestine,’ 
and it rejects, either as an end or as a means of colonizing, 
activity outside Palestine and its adjacent lands. The Congress 
resolves to thank the British government for its offer of a terri- 
tory in British East Africa, for the purpose of establishing there 
a Jewish settlement with autonomous rights. A commission 
having been sent out to examine the territory, and having re- 
ported thereon, the Congress resolves that the Zionist organiza- 
tion shall not engage itself further with the proposal. The Con- 
gress records With satisfaction the recognition accorded by the 
British government to the Zionist organization in its desire to 
bring about a solution of the Jewish problem, and expresses a 
sincere hope that it may be accorded the further good offices of 
the British government where available in any matter it may 
undertake in accordance with the Basel Program. The Sev- 
enth Zionist Congress recalls and emphasizes the fact that, ac- 
cording to article I. of the statutes of the Zionist organization, 
the Zionist organization includes those Jews who declare them- 
seives to be in agreement with the Basel Program.” 


In the final trial of strength on this motion the 
Territorialists abstained from voting, while Dr. 
Syrkin, in the name of twenty-eight delegates be- 
longing to the Poale Zion, presented a protest against 
the decision, and together with his party left the 
hall, refusing to take further part in the congress. 

The future work of the Zionist body in Palestine 
was also the subject of long discussion between the 
Government Party and the Ziyyone Zionists. A com- 
promise resolution was likewise effected in this 
regard, to wit: 

*The Seventh Zionist Congress resolves that, concurrently 


with political and diplomatic activity, and with the object of 
strengthening it, the systematic promotion of 


Proposed the aims of the movement in Palestine shall be 
Workin accomplished by the following methods: 1. 
Palestine. Exploration. 2. Promotion of agriculture, in- 


dustry, etc., on the most democratic principle 
possible. 3. Cultural and economic improvement and organiza- 
tion of Palestine Jews through the acquisition of new inteillec- 
tual forces. 4. Acquisition of concessions. The Seventh Zionist 
Congress rejects every aimless, unsympathetic, and philan- 
thropic colonization on a small scale which does not conform to 
the first point in the Basel Program,” 
It was further voted that no land in Palestine 
was to be bought with the moneys of the National 
Fund until this could be done in a judicial way. 

It is difficult to estimate the number of Zionist 
societies at present (1905) in existence. They run 
up into many thousands, and the work they do is 
of varying complexions according to the needs of 
Jews living under different conditions. Some are 
purely national Jewish gatherings, others are liter- 
ary, while others again are devoted to a develop- 
ment of social intercourse among their members. 
Many have libraries attached to their places of meet- 
ing, and do a certain amount of settlement work. 

All have one object in view: to fos- 

Present ter the national Jewish sentiment, 
Condition and to band their members together in 

of the the further development of Jewish 
Movement. character. The payment of the shekel 

(25 cents) confers the right to vote for 
delegates to the congress. Yearly or half-yearly 
meetings are held by all the societies within a cer- 
tain district, and federations are gradually being 
formed in the various countries. The first such or- 
ganization was the FEDERATION OF AMERICAN 
ZIONISTS, founded in 1898 for the purpose of gather- 
ing into one body the societies in and around New 
York, but gradually including within its scope all 
the societies in the United States and the Philippine 
Islands. In 1905 this federation comprised 238 socie- 


ties, with eighty societies in a second organization, 
the Knights of Zion (Chicago), only loosely connected 
with the federation. The English Zionist Federa- 
tion, into which most of the older Chovevei Zion 
societies were merged after a conference held at. 
Clerkenwell Town Hall, March 6, 1898, was founded 
in Feb., 1899, and to it were soon added the Cana- 
dian and South-African federations, the Societati 
Sion Istilor diu Rominia, the Zionistische Vereini- 
gung fiir Deutschland, the Niederlandsch Zionisten- 
bund, and the Dansk Zionistisk Forening. Russia 
is divided into thirteen “rayons,” each one of which 
is presided over by a member of the Larger Actions 
Committee. 

The constitution of the whole Zionist organization 
is democratic in its very foundations, Full author- 
ity resides only in the congresses, in whose hands lie 
the direction of all Zionist affairs and the election of 


all officers. While Theodor Herzl was 
Constitu- alive the chairman of the Smaller 
tion. Actions Committee was at the same 


time president of the congress. At 
the Seventh Congress the two offices were separated, 
and it was made impossible for a member of the 
Actions Committee to be an executive officer of a 
congress. The congress has its own manual of pro- 
cedure, which has been modified from time to time. 
Representation at the congress is upon the basis of 
one delegate for every 200 shekel-paying Zionists. 
Up to the Seventh Congress the president carried on 
the affairs of the organization with six other mem- 
bers living in the same city, who with him formed 
the Smaller Actions Committee. By the side of this 
there was a Larger Actions Committee, composed 
of the leaders of the various organizations in different. 
countries, proposed by their own territorial organ- 
izations and elected by the congress. The number 
of members in this larger committee has continually 
grown; in 1898 it was 37, in 1900 it was 42, and in 
1905 it reached 53, In this last year the Larger 
Actions Committee was made the executive body of 
the congress, while the Smaller Actions Committee, 
consisting of David Wolfssohn, Professor Warburg, 
Jacobus Kann, Kohen-Bernstein, M. Usishkin, I. 
J. Greenberg, and Alexander Marmorek, was sim- 
ply a committee of the larger body. Wolfssohn is 
at present (1905) chairman of the Smaller Actions 
Committee, which has its seat in Cologne. The an- 
nual budgets of this committee from 1898 to the 
present time are given in the following table: 


Valuein | , Vv . j 
Year. Francs, || Year. diane, 
1898-1899..... 158,212 || 1902-1903 ....| 158,637 | 
1899-1900..... 173,018 || 19038-1904 ...| 114,911 
1900-1901..... 146,631 |} 1904-1905 ....) 170,119 


The founding of the JEwrsH CoLonrau TRUsT 
has been described elsewhere (JEW. 
Jewish Encyc. vii. 176), Its purposes are not 


Colonial financial but political As a body 
Trust. with corporate rights, it is the practi- 
cal instrument of the Zionist organiza- 

tion. The original memorandum declared its pur- 


pose to be to work in Palestine, in Syria, or, when in 


Zionism 


the opinion of the advisory council the interests of 
the Jewish people should demand it, in any other 
manner (than specified) and in any other part of the 
world. Fear was soon felt that this latitude was 
too great and opened the door to a possible misuse 
of thefunds. The bank’s activity was therefore cir- 
cumsceribed. Atthe Third Congress (Aug. 17, 1899) 
the clause was changed so as to read “to promote, 
develop, work, and carry on colonization schemes 
in the East, by preference in Palestine and Syria; fur- 
ther, to promote, develop, and carry on industries and 
undertakings in Palestine, in Syria, or in any other 
part of the world.” At theSeventh Congress (Aug. 
1, 1905), under the influence of the anti-territorial 
majority present, the action of the Trust was further 
circumscribed, and the clause amended so as to read 
“in Palestine, Syria, any other part of Asiatic Tur- 
key, the Sinai Peninsula, and the Island of Cy prus” ; 
but at the second special meeting called in London, 
Aug. 31, 1905, the proper voting power was not 
present and the necessary resolution could not be 
passed, The shares of the Trust are largely held in 
very small numbers, the shareholders numbering in 
the neighborhood of 300,000. Various means have 
been employed to make their purchase possible in 
this manner; ¢.g., the Joint Share Clubs which 
were founded in London in 1901. The funds in the 
Trust amounted in Dec., 1903, to £296,887, and 
in Dec., 1904, to £821,345. Dividends of 2 per cent 
in 1903 and 2} per cent in 1904 have been paid. In 
order to prosecute the work of the Trust in Pales- 
tine, and to give stability to Jewish interests there, 
it was proposed at the Fifth Congress to open up a 
branch at Jaffa. This was done in 1903, a new cor- 
poration, the Anglo-Palestine Company, being estab- 
lished, all the shares of which are held by the Jewish 
Colonial Trust. In Aug., 1904, a branch of the 
Angio-Palestine Company was founded in Jeru- 
salem, which is to be followed by one in Haifa. 
The Anglo-Palestine Company paid in 1904 a divi- 
dend of 4 per cent. The Jewish Colonial Trust has 
also joined in the foundation of the Palistina 
Handels Gesellschaft (1903, 22,500 M.) and the 
Deutsch Levant Baumwoll Gesellschaft (1903, 25,- 
000 M.). At one time an attempt was made to ruin 
the Trust, the “Israelite” of Mayence (March 20, 
1902) and a correspondent in the “ Jewish Chronicle ” 
of London (March 21, 1902) charging it with making 
false entries. The accusation was reproduced by Dr. 
Bloch in his “ Wochenschrift ” (Vienna). The “Jew- 
ish Chronicle,” upon receipt of better information, 
of its own accord withdrew the charges; the other 
two journals were forced to do so by process of 
law (“ Wochenschrift,” Feb. 10, 1903). In 1905 the 
Bezalel society was formed in Germany for the pur- 
pose of introducing a more artistic development into 
Palestinian industries. Together with the Anglo- 
Palestine Company and the Palistina Handels Ge- 
selischaft, many Jews not affiliated with Zionism 
have joined hands with them in this attempt to 
clevate Jewish workmanship in Palestine. Boris 
Schatz and E. M. Lilien have gone there in order to 
introduce a “ Kunstgewerbeschule.” 

At the First Congress, in 1897, the idea of a Jewish 
National Fund (Territorial Fund) was mooted by 
Prof. Herman Shapira. At the Fourth (1900) it was 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


682 


accepted in principle. The purpose of the Fund is to 
produce a permanent capital which shall he the prop- 
erty of the Jewish people for the ex- 

Jewish clusive purpose of buying land in 

National Palestine. Itisnotto be touched until 
Fund. it reaches $1,000,000, half of which 
sumisalways toremain onhand. The 
statutes as laid down by the National Fund Com- 
mission were accepted by the Fifth Congress (1901); 
and in 1904 the Fund (“Keren Kayyemet”) was 
legally domiciled in London, its moneys beiug placed 
in possession of the Jewish Colonial Trust. The 
Fund is derived from the use of stamps placed on 
Zionist letters, invitations, and thelike, from free-will 
offerings, and from payments made to iuscribe per- 
sons and societies in the “Golden Book ” (“Sefer ha- 
Zahab”). Since June 1, 1902, these collections have 
produced a little over $205,000. The resolution to 
refrain from using the Fund until it has reached a 
certain point was violently opposed by the Ziyyone 
Zionists, and a resolution against the statute was 
adopted by the Minsk Convention; but the Jews in 
Palestine themselves pleaded (1903) for the original 
form. 

In its intellectual and spiritual influence upon the 
Jewish people Zionism has specifically and in many 
various ways influenced Jewish life. Education has 
been one of the principal objects in view. Thus, 
in the district around Yelisavetgrad it has founded 
about forty-eight model hadarim; and it has estab- 
lished reading-rooms, evening courses, and the like, 
In 1903 Zionists founded a school in Temir Khan 
Shusa in Daghestan, and the national school for girls 

(Bet ha-Sefer) in Jaffa receives an an- 
Education- nual subvention from the society. 
al Work. The same is true of the Jewish Central 
Library (Abarbanel Library; see JEw. 
Encyc. i. 27) founded by an ardent Zionist, Joseph 
Chazanowicz of Byelostok. A complete program for 
a Jewish university was elaborated by Buber and 
Weizman and published by the Jiidischer Verlag 
(Berlin, 1901). In Paris the Université Populaire 
Juive owes its existence to the Zionist societies there, 
headed by Alexander Marmorek; and the Jewish 
Toynbee halls in Vienna (opened Dec. 2, 19060), 
Brinn, Hamburg, Lemberg, Amsterdam, and Tar- 
nopol have had a similar origin. 

In attempting to estimate the effect of the Zionist 
upheaval it must not be forgotten that, though it 
tended to consolidate previous efforts in various di- 
rections, and to create new efforts along similar lines, 
the movement itself was merely the culminating 
point of a previous development. It brought toa 
head the Jewish Renaissance and provided achannel 
into which the various activities of this renaissance 
might flow and find aconcerted expression. This is 
seen, for instance, in the student organizations in 
Austria and partly in Germany. 


Even before the rise of anti-Semitism in the former country, 
as early as 1882, Jewish students in Vienna, from Russia, Ga- 
licia, and Rumania, had banded together for 


Jewish the purpose of conserving Jewish feeling and 
Students’ of cherishing Jewish literature. Perez Sm0- 
Societies. lenskin gave this society its name, “ Kadi- 


mab,” which, meaning doth ‘ Forward” 
and ‘* Eastward,” indicated the direction of its activity. Pia- 
sker’s ‘* Autoemancipation ’’ became its Bible, and its practical 


683 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Zionism 


interest was enlisted in the colonization of Palestine. Its first 
apnouncement in Hebrew and German upon the blackboard of 
the university created consternation. It was strongly opposed 
by the great mass of Vienna Jews, but in spite of this it contin- 
ued to further the physical and mental advance of its members. 
The ordinary ‘ Burschenschaften,”’ “*Corps,”’ and ‘* Landsman- 
schaften ’’ gradually became “‘Judenrein,’’ under strong pressure 
from without, even going so far as to declare the Jewish stu- 
dents unworthy of satisfaction by duel. The answer on the part 
of the Jewish students was the formation of further societies: 
in 1892 the ** Unitas’? for studentscoming from Moravia, and 
the *‘Ivria’’ for students from northern Moravia and Silesia 
(reorganized 1894); in 1895 the ‘* Libanonia,”’ at first for veter- 
inary students, and later on for students at large; in 1897 the 
“Bar Kochba’’ for those coming from Galicia, in which He- 
brew courses of instruction were established; and in 1898 the 
“* Maccabaea ”’ for technical students, and the ‘* Bar Giora ’’ for 
students from the south-Slavic countries. The ‘“Rede- und 
Lesehalle Jiidischer Hochschiiler’’ and the “* Vereinigung der 
Zionistischen Finkenschaft an der Wiener Universitat’? are 
open to all comers. At other universities and high schools 
similar societies were founded, ¢.g., the “ Ferialverbindung- 
en”: the “Emunah” in Bielitz, the “Astra”? in Kanitz, 
the ** Massada’’ in Vienna, the “ Severitas’’ in Loschitz. To 
these must also be added the “ Veritas ’’ in Briinn, the ** Chari- 
tas’? in Graz, the “Kolko Akademickie’’ in Kolomea, the 
**Hasmonea’”’ and “ Zephirah ’’ in Czernowitz, the ** Bar Koch- 
ba’’ in Prague, the ** Przedsnt ”’ (** Ha-Shahar ”’) in Cracow, the 
** Akademische Verbindung ”’ in Yaroslaw, the ** Makkabaea’’ in 
Breslau, the *‘ Hasmonae”’ in Berlin, the ‘‘Herzl” in Kénigs- 
berg, the ** Zionist Society ’’ at Columbia University, New York, 
and the “* Jiidische Studentenverbindung Zionah”’ at Giessen. 
At various times general meetings of delegates of these societies 
have been held, ¢.g., the * Zionistischen Studententag *’ in Lem- 
berg on July 25, 1899, and the ‘* Studententag”’ in Vienna, June 
30, 1908, and in June, 1905. In general, see **Ost und West,”’ 
1901, p. 415; Albert M. Friedenberg, ‘“‘ Zionist Studies,” p. 23, 
New York, 1904. 

Along similar lines were founded a large number of ** Turn- 
vereine’’ (gymnastic societies), which had as their object the de- 
velopment of Jewish muscle and the strengthening of Jewish 
conscience in the rising generation. The movement in this 
direction commenced even before the First Zionist Congress, 


JEWISH GYMNASTIC SOCIETIES. 


Date of 
Foun- 
dation. | 


Place. Name of Society. 


1894. ...] Constantinople. 


1898....] Berlin (Oct. 22)........ Bar Kochba. 
Philippopolis.......... Makabi. 

1899......] VieNMA... 0. .scasccces Wiener Jiid. Turnverein. 
Hilgliies 5400366 eeetaaen Bialéer Jiid. Turnverein. 
Bucharest ...e.ceee eens Aurora. 

SOMA: 5:53 Sab Nieaw sale Samson. 
1900....| Halberstadt ........... Turnklub Junger Jiid. Kauf- 
leute. 
VICNIA: 04.5 0ih.0k sakes Zion. 
PPVALE coxa ieee ntiee ks Jiid. Turnverein. 
Mahrisch-Ostrau....... Jiid. Turnverein. 

1901....] Ungarisch-Hradisch ...| Moravia. 

CUO. is 8scie es deeuss Jiid. Turnklub. 
1902....| Rustchuk (Bulg.)......| Makabi. 

Kustendil (Bulg.)......| Samson. 

PYOWORQU 6554 aw rane S586 Jiid. Turnklub. 

COIORDE s..caeswevans a Jiid. Turnverein. 

Hamburg cide capes Jud. Turnerschaft. 

Mannheim,.........+.. Jiid. Turnverein. 


Frankfort-on-the-Oder .| Jung-Juda. 
Jiid. Turnverein. 
PORON isco eas eweasenca Neuen Posener Turnverein. 


DTD BIG ssnsitie Gn earn veiern tt Jid. Turnverein. 
BMTMIGRisi.casi, i y6e es onecee Ezra. 
BYreslaisiiaics 24 sone ee Jiid. Turn- und Sport-Verein. 


ee 


such a society having been founded in Constantinople inthe year 
1894. It received a great moral support from the national spirit 
engendered by the Zionist propaganda, and 
Gymnastic the outward impulse to the formation of such 
Societies. separate societies was given by the exclusion 
of Jewish students from the ** Bundesgenossen- 

Schaft * of gymnasts in Austria and from the academic ‘* Turn- 
vereine”’ in Germany. It was in the latter country that these 
Jewish societies. were most sharply attacked, notably by a Jew, 


Rathenau, and by the “K6Inische Zeitung.”” The governing body 
of the “Jiidische Turnerschaft’’ in Germany answered the 
attack (Sept. 2, 1903) in order to assure the public that there was 
nothing anti-German in their action. Whereupon the * K6l- 
nische Zeitung ’’ and the ** Frankfurter Zeitung ” changed ina 
measure their attitude; but the “ Allgemeine Zeitung des Juden- 
thums”’’ hoped that such “ extravagances”*’ could not be laid at 
the door of German Jews; while the “ Mittheilungen zur Ab- 
wehlr des Anti-Semitismus *’ fought the movement tooth and nail, 
looking upon it only as a meansof Zionistic propaganda. On the 
other hand, such Jewish weeklies as the ** General Anzeiger ”’ of 
Berlin, the *' Israelitisches Familienblatt ” of Hamburg, and the 
‘* Israelitisches Gemeindeblatt’’ reflected the sentiments of a 
part of the Jewish community by heartily welcoming the new 
movement. As the foregoing table will show, the work of 
the “*Turnyereine”’’ has grown apace, and at the Third Basel 
Congress, in 1899, a public exhibition was given by societies from 
Berlin, Cologne, Freiburg, Mannheim, M&ahrisch-Ostrau, Pross- 
nitz, Ungarisch-Hradisech, and Vienna, and a second Jewish 
**'Purnertag ’? was held in Berlin April 23 and 24, 1905. The 
*“Bar Kochba” of Berlin has printed a collection of songs 
(““Vereins Liederbuch ’’), and since 1902 it has published the 
monthly ** Jiidische Turnzeitung.” 


In addition there are societies (the dates of whose 
foundation are not Known) at Hanover, Frankfort- 
on-the-Main (“ Jung-Juda”), Briinn, Bern, Samokoff, 
Bazardjik, Dubnitza, Cracow, and Lemberg. 

In accord with the democratic basis of the Zionist 
organization, women have from the first been ad- 
mitted to a voice and a vote in the congress. This 
has occasioned the formation of a large number 
of women’s societies, which bear such names as 
“ Benoth Zion ” (Jassy, Sofia, New York), “Hadassa” 
(Vienna, Braila, New York), “Jehudith” (Briinn), 
“Moria” (Vienna), “Zion” (Lemberg), “Jiidisch 
Nationale Frauen Vereinigung” (Frankfort-on-the- 
Main). The work of these societies is of a literary, 
educational, and social character. 

The inspiration that Zionism has given to the fur- 
therance of modern Jewish Renaissance is seen in 
various directions. From its ranks have come most 
of those sturdy students, writers, poets, painters, 
and sculptors who have done so much to make 
the modern artistic development available for 
Jewish life (see Buber in the “ Protocol of the Fifth 
Congress,” pp. 151 et seqg.). Not only has the culti- 
vation of the Hebrew language been foremost in 

their program, but especially the fur- 
Influence’ therance of art witha distinctive Jew- 
on Litera- ish bent. Ephraim Moses Lilien, Les- 
ture and ser Ury, Judah Epstein, and Herman 
Art. Struck have worked in line and color; 
Frederic Beer, Henryk Glitzenstein, 
Alfred Nossig, and Boris Schatz in marble and 
bronze. In 1901 Alfred Nossig, Davis Trietsch, 
Buber, Feiwel, and Lilien started the Jitidische 
Verlag in Berlin, which has attempted to substitute 
artistic book-making for the inelegant presswork of 
former times. Besides publishing a “ Jiidischer Al- 
manach ” and the “Jiidische Statistik,” it has printed 
a number of highly artistic volumes dealing with 
modern Jewish literature and art. The Jidischer 
Ktinstler Verlag Phoenix (1902) in Berlin owes its 
origin to the same circle, as does also the Jiidischer 
Kunstler Aesthetik in Warsaw. 

One of the most potent factors of Zionist propa- 
ganda has been its press. Only a few of the older 
Jewish papers were inclined toward the new move- 
ment, ¢.g., “ Ha-Meliz” and “ Ha-Zefirah ” in Russia, 
the “Jewish World” in England, the “Corriere 


Zionism 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


684 


Israelitico” in Italy, the “Jewish Exponent” in 
Philadelphia, and the “Jewish Comment” in Balti- 


more. The “Jewish Chronicle” of 
Zionistic London, though editorially unfavor- 
Press. able, has always given the widest 


publicity to Zionist news and to cor- 
respondence anent the movement. 

On the other hand, the majority of Jewish weeklies have 
shown themselves more or less violently inimical, especially the 
** Voskhod *’ in St. Petersburg, the ‘* Allgemeine Zeitung des Ju- 
denthums”’ in Berlin, ** Bloch’s Wochenschrift”’ in Vienna, and 
“The American Israelite’’ in Cincinnati. It therefore became 
necessary for the society to create a press of its own. In 1898 
Tbeodor Herzi founded ** Die Welt,’”’ which he carried on at his 
own expense until the Fifth Basel Congress officially accepted 
it as the organ of the party. Simultaneously there grew up a 
great number of Zionist periodicals in Hebrew, Yiddish, Judzo- 
Spanish, German, French, English, Italian, Russian, Rumanian, 
Bulgarian, Arabic, etc. Many of these are official publications 
ef Zionist Territorial and other organizations, e.g., the ** Mac- 
eabzean,”” of the Federation of American Zionists; *‘ L’Echo 
Sioniste,”’ of the French Federation; * Israelitische Rundschau * 
(Berlin), of the German Zionist Union; “Israel’s Messenger,” 
of the Shanghai Zionists. Of the others only a few can be 
mentioned: ‘Der Jiidische Arbeiter’’ (Vienna): ‘* Jiidische 
Zukunft’? (London); “ Zionistische Monatshefte’’ (Geneva); 
** Jiidische Post’’ (Pittsburg); *‘ Ha-Mizpah” (Cracow); ‘** Ha- 
Shahar” (Sofia); ‘“‘ Ha-Shiloah’’ (Berlin); ‘‘Degel Mahaneh 
Yehudah” (Jassy); ‘**Buduschnost” (St. Petersburg); °° El 
Dia” (Philippopolis); “Idea Sionista’’ (Ferrara); ** El-Mis- 
rayim” (Cairo). ‘“‘Ost und West” (Jiidischer Verlag, Berlin) 
is the first attempt at an artistic Jewish journal; and in the 
“Schlemiel * the Jew—perhaps for the first time—refuses to take 
himself seriously. ‘** Unsere Hoffnung” (Vienna) is a Zionist 
juvenile publication. 


The extent to which the Zionist idea has spread 
among the Jewish people may be seen not only in 
the number of Jews affiliated with the Zionist organ- 
ization and congress, but also in the fact that there 
is hardly a nook or corner of the Jewish world in 
which Zionistic societies are not to be found. 
Even where no such organizations exist expressions 
of approval and adhesion have come from bodies of 
Jews who have lived practically cut off from all 

connection with the course of Jewish 

Wide life. Notable were communications, 
Spread of together with subscriptions for the 
Zionism. fund, froma band of descendants of 
Portuguese Jews in Manecoré in Ama- 

zonas, Brazil (March 12, 1901), from Jews settled 
in Chile, and from the Jadid al-Islam in Khorasan 
(1901); while societies exist in Tshita (Siberia, on 
the Manchurian border), Tashkent, Bokhara, 
Rangoon (Burma), Nagasaki, Tokyo, Hongkong, 
Singapore, and among the American soldiers in the 
Philippines. The Shanghai Zionist Association was 
founded in 1903; the Dr. Herz] East Africa Zion- 
ist Association in Nairobi (East-African Protecto- 
rate) in 1904. In Australia there are four Zionist 
federations: New South Wales, Victoria, South Aus- 
tralia, and West Australia. Queensland has itsown 
federation with its center in Brisbane, and New Zea- 
land has several societies. Even among the Russian 
Jews settled by the Jewish Colonization Association 
in Argentina, there isa federation comprising four so- 
cieties. A Zionist congress was held there May 16, 
1904, comprising delegates of 1,150 shekel-paying 
members. In every country of Europe, in the 
United States, along the North-African coast, and in 
Palestine similar societies are to be found. At the 
St. Louis Exposition, 1904, the Zionist flag (blue 


and white stripes, with a “Magen Dawid” in the 
center) floated from one of the buildings together 
with those of other nationalities. 

This topographical diversity runs parallel with 
the variety of Jews to whom the Zionist movement 
has appealed; and it is therefore natural thata great 
divergence of opinion is manifest within its own 
ranks, This could not be otherwise, considering 
that the movement is a national one. Several par- 
ties and factions have accordingly grown up 

within the body, and have made them- 

Parties in selves felt during some of the con- 

Zionism. gresses. In fact, the discussions, very 

violent at times because they are based 

on radical differences of principle both in the con- 

gress and outside, are the natural concomitants of 

this as of all world-movements. Of the parties or 

groups within the Zionist body the following may 
be specifically enumerated : 

The group composed of the immediate followers 
of Theodor Herzl and of those that stood by him 
during his seven years of work may be called the 
Government Party. Their program is that enun- 
ciated by the president of the congress atits various 
sittings. They desirea legally assured home for the 
Jewish people in Palestine and neighboring coun- 
tries, and take their stand upon the Basel Platform 
pure and simple. They are politico-diplomatic 
Zionists, though not opposed to strengthening the 
position of the Jews in Palestine by bettering their 
condition and by conducting experiments in farm- 
ing and industrial enterprises. 

The second group is that of the Mizrahi, an al- 
liance of the Orthodox Jews within the Zionist body. 
The Mizrahi was formed at the time of the Fifth Con- 
gress as an offset to the Radical Fraction. Its head 
is Rabbi Isaac Jacob Reines of Lida, Russia, where 
its first yearly meeting was held Feb. 238, 1903. It 
claimed then a membership of 11,000, but has largely 
gained since that time. In 1903 it had founded 
125 societies, not only in Russia, but in Germany, 
England, Galicia, and Palestine. A world confer- 
ence of Mizrahists was held in Presburg Aug. 21- 
24, 1904, and a specia) conference of the English 
societies in London July 19, 1904. The group has 
spread also to the United States, where it has held two" 
meetings, Jan. 5-7, 1905, in New York, and June 17, 
1905, in Philadelphia. The American branch main- 
tains an organ, “The Sabbath Journal.” The Miz- 
rahists, forming the Jewish Center Party, were 
stanch adherents of Theodor Herzl, and since his 
death have remained true to his principles. To these 
they have added, as a special feature, the conserva- 
tion of Orthodox Jewish practises. At the congress 
they usually vote with the Government Party, Ac- 


cording to their program, they are “an organiza- 


tion of Orthodox Zionists who, on the basis of the 
Basel Program, believe a faithful adherence to the 
Torah and the tradition in all matters pertaining 10 
Jewish life, and a longing for the land of the 
fathers, to constitute the task of the Jewish people 
and the conditions favorable to its preservation.” 
The Po‘ale Zion, or the Democratic “ Fraction,” reP- 
resents the Jewish Left. Its members claim to speak’ 
for the proletariat in eastern Europe, and havea num- 
berof pronounced Socialistsin theirranks. Thoug® 


685 


comparatively a small body, they made themselves 
felt at the Second Congress, when the motion of 
Professor Mandelstamm to exclude them was lost. 
They are organized in Austria and in Switzerland; 
and one faction calls itself openly “ The Zionistic So- 
cialist Workingmen’s Party, Loudon-Paris.” They 
organized in America in 1903, and held their first 
convention April 29, 1904, twelve societies being 
represented and maintaining an organ, “Die Neue 
Stimme.” In the United States they are affiliated 
with the Federation of American Zionists. The 
Po‘ale Zion holds that the Jewish proletariat will 
be driven into its ranks as the pressing, practical 
need for emigration from eastern Europe becomes 
greater. The members are therefore largely Territo- 
rialists, and claim to be forced in a measure to be 
opposed to Palestinian colonization on whatever 
scale, because of its apparent impossibility. On the 
other hand, they are believed in some quarters to 
have their Socialist propaganda, more at heart than 
their Zionist work, and to threaten to compromise the 
movement with certain European governments. 
The Bund in Russia was at first opposed to Zionism, 
accusing the latter society of refusing to aid the 
Rumanian Jews in 1897. Since then it has made 
sensible approaches to Zionism, its members becom- 
ing Nationalist Jews and working for national Jew- 
ish autonomy. 

A very large party within the general body con- 
sists of the so-called Ziyyone Zionists, a product of 
the discussions raised by the Sixth Congress. They 
are practically led by Usishkin of Yekaterinoslav. At 

the time of the Sixth Congress he was 

Ziyyone presiding overa congress in Palestine, 

Zionists. and declared himself not only against 
; the East-African project, but also 
against the binding character of the vote taken at 
the congress. Ina pamphlet, “Unser Programm” 
(Vienna, 1905), he has laid down the principles of 
thenew group. Holding that the diplomatic actions 
of Herzl have proven a failure, it demands imme- 
diate work in Palestine, without waiting for the 
granting of acharter. Land there should be bought 
at once with acertain portion of the National Fund; 
and whatever diplomatic actions are to accompany 
Zionist work should be carried out by a collegium. 
For the purposes of colonization a special society, 
Geullah, has been formed; and the assistance 
of the JCA and other colonization societies is to 
be sought. A Palestine Zionist Association was 
founded in London in May, 1905, with Haham M. 
Gaster as its president, to work along similar lines. 
Since the Sixth Congress, Usishkin has been cease- 
lessly activein gathering his forcestogether. Before 
the Seventh Congress a preliminary conference was 
held in Freiburg, and at the congressitself the Ziy yone 
Zionists polled a vote of 360, practically controling 
the voting power. There can be no doubt that the 
Ziyyone Zionists are made up largely of the old Cho- 
vevei Zion groups; aud though they have protested 
strongly against the imputation, the Political Zion- 
ists see in their rise a danger of the movement fall- 
ing back into the rut of the old beneficent coloniza- 
tion. 

Diametrically opposed to the Ziyyone Zionists are 
the Territorialists. The new organization was 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Zionism 


formed largely of those who wished the congress to 
accept the offer of the English government; but in 
a very short while it developed into a body seeking 
a territory upon an autonomous basis 
Terri- in any part of the world where such 
torialists ; territory might be available. The 
Israel Zionistische Territoriale Verbindung 
Zangwill. in Bern issued a call in “Die Welt” 
(1905, No. 12), but the new groun was 
really formed as the Jewish Territorial Organiza- 
tion during the Seventh Congress. Israel Zangwill 
has been its leader and is its president. Despite his 
protest that the minority at the congress must always 
bow to the majority (speech in London, 1900), he felt 
that the need of the wandering mass of Jews, and con- 
sequent emigration called for a more rapid solution 
than political Zionism was able to afford. According 
to Zangwill, the majority at the Sixth Congress was 
for Territorialism; but this is a misstatement, inas- 
much as a large majority of those who voted in the 
affirmative on that occasion voted merely for the 
sending of the commission, and not upon the merits 
of the proposition as a whole, Ignoring completely 
the vote taken at the Seventh Congress, he put 
himself at the head of the Jewish Territorial Or- 
ganization, and, joined by the radical element which 
cut itself off from the Zionist body, and by a num- 
ber who, like himself, remained Zionists although 
they believed it inopportune to refuse the offer of 
the English government, he fashioned the new organ- 
ization in Basel. In the “Jewish Chronicle,” Lon- 
don, Aug. 25, 1905, he issued a manifesto in which 
he stated that the Jewish Territorial Organization 
‘*makes as a body no opposition toward Zionism, its members 
being left free to determine their individual relations to that 


movement. Naturally no land whatever is excluded from our 
operations, provided it be reasonably good and obtainable.” 


The object of the organization was said to be: 


**1, To procure a territory upon an autonomous basis for those 
Jews who cannot or will not remain in the lands in which they 
at present live. 2. To achieve this end the organization pro- 
poses: to unite all Jews who are in agreement with this object; 
to enter into relations with governments and public and private 
institutions; and to create financial institutions, labor bureaus, 
and other instruments that may be found necessary.”’ 

The large mass of Zionists saw in this new organi- 
zation a breaking away from the larger body, and, 
practically, Zionism minus Zion. 

Israel Zangwill has (Sept., 1905) joined hands with 
Lucien Wolf, who now seems more willing to ac- 
cept the idea of a British colony with Jewish auton- 
omous rights—the very proposition made to Theodor 
Herzl by the British government—though he still 
proclaims himself as far from the Zionist position as 
he ever was. In furtherance of these plans Zang- 
will in the name of the Jewish Territorial Organiza- 
tion memorialized the Hon. Alfred Littleton (Sept. 
8, 1905), asking that the original concession in Brit- 
ish East Africa remain open for a while longer. 
However, on Sept. 16 Littleton replied in the nega- 
tive, stating that the territory in question had 
already been thrown open to colonization, but re- 
newing the assurance contained in the letter of 
Clement Hill (see above) that his government fol- 
lows with the same interest any attempt to amelio- 
rate the condition of the Jewish people. 

Several less clearly defined groupings have sprung 


Zionism 
zZnaim 


up of late years. The so-called Political Zion- 
ists held their own conference at Warsaw in June, 
1905, Prof. M. Mandelstamm presiding. These are 
on some points opposed to the Territorialists, who 
are in a sense anti-Palestinian; but they are willing 
to make certain concessions in their desire to con- 
serve the large mass of Jews emigrating out of east- 
ern Europe from complete assimilation 
and demoralization. They are willing 
to cooperate with other bodies in 
concentrating this emigration in an 
autonomous national territory other than Palestine. 
They desire, however, that the work in and for Pal- 
estine shall continue; and they agree that no Zion- 
ist moneys are to be employed for other than Pal- 
estinian purposes. They claim to have had forty-five 
delegates at the Fifth Congress, and at the Seventh 
they formed a special group, their spokesman being 
Prof. N. Slouschz of Paris. They are opponents 
of the Ziyyone Zionists and gravitate naturally to- 
ward the Territorialists. 

A second minor group is that of the Practical 
Political Party (“Real Politische Partei”), led by 
Nossig and Trietsch, with some of whose views 
Professor Warburg, Dr. Franz Oppenheimer, and 
others of the Palestine Commission coincide. They 
are opposed to both the Ziyyone Zionists and the Ter- 
ritorialists. They hold that the importance of au- 
tonomy in a Jewish ingathering is exaggerated; 
and they demand that the Zionists further a legal 
colonization in Palestine and the neighboring coun- 
tries, a systematic economic advance in the near East, 
the purchase of land in and around Palestine, the 
investigation of both itsagricultural and commercial 
possibilities, the founding of experimental farming 
and other stations, and diplomatic measures only 
in so far as their ends are attainable. They also lay 
great stress upon the organization of the Jews and 
upon Jewish culture (see Nossig in “Die Stimme 
der Wahrheit,” pp. 11 et seg.). The leaders of this 
small group have been severe critics of the diplo- 
matic activity of Theodor Herzl. They favor col- 
onization in Cyprus and have done successful work 
in furthering the intellectual side of the Jewish 
Renaissance. 

Very different from those above mentioned are the 
followers of Ahad ha-‘Am (Asher Ginsberg). This 
leader of what is called “Moral Zionism,” though 
now opposed both to Chovevei Zionism and to 
Political Zionism, was one of the moving forces in 

the early days of the former. In 1889 
Moral he formed in Odessa the Bene Mo- 
Zionism of sheh, a secret organization, lodges of 


Other 
Groups. 


Ahad ha- which are to be found in many Rus- 
‘Am sian cities, and which has ramifications 
(Asher in Palestine, Great Britain, Paris, and 
Ginsberg). Berlin. For three or four years this 


society supplied the material and the 
enthusiasm that established the colony Rehobot, the 
Carmel Wine Company, the Ahiasaf Publication 
Society, the monthly “Ha-Shiloah,” and the Bet ha- 
Sefer in Jaffa. According to Ahad ha-‘Am, Juda- 
ism isin greater need than are the Jews, and a na- 
tional spiritual center is necessary in Palestine to act 
as a centrifugal force against the disintegrating 
tendencies within the Jewish ranks. A “ Renais- 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


686 


sance of the heart” must come, and gradually, 

through a process of development. Only when the 

spirit of the people has been centralized can the 
work of centralizing the people themselves be be- 
gun. Ahad ha-‘Am is the philosopher of the Jewish 

Renaissance; and as he has severely attacked Polit- 

ical Zionists, he has been as severely attacked by 

them in return. Many Zionist leaders and workers 
subscribe to Ahad ha-‘Am’s principle as a theory, 
while furthering the practical works of the organi- 
zation; and many theoretic Zionists look to him ag 
their leader, as such adhesion leaves them uncom- 
promised in their affiliations. Nor must it be for- 
gotten that much of his program is that of all Zion- 
ists. At the opening of the Second Congress, Herzl 
proclaimed that Zionism meant “a return to Juda- 
ism as preparatory to a return to a Jewish land” 

(see Henrietta Szold in “ Jewish Comment,” May 12, 

1905; Matthias Acher, “Ahad ha-‘Am,” Berlin, 

1903). 

It can not be denied that these various currents 
have had an effect upon the general trend of Zion- 
ism as officially expressed in the discussions and 
resolutions of succeeding congresses. While any 
violation of the fundamental principles of the Basel 
Platform is sternly rejected, there has been manifest 
a greater readiness to undertake work in Palestine 
upon a practical basis without first waiting for the 
final results of diplomatic and political action, the 
while carefully pursuing these actions and prevent- 
ing a recurrence of the older and worthless Cho- 
vevei Zionism, 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: The bibliography on Zionism, which is ex- 
tremely large, has been collected in a Russian publication, 
Ukazatel Literatury o Sionizmé, St. Petersburg, 19038. Only 
afew works can be mentioned here. A history of Zionism 
has been attempted by Sapir, Der Zionismus, Briinner Jii- 
discher Verlag, 1903. The files of Die Weit and the steno- 
graphic Protokoll of the seven congresses furnish the most 
reliable material; an index to them has been drawn up by 
Hugo Schachtel, Register zu den Protokollen der Zionisten- 
kongresse, i.-vi., Berlin, 1905. See also R. Gottheil, The Aims 
of Zionism, in Publ. Am. Fed. of Zionists, New York, 1899; 
C. Levias, The Justification of Zionism, in Hebrew Union 
College Journal, Cincinnati, April, 1899; R. Gottheil, The Zi- 
onist Movement, in North American Review, 1902; J. de 
Haas, Zionism, London, 1901; Max Nordau, in the Interna- 
tional Quarterly, 1902, No. 1: Israel Zangwill, in Lippin- 
cott’s Magazine, Oct., 1899; Theodor Herzl’s Zionistische 
Schriften, ed. Leon Kellner, Berlin, 1905; Heinrich Sachse 
(Liwe), Zionistenkongress und Zionismus, Hine Gefahr? 
Berlin, 1897 ; Ephraim Deinard, Dibre ha-Yamim. le-Ziyyon 
be-Russia, Kearny. N. J., 1904; F. Heman, Das Erwachen 
der Jiidischen Nation, Basel, 1897; Max Jaffé, Die Natio- 
nale Wiedergeburt der Juden, Berlin, 1897; D. Farbstein. 
Der Zionismus und die Judenfrage, Bern, 1898; Ben Eliezer, 
Die Judenfrage und der Socialer Judenstaat, Bern, 1898; 
Aron Sandler, Anthropologie und Zionismus, Brinn, 19043 
Was Will der Zionismus? Berlin (Zion. Verein. f. Deutsch- 
land), 1908, A collection of essays will be found in Die 
Stimme der Wahrheit, ed. E. Nossig, Berlin, 1905, and in 
the Publications of the Federation of American Zionists. 


| G. 
ZIONIST, DER. See PERIODICALS. 


ZIPPOR: Father of Balak, King of Moab, who 
hired Balaam to curse Israel. All the passages which 
mention Zippor name him together with his son 
Balak (Num. xxii. 2, 4, 10, 16; xxiii. 18; Josh. xxiv. 
9; Judges xi. 25). An allusion to him may be con- 
tained in “the former king of Moab” in Num. xxi. 


26. 
KE. G. H. B. P. 


ZIPPORAH.—Biblical Data: Daughter of 
Jethro and wife of Moses. According to the Bible, 


687 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Zionism 
Zunaim 


Moses met the daughters of Jethro when they were 
being driven away trom a well by shepherds; he 
assisted them, and was invited into the house of 
Jethro, who gave him Zipporah to be his wife (Ex. 
ji. 21). Onhisreturn to Egypt, Moses was accompa- 
nied by his wife, who saved him from great danger 
during their journey (7d. iv. 24-26). She appears to 
have returned with her children to her father’s 
house; for after the exodus from Egypt, Jethro 
brought Zipporah and her children out to Moses in 
the wilderness (¢d. x viii. 2-5). Zipporah is mentioned 
only once more in the Bible; namely, in Numbers 
xii. 1, where she is referred to as “the Ethiopian 
woman,” for having married whom Moses is up- 
braided by Miriam and Aaron. 
——In Rabbinical Literature: Zipporah is men- 
tioned by the Rabbis alternately with praise and 
with blame. Her name (=“ bird”) is explained as 
having been given her because, when questioned by 
her father as to the man who had rescued her, she 
flew out of the house like a bird and returned with 
Moses (Yalk., Shim‘oni, i. 169). R. Joshua was of 
the opinion that Zipporah and Moses were always 
estranged, and that the latter did not love his wife 
(4b. 268). The name “Cushite” was given to her, it 
is said, because she was distinguished from other 
women by her beauty, even as the Ethiopians dif- 
fered from other people in their complexions. The 
circumstance that she is twice referred to in one 
verse as “the Ethiopian” (Num. xii. 1) is explained 
as indicating that her actions were as distinctive as 
her beauty, and that she conducted herself no Jess 
royally while in her father’s house than when she 
became the wife of Moses (Yalk., Shim‘oni, 1288; 
comp. also M. K. 16b; Yer. Sanh. x. 28d). 

J. S. O. 

ZIPSER, MAIER: Hungarian rabbi; born at 
Balassa-Gyarmath Aug. 14, 1815; died at Rechnitz 
Dec. 10, 1869. He studied in various yeshibot, 
among his teachers being Wolf Boskowitz and 
Maier Eisenstadt ; and he acquired a secular edu- 
cation partly through the assistance of Léw 
Schwab and partly through his own endeavors. 
In 1844 he was chosen rabbi at Stuhlweissenburg, 
where, however, he became involved in a con- 
troversy with the Orthodox members of the com- 
munity on account of a divorce which he had 
granted without a precedent. In his defense he 
wrote a pamphlet entitled “Me ha-Shiloah: Rab- 
binisches Gutachten iiber Jiidische Ehescheidung ” 
(Budapest, 1858). About 1850 he went to England, 
where he published a pamphlet entitled “The Ser- 
mon on the Mount,” defending Judaism against the 
parliamentary speeches of Inglis (London, 1852). In 
1858 Zipser was elected rabbi of Rechnitz, and he held 
this position until his death. In addition to the two 
pamphlets already mentioned, he published various 
Sermons and made numerous contributions to the 
Jewish press, especially to the “ Orient,” the “ Allge- 
meine Zeitung des Judenthums,” and the “ Neuzeit,” 
Winning the reputation of being one of the most 
scholarly Hungarian rabbis of his day. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Allg. Zeit. des Jud. 1870, p. 8: Neuzeit, 1869, 
pp. 603-605; First, Bibl. Jud. iii. 552-554. 
8. D. 
ZIRNDORF, HEINRICH: German poet and 


rabbinical scholar; born at Firth, Bavaria, May 7, 
1829: died at Cincinnati, Ohio, Dec. 17, 1898; edu- 
cated privately. His parents intended him for a 
commercial career, and fora short time he was em- 
ployed as a clerk by a firm in Firth, but his early 
studies of German and English classics inspired him 
to continue studying, and at the age of nineteen 
he went to Munich, where he attended the gymna- 
sium until 1855. He then moved to Vienna, and 
remained there until 1857. These two years were 
chiefly devoted to poetry, and some of his best verse 
was written during that time, his “Kassandra,” a 
tragedy in five acts, being published at Vienna in 
1856. In 1857 he obtained the position of rabbi of 
Lipto-Szent-Miklos, Hungary, but soon resigned and 
moved to Frankfort-on-the-Main; there he made the 
personal acquaintance of Isaac Marcus Jost (1859), 
whose reminiscences he published under the title 
“Tsaak Markus Jost und Seine Freunde” (Cincin- 
nati, 1886). In 1860 he published a selection of his 
poems at Leipsic, and in the fall of the same year he 
accepted an invitation to go to London as a private 
tutor. There he lived for thirteen years, writing 
and teaching, and mingling with the best society of 
the capital. In 1873 he returned to Germany as 
rector of the Hebrew Teachers’ Institute at Minster, 
and three years later accepted a call to the rabbinate 
of the Congregation Beth-El, Detroit, Mich. In 
1884 he became professor of history in the Hebrew 
Union College at Cincinnati, being succeeded in 
Detroit by Louis Grossmann, now rabbi of the Plum 
Street Temple and professor in the Hebrew Union 
College. About this time Zirndorf began to con- 
tribute fo the “ Deborah,” of which he subsequently 
became associate editor. In 1889 he was chosen 
rabbi and preacher of the Ahabath Achim congre- 
gation in Cincinnati, and held this position until his 
death. In 1892 a translation of a number of his 
sketches contributed to the “ Deborah” appeared at 
Philadelphia under the title “Some Jewish Women.” 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zirndorf, Isaak Markus Jost und Seine 

Freunde, pp. 6-9, Cincinnati, 1886; idem, Some Jewish 


Women, p. vi., Philadelphia, 1892; Briimmer, Dettsches 
TEENA: i. 545 et seg.; American Israelite, x1., No. 
oO» 


8. M. Z. 
ZIZIT. See FRINGES. 


ZNAIM : City in the Austrian province of Mo- 
ravia. Jews probably settled there during the 
twelfth century; for in a document of Ottocar I. 
dated 1225 a Jews’ street in Znaim is mentioned. 
During the ARMLEDER PERSECUTIONS in 1338 and 
the Black Death in 1849 the Jews of this place 
were among the sufferers. Upon the complaint of 
the butchers in 1401, Margrave Prokop forbade the 
Jews to engage in the retailing of meat. King Sig- 
ismund, who was constantly in financial difficulties, 
borrowed from the city 905 florins, which the Jews 
in the royal cities of Moravia had to pay; of this 
sum the Jews of Znaim paid 400 florins, and those 
of Briinn only 800, proving that the former city had 
the larger Jewish population. The chief occupa- 
tion of the Jews of Znaim in those early days was 
money-lending; in 1487 they were forbidden to 
charge a higher rate of interest than 34 pfennigs per 
shock groschen, and in 1453 the rate was reduced to 
4 pfennig. In 1454 the fanatic Franciscan monk 


Zoan 
Zohar 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


68§ 


John of CAPISTRANO aroused the population against 
the Jews, and on July 25 of the same year they 
were expelled. From that time until 1848 Jews 
were not permitted to reside in Znaim; and those 
who went thither on business had to pay a LEIB- 
ZOLL, Which in 1708 was fixed at 18 or 7 kreuzer, 
according to certain conditions. In 1785 Jacob 
FRANK Spent some time in the city. 

After the constitution of 1848 had declared free- 
dom of residence, Jews began to settle in the city, 
but they did not hold religious services until 1858. 
A Jewish society for worship was formed in 1866, 
and two years later a cemetery was acquired, where 
were deposited the remains of those buried in the 
old cemetery (confiscated in 1464), and also three 
tombstones from the same ancient burial-ground. 
In 1870 the society received the rights of a corpora- 
tion (“ Cultusgemeinde ”), and in 1888 a new syna- 
gogue was dedicated. The congregation numbers 
160 families, of which 120 live in the city and the 
remainder in the outlying district. The commu- 
nity was originally under the spiritual direction of 
teachers only, and not until 1894 was it permitted 
to appoint a rabbi. The following ministers have 
officiated in Znaim: H. Barth, Joseph Paschkes 
(1869), Samuel Mithsam (1870-72), Jacob Witten- 
berg (1872-77), Samuel Griin (1878-82), Ignaz Hol- 
zer (1884-99), and the present (1905) incumbent, 
Isidor Kahan. 

The community supports three charitable socie- 
ties: a hebra kaddisha, a women’s benevolent soci- 
ety, and a Talmud Torah society which provides 
poor school-children with text-books. The Jews of 
Znaim are mostly commission-merchants, but there 
are among them also physicians, lawyers, civil en- 
gineers, and some industrial workers. The annual 
expenditure of the congregation is about $2,800. 

D. I. KB. 


ZOAN : Animportant Egyptian city of great an- 
tiquity, almost as old as Hebron (Num. xiii. 22). 
The “ princes of Zoan” are ranked in Isa. xix. 11, 13 
with those of Noph (Memphis), and the city itself 
is mentioned in Ezek. xxx, 14 together with No 
(Thebes). The Israelitish embassies to it (Isa. xxx. 
4) may imply that it was the residence of Pharaoh, 
and a similar allusion may possibly be traced in 
Ps. Ixxviii. 12, 48, unless “the field of Zoan” is a 
poetic designation of Egypt in general. 

Zoan (Hebr. wry; the Egyptian “Za‘ne” folder 
form, “Za‘net”]; the Coptic “Jafajne,” “Jani”; 
and the “Tanis” of the Greeks) was situated in the 
Delta on the Tanitic branch of the Nile, not far from 
the modern lake of Menzelah and the northeastern 
frontier of Egypt. The ruins, excavated by Mari- 
ette in 1860 and, more thoroughly, by Petrie in 1883, 
have yielded monuments ranging from the sixth dy- 
nasty to the Roman period, when the city, once a 
royal residence, especially of the twenty-first or “ Ta- 
nitic” dynasty, began to degenerate into the fishing- 
village represented by the modern San al-Hajar. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Petrie. Tanis, London, 1885-87, 
heC2 1 W. M. M. 


ZODIAC: An imaginary zone of the heavens 
containing the twelve signs within which lie the 
paths of the principal planets, and through which 


the sun passes in its annual course. The signs, 
mostly representing symbols of animals, extend for 
thirty degrees each, and the entire zodiac is divided 
into twelve equal parts, six north and six south of 
the equator. When Hipparchus observed the con- 
stellations at Rhodes, those which bore the same 
names coincided approximately in position with the 
divisions of the sun’s path which they designated and 
which agree with the signs according to the Tal- 
mudic tradition. The precession of the equinoxes, 
however, gradually shifted the series, and the dis- 
crepancy now amounts to an entire sign. The signs 
are used by astronomers, while the constellations are 
employed by astrologers. Menahem ibn Zerah (four. 
teenth century) says that the zodiac moves very 
slowly from east to west, one degree in 100 years, 
making 386,000 years for the cycle, and that some 
authorities believe the movement to be eccentric 
(“ Zedah la-Derek,” p. 21b, Ferrara, 1554). 

The duodecimal division of the zodiac is first men- 
tioned in the “Sefer Yezirah,” which is of unknown 
antiquity, and in which the constellations (“ mazza- 
lot”) are named in the following order: Taleh, Shor, 

Te’omim, Sartan, Aryeh, Betulah, 


The Moznayim, ‘Akrab, Keshet, Gedi, 
Twelve Deli, and Dagim, corresponding to 
Signs. Aries, Taurus, etc., and to the twelve 


months beginning with Nisan. The 
constellations are also said to correspond to the twelve 
organs of the body : two hands, two feet, two kidneys, 
the gall, intestines, liver, throat, stomach, and pancre- 
as (“Sefer Yezirah,” v. 4), This order of the constel- 
lations harmonizes with the theory of the Assyrian 
astronomers, who supposed that at the moment of 
crossing the equator toward the north the sun was 
at the first point of Aries, and that about thirty 
days later it entered Taurus, and so on. They also 
designated the signs according to the organs of the 
body, which they arranged in the sequence of head, 
neck, arms, breast, heart, bowels, kidneys, loins, 
thighs, knees, legs, and feet. 

The twelve constellations represent the twelve 
tribes, while each station of the zodiac has thirty 
paths, and each path has thirty Jegions (of stars) 
(Ber. 82b). The standards of the tribes corresponded 
to the zodiacal signs of the constellations, so that in 
the east was the standard of Judah, with Issachar 
and Zebulun beside it, these three being opposite 
Aries, Taurus, and Gemini; in the south was the 
standard of Reuben, with Simeon and Gad, oppo- 
site Cancer, Leo, and Virgo; in the west was the 
standard of Ephraim, with Manasseh and Benjamin, 
opposite Libra, Scorpio, and Sagittarius; and in the 
north was the standard of Dan, with Asher and 
Naphtali, opposite Capricornus, Aquarius, and Pis- 
ces (Yalk., Num. 418). 

The motives underlying the choice of the symbolic 
signs are obvious in the case of some and only con- 
jectural in the case of others. All may be traced to 
Assyrian mythology and influence. The Jews during 
the Babylonian exile adopted Hebral- 
cized forms of the Assyriannames of 
the months and constellations. In 
some instances the Rabbis endeavored 
to explain the origin of these names. Thus they 
said that the Temple could not be destroyed in the 


Sym- 
bolism. 


689 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


40an 
Zohar 


first month (Nisan) since the sign Aries is a reminder 
of the ‘AKEDAH, Isaac representing the sacrificial 
“taleh ” (= “lamb”), In the second month (Lyyar) 
the sign Taurus or Shor (= “ox ”) recalls the “calf 
tender and good” (Gen. xviii. 7) which Abraham 
provided for the angels; and in the third month (Si- 
wan) the sign Gemini (= “twins”) represents Esau 
and Jacob. In the fourth month (Tammuz) the sign 
Cancer (= “crab ”), which lives in water, represents 
Moses, who was saved from water, while in the fifth 
month (Ab), which is designated by the sign of Leo, 
“the lion is come up from his thicket” (Jer. iv. 7), 
the Temple named “ Ariel” (= “the lion of God”) 
was destroyed (Isa. xxix. 1; Pesik. R. 27-28 [ed. 
Friedmann, p. 133b])._ The constellations represent 
the Creation: Aries is light and Taurus is darkness; 
Gemini represents the two sexes; Cancer symbolizes 


Hebrew Approximate 


Sun Enters Name. Date. 


March 21 
April 21 
May 22 
June 22 
July 23 Ab 


BTTOR  ieramiewints as Taleh 


Taurus Shor 


Te’omim 
Sartan 
Aryeh 
Betulah 


Gemini 


Aug. 24 
Sept. 24 
Oct. 24 

Noy, 23 


Moznayim 
‘Akrab 
Keshet 
Gedi 

Deli 


Scorpio 
Sagittarias...... 


Dec. 


Capricornus .... | 


Aquarius 
Dagim 


man, who first retreats to nooks and corners like 
the crab, but eventually becomes as brave as a lion 
(= “Leo”); Virgo is a symbol of marriage; Libra 
weighs all the deeds of man, who, if found guilty, 
is punished by Scorpio, a symbol of Gehinnom; 
after purification in Mercy, however, he is cast forth 
as quickly as an arrow from a bow, represented by 
Sagittarius, and becomes as innocent as a kid and 
is purified as by water poured by Aquarius (Pesik. 
R. 20 fed. Friedmann, p. 97b]). 

Since each of the planets was supposed to rule a 
certain hour of the day, while every constellation 
governed a certain month of the year, the fate of an 
infant was predicted according to the heavenly bod- 
ies that presided over the hour and the month of its 
birth. The conjunction of the planets and con- 
stellations was accordingly manipulated to deter- 
mine the fortunes of the person whose horoscope 
was thus drawn. <A “good” planet might synchro- 
nize with a “bad” constellation to some extent. 

Both planets and constellations indi- 

'Astrologic cated certain characteristics in the 

Use. person born at that time, and care 

had likewise to be taken to marry 

only such a mate as had been born under a harmo- 

nizing planet and constellation, since otherwise the 
XII.—44 


First of 
Hebrew Month. 

Nisan 

Iyyar 

Siwan 


Tammuz 


Elul 
Tishri 
Heshwan 
Kislew 
Tebet 
Shebat 


Adar 


marriage would be a failure. A detailed descrip- 
tion of the influence of the several planets and con- 
stellations is given in the “Zedah la-Derek” of 
Menahem ibn Zerah (i., §$ 28-29), as well as in the 
““Abbi‘ah Hidot” of Abraham Hamawi (pp. 49b-62a, 
ed. Leghorn, 1874), but all agree that the righteous 
Jew is above the “mazzal” (constellation or. planet) 
and need not fear any evil fate. In support of this 
teaching the passage “ be not dismayed at the signs of 
heaven; for the heathen are dismayed at them” (Jer. 
x. 2) is frequently quoted, and it is contrary to the 
Jewish religion to consult the predictions of astrol- 
ogers or to depend on them (Deut. xviii. 11). 

The dates at which the sun enters the signs of the 
zodiac in the course of a year are specified in the 
accompanying table. 

J. J. D. E. 


Jewish 
Constellation. 


Approximate 


Astronomical 
Hebrew Date. i 


Signs. 


4 
‘ 


March 27 
April 26 
May 25 
June 24 
July 23 
Aug. 23 
Sept. 22 
Oct. 22 
Nov. 19 
Dec. 18 
Jan, 16 
Feb. 15 


FEEorap S2QOH«x 34H 
REGRESS BOURas 


ZOHAR (called also in the earlier literature 
Midrash ha-Zohar and Midrash de-Rabbi 
Shim‘on ben Yohai): A pseudepigraphic work 
which pretends to be a revelation from God commu- 
nicated through R. Simeon ben Yohai to the latter’s 
select disciples, Under the form of a commentary 
on the Pentateuch, written partly in Aramaic and 
partly in Hebrew, it contains a complete cabalistic 
theosophy, treating of the nature of God, the cos- 
mogony and cosmology of the universe, the soul, 
sin, redemption, good, evil, etc. It first appeared 
in Spain in the thirteenth century, being made 
known through the agency of the cabalistic writer 
Moses ben Shem-Tob de Leon, who ascribed it to 
the miracle-working tanna Simeon ben Yohai, The 
fact that it was launched by such an 
unreliable sponsor as Moses de Leon, 
taken together with the circumstance 
that it refers to historical events of the post-Tal- 
mudical period, caused the authenticity of the 
work to be questioned from the outset. After the 
death of Moses de Leon, it is related, a rich man of 
Avila, named Joseph, offered the widow, who had 
been left without means, a large sum of money for 
the original from which her husband had made the 
copy; and she then confessed that her husband him- 


Source. 


Zohar 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


630 


self was the author of the work. She had asked 
him several times, she said, why he had chosen to 
credit his own teachings to another, and he had 
always answered that doctrines put into the mouth 
of the miracle-working Simeon ben Yohai would be 
a rich source of profit (see “Sefer ha-Yuhasin,” ed. 
Filipowski, p. 89). Incredible as this story seems 
—for it is inconceivable that a woman should own 
that her deceased husband had committed forgery 
for the sake of lucre—it at least proves that shortly 
after its appearance the work was believed by some 
to have been written entirely by Moses de Leon. 
This seems to have been the opinion of the cabalis- 
tic writer Joseph ibn Wakar, and he cautioned the 
public against the work, which he asserted to be 
full of errors. 

The general opinion, however, was in favor of its 
authenticity, this view being held not only by the 
cabalists, for whom the book opened new paths in 
the field of mysticism, but also by eminent Talmud- 
ists. It was quoted by Todros Abulafia, by Men- 
ahem Recanati, and even by Isaac of Acco, in whose 
name the story of the confession of Moses de Leon’s 
widowisrelated. Isaac evidently ignored the wom- 
an’s alleged confession tn favor of the testimony of 
Joseph ben Todros and of Jacob, a pupil of Moses 
de Leon, both of whom assured him on oath that 
the work was not written by Moses (“Sefer ha-Yu- 
hasin,” é.c.). The only objection worthy of consid- 
eration by the believers in the authenticity of the 
Zohar was the lack of references to the work in 
Jewish literature; and to this they answered that 
Simeon ben Yohai did not commit his teachings to 
writing, but transmitted them orally to his disci- 
ples, who in turn confided them to their disciples, 
and these to their successors, until finally the doc- 
trines were embodied in the Zohar. As to the ref- 

erencesin the book to historical events 


Authen- of the post-Talmudic period, it was 
ticity. not deemed surprising that Simeon 
ben Yohai should have foretold future 

happenings. The first attack upon the accepted 


authorship of the Zohar was made by Elijah Del- 
medigo. Without expressing any opinion as to the 
real author of the work, he endeavored to show, in 
his “ Behinat ha-Dat,” that it could not be attributed 
to Simeon ben Yohai. The objections advanced by 
him were as follows: (1) were the Zohar the work 
of Simeon ben Yohai, it would have been mentioned 
by the ‘Talmud, as has been the case with the Sifre 
and other works of the Talmudic period; (2) the 
Zohar contains names of Talmudists who lived at a 
later period than that of Simeon; (8) were Simeon 
ben Yohai the father of the Cabala, knowing by di- 
vine revelation the hidden meaning of the precepts, 
his halakic decisions would have been adopted by 
the Talmud; but this has not been done; (4) were 
the Cabala a revealed doctrine, there would have 
been no divergence of opinion among the cabalists 
concerning the mystic interpretation of the precepts 
(“ Behinat ha-Dat,” ed. Vienna, 18338, p. 48). 

These arguments and others of the same kind 
were used by Leon of Modena in his “ Ari Nohem ” 
(pp. 49 et seg., Leipsic, 1840). A work exclusively 
devoted to the criticism of the Zohar was written, 
under the title “ Mitpahat Sefarim,” by Jacob Em- 


den, who, waging war against the remaining adlie- 
rents of the Shabbethai Zebi movement, endeavored 
to show that the book on which the pseudo-Mes- 
siah based his doctrines was a forgery. Emden de. 
monstrates that the Zohar misquotes passages of 
Scripture; misunderstands the Talmud; contains 
some ritual observances which were ordained by 
later rabbinical authorities; mentions the crusades 
against the Mohammedans (ii. 32a); uses the expres- 
sion “esnoga” (iii. 232b), which is a Portuguese 
corruption of “synagogue,” and explains it in a 
cabalistic manner as a compound of the Hebrew 
words WS and AN3; gives a mystical explanation 
of the Hebrew vowel-points, which were introduced 
long after the Talmudic period (i. 24b, ii. 116a, 
iii. 65a). 

These and other objections of Emden’s, which 
were largely borrowed from the French eccle- 
siastic Jean Morin (“Exercitationes Biblice,” pp. 
3059 et seg., Paris, 1669), were refuted by Moses bei, 
Menahem Kunitz, who, in a work entitled “Ben 
Yohai” (Budapest, 1815), endeavors to show the 
following characteristics: that the vowel-points were 
known in Talmudic times; that the rites which Em- 
den claimed to have been ordained by later rabbinical 
authorities were already known to the Talmud; and 
that Simeon ben Yohai, who before taking refuge 
in the cave was designated only by the name of Sim- 
eon, is credited in the Talmud with many miracles 
and mystic sayings. Another work in favor of the 
antiquity of the Zohar was published by David 
Luria under the title “ Kadmut ha-Zohar ” (Koénigs- 
berg, 1855 [7]). It is divided into five chapters, in 
which the author gives proofs that Moses de Leon 
did not compile the Zohar; that the Geonim in Bab- 
ylonia cite cabalistic doctrines from a certain “ Mid- 
rash Yerushalmi,” the language of which strongly 
resembles that of the Zohar; that the work was 
compiled before the completion of the Talmud; 
that a great part of it was written in the period of 
Simeon ben Yohai; and, finally, that the Aramaic 
language was used in Talmudic times as well as in 
the geonic period. Of these proofs only those show- 
ing the inadmissibility of the authorship of Moses 

de Leon deserve consideration, the 


Moses de others being mere quibbles; for even 
Leon Not if it be conceded that the Talmud 

the knew of the vowel-points and that 
Author. the Aramaic was commonly used, 


there is no evidence whatever that 
Simeon ben Yohai or his immediate disciples were 
connected with the Zohar. As to the identification 
of the Zohar with the so-called “ Midrash Yerushal- 
mi,” the single fact that most of the passages quoted 
are not found in the Zohar, as Luria himself admits, 
is a sufficient proof that the two works can not be 
identical. However, Luria has quite as much war- 
rant for asserting, on the ground of his proofs, that 
a great part of the Zohar was written by Simeon 
ben Yohai as have Jellinek, Gratz, Ginsburg, and 
many others for maintaining that it was wholly com- 
posed by Moses de Leon on the ground that in the 
works of the last-named there are passages which are 
found verbatim inthe Zohar. These scholars seem 
to shrink from the idea that Moses de Leon should 
have been guilty of plagiarism, but they are not 


691 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Zohar 


afraid to charge him with forgery, and that of so 
clumsy a nature as to arouse at once the suspicions 
of the reader. For Moses de Leon could not have 
supposed for a moment that the insertion in the 
middle of an Aramaic sentence of two verses from 
Ibn Gabirol’s “ Keter Malkut ” (which, being recited 
in the synagogues, were known to every Jew) could 
have escaped detection; nor could he have thought 
that a quotation from the Cuzari, which was so 
much read and commented upon at that time, would 
pass unperceived by his contemporaries. 

Had Moses de Leon, who was a talented writer 
aud an able scholar, wished for mercenary purposes 
to forge a work in the name of Simeon ben Yohai, 
he would have been more careful in his statements 
and would certainly have employed the Hebrew 
language, first, because the tanna would have writ- 
ten in that language, and, second, because a work in 
Hebrew, being easier to understand, would have 
gained a far wider circle of readers, and conse- 
quently a larger number of purchasers, than would 
one written in a peculiar Aramaic dialect that was 
accessible to onlyafew. Were the pseudepigraphic 
“Sefer Yezirah,” “ Pirke de-Rabbi Eli‘ezer,” “Sefer 
Hekalot,” “Sefer ha-Bahir,” etc., any the less be- 
Heved to be the works of those to whom they were 
attributed simply because they were written in 
plain Hebrew and not in Aramaic? But apart from 
all these considerations, the contents of the Zohar 
clearly indicate that the work is the production not 
of a single author or of a single period, but of many 

authors, periods, and civilizations; for 

Not the it combines the most puzzling incon- 
Work of a gruities and irreconcilable contradic- 


Single tions with lofty ideas and conceptions 
Author or which would do honor to a genius of 
Period. modern times, and also mystic teach- 


ings of the Talmudic period with 
those of the Geonim and later Cabala. To deter- 
mine the country in which the work originated and 


the time at which its teachings began to develop, it | 
| these writings are of an earlier period. To the 


is necessary to ascertain where and when the Jews 
became intimately acquainted with the Hindu phi- 
losophy, which more than any other exercised an in- 
fluence on the Zohar. Asan instance of Hindu teach- 
ingsin the Zohar may be quoted the following passage: 


**In the book of Hamnuna the Elder we learn through some 
extended explanations that the earth turns upon itself in the 
form of a circle; that some are on top, the others below; that 
all creatures change in aspect, following the manner of each 
place, but keeping in the same position. But there are some 
countries on the earth which are lighted while others are in 
darkness; and there are countries in which there is constantly 
day or in which at least the night continues only some instants. 

. These secrets were made known to the men of the secret 
science, but not to the geographers’ (Zohar, iii. 9b). | 


The theory that the earth is a sphere revolving 
on its own axis, which immortalized Copernicus, 
was previously known only to the Hindus, who 
were instructed in the truth of it by Aryabhatta in 
the first century before the common era. As far as 
is known, the Vedanta school of the Hindu philoso- 
‘phers found nowhere, outside of its place of origin, 
So many admirers as in Persiain the eighth century. 
Under its influence the Mohammedans of Persia 
founded many mystic sects, among them being that 
of the Sufis, who for many centuries were very nu- 


merous. This mystic movement did not fail to exer- 
cise an influence upon the Persian Jews, and there 
arose among them various sects, such as the ‘Isaw- 
ites, the Yudghanites, etc., the tenets of which, so 
far as can be ascertained from the scanty informa- 
tion concerning them that is available, bore more or 
less the stamp of the Vedanta philosophy. Thus 
the Yudghanites abstained from meat, led ascetic 
lives, set aside the literal meaning of the Torah for a 
supposed mystic interpretation, and believed in met- 
empsychosis, etc. All these sects had their sacred 
writings, which they kept secret; and 
these writings probably formed the 
nucleus of the Zohar, which is a mys- 
tic commentary on the Pentateuch, as 
the upanishads are the mystic inter- 
pretation of the Vedas and other Brahmanic scrip- 
tures. In its peregrinations from Persia to Spain 
the Zohar probably received many additions and in- 
terpolations, among which may have been the vari- 
ous names of the Tannaim and Amoraim, as well as 
the allusions to bistorical events. 

The Zohar is not considered complete without the 
addition of certain appendixes, which are attributed 
either to the same author or to some of his imme- 
diate disciples. These supplementary portions are 
printed as part of the text with separate titles, or 
in separate columns. They are as follows: “Sifra 
di-Zeni‘uta,” consisting of five chapters, in which 
are chiefly discussed the questions in- 
volved in the Creation, such as the 
transition from the infinite to the 
finite, that from absolute unity to 
multifariousness, that from pure intelligence to 
matter, etc.; “Idra Rabbah,” in which the teach- 
ings of the preceding portion are enlarged upon and 
developed; and “Idra Zuta,” giving a résumé of 
the two preceding sections. The characteristic fea- 
tures of these portions are the absence of the doc- 
trine of the EN Sor, and the use of the appellation 
“Zaddik ” for the ninth Sefirah, which show that 


The Germ 
Probably 
in Persia. 


Appen- 
dixes. 


larger appendixes are added the following frag- 
ments: “ Raze de Razin,” dealing with the physiog- 
nomy of the Cabala and the connection of the soul 
with the body; “Sefer HeKALot,” describing the 
seven heavenly halls, paradise, and hell; Ra‘ya 
Mehemna,” giving a conversation between Moses, 
the prophet Elijah, and Simeon ben Yohai on the 
allegorical import of the Mosaic commandments and 
prohibitions, as well as of the rabbinical injunc- 
tions; “Sitre Torah,” on various cabalistic topics; 
“Midrash ha-Ne‘elam,” explaining passages of 
Scripture mystically by way of “remazim” and ge- 
matria; “Saba,” containing a conversation between 
the prophet Elijah and Simeon ben Yohai about the 
doctrine of metempsychosis; “ Yanuka,” on the im- 
portance of washing the hands before meals and on 
similar subjects, written in the name of a child of 
Hamnuna Saba, whence the title “ Yanuka” (child); 
“Tosefta” and “Matnitin,” in which are sketched 
the doctrines of the Sefirot, the emanation of the 
primordial light, etc. Besides the Zohar proper, 
there are also a “Zohar Hadash,” on Canticles, and 
“Tikkunum,” both new and old, which bear a close 
resemblance to the original work. 


Zohar 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


692 


The Zohar repeatedly endeavors to impress upon 
the mind of the reader that the Biblical narratives 
and ordinances contain higher truths in addition to 
the literal meaning. 


‘* Wo unto the man,”’ says Simeon ben Yohai, ‘* who asserts 
that this Torah intends to relate only commonplace things and 
secular narratives; for if this were so, then in 
Mysticism the present times likewise a Torah might be 
of written with more attractive narratives. In 
the Zohar. truth, however, the matter is thus: The upper 
world and the lower are established upon one 
and thesame principle; in the lower world is Israel, in the upper 
world are the angels. When the angels wish to descend to the 
lower world, they have to don earthly garments. If this be true 
of the angels, how much more so of the Torah, for whose sake, 
indeed, the world and the angels were alike created and exist. 
The world could simply not have endured to look uponit. Now 
the narratives of the Torah are its garments. He who thinks 
that these garments are the Torah itself deserves to perish and 
have no share in the world to come. Wo unto the fools who 
look no further when they see an elegant robe! More valuable 
than the garment is the body which carries it, and more valuable 
even than that is the soul which animates the body. Fools see 
only the garment of the Torah, the more intelligent see the 
body, the wise see the soul, its proper being; and in the Mes- 
sianic time the ‘upper soul’ of the Torah will stand revealed ”’ 
(Zohar, iii. 152). 

“The man,”’ it is safd in the ‘*Sifra di Zeni‘uta,” ** who is not 
acquainted with this book is like the savage barbarian who was 
a stranger to the usages of civilized life. He sowed wheat, but 
was accustomed to partake of it only in its natural condition. One 
day this barbarian came into a city, and good bread was placed 
before him. Finding it very palatable, he inquired of what ma- 
terial it was made, and was informed that it was made of wheat. 
Afterward one offered to him a fine cake Kneaded inoil. He 
tasted it, and again asked ;: ' And this, of what is it made?’ and 
he received the same answer, of wheat. Finally, one placed 
before him the royal pastry, kneaded with oil and honey. He 
again asked the same question, to which he obtained a like re- 
ply. Then he said: ‘At my house I am in possession of all these 
things. I partake daily of them in root, and cultivate the wheat 
from which they are made.’ In this crudeness he remained a 
stranger to the delights one draws from the wheat, and the 
pleasures were lost to him. Itis the same with those who stop 
at the general principles of knowledge because they are igno- 
rant of the delights which one may derive from the further in- 
vestigation and application of these principles.” 


The Zohar assumes four kinds of Biblical exege- 
sis: “ Peshat ” (literal meaning), “ Remez ” (allusion), 
“Derash” (anagogical), and “Sod” (mystic). The 
initial letters of the words “Peshat,” “Remez,” 
“Derash,” and “Sod” form together the word 
“PaRDeS ” (Paradise), which became the designa- 
tion for the fourfold meaning of which the mystical 
sense is the highest part. The mystic allegorism is 
based by the Zohar on the principle 
that all visible things, the phenomena 
of nature included, have besides their 
exoteric reality an esoteric reality also, 
destined to instruct man in that which is invisible. 
This principle is the necessary corollary of the 
fundamental doctrine of the Zohar. The universe 
being, according to that doctrine, a gradation of 
emanations, it follows that the human mind may rec- 
ognize in each effect the supreme mark, and thus 
ascend to the cause of all causes. This ascension, 
however, can only be made gradually, after the 
mind has attained four various stages of knowledge; 
namely: (1) the knowledge of the exterior aspect of 
things, or, as the Zohar calls it Gi. 36b), “the vision 
through the mirror that projects an indirect light”; 
(2) the knowledge of the essence of things, or “the 
vision through the mirror that projects a direct 
light”; (3) the knowledge through intuitive repre- 
sentation; and (4) the knowledge through love, 


‘¢ PaR- 
DeS8.” 


since the Law reveals its secrets to those only who 
love it (ii. 99D). 

After the knowledge through love comes the ec- 
static state which is applied to the most holy visions. 
To enter the state of ecstasy one had to remain mo- 
tionless, with the hand between the Knees, absorbed 
in contemplation and murmuring prayers and 
hymns. There were seven ecstatic stages, each of 
which was marked by a vision of a different color. 
At each new stage the contemplative entered a 
heavenly hall (“hekal”) of a different hue, until he 
reached the seventh, which was colorless, and the 
appearance of which marked both the end of his 
contemplation and his lapse into unconsciousness. 
The Zohar gives the following illustration of an 
ecstatic state: 


* Once,’’ says R. Simeon ben Yohai, ‘* I was plunged in a con- 
templative ecstasy, and I beheld a sublime ray of a brilliant light 
which illumined 325 circles, and amid which something dark 
was bathing. Then the dark point, becoming bright, began to 
float toward the deep and sublime sea, where all the splendors 
were gathering. I then asked the meaning of this vision, and 
I was answered that it represented the forgiveness of sins.” 


The Zohar spread among the Jews with remarka- 
ble celerity. Scarcely fifty years had passed since 
its appearance in Spain before it was quoted by 
many cabalists, among whom was the Italian mys- 

tical writer Menahem Recanati. Its 
Spread of authority was so well established in 
the Zohar. Spainin the fifteenth century that Jo- 
seph ibn Shem-Tob drew from it ar- 
guments in his attacks against Maimonides. It ex- 
ercised so great a charm upon the cabalists that they 
could not believe for an instant that such a book 
could have been written by any mortal unless he 
had been inspired from above; and this being the 
case, it was to be placed on the same level with the 
Bible. Even representatives of Talmudic Judaism 
began to regard it as a sacred book and to invoke its 
authority in the decision of some ritual questions. 
They were attracted by its glorification of man, its 
doctrine of immortality, and its ethical principles, 
which are more in keeping with the spirit of Tal- 
mudical Judaism than are those taught by the phi- 
losophers. While Maimonides and his followers re- 
garded man as a fragment of the universe whose 
immortality is dependent upon the degree of devel- 
opment of his active intellect, the Zohar declared 
him to be the lord of the Creation, whose immortal- 
ity is solely dependent upon his morality. Indeed, 
according to the Zohar, the moral perfection of man 
influences the ideal world of the Sefirot; for al- 
though the Sefirot expect everything from the En 
Sof, the En Sof itself is dependent upon man: he 
alone can bring about the divine effusion. The dew 
that vivifies the universe flows from the just. By 
the practise of virtue and by moral perfection man 
may increase the outpouring of heavenly grace. 
Even physical life ig subservient to virtue. This, 
says the Zohar, is indicated in the words “for the 
Lord God had not caused it to rain” (Gen. ii. 5), 
which mean that there had not yet been beneficent 
action in heaven because man had not yet given the 
impulsion. 

These and similar teachings appealed to the Tal- 

mudists and made them overlook the Zohar’s dis- 


693 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Zohar 


parities and contrasts and its veiled hostility to the 
Talmud. The influences of the Zohar on Judaism 
were both beneficial and deleterious. On the one 
hand, the Zohar was praiseworthy because it op- 
posed formalism, stimulated the imag- 
ination and feelings, and _ restored 
prayer (which had gradually become 
a mere external religious exercise) to 
the position it had occupied for centuries among the 
Jews as a means of transcending earthly affairs for 
a time and placing oneself in union with God; and 
on the other hand, it was to be censured because it 
propagated many superstitious beliefs, and pro- 
duced a host of mystical dreamers, whose over- 
heated imaginations peopled the world with spirits, 
demons, and all kinds of good and bad influences. 
Its mystic mode of explaining some commandments 
was applied by its commentators to all religious ob- 
servances, and produced a strong tendency to sub- 
stitute a mystic Judaism for the rabbinical cult. 
Thus the Sabbath, with all its ceremonies, began to 
be looked upon as the embodiment of the Divinity 
in temporal life, and every ceremony performed on 
that day was considered to have an influence upon 
the superior world. Zoharic elements even crept 
into the liturgy of the sixteenth and seventeenth 
centuries, and the religious poets not only used in 
their compositions the allegorism and symbolism of 
the Zohar, but even adopted its style, the character- 
istic features of which were the representation of 
the highest thoughts by human emblems and hu- 
man passions, and the use of erotic terminology to 
illustrate the relations between man and God, relig- 
ion being identical with love. Thus, in the lan- 
guage of many Jewish poetsthe beloved one’s curls 
indicate the mysteries of the Deity; sensuous pleas- 
ures, and especially intoxication, typify the highest 
degree of divine love as ecstatic contemplation; 
while the wine-room represents merely the state 
through which the human qualities merge or are ex- 
alted into those of the Deity. 

The enthusiasm felt for the Zohar was shared by 
many Christian scholars, such as Pico de Mirandola, 
Reuchlin, Aigidius of Viterbo, etc., allof whom be- 
lieved that the book contained proofs of the truth of 
Christianity. They were led to this belief by the 

analogies existing between some of 

Influence the teachings of the Zohar and cer- 
on Chris- tain of the Christian dogmas, as for 
tian Mysti- instance the fall and redemption of 
cism. man, and the dogma of the Trinity, 
which is expressed in the Zohar in the 

following terms: “The Ancient of Days has three 
heads. He reveals himself in three archetypes, all 
three forming but one. He is thus symbolized by 
the number Three. They are revealed in one an- 
other. [These ure:] first, secret, hidden ‘Wisdom’; 
above that the Holy Ancient One; and above Him the 
Unknowable One. None knows what He contains; 
He is above all conception. He is therefore called 
for man ‘ Non-Existing ’ [“ ‘Ayin”]” (Zohar, iii. 288b). 
This and also the other doctrines of Christian tend- 
ency that are found in the Zohar are now known 
to be much older than. Christianity ; but the Chris- 
tian scholars who were deluded by the similarity of 
these teachings to certain Christian dogmas deemed 


Ethical 
System. 


it their duty to propagate the Zohar. Shortly after 
the publication of the work (Mantua and Cremona, 
1558) Joseph de Voisin translated extracts from it 
which deal with the soul. He was followed by many 
others, among whom was Knorr, Baron von Rosen- 
roth, who rendered into Latin the introduction, the 
“Sifra di-Zeni‘uta,” the “Idra Rabbah,” and the 
“Idra Zuta ” (* Kabbala Denudata,” Sulzbach, 1677). 

The disastrous effects of the Shabbethai Zebi 
movement, which was greatly fostered by the ob- 
noxious influences of the Zohar, damped the enthu- 
siasm that had been felt for the book, and the repre- 
sentatives of Talmudic Judaism began to look upon 
it with suspicion. Especially was this the case 
when the Shabbethaian movement had degenerated 
into religious mysticism and had produced the anti- 
Talmudic sectaries who styled themselves “ Zohar- 
ites,” and who, under the leadership of Jacob Frank, 
finished by embracing Christianity. However, the 
Zohar is still held in great reverence by many Or- 
thodox Jews, especially the Hasidim, who, under 
its influence, assign the first place in religion not to 
dogma and ritual, but to the sentiment and the emo- 
tion of faith. 

Among the numerous commentaries written on the 
Zohar the most important are: “Torat Emet,” con- 
taining corrections and explanations of words for the 
section on Genesis, by David ben 
Abraham Shemariah (Salonica, 1604); 
“Yesh Sakar,” on the religious pre- 
scriptions of the Zohar, by J. Bir ben 
Petahiah, who published also “Mekor Hokmah” and 
“Imre Binah,” on the foreign words in the Zohar 
(Prague, 1610, 1611); “ Yesha‘ Yah,” explanation of 
the foreign words in the Zohar, by Solomon Isaiah 
ben Eliezer Hayyim Nizza (Venice, 1680); “ Hibbur 
‘Ammude Sheba‘,” by Aaron Selig Zolkiev (Cra- 
cow, 1636); “Amarot Tehorot,” explaining the 
difficult words of the Zohar, by Wolf Leitmeritz 
(Lublin, 1645); “‘Emek ha-Melek,” commentaries 
on various sections of the Zohar, by Naphtali Herz 
ben Jacob Elhanan (Amsterdam, 1648); “Sha‘ar ha- 
Shamayim,” introduction to and rules of the 
cabalistic system of the Zohar, by Abraham Her- 
rera (¢b. 1655); “Hesed la-Abraham,” novelle on 
the Zohar, by Abraham Azulai (2d. 1685); “ Wayakhel 
Mosheh,” by Moses ben Menahem (Dessau, 1699); 
“ Or Yisrael,” by Israel Jaffe (Frankfort-on-the-Oder, 
1711). For the cabalistic system of the Zohar see 
ADAM KaAaDMON; AMULET; ASCENSION; AZILUT; 
CABALA; CREATION; EMANATION; SEFIROT; SOUL, 


Commen- 
taries. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY : Modern sources: Zunz, G. V. 2d ed., pp. 415 et 
seq.; A. Franck, La Kabbale, Paris, 1843; 2d ed., ib. 1889; 
German transl. by Ad. Jellinek, Leipsic, 1844; Landauer, in 
Orient, Lit. vi. 178 et seq.; Ignatz Stern, in Ben Chananja, 
i-vi.: D. H. Joél, Midrash ha-Zohar, Die Religionsphitnso- 
phi edes Sohar, Leipsic, 1849; Jellinek, Moses de Leon und 
Sein Verhdltriss zum Zohar, ib. 1851; Steinschneider, Jew- 
ish Literature, 8 xiii.; Jost, Geschichte des Judenthums, ii., 
iii., Index; Ginsburg, The Kabbalah, London, 1865; Ham- 
burger, R. B. T. s.v. Geheimlehre, Kabhala and Mystik; 
Hermann Beer, Historische Daten in dem Zohar, in Monats- 
schrift, v. 158: Duschak, Platonisehe Mythe in dem Zohar, 
in Orient, Lit. x. 181; Rapopor, in Kerem Hemed, i, 1543 
Gratz, Gesch. vii., Index (compare also the notes by Harkavy 
to the Hebrew translation of Gratz in vol. v.}: Bacher, L’Ere- 
gése Biblique dans le Zohar,in R. EB. J. xxii. 33° et seq.;3 
idem, in J. Q. R. iii. 781; Karppe, Etude sur les Origines du 
Zohar, Paris, 1891 ; Isaac Myer, Qabbalah, Philadelphia, 1888 ; 
Flugel, Philosophy, Kabbala and Vedanta, Baltimore, 1902. 
See also the bibliography to the article CABALA. 


J. I. Br. 


Gola een 
Zoroastrianism 


ZOLA, EMILE: French novelist; born in Paris 
April 2, 1840: died there Sept. 29, 1902. It was 
only in his last years, when anti-Semitism had 
reached an acute stage in France, that he took up 
the cause of the Jewish community against its 
assailants; but several Jewish charac- 
ters, almost invariably connected 
with the French financial world, had 
appeared in some of his novels. Thus, 
in his “Son Excellence Eugéne Rougon,” he deline- 
ated a certain Kahn, an unscrupulous deputy, rail- 
way-contractor, and ironmaster, son of a Jewish 
banker at Bordeaux; in “ Nana” he portrayed a Ger- 
man Jew named Steiner, whom he represented as 
amassing millions by his acumen and as squander- 
ing them in gross dissipation until he was at last 
completely ruined by the woman whose name fur- 
nishes the title of the book; and in “L’Argent” 
(1890-91) he introduced various Jewish characters, 
such as bankers, stock-jobbers, and speculators. 
But it should be said that if Zola placed various bit- 
ter diatribes in the mouths of some of the Jew- 
haters figuring in the last-named novel, this was 
simply because his subject required it, the diatribes 
in question being in no sense representative of the 
author’s personal sentiments. 

It is curious to observe that his book “ Paris,” in 
which he presents in a not quite favorable light a 
great number of Jewish characters, and which was 
published in volume form in March, 1898 (that is, 
immediately after the author’s trial in Paris in con- 

nection with the Drryrus Cassg), 

Attitude gives no indication whatever of his 
on Jewish intervention in that famous affair, or 

Question. of the various attempts he had made, 

while writing the volume, to stem the 

progress of anti-Semitism in France. In the early 

part of 1896 he contributed to the pages of the 

Paris “Figaro” a very vigorous and much-noticed 

article entitled “Pour les Juifs,” the key-note of 
which was sounded in the opening paragraph: 


His 
Novels. 


**For some years I have been following with increasing sur- 
prise and disgust the campaign which some people are trying 
to carry on in France against the Jews, This seems to me mon- 
strous, by which I mean something foreign to all common sense, 
' truth, and justice, something blind and foolish, which would 
carry us back several centuries, and which would end in the 
worst of abominations, religious persecution. .. .” 


In this article Zola dealt with anti-Semitism from a 
general point of view, making no mention of Cap- 
tain Dreyfus, the agitation for whose release had 
not yet begun. At a later date, when Zola had es- 
poused the cause of the unfortunate prisoner, he 
frequently referred to the general question of anti- 
Semitism, which he denounced as odious and fool- 
ish, both in his articles “M. Scheurer-Kestner,” 
“Le Syndicat,” and “Procés Verbal,” published 
in “Le Figaro” in the autumn of 1897, and in his 
subsequent pamphlets “ Lettre aux Jeunes Hommes” 
and “Lettre 4 la France.” His adversaries there- 
upon accused him of venality, asserting that he had 
been bought by the Jews. 

When his active participation in the Dreyfus case 
had ceased, he chose the affair as the subject of 
what was destined to be his last novel, “ Vérité,” 
Jargely transferring the action, however, from mili- 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


694 


tary spheres to the teaching world, in such wise 
that in his pages Captain Alfred Dreyfus became a 
French provincial schoolmaster caNed 

His Last Simon, with a brother named David 
Work. (M. Mathieu Dreyfus), while the no- 
torious Major Esterhazy was trans- 

formed into a certain Brother Gorgias. Other Jew- 
ish characters figured in the volume; for instance, 
Simon’s wife, Rachel (Mme. Alfred Dreyfus); their 
children Joseph and Sarah ; the Lehmanns, a family 
of penurious Jewish tailors; and Baron Nathan and 
his daughter La, who became a Catholic, like Ave 
in “Paris,” and married a violent anti-Semite, the 
Count de Sanglebeuf. Nathan is not described as 
having formally renounced the Jewish faith, but 
Zola treats him as a renegade, one of those who, hav- 
ing risen to affluence and rank, not only cast off the 
ancestral traditions, but even join the persecutors of 
theirrace. From first to last “ Vérité” is a vigorous 
denunciation of anti-Semitism in its various forms, 
its growth and diffusion in France being chiefly at- 
tributed by Zola to the action of the Roman Catholic 
priesthood. The writing of the book was only just 
finished when Zola died by accidenta)] suffocation. 
Sincere regret for his death was expressed by Jew- 
ish communities all over the world, for they recog- 
nized that they had lost an able and perfectly 
disinterested friend in the deceased writer. A con- 
siderable part of the large sum of money subse- 
quently raised for the erection of a monument to 
him in Paris was contributed by Jewish subscribers, 
several of whom had previously given liberally 
when a superb gold medal was struck in his honor. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY : Zola, Son Excellence Hugéne Rougon, Paris, 
1876; idem, Nara, ib. 1880; idem, L Argent, ib. 1891 ; idem, 
Vérité, ib. 1903: idem, Nouvelle Campagne, ib. 1897; idem, 
La Vérité en Marche, ib. 1901 (in the last-named volume 
will be found the various articles, letters, and addresses writ- 
ten by Zola in connection with the Dreyfns case; of some of 
these there isan English translation, Zola’s Lettersto France, 
with introduction, by L. F. Austin, New York and London, 


n.d.). On Zola’s attitude toward the Jews: Ernest Vizeteily, 
Hae Zola, Novelist and Reformer, New York and London, 


8. EK. A. V. 


ZOMBER, BERNHARD (BAR): Polish 
scholar; born at Lask in 1821; died at Berlin in 
1884, Having acquired a fair knowledge of rabbin- 
ical literature in his native country, he went to Ger- 
many, where he studied successively under Joseph 
Shapiro and Jacob Ettinger. Later he attended the 
universities of Wiirzburg and Berlin, and in 1871 he 
was appointed principal teacher of the Bet ha-Mid- 
rash of Berlin, a position which he held until his 
death. His works are as follows: “ Hilkot Pesa- 
him,” on Passover laws compiled by Isaac ibn Ghay- 
yat, supplemented by a commentary of his own en- 
titled “ Debar Halakah ” (Berlin, 1864); “ Ma’amar,” 
a dissertation on Rashi’s commentary on Nedarim 
and Mo‘ed Katan (7d. 1867); “Moreh Derek,” the 
commentaries of Gershon Me’or ha-Golah and of 
Rashi on Mo‘ed Katan (2). 1870); and “Shittah Me- 
kubbezet,” Bezalel Ashkenazi’s novellze on Nedarim. 
In addition to these works, Zomber contributed sev- 
eral valuable articles to Jewish scientific periodicals, 
including a study on Judah ben Yakar, the com- 
mentator of the Yerushalmi, which was translated 
from German into Hebrew by Abraham Abele Ehr- 
lich (“ Ha-Karmel,” iii. 294). 


695 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Zola 


Zoroastrianism 


BIBLIOGRAPHY : First, Bibl. Jud. iii. 542; Zedner. Cat. Hebr. 
+ Books Brit. Mus. p. 791; Zeitlin, Bibl. Post-Mendels. p. 428 ; 
Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, p. 187. 


J. . I. Br. 
ZOR. See TYRE. 


ZOREF, SAMUEL HA-LEVI: Rabbi at Po- 
sen; died between 1710 and 1716. He was the au- 
thor of “Mazref la-Kesef” (Frankfort-on-the-Oder, 
1681), containing extracts from and an index to the 
“Shene Luhot ha-Berit” (“SHeLal”) of Isaiah 
Horowitz, with two appendixes, one entitled 
“Kur la-Zahab” and giving extracts from Gabirol’s 
“Mibhar ha-Peninim,” and the other entitled “Te- 
shubot Shib‘im Zekenim ” and containing maxims. 
A separate edition of the “ Kur la-Zahab ” was pub- 
lished at Offenbach in 1710, and in 1716 it was 
printed with the “ Teshubot Shib‘im Zekenim.” 
BIBLIOGRAPHY ® First, Bibl. Jud. iii. 555; Steinschneider, Cat. 


Boal. col. 2499. 
J. I. Br. 


ZOROASTRIANISM : The religion of ancient 
Persia as founded by Zoroaster; one of the world’s 
great faiths that bears the closest resemblance to Ju- 
daism and Christianity. According to the tradition 
in the Parsee books, Zoroaster was born in 660 B.c. 
and died in 588; but many scholars claim that he 
must have flourished at a much earlier time, All 
investigators, however, are agreed that his teachings 
were generally in force throughout Iran before the 
time of the Jewish Captivity. His name in its an- 
cient form in the Avesta is “Zarathustra,” and in 
later Persian, “Zardusht”; the form “ Zoroaster,” 
which is now common, has been adopted from the 
Greek and Latin “ Zoroastres.” The native country 
of the prophet is now believed to have been Media, 
in western Iran, and there are reasons for claiming 
that his birthplace was in the province of Atropa- 
tene, the modern Azerbaijan; but much of his min- 
istry, or rather most of his prophetic career, was 
passed in eastern Iran, especially in the region of 
Bactria, where he won a powerful patron for his 
religion. This defender of the faith was a king 
named Vishtaspa, or Gushtasp, a name identical 
with that of Hystaspes, the father of Darius, al- 
though the two personages are not to be confounded, 
as has sometimes been done. 

Zoroaster was originally a Magian priest, but he 
appears to have reformed or purified the creed of 
the Magi. His religious teachings are preserved in 

the Avesta. Thecharacter of the Per- 

Tenets of sian religion before Zoroaster’s time 
the Faith. is not known, but a comparison with 

that of India shows that it must have 
had much in common with the early religion of the 
Hindus. It may be presumed that it was a modified 
nature-worship, with polytheistic features and some 
traces of demonistic beliefs. Herodotus (“ Hist.” i. 
131 et seg.) states that the Persians from the earliest 
times worshiped the sun, moon, stars, and earth, 
and the waters and wind, and he intimates in pre- 
cise words that they had borrowed certain religious 
elements from the Assyrians. One or two supersti- 
tious practises which he describes, such as the pro- 
Pitiation of the powers of evil (2d, iii. 35, vii. 114), 
show survivals of demoniacal rites, against which 
Zoroaster so strongly inveighed; and the account 


which he gives of the Magian ceremonies is quite in 
accordance with Zoroastrianism. 

One of the characteristic features of Zoroastrian- 
ism is the doctrine of dualism, recognizing the pow- 
ers of good and evil as two personified principles 
at war with each other. Ahuramazda, or Ormuzd 
(“the Wise Lord ”), leads the forces of good; Angra- 

Mainyu, or Ahriman (“the Spiri- 
The tual Enemy ”), heads the hosts of evil. 
Kingdoms Bands of angels and archangels fol- 
of Good low the divine leader, while troops of 
and Evil. demons and archfiends hasten after 
the evil lord. The archangels are six 
in number and are called by the general name 
Amesha Spentas (“Iminortal Holy Ones”); they 
are personifications of virtues and abstract ideas, and 
are named Vohu Manah (“Good Mind”), Asha Va- 
hishta (“ Perfect Righteousness”), Khshathra Vair- 
ya (“Wished-for Kingdom”), Spenta Armaiti (a 
feminine personification of harmony and the earth), 
Haurvatat (“ Health,” “Salvation”), and Amcretat 
(“Immortality”). The angels and lesser divine be- 
ings are termed Yazatas (“ Worshipful Ones ”) and 
are very numerous, although twenty-one of them 
are more prominent than the rest; these include di- 
vine embodiments of the sun, moon, stars, fire, 
earth, water and air, the spirits of the righteous 
(called “fravashis”), andalso several abstract con- 
cepts, like victory, religion, kingly glory, and the 
divinity known as Mithra, an incarnation of 
light and truth. The rabble of hell, led by Ahri- 
man, is ill organized, and the chief archfiend, after 
Ahriman himself, is the demon Aeshma (Deva), a 
name which is thought to be found in the Book of 
Tobit as Asmodeus, although this view is not ac- 
cepted by some (see ASMODEUS). In addition to the 
six archfiends there is a legion of minor fiends and 
demons (“dseva,” “druj ”). 

The conflict between the opposing kingdoms of 
light and darkness forms the history of the world, 

which lasts for 12,000 years and is 
Millennial divided into four great eons. The 
Doctrines. first 3,000 years is the period of spir- 

itual existence. Ormuzd knows of 
Ahriman’s coexistence, and creates the world first 
in a spiritual state before giving it a material form, 
the “fravashis” being tbe models of the future 
types of things. Ahriman is ignorant of his great 
rival’s existence, but on discovering this he counter- 
creates the hosts of demons and fiends. In the sec- 
ond 3,000 years, while Ahriman and his host have 
been confounded by Ormuzd, the Jatter creates the 
world in its material form, and the world is then in- 
vaded by Ahriman. The third 3,000 years is the 
period of conflict between the rival powers and the 
struggle for the soul of man, until Zoroaster comes 
into the world. His birth inaugurates a new era, 
and the fourth and last 3,000 years begins. These 
final millennial eras are presided over by Zoroaster 
himself and his three posthumous sons, who are to 
be born in future ages in an ideal manner, the last 
being the Messiah called Saoshyant (“ Savior,” “ Bene- 
factor”: lit. “he who will benefit and save the 
world”). In its general bearings this dualistic 
scheme of the universe is theologically monotheistic 
in so far as it postulates the final predominance of 


Zoroastrianism 
Zuckerkandl 


Ormuzd; and it is optimistic in its philosophy, inas- 
much as it looks for a complete regeneration of the 
world. 

In all this struggle man is the important figure; 
for the ultimate triumph of right depends upon 
him. He is a free agent according to Zoroaster 
(“ Yasna,” xxx, 20, xxxi. 11), but he must ever be on 
his guard against the misguidance of evil. The 
purpose of Zoroaster’s coming into the world and the 
aim of his teaching are to guide man to choose aright, 
to lead him in the path of righteousness, in order that 
the world may attain to ultimate perfection. This 
perfection will come with the establishment of the 
Good Kingdom (Avesta, “ Vohu Khshathra”), the 
Wished-for Kingdom (Avesta, “ Khshathra Vairya”), 
or the Kingdom of Desire (Avesta, “ Khshathra Ish- 
tdish”). When this shall come to pass the world 
will become regenerate (Avesta, “Ahtiim Frashem 
Kar”; or “ Frashdkereti”); a final battle between 
the powers of good and evil will take place; Ahri- 
man and his hosts will be routed; and good shall 
reign supreme (“ Yasht,” xix. 89-93; Bundahis, xxx. 
1-83). The advent of the Messiah (Saoshyant) will 
be accompanied by the resurrection of the dead 
and the general judgment of the world, which 
thenceforth will be free from evil and free from 
harm. 

The motto of the Zoroastrian religion is “Good 
thoughts, good words, good deeds” (Avesta, “ Hu- 
mata, hikhta, hvarshta”). Man in his daily life is 
enjoined to preserve purity of body and soul alike. 
He is to exercise scrupulous care in 
keeping the elements earth, fire, and 
water free from defilement of any 
kind. Truth-speaking and _ honest 
dealing are made the basis of every 
action; kindliness and generosity are 
virtues to be cultivated; and agricul- 
ture and cattle-raising are prescribed as religions 
duties. Marriage within the community of the 
faithful, even to wedlock with blood relatives, is 
lauded; and according to the Avesta (“ Vendidad,” 
iv. 47), “he who has a wife is to be accounted far 
above him who has none; and he who has children 
is far above the childless man.” | 

In disposing of the dead, it is unlawful to burn 
or bury the body or to throw it into water, as any 
of these modes of disposal would defile one of the 
sacred elements; the dead must therefore be ex- 
posed in high places to be devoured by birds and 
dogs, a custom which is still observed by the Parsees 
and Gabars in their “ Towers of Silence.” 

In religious inatters the priesthood was supreme in 
authority, and the sacerdotal order was hereditary. 

° The Mobeds and Herbeds were the 
Priesthood Levites and Kohanim of Zoroastrian- 
and ism. The name for priest, “athaur- 

Ritual. van,” in the Avesta corresponds to 

“atharvan” in India; the Magi were 
a sacerdotal tribe of Median origin. In acts of wor- 
ship (Avesta, “ Yasna”) animal sacrifices were some- 
times offered, especially in more ancient times, but 
these immolations were subordinate and gave place 
more and more to offerings of praise and thanks- 
giving accompanied by oblations of consecrated 
milk, bread, and water. The performance of these 


Ethical 
Teachings 
and 
Religious 
Practises. 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


696 


rites was altended by the recitation of long litanies, 
especially in connection with the preparation of the 
sacred drink “haoma,” made from a plant resem- 
bling the Indian “sOma,” from which an exhilara- 
ting juice was extracted. It has been thought that 
the twigs (Avesta, “baresman”; modern Persian, 
“barsom”) employed by the Zoroastrian priests in 
their ritual are alluded to as the “branch ” held to 
the nose by the sun-worshipers in the vision of 
Ezekiel (viii. 16-17); and the consecrated cake 
(Avesta, “draonah”; modern Persian, “darin”) 

has been compared with the Hebrew showbread. 
The points of resemblance between Zoroastrian- 
ism and Judaism, and hence also between the former 
and Christianity, are many and striking. Ahura- 
mazda, the supreme lord of Iran, om- 


Resem-__ niscient, omnipresent, and eternal, en- 
blances dowed with creative power, which he 
Between exercises especially through the me- 
Zoroastri- dium of his Spenta Mainyu (“ Holy 
anism and Spirit”), and governing the universe 
Judaism. through the instrumentality of angels 


and archangels, presents the nearest 
parallel to Yawu that is found in antiquity. But 
Ormuzd’s power is hampered by his adversary, 
Ahriman, whose dominion, however, like Satan’s, 
shall be destroyed at the end of the world. Zoroas- 
trianism and Judaism present a number of resem- 
blances to each other in their general systems of 
angelology and demonology, points of similarity 
which have been especially emphasized by the Jew- 
ish rabbinical scholars Schorr and Kohut and the 
Christian theologian Stave. There are striking 
parallels between the two faiths and Christianity in 
their eschatological teachings—the doctrines of a 
regenerate world, a perfect kingdom, the coming of 
a Messiah, the resurrection of the dead, and the life 
everlasting. Both Zoroastrianism and Judaism are 
revealed religions: in the one Ahuramazda imparts 
his revelation and pronounces his commandments to 
Zarathustra on “the Mountain of the Two Holy 
Communing Ones”; in the other YuawuH holdsasim- 
ilar communion with Moses on Sinai. The Magian 
laws of purification, moreover, more particularly 
those practised to remove pollution incurred through 
contact with dead or unclean matter, are given in 
the Avestan Vendidad quite as elaborately as in the 
Levitical code, with which the Zoroastrian book has 
been compared (see AVESTA). The two religions 
agree in certain respects with regard to their cosmo- 
logical ideas. The six days of Creation in Genesis 
find a parallelin the six periods of Creation described 
in the Zoroastrian scriptures. Mankind, according 
to each religion, is descended from a single couple, 
and Mashya (man) and Mashyana are the Iranian 
Adam (man) and Eve. In the Bible a deluge des- 
troys all people except asingle righteous individual 
and his family; in the Avesta a winter depopulates 
the earth except in the Vara (“enclosure ”) of the 
blessed Yima. In each case the earth is peopled 
anew with the best two of every kind, and is after- 
ward divided into three realms. The three sons of 
Yima’s successor Thraetaona, named Erij (Avesta, 
“Airya”), Selm (Avesta, “Sairima”), and Tur 
(Avesta, “Tura”), are the inheritors in the Persian 
account; Shem, Ham, and Japheth, in the Semitic 


697 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


zoroastrianism 
Zuckerkandl 


story. Likenesses in minor matters, in certain details 
of ceremouy and ritual, ideas of uncleanness, and 
the like,’are to be noted, as well as parallels between 
Zoroaster and Moses as sacred lawgivers; and many 
of these resemblances are treated in the works re- 
ferred to at the end of this article. 

It is difficult to account for these analogies. It is 
known, of course, as a historic fact that the Jews 
and the Persians came in contact with each other at 
an early period in antiquity and re- 
mained in more or less close relation 
throughout their history (see AVESTA ; 
Mepra; Persia). Most scholars, Jew- 
ish as well as non-Jewish, are of the 
opinion that Judaism was strongly influenced by 
Zoroastrianism in views relating to angelology and 
demonology, and probably also in the doctrine of 
the resurrection, as well as in eschatological ideas in 
general, and also that the monotheistic conception 
of YuwnH may have been quickened and strength. 
ened by being opposed to the dualism or quasi-mon- 
otheism of the Persians. But, onthe other hand, the 
late James DARMESTETER advocated exactly the 
opposite view, maintaining that early Persian 
thought was strongly influenced by Jewish ideas. 
He insisted that the Avesta, as we have it, is of late 
origin and is much tinctured by foreign elements, 
especially those derived from Judaism, and also 
those taken from Neoplatonism through the wri- 
tings of Philo Judeeus. These views, put forward 
shortly before the French scholar’s death in 1894, 
have been violently combated by specialists since 
that time, and can not be said to have met with 
decided favor on any side. At the present time it 
is impossible to settle the question; the truth lies 
probably somewhere between the radical extremes, 
and it is possible that when knowledge of the As- 
syrian and Babylonian religion is more precise in 
certain details, additional light may be thrown 
on the problem of the source of these analogies, 
and may show the likelihood of a common infliu- 
ence at work upon both the Persian and Jewish 
cults. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: For general works on the subject consult bib- 
liographies under articles AVESTA, MEDIA, and PERSIA. 
Special works on Zoroaster and the religion: Jackson, Zoroas- 
ter the Prophet of Ancient Iran, New York, 1899; idem, 
Die Tranische Religion, in Geiger and Kuhn, Grundriss der 
Tranischen Philologie, Leipsic, 1904; Justi, Die Aelteste 
Iranische Religion und Ihr Stifter Zarathustra, in Preus- 
sische Jahrbticher, \xxxviii. 55-86, 231-262, Berlin, 1897; Leh- 
mann, Die Parsen, in Chantepie de la Saussaye, Lehrbuch 
der Religionsgeschichte, 3a ed., Tibingen, 1905; idem, Zara- 
thustra, en Bog om Persernes Gamle Tro, pp. 1-2, Copen- 
hagen, 1899, 1902; Tiele, Geschichte der Religion: Die Re- 
ligion bei den Lranischen Votkern, vol. ii., section 1, trans- 
lated by Gehrich, Gotha, 1898 (English transl. by Nariman in 
Indian Autiquary, vols. xxxii. et seq., Bombay, 1903). Par- 
ticular treatises on the analogies between Zoroastrianism and 
Judaism: Schorr, in He-Haluz, ii-v.; Kohut, Ueber die Jti- 
dische Angelologie und Diimonologie in Ihrer Abhdngig- 
keit vom Parsismus, Leipsic, 1866; idem, Was Hat die Tal- 
mudische Esehatologie aus dem Parsismus Aufgenommen ? 
in Z. D. M. G. xxi. 552-591; De Harlez. Avesta, Introduction, 
pp. cev.-cevi., ecix., Paris, 1881; Spiegel, Eranische Alter- 
thumskunde, ii. 17, 19, 26, 34, 40, 50 et seg., 63-F5, 75, 117, 166 
et seq., 169-171, Leipsic, 1878; Darmesteter, La Zend-Avesta, 
iii., Introduction, pp. lvi.-lxii., Paris, 1893; S. B. E. 2d ed., 
iv., Introduction, pp. Ivii.-lix.; Cheyne, Origin and Re- 
liyious Concepts of the Psalter, London, 1891; Aiken, The 
Avesta and the Bible, in Catholic University Bulletin, iii. 
2438-291, Washington, 1897; Stave, Hinfluss des Parsismus 
auf das Judenthum, Haarlem, 1898; Sédderblom, La Vie 
Future d’Aprés le Mazdeisme, Paris, 1901; Boklen, Ver- 
wanadschaft der Jtidisch-Christlichen mit der Parsischen 
Eschatologie, Gottingen, 1902; Moulton, in Hapository 
Times, ix. 351-359, xi. 257-260, and in Journal cf T heolog- 


Causes of 
Analogies 
Uncertain. 


teal Studies, July, 1902, pp. 514-3527; Mills, The Avesta, 
Veoplatonism and Philo Judcus, 1., Leipsic, 1904; Moffat, 
Zoroastrianism and Primitive Christianity, in Hibbert 
Journal, 1903, i. 763-780. 
K. A. V. W. J. 
ZOX, EPHRAIM LAMEN: Communal work- 
er of Melbourne, Australia; born in London 18387; 
died Oct. 23, 1899. He was thirteen years old when 
he arrived in Melbourne, and he engaged succes- 
sively in gold-digging, auctioneering, and the cloth- 
ing business, and also operated for many years as a 
financier. Zox was closely associated with almost 
every charitable movement in Melbourne, and the 
Jewish community there long regarded him as its 
leader. He was successively treasurer, president, 
and trustee of the Hebrew congregation; supported 
the Jewish Philanthropic Society; was president of 
the Melbourne branch of the Anglo-Jewish Associa- 
tion; and took a special interest in the Discharged 
Prisoners’ Aid Society. He was, moreover, one of 
the most popular of Victorian politicians, and was a 
member of the legislature, entering the Assembly in 
May, 1877, as a representative of East Melbourne, 
and retaining his seat for that electorate for twenty- 
one years. He served also as chairman of the Char- 
ities Commission. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jew. Chron. Dec., 1899. 


J. G. L. 
ZSIDO HIRADO. See PERIODICALS. 


ZUCKER, ALFRED: Chemist and manufac- 
turer of Dresden, Germany; born Aug. 17, 1871, in 
Uffenheim, Bavaria. He studied pharmacy and 
chemistry at the universities of Witrzburg and Er- 
langen; and while he was still a student the Wiirt- 
temberg government, at the suggestion of the 
Wiirzburg professor of botany, Geheimrat Sachs, 
placed him on a commission for fighting a de- 
structive vine-bug, the efforts of which body he di- 
rected to a successful conclusion. He was later 
appointed military apothecary of the Bavarian Home 
for Pensioned Soldiers (“ Invalidenhaus ”), and while 
holding that position he published several short 
pharmaceutical treatises which attracted the atten- 
tion of specialists. His larger publications are 
“Beitrag zur Direkten Beeinflussung der Pflanzen 
Durch die Kupfervitriolkalkbrihe,” Stuttgart, 1896, 
and “ Repertorium der Photochemie,” Vienna, Leip- 
sic, and Budapest, 1901; and he contributed to 
“Hager’s Pharmaceutisch-Technisches Manuale. 
Encyclopidische Vorschriftensammlung fiir Aerzte, 
Apotheker, etc.,” 7th ed., Leipsic and Berlin, 1902. 

S. 

ZUCKER, MARCUS: German librarian and 
author; born May 1, 1841. He was for some time 
chief librarian at the University of Erlangen, and has 
made a specialty of the history of art. Among his 
writings are: “Diirers Stellung zur Reformation ” 
(1886); “Michelangelo” (1888); “ Die Hollindische 
Malerei des 17ten Jahrhunderts” (1892); “ Albrecht 
Diirer ” (1900). With J. Merz he edits the “ Christ- 
liches Kunstblatt.” 

S. N. D. 

ZUCKERKANDL, EMIL: Austrian anato- 
mist; born at Raab, Hungary, in 1849; educated at 
the University of Vienna (M.D. 1874). In 1875 he 
became privat-docent of anatomy at the University 


Zuckermandel 
Zunz 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


698 


of Utrecht, and he wasappointed assistant professor 
at the University of Vienna in 1879, being made 
professor at Graz in 1882. After 1888 he was the 
professor of descriptive and topographical! anatomy 
at the University of Vienna. 

Zuckerkandl contributed many monographs to 
medical journals. Among his works the follow- 
ing may be mentioned: “Zur Morphologie des Ge- 
sichtschadels” (Stuttgart, 1877); “ Ueber eine Bisher 
noch Nicht Beschriebene Driise der Regio Supra- 
hyoidea” (2b. 1879); “ Ueber das Riechcentrum ” (2d. 
1887); and “Normale und Pathologische Anatomie 
der Nasenhdhle und Ihrer Pneumatischen Anhinge ” 
(Vienna, 1892), He died May 28, 1910. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Pagel, Biog. Lew. 8.v. 

8. F. T. H. 

ZUCKERMANDEL, MOSES SAMUEL: 
German rabbi and Talmudist; born at Ungarisch- 
Brod, Moravia, April 24, 1886. He became a rabbi 
in Pleschen, Prussia, and was appointed lecturer on 
the Mora-Leipziger foundation at Breslau April 1, 
1898. He has published: “ Die Erfurter Handschrift 
der Tosefta” (1876); “ Die Tosefta nach den Erfurter 
und Wiener Handschriften” (1880-82); “Spruch- 
buch Enthaltend Biblische Spriiche aus dem Gebet- 
buche” (1889); and “Vokabularium und Gram- 
matik zu den Hebraischen Versen des Spruchbuches 
I.” (1890). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Kiirschner, Literatur-Kalender, 1898, s.v. : 
Frankl-Griin, Gesch. der Judenin Ongarisel Brod, Vien- 
na, 1905, pp. 56-57. 

S. N. D. 


ZUCKERMANN, BENEDICT : German scien- 
tist; born at Breslau Oct. 9, 1818; died there Dec. 17, 
‘1891. He received a thorough Hebrew and secular 
education at the institutions of his native city, and 
devoted himself at the university to the study of 
mathematics and astronomy. In 1845 he joined 
Graetz inagitating for an address to Zacharias Fran- 
kel to congratulate him on the conservative stand 
which he had taken against the Frankfort Confer- 
ence; and when Frankel assumed the management 
of the Breslau seminary he appointed Zuckermann 
on the teaching staff. He gave instruction in mathe- 
matics to those of the students who had not had a 
regular schoo! training, and taught calendric science 
in the academic department, at the same time acting 
as librarian and administrator of the stipendiary 
fund. He wrote: “Ueber Sabbathjahrcyclus und 
Jubelperiode,” Breslau, 1859 (translated into Eng- 
lish by A. Loewy, London, 1866); “Ueber Talmu- 
dische Miinzen und Gewichte,” Breslau, 1862; “ Kata- 
log der Seminarbibliothek,” part i., 7b. 1870 (2d ed., 
7b. 1876); “Das Mathematische im Talmud,” 7b. 
1878; “Tabelle zur Berechnung des Eintrittes der 
Nacht,” 2d. 1892; “Anleitung und Tabellen zur 
Vergleichung Jiidischer und Christlicher Zeitan- 
gaben,” 2d. 1893. He also contributed occasionally 
to the “Monatsschrift fir Geschichte und Wissen- 
schaft des Judenthums.” 

Zuckermann’s religious attitude was strictly Ortho- 
dox. Regularly twice a day he attended the syna- 
gogue maintained by him in the house which he had 
inherited from his father, although he lived in the 
seminary building, where daily services were held in 
the chapel. He never married; and while genial 


and kindly in nature, he was strongly opposed to 
anything savoring of ostentation. On his seventieth 
birthday he fled from Breslau to escape all ovations, 
and in his will he forbade the delivering of a funeral 
address. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Allg. Zeit. des Jud. 1892, Nos, 1 and 2; Die 


Deborah, Feb. 4, 1892; Jahresbericht des Jitidisch-Theolo- 
gischen Seminars Frdnckelscher Stiftung, Breslau, 1892. 


8. 


ZUENZ, ARYEH LOEB HARIF B. MO- 
SES: Polish rabbi; born at Pinczow about 1778; 
died at Warsaw 1833. He was a thorough Tal- 
mudic scholar, and was also well versed in the 
Cabala. Holding first the rabbinate of Plock and 
then that of Prague, he later settled at Warsaw, 
where he died. The author of “Shem ha-Gedolim 
he-Hadash ” narrates that Aryeh Loeb promised on 
his deathbed to be a good advocate in heaven for 
those who should publish his writings, and that this 
promise was engraved upon his tombstone. The 
rabbi was the author of many works, most of which 
are still in manuscript, only the following two hav- 
ing been published: “ Ya‘alat Hen” (Prague, 1793), 
responsa; and “ Tib Gittin ” (Warsaw, 1812), discus- 
sions on the “Get Mekushshar” of R. M. Bala. The 
“Tib Gittin ” was written when the author was eight- 
een years of age, and its decisions have been ac- 
cepted in many places. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY : Walden, Shem ha-Gedolim he-Hadash, i. 80, 

ii. 17, Warsaw, 1882; Kohn, Kine’at Soferim, p. 102: 


A, Lem- 
berg. 1892: Furst, Bibl. Jud. iii. 102; Steinschneider, Cat. 
Bodl. col. 745; Zedner, Cat. Hebr. Books Brit. Mus. 


H. R. A. S. W. 
ZUG. See SWITZERLAND. 


ZUGOT (lit. “ pairs”): Name given to the lead- 
ing teachers of the Law in the time preceding the 
Tannaim. The period of the Zugot begins with 
Jose b. Joezer and ends with Hillel. The name 
“Zugot” (comp. Latin “duumviri”) was given to 
these teachers because, according to the tradition in 
Hagigah, two of them always stood at the same time 
at the head of the Sanhedrin, one as president 
(“nasi”) and the other as vice-president or father of 
the court (“ab bet din”; see SANHEDRIN). There 
were five pairs of these teachers: (1) Jose b. Joezer 
and Jose b. Johanan, who flourished at the time of 


the Maccabean wars of independence; (2) Joshua 


b. Perahyah and Nittai of Arbela, at the time of 
John Hyrcanus; (8) Judah b. Tabbai and Simeon b. 
Shetah, at the time of Alexander Janneeusand Queen 
Salome; (4) Shemaiah and Abtalion, at the time of 
HyrcanusII.; (5) Hillel and Shammai, at the time of 


King Herod. 
J. J. Z. L. 


ZUKERTORT, JOHANNES HERMANN: 
Chess-playerand physician; bornat Lublin, Russian 
Poland, Sept. 7, 1842; died in London June 20, 1888: 
son of a Jewish convert to Christianity who was 4 
clergyman at Lublin. He was educated at the 
gymopasium of Breslau and at the university of that 
city, whence he graduated in medicine in 1866. As 
a member of the medical corps of the German army 
he saw service in 1866, and again in the Franco- 
Prussian war of 1870-71. 

Zukertort, who was destined to be one of the most 


699 


eminent exponents of the game, learned to play 
chess in Breslau when he was about nineteen, En- 
tering a tournament in that city, and receiving the 
odds of the queen, he lost every game, whereupon 
he took up the study of Bilguer’s “ Handbuch,” with 
the result that in 1862 he won games from Anders- 
sen at the odds of a knight. Within a very few 
years he became one of the strongest players in Ger- 
many; and in 1871 he defeated Anderssen in a set 
match. 

In 1872 Zukertort went to London and won third 
prize in the tourney there, Steinitz and Blackburne 
gaining first and second respectively. His reception 
in England was so cordial that he decided to make that 
country his home; and he accordingly became natu- 
ralized, and thenceforth played as an English repre- 
sentative in international competitions. From this 
time forward his career was one of unprecedented 
success. In 1878 he gained the first prize at the 
Paris Exhibition tournament; in 1880 he beat Rosen- 
thal ina match; in 1881 he took second prize at 
Berlin (Blackburne first); the same year he beat 
Blackburne in a match; in 1882 he was fifth at 
Vienna (Steinitz first); and in 1883 at the London 
international tournament he gained the first prize 
of £300 ($1,500), Steinitz being second, and Black- 
burne third. In this last competition he won twenty- 
two games and lost only one. Of a highly nervous 
temperament, Zukertort unfortunately had re- 
course to drugs to brace himself for his contests, and 
their ill effects became manifest toward the close 
of the tournament. He never fully recovered; 
and he very unwisely persisted in challenging 
Steinitz to a match, of which seven games 
were to be played in New York, seven in St. Louis, 
and seven in New Orleans. Zukertort took four 
games out of five in the first set (March, 1886), but 
was altogether outplayed in the remaining ones; 
and he returned to England a mere wreck of his 
former self. On June 19, 1888, while taking part in 
a game at Simpson’s Divan in London, he was 
seized with apoplexy. He was removed to the Char- 
ing Cross Hospital, where he died on the following 
day. | 

Perhaps Zukertort’s greatest achievements were 
in blindfold play, in which he has been surpassed 
only by Pillsbury. 

ZAukertort, at first with Anderssen and afterward 
alone, edited the “ Neue Berliner Schachzeitung ” 
(1867-71); and he collaborated with Jean Dufresne 
on the “ Grosses Schach-Handbuch ” (2d. ed., Berlin, 
1873). He was the author of “ Leitfaden des Schach- 
spiels ” (Berlin, 1869; 5th ed. 1897) and “Sammlung 
der Auserlesensten Schachaufgaben, Studien und 
Partiestellungen ” (4b. 1869). From 1873 to 1876 he 
was one of the principal contributors to the “ West- 
minster Papers,” the official organ of the St. George’s 
Chess Club, London; and in 1879, together with L. 
Hoffer, he founded “The Chess Monthly,” which 
for seventeen years was the leading chess magazine 
in England. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Dictionary of National Biography: The 
Chess Monthly, July, 1888; L. Hoffer, in The Field (Lon- 
don), June 23, 1888: Brockhaus Konversations- Lexikon ;: 
Meyers Konversations-Lexikon. 


8. A. P. 
ZUKUNFT, DIE. See Periopica.s. 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Zuckermandel 
Zunz 


ZUNDER, MAIER. See CoNNeEcticvr. 


ZUNSER, ELIAKIM: Russian “badhan” and 
poet; born at Wilna in 1845. At the age of sixteen 
he had gained a local reputation as a poet, and after 
setting his rimes to music of an Oriental character 
for voice, orchestra, and piano, he sang at weddings 
and other entertainments, where his talent was al- 
ways liberally rewarded, his fee being at one time 
as high as 200 rubles. He thus introduced a new 
and more refined method of amusing wedding 
guests; and since the publication of his “Shirim 
Hadashim ” (Wilna, 1861) he has composed over 600 
songs, some of which he translated into a Hebrew 
which is not always rigid in its accuracy. In 1889 
Zunser went to America, touring the country un- 
der the management of an impresario, and singing 
and reciting his repertoire. He finally settled in 
New York as a printer and publisher. 

Most of Zunser’s poems are national in tendency, 
while the remainder are nearly all panegyrics of 
civilization, this category including “Die Hisen- 
bahn,” “Zicht,” “Die Sokhe,” “Die Pyramiden,” 
“Columbus und Washington,” and “Das Goldene 
Land.” He has likewise written for the Yiddish 
stage, for which he produced the best version of 
the “Sale of Joseph.” Many of his poems have 
been published in the “Jewish Daily News” and 
the “ Volksadvokat,” while an edition of a large 
number of his songs with their music has also ap- 
peared (New York, 1891). His seventieth birthday 
was the occasion of a celebration in New York. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Minikes, Hebrew Holiday Papers, v., No. 37; 

Wiener, Yiddish Literature, pp. 91-98, 120, 232-238, 3773 

Zunser, Selbstbiographie, New York, 1905. 

J. G. SE. 

ZUNTZ, NATHAN: German physiologist; 
born at Bonn Oct. 6, 1847; educated at the univer- 
sity of his native city (M.D. 1868). Becoming an 
assistant at the physiological institution of the uni- 
versity, he was appointed privat-docent in 1871, and 
three years later became prosector and assistant pro- 
fessor of anatomy. In 1881 he was appointed pro- 
fessor of animal physiology at the Land wirtschaft- 
liche Hochschule at Berlin. Zuntz has made many 
contributions on physiology, nutrition, respiration, 
and similar topics, to the medical journals. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Pagel, Biog. Ler. 

s. F. T. H. 

ZUNZ, LEOPOLD (Hebrew name, Yom-Tob 
Lippmann): Founder of the modern “science 
of Judaism” and pioneer in the history of Jewish 
literature, religious poetry, and the ritual of the 
synagogue; born at Detmold Aug. 10, 1794; died at 
Berlin March 18, 1886. The genealogy of his family 
can be traced continuously for three centuries 
(comp. Kaufmannin “ Monatsschrift,” 1894, p. 481), 
and members are known to have been prominent in 
the Jewish community of Frankfort-on-the-Main, 
the cognomen “Zunz” being a modification of 
“Zons,” the name of a place on the Rhine. 

Zunz’s father, Mend] Emanuel (b. 
1761; d. July 3, 1802), was a “ bahur,” 
or Talmudic student, who earned a 
precarious livelihood as a teacher at 
the bet ha-midrash and by giving private lessons 
in Hebrew and Talmud until a pulmonary affection 


His 
Family. 


Zunz 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


700 


compelled him to relinquish this occupation almost 
entirely and toconducta small grocery. His mother, 
Hendel Behrens (b. 1778; d. Nov. 9, 1809), was 
also delicate, and died at the age of thirty-six in 
Hamburg, whither she and her husband had re- 
moved the year after Lippmann’s birth. Although 
his constitution was extremely delicate in boyhood, 
Lippmann outlived not only his twin sister, who died 
in infancy, but also his other sisters and brothers. 
His early youth was spent under the clouds of 
physical discomfort and material poverty. His first 
teacher was his father, who began to instruct his 
son in Hebrew verbs, Rashi, and the Mishnah as 
early as 1799. The father’s sudden death was a4 
great blow to the struggling family, and obliged 
Lippmann toaccept a free scholarship in the Samson 
school at Wolfenbiittel, which he entered just a year 
after his father died. At this school he attracted 
the notice of his instruct- 
ors by his remarkable apti- 
tude for mathematics, 
though at first he seems to 
have been little amenable 
to discipline. The appoint- 
ment of S. M. Ehrenberg 
as the director of the school 
in 1807 marked an epoch 
in the mental and moral de- 
velopment of thelad. As 
early as 1805 Zunz had 
tried his hand at making 
a key to an elementary 
text-book on arithmetic, 
while in 1806 a Hebrew 
satire from his pen, in 
which he spared neither 
teachers nor tellow pupils, 
was consigned to the 
flames to atone for the 
wickedness of its author. 
Ehrenberg, however, took 
care that this gifted pu- 
pil should pursue his 
studies methodicaily, and 
such was his success that 
in July, 1810, fifteen 
months after Zunz had 
been admitted to the highest grade of the Wolf- 
enbiittel gymnasium (which he was the first Jew 
to enter), Ehrenberg entrusted to him the tem- 
porary supervision of the Samson school. His 
mother had died in the previous year, and Zunz was 
thus left without a near relative. His free scholar- 
ship was about to expire, mcreover, and in order to 
remain at Wolfenbiittel he began to act as au in- 
structor at the Samson school in return for board 
and lodging. He was particularly interested in alge- 
bra and optics, and perfected his mastery of Hebrew 
by translating various historical essays from the 
German and other languages. 
The summer of 1811 is noteworthy 
Early as the time when Zunz made his first 
Training. acquaintance with Wolf’s “ Biblio- 
theca Hebraa,” which, together with 
David Gans’s “Zemah Dawid,” gave him his 
first introduction to Jewish literature and the 


Leopold Zunz. 


first impulse to think of the “science of Judaism.” 
In the same year (1811) he proceeded to write a 
book which he intended to be for Palestine what 
the “Anacharsis” of Klotz had been for Greece. 
Though he finished the curriculum of the gymna- 
sium in 1811, his intention of taking up university 
studies could not be carried out until more than 
four years had elapsed. He remained at Wolfen- 
biittel until Sept. 25, 1815, when he set out for Ber- 
lin, arriving there Oct. 12, and accepting a tutorship 
in the Hertz family. At the university, where he 
matriculated while Schleiermacher was rector, he 
took up mathematical, philosophical, historical, and 
philological studies, among his professors being 
Boeckh, Fr. A. Wolf, Savigny, De Wette, and 
Wilken, the last two inducting him into Semitics and 
Biblical branches. In Aug., 1817, he wrote his first 
sermon. Of far greater importance, as showing the 
bent of his mind, is the 
fact that during this period 
he copied the manuscript 
of Shem-Tob ibn Fala- 
quera’s “Sefer ha-Ma‘a- 
lot” and occupied him- 
self with the study of 
Hebrew manuscripts from 
Palestine and Turkey 
shown him by a Polish 
Jew named David ben 
Aaron. In Dec., 1817, he 
wrote an essay entitled 
“Etwas tiber die Rab- 
binische Litteratur; Nebst 
Nachrichten tiber ein Al- 
tes bis Jetzt Ungedruck- 
tes Hebriiisches Werk.” 
It was published in 1818 
(“Gesammelte Schriften,” 
i. 1-31, Berlin, 1875). 
This little book marks an 
epoch in the history of 
modern Jewish  scholar- 
ship. It is a plea for 
the recognition of Juda- 
ism and its literature in 
university research and 
teaching. It exposed the 
ignorance which marked the books written by non- 
Jewish scholars on Judaism and the Jews, show- 
ing at the same time that Judaism 
The had made valuable contributions to 
Foundation many sciences and therefore had a 
of Jewish place in their history. This booklet 
Science. may be said to have been the first to 
trace the outlines of Jewish science. 
Shortly after writing the book, but before its 
publication, Zunz resigned his position with Hertz 
(March 28, 1818) and revisited his home. During 
this time he was invited to become a candidate for 
the position of preacher in the Hamburg Temple. 
and would have obtained it had he not withdrawn 
upon learning that Biischenthal was willing to ac- 
cept the call. In June, Zunz returned to Berlin and 
resumed his university studies, which he completed 
in 1819, though it was not till Jan. 2, 1821, that he 
took his degree of Ph.D. at the University of Halle. 


701 THE 


JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Zunuz 


In the interval, while privately continuing his 
studies and eking out a livelihood by tutoring in 
German, Latin, and mathematics, he founded, to- 
gether with Eduard Gans and Moses Moser, the 
Verein fiir Cultur und Wissenschaft der Juden 
(Nov. 17, 1819), a society intended “through culture 
and education to bring the Jews into harmonious re- 
lations with the age and the nations in which they 
live.” Thisassociation, of which Zunz was the leading 
spirit, from the very first attracted the best and 
brightest among the Jews of Germany, including 
Heinrich Heine, Ludwig Markus, David Friedlander, 
Israel Jacobson, and Lazarus Bendavid. In 1822 the 
“ Zeitschrift fiir die Wissenschaft des Judenthums,” 
edited by Zunz, appeared under the 
auspices of this society. According 
to the program written by Wohlwill, 
the new “science” comprised a study 
of the historical development and the 
philosophical essence of Judaism, al- 
though these two methods must be based on a critical 
understanding of Jewish literature, Zunz’s contri- 
butions justified this program. In addition to his 
article on “ Hispanische Ortsnamen,” mention should 
be made of his biography of Rashi, which is a verita- 
ble classic, illustrating the method which should be 
pursued, and serving as a brilliant example of what 
the result must be when all the modern principles of 
historical and literary research are devoted to a crit- 
ical study of the data buried in Jewish literature. 
Another remarkable essay which he published in the 
“ Zeitschrift” was his “Grundlinien zu einer Kiinfti- 
gen Statistik der Juden.” Theideas which he there 
enunciated are by no means antiquated even at this 
day. The hopes aroused by the Verein were doomed 
to disappointment, however, and the “ Zeitschrift ” 
ceased to appear after the first volume. “ Young 
Palestine,” as Heine called the members, lacked re- 
ligious enthusiasm; Gans became a Christian, and 
the Verein died. But the “science of Judaism” 
which it had founded did not share the fate of its 
first foster-parents, for it lived, thanks to Zunz, “A 
man of word and deed, he had created and stimu- 
lated and brought to pass, while others dreamed 
and then sank down despondent.” Ascharacteristic 
of him Heine coined the phrase which Karpeles 
deems so pregnantly descriptive of Zunz’s disposi- 
tion that he repeats it: “he remained true to the great 
caprice of his soul,” believing in the regenerative 
power of the “ Wissenschaft,” while the weaker as- 
sociates of those enthusiastic days deserted, and 
found preferment by way of baptism. 

Other grievous disappointments awaited him at 
this same period. He preached in the so-called 
“Beer’s Temple” (the new synagogue) from May, 
1820, to the spring of 1822, receiving toward the end 
of this epoch a small stipend from the Berlin congre- 
gation. He married Adelheid Beermann May 9, 1822, 

the union remaining childless. Soon 

Marriage after his marriage his position as preach- 
and Jour- er became distasteful to him, and, 
nalistic feeling that preaching in the face of offi- 

Career. cial arrogance and communal apathy 

was’ incompatible with his honor, he 
resigned his office on Sept. 13, 1822. The masterly 
Sermons he had preached, and which were published 


The 
Verein 
fiir Cultur 
der Juden. 


in April, 1828, did not treat of specifically Jewish 
matters. In 1822 Zunz became a member of 
the editorial staff of the “Haude und Spe- 
ner’sche Zeitung.” giving besides private lessons in 
the afternoon hours. He was not freed from this 
irksome task until Jan. 3, 1826, when he entered 
upon his duties as director of the Jewish com- 
munal elementary school. He remained at the head 
of the school four years; but again feeling that he 
was not permitted to bring about needed changes, 
he relinquished his post, disregarding the sacrifices 
the step entailed for him and his wife, and receiving 
but slight recognition for his devotion in a nomina- 
tion to membership on the board of trustees of the 
Talmud Torah Institute of the congregation. He was 
doomed to still greater drudgery on the “Spener’sche 
Zeitung,” part of his work consisting in making ex- 
cerpts and translations from foreign journals, 

In 1831 a difference of political opinion with the 
management induced him to resign. Though 
fraught with grave economic difficulties for Zunz, 
this step may be said to have been providential for 
Jewish literature. In 1825 he had drafted a plan for 
a work in four divisions on the “ Wissenschaft des 
Judenthums.” On Aug. 25, 1828, he paid his first 
visit to the famous Oppenheim Library, then in Ham- 
burg but now in Oxford. Through Heine he had 
even begun to correspond with prominent publish- 
ers concerning his intended work; but on Oct. 15, 

1831, he began to write in earnest, and 

The ‘‘Got- on July 21, 1882, the “ Gottesdienst- 
tesdienst- liche Vortrige der Juden” appeared, 
liche destined to be the most important Jew- 
Vortrage.” ish work published in the nineteenth 
century. In the preface, which was 

no less remarkable than the contents, the German au- 
thorities were arraigned for their refusal to grant the 
Jews the justice due them by right and for their 
reluctance to accord them liberty instead of special 
rights and privileges. The Jews were entitled to be 
citizens of Germany. Jewish science too ought no 
longer to be excluded from governmental patronage, 
but should have institutions provided for its devel- 
opment. In the synagogues the living word was 
once more to resound, for the sermon had always 
been an institution of Judaism. The book afforded 
the proof, and its purpose was to trace the historic 
growth of this synagogal institution. This preface 
was suppressed by the government and cut out 
from most copies of the first edition. The work it- 
self was a masterly exposition of the gradual growth 
and evolution of homiletic literature, traced through 
the Midrash, the Haggadah, and the prayer-book. 
It was the first book to assign dates and to disclose 
the relative interdependence of the various docu- 
ments. Besides showing that the sermon was thor- 
oughly Jewish, the book demonstrated that Judaism 
had a science which could justly claim equality with 
the studies admitted to university standing. It 
proved, furthermore, that Judaism was a growing 
force, notacrystallized law. Scientific throughout, 
the book had a powerful influence in shaping the 
principles of Reform Judaism, especially as applied 
to the prayer-books. For all time to come the 
“Gottesdienstliche Vortriige” fixed the method 
which the literary exploration of Jewish literature 


Z2unz 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


702 


must follow to a certain degree, even though the 
merely formal criterion of the mention of a liter- 
ary document is urged too strongly as decisive in 
assigning to it its date and place. With this book 
Zunz rose at once to the pinnacle of recognized lead- 
ership. His discriminating insight, his power of 
combination, his sound scholarship, his classic re- 
serve, and his dignity of presentation proclaimed 
him master. No second edition of the “ Gottes- 
dienstliche Vortrige ” was prepared by the author, 
but it wasreprinted after his death (Frankfort-on- 
the-Main, 1892: comp. E. G. Hirsch, “ Die Jubilien 
Zweier Werke,” in “ Der Zeitgeist,” 1882). 

While Zunz’s reputation as a pioneer was read- 
ily spread abroad by the “Gottesdienstliche Vor- 
trige,” no material benefits accrued to him from its 
publication. In Sept., 1832, he went to Hamburg, 
where he met H. I. Michael, the owner of rare man- 
uscripts. The old struggle for bread awaited him 
upon his return to Berlin. He did not receive the 
appointment as head master of the Veitel-Heine 
Ephraim foundation as some friends had hoped he 
would, and he was even unsuccessful in his efforts 
to obtain employment as a bookkeeper, although 
willing to accept such a position. He advertised 
for pupils in Hebrew, rabbinics, and mathematics 
through the medium of the University Bulletin 
Board, but again with slight results. His friends 
proposed him for the vacant post of rabbi at Darm- 
stadt, Aaron Chorin having conferred on him the 
hattarat hora’ah; but though Gabriel Riesser had 
recommended him (Oct. 9, 1833) as the first scholar 
of the day in Jewish literature, he was not elected. 
In consequence of this he could not be induced to 
be a candidate for Cassel and other places, though 
suggestions to apply came to him from various 
quarters, among them, it is interesting to note, one 
from New York. He continued to meet his friends 
on Sabbaths at Gumpertz’s, and in 1835 he deliv- 
ered a course of lectures on the Psalms, attended 
by Gans, Bellermann (the latter eighty years of age), 
M. Sachs, Zedner, Moser, and Gumpertz. In the 
same year he was called to Prague as preacher to 
the Society for Improving the Mode of Worship, a 
call which at last promised to deliver him from the 

drudgery for mere bread. When he 
In Prague. arrived at Prague, however (Sept. 16, 

1835), it did not require many days 
to convince him that he had found no compensation 
for his sacrifice in leaving Berlin. In Prague he met 
scarcely one that understood him. He thought himself 
lost “in China.” He missed “books, periodicals, 
men, liberty.” He regretted his “ Wissenschaft.” 
Before fifty days had elapsed he resolved to leave 
this city of petrified irresponsiveness. The people 
misjudged him, and called his firmness stubborn- 
ness and his principleseccentricities. His discontent 
did not help to improve the situation, and on Jan. 
1, 1836, he gave notice that he wished to resign. He 
rejoiced like one delivered from prison when on July 
8 he again arrived in Berlin. Soon after his return 
he found another opportunity of utilizing his scholar- 
ship in behalf of his German coreligionists. A royal 
edict forbade the Jews to assume Christian names. 
In this predicament the administration of the con- 
gregation bethought itself of Zunz, and on Aug. 5 


he was commissioned to write a scientific treatise 
on the names of the Jews based upon original inves- 
tigations. On Dec. 7, 1836, his “Die Namen der 
Juden” (“G, 8.” ii, 1-82) was published. It de. 
monstrated that the names which had been classed 
as non-Jewish were an ancient inheritance of Juda- 
ism, and this proof, which rested on indisputable 
evidence and which was presented with the calm 
dignity of the scholar, made a deep impression. 
Tributes of admiration and gratitude were offered 
the author from all sides, Alexander von Humboldt 
being among those who felt impelled to thank 
Zunz. The congregation itself informed him soon 
afterward (July, 1887) of its intention of found- 
ing a “Lehrerseminar” to be directed by him. 
This seminary was opened Nov. 16, 1840, after pro- 
tracted negotiations with Zunz, who became its 
first director. Even while the preparations for the 

founding of the normai school were in 


Director progress, Zunz had organized a staff 
of the of scholars for the translation of the 
‘*Lehrer- Bible which has since borne his name, 


seminar.” he himself acting as editor-in-chief and 
translating the Book of Chronicles 
(comp. JEw. Encyc. iii. 193). With this entrance 
upon a secure position, Zunz at Jast found himself 
freed from the struggle for existence. Thenceforth 
he had the leisure to concentrate his energies; his 
pen was busy enriching periodicals and the works 
of others with his contributions. Noteworthy 
among these was a study on the geographical litera- 
ture of the Jews from the remotest times to the 
year 1841, which appeared in an English transla- 
tion in Asher’s edition of Benjamin of Tudela (ii. 
230 et seqg.). Healso gave expert opinions on prob- 
lems arising from the agitation for Reform, such as 
“Gutachten fiber die Beschneidung ” (Frank fort-on- 
the-Main, 1844). 

Although his “Gottesdienstliche Vortriige” was 
the very rampart behind which Reform could se- 
curely and calmly beat back the attacks of its oppo- 
nents, Zunz showed little sympathy with the move- 
ment, because he suspected its leaders of ecclesiastic 
ambitions, and feared that rabbinical autocracy 

would result from the Reform crusade. 


Attitude He regarded much of the professional 
Toward lifeof the rabbis as a “ waste of time,” 
Reform. andina very late letter (see “Jahrbuch 


fiir Jiidische Geschichte,” 1902, p. 171) 
he classed rabbis with soothsayers and quacks. The 
point of his protest against Reform was directed 
against HOLDHEIM and the position maintained by 
this leader as an autonomous rabbi, as is evident 
from Geiger’s answer to Zunz’s strictures (Geiger, 
“Nachgelassene Schriften,” v. 184-185). The vio- 
lent outcry raised against the Talmud by some of 
the principal spirits of the Reform party was repug- 
nant to Zunz’s historic sense, while he himself was 
temperamentally inclined to assign a determinative 
potency to sentiment, this explaining his tender 
reverence for ceremonial usages. His position was by 
no means Orthodox in the usual sense, however, evel 
in regard to the ritual practises, which he called sym 
bols (see among others his meditation on tefillin, re- 
printedin “ Gesammelte Schriften,” ii. 172-176), deny- 
ing them the validity of divine ordinances which the 


703 


faithful are bound to observe without inquiry into 
their meaning. His position accordingly approached 
that of the symbolists among the reformers who in- 
sisted that symbols had their function, provided 
their suggestive significance was spontaneously 
comprehensible. He emphasized most strongly the 
need of a moral regeneration of the Jews. 

Zunz's sympathies with the science of Judaism 
were too dominant to allow him to lay aside his re- 
serve and take a part in the active endeavors to re- 
cast the framework of the Synagogue, but in his 
chosen field, during this very period of agitation 
and unrest, he garnered a new harvest. In 1845 
he published in Berlin another volume, “Zur Ge- 
schichte und Literatur,” which comprises studies in 
all the departments of Jewish literature and life. 
The introductory chapter is a philosophical presen- 
tation of the essence of Jewish literature and its 
right to existence, its connection with the culture of 
the peoples among which the Jews have lived, and 
its bearing upon the civilizations amid which it de- 
veloped. Aunz makes an earnest protest against the 
neglect of this literature, and caustically exposes its 
underlying motives—indolence, arrogance, and prej- 
udice. A rapid survey of the treatment accorded 
Hebrew books serves as a prelude to the unsparing 
castigation administered to the conceit of the Chris- 
tian scholars of the nineteenth century, and as a pro- 
test against the outrage perpetrated by the exclusion 
of Jewish studies from the universities. The volume 
itself was a proof that Jewish science had a right to 
citizenship in the academic republic of letters. Ap- 
parently disjointed, the various subjects treated in 
this volume found their unity in the methodical grasp 
of the author, who made it clear that underlying all 
these diverse interests was a distinct unity of pur- 
pose, the pulse-beat of a life striving for expression 
and realization. Bibliography, ethics, and culture 
were among the departments into which the book 

ushered the student, while long peri- 
‘¢ Zur ods of time, of which little had been 
Geschichte known or understood, were there set 
und Li- forth in all their bearings and ambi- 
teratur.” tions. Zunz had, indeed, earned the 
title of the Jewish Boeckh. Under 
his touch every detached fact appeared as sympto- 
matic of the life of a vitalized organism. Super- 
ficially examined, the book seemed to be acollection 
of incoherent names, dates, and details, but when 
rightly taken as a whole, it won distinction as the 
result of studies undertaken to reveal the unifying 
thought manifest in all the various fragments of in- 
formation, whether old or new. Once more Zunz 
had proved his supreme mastership in the wide field 
of Jewish literature; and that he had alsothe rare art 
of popular presentation was shown by the lectures 
which he delivered in 1842. 

The year 1848 brought Zunz an opportunity to 
utilize his rare gifts of mind, tongue, and heart in 
the political arena. His oration in honor of the vic- 
tims of the March uprising in Berlin attracted uni- 
versal attention to him; and he was chosen elector 
in the 110th precinct both for the deputy to the 
Prussian legislature and for the representativein the 
German Diet. He addressed many a meeting of his 
fellow citizens, his lucidity of diction, clarity of 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Zunz 


thought, eloquence of speech, readiness of wit, and 
thorough familiarity with the subject of the discus- 
sion distinguishing him among the many men of 
parts and power who were his colleagues. He was 
called to act as vice-chairman (Aug. 9, 1849) and 
later as chairman (Oct. 4) of the eighth Berlin Volks- 
verein. On Nov. 6 he delivered the memorial ad- 
dress on Robert Blum; and at the same time he 
Strove to reorganize the Jewish community on a 
liberal basis. He was likewise busy in conferences 
and private interviews with influential men, endeav- 
oring to carry into effect the emancipation of the 
Jews; for in 1847 high functionaries of the court and 
state had sought his opinion on the proposed legis- 

lation regulating the status of the Prussian Jews. 
The office of director of the normal school now 
seemed to him to consume too much of his time, 
and he severed his connection with this insti- 
tution on Feb. 25, 1850. A small pension was voted 
him by the congregation, and assured him the lib- 
erty he craved for the completion of the labors which 
had come to fruition only in part in his “ Gottesdienst- 
liche Vortrige.” The prayers and prayer-books of 
Judaism still awaited his presentation, but the ma- 
terial for this purpose was widely scattered in inacces- 
sible manuscripts and distant libraries. Zunz hadal- 
ready gone in Sept., 1846, to the British Museum, and 
his visit had confirmed him in his plan of writing the 
history of Jewish hymnology and synagogal poetry 
as incorporated in the various liturgies of the Syna- 
gogue. He soon realized, however, that such a 
work would fill several volumes, and he accordingly 
resolved to write first the story of the poetry and 
then that of the poets. The “Synagogale Poesie 
des Mittelalters ” was published March 


The 2, 1855, and discussed the various 
‘‘Syna- kinds of poetry incorporated in the 
gogale Jewish services, their external forms, 
Poesie.” their inner motive, and the circum- 


stances, hopes, experiences, and suf- 
ferings that had evoked them. Totrace the develop- 
ment of the Hebrew language in these monuments 
of the Jewish spirit was another of the preoccupa- 
tions of Zunz, who showed, especially in his intro- 
ductory chapter, that he who woke to new life the 
Jewish hymnal handled the German tongue witha 
mastership equaled only by the greatest writers, 
while his German translations helped to illustrate 
and vitalize the story. This introductory chapter 
has, indeed, become a classic, George Eliot deeming 
its phrases worthy of incorporation in “ Daniel De- 
ronda.” Under the necessity of abbreviating the 
services at public worship the piyyutim had been 
attacked for years by those who strove for a reform 
of the ritual. Zunz’s work gave the proof that 
these hymns were the slow accretion of centuries 
and were unequal invalue. Yet, ou the other hand, 
his book showed what wealth of feeling and fervor 
of faith lay hidden in these outbursts of lament, 
penitence, and expectancy. He demonstrated that 
the jewel-casket of the medieval Synagogue con- 
tained many a priceless gem in addition to severai 
of inferior value. 
Zunz now realized that without persona} inspec- 
tion of the manuscripts he could go no further in 
his history of the poets and the liturgy. On April 


Zunz 
Zurita 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


704 


26, 1855, he set out on his journey of exploration, 
spending twelve days in the British Museum, 
twenty inthe Bodleian at Oxford, and threein Paris, 
and inspecting 280 manuscripts and 100 rare books. 
After paying a visit to Heinrich Heine (June 26- 
28), he returned on July 4, 1855. In the following 
year he inspected and excerpted eighty manuscripts 
in the Hamburg Library (June 18-July 27, 1556), 
and after hisreturn he resumed his lectures on Jew- 
ish literature. In 1856, moreover, he wrote his 
“Ueber die Eidesleistungen der Juden,” a defense of 
the Jews against the charge of perjury and a pro- 

test against the OATH More JUDAICO, 

Scientific which appeared in the same year as his 

Journeys. “Die Ritus des Synagogalen Gottes- 
dienstes Geschichtlich Entwickelt” 
(1859). In conciseness of presentation and wealth of 
content this volume has scarcely a peer. He brought 
order out of chaos by grouping the several compo- 
nents of the liturgy according to various countries, 
exhibiting the growth of a liturgical literature devel- 
oping through two millennia from small begin- 
nings to the final compilations of fixed cycles (“ mah- 
zorim ”) and rites. 

During his studies preparatory to the concluding 
volume of his monumental work, Zunz continued 
his activity in public affairs, being entrusted with 
the presidency of the electoral assembly of his dis- 
trict (April 25, 1862). His main energy, however, 
was devoted to his scholarly pursuits, and, becoming 
daily more deeply impressed with the necessity of 
inspecting the Hebrew collections in Italy, he went 
to Parma (May 20, 1863), where he examined about 
120 codices in the De Rossi Library; but he was not 
allowed to visit the Vatican. One of the fruits of 
this Italian trip was his “ Hebriiische Handschriften 
in Italien, ein Mahnruf des Rechts.” He crowned 
the labors to which he had consecrated his life by 
his volume on the “ Literaturgeschichte der Syna- 
gogalen Poesie,” the preface of which is dated Sept. 
26, 1865. This was his thanks to the friends who 
had remembered his seventieth birthday (Aug. 10, 
1864) by the founding of the Zunzstiftung, the ini- 
tiative having been taken by Salomon Neumann. 
This concluding volume was of the greatest impor- 
tance not only for the history of Jewish poetry, 
but also for that of the Jews, revealing the intellec- 
tual life of the Jews in Italy, Spain, and Germany. 
Once more an enormous mass of material was made 
intelligible as to conditions of time and place, and 
amorphous detail again assumed shape and function 
within the circle of correlated circumstance, thus 
becoming part of a living and growing organism. 
In 1867 a supplement appeared, adding to the 1,500 
poets and their numerous productions, 80 new ver- 
sifiers and 500 new poems. 

The Germany of 1870 found in Zunz as an 
elector a loyal cooperator in its destiny. In 1872 
he raised his voice in his “ Deutsche Briefe” in de- 
fense of the purity of the German language, menaced 
by the journalism and vulgarism then rampant. 
The same year he wrote his “ Monatstage des Kalen- 
derjahres,” a memorial calendar recording the days 
on which Israel’s great sons and martyrs had died, 
and giving characteristic details concerning their 
labors and lives. 


A new field now began to attract his attention, 
that of Bible criticism; and in his studies on Deu- 
teronomy, Ezekiel, Leviticus, and Esther (“ Z. D. M. 
G.” xxvii. 669-689) he reached conclusions diametric- 
ally opposed to those deduced by the traditionists and 
even by the conservatives, proving the untenability 

of the dogma of the Mosaic author- 


Attitude shipof the Pentateuch. In his “Ge- 
Toward sammelte Schriften ” these essays have 
Higher been reproduced, and others on Exo- 
Criticism. dus, Numbers, and Genesis have been 


added (“G. 8.” i. 217-270), proof suffi- 
cient that Zunz did not discredit his own studies 
in spite of the outcry raised against them. In his 
letters addressed to David Kaufmann he took occa- 
sion to declare his indifference toward “ babblers 
and hypocrites.” “It is not my business to defend 
religion, but to defend human rights.” “ Opinions 
on books are not subject to the authority of relig- 
ion.” “Why do they not inquire whether it be 
true or false? Miserable men they who desire not 
to be disturbed.” ‘“ My first critical studies go back 
to 1811, long before Hengstenberg’s day and the 
splendor of other ‘ critic-astra.’ ” 

The light of his life was now to fail him. On 
Aug. 18, 1874, his Adelheid, known to their friends 
as “Die Zunzin” (=“ female Zunz”), passed away. 
From this blow Zunz never recovered. His entire 
literary activity was limited to superintending 
the publication of his “Gesammelte Schriften.” 
Though the ninetieth anniversary of his birthday 
was celebrated throughout the world and brought to 
him messages of love from the four quarters of the 
globe, even being marked by the publication of a 
“Zunz Jubelschrift,” he felt that few remembered 
his existence. David Kaufmann alone seems to 
have succeeded in arousing in him the old interest 
for Jewish studies; and Steinschneider was perhaps 
the only one with whom he maintained personal 
intercourse. His thoughts dwelt with her who had 
been his companion. 

While all parties in Judaism have claimed Zunz for 
their own, his Bible-critical epilogue to his labors (in 
a letter to David Kaufmann) justifies the assumption 
that, if heis to be classified at all, he must be assigned 
a place with Geiger, with whom he was on terms of 
closest intimacy, and to whose “ Zeitschrift” he was 
a regular contributor. The end, superinduced by a 
fall, came on March 18, 1886, Tothe last he wasclear 
in mind and in the full possession of his faculties. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Letters and manuscripts in the possession of 

the Lehranstalt fir die Wissenschaft des Judenthums, Berlin; 

Das Buch Zunz, a manuscript autobiography in the posses- 

sion of the Zunzstiftung ; Kaufmann, Zunz, in Aligemetne 

Deutsche Biographie ; idem, in Monatsschrift, xxxviils 

Strodtmann, H. Heine’s Leben und Werke, i.; Maybaum, 

Ausdem Leben von Leopold Zunz, Berlin, 1894; Jahrbuch 

fir Jiidische Geschichte, 1902-3; Zunz, G. S. i-iii. 

8. E. G. H. 

ZUPH: 1. A Levite, and one of the ancestors of 
the prophet Samuel (I Sam. i. 1); in the parallel pas- 
sage, I Chron. vi. 11(A. V. 26), he is called Zophai. 

2. A country, perhaps so called because it was in- 
habited by the family of Zuph (I Sam. ix. 5). It 
secms to have been connected with Ramathaim-z0- 
phim (I Sam. i. 1), since both places are mentioned 
together with Mount Ephraim (comp. 7. ix. 4-9). 

E. C. M. SEL. 


705 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


Zunz 
Zurita 


ZUPNIK, AARON HIRSCH: Galician He-’ 


brew and .Judeo-German writer; bornat Drohobycz 
c. 1850. In addition to editing the “ Drohobyczer 
Zeitung,” a Judeo-German weekly begun in 1888, 
and the “Ziyyon,” a periodical which was at first 
devoted to Hebrew literature (irregularly from 1885 
to 1888) and later became a monthly scientific pub- 
lication (1896-97), Zupnik published the following 
works; “Kedushshat ha-Shem” (Brody, 1867), a 
historical novel depicting Jewish life in Spain and 
adapted from Ludwig Philippson’s “ Jacob Tirado ” ; 
“Toledot Abraham ” (Lemberg, 1869), biography of 
Abraham Cohn, a preacher of Lemberg; “Emet u- 
Mishpat ” (Drohobycz, 1883), a Hebrew translation 
of Joseph von Wertheimer’s “Jitidische Lehre und 
Jiidisches Leben” (also published in Polish under 
the title “Nauka Zydowska”); “Vom Heder zur 
Werkstitte ” (7b. 1884), a Judeo-German novel deal- 
ing with Jewish life in Galicia; “Zur Lésung der 
Judenfrage Durch die Juden” (Berlin, 1885). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY : Lippe, Bibliographisches Lexicon, new se- 

ries, i.; Zeitlin, Bibl. Post-Mendels. p. 43]. 

J. M. SEL. 

ZURICH: Capital of the Swiss canton of the 
same name. Jews first settled there in the early 
part of the fourteenth century, and soon acquired 
considerable wealth by lending money. They paid 
high taxes for toleration, but were allowed to buy 
and own houses, including the castle of Manegg on 
the Utliberg and an estate in the Beckenhof. On 
the whole, they were treated justly by the govern- 
ment, although they were subject to medieval re- 
strictions, being obliged to wear the JUDENHUT, and 
probably also the Bapce. Of Talmudic authors 
only Moses of Zurich, the annotator of the “Se- 
mak” of Isaac BEN JOSEPH OF CORBEIL, is known 
(Neubauer, “Cat. Bod]. Hebr. MSS.” pp. 188-184). 

In 1848 the Black Death brought about a change 
in the condition of the Jews, who were accused of 
having poisoned the wells. At the same time 

they were charged with the murder 
The Black of a boy, and in 1349 a number 
Death. of Jews were burned in consequence 
of these two calumnies. Soon after- 
ward, however, Jews again settled in Zurich, and in 
1401, when those of Schaffhausen and Winter- 
thur were burned on account of the murder of a Chris- 
tian boy at Diessenhofen, their colleagues of Zurich 
were protected by the city council against the citi- 
zens and gilds, although, for their own security, 
they were kept in confinement until all danger was 
over. The hostility of the people and of the gilds 
made it impossible, however, for the council to keep 
the Jews in the town any longer, and in the years 
1424, 1435, and 1486 decrees of expulsion were issued 
against them. Twocenturies latera Frankfort Jew 
named Samuel Hiron made aremark derogatory to 
the founder of Christianity, and was beheaded, 
whereupon it was solemnly proclaimed throughout 
the town that no Jew should again be allowed to 
settle within it unless he had first received special 
' permission. 

From that date, 1634, until the middle of the nine- 
teenth century no Jews lived in Zurich; nor was it 
until the emancipation of their coreligionists of 
Aargau in 1863 that the gates of the city were 

XII.—45 


opened to them. Shortly before this, however, a 
few Jews, mostly Alsatians, lived in the suburbs of 
Zurich, where they founded a cemetery. After the 
emancipation Jews from Endingen and Lengnau, 
the only two villages in Switzerland 
Emancipa- in which Jews had always been allowed 
tion. to live, migrated to Zurich in greater 
numbers, being followed by their 
coreligionists from other countries, especially from 
the neighboring German states. Among the well- 
known German Jews who lived and died in Zurich 
was Solomon L. StErnHEIM. About 1870 the con- 
gregation had increased sufficiently to employ a 
rabbi, the first incumbent being Moritz Levin (now 
with the Reform Congregation of Berlin); the 
second, Alexander Kisch (now in Prague). In 
1883 a synagogue was built in Léwenstrasse. At 
present (1905) the Jewish population of Zurich is 
about 2,000, and, like the whole town, it is of an 
international character. In Zurich, as in the rest 
of Switzerland, the Jews are absolutely free politic- 
ally, but social life is not yet devoid of preju- 
dices. The Cantonal University and the Swiss Poly- 
technic School are attended by many foreign Jews 
and Jewesses, especially from Russia, and there are 
several Jewish professors and privat-docents in the 
two faculties. The gymnasium likewise hasa Jew- 
ish teacher, and two Jewish representatives sit in 
the Cantonal Council, although no Jew is yet a mem- 
ber of the municipal government. 

The Zurich Jews are chiefly merchants, while 
the Polish and Russian immigrants are mostly ped- 
lers. The chief community is the Israelitische 
Kultusgemeinde, directed since 1898 by Dr. Litt- 
mann, and containing 330 households. In addition 
to this is the Orthodox Israelitische Religionsge- 
sellschaft, which has a room for worship in a pri- 
vate house, and also owns a cemetery. A Jewish 
library of several thousand volumes (including in- 
cunabula and manuscripts) has been purchased by 
the Israelitische Kultusgemeinde from a bequest 
of the historian Heidenheim (who died in Zurich), 
and presented tothe municipal library. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Ulrich, Sammlung Jiidischer Geschichten 
in der Schweiz, Basel, 1748; Bar, Die Juden Ztirichs im 
Mittelaiter, in Zuricher Taschenbuch auf das Jahr 1896; 
Steinberg, Studien zur Geschichte der Juden in der Schweiz 
Wtihrend des Mittelalters, Zurich, 1908; JIsraelitisches 
Wochenblatt fiir die Schweiz, i., Nos. 30, 36. 

D. E. Sc. 
ZURIEL, MOSES BEN SAMUEL: Mathe- 
matician of the seventeenth century; author of 

“Mehaddesh Hodashim ” (Venice, 1653), a calendar 

for 5414-84 (= 1654-74). 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider, in Monatsschrift, xlix. 495. 
E. ¢. M. SEL. 


ZURISHADDAI: The father of Shelumiel, a 
chief of the tribe of Simeon, who was chosen to aid 
Moses in numbering the people (Num. i. 6; ii. 12; 
vii. 36, 41; x. 19). 

E.G. H. B. P. 

ZURITA: Fortified city of Castile on the River 
Tajo, one and one-half miles from Pastrana. It had 
a Jewish community as early as 11387, when King 
Alfonso VIL won it from the Moors; and during the 
Almohade persecutions many Jews sought refuge 
there. In the charter granted the city by Alfonso 


Zutra 
Zweifel 


VIIL. in 1180, no distinctions were drawn between 
Jews and Christians, and on Dec. 20, 1215, the al- 
jama in Zurita was exempted from all taxation by 
Henry I. of Castile in view of the pecuniary sacri- 
tices made by its members during the war, and in 
recognition of its faithful defense and improvement 
of the fort entrusted to it. In 1474 this same al- 
jama, which was so wealthy that it gave the king a 
thousand doubloons (“ mille aureos ”), paid, together 
with the aljamas of Pastrana and Almequera, two 
thousand maravedis in taxes. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Boletin Acad. Hist. xl. 166 e€ seqg.; Rios, Hist. 
i. 356, iii, 599. 


J M. K. 


ZUTRA, MAR, I.: Exilarch from 401 to 409. 
He was the successor of Mar Kahana and a contem- 
porary of R. Ashi, whose enactments he had to fol- 
low in spite of his exalted position. He was obliged 
to leave Nehardea and take up his residence in Sura, 
where he held an annual reception at the opening of 
the harvest season for the delegates of all Babylo- 
nian communities, the receptions being called “ rigli ? 
axnnds ray xoo9). In addition Mar Zutra received 
various other delegations at Sura. Nothing further 
is known about his career. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gratz, Gesch. iv. 351, note 3; Neubauer, A7- 


ecdota, 1. 32-33; Heilprin, Seder ha-Dorot, i. 167a. 
J. Ss. O. 


ZUTRA, MAR, II.: Exilarch; born about 496; 
died about 520; ruled from 512 to 620. He was the 
son of Huna, who was appointed exilarch under 
Firuz; and he was born at the time when Mazdak 
endeavored to introduce communism in all Persia. 
The opposition against Mar Zutra, his imprison- 
ment, and his early death have given rise to a num- 
ber of legends. The following anecdote is told 
about his birth and the events preceding it: Mar 
Zutra’s father was engaged in constant strife with 
his father-in-law, the school principal Mar Hanina, 
because the latter refused to obey the orders issued 
by the exilarch. Hanina was accordingly punished 
for luis disobedience; and, being embittered and hu- 
miliated, he went into the prayer-house at night, 
and there shed a dishful of tears, whereupon he fell 
asleep. He dreamed that he was in a cedar forest, 
engaged in felling the trees; and when he came to 
the last cedar-tree King David appeared and forbade 
him to fell it. On awakening, Hanina learned that 
the eutire house of the exilarch had perished, except 
his daughter, who was pregnant and had been 
spared. Soon afterward she gave birth to a son, 
whom the grandfather named Mar Zutra, at the 
same time assuming personal charge of his training. 
Duting Mar Zutra’s infancy the exilarchate was 
adininistered by his brother-in-law Mar Pahra, 
or Pahda. The latter bribed King Kobad in order 
that he might remain in office; but when Mar Zutra 
had reached the age of fifteen, his grandfather pre- 
sented him to the king asthe legitimate ruler, wlere- 
upon the monarch installed him as exilarch. Mar 
Pahda opposed this, but was killed by a fly which 
entered his nostril; and after that event the exi- 
jarchs had a fly on their seal. 

Mar Zutra took up arms against the Persians, and 
organized an uprising to oppose the introduction of 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


706 


communism, although the king himself wasin favor 
thereof. Theimmediate cause of the uprising, how- 
ever, was the assassination of the school principal 
Isaac, regarding which no accurate information ex- 
ists. From the fact that Mar Hanina took part in 
the struggle, it may be deduced that it was of a re- 
ligious character. At the head of acompany of 400 
Jewish warriors Mar Zutra advanced against the op- 
posing Persian forces; and the battles fought by 
him have furnished material for various legends, 
It is told that a pillar of fire always preceded his 
army; and it is further stated that Mar Zutra 
founded an independent Jewish state, with Mahoza 
as his residence. He ruled as an independent king, 
and imposed heavy taxes on all non-Jews. In spite 
of his able government, however, immorality spread 
among his people, whereupon the pillar of fire dis- 
appeared. In a subsequent battle between Mar 
Zutra and the Persians the former was defeated; 
and both he and his grandfather Hanina were taken 
prisoners and decapitated, their bodies being sus- 
pended from crosses on the bridge at Mahoza. 

The account of Mar Zutra’s life is based ona mix- 
ture of historic facts and legendary narratives. 
Thus, the description of the uprising of the Jews 
against Persian reforms, the statement regarding the 
prominent position held by Mar Zutra, and the ac- 
count of his death are all based on historical data, 
whereas the stories of the extinction of the exilarchal 
house are legendary, as are also the dream of Hanina 
(which corresponds with that of Bostanai) and the 
account of the pillar of fire. All those legends, 
however, which tend to prove that the Jater rulers 
of Babylonia were usurpers have a basisof truth, in- 
asmuch as Mar Zutra’s only son emigrated to Jeru- 
salem. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gritz, Gesch. v. 4-6, note 1; Neubauer, 4 7ec- 
dota, ii. 76; Heilprin, Seder ha-Dorot, i. 167. 


J. §. O. 


ZUTRA, MAR, BAR MAR ZUTRA: Pal- 
estinian scholar. On the day of his birth his father 
was crucified, and his mother fled with him to Pal- 
estine, where he was later appointed archipherecite 
(see ARCHIPHERECITES). According to Brill, he was 
active in causing the scientific material collected in 
Palestine to be gathered together and examincd; 
and the Palestinian Talmud is said to have been 
completed in his lifetime. During his term of office 
the order of Justinian in relation to reading from 
Holy Scripture was promulgated; and the first op- 
posing utterance is said to have been made by Mar 
Zutra. His place of residence was probably Tibe- 
rias, and by virtue of his title he was the official 
leader of the Palestinian Jews. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY : Briill’s Jahrb. v. 94-96; Heilprin, Seder ha- 


Dorot, i. 173; Yuhasin, ed. Filipowski, p. 93; Weiss, Dor, iv. 
2, 804; Gratz, Gesch. iii. 386. 5. 0 
J. ‘. ; 


ZUZIM: Name of an ancient people mentioned 
in Gen. xiv. 5 as residing in Ham, the territory east 
of the Jordan, and as having been smitten by Chedor- 
laomer. The narrator must have supposed that the 
Zuzim were well known, for he prefixes the definite 
article to their name, though its use may a:s0 
imply that even to him the nation was somewhat neb- 
ulous. This prefix induced the Septuagint and the 


707 


Peshitta (or the scribe of the copy underlying their 
version) to read the name as an appellative. They 
therefore translate it as “the strong” (= “ha- 
‘izzuzim ”) or “the mighty ” (= “ha-‘ezuzim ”), and 
thus identify the people with the Rephaim, the giants 
who occupied the district and who are said to have 
been called “ Zamzummim” by the Amnionites (Deut. 
ii. 20). The rendering of Symmachus results from 
a combination of the two names Zuzim and Zam- 
zulmim (Zoagoupuev), and thus anticipates those 
modern scholars who maintain that the names are 
identical, the variance being due to scribal errors. 
Sayce (“Higher Criticism and the Verdict of the 
Monuments,” pp. 160 e¢ seg.; “Expository Times,” 
viii. 468), proceeding on the theory that Gen. xiv. is 
a translation of a Babylonian document, advances 
the hypothesis that the double spelling of the name 
arose from the identity of the characters “m” and 
“w” in Babylonian. It has also been proposed to 
connect the name with Ziza, a military post of the 
Roman period (Dillnann, “ Genesis,” ad loc.). 
BE. G. H. 

ZWEIFEL, LAZAR (ELIEZER ZEBI B. 
DAVID HA-KOHEN): Russian apologist and 
critical compiler from rabbinical works; born at Mo- 
ghilef April 15, 1815; died at Gluchof Feb. 18, 1888. 
He was a lecturer in the rabbinical seminary of Jito- 
mir from 1853 until the institution was closed in 1874. 
Zweife] was a collector of excerpts and quotations 
from rabbinical literature, which he used in all his 
works to such an extent that they comprise about 
threc-quarters of the text. One large “yalkut” of 
his compilation was burned, and only about a tenth 
of the original work was saved from the fire that 
once destroyed his house. Zweifel acted as a medi- 
ator and peace-maker between the various Jewish 
sects, and was especially prominent as a protector of 
the Hastpim. Healso defended the Karaites against 
the attack of Deinard, and even had a good word 
for Reform (“Sanegor,” pp, 88~41, 43). 
deavored also to give a Jewish coloring to Spinoza’s 
philosophy, and quoted fifty opinions, most of which, 
including that of Besht (Ba‘an SuEM-Tos), were in 
harmony with the philosopher, while he himself con- 
tended that the only difference lay in the fact that 
Spinoza used words without careful discrimination 
to explain his system (“Shalom ‘al- Yisrael,” iii. 438, 
ed. Wilna, 1873). 

Zweifel was a prolific writer and one of the first 
to use Talmudic and idiomatic Hebrew for the mod- 
ern poetry which he frequently composed, stanzas 
being interspersed throughout his works. He was 
also a talented and epigrammatic Yiddish author, 
and some of his productions in that field were pub- 
lished in Spector’s “ Hausfreund.” 

Zweifel is best known through his apologetic “Sha- 
lom ‘al-Yisrael,” a work in four volumes, two of 
which are marked “ part true.” He based his defense 
on the ground that “Beshtism” (Migbwyd) is the de- 
velopment of the views expressed in the “ Moreh Ne- 

bukim” of Maimonides, the “ Hobot ha- 
Defense of Lebabot” of Bahya, and the “ Mesillat 
Hasidism. Yesharim” of Moses Luzzatto. He 
showed also that similar ideas were 
found in Luria’s cabalistic system, and demonstrated 
that the Hasidic minhagim were mere repetitions of 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


He en-. 


Zutra 
Zweife) 


what had already been recognized in the Talmud 
and in early literature by Philo and other Alexan- 
drian Jews (“Shalom ‘al-Yisrael,” i. 4%a). He 
claimed, moreover, that the prejudice against the 
Hasidim and the persecutions which they were forced 
to endure at the hands of their opponents were as 
unjust as the oppression of Jews by Christians (22. 
vi. 59). He admitted, however, that Hasidism 
had changed somewhat since the time of Besht, and 
that the rank and file of those who professed Hasi- 
dism no longer strictly followed the ancient path. 
He accordingly urged the leading rabbis or zaddi- 
kim, especially R. Mordecai of Czernobel, R. Israe] 
of Razun, and R. Mendel of Lubawicz, to instruct 
their thousands of adherents to weed out the idlers 
among them, and to refrain from denunciations 
and appeals to the government in their petty quar- 
réls, likewise imploring them to cease introducing 
innovations into minhagim (2d. iii., end, ed. Wilna). 

Zweifel was bitterly criticized by the Maskilim for 
his apologetics and panegyrics of the Hasidim. Hay- 
yim Selig Slonimski, his colleague in the rabbinical 

seminary, made a public protest, de- 
Replies to claring that Zweifel’s opinion was not 
ZAweifel. shared by the faculty and that he 
trusted it would make no impression 
on the students (“ Ha-Meliz,” viii., No. 87; comp. 
also Nos, 42-45, 47). Some remarked that his name 
Zweifel (= “doubt”) was indicative of his wavering 
aud unbalanced mind, and J. L. Gordon hesitated to 
take Zweifel seriously (“Iggerot Yeleg,” ii. 277), 
while Isaac Hirsch Weiss regarded his efforts to 
harmonize the factions as unavailing, all refutation 
of false accusations against Jews in general being 
superfluous or useless, though he admitted Zweifel’s 
good intentions and the value of his works taken 
as a whole (“ Ha-Asif,” iii. 152), 

The works of Zweifel are as follows: (1) “Minnim 
we-‘Ugab,” containing a poetical introduction in 
which the numerical value of the let- 
ters of each line is 1,856 (the year of 
issue), notes on various passages of the 
Bible and Talmud, poems, and a collection of say- 
ings entitled “ Pirke de R. Eliezer ha-Katan ” (Wil- 
na, 1858); (2) “ Musar Ab,” containing the letter of 
admonition addressed by Maimonides to his son 
Abraham, the ethical will of Judah ibn Tibbon to 
his son Samuel, together with notes and explana- 
tions, and 150 proverbs (Jitomir, 1865); (3) “ Pardes 
Rimmonim,” explanations of legendary haggadot in 
the Talmud, by Shem-Tob Shaprut (first ed., Sab- 
bionetta, 1554), edited with an introduction and re- 
marks (Jitomir, 1866); (4) “ Likkute Zebi,” a collec- 
tion of remarks on the Bible and Midrash by Hirsch 
Zebi Segall of Kovno, edited with introduction and 
notes (2). 1866); (5) “Tushiyyah,” stories and po- 
ems, chiefly translations from Russian and German 
(tb. 1867); (6) “ Homer be-Yad ha-Yozer,” an ethico- 
philosophical commentary on Pappenheim’'s litur- 
gical hymn “ Ki Hinne Ka-Homer’” for theeveot Yom 
Kippur, with notes, a eulogy on Solomon Léb Ra- 
poport, and similar material (7b. 1868); (7) “Sha- 
lom ‘al-Yisrael” (i.—ili., part 1, 7. 1868-70; iii., 
part 2, Wilna, 1878; iv., Jitomir, 1873; comp. J. 8. 
Trachtmann in “Ha-Karmel,” 1878, No. 11); (8) 
“Bet Middot,” moral and ethical teachings by 


Works. 


4weifel 


Jacob Léy Margolioth, with notes (Jitomir, 1870); 
(9) “EXeghbon shel ‘Olam,” on sheodicy (Warsaw, 
1878); <it) “Nezah Yisrael,” the vitality of the 
Jewish nation explained by the teachings of Juda- 
ism (St. Petersburg, 1884; reprint from Zederbaum’s 
“Meliz Ehad Minni Elef”); (11) “Sanegor,” a de- 
fense against the accusation of materialism and Tal- 
mudic Judaism, divided into five sections and giv- 
ing historical explanations (Warsaw, 1885; 2d ed., 
Wilna, 1894; comp. J. L. Freidkin in “ Keneset Yis- 
rael,” i. 242; Berdyczewski, in “ Bet ha-Midrash,” i. 
87); and (12) “‘Olam Katan,” or “ Kiecin Weltel,” 
a Yiddish poem reprinted from “ Ha-Zofeh ” (Lon- 
don, 1894). Zweifel wrote also numerous articles 
for the Hebrew weeklies and magazines, 

Zweifel’s granddaughter Pauline Zwe=“%el is an 
opera-singer of international reputation. She grad- 
uated from tlie Warsaw Conservatorium, made her 
début at Milan, and sang at the opera house in Rio 
de Janeiro in 1905. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Ha-Maggid, xxxii., Nos. 41-43; Ha-Meliz, 
1888, No. 388; Ha-Asif, v. 214; Ozar ha-Sifrut, iv. 273-276 ; 
Paperna, in Sefer ha-Shanah, 1900, pp. 63 et seq.; Zeitlin, 
Bibl. Post-Mendets. p. 431, 

H.R. J. D. E. 


THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 


708 


ZWEIFEL, PAUL: German gynecologist; 
born at Hingg, near Zurich, Switzerland, June 30, 
1848; educated at the University of Zurich (M.D. 
1871). In 1871 he received the “venia legendi” at 
the University of Strasburg, where he had already 
become assistant in the gynecological institute. In 
1876 he was appointed professor of gynecology at 
the University of Erlangen, and in 1887 he was 
transferred to Leipsic. He has the title “Geheimer 
Medizinal-Rat.” 

Zweifel has contributed over one hundred mono- 
graphs to medical journals. Among hismany works 
may be mentioned: “ Ueber den Verdauungsapparat 
der Neugeborenen” (Strasburg, 1874); “Lehrbuch 
der Operativen Geburtshilfe” (Stuttgart, 1881; ap- 
peared as “Lea«rouch der Geburtshilfe,” 2b. 1887, 
5th ed. 1901); “Der Einfluss der Aerztlichen Thitig- 
keit auf dic Bevélkerungsbewegung ” (2d. 1887); 
“Die Symphyseotomie” (7. 1898); and “ Aetio- 
logie, Prophylaxis und Therapie der Rachitis” (2d. 
1900). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: Pagel, Biog. Lex.; Meyers Konversations. 
Lexikon; Brockhaus Konversations-Lezikon. 


8. F. T. H. 


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FELIX M. WARBURG 


NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA 


Aaron, Isaac MM... cee eee eees New York City 
Aaron, Rev. Israel, DD cc hchskcns ee Buffalo, N. Y. 
Aaron: Lows )s. keen as ts eed wt Allegheny City, Pa. 
Aaron, Marcus... icc cee eee se es OS ROK Pittsburg, Pa. 
Aaronsohn, Samuel J............ 0.0002 eee Paterson, N. J. 
Aaronson, Reuben.............000e-e eee? Baltimore, Md. 
Aaronstamm, A. Stephen................ ..New York City 
Abelés; Charles Tais. sor. 5 i ees dee Little Rock, Ark. 
Abelman, Mayeriusc2. 6. ca cece ohbains New York City 
WN GIS) -Pieridine at CASA oes wees eo eee Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Abelson, ctev> (AMGP 5. ook ce en ce ets Jersey City, N. J. 
AWerlS, Daniel weiss aoe ive eb oe o s eeewaS St. Paul, Minn. 
ANG WIC, CMOS a: Gok os ke ee a wo RRA New York City 
Abraham, SE NR NE oh a ik 9 Wao 4 AS RS Brooklyn, N. Y. 
APS DES wii Se be~ oo eee cc ee no dhe Brooklyn, N. Y. 
i Five ise tines GAGs Bec Re se oc beter kee owe be Sheridan, Wyo. 
Abrebanis; GCOlUMAn NS «. 0. 6. ee cc cece ee Cincinnati, Ohio 
AMrahpms; Josep. eo ec eee ees New York City 
Alorabin nis, Puls ea cos ce ee cc ee wee oes Philadelphia, Pa. 
Fe ey ceca ra COM Rt Og Denver, Colo. 
Abrahams, We, ME Diiyg:. ssc cee ee eee New York City 
Abrabanis, William... .... 6.66 ce aR Philadelphia, Pa. 
Abrahamaon, sWhus.-i5 00.06 ce eee eS Duluth, Minn. 
Abrahamson, Rev. Robert.......,...0e00085 Portland, Ore. 
Abrahamson, Mrs. W. M............ccsc08- Duluth, Minn. 
ALPAMOVICE LOUIS wikia se ee teas hes New York City 
ASPARTIC ie hcg oacg eters sa vo Sao wae Se a Providence, R. I. 
APMTNSOT, SLANE Fanos cas bee os oe ORS Shreveport, La. 
ASPORD ROD UBS ioe os oc os. ¥ od we Se RRS New York City 
Aower, TISNTY Byes. kw eae ew ce ewes .....New York City 
Aabermiet, LAGt VED osc hc wae ed be ees New York City 
CIE retoay de Pera cs: od oad waa ela wba ee 9 % New York City 
Ackerman, Samuel... ........-0-ccceevcoeee New York City 
TERS Alay UNMIS Ace tale Reis nl ae Ra ae oe eS ee New York City 
Aeris TOME. Sots a 6 a oe ee Ae eR New Orleans, La. 
AVERTING CUREETE tec eg Oa HG 5 6 A 0) Sed OSL Spe wba Stamford, Conn. 
Addelston, William M................20.- New York City 
yh Cos aot 9 | aR, OPN Coane Se ee a a ne ne ee Brooklyn, , 
Ps PS Cad 1 A ORT pa Ak Oe 3 eae Providence, R. I 
Aces eUMNe. " Fi5t was cb bes eee eee as Minneapolis, Minn. 
ATIOISLGIT ¢ SEVERNA $65 a bebo awe oad en's New York City 
‘Adelstein, DRIGTRE eis sis ok OG Montreal, Canada 
ACHR), MWh: hairy hearin s en aiaid ees WG aw ae eS New York City 
Adler, Cyrus, Ph.D. .......---62-- see ee eee New York City 
Adler, Ws Avi ise% bos ale ea oS Os ees Rochester, N. Y. 
Adler, Prof. Felix... ... 0.0... 00. eee ee eee New York City 
Adler, Harris B., M.D... . 0... ce ee ees New York City 
Adler... leaae.J ood 3.43.64» ombanmonmamen te New York City 
Adier, Jacob).P..< 246 ba eee bbe hada es Gee New York City 
COTS Lg O Vi ican 6 Ly oe artes ere wien s a7aee and eave Rochester, N. Y. 
Adler... Mrs+ Me Dy 93s dis-> 434465 caw Faewes New York City 
ACCOR, NER 3, 15 Sern ee ane cass Rees New York City 
AMdlet, Ma occ eas eee EEA RH OSE New Haven, Conn. 
Adler, Path s.c oe id0 514 slice aaa Ge wma sa St. Louis, Mo. 
Adler Simon. ii ecsctotg bee does eaawns New York City 
Adler; “Walla ms i seas ack ng Ke eh ands Gis ee Ses New Orleans, La. 
Agat, Rev. Isaiah, Ph.B................ .....Chicago, IL 
UR OOS e. Diiie ee otk eegrandkeal a: eluate S58 Gf cnet aioe oid Chelsea, Mass. 
Aiken, Bev. S). Jig Di Dic ccu be oe ees eu bids New York City 
Awsenman, Wolf.............. (ao abe ae We Manila, P. I. 
Aizenman, Ralph ........... 002. ee ee eee New York City 
Albert, Charles... .......- 0.0 cece e eee ees Cincinnati, Ohio 
Albertstamm, Jacob D.. 0... 0... eee eee Boston, ‘Mass. 
Alexander As to vis Go es wd he ee ad New York City 
Alexander, Abraham ............--eee005: New York City 
Alexander, Bernard, A.M................-.2 New York City 
Alexander, David). 365 cieesn ec cee os Rees Toledo, Ohio 
Alexander, Biss: < é oswes ness eee ES ow KS New York City 
Alexander, Henry. ...........00. eee eeceee New York City 
Alexander, Hugo...............--: eee a New York City 


Alexander, James R........-... 00000 Orange Valley, N. J. 


Alexander, rei by Sic Bidlig: debe eiar tare: GEES OO BIEN .. New York City 
Alexander Ms cig$ tino es A beatae BT RS Ft. Worth, Tex. 
Alexander, Nestor A. (deceased)... ........ New York City 
Alexander, Wis aac ook elo ita ara iai's 6 New Orleans, La 
Algase, Harry D...... inate Ca eRe elk Sats New York City 
Alkws,: [saae. ic. o cccweadn S obed eee e www eeds Philadelphia, Pa. 
AUS. MOPS 0426551944 H GSH ae eS Philadelphia, Pa. 
A lets PSA ACs ech 2 os bd See aha eas wee ee New York City 
Allen, Joseph EL... ee ce ee ees Augusta, Ga. 
Allentoriy Oo De. Gs ees oy oe alan care ee eee New York City 
Alpern, Aaron H..... Brien es Bead exw ahetenawey aia eats Pittsburg, Pa. 
Al peri, Wisc cat Gane a es ee eee be Pittsburg, Pa. 
Alsberg, Irving N.. 0... ccc eee ees New York City 
NAGORS REV ANE Piss bes aus Se Sweets wank ae ee eed Pittsburg, Pa. 
ATerin ae IN 2 sass cue ease eee una eaes New York City 
Altheimer, Ben. ......... 0.0.00 ce ee cee eee ees St. Louis, Mo. 
Altman, Aiseis. e426 eG 4 be we able dire eave New York City 
Altman, Charles sos: eee. tacacecatecere ees 2 Se New York City 
Altman, Mrs. Louis...........ccc0cceccecces Portland, Ore. 
Altman, | ES oa RO aie a ee a er ge New York City 
Albian. Was. WD, 5 S56. 6 oo ccc ce cee ey ews New York City 
VET eth MAOEURE ys Soihes krs's Gs de eS Bead ees New York City 
PAP AUG: NEAT: Aig Seba iw ice 28 428 eed eas New York City 
Altschul, BT RATE be ci Geek oe. do oc Lee New York City 
AMACHWNET, TACODs srescdeg 6s 8 ee eee es eae S New York City 
Acttatiailly WICtOr Wot is ok as: + oo wo oo we ee Jersey City, N. J. 
Amdur, Rev. Bernard... .............0008: Buffalo, 
Amdur, DUS EES cao gout ea us Geko ais © a 8 New York City 
ACTH. Tie bic. Seti bok 2s Coe es ee se SER Pittsburg, Pa. 
Mamas. Beir ys o5 ds 4p 6 oe oe ce ow ous ganas Pittsburg, Pa. 
Ameritas BAGG. foe Sek eh ee ee ROR New York City 
Amman and Mackel.................0005- New York City 
Amram, Miss Carrie EH... . 1.1.06. 62 cece Philadelphia, Pa. 
Amram, David Werner. .........--..00- Philadelphia, Pa. 
Asin, Gis cece hea hw ow de eh eeaeld Saks New York City 
Amster, Moses....... 0.00 0c cc ccseeree eee Richmond, Va. 
Anable,: Dis NOU 2 yon 0. iam dis Haecare 8 aod Morristown, N. J. 
Anauer, Henry F........... 0... cc cece cee ee New York City 
Andrews, Rev. R. M......... 2. cece cece ees Kittrell, N. C. 
Anrade, Jacob A... 1... ccc ccc cee Jamaica, W. I 
Anspacher, Rev. Abraham S................. Scranton, 
Apfel, Ignace Irving. ..... ea RVG en a Mee aes New York ae 
Apfel, M. Marion, M.D... 0.0.0.0... 0.00.02 ee Brooklyn, N 
Apfelbaum, Edward E....... ee New York Gity 
Apfelbaum, Piermianiy sow 2 ied heres ena New York City 
Apfelbaum, Isidor.. ...........00e cece ees New York City 
Apotheker, D. ..... Ree ere re ee re Philadelphia, Pa. 
Applebaum, A. COC... . 2... eee recess Detroit, Mich. 
ADE he wick: eset retie Dike anale wah! oa cen eee UES New York City 
Apt. ‘MOrris:<.o «os op eG GG boa eee Philadelphia, Pa. 
Arbib, Alexander ......... 0.0. cc ce uceeeee New York ey 
Arent; Herman: 2s .0.5 3a ssa ese Sew Jersey City, N. J. 
Argow, Rev. William................00008- oledo, Ohio 
APC Tig Wo .cie Sars aided. wa Givrak@ ate See wea New York City 
Arkin, TION ey 653 sea kens onl wiarbacd d4 we ais Washington, D.C. 
Areitio Miss, sa.c 0.2 Saeko eth oon ie cadence hand Rdercmaidere New York City 
Arkin, Raphael) oc. 632 ics a widie so 66% SR EE OSS New York City 
ABKIN, SIMOUs ¢ 08-0 ete decias sed ose tee oes ... Chicago, Ill. 
Arkin, William, D.D.S8. ..,............-..- New York City 
Arkush, Reuben ............ccccececeeeee New York City 
Arnold, Arthur Straus ............- 00005 Philadelphia, Pa. 
Arnold, Mrs. Miriam. .............--0005 Philadelphia, Pa, 
Arnstein, Emanuel... ..........02 00s seeees New York City 
Arnstein, Henry. ..c.4.0c00 00064 6 eb iuae eens New York City 
PTUSPEIT ole bias oasis fee eh Phe eS Me ress New York City 
Arnstein, Max? o¢4 0 os Seles Sees see oud Knoxville, Tenn, 
Aronowitz, M......... bce ee Bote aed Beall Tae Albany, N. Y. 
Arons; Morris 6.2.00. 43.55 be eee eee os ees New York City 
Aronsohn, Samuel J......... 20 cece eee eee Paterson, N. J. 
Aronson, (He Dic cas 24 oat ieee ad kee New York City 
ATONSONy, Had mess os ia doe Bo Oe ae ee arenes New York City 
Aronson, I. Leonard. .......... 0.0.0.0 e ee Pittsburg, Pa, 


iv LIST OF PATRONS 


SSP SS A 


Aronson, Joseph....... Ne Sree ar ee we eee Boston, Mass. Bauer, Madame Julie H........ rr eee are Portiand, Ore. 
Aronson, M..........ccccees ere ee Niagara Falls, N. Y. Pater Sure Aiea aig adeeb ected aS ons Somerville, f 
Aronson, Mo... ccc cece eee ee ee cere eens New York Gity | Bauer, Rev. Sol......... re ere Chicago, Ill, 
Aronson, Morris..... i sce atin Mla oaaitinse tah R SU claNw shines Bester: Mass. Batierberd, Patt. MED... ccc eee ee ee eas Yonkers, N.Y, 
Aronson, Oscar...... dg Goa Ghee: wig SACRE New York City | Baum, Henry............... weveececess NEW York Cit 
Aronson, 8S. ......eee eee eeee secesecesese- New York City Baum, JORED Ms 0 6s has iA ee weet Fort Wayne, Ind. 
Aronson, Saul......... Sen ee dil dative Sol Brooklyn, N. Y. } Baum, Joseph, M.D.. Eagar ceslaeaae wae New York City 
Aronstam, J......... Ldvanaeareniane Awa .. .Springfield, Mass, Baum, Rev. Solomon....... wine esa tears New York City 
Aschaffenburg, A........ ce eaceceeeess + - New Orleans, La, Fain, POIs Beis ch os cede sated bie dv tag ASSAIC, Nid, 
Ascher, Simon. .........-200% ceeccscees. New York City Baumgarden, BEM chao bared 5 eh eA ee Chicago, I. 
Aschheim, Mayer S....... cscs ee veeeees New York City Bauinwart, ISGGr ieee oe ce ees eh txdpheleness Brooklyn, N. ¥. 
Ash, Louis... 6c cece sues re rete New York City Baumgarten, Herman.......... la atlons tats Washington, D. C, 
AS MAT cco ay Searisig hw terol Sow Siena ..o..-New York City Baumgarten, Julius. ........-+-eeeeeeee Washington, D.C, 
Asher, Mrs. Joseph Mayor............+. .... New York City Bayard, Harriss. 3. 44ers oo 6 PA eee Cee es Chelsea, Mass. 
Asher, Maurice, M.D Pace easier Ce te sah ice aaa Gin dass Newark, N. J. Bazel, Rev. Jacob M.. 2... cece ee eee eee Braddock, Pa 
Asikowit2.' Pix. ¢ 5s bsp rs eek os OS baa ee EP ES Boston, Mass. Beek; Gharies 52 o.6c. cee ee ek ee hdt ten wate ate New York City 
Asinof, Mrs. Morris........ ere ee New York City Becker, OE Fare Ble sa BiG: Wei aitnaetcahc ea tacwin See lesicar ost Chicago, III. 
ST cd sores gaackel be hut ae te eitat me epsaralnigins Seo asta Newport News, Va. Beckhardt, TU raat fess h eas Grae ee Aa ae New York City 
ATs, Els sic. 5 a eens aioe ae Bees geek wads Boston, Mass. Beckman, Se eee ig Gree ewanaatons Beaver Falls, Pa. 
Aves Soi. ov cee wisn in arg Pe ew wee ie a es Washington, D. C, {| Beer, Bertrand.............44. eee New Orleans, La. 
Audenried, Charles Y....... WG Ot as cares Philadelphia, Pa. | Beer, Sophia ...........0.eeeee parse teas New York City 
Auer, M.......... iaavaak italia econ eae rae Cincinnati, one Beertier, Bermnartey o. <5 66 sve waa es de wee ee Philadelphia, Pa. 
Muerhaim; Siccs oc ih ces vasa + eeeaeen es Bradford, Behren, A. H....... sac co ave bie Woahecseuteetens:’ New York City 
Auguss, Samuel... 2... eee eee ee eee eee eee New York Gity Behren, Louis D............. Sa Aeece BaAeeaGee New York City 
Augustus, N. G........ be ce ete as lees duneta eae Okolona, Miss. BJGHPGHEh, ROO ite 686 6a eer ae ae Slew as Philadelphia, Pa. 
Augyal, Sam... sce eee cece ee ees ee New York City { Behrman, J.............6055 a ee ee wa eeesS Portland, Ore. 
AVerbachy Ted ioc hic a5 ies owe 6S:Ss RES SHS Pittsburg, Pa. Beisman, Joseph, M.D....... gia aan eae a ae Detroit, Mich. 
Avner, Maurice Louis..........-.0e0ee ee eee Pittsburg, Pa Belais, David ..éci5 overs ye sinseseewae ces New York City 
Avrutine, Jy. 25-02 dag udeeusan des acolars Sacesea, ee New York City | Belasco, David ..........eecee sere eee ene New York City 
AVTUUISs Acad dintrexdavs Mees eee eee: New York City Belber,.M. Y.. D:D:Sei ocaseeas cena ews Philadelphia, Pa. 
Palo J occ Aiea crak elas eet etek ea Cumberland, Wis. | Belkowsky, Isidor, M.D,......-..02ee ee ees Cleveland, Ohio 
Bell; Victor Gisc)s- 4.03 6 ata oe. Sen oe aad eas New York City 
B PRUE PhS we hrm cat lle: ks ad 16's SR doa or ge ES New York City 
Baar, Herman N........ .0c ccc eeceeeeees New York City Beller, Jacob... ........6. sidnawanca: Sechgpingsaeiir ysine New York City 
Babad, Nathan M., M. DD... L.: bb ively ole Cae New York City POOR nd Gee ina ibe ae a oe a See he as New York City 
Babb, Joseph Base enters oat Sis ies Ksddesuigod: wana te New York City | Beller, Wolf... 2.2... cee secs en ee ceccees New York City 
Bache, Mrs. Semon.......... Soares uate eae New York City BERETS eared fone sae ee oda ee 4 Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Bacher, Rudolph C.... 0... cee eee ee ees New York Cit PST oyas cy 2 tl Bo) 1. ee rr Newark, N. J. 
Bachlin, David. ....... dla 8 Spear eee PE Sie Rea Brooklyn, N. Y. Benchmaiy 8. ..c 05s... es ee ee ee New York City 
Bachrach, Julius. ....... biotite Na New York Cit Bendheim, Ferdinand.......... esebicetiet tien s Altoona, Pa, 
Bachrach) Liv. ss ecnewadssvaceweews pears se Rondout, N. Y. | Bendit, Sig. Lew... ccc ee cece eee ees New York City 
Bachrach, 8S. L......... Cee basin bane ame New York City | Bendon, George. ........... cee eee ceenes Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Bachrach, Simon..... ar eheeapeavar Gah weit aa oti RR Oakland, Cal. TRO TACTIC tee ULES dpce tars 4-4 96 Se PP Ole es Hew as New York City 
Bachs, Herman, ee aad ee een earn ae f New York City BEREOits Wahid canes «45-2 64 6 Sew o eR Od Was New Orleans, La. 
Backer, George . i chy tater Scalia Bcc en hays ee. cS New York City Benerofe, PARTIR gi onl 6 oa eS eRe eK New York City 
Bacon, Col. AleO Ge hoa e cayenne New York City | Benisch, Miss Leah..... deere ag a lartana Psat ias Brooklyn, N. Y,. 
Badanies, Be Bites aiaw ace aoecg wie lero esd ales Qacale New York City | Benjamin, KE. V...........- cee ecco ne ees New Orleans, La. 
Baehr, Herman ...........:ee secre eeeeee New York City | Benjamin, F. D............ eee Toronto, Ont., Canada 
Baer HEUry Bisse csc os Retsane eels as eter New York City | Benjamin, M. M..........--....0 eee Minneapolis, Minn. 
FRAGT de Mic crapek ood 6 sa coe + cca aod ecaee ate Finleyville, Pa, | Benjamin, Morris W....... 0.0. eee eee eee New York City 
OO TORE la al S88 5 Foc gs Siw Da aan OR ORS Pittsburg, Pa. Benn, Marcus A.... 2... eee cee eee eee Philadelphia, Pa. 
TeARE. IPAs 4-6 4 66g sss ih kinab ices hts deren ie da ahaa yan New York City | Benno, Joseph... ... 2.0... eee eee eee ee eee Buffalo, N. Y. 
Baermann, J. B..... 2. Wi ecs eee eee New York City Bensdorf, Herman........ Seer rere coe Memphis, Tenn, 
Baitler, presley Giese teint 08 eite Rata ws ew ahs Boston, Mass. Bentson,- Bebe acca eR ee a Mia eee Fargo, N. Dak. 
TIA OT SD Pio M aii tates 6 Geld aos eal Se SEE kee New York City Bereinsky, D., M.D.........-..6--5005 New Haven, Conn. 
PERCU SIN RE og oi as aa sain a arsine See a eas a ew as Erie, Pa, Bel COU decks sis SS ore eee Se PESO DEES New Rochelle, N. Y. 
Pai <2) at elo? i 9) a New pened N.Y. Bercovitch, Peter. ..........0eeseeeeees Montreal, Canada 
BS ROBO Ss: co 6 2 eS are Bee ke de ee oes New York City | Berdy, Louis... .......-- eee eee ee eee neces New York City 
Balehowska; Ge He... cs eee es Frankfort Station, Il. Berenberg, Bernhard ...........000eeeee: Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Baldauf, Morris..........0 002 cceseeeeeee enderson, Ky. Berg, Gertrude... 1.1... ees ee wee eee eee Philadelphia, Pa. 
Baldwin. Aa: «. occssactacncocpusas ilu sate New Orleans, La. | Berg, Max... ... cc cece cece ee ee ee eeeee Philadelphia, Pa. 
Balsér,- Joshua Sess iewaee sack Fee vale Baltimore, Md. Berg, SIMON 6. 4.6 oe 6a ie ee ae ee ees New York City 
Balter, Josephs, wcciana iid aka de ea eeees Cleveland, Ohio | Bergen, Samuel.............eeeeeeceeeees eee N.Y. 
Bamberger, Jacob. ........ ccc cee cere eeeee Baltimore, Md. Berger, B. H. 1. . 2c. ccc ew eee eeee , New York City 
Bamberger, Jacob.........0.0ceceeeceees Baltimore, Md. Bereer SAME yee sos oa ee bee ee eee Se 6 New York City 
Bamberger, Mrs. Jacob...........05- Salt Lake City, Utah ECP REA Sears hae 6 a oe w 6 eo ined ais tas New York City 
Barnberwér, Lauigy ic ice ce eae eee wn oats Newark, N. J. Berginan, siosepie a, . 6. oo ee i eee eee ees Boston, Mass. 
Bamberger, Max ............ ae re Philadelphia, Pa. ROPE ANE NS aay dca Seer e ee weed ats New Orleans, La. 
Bamberger, Mrs. Simon...........+.+ Salt Lake City, Utah PSEC OTN IE b2Sece 5 use kas Gd we glee ede New York City 
TAM) ADEM eee bc os a sa vse we ea 0 BEY Brooklyn, N. Y. PIGERREBI, SiN a eats <a i sat cvs ee ean es Youngstown, Ohio 
Bandman, Albert, D.D.S.............0060- New York City Beringer, Lecpold......... tent pihete At eet New York City 
EAI ARN saat oe Gee dc ww Ghd: Boe 8 bk aw SRE New York City | Berkenstein, H...............00- e008. Charleston, W. Va. 
aes Pincus J.......- Shida or dns tadn se ele 6 aaaina New York City Berkman, Bi SIa suit eck aie oe aes Pittsburg, Pa. 
PST CU LI ee Tae by ag ak cas oe eae OD Philadelphia, Pa. TGP ey Abe 5 eas bod bad haw es awe 4S Somerville, N. J. 
Barkhouse, NTN pa op. cas eae Rw al We a Sow oe MS Louisville, Ky. BOrkOVils,y JONED Nig 6. cece ee we ea eee es Philadelphia, Pa. 
WAAPFRIAT Aone ho sng bo sea eee ee ae ee eT East Tawas, Mich. DeCKOWIC. VU hs i 5 6 64s eee ea New York City 
Bate orgs tee fo oo es 64 Son hoe a Bee St. Paul, Minn. RGEKOWites AVOID. cos on ceeds see ewer Philadelphia, Pa. 
Barnett, Myris 8550. B.. 6 aac ec ee ches New York City Berictswatin PRPEDIN ooo ob oS eA eee ee ees Hamilton, Ohio 
BAPIGLA Age PE oh Su os 6 he 8 we eee wo New Orleans, La, BSCE GE, CaM a. Geass dak io ae Oe aw Rea ee ORY New York City 
Barnett, Mint Raven. sce. sce eed es suo ate New York City: 4. Berkowitr.o 8 oi ce etwas ee ees New York City 
Barnsteut: Neve Hig Ph.D... 0.6. 045445 saan Houston, Tex. Berkowitz, Rev. Henry ..........-020005 Philadelphia, Pa. 
DSO PAU Ait sies oe oe kde ed aca aeys New York City Berkowitz, SPST he aa aaa os Gidsgs che tucaed New York City 
Barondess, Joseph ............ 0002 ee eee New York City | Berkowits, e0tie gc: os cade cee ee eee ease New York City 
Barr, Nathan M.............. ccc ceceeeee Brooklyn, N. Y. Berkowitz, DCO Nis diese bbe eee wee Ee Newark, N. J 
Barron, PIV MAM eared eo oh OE eS eeks Boston, Mass. Berkowitz, Wm. J...........0006 Se adnss sonia dine: Kansas City, Mo. 
Barth, Leopold... 0... 2. cece ee eee eee New York City | Berkson, Henry... ..........ce cece eee e eee New York City 
Bartler, OGG Phe ears h-ratinres Eahey gcd Bocagataiee Brea ig Boston, Mass. Berlin, Joseph se a le Geta, Gite Uae acter a Nn a ignited id aad Roxbury, eee 
Barton, Cae A i acteta thc a edd te ea we Sieh Bryn Mawr, Pa. Berlin, Maize cei oui Be, ate ore ere og eases ke Brooklyn, 
Baruch, B. M....-+- 0. ccc eee ce cece cece e New York City | Berliner, David. ........... 00.0 eee eeees New York Cit 
Baruth, Herman. ...........cccccescacaee New York City Berliner, Julius. 2.0.0.2... cc ecw eee eaves Brooklyn, N. 
Barwell, Jno. W vce ae so 00.0 e bed ow ard ke epee Waukegan, II. Berliner, Lazar... ... ccc cee ee neces aee Brooklyn, N. 
Basch Gy 4casee eee tise csetawdesos New York City | Berliner, M......... ccc cece eee ween renee New York City 
Basch, Joseph. i... ccc ce cece eseeceens Columbus, Ohio | Berlinger, Rabbi. ..........- 0.0 e cece cree New York City 
Bash, Henrietta...... 0... cece ccc neces Philadelphia, Pa. Berman, Adolph...........2.ce cee ee ee Corinth, Ky. 
Bashlow, Louis... 1.0.00. cece cece cee eees New York City | Berman, Adolph................ cece eeeeee Findlay, Ohio 
Bass, Mayer isos  o ak iad a bela’ bee wek Brooklyn, N. Y. Berman, (Bicac. soca ode ua S046 2G GI ed eee ote Detroit, Mich. 
assel Mis ce 4 os eta ty 8 ti Rare aiataty acetal Gin New York City Berman, Isidor ............eccceceeccnees New York City 
Batchelor, J. M., M.D..... 0.0... ce eee eee New Orleans, La. | Berman, M............... cece cece eee eee eed Altoona, Pa. 
Bane A. Ace os caries kets to ese ees ... shreveport, La. Berman, Nathan: Agica 066 cacter ne ia eee New York City 


LIST OF PATRONS Vv 


a ee 


Berman, Tobias........eee0008 See tatat er ae caeke Boston, Mass. Bloch: Simons <- 65 ecd ea Vee eae ed Philadelphia, Pa. 
Berman: Leen 650k ons 6 cee eho He New York City | Blochman,A............cc eee ee ee er San Diego, Cal. 
Bermann, Philip... ...........00cee ee eeees New York City Block, Alexander, M.D.......... De ie a ree: Pueblo, Colo. 
Bermon, Monist....... eT ee New York City | Block, B.... 1... cece eee eee eee eee neces Houston, Tex. 
BT es YS, Fine atnd os 6 Cas oe Oe aa ew ee es New York City Block; Bernhard, s oc.2.056k Ces Seca wees ses New York City 
Bernhard, Abraham.............cceeeeee- Brooklyn, N. Y. Block, David. ........-. emote soles Brewers New York City 
RPL TH A. Spee yen, Caries 5 sd sce aw ease Louisville, Ky. Bioelks. Elscictisat Gud gate dee eee ea Sante sine Chicago, I. 
Bernbelm, Chass Soc adi es cs se see e ese ee oes New York Gity | Block, Harris... 0.0... ceeee sce ee eee ee esas Chicago, III. 
Bernheim, Gustave... 2.0... cer eee eeenees New York City | Block, S......... ccc cee cree wee ene cces Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Bernheim, Teagde Wisse. ck ccc eee ee eee Louisville, Ky. Blondheim, Solomon.........0c0ee ee eees Baltimore, Md. 
Bernheimer; Beatrice si. .... 0.60 cee ee New York City BlGO iy se ooh Ay Btw Sk houe ee eae we wee Rochester, N. Y. 
Bernhemmeéer; ChasvS.i8. 2... 0.0 Philadelphia, Pa. Bloom, Benjamin... ........c cece eee ee eee New York City 
Bari heimer,\ Ma Hii ba ccs bee ee ee ee eee ee New York City POGUE ands Setdivot renee a ae Beet New York City 
Bernhemmer, Mayer 8. i... cc cee eee eens New York City Blooms When is iiae cae ce ead we aiens atale ee a4 Baltimore, Md. 
Bernkopl; David cassiid ces cece eee eens Providence, R. I. | Bloom, Max J...........- cece cece e eee Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Bernstein Avice see eta sees ce ee ee ee ee eee Chicago, [ll]. | Bloom, Moses. ....... cece eee eee cece eens New York City 
Bernstein Ai. go-.06 es wa doieeis Agia ee Ke Sete New York City | Bloom, R.. ...... cece eee e eens New York City 
Bernstein, A.M... 0... cece ce eee eee eee Rochester, N. ¥. | Bloom, Dr. 8. Nw... . eee eee eee ee ee eee Louisville, Ky. 
Bernstein, Adolph. ........0-.e02ee ees Marshalitown, Iowa | Bloom, Simon.............-eee eee eeeee Fall River, Mass. 
Bernstein, Alex........eces eee cece ee eeeee Portland, Ore. | Bloomfield, M.... 0.0... 6 csc eee ee ee ee eee Boston, Mass. 
Bernstein, Barnet. ........ 2. ee eee eee e eee New York City Bloomingdale, Lyman G. (deceased)........ New York City 
Bernstein, Bernard. ........c cece cece eeaee New York City Pilotelow, OSE css e ose ok ae ow le ee East Des Moines, Jowa 
Bernstein, Oss 3.54: ss os oa 246 28k ce New York City | Bluestone, J. 1., M.D... ...... 2c cece ee eneee New York City 
Bernstein, GC. Lv. is 03 os bone hea oe eR Oe Utiea, N.Y. Pilea, SoG hg otc Seah 6 ook don 0 50 oe Go RED Calumet, Mich. 
Bernstein, Charles. ........ 0.000000 ees Marshalltown, Iowa | Blum Brothers.............ce ccc cece tere Bellaire, Ohio 
Bernstein, D. S.. 0.0... ce ee ee eee Evansville, Ind. PRPs Mote ce co bho edes ee sse gne-elg bs aces a 8 OS Nitta Yuma, Miss. 
Bernstein, Ernest Ralph.................. Shreveport, La. | Blum, Edward C......... ccceeeeeeeeees Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Bernstein, Eugene A......... eee e eee eens New York City | Blum, Gabriel .°................5 65-40% Philadelphia, Pa. 
Bernstein, Te i occ cis ce ec 6-0 ow os ww researant New York City SUTURE “URRVERG ore se fons 3's. 0 bo Sin in 49's 9 3 PORE Galveston, Tex. 
Bernsteiny: Hess cia ei awd oaks sue eee New York City || Blumaner, Goulsigss..... 2.00 sees ees Portland, Ore. 
Bernstein, H. A., M.D... .... cc ee ec ee ees New York City Piya TIONS, ik iss. os wv ale Vic oe ace = a Rens New York City 
Bernstein, Henry... 2.2... cc cee eee eee Philadelphia, Pa. Blaniperg, SlewiTiG. oc ee ee eae New York City 
Bernsteiny Lis) 65.0542 6 ike e be Wee 8 RRO Chelsea, Mass. Blumberg, Wm...........-- adtacenls aa anne Shreveport, La. 
Bernstein, Isaac ........... a nensienals wo dtpewaied New York City | Blume, Max...............6. hiked boa 3 an ees Seranton, Pa. 
Bernstein, Julius A........ ..-ce eee e enone New York City Blumenberg, Marc A... cece cece ees eaes New York City 
Bernstein, L. 1., D.D.S........ ....2000- Philadelphia, Pa. BHO MIOIG. GS od psa bee OS oo Sw oe DOE Cleveland, Ohio 
Bernstein, MoMas s 046 ova ceeee soos 3 Raanor Charleston, S.C. | Blumenstein, Isaac L................--- New Haven, Conn. 
Bernstein, Morris .......... § ae bea > GRE New York City | Blumensttel, Aviss gsc 2s. ccc eens ee tREHES New York City 
Bernstein, Myer. ........0 ccc eee eens New York City Blumenthal, D..65.<e. 0050 esas Sake dc Cae ae Detroit, Mich. 
Bernstein, Robt. B...........0..0.6+----- New York City Blumenthal; ee We Fc cee seen othe New York City 
Bernstein O21 iu 2 eh te her tee aee ee New York City | Blumenthal, H.............. 0 cee eee eees Memphis, Tenn. 
Berrent, Abraham . 2... .... cece cece ene eee New York City | Blumenthal, H. B..... Sars Saas Pere Philadelphia, Pa. 
bBervzer; Max. 2.4 ale de meh ce ee be oe ee New York City Blumenthal, H. 8S. ...... 02s eece ees veseees Detroit, Mich. 
Berxon.J: Bead 2s wise bore oe eas New York City Blumenthal, Herman..... ehh bene oat Washington, D. C. 

Better, Alexander. .... 2... cece eee eens New York City | Blumenthal, Sol......... eee ert rs Philadelphia, Pa. 
Beyer: lee He fe ussn. 5 eee Re ee AES we ene DES New York City | Blumgart, Louis... ..,...0..ccseee eee eee New York City 
Bialosky, LOWISs ico ooo ek ein oe RAO Re oes Cleveland, Ohio Blumrosen, B......... cece eee cece Sault Ste. Marie, Mich. 
Bislostosky. Siw eww ie ses ede eda aw 26 aes New York City | Blumrosen, M............ 0. cee cee eee cence Detroit, Mich. 
Biegeleisen, A., M.D... cece cece eee e oneness New York City | Blunn, F.S. M.... 0... cee cece ee ee eee ees New York City 
Bieher, Leopold .. 2.0... .. ccc ec ee ee eee ee New York Qty Bodenheimer, H............626 ibe Seavate nea’ Shreveport, La. 
Bienenfeld, Bernard........-.eceeee00: San Francisco, Cal. | Bodesch, Adolf...... Se csthca te los aa ear ork eae New York City 
Bienenfeld, Chas, ....... ccc eee r eee ecece New York City Bod ys) Ac eos bn 8 5s Ree ReoOe Sets Saees Washington, D. C. 
Bierman, Av Be os 6.0% oie: vue See on es Be es oe New York City | Boehm, A..... 2... ccc ccc eee eee eect eee New York City 
Bijury Nath ative: 2. <ac05:e oe 06 a were Sooke Snape New York City | Boehm, Samuel C, ...........00e ee ee eens New York City 
Binswanger, Barnett ........0cccrcccees Philadelphia, Pa. TSO G OM Ue bt avers <6 4.5 basi seaweed ae New York City 
RitieVAnieer, Pie tas oe kin va 6 aise 0 eee dea vew York City eect Ml eRe of cP © enn Cincinnati, Ohio 
Biolostosky, S........ccceeceeeecceeees+- NeW York City | Bohys, A. ©... . cece ec eee e cree eneee Washington, D. C. 
Birkenfeld, Ben... ..........0-+0-+ee02--New York City ESCLIGER EN CUT ites leis eke bo oe ee OE ee Paes Berwick, La. 
Birkhahn, Charles D.............-.-++++--New York City PSUR eis ae se eee Rais dob oe MEE ER ee Oregon City, Ore. 
Birkhahn, Max S...........02+2e00+-2++-New York City BETA) fDi caste eo, 8, 5g. 8p. 'g sear d owe aise aw relia Aw Manistee, Mich. 
Bisenots LOU. 2s a isc i as noe oe eee se Crawfordsville, Ind. Bolstow, Louis, .........000% seh Cuasere we Providence, R. I. 
Biscow, B........ 002 cceeccaveceecseesssNew York City } Bomash, Louis. ..........-..00 0 eee eee eens Chicago, Il. 
Bishop, Rev. Hutchins C..............---New York City Bomntlds Pains... is oes cs cees oe eee tak New York City 
Biskiticls brderid les. sone sd se ae eee ean Cleveland, Ohio PGs PIR USG ea aie 6 ol xs Be hao E OSS eee ES Salina, Kan. 
Blachschleger, Abe. ........ececeesseeers Cincinnatr, Ohio. | Bondy, Adolphs. occ... 66. cee etc eee eens Chicago, II. 
Bisele, Fi Merhitt cag occ cca cee ee ns shee New York City dS703 18 Bg Co bts 7 or New York City 
BPC Gre Dre: ose yi oe oss ba a ed Sale oe pi Los Angeles, Cal. Bonner, Adolph, M.D..........- Bg: Bl acratatirabes New York City 
PRC CE BTIIS y's fe 5 ad tw dae es lj hw Chicago, Ill. Bonnheim, A..........00% pre are erae ce neree Sacramento, Cal. 
AG, sae ein ok ae ce sos 6 SORES Nashville, Tenn. Bonnheim, Benjamin A..... ccc eee eee Las Vegas, N. Mex. 
Black, Ni Coscia5 4 i awe co4 os oy Been gies Norfolk, Va. | Bonoff, Elias M........... Frade bole arasw aaa ds New York City 
Blain; Joni 3. c4 si 6ina eee oe ede es Oates New York City PE eg Te ees bss ee oo Ns oe Sore Oe Se New York City 
Blaine lise sk ee eee bs eh ws Se DOs New York Cit POTCDAN A MOON ia: 6h ees add dene eas wR Brunswick, Ga. 
Blank, Jacob C....0. ces eee eee cco dent es Camden, Nod; | Borchardt, Mi c0 i305 6. oo cen adics ee ene es New York City 
Blankfurst, Bernard. .........0eeeeee eres Naw York City || Borcherd, Forty a... 20... ..2. 208e sec eee New York City 
Blatt, 1sidOrs:s cs's':c. qos ed aig wes Woes San Francisco, Cal. | Borg, Mrs. Simon... 1... cee e esse eee eeeee New York City 
Blatt, Rev. Joseph. ..........0..0 ee eee ees Columbus, Ga. HOreeMie he GU cos wae bea Sole Lewd ee New York City 
Blattner, 1. Si... cn deep ec esuaw eee MéKeesport, Pas, 4 Bory My octet nats 2 eee ewe ce ee eee Se ee pee Chicago, Ill. 
Blag Wig oe asec oo oka. Ga SSS Bee Se ws New York City Bornstein, Moses... wee ssc cece cece ee erees New York City 
Blaustein, Solomon. ........ee eee e eee eee Baltimore, Md. GEDSbEIN Ses asi a6 ORR ace & OW ie eal ie ae oR Denver, Golo. 
Blaustein, Solomon. .........0000eee eee Montreal, Canada Borofsky, Samuel H............00 02s eeeeee Boston, Mass. 
Blectstein;. Me oi45:44.03aedee eee aw ee awd es New York City Borovsky, Hyman.........seee eee reece eee Boston, Mass. 
Bleiman; A. MiDy 4 caa5sia voce ends Get ees New York City | Borsodi, William. ...........0. eee e eee eees New York City 
Blender Brothers ..........000cccceceeereees Chicago, III: Borstile,. MA e654 fu ib eee 25 a ee ens aes New York City 
Biever; He ts occ ch pee eee eee SUS ROS New York Gity Bortin;. MGI iS:.o tick ows sews ee ate eee .Brooklyn, N. Y 

Blieden, Gustave L. ... 0. ee eee eee Philadelphia, Pa. Botealin, Henry L............ pl aes Beet Middletown, Conn. 
Blinnauer, Louis. .........0e cee ccc ee eeees Portland, Ore. Botein, H. W., D.D.S. 2... 6. ce eee eee eee New York City 
Bliss, Barnett, D.D.S........... 0 0c ee eens New York City | Bottigheimer, Rev. S. G...........--e cee Natchez, Miss. 
Blitzer, Bernhard... 0.0... cee eee eee ee eee New York City Bouder, Hev. Ay Pes cic. ecsaee sede ceeeew ees Pittsburg, Pa. 
Bloch; AbG).6:¢ 2546 2 sk we ts ee sa aes RSS Cincinnati, Ohio Boudin, L. Boudianoff..... 0... 0. - cee ee eee New York City 
Pe lGehs oe 32.5 coches hoe weve aoe eal ee as Philadelphia, Pa. Byers. J ¢Hiiscu ei ses see ay a ee Cae en ESE OU Troy, N. Y. 
Bloch, Bernhard... ......eeeesceecercerees New York City Brady <i ct ecctas pial nae aes as Lancaster, Pa. 
Bloch; Edward . 44.2608 6900 6 oe eee eee Hes New York City | Brager, Albert A... . 2... 0. ee cee eee eee eens Baltimore, Md. 
‘BIGCN  Hics eee ines ot et iead ee ewrs a oe Se Yonkers, N. Y. Brager, Sam A... ccc cence veer v cee acens New York City 
Bloch. Israel] os, excesere eo sk aa oe a BeS New York City Bragin, Aaron &. ... 0. cece cece c ee ee ences New York City 
Bloch, Reve Dra. «sad cawae ae cass Seas a0%5 Portland, Ore. Brainin, S. M., M.D... wc. cence eee eee eee New York City 
Bloch, Joseph C.. 2... eee ee ee eee eens Cleveland, Ohio | Brand, Chas. ... 2... -.sseceeeeeeeeeeeees New York City 
Bloch; LOwiSi4os:hean cw aS aewww eee ee ees Philadelphia, Pa. Brand, RWOVtes xs 26:04 ke ODER We eR ORE New York City 
Bloch, Moses Lsés wa «kaa sche. eb shee es Philadelphia, Pa. Brandon, D. H........... si heodincie sue Panama, C. Am. 


Bloch Nuc. css sie che dias oooenantieaeeaes St. Louis, Mo. | Brandon, Emanuel..........+60+- North Beach, L. 1., N. Y. 


vi LIST OF PATRONS 


a ee a ee 


Brandon, Isaac... 6d. os seeds as ees ees New York City 


Brandon, James ....... 00. eee eee New York City 
Brandstadter,. Ho. ies cs oes da eevee aw ows New York City 
Brandt TOUS. 6 a issieves.9era 8 eos A ee ed New York City 
Braneman, Isidore......... 000. cece ee eee Clifton, N. J. 
Brann, Herman 4 occa eke 65+ OS oe See New York City 
Branner Bosco seid S tae we hig eee eee New York City 
Brash, Edward M...... 0... cece cece neee Laneaster, Pa. 
Brasian, Aco MeD. i ase 2e deed aw a eee oe New York City 
Braude, Rev. Moses J..... 0.0.00. e ee eeeee Syracuse, N. Y. 
Braude, Pals cs caceeeee ee eed weed paws Ess Chicago, III. 
Brauer, Roberts, 2 coco s ee 46 aoe 488 wes New York City 
Braun, Henry A., D.D...... Be ba, BES a eee New York City 
Braun, Herman. o:<s..acca« sen ese 2h oe ae ae New York City 
Braun, Max............6- aerate te avevauas ce New Orleans, La. 
Braun, Philip. ........... 00. 0eees eee are Pittsburg, Pa. 
Braunfeld, Julius.............0- cee cces New Orleans, La. 
Braunstein, W. 8S... 0.6 cece cee ee eee New York City 
Brav, Herman A., M.D............ 00 eee Philadelphia, Pa. 
Breakstone, Isaac. ... 2... cc ees New York City 
Brechhoefer, Charles..............002eceee St. Paul, Minn. 
Breitstein, Elias...........0ceece seers San Francisco, Gal. 
Brener, JacoDy< c¢ oi asasu 6 oreo eer ek ens New Orleans, La. 
Brenner, George s.« occ eee eas wees Wee es ha Pittsburg, Pa. 
Brenner, Jacob... ....ceec eect eee eee .Newport News, Va. 
Brenner, S. Fics eccsce shee es Sekine Gees Kansas City, Mo. 
Brenner, ViClOrGi50.t-0was te ee Sie eS New York City 
Breschel, Adolph. ..........---e cece eeeee Syracuse, N. Y. 
Breslsuer bes. eho aca ae PON ako Beare ads: New York City 
Bresler, Simon L., Ph.D., Ph.G............4.-. Denver, Colo. 
Bressler, David M... 2... 0 cee eee ce eee New York City 
Et ochig 2) ie kh ee rr ee New York City 
Brez, Colijan.is...... ee ee ee Washington, D. C. 
PSPS a Nae ree ck Ak loeae Ga eb aid we eae New Orleans, La. 
PROS El BIE ok Be a ao oiloe iw ae ein oe SS New York City 
IOP EY AOI ic os eked 6 4 awe Sed aes sos New York City 
Brill, Rev. Abram.......... aes Ei ecgaeean ie latan et Helena, Ark. 
PSTEl Sty NARA) © 6 cai ek eee ae ce yee 8 OE Helena, Ark. 
NSlg dest segs ct: rr SI. Albany, N. Y. 
SPUN. NERUI Oy. bcs kia A Oe oo Os ee cate Detroit, Mich. 
EVER EES PSERILOTEO 2 2.5 ak die Secs aa 4 aa ee ee New York City 
Ler yisle LC, | 0), > a oer nn ererararert New York City 
Britners He Meo 6.56 ake ace wkd BA eel oR Pittsburg, Pa. 
Brobston, Edwin..........cce-eeeeeeees Jacksonville, Fla. 
Brodey lke. oo2c.coone ser Seen onsewead ed Toronto, Canada 
Brodezky, Rudolph ............. eee ee eee New York City 
Brodie, Israel B.......... es gods ty cap aden Baltimore, Md. 
Brodkey, Sok. ¢66.534 64.44 tod tase uses Meeea Omaha, Neb. 
Brody; Bertha: Ris sicc cas: enw des oes Cows ees New York City 
Brody: Hedi ove 23h sae sae euaawe ee mess 4 Boston, Mass. 
BOY 6 oe oe erceas to ba ian ot rn ee ree Des Moines, lowa 
Brody, Henry A. ..........4. i sai ae sash ascer teeth New York City 
Bromberg, Dr. Bernard B......205 seeeeee New York City 
Bromberg, Boris. ........ se tee I nor aoe rake Newark, N. J 
Bromberg. L. Groe co wate se ae hae Sa ie ee ee Mineola, Tex. 
Bromberg, M...... pak ash dite ee ee ao ane oi seste eon ear anaes Chieago, III. 
ESHER. Gna. bahar 6 bk 6-5 6S ws Se sie Se es Galveston, Tex. 
PEOULLS AAUIO IE aia bay, 6 o36°S bs a PSA RU ea eS New York City 
TRUE SOMO c cursene «. eo eis Ok WS Fs ered e 8 Pittsburg, Pa. 
MSA A a hla eS 6 eo Sos COE HER RES New York City 
Bronenberg, Abraham ...... Sisal Sdateoeds Philadelphia, Pa. 
PAVE, FIG os on eee es a awed os oe OS Keyport, N. J. 
Bronner, Leonard ............e+0--------New York City 
PS AINGEII Es face bon toe cae CELA DS RE ORO Baltimore, Md. 
|i 21% SO RNG ON eS St. Louis, Mo. 
STPOD Re, WICOL EE BN cds 5 iS 6s bb oe dis ee Providence, R. I. 
Broomberg, Abram....... Pe re ee Pe ee New York City 
PR VOWATON Vs EPID OR v0 coe e ds os od bee een ee es Pittsburg, Pa. 
Browarsky, Sol. ......... acetal adiist acesten wntneaiew Sate Chicago, Ill. 
Brew AL Diss ey espuas: os: Sa BA MEM a eas BR Pittston, Pa. 
PERE IC REINS il. cl Ca Opes ee keke Swe Ma eS McKeesport, Pa. 
POM Dy VRE RSS ado 8 Kos os bs be dea a wee ee es Pittston, Pa. 
Brown, Charles R...... A tee et Gate Gdn Se Galveston, Tex. 
Brow C0 s20 ib Getta coh We ee Ree es Brunswick, Ga. 
Brown, Emanuel... ....... ccc eee ee ee eee Buffalo, : 
Brown, George . ... cece cece cece ete teens New York City 
Brown, Dr. Israel. ..... 2. ccc cece cee eee eees Norfolk, Va. 
BGO WD W = hb eos ce he i la eee BLA win ees Wea ae Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Browne, Edw. B. M............-0- cece cree Columbus, Ga. 
Brownstein, J. Bi... wc. ce ee ees New Haven, Conn. 
Brownstein, 8.,M.D........20ee0> ai cehcewereceane Chicago, II]. 
PALO ZOt ela. s ote i Gea aes cease ea New York City 
Bruce, David D. B.... 0... cee eee eee Philadelphia, Pa. 
Bruck, Georges: . cece 68s eA Ga we Ee eh Du eee New York City 
Brucke, Charles: Hi. 2. 4cnccsssieaw deuce s New York City 
Bruckheimer, Samuel... .........200 ee eee New York City 
Bruder, Joseph, M.D... . 1. cee eee ce ee eee New York City 
Bruenn, Bernard. ..........-000. seeeee New Orleans, La. 
Bruenn, Louis Ly. occa eee, tastes New York City 
Bruns Ac. Wisk Sch ee wee eee eee aa ees New York City 
Bruno, Herman. ¢.4 sis bee dhe eo 00 a 6 eas Lincoln, Neb. 
Bry; LOUts ici 4 Sb ee cart ee eRe eee Sw my es St. Louis, Mo. 

ryan; Rev. Dis oc 4-s%0s 662508 eee Albuquerque, N. Mex. 
Bry atte WoJiis sau hes tae Se ee Meow Fuck incoln, Neb. 
Bucbaum, Sam... oi... cece cee cee ee cees New York City 
Buchanan, Chas. J.. 0.0.0... cece cece ee eeeee Albany, N.Y. 
Buchanan, 8. H., D.D.. 2... ee eee ees McGregor, Tex. 
Buchman, Rice sedacs oe este vous e Gclascerte, Nets New York City 


Buchsbaum, Aaron... ... cece ccc ee eee New York City 


Buckbinder, Harry... ..... 0. eee ee ev eeeees Newark, N. J. 
Budee. Henrie s oe 34 a boas Was eRe ee eS New York City 
Budwin, Mrs. Theo..........00eeee eee eene Spokane, Wash. 
Buechler:;: Hi sv iccvses ous dew ease ee ees Morristown, N. J. 
Buegeleisen, Samuel...........-..20-+0005 New York City 
Bubr, Fannies. s 6.26 + cae$ oe bag ce saa oe Philadelphia, Pa. 
Bireg 3.4 MED yes ere eS ee eo OR Seas San Antonio, Tex. 
BUreel;. Vis c.de 3 aG3 eee Rowe a ES ew ee wk New York City 
Burger, Sam I.........cscc recs eeccecs ... dexarkana, Ark, 
Buren dae oc oes ewig ed were Ooi alg one Houston, Tex. 
Burk, Charlessco 5055 e404 edges ed HOW ees Baltimore, Md. 
Burke, Dr: Harris: .. i... eee eed wees Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Burke, Bishop T. M.A.........--.0eeeeeeeee Albany, N. Y. 
Burkes; Leon ooo en pact akeg Anan eae ee ae ais New York City 
Burnece, M. L. (deceased)..........45 Oana eA Boston, Mass. 
Burner, George A.... 2.0... ce eee ee eee Minneapolis, Minn. 
Burnstine, Bernard............2---eeee Washington, 
Burros, Joseph... sande eee eve se ee ees Scranton, Pa. 
Burstein, 8. P., M.D... 0... ec eee New Haven, Conn. 
Burstein, Samuel H... 1... ee ee ee ee eee New York City 
Burtsell, Rev. Richard L., D.D............. Rondout, N.Y. 
Busth, S..c 650 e bas sean ews ee ree pn Chicago, II]. 
Bussner, Albert. ........cccscccseceveuses New York City 
Bussner, Simon. 2.4.4.5 06 60 aes oes ewe oes New York City 
Buttenwieser, Joseph L. ..........-.0 0c ee: New York City 
Buttenwieser, Dr. Moses. ........2..e000. Cincinnati, Ohio, 
Butter, Samuels. n4b nce wee date eee es Boston, Mass. 
Buttner, 6.4.4. wade i eiaG anes od ee ee bak New York City 
Buttnér, SHON. bis cic ccs esaacdaweees New York City 
Bychower, Victor, M.D...........0 0s eens . Boston, Mass. 
Byer, Alexander. .......-. 0 cece ec ecceees Cincinnati, Ohio 
Byron, Marcus ..i.scok6 sae tae C4 ee See ws Brooklyn, N. Y. 
C 
Cabelinsky, Simon......... Sei oe ew aes Boston, Mass. 
CANA OS NDS OR Git Sie bos oka ORS OOS Philadelphia, Pa. 
Cahias,. Mire: TBGBOlGs a oe cs a ee ee ees New York City 
Caliws Beverandies yttiss 4 od ese ee nee ss New Orleans, La. 
Cahn, Feeer Ms awed 6 eee ee Che eee’ New Orleans, La. 
Oat ii, SUI see ihe bao cee Richmond Hill, L. f., N. Y. 
Ge ithy Mis- Bie itary es) be we See hee ae New Orleans, La. 
Caascell, AATGIY v.ccfien oo os 6Os se eee eet Tiptonville, Tenn. 
Calisch, Rev. Edward N...........002-0008 Richmond, Va. 
EEN rote Sc hs tart OES I Sg Oe ee a New York City 
Calmensine I Oseg ck oe is ke ab see we ae St. Paul, Minn. 
Calthrop, Rev. 8. BR... 2... ce eee ee eee Syracuse, N. Y. 
Caminez, JACOD 6 «3 baes 6A Oe eee Bee ee Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Camnitzer, A., M.D... 0. ee ce eee New York City 
Canister:.P., MUD: ea cak ona deiwa a aie s 8% New York City 
Cannold Hig b.9S iss eh aseusk ap eransies Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Cantarow, Jacob. ......20c cece rece eens Hartford, Conn. 
CAantory: Bee ih.o8 os be nd eee tan Ee SSeS Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Cantor, David's occ esac oad baa oe ee San Francisco, Cal. 
Cantor; JaCOD Ave b438.6 Hata ee oe EN Sees New York City 
Cantor, Samuel, M.D..... Meese era ahem a New York City 
Caplan, Ge egeicik be arava sone aa eae eRe ee Pittsburg, Pa. 
Caplan, Pasa aseesrer tiene F cmmeens Montreal, Quebee, Canada 
Caplan. Vice: seta ate he aes oa aea ane’ Baltimore, Md. 
Caplany. Mi das! 2c once dees Peshawar se tata Denver, Colo 
Caplin, MY6P i... ceeds sek ee) meee Baltimore, Md. 
Caplin, Stephen... .. cece eee eee rete New York City 
Cardozo, Michael H.......-.-2 eee eee ee eee New York City 
Carey, Rev. Joseph..........00008: Saratoga Springs, N.Y. 
Carlos, Aisa sgcs) de ers sc ee dw nek FEE ee New York City 
Garmin, Mees cewates es to bed ....-Montreal, Quebec, Canada 
Caro; ReVi. Vig 235s 6 cals Oeed Sos eee ilwaukee, Wis. 
Carpenter, FE. Z.. 11... cee eee eee Schenectady, N. Y. 
Carr, Sydney H..........-c cece ee eee eee Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Casanowicz, 1. M.... 2... ce ee ee eee eee Washington, D.C. 
Gaspé, As, MoD. s603G.2 62 oh 0 0 oo GHORO New York City 
Caspe, M., M.Dee iis c es cece ve nnmemenaa New York City 
Cassel, Sam ... ssc nce ceca ee es et hao eee ary New York City 
Castelberg, Joseph... ...... 0.0 c cece ee eees Baltimore, Md. 
Cator, George... 0... cc cece cc ee eee c ences Baltimore, Md 
Chajes, Herman. .........cec eee eee ee ne ene Bayonne, 
Chalmers, Rev. Thomas M...........---- Leipsic, Germany 
Chandler, Walter M. .......... disse iseaayarens New York City 
Chapman, Halla Finley, D.D.S............ Fort Scott, Kan. 
Chapman, Rev. J. Wilbur, D.D......... Winona Lake, Ind. 
Charak, Isaac... occ cee ccc te no 1 ete heen Boston, Mass. 
Charosh, Israel. 6c. 60 eee he ine es eRe New York City 
Chase, Isidore... 0.0... cece eee ween eee Waterbury, Conn. 
Chaska, Soci Sinks coo ee seen. ae nieed Fort Wayne, Ind. 
Chattanooga Public Library........... Chattanooga, Tenn. 
avin, MOLrsis. 6. oc cede ee wk bee oe sR toraAe New York City 
Chelimer, Morris B. .......00eee ees ee recess New York City 
Chertoff, Jos oink nea caw bee ee BRA Cleveland, Ohio 
Chetkin, Philip, M.D..............-0-.0-5- Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Chuck; Tic Ws 264 bin bce ete dae es Gat orat New York City 
Cisier; ‘manuel. cca go vos es ee es ewes New York City 
ASisitig. Wiss WES ENE kk tonaoaies + 6s cata ached New York City 
Leen OES Sore, Utes cassie has 3 wee ale 66 ARERR New York City 
lavio! Nierey Ey Glo aa eless oy ks pee ake eke New York City 
aH SEO cee owed & do oce's KEW Aw aA New York City 
Claybrook, Rev. Willoughby N............... Tyler, Tex. 
Glee Mon Omit: nti io oases acess ba New Orleans, La. 
Clemhalert, Abraham. ............2-065 New Haven, Conn. 
CHamnne Midd JUUR co Kido ecb ee ea eb eee New York City 
Clifford, Rev. Cornelius. .........ess5-6- Morristown, N. 


LIST OF PATRONS vil 
a D 


Olint. Hon: Chas, FP iicaccd isi edek e608 408 Dallas, Tex. | Cohn, William H.......... 0.0.2 eee eee eee Pittsburg, Pa. 
Cobe2 Me sik eee eee cae ewe Rese Boston, Mass. Coleman, Nathan ...........06. Pea idiocea hares New York Cit 
Coffee, Rudolph I... 2... cece eee eee ee New York City | Colwell, Irving S.............. fiwotereenat Auburn, N. Y. 
Cogan, Henry, LL.B... ...-...--ee cee eeee New York City | Consy,. Me x4 isis ns ee send ee tees Ose See bes New York City 
COREI AAs esac ls SOS OS SS OE EES Ee New York City | Cone, Mrs. Herman.............--0-+- 000% Baltimore, Md. 
Conen Nis. esinurcunste eek ees Montreal, Quebec, Canada | Conheimn, Hermann. ............0e ee eeeee New York City 
Cohen: Ay Av oa sak ba sees eae awa Florence, S. C. | Considine, Rev. M. Jo... 0... cee eee eee New York City 
Cohen; Aaron 4. 60565 fe sae seeds ose eames New York City | Content, HH... 2... 6 cece cece eee cece eee New York City 
Cohen, Alfred My .55.. 6.0.5 2 bs 80s 2 RSG Cincinnati, Ohio | Coons, Mrs, Eva. ....... 2.2... eee eee Philadelphia, Pa, 
Cohen 3:4: bxivcue cee ee bee eta ees Washington, D. C. Coons, Joseph D.........- ccc cer cee ceens Wilkesbarre, Pa. 
Cohen, Benjamin. .......... 0.0 e cece eeee Baltimore, Md. | Cooper, Leon. ............ eer e eee en en ees New York City 
Cohen, Benjamin J.........0.ee cece eee eee Boston, Mass. Cooper) Levis iviesstn.4G ans eee ees ears Shreveport, La. 
Cohen, Benno... .. 2... cece eee eee ee eee Jersey City, N. J. Cooper; Michael... sso ei s<s6 6 vowed eee eae ds New York City 
Cohtn Dei oc ona. le ed edad eae WES SORE CE New York City | Coplin, Meyer. .........- ccc eee e eee enee Baltimore, Md. 
Cohen: D Solissscvses i088 tae bad See eh ae Portland, Ore. Corbly, Presilicdls. 2c 420% osetia hase Huntington, W. Va. 
Coheny Bis Te aac as oo ee clea toh ee a i New York City | Cordishy lx « se suc edete POSES bn wT ee oe Baltimore, Md. 
Cohen, Emanuel. .......00.es ec eeerces Minneapolis, Minn. Corn, Samuel........ oe rr ee New York City 
Cohen,. Ephraim: «i si00 00k seers edna oe ye Boston, Mass. Cornell University Library..............+. Ithaca, N. Y. 
Cohen, Rev. Fred. ..........0ce2 cece eeeeeee Omaha, Neb. Covite.Axs Pastel a si2 i056 seQie reece eho eos Chicago, II. 
Cohetig Hine oso 2 opiate VOY Se CON ER Meriden, Conn. Cowen, Mrs. Bertha. ....... cece ee ee ee eens Chicago, 
Cohetiy larry s.- 4 ki des Se ar aia ae SG ed New York City | Cowen, Israel. ..... 0.0... cee eee eens Chicago, Il. 
Cahen,..Henry: ccc.22h vance aeas bona ae Sa St. Louis, Mo. ESOT ED Grea cavand sp tiv dia «66.2 ia BSS ROG ees New York City 
Cohen; Rev: Henry. aise cea aes own eh 8 Galveston, Tex. |, “Gowen; Nowcasxessawis oe. c cc ceeecneeees New York Cit 
Cohen, Hermanesc:c2s00ses aie tae pecs New York City | Craiger, Sherman Montrose............. Washington, . 
Cohen, Hyman .........-ccce eee ee eee eres New York City | Crockin, Emil. ...... 0... 00 cece e seer eeees Baltimore, Md. 
Cahe iis. lei ce eb os aces arto ee Wane wa ale Newport News, Va. | Crockin, H............ ee er er ee ee Norfolk, Va. 
Coben cle. Bi, vies a erste Nags aoe see ens New Rochelle, N. Y. | Cronin, Rev. Edmund W...............-- New York City 
Cohen, Rev. Isaac J.... 0... cece eee ee ee ees Dallas, Tex. Oronden, Po, peices 3 stitial Ia tentve ear AAS St. Louis, Mo. 
Cohen, [SidGly sj. 5 3.) cnc tasaewesteeeaes Sacramento, Cal. ] Crystal, Jo... 2... eee cece eee cee ees Baltimore, Md. 
Cohen, Isidor............-- ao uhat aaae avoeais sees Miami, Fla. |) Cukor, Morrigy dxcaideS sss ce cee setae eee New York City 
Cohen, J. (deceased). ...... ccc cece e eee eee ee Chelsea, Mass. | Cullian, A...... ee DRE see 6-5 Caneel eee Lawrence, Mass. 
Cohens J Mies hawks ook ae ewan neo wb wees Cardiff, Ill. Jummings, Martin B.......... a ned Sn etek Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Cohen, J. Solis, M.D... wc eke eee ee eee Philadelphia, Pa. Cunnion, Rev. M. TM carte 26 ols. a eR) SANG a athe New York City 
Cohen Jacobse ai ts niece tee oe nee Jae Chicago, lll. | Curran, Rev. Edward F,.........St. Johns, Newfoundland 
Cohen, Jacob G.......... cee ce eee e eee eeee Yonkers, N. Y. Currick, Max Guwcsaes cass sc coceriltarigs ng races e Bea ee Erie, Pa. 
Cohen, James........ egies Vimo hy atv, Angra seed Somerville, Mass. | Curry, Rev. James B...... ...-.Cornwall-on-Hudson, N, Y. 
Cohen Jameson sswisvas sadesteradawaoee ss Pittsburg, Pa. | Cusack, Bishop Thos. F.......6......008, New York City 
Cohen, Joseph. ........ 0... ccc eee ee Port Chester, N. Y. | Cusher, Louis M....... Saas heme ated Cincinnati, Ohio 
Gohen, Joseph Fh occu cc cca ine Ce eee owes ws New York City Cutler Bros... . 0... cae soe c rere ensarees Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Cohen, J OSta Dini eis cra ecient ds ew Yee ayes Pittsburg, Pa. | Cutner, S. An... 0.2 cece cece eee ee renee New York City 
Coh@iy J UUs 2 oi eee Sis wad ewe dete ee OST New York City 

Cohen; Jaligs Gos 2 oy eo seine cheeses seers as Pittsburg, Pa. D : : 
OGheny- Lise Sante coos woot cosa ea amas New York City | Daland, Rev. Wm. C., D.D..............-... Milton, Wis. 
Cohen, L. I..... 3 cia taoreatedoa daha he geo dea tT New York City | Daly, Rev. William J. B... .......-----6-- New York City 
Cohen: Lewis: ons 63.3 Sasusare cotetiw ake Bloomsburg, Pa. | Dana, Myer. ........ cee ee cece enon ener ene Boston, Mass. 
Cohen; ewised: o2ic 2 daw ataacie saree ke & Baltimore, Md. Danciger, Mrs. Annie. ...........0c cee eee Kansas City, Mo. 
Cohen, Louls...........4. sce Gila asale tehinle ts estate New York City | Danenbaum, M. C................ eee eee New York City 
Cohén,..Go0uis Bis ca <iassean ha we aene eRe Philadelphia, Pa. Daniels, Abraham G......... cece ween eens . Boston, Mass, 
Cohen, Lyon...........-00008 Montreal, Quebec, Canada | Dannenberg, Adolph............ee.eees Bridgeport, Conn. 
Cohéiiy McA cos eb siis Me a take on ee Bee Norfolk, Va. | Danson, B... 1.0... cece eee eee cere ee eeee Toronto, Canada 
Cohen: Mie Hy vss fest ink oea eee eee Maas oewss Nashua, N. H. Danzises Ms. M.Dicc desc ond are ea ead ne Sates wees Newark, N. J. 
Cohen, M. W.... 5. cece cece beers eens eeaes Boston, Mass. | Dart, William P........ cece eee e ee eeee New Orleans, La. 
Cohen: Marks. .62 cs sede deed Aho3.ues 4 Toronto, Canada | Daub, William... 22... . eee cece eee eee New York City 
Cohen, Marks 1e33 5 ecu ce sedeas sees soaks Boston, Mass. Das. ecb soos sued 1G Ae eae Se eee es New York City 
Cohen, Miss Mary M. ..........00 2000 eee Philadelphia, Pa. Daust, Adolph. 2... 0. cece cence ee ee eens St. Louis, Mo. 
Cohen; Maurice. 2-65 Gs cwath eens foe 8 Toronto, Canada | Davidow, A. D., M.D........ 2. cee cece eeees Florida, N. Y. 
Cohen, Max. iio.0s%< pistes Se eee czas Cleveland, Ohio | Davidson, David... .... sc see e eee eee eee New York City 
Cohen: Maxndd ccccaeav i ee ee rd oa Cede Beek New York City | Davidson, David........... as feast honest Gate Sioux City, lowa 
Cohen, Mendes... ........ 0. cee eee eee Baltimore, Md. Davidson, Mrs. Biss cscceswenenn eins Minneapolis, Minn. 
Cohen, Meyer. fia os wsnere sac sete eames Washington, D. C. Davidson; 1saas ccs sais ves wis ae owe ne Baltimore, Md. 
Cohen, Rev. Montague N.A............-, Sacramento, Cal. Davidson, Isaac T....... PERCE TON TORT er San Diego, Cal. 
Cohen, Morris, 20... 6660s cece ceweenes New Haven, Conn. Davidson, K. M., M.D..........55 eer esr Boston, Mass. 
Cohen, MOrris 00.4 eaiabis ata sickened te FSS Worcester, Mass. | Davidson, lL. L., M.D... 2... cece ee eee ee eee Newark, N. J. 
Cohen, Moris ~~ 0 bs sek eho ee See a New York Cit Davidson, L. 8........00+ ee err ee New York City 
Cohen, Moses S.........ccccceccccccscces Baltimore, Md. Dawidsons, Moi Veginina ois a6 aes dee eee are Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Cohen Nis c. cu nteivae teh tee ntistis enn Waupaca, Wis. | Davidson, Rev, R.......... eee eee eee ee eee Pittsburg, Pa. 
Cohen, Nathaniel ........... 0.0.0. 0eeeeee New York City | Davidson, S........... jee Mode eee ene New York City 
Cohen, Mrs. Robert I....................2- Galveston, Tex. BIS) Few ccd anew sete ees i Stel a-aia bike eo eee Pittsburg, Pa. 
CGE AS 2s igk S 2s eae e tee Gree ee ads Windber, Pa. Davis, Benjamin........... Pere eae ce re Chicago, Il. 
Cohen, Sides eed hci pee bean ewalgeey kieste ted Boston, Mass. | Davis, D.S........... Seeker nhau es San Francisco, Cal. 
Cohen: Sees. 6525 o 56 Cie oe a we Owe ees Wilkesbarre, Pa. Davis, David......... Calaveras ee eeeees- oyracuse, N.Y. 
Cohen, Siegfried .. 1.1... cece cee eee neces New York City | Davis, David T. .......-. ees e eee ee eeeee New York City 
Cohen, Rev. Simon R.......... 0.0 eee eee Norfolk, Va. Davis, B....... iG, Saee ee aie toa eee Meee New York City 
Cohen, Solomon Solis. .........000.00005 Philadelphia, Pa. | Davis, H. I.,M.D....... eee re eee race Chicago, IIL. 
Cohen, The Misses. ........ eee eee e eee ees Baltimore, Md. | Davis, Ike. .......... 22. cee ecee coon Las Vegas, N. Mex. 
Cohn Abe 3c eee tee aero hrs bees New York City | UDRVIS) James vos saee ccc s ee cee ee ee ctw ceeee Chicago, II]. 
Cohn; Alfred Fn. 2 i .ade beae eta cea ee eet New York City PGES la toa A ees 5 Rin oe LS BS BO New York City 
Cohn, Emanuel... ..............2 00 ee eee New York City DEVIN MESSE Tae how che Rec ae TOS Ws gaa os Pittsburg, Pa. 
Cohn, Rev. Frederick, M.A..........0000 002: Omaha, Neb. PAGIS, OlOMIGN < 2-29 keke vs be wee ween s Washington, D. C. 
Cohn, Georges <i ovs424s be vas a eee ess New York City | Dawedoff, Max...........ceceececec erence Denver, Colo. 
Cohn Hy. dcx Bic da BES eRe oe Ves SERS SEES Nashville, Tenn. De Groot, Benjamin F............ site alee dest foetal tae, Troy, N. Y. 
Colin; FRarriss<-« 4564) on sa sa eda Melek Philadelphia, Pa. | Degutz & Schnitzer ...............02008- Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Cohii, Farry ys hones da beh s bees ee R New York City | Deinstag, Mrs. B............0 000. ee eee Chicago, IIl. 
Cohn; Hermanics 4s hue tN we ee ewan Can ek S Chicago, III. De: Bes, Palonion Teg oi ccc ek vie eke ees toa Chicago, Il. 
Cohiths: Tstdor@ isco seid sated ak thea ee ae tis New York City DETTE Dy, ASW IN eee oh 65. once eb a o's Hale wl es Louisville, Ky. 
COL, wees ch ahs es Oats RAR Ae STs Whee Seattle, Wash. | De Meza, J. Bo... 6. cece eee eee New Orleans, La. 
Coline Jaco Ws cotiy ke sa eneeeeb oO ee eee aes St. Louis, Mo. Denigre, George.................6+-+.+..New Orleans, La. 
Cohn, Kaspar Eieisceu Shee ae end en ees Los Angeles, Cal. Dent, Hon. Marmaduke H.............. Charleston, W. Va. 
Cohn, Leopold. ...... Oe ere ee Brooklyn, N. Y. De Pinna, Alfred... 2... cc ce ee ee es New York City 
Cohitie: Miss hdc uae aed oti een melee eae ae St. Louis, Mo. | Deues, Rev. Francis C. 2... . 0. cece eee eee New York City 
Cohn. Me a6. hice eas Gens b ee seas eee eels New York City | Deutelbaum, Leopold ....................4-. Chicago, HL. 
Cohn, Mark Misia-biuevctews ones te8 e625 Little Rock, Ark. | Deutsch, Prof. Gotthard, Ph.D............ Cincinnati, Ohio 
Coliti:. MaxGs co: <8 een do Oe Re eS Los Angeles, Cal. Deutsch ;.s00i28 < 6-2 cee ob Sd aan Sees eS oe New York Cit 
Cohn, Michael A., M.D...... ee eee Brooklyn, N. Y. Deutsch Sie fe sci ae NAG Ree EAR EK RE ae es Chicago, Ill. 
Cohti, MOrris-s oc... o0an aoe aw Mia 22 Ne eee es New York City | Deutschman, Selig...............+++05: San Antonio, Tex. 
Cohn, Morris M.........00ce cece ee eee ees Little Rock, Ark. | De Watloff, Dr. D...... 0. cece ee eee Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Colin, Nathanycinc2ss Seig31 sd aca acd U4o0 Nashville, Tenn. | De Wolf, Edwin A........ 0.00 c cere e eee eee St. Louis, Mo. 
COHnsi Se. oi. 2 eo ciivae ears aera ada Ree eee or Detroit, Mich. Wey, Anthony. 4.35.55 36he0t hhaw ed ade eee New York City 


Cohn, Samuel. ........- cece cece eens .....New York City | Diamond, Harry............. Psonic eh te and ess Pittsburg, Pa. 


Vili LIST OF PATRONS 
Diamond, J...... dcrinihe a Gis Be oh eh el Oe es Montreal, Canada | Eisen, Nathan. ..........cccccscc ee ces ... St. Joseph, Mo, 
Diamond, Julius... once ees Sheer 0 ee Tallahassee, Fla. | Hisenberg, Isidor C., M.D... .......22.60-- New York City 
Dickelmany i. Asiont stews eas ecynd oe ee eas Forest, Ohio | Eisenberg, Joseph..........eeeveeeeeeeees New York City 
Dickinson, Charles H..........020000- Grand Rapids, Minn. FISOG OTE AAU sissies 6 nw ees oes de tae ae ees New York City 
Dilsheimer, F. .............- See ane acess Philadelphia, Pa. | Eisenberg, Rev. Maurice.............0--005: Butte, Mont. 
DJING) COSCON ary as Wb 8 RE AS Re Re ee Boston, Mass. Bisen berg, WUMAM so. cccc ce ec ee ence saves Woodbine, N. J. 
Dine, PHVIpe os sete ee oes chu bake eens Cincinnati, Ohio BUS EMTIGUE SRE EL a, Log MUNE “Geet be 8 6 ear esse) 6 ow os BSN Sa Sw Chicago, III. 
Disechler, M...........e cc eae er a er ae Baltimore, Md. Hisendrath, Henry J......... PeeNore auacetec, oes Chicago, Il. 
Disston, Mrs. R. A... 1... cee cee eee Philadelphia, Pa. INPRO HY We Ds 653% as Shee a ba we eede eden s Chicago, II]. 
Dittenhoeter, Aw Ji. 6 bccn oa 60a bocce New York City | Bisenstadt, Boog i dts ccc cee cea seer aeess New York City 
Dittenhofer, Jacob, 0... ccc ec eee eee St. Paul, Minn. Eisenstaedt, Isidore. ....... ccc cece ee ence ees Chicago, II]. 
Dittman, Charlotte... .......... 00 -eee eae New York City | Wisenstaedt, 8. H........... Asectvd evasactrate ten os hicago, Il. 
Dix; Henry: Ave cis 2s 6.6.50 ain eons ye dS a4 1A Millville, N. J. | Eisenstein, Harry............. Lakai eo tesais New York City 
Dixon, William Aw... isekes ei ines see a ee es Covington, La. | Bisenstein, J. Dison. ce cece eww eee noes New York City 
POP NDAs ave eae GAN a woo ec esd ee Seo deal New York City | Eisler, Isaac.......... MPL Ew Se Sie ee eee New York City 
Doering, William George............000:: Cincinnati, Ohio 1 PE me (i Rt le |= ee en a New York City 
PP ICLOLEI Vix Ela Ghia arinter a abo o4 as adaberes cus Chicago, III. STE See ioeec-s ROuk s) 6s oso SSareia oe oe Watewa Brooklyn, N. Y. 
DOWNIE BE Fog oe EIA Hee Case ee aes ws New York City | Elder, Paul, & Company............... San Francisco, Cal. 
Doniger, Henry..........-0ccecceere cess NeW York City Eldridge, 8. C..........006- See e nee San Antonio, Tex, 
DGGE, LEVI SANTA to. ke ne te we ee es New York City Biletz; Sams. 660i news as teases eh dere New York City 
Dorfmann, 8. A., M.D.......... deidipasaier eee keh New York City | Elias, Ely................ Sb i Ae Bake eS Cincinnati, Ohio 
Douglas, Charles. .........00c.c00eeeeees NOW York City Fliassof, Herman.......... Kb MERA eS Chicago, III. 
Dougiass; Be: Dig May 64 esc s eee cde eee ees New York City | Elisberg, k..... ee we ere ee rer at New York City 
BE ESE ats Pareaignaies 48-5 Ges we wR RE EN Shreveport, La. CTW OLE os ace ara don pace are oie Ya Seege Sere Ra Boston, Mass. 
Dowie, Rev. John Alexander............... Zion City, JU. Elkin, Rev. M.......-.... eovieeeny cave veheeriioray Gonn: 
Drachman, Benjamin. ..........0-.ee0e8 Jersey City, N. J. BIR INS Sa Di oe 3 4.g4 aca uaree ae adds ore ae Se Worcester, Mass, 
Drachman, Rev. Bernard, Ph.D........... New York City Elkus, Abram I....... iad aide. gi telecw-atabe ais New York City 
Drauss: See ec oc5 sie eee aad Mawes ee Danville, Pa. PbO pen Mie i ste ay ane pasanare ss eb h ork eens eee Chicago, Il 
Draper, Mrs. Henry... .....ccceerccecccas New York City Bllenboren, Ma. ois execned os ctwire te wan o8 New York City 
Dreeben, M. B...... ccc ce ee ee ees ...Henderson, Tex. Ellenbogen, M. H......... ccc ee ee eee: Paterson, N, J. 
Dreinel, Adolph... ..........-2 cc ceeeeeees Brooklyn, N. Y. Eljinger, Rev. Emil........ Se sinseosie eo “RoR Bene Austin, Tex. 
Dreyer, Moritz W., M.D. .... 00 cece ce eee Brooklyn, N. Y. Bllinger, Moc .c sc be ccc weae reson s hee e gcNeW Ore Ciby 
Dreyfus, Edward........... ayo eens cheese ete Oakland, Cal. Ellis, James Mics case hades caste ce 0 San Francisco, Cal, 
Dreyius; Lows. soko rsh esaes dee wise es New Iberia, La. | Ellis, Hon. T.C.W........ ree New Orleans, La. 
Dreyfus, Mrs. Moise.........-.0c0ce cece eeees Chicago, III. Ellison, H............ ee ee ere Montreal, Canada 
Dreyfus, William, D.Se. ... ci cee ee eee New York City Elmaleh, Rev. Leon H. ................. Philadelphia, Pa, 
Dreyviss; SOlscic sere Sax aw cae ate wa eee aes Padueah, Ky. | Eloman, G. M........ hawishe eee is an eee New York City 
Dropsie, Moses A... ec eee ce eee eee tweens Philadelphia, Pa. Elovitz, W........ iocranay ice we 1S Kiahose wR Providence, R. I, 
Drucker, Av Poisoy-¢ set ia dance 4 pcpaiah evans Woodville, Miss. | Elsas, Herman......... Lae Ko See RRR New York City 
Druckerman, Max.......ccsccsencvesesees Brooklyn, N. Y. Elsner, Charles T...... 5: RS Dae ee Dea Seem Chicago, Ill. 
Druckerman, Samuel A... .......200000s Brooklyn, N. Eisner. Prot. Jonni eM. Des. 6a. ec bse as aa eces Denver, Colo. 
Druckiman; Bis csi eoke ieee ces = fee kovsene Montreal, Canada Eilvas, Barnetu Ane oo. kee cease ewe eens Charleston, 8, CG, 
Druckman, Sy cs% 406 bea ss yee: ahaha eine a New York City | Emanuel, Henry.........- .cccseccccseee- New York City 
Dryer, Dr. Moritz. .. .. cece csc ere een eseae Brooklyn, N. Y. Emanuel, Nathan...... pas ware tea-e anes Brunswick, Ga. 
Dubman, Charles ..... 0... cece eee eens New York City | Embrocht, 8................ ni he cet tells ads OM New York City 
Ducey, Rev. Thomas I...... ig edcauat cate natag New York City {| Emelin, Mark J., D.D.8..... Winhe a Rove aerate New York City 
Pucker Soh gs. sage ows eae oewwatie ea eew oe New York City | Enelow, Rev. H. G., D.D.................. Louisville, Ky, 
Duckman, B...........4. wees -Montreal, Quebec, Canada Bngel, J Gis see WAS u.dac aA iso neys aed o tas eae Ge Brooklyn, 
Duckman, Moses, M.D... cee cece ee eee New York City TON PiAVORs. Th sites ioe ses ok 34 e ees ews wes New York Cit 
Dudley, Charles B.... 0... ee ce ee ees Altoona, Pa. Englander, Rev. Henry.......-..eeee06-- Providence, R. I. 
Dukas, Julius Je oes 6 iene’ Ween s oe beak New York City | Englander, Herman... .......cseceeseeees New York City 
Dunkirk, Miss Wolphine. .. 2... .ceneceees New York City TOUMIBDIOE SG ke atay o50. sce 6 08 SRG hg oe we Philadelphia, Pa. 
Du Pont, Mrs. F. Gun... cece ccc eee eee Montchanin, Del. PORE LAR? Tere Minennt 6 <0 4: 8eW'e ie wae eee oe es Des Moines, Iowa 
Durbacher, Jonas FL... cece cet cet eee ees New York City PROMI0Ey Onda feed ees oy 864 0a Oe ewe ye Colchester, Conn. 
Dushkind, Charles. ........... peers ot New York City | Eppstein, Rev. B........ ec cece eee eee eee ne. Quincy, Ill. 
Duteher, S. B........-.. at eee Brooklyn, N. Y. | Epstein, David....... sli saecten Sabian tise cerecd Pace NS New York City 
DIVOPKINy Sols a nae a ea ane Ean es bya New York City | Epstein, Elias..... oe ee eee Chicago, IIl. 
Dworetzky, Mo... oc ccc ee eee one: ere New York City | Epstein, E. W. Lewin..............6.656.. New York City 
Dwork, J. H., & Brother...............6.. New York City Epstein, (Hix's Fases. sees Sar etope: Atte g ees Ach Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Dworsky, Abraham, ........-ceeeeeeeeees New York City | Epstein, Jacob........ se Hea earth ae de ta ah ace Baltimore, Md. 
TUDREBITE: SOMTIIGL wave, /°s- oe sais vince ae eevee ees New York City 
E EGVREE OIE; AIO 52 a <5 6a oo are Se Sk eS oes St. Louis, Mo. 
Fast, William Palmer............-.02008: Yonkers, N. Y. Epstein, Simon... .... fe canbe sis eah Bananite ek Ge 8 New York City 
Eehikson, L.......... 000060 Pe Se ean Newark, N. J. Epstein, Solomon .........-0. shies tb Fe 2s SPE Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Eckstein, Louls......... gai ava ss Glie take anette th Chicago, Hl. PE SWI aioe 6k oo ba 8G oe eee ee eee New York City 
Edelman, Samuel L... 20... cc eee ee ee ees New York City Re eels, Pe artner-e- 5, thls ok sca 64-4 bern ate WR ee New York City 
Bdelsony Nes o3.2 x ok awe oes sake eh eae Washington, D. C. Brust; Myron: C42 cout os be boenetaanss Jersey City, N. J. 
Pidelstein;, Ao) sigc-- Se ed ae a oe eee Sas oe Sas Paterson, N. J. PCETISGs AN coe bi oreg 6 Ss wi teobnets aca teend doe unde a radaghecdseces Chicago, I]. 
Edelstein, Adler ............0.-2-.-22-.---New York City | Fron, J. B.... 2.0... ea, Latin cute eenGsar es New York City 
Edelstein, Bey oi eon wee cee ee oes Rockaway Beach, N. Y. Erschler, Rev. Abraham H.............. Philadelphia, Pa. 
Fdelstein, Isidore... 2... 0. ce eee eee El Paso, Tex. PESENIVORC? fiat go Gh ouo ys ea cow ve ws en eae Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Edelwirth, Alfred. .... 0.0... 00 cece ee eeee New York Cit Shenson. I Bc. cass ceca bane eee New York City 
Edlaviteh, Levi. 0.20260 sass 040 0a SR nee are Baltimore, Md.. | ‘Bttelson;, Henry snc... 0... ee eee es New York City 
Podlis, -AGQGMDI. j.Gi . ec cs os os HERS RHO Pittsburg; Pa...) Witinge, Rev. d.da. .. 2... eee icdleterhGonlsie New York City 
HGcrah;s- Maids lie. 5 6.5. 5s ¥ oes eae ata New: Wore Oty) ||) AeUneery Wy he eq ee kk se oe eee eae eee: New York City 
GOT OIOMIOR ys 5 oc 5 ee ws « Hee ok es Drew Orica f SPeU tis Was se puaceeay ¥ 6a a5 9.4 30 6 wes ook bees eed New York City 
ERSIGR TG, Woe dee aes so bs 4.05 od SVE WARE Rochester, N. Y. WINE TIBTHHGON FY ooo bo cea eda ci ase eens Yonkers, N. ¥ 
Ehrenreich, Rev. Bernard C............. Philadelphia, Pa. 
Ehrich, Son; Geis R.........- Colorado Springs, Colo. F 
Wrigh, Nie. Waslisds s o55 oes wes ohne ceedus New York City CE TON es so Gk obo Male a bale ROS Tyler, Tex. 
BODEN, AAG Foie Sod cc tones sh Ts Sprmetheld, Mass. | Habit, Jaco ccox ss. eee ese eect cat een Paterson, N. J. 
Bibrhieti AGGIES 6 os osc cc cena eee be Brookline, Mass. Faeber, Miss ehas tear tewin Sen sebee eet xls Stockton, Cal 
Ehrlich, Joseph ............ er ere rr Philadelphia, Pa. | Faggen, Nathan... ........ cece eee eee Philadelphia, Pa. 
OMFG Ma PUM ais Gio oe ees oa hee Greenwood, Brit. Gol. | Falck, Adolph... 2... 0.2... ccc eee ee ee eee New York City 
PL EG TER) eS a cee ea Philadelphia; Pa.) Falke Be dees 69 e622 oh wie oa Se eketey New York City 
bOte itstsie ee co) 6) os a a Atlanta, Ga. Falkenstein, M...... ccc cece ee eee ete ees New York City 
Prebhold, GRATIS! 25... . ccs eevee aes eeacs New York City Fansey, Rev. J.S....... ccc cece cc cece Syracuse, N. Y- 
Dreher. MEW Wis WESk o2 cess be dd evan seeks Philadelphia, Pa. | Farber, Rev. R........... cece eee eee ee. Detroit, Mich. 
Biechold.. Brmianuelss. . 0.6... c cee ee eee cees Mobile, Ala. | Farley, Most Rev. Archbishop John M...... New York City 
Hts he oy: 7 Oy Ss AY <a New York City Parrar: Egat Wise occ ieccactace Se wenerdien 8 New Orleans, La. 
Bete ce MIEN csp Saito as) dias 65h 8h eS BE a hs Chicago, Ill. | Fass, Jacob A... ... cece eee ee cece eee eee: Plainfield, N. J 
FORTS WV WANE AIG Cia ad bbe dw afew ds wo Sewer Philadelphia, Pa. Fay, Rev. John Jo... cc cece ete eee New York City 
Finhorn, Isaac... ........--e000- Ty rene New York City | Feder, MarcuS...........cccceeseee cece Cleveland, Ohio 
Einstadt, 6... 0... cece eee eee eeeeseee NEW York City | Federleicht, Louis......... rere eee Baltimore, 
Wernebeins: FOG. one ee oes oe eee ede ea es New York City Heiblemans 19s oo0sad owe eee res eee ee es New Orleans, 4-2- 
OLA le eh) Pn Selle a pena Pa a a a ar New York City | Feigelson, Hayman..................-: Montreal, Canada 
Einstein, Mrs. William. ...........c 0000 ee: New York City | Feinberg, Barnet... .......cccceceececeeee New York ony 
Eiseman, Aaron. ...... ccc cece cee eee eee New York Gity {| Feinberg, David. ........cccccccceveeeee Brooklyn, N.%- 
Eisemann, EB... . oo. cee ee Katona ek New York City | Feinberg, Israel L., M.D..... ovata Os wradetaia hese New York City 


LIST OF PATRONS ix 


a a a a a a I a aS RE 


Feinberg, Max ide Minteohiy male een KChetwesasans Pittsburg, Pa. 
Feinberg; =. M.D. 2s idence ee sea seas Seranton, Pa. 
Feiner, Adolp! ig. acsks Sneget auacb lana ec era ieum Sana Aine ees Pittsfield, Mass. 
Feiner. Ben). 2 s3 2093846 sei ithe e eee ee New York City 
Feingold, David....... 0... ec eee cere ene eee Boston, Mass. 
Feingold, Simon... ... cee eee ence ee eee Philadelphia, Pa. 
Feinstein, Jacob... .. 0... cee eee eee eee Providence, R. I. 
PeINStGlNy Os 4 ouch eee eee ane ne eee Baltimore, Md. 
Feist, Gustaves 003-6105 ae46 e000 ergs n an Galveston, Tex. 
Feldenheimer, oar See ee ee ee ee Portland, Ore 
Feldman, Dr. By Mivks 26046 ocialhons oes ees New York City 
Feldman, Doi. Me Re re ee eee ee Philadelphia, Pa. 
Feldman, Israel. ....... 0... cece eee eee Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Feldman, Jacobs oii cinsls 8a oye oe SSS 46% Woodbine, N. J. 
Feldinatin,. D...6. sa ecaak owen eens cee Cincinnati, Ohio 
Feldmann, Jonas. ........cc cee eeeeeeees Chillicothe, Ohio 
Feldstein, Cnarleés, 2.0.0.4 cc ei eects ewes oo Pittsburg, Pa. 
Feldstien, Mrs. Clara.........0.00eeeee- eee Pittsburg, Pa. 
Feller, Albert......... ee ee ree New York City 
Fellheimer: [os :cc sacs wares 1568 8 wee os Cincinnati, Ohio 
Fellman, Jacobi. csi atew eed 6 ¥0ee eta des Detroit, Mich. 
Wel Ss DD hos kara xthatew Pewee eae thea eure Montreal, Canada 
Wels; Maurie: 34.23: ewe sate saueceeweces Philadelphia, Pa. 
Felsenthal, M.......... aie Sgtacac dae ewe eed New York City 
Felsérs JOS@DN; «42 cavanes Sw iu ee eae aces eats Baltimore, Md. 
Pelstiner 5 Meh eb s arse oa ee earn wes ceed New York City 
Fendig, Albert icc csc bd ee eae cea we Gees ess Brunswick, Ga. 
Ferberger, Henry .. ...-.eccessecseneees Philadelphea, Pa. 
Fersuson, Hy Bis id cies den dea ce ve ewes Shes Pittsburg, Pa. 
Fergusson, David....... baa wiee eae eee ween Seattle, ba 
Fernberg, Harry... 2066 ssaseseessecns Kis Plainfield, : 
Feuerlicht, Rev. J... 0.02.5 cis cee ee ew eee ne Sos, TH. 
Feuerlicht, Rev. MorrisM..............-Aindianapolis, Ind. 
Feurlicht, > a ee eae ere Lous tans 4 eta Owensboro, Ky. 
Feustmann, Mrs. B. H.............-..-.-- Philadelphia, Pa. 
Fichmans J.o sich code bade oad bb Atiostee St. Joseph, Mo. 
Fielding, Louis..... Priceted eases electon aca ates Monee Worcester, Mass. 
Fierkel, David B.. 2... .. ccc ccc etre ees Philadelphia, Pa. 
Finberg, Benjamin Seite Geman ecdcars Siete deans ates Philadelphia, Pa. 
Pine. | Moshe ek oa oes heb wis ae lead ws sewn Soe RRS Maxton, N. 
Fine, Morris....... eed eee eae aes als a New York City 
Fine, Samuel............ rsa eats ig Nich dees Boston, Mass. 
Fine, Ay; © SONS8e¢oscce eee chee esos eee New York City 
Finegold, Louis. ........--ceceeeee cao rene Pittsburg, Pa. 
Fineman, Leon......... Sistas ode he Baltimore, Md. 
Fineman, Solomon........... angle ka naires Baltimore, 
Fineshriber, Rev. William H............. Davenport, Iowa 
Pi 10s be sha 4 eee are te Ree we ee ee 3 Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Bink@ls- So pura sa saeaca ea nee whatcha Save tones ae Al Boston, Mass. 
Finkelpearl, ME) scout aoe wee sea eee Sete Pittsburg, Pa. 
Finkelpearl, Joseph saree xan aki par rig langrn goa iaah a sera one & Pittsburg, Pa. 
Finkelstein, Emil, M.D... .. 0. ccc eee eee eee New York City 
Finkelstein, Mrs. He Poe aud hale ee aa a ted Peoria, II. 
Finkelstein, Harry ............ rer Tr ee eee New York City 
Finkelstein, DIES ooo ond G-3 oe woe eeeeter ee ade ats Seranton, Pa. 
Finkelstein, M., M.D....... ee ee ee New York Gity 
Finkelstein, Rok oi osiara nena nts ve ceeatur ests New York City 
Finkelstein, William........ surhveecunereteG Binghamton, N. Y. 
Finkelstien, Mrs, H. V...... Pere eee met Peoria, Ill. 
Firestone, Henry....... ee ee en ara McKeesport, Pa. 
Firestone, Samuel.......... Raha e ete eae McKeesport, Pa. 
Fisch, Adolph............ re eee ee Newark, N. J, 
Fisch, Joseph....... Se kee ede ow eee Ree Newark, N. J. 
Bisehel,” Mrs. Ae AG os cee cece Pare New York City 
Fischel, Harry.............06. ease wed states New York City 
Fischelis, Philipp. * » ok bim aves cth ovate, Aes Philadelphia, Pa. 
Fischer, IT: Vink « kaw et oc ee Vet ent ie teas Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Fischer, WoOlfe.s cia oessrdas eae Gee Mt. Vernon, N. Y. 
Fischlowitz, Abram... ....... cece eee eee Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Fischlowitz, Gustav G., M.D. .........6.+-: New York City 
Fischlowitz, Isidore......... hsceeve yk 6 eee St. Louis, Mo. 
Fischman, S..........2c00e08 eee Tere Tee Chicago, Ill. 
Fischman, William. . ......... eee cee ecuees New York City 
Fishy W s4 aaa nd te ce ahs hea ere Reg che ee New York City 
Fishberg, B Re eee eee ee re a New York City 
Fishberg, Maurice, M.D...........00 0000s: New York City 
Wishel,: LOUIS?25.3%4s ea e8 Sage eo oes aS New Orleans, La. 
Fisher, Charles. oie vee e we oka wee ese Montreal, Canada 
Fisher, Rev. Charles...........ccccecee ee ces Kiowa, Kan. 
Fisher, Gabriels x esas Qua -s-a Ga evlerdieee WA ae New York City 
Fisher, Fis Scud oycatw eens eae Gewese New Haven, Conn. 
Pisher, LeOuisel oo 34.0 6 beet eee eos oes Wilkesbarre, Pa. 
Fishmann, Arthur, M.D...............85. New York City 
SLC a aS aa ie dong Sels Gs cise aiid ewe te eed caver bbl was New York City 
Fiterman, Sam........cscececcceccees Minneapolis, Minn. 
Fitzgerald, Rev. Joseph N. (deceased)........ Albany, N. Y. 
Plaximani, Mak. oo n2 6S KR Owed ewes Sa Houston, Tex. 
Fleck, Samuel, irdes: coi iae becca ew ARATE Sa New York City 
Flegenheimer, Adolph .........ececeeeeees New York City 
Fleigelman, Victor ........ cece er eee eeeeee New York City 
Fleischer, Rev. Charles.............0.5- Cambridge, Mass. 
Fleischer, NSC AM sis sag sa 6 ped a-aeeeee een Paterson, N. J. 
Fleischer, Sigmund L........ cee ee ee eee es New York City 
F leischman, Si Mid tes eta ee oe O8 dua tee oe Philadelphia, Pa. 
Fleischner, LN... destehs dicate i ace baled: Portland, Ore. 
Fleischner: Mon ia ei. oS eii ee ene eee ew es Portland, Ore. 
Bleisher, Mrs: Aco sree a cok ee eee ee wares Philadelphia, Pa. 
Fleisher, simon B........006 sid Tac tacectarca tenis Philadelphia, Pa. 


Fiersheiin, AS cs. bo a3 es Oa ee ee eles Kansas City, Mo. 


Flesch, Berthold, M.D..............0- ....New York City 
Florsheim; Mrs Bia sac <i cake eee baw ee ee eae Chicago, Ill. 
Hiorshelmer, Ss 66460 da Sado cae poe es 08 S83 New York City 
Florsheimer, Simon ........ 0. ec eee eee ee eens Chicago, IIL. 
Floster, William ...... ccc cece eee eee eens New York City 
Fiursheim;, Max sos) ias cst cee ackaiee eos New York City 
Fogler, Henry. ........-cs eves eee Toronto, Ontario, Canada 
Polda- Louis. ¢./se co) oebe a Tee en eS emopolis, Ala. 
Folkoff, Samuel H.......... 0.0 0- ce eee eees New York City 
Forcimmer, Matec oe oe aeoeg et aie hase are sane kee Montreal, Canada 
Horeman;, 1. Gi aeue es otek ed oe ence as codes Chicago, Ih. 
Foreman, Oscar G.... sce scer eee case eneees Chicago, IIl. 
Foss, Israel I.,.......+- ee rt roe ee Savannah, Ga. 
Foster, Solomoti.«. 104.0826 6s steer esos Newark, N. J. 
POX ASP coer ee Ve ae Raa eae eee eee Troutdale, Ore. 
FPOx, Aired: owt ayaakas bee aelta tare Same Boston, Mass. 
Fox, Rertrai- As 2463 os wie ee ee ee ee eS Birmingham, Ala. 
Pox, Moianuel Bis <a sa oo 6 nee vs Sete ee Bs New York Cit 
WO. Fig Wack as peter eur SA ae Sates Pee Baltimore, Md. 
FOX, AGeOT ie: h.6. 5 facie ewarn SEAS ESS OSES Cincinnati, Ohio 
FOX, [8990o0.oi cae hiwiwreaseeees Heeea we Stamford, Conn. 
ON dhs sage ted SAPO SRE ed te eI New York City 
Hox, L600; <cén4ee cen eks seattle Bah atler neler leg nats New York City 
FOX; A018 ek 2 seco ease Rea Resi eteainieee ea eraetens Atlanta, Ga 
Pox, MiGh@elicé shes bl ae i aoe teal sea Ss Denver, Colo. 
POX SO ied Sl Oe a AE OS eee aS Cincinnati, Ohio. 
Wise: DD: scones oo bebe oe Sstatoitesiebea aia1 ao senaubomataree New York City 
Prailey7..U vcceu snes bia & oes tic. ial 6d BE RGNMlcts aca Reno, Nev. 
Frailey, Moses... 2... ccc ccc cc cc cece cece St. Louis, Mo. 
Frank, Alexander. .........cecee0s sees Baltimore, Md. 
Frank, TS Po ytha ahah ee gy Skis Sino Wo ae On Buffalo, N. Y. 
Prank, Polis 6 46 ids ob d eaaw wees 2 wea Baltimore, Md. 
Frank, Ferdinand................008- Alabama City, Ala. 
Frank, Gustave..... an OGG Waa et ssl ND ae New York City 
Frank, Henry... ance c44s0334a% to's oR awaes Natchez, Miss. 
Frank, Rev. Henry. ... 0.0 cece cceccseeess New York City 
Prank, Henry: Doss « scid Git ou bos ok cepee BAW Chicago, Ill. 
Franks Dasah ocd $4)4 6 ead we Ss Sas wre apts Some Akron, Ohio 
Frank, I. S...... rane a aren ie ais sad ees New York City 
Frank, Isaac W 6.8 35.0e seek ake ese dan ee ees Allegheny, Pa. 
Frank 1 Vals «524404ba sagen tees end ere alias New York City 
Brank J 2 Hig ots sackt ete cede’ ere ee Pittsburg, Pa. 
Frank, Jacob L...... et er eee Chieago, Tl. 
Pirie: MOO Pena es 6 bo dios da Rew ewte es . Philadelphia, Pa. 
Frank, PUSS fsa. sv oes eA oe aie eae Zanesville, Ohio 
STAM Cy AV AGMEIL s Geis ci sis-0s eee eo eas .».- Ogdensburg, N.Y. 
dies ig a a 6 cy: | hr a hiladelphia, Pa. 
Frankel, Avs pee. . s Pe he ee ee New York City 
Branicel, oso dcqesae oa 0 008 Riieste Ra eeets wa New York City 
Frankel, “ee Fs Pp. D. sic cass cc ae aes eas New York City 
PPA AAMAS 6 60s S066 4s 0's Soe ein swe ee New York City 
Frankel, WE seater hates sb 6. sue a aw Wok eS Toronto, Canada 
IPR INIEGNS Wired ca ot 2 a os eed ee o Moe eee Oe Philadelphia, Pa. 
Praniel, Mandehies . ccc see e ceo eesaees wa ee New York City 
Brame INACHAM Se So oie acco oe whew oes eA New York City 
PPRIEROL POLE Cris eos ecb 88 ss See Rea Philadelphia, Pa, 
Frankel, Pen tarred ee Sain Sere hee CSAS New York City 
Frankel, Samuel M......... ssgiara See, 2, hs oO New York City 
Wrahkeny Lidwik fc. cs cece e ses senate New York City 
Frankenberg, Solomon... .......0.e.e00-- New York Cit 
Frankenstein, W.B.......... as ipidirdonia ca Led Jah 2 Chicago, ILL. 
Frankfort, F PAT Me os ue sack eed nese acre eats New York City 
Frankfurt, DOV V2 6 pices heen eeane wited« .. New York City 
Frankfurter, Tecpel dep taeda aici nciataianate Stevan New York City 
Frankl, Albert A.. ree ate ose New York City 
Frankle, A. M.........-- ne weeeee YOUNQGStoWn, Ohio 
Franklin, Julius... 2.2... . eee cc cc eee ee eee New York City 
Franklin, Rev. Leo M...........00eeee0ee- Detroit, Mich. 
Franklin, M., M.D........... Sco tees wee Philadelphia, Pa. 
Franklin, Si640s a, dt a0 8a does pad vate New York City 
Kranks to 3 4 baat ews cer aéas ee rer ane Dorchester, Mass. 
Frau, Gustave. iiss i ecsia ve vcec ee cess Sead Pittsburg, Pa. 
Frechie, A. M........... re eer rey et Philadelphia, Pa, 
FPredland: A. js6 4 vas Sa eee ees 684 eas PORE Pittsburg, Pa. 
Freed, [Asie scien cole cae bes eo ake tees San Antonio, Tex. 
Freedberger, Henry .........-cecseceeeees New York City 
Freedman, Arthur.......-..s¢- Pee eee Hoboken, N. J. 
Freedman, B.........cecccerces pe steeilens Baltimore, Md. 
Freedman, Charles I..... icoreeecs couse. avew York City 
Freedman, D........... bah Se ower ates Boston, Mass. 
Freedman, Ernest. ...... sepa ea esate nente.s Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Freedman, Fu). ics ates cease ewe encase Montreal, Canada 
Freedman, H.........e00+ Lene eee eee we New York City 
Freedman, Harry........ hieva hi. d dw a te ee Baltimore, Md. 
Freedman, JuliuS........0...2ccceeeeees Forest City, Pa. 
Freedman, Louis... ........ 5 braid Sees AEM New York City 
Freedman, NL hate sd Geille eieck wlereareS .New York City 
Freedman, Morris..........-.ceeceeee: "Schenectady, NX; 
Freedman, Robert Samuel, M.D............ New York City 
Freedman, S........-ccceccccecaes ...--Montreal, Canada 
Freedman, 8. N...... one ebb e 6 046 41S MERE OPE City 
Freedman, Victor... .... ccc cc ese ne eee ees New York City 
Freedman, Will... 20... cc ec cee ee ees Chicago, Il. 
Freedman, N., & Brother............-+:.-- Boston, Mass. 
Freedom, Adolph G., M.D................- Baltimore, Md. 
Freeman, Dudley. ..... ..cccccccccccvceres Boston, Mass. 
Freiberg, Mrs. Tillis ae i ars Mine an eres ontagracce ay cae Cincinnati, Ohio 
Freicks, Samuel L..... 1. cece eee eee eee New York City 
Freidberg, Sc arian he. owe et Seow du ee auanieatb ae Topeka, Kan. 


x LIST OF PATRONS 


Brennan, HittWATs o4s 0.0 ks beeen aa oee sees New York City 
Fremer, TA se Sane elerre netee Toronto, Canada 
Freudenheim, BS Aa 5.555 06 Gh Uw as ware Ree New York City 
Freund, Rev. Charles J..........--...- Salt Lake City, Utah 
PUP. RAUBER iki ss gas 34 6 aes Sw oe Se Chicago, Ill. 
BPS NE statins is 8s os BENS OS Soe RS Cincinnati, Ohio 
Previn. Fenny: ogo occ cee vce ee we ees eyes New York City 
Protitid; TaidG¥in ccc. oe cas ee cesccn ces oanbe New York City 
Prenhdlich, IsidGrs oc oc ccc eee howe es be ee New York City 
Freusdorf, Sigmund.......... Daiwa eae Syracuse, N. Y. 
Frey, Philify W csc 4 h.a eee tutes. dee Evansville, Ind. 
Pried): [sane seo cscs aioe 3 5) 208 bie 8-0-4 aww OLS Newark, N. J. 
Pte 4h. De vas sak a Se we bah wre Sweede New York City 
Fried, Rev. Michael.................00000- Pittsburg, Pa. 
Fried, Samson. ..........0ccccceceev ences New York City 
Friedberg, M.S... 2c ce eee ee ec ere eee Philadelphia, Pa. 
Friedberg, S..... 0. cect ccessestccccss tt eae ‘opeka, Kan 
Friedberger, Benjamin... ..........0.020-- New York City 
Priedbereer, SiUNONs bak e5ee ss cc cee ccs es Philadelphia, Pa. 
Frictioure,: PORIIAI S362 5cals soe ec ae as + Bde New York City 
WPIGUG, sls ics. Hor GPE Eee CRs oe 0% é Jess Soka Wee New York City 
Friede, Marcus Sergey. . ... 0... ee cece ene New York City 
RHeHGISON, AI oz ca ie wuitas ees 6 ow ee as OD New York City 
Friedenberg, Charles A.............+.-+-..New York City 
Friedenberg, M. I.............-.- jig BRS Philadelphia, Pa. 
Wredenheit, sano. casos ec scence ee 8 ed New York City 
Priedenstem, Simbios Gade ss ee ees ERG New York City 
Friedenthal, Solomon. .........e2cceceseees Seattle, Wash. 
Friedenwald, Harry, M.D................-- Baltimore, Md. 
nig une nla, Pleribert stcgot oe Ses see Philadelphia, Pa. 
eIOUORS El gate chanted ROM oe ek NA OS eR New York City 
Friedland, Elias J.. M.D., D.D.S........... New York City 
PPCM Boe srk 870 ak AHIR uk bw oS ee Newport News, Va. 
F riedlander, Chae ous ceva, BoP Sobtncsit een ee oe Norfolk, Va. 
Friedlander, Rev. E.........465 Bias Ra Soy Montreal, Canada 
Friedlander, Rew. Hoy a4-das. ce ce te eee Albany, N.Y. 
Friedlander, Isidor.. .......0-0ecceeeeeees New York Cit 
Friedlander, Mos ccaa%- 056 ade eddie esas San Francisco, Cal. 
Briedlér..Js big MoD 6k oo heb aide a oe Ree ees New York City 
Friedman, B. C,............ Soemene rails eee Philadelphia, Pa. 
Friedman, Ben, M.D.......... (6G ERSL Mee New York City 
Friedman, Cs en Re ener New York City 
Friedman, D. S.j:05 6a ee cee een eis os Montreal, Canada 
Friedman, David L..........-. Fieedieawe toe New York City 
Friedman, Fite selacha ste tw ete te ee New York City 
Friedman, ee err Soe re er eS ere New York City 
Friedman, H., M.D. scp so cee cee ees New York City 
Friedman, ci Vacations Writers Wares wwe Sl ace phi, Pa. 
Friedman, Harris ........ tata Wigte GERTRIIALS HGS New York City 
Friedman, Harry... .........0.eeoes sie estate Baltimore, Md. 
Friedman, Hyman .........sceeeseererees New York City 
Friedman, Hyman..........0cceceeees Las Vegas, N. Mex. 
Priedmans «lo o2415k 5 34 & «kiero dia dtares Gs San Francisco, Cal. 
Friedman, Isaac... .... eee eee eee eee eeee New York City 
Friedman, Ji. Ase os vs sa eh ae de eek wn 8S ew See Mobile, Ala. 
Priedman; 0136-4 ae ee eken ees ee eee eee Albany, Y. 
PriedmMans o>. is ne ei eie deer tide tees Paducah, Ky. 
EP riedinan, JOEL o:oc.64 ees.s eS ted Sea wo dee we New York City 
Friedman, Joseph........... 000 cee eee New York City 
Friedman, Julius......... ccc cece eee ene Detroit, Mich. 
Friedman, L............05. a hoatens geek Brooklyn, 
Friedman, Lee H..... ccc cece eee Boston, Mass. 
Friedman, 160% ce 4acia s~ eve ee baer eres New York City 
Friedman, Louis...... re ee ee eo ae Pensacola, Fla. 
Fricdmeany MoE 6 6h woe a BS EO ST aS Tawas City, Mich. 
Friedman, Max............... cee ee ceeee Pittsburg, Pa. 
Friedman, Max H........ cece e cscs cececs New York City 
Friedman, Morris.......... Scere aaceretes Providence, R. I. 
Friedman, Morris...........0-ceeee08. Schenectady, N. Y. 
Friedman, Myer.........ceeeecceerce Las Vegas, N. Mex. 
Friedman, Nathan......... alata lisse ecatiedh deat New York City 
Pricdman, 9.0 -ey 643 iit. ohe used a wie 88 ew ee ses Yonkers, N. Y. 
Friedman, Samuel............2c0ecceees Cleveland, Ohio 
Friedman, Samuel........... Pecated wast |... New York City 
Friedman, Rev. Samuel.............-0008 . Harrisburg, Pa. 
Friedman, Samuel, M.D................2.. New York Gity 
Friedman, Sig. ©C...........ccce cee secens .Boston, Mass. 
Friedman, Rev. ae wie De oeneeeaa eee Denver, Colo. 
Frieman, Edwar Es Eat te ces as aatie B50 yd what New York City 
PTIPGl yd ween wee eisai wie a etd wia ae ae a New York City 
Prigbiatl,: Bice ces or e834 be hee oor oe ans New York City 
Brischy Frederick «4.6 4¢0-se. cece a s2e4¢-00, 6005 New York City 
Froehlich, Joseph... ... cece cee cece ees Davenport, Iowa 
Frohman, Daniel........... Pe ee eran New York City 
Bromberg; Ma ico aees ohe oe evan aed Sumter, 
Frosch, Uy Svsswksccatecwe i auelae oe areas Houston, Texas 
EMORE AE Wisi aie oo kets ea eee eee hee se Cincinnati, Ohio 
Mr Us COREL A a's oars alsa ue B6 Seine ware Philadelphia, Pa. 
WGP PN is Mei Sis ao alge ers alae Rea ers Ae aes New York City 
Fryslie, Mrs. J. ....... mes . Black mee Falls, Wis. 
Piunolskés DOG: Eide. ccc cee vac ecoeeces ...-5t. Louis, Mo. 
Fuhrman, Abe....... sarcomas ease . Camden, N. J. 
Pus). ds). SEDs ve. cc ees pede uae Bee Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Buitmidn,, TPO 85 oc es owe cess ce secceeens Baltimore, Md. 
Fulchinsky, W........ cece cscs eeceseess s NeW York City 
Furman, M. M............ pe ciceca dl weaahg re ten aN eso Chicago, Il. 
Bist, MUCHA en kc ce caer eeees ore Brooklyn, N. Y. 


Furth, Emanuel. ........0-se0eseeeeee+- Philadelphia, Pa. 


G 

Gabriel, Robt............0e08 A ree Brooklyn, N. Y, 
Gaéhelein ReveAwC . .. eee ce eee ces ns New York City 
Gaeldgaeler, M......... die acer ahie Uae Toronto, Canada 
GRE (alls Cha a ou 65k ido oa vie) 6 4 RES a Chicago, I]. 
Galbenewitz, Benjamin G., M.D........... Boston, Mass. 
rR. Us, SNR Le phe e eehe-e Wels. ga eee ad we eS New York City 
CI OM AE Reston 6 sod OR ee RE ESS Sioux City, ORs 
yal, Me ATOR: Sas BES cow ek ooo oe ee a ee eS Brooklyn, N. Y, 
Gallert, IR, SiS ot ene Ses Ciigetn es eualdpe dis Brookline, Mass. 
Gamaon,. Bigls SEND. gc es ce eee aes Bayonne, N. J, 
RNS, ge ocerehens it aia hia We sutiar esate Hae Se New York Gity 
GAPDEIEIN: Ae Veble OC. oo cen oa ewan eee ens New York City 
FEBCUNOE, MES OE bs boo aS xh oe od aie hse eae Montreal, Canada 
geri CST ies oooh ee os eo eee New York City 
Garfunkel, Aaron... .. 0 cc ccc cece ee eee eee New York City 
Gartensteiny JaGob: ...5 6.06 6ca eee aseas Milwaukee, Wis. 
Gartman,.Leo N., M.D. .........2 8 ese: Philadelphia, Pa. 
ATATENGE STG Ohi s cigs a ALOT a EROS New York City 
CER MRAIIOTS Had cos, Srascare 6 each oe kn a eS New York City 
Cater, ‘ROHAN: occ oo oeeecs es eed as Memphis, Tenn, 
ee MR: bit) eS, rr ra Chicago, II). 
EVN Ca | Eck 2 a a New York City 
PEMA WBONEAA, Reotens Soniee Sess d's na dn aad Sas New York City 
CURLLDRE HOP Rice er eeUns 6604S aso Sa a eek eke New York City 
SARIGOE io a 352 Ga wield Aes a 2 ow one Oe oe as BA New York City 
Glatitliy OS Souter 6 kw aes oe nese e Babed New York City 
ORE Ate ine OH ois s. «ate Re a kaed ow be Toronto, Canada 
CRI WES, AUST ET: oc ek bd va oe ee se ee HRS New York City 
Celagaelers Mis n5.8.8s:.¢ <0 oso ead Rea Toronto, Canada 
(Jelly, Wile Whee. wi oc ee be ce eee ar Springfield, Mass. 
eters ial oo. eo kw bw a bee Oh aR Pittsburg, Pa. 
Gelltes Penis Aide oe cis aw ens ows s VER eS New York City 
Gemeiner, S. 00.0.0... ccc cc cc ceee ee ecense New York City 
Genser, Miss Bessie B.............005: Montreal, Canada 
Germansky, A. L...... uid ates Sea 3 See New York City 
er avia os Pla Ms oa ones bas a ee oes Philadelphia, Pa, 
Eo ic) sk On ee ee New York City 
PeETIANIS Reig Sec c ee de ew eee eek ews Portland, Ore. 
GOSH BCHEr Bidets 6 oc sos keke sees oe BR Fort Worth, Texas 
PTET HEI ENIOT pekinese ve.c4 S52 as ala eae a 9 2 ES New York City 
Gerabel: Si60TPOs 5. oe eee ee Rea es New York City 
Gersitél, Henrys <8 ose ce ca ee eae RAR East Orange, N. J. 
BU ice Slate ited ee a. ics) dd aie. bs Wi ccave G.0-y NOES Pensacola, Fla. 
Gerstle, Mrs. Hannah............-.--6> San Francisco, Cal. 
Gerstley, Mrs. Henry........cceereeeees Philadelphia, Pa. 
Gerstlay. ows... ek ac en eee HEA Philadelphia, Pa. 
Gerstley, William. ............0ee econ Philadelphia, Pa, 
Gerzog, George... 1... eet ce rece nen me's New York Gity 
Getlng.Seltiv. Richard . .. 6 isc e ee no RRO New York City 
Gevite (PAM ie 6 a cs oie ev ew eee ope ae Portland, Ore. 
Ghingwer, J0Ci 46sec hes $e oe ae ot Se 2 eee New York Cit 
Gibbons, His Eminence James Cardinal..Baltimore, Md. 
Gidden, Herman M.............. 000s eeeee Boston, Mass. 
BST aot 9 OMe Lo) 102 a 6) rrr New York City 
Gilbman, 4 1." are 7 en era New York City 
Carr, SORBET ote. bs es ee ee oe eee wh ee ee New York City 
Gilmore, ante: Misco iol ecag Bip se aebig Bie ROS New Orleans, La. 
CTITEOle. ESSER A ot San terk 66.6 4.6: koe Ww wie wala wel ws Philadelphia, Pa. 
Gimbel, Tegan Me GPE, igisstsu han PL Le Pai Sob Neca Wa Philadelphia, Pa 
Ginsberg, "BSR loa Seger Pe eer eer ee wr ee New York City 
GinsrTits AGWUBI so. cc cove ee eee eee Baltimore, Md. 
Ginsberg, David........ ee ee ee New York City 
fyitieberd, GCOS. code sas een eww A Re New York City 
RSE ERs ees oo oe ee aves bie ¥ oe oe Ses New York City 
CEG EE ba A Suing Gob oe diacko Gaus Soe ea Sees Springfield, Mass. 
Os OR ka foe Tao shies 5h sa ova Le eae Sacramento, Cal. 
TOE Sa Ow bers. 6% Kk 666.8 b Gn oa RRO Baltimore, Md. 
Ginsburg; ADTAHAM. .. 06. ce ee oe kanes New York City 
Ginsburg, Bernard.......... Ma aula s ard «chee eee Detroit, Mich. 
Ginsburg, Joshua, M.D.......... 00020 ee ae Chicago, Hi 
COUSIN ages bo oe ee oO RES Chicago, | 
CTS TOR: BOR as. vhs aed Hee 8 oo wee New York City 
CHAVEMIONS TNL 3 fora griyt sso a eae ERE SOR Buffalo, N 
GINZDERE: AGATE, 6 oc a ea ee wee Se oleh Boston, Mass. 
Gingbers. Gomis. Fa.D. . 2.6 65 cece ea eo e's New York City 
Ginzburg, Alexander. ........ccceeceeeees New York City 
Ciredanaky,. Max, MD. wo. ccs ce eters New York City 
GaTCliihy MORED Ie ARO 66 be a Sk es eh ae AO Bethlehem, Pa. 
BLITLOIN AAP ee es ck ad ode Beh ad 4a OSS Cleveland, Ohio 
AGU he Neti Ny va ct else's e ore Ws wee ew BS Montreal, Canada 
Cr IRGSTO Ten as let a 5568S ME RAN OR eS os Durham, N. 
Gitietone, PAV loss ook hc thee de eae eae New York City 
Glaser, Rev. Hyman...........2.--ce0e0- Boston, Mass. 
PLESSIS ee ae Boston, ass. 
Glass, SHONry 6 ic.d06 sate ed be RAS ES New York City 

SW a ite lines inane Wiacd Wier Srey cae ena a nae ae St. Louis, Mo 
Glattke, Max..........eeseees See oN eee Pittsburg, 
Glauber. -Micie.e 44d 654s saw ha bse Chicago, 
Glick, Bernard.............-.eeee00--+--New York City 
Glickman, © Geeta Geis tes sd ucck Be cae ears ten a aa New York City 
Glickman, Moses.........ceeceeeeeeees Montreal, Canada 
Glickinany Pies icax eee oh ese eee S Montreal, Canada 
Glickman, T..ci6 cc 65.02 pee e wane ceee sae Montreal, Canada 
Glicksman, Nathan.......... ly one -a ain hele Milwaukee, Wis. 
Globus, James...........60% a hate ener t aaa Brooklyn, 
Glottstein, Joseph............. ee ee Pittsburg, Pa a. 
Glou, Isidor........ Si dies Bisane Ste ea elere ete Plymoutk. 


LIST OF PATRONS xi 


Glover, Rev. A. Kingsley................. Auburn, Cal, 
SRINRRE, MOENAC gle sy 6 ac woe a awd aS 4 eR Aw VA New York City 
TIGR OSE, on ce Ode eae be eee ae oa Newark, N. J. 
OPP Eey SENATE wetatea he -saooes ance ack aaa RH Gace BROW EA New York City 
UGS MOB TEIC ech. g bacco eae eee ee ee Da New York City 
Gluckman, Saul (deceased) ...........245 Jersey City, N. J. 
Sluskin, i, DW MAN dan antag oh ea-oing tang ood Ce Casket New York City 
aluttstein, ORO, Geo os sca ket sae eo Se Pittsburg, Pa. 
odchaux, PRESEN i's di vo ok wet ga Ae aide New Orleans, La. 
Godchaux, Mrs. Charles..............- New Orleans, La. 
SSORCHAI . Mlle y 62.6% sae how wae Gee Gun New Orleans, La. 
Godfrey, TRAMs su zh, sass hides ats Bes Memphis, Tenn. 
EMER ah Mpa hace 6 WSN we od See ee Worcester, Mass, 
ROIS, Me Rone isos es: Swale de wel Worcester, Mass. 
soebricher, DE ty Bede cfs 8, ues iterate ahi Soe hdhee Ry ales Conneaut, Ohio 
zoepp UGH sot ud oan yaaa sec es ee as Philadelphia, Pa. 
oes, George W...... cece cess ere eeeee Milwaukee, Wis. 
Goetz, DOSED isos ee ig ark ceaiacaee aeeree dae Maar Newark, 5 
Gold, Isidore... .... 1. eee eee ee ee ees Jersey City, N. J. 
Sold, OUIS 625 6s ck ieecace ae eee Paes ew York City 
Old; MOITIS.6.0:3-S.avnd Ve da eee eou eS eo oe New York City 
OldaHek V5 vs hoard a Gea Se eee RR RES Denver, Colo. 
Goldberg; Aud <suwan ose d bos oS SWk SR e ses Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Goldberg, ASron: sos ce 6 sss area eyed es cake Malden, Mass. 
Goldberg, Abraham.............-...020.. New York City 
Goldberg, Abraham ........... oo eee New Orleans, La. 
Goldberg, Albert A... cc cece eee eee eee East Boston, Mass. 
Goldberg, Beis. iccna as 6ose bee hee ee Cee Chicago, Ill. 
Goldberg, Frank......... ee eee rere Springfield, Ohio 
COLAO re Gaels 6 bi eid os bea a Sh Oklahoma City, O. T 
Goldberg, His dn vi neOo do eee iaeatione esc Chicago, I] 
Goldberg; Ti. 8. W ances dc ose ie ese 36S ees Chicago, Il. 
Goldberg, Harriss 2425 s646066s0 ey sade cess Boston, Mass. 
Goldberg, Henry, M.D.................... New York City 
Golder es -La. 4. Scat ee eek Cee a ees ieee New York City 
Goldberg, 1.c..6 42 hess ee mene rade Beane Trenton, N. J. 
Goldberg, Isaac... . 0... eee ee ee cee eee Kalamazoo, Mich. 
Goldberg, Esaat’. occ 044 65 08 ee wrens eee New York City 
Goldberg, Jacob Ais, o6 65064 vis bi vende ee 4088S Chicago, | Ill. 
Goldberg, Joseph... .. 0... 0c cece cw eee Charleston, 8. C. 
Goldberg, Joseph M............0.---00-> Aesendaa,, La. 
Goldberg, LOW18 «6 baaaiideed 6d wey woes es New York City 
Goldberg, M......... 002008 Ge elare fa alata canes Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Goldberg, M. A., M.D... ccc ccc cece eee New York City 
Goldberg, Manuel........... nines Me aaa rials tak New York City 
Goldberg, Max..........005 Bs ethics! Meandes Goh a New York City 
Gold bere: Max. os cc acu Seah Rae een ewe ees Pittsburg, Pa. 
SONI DOTS: heh be se 6 6s eee dee eke s New York City 
Oa TE) aes 5a oe np er New York City 
HEE fe ler i one SR: Se a a ae ae East Orange, N. J. 
CAMB BT ORIEL 5:5 cour occ dv eas ae 0% Ginecinnati, Ohio 
Goldberg, Samuel B..........-.05- ah pea Chicago, III. 
CTCL MOVIES TAY tice Pp i oe ok sins woo ee ees OS Hamilton, Canada 
Goldberg, William Victor...............6. New York City 
Goldberger: May MOD. cece eee ees New York City 
Goldberger, Samuel... . 0.00.0. c cee caes New York City 
SPER IRTESS Nalanda is Sab oko % appara Minneapolis, Minn. 
eae Lo LV tg -ce) Ree Ce ae gm Cincinnati, Ohio 
Goldbure; Moris L......... pee eee Wade seed oh Chicago, I]. 
Roel MMCRTIG! we tS0Eb 6 22s So oS EG Shale OSS > New York City 
MEL EN, ALOE Pek cea oa eae Bee eS ole ee OS Boston, Mass. 
Goldenberg, Mrs. Moses.......-. 0.000000 e- Baltimore, Md. 
Goldenberg, Mrs. Rose........ hei aran eae eters New York City 
Goldenkranz, Solomon, M.D..............: New York City 
Goldenstein, [Sis oc.6 cs sewise seta aeeads Montreal, Canada 
Goldfarb, Rev. Jacob... ...... 0. ee ee eens Washington, Pa. 
Goldfogle, Hon. Henry M............0006> New York City 
Goldishi16 65. 8k ose ona ase eee ewes St. Paul, Minn. 
Goldman, De ica aa holg ty le dite are eetavarate eden Sista Minneapolis, Minn. 
Goldman; ASTON . 65 eee his hee Detroit, Mich. 
Goldman; Be Lis 26424 6. teed an eae ea wars New York City 
Goldman, Charles, M.D.........0-0 cee eee New York City 
Goldman, Edwin W.......05-e cece eee eeeee New York City 
Goldman, Henry. ..........0e esse eecces Little Rock, Ark. 
Goldman, Henry C...........0. cece er cees New York City 
Goldman, Henry E....... 2... ee eee nee New York City 
Goldman, Herman...........-+.-eesee025 New York City 
Goldman, Jc. 6-1ai.4528. erie Mee eeeae wes Kansas City, Kan. 
Goldman J ci occa wey eee hee Sa Ree bara Charleston, S. C. 
Goldman, Joseph. ........c cece cece ee eens Baltimore, Md. 
Goldman, Louis J.... 0... cece cee Cincinnati, Ohio 
Golda ns Mice cae aw Geka ewes eas New York City 
Goldman, MarcuS........0.c-e0+-eeeeeees New York City 
Goldman,S........-..6+. oh ieee taste uavlete cares Philadelphia, Pa. 
Goldinan noe lies ou eine selene Deed Dat eng ot oes Bradford, Pa. 
Goldman, Simon...........--.-s2e2e008 Philadelphia, Pa. 
Goldman, Tike Sec ORS ORS CR ER TR AE orras, La 
Goldmark (L€0is4 s4aidied eae esSbawewcmeeee os Paterson, N. J. 
Goldring, Nese isirnt a bes ah ae en aes ake Pensacola, Fla. 
Goldschmidt, Abraham.............--4245 New York City 
Goldschmidt, Bernhard................... New York City 
. Goldschmidt, William.................... New York City 
Goldsmith, Adolph ae er ne ree ee New York City 
Goldsmith, August...........- 00 eeee eres New York City 
Goldsmith, Bs Mec. .ossan tomes asees Gee eae ee Carnegie, Pa. 
Goldsmith, Benjamin J...... ‘ . Saratoga Springs, 
Goldsmith, Pos atcte Da gtlnd a havens Wate Gia es oie New York City 
Goldsmith, Frederick. 2... ....0. eee ce ees New York City 


Goldsmith, Henry......... 00. e ve ee eens New York City 


Goldsmith? dJisskccaatawie Veer e eee ek Cleveland, Ohio 
Goldsmith, Joseph.........-. cece eee eces Harrisburg, Pa. 
Goldsmith, Mrs: Tige« 4.45408 5644455R003.884 Chicago, IIL 
Goldsmiths Ms 3.2 v6 oe Sab 6 os ded aaa ee oe Cleveland, Ohio 
Goldsmith, Meyer B...........0 cee eee eeee Baltimore, Md. 
Goldsmith, Milton....... Mea a wes Brat ie Oe New York City 
Goldsmith, US ae Rapin dt eg ate Radiag pal: i Seber New York City 
Goldstnith; Ze Ae es tas uct eke ke liierd eed dy we Sas roy, N. Y. 
Goldstein, ae eA be oe anda tae ocelg B ae aA Dallas, Texas 
Goldstein, Charles J.......... ccc eee eeeeee New York City 
Goldstem,: DaVid ¢ 6 ¢cés.64 cessed op Neen os New York City 
GG Ns teeing ic Leese Wo ales iw date cs, Rinses hae Pittsburg, Pa. 
Goldstein, I. S........... ee ee Montreal, Canada 
Goldstein, Jacob... .. cece ccc ee eee ee eens New York City 
Goldstein, Jacob, M.D. ...................- New York City 
Goldstein, Jacob W.......sccececeeeee Minneapolis, Minn. 
Goldstein, Joseph......... Selene seta waeas Gulfport, Miss. 
Coldsteit, Louis. <6 75052 we eb ekeeeeee eee e wes Boston, Mass. 
Goldstein, Louis... 2.0... 2. cc ee ceca ee eees New York City 
Goldstein, Louis Le... ccc ec ce eee eee New York City 
Goldstein, M.A... ..... 20.0000. enters Binghamton, N. Y. 
Goldstein, Max. ......... 2 cece eee eee ees Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Goldstein, Max. ... 0... cccc eee e ee nees Youngstown, Ohio 
Goldstein, Meyer A... . ccc cc ence eee eee: New York City 
Goldstein, Nathan. .......... cece eee eee Greenville, Miss. 
Goldstein, PhiIhp.... 2... cc cece ewes e renee Newark, N. J. 
Goldstein, Rubein......... nite a tb deb aares Rochester, N. ¥. 
Goldstein, S....... 2... cc ee cc ees Sint aad Pals Detroit, Mich. 
Goldstein, Rev. SS... ccc cece cena ae caee Montreal, Canada 
Goldstein, Sam............. art pita aheg nt Sata Rochester, N. Y. 
Goldstein, SamI............. aca ac Reaoonte aes Worcester, Mass. 
Goldstein, Samuel L.........c. cece eee Youngstown, Ohio 
Goldston, Israel J...........- ee ee Homestead, Pa. 
Goldstone@ sD vec Sicow se ocd deatve ere ‘ New Haven, Conn. 
Goldstone, Harry............00¢ PR is ter Cohoes, N. Y. 
Goldstone, J. A... ccc eee rene Bowe ole a eetne aS Utica, N. Y 
Goldstone, Morris Bee ets er rare ae Pittsburg, Pa. 
Goldwasser, J. Edwin... ........cc ccc cees New York Citv 
Goldwater, Ephraim Bert......... Pere: New York City 
Goldwater, Morris...........ccce ec cc ecues Prescott, Ariz. 
Golilbery, Samuel. ...........cecee eee dace Cincinnati, Ohio 
Golland, M., M.D........... Se rae St. Louis, Mo. 
Gomberg, Max B., M.D........ Ee ticdene edie Providence, R. I. 
CLM PUIPE, ISB M lk 6 ck bole ee ose wee es New York City 
Gonsior, Nathan. ..........00. Peis eel ea cae Chicago, IIL. 
Goodfetloaw: Tac Missi. 6. cee cee saa aee eas New York City 
Goodfried, Ignatius L., M.D............005. New York City — 
Goodiriend: JaeGs.2, .s..cccees giana gts ate New York City 
Goodiriend, M. UH. 3..........6. ee ee Philadelphia, Pa. 
Csoocliviend.. "Meyers Fo cas cce ce eae e van aces New York City 
Goodhart, GAP gio ck tae GER ns ian dew Bid New York City 
Goodheart, Lawrence....scceeeecs § rd acest Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Goodman, David N........... re ere Cleveland, Ohio 
Goodiman,. Bsc. c.cu. Raho Susie 5h S eate his a teisemancoa ss Seattle, Wash. 
Goodman, H.; Jrecic. cdi cdes Peewee Chattanooga, Tenn. 
Goodman, Jacob. ........0.00% BA be evevecanacas New York City 
Goodman; J08 0 iis ob ai aw eae apie ee Coatesville, Pa. 
Goodmans (Me 6.65 cn e564 eee ees Youngstown, Ohio 
Goodman, Maurice............ ae ace eae New York City 
Goodman, .Max- Po ..44o:3- 2.05 ence as 8a wea Cleveland, Ohio 
Goodman, Mrs. Samuel..... dola2 aia etlan agra Weenies Boston, Mass 
Goodstein, A..... ccc ee eee pacar ek ad co aes Denver, Colo. 
Goodstein, Esther... 2... 0... cc ee ee eee Philadelphia, Pa. 
Goodstone, Morris A., M.D...........6665-- Pittsburg, Pa. 
Goorin: C. Bice e245 sey tds Ss BOS hes Gees Pittsburg, Pa. 
Gordo, Isaac... .. 1. cc ce eee ee eee 5 festics anaes New York City 
Gordon, Abraham,...........-e0005 New London, Conn. 
Cordon. (Rev. Bilsi.iscncwk eves bee eR Ke Bees Chicago, Ill. 
Gordon, Benjamin L., M.D............-.: Philadelphia, Pa. 
Gordon, George J., M.D......... Ea Minneapolis, Minn. 
Cordon; He Be 646 5u cow ase wes e eek aak ores Boston, Mass. 
Gordon; Harry ii sdsc ei ho dae e ers se ok ees Boston, Mass. 
CRAPO DISCOS 92 i fib es Ra ES gee ee Boston, Mass. 
CeeirelOtk: “MIOGRH.. 5 2 6 <.be6%s aoe wee wee ey es Gincinnati, Ohio 
Gerd orig PAW sess oc oe ce ae ees Oe ees Baltimore, Md. 
Gordon, Phineas... .... ccc cccese recs eees New York City 
Gordon, Samuel.........0.5+6- Byars tit aed Philadelphia, Pa. 
Crear ithe Metin achis 5. os o.8 eae ot bed a ee a oe SS Providence, R. I. 
CUE islets Ai een oca-s A Paw oes bee OS Mew ESF Allegheny, Pa. 
Gorfinkle, Joseph I............ iis wae aesaeee Chelsea, Mass. 
ce ee aetna 2-5 cal Gace ee TR New York City 
Gottdiener®. Figo... os. seks o's Maa aging unica ages cee Galion, Ohio 
Cattestmiig wl; WED. oe ce cee wen cee tes New York City 
Gotthelf, Philip Rees ees sito a ee ne eat eins ar he New York City 
Gotlieb: Acicicgae sss cee eee ee ee Flushing, N. Y. 
Teetleebs OA DTA, ob ok sie cowed os hase ees New York City 
Gottlieb, Edward.......... Soca gti iongeatia aura New York City 
Gottlieb, Edward O..........0 esc eee eee New York City 
Mie ie, (CLONE Ms 6 hoses dle os halos a ea eed New York City 
SOPs SCTE, 6. sce a seo kb eee ew aes New York City 
CRE CHEDG ics irene o sin eh SS be Ga Bed Oe New York City 
CAE EMEAE ee oo [sr aoa lalle w wee Ee New York City 
Ciottschall, Sumer. .. 0.6 occas becca ee. New York City 
Gottschery SHBO8. . ce eee ee eee es New York City 
CIGlINte I sed hes aS meee eRe Sgiewa we Seattle, Wash. 
ETL EL Rog el 2 PR: Rt RN eR aE a em ge oe Oe Seattle, Wash. 
(Sethe (MA i case os oes e wa ee ees New York City 
Goward, George. ......2.-- eee eee eee eee Philadelphia, Pa. 
Grabenheimer, H...... hte ais ee Sr eee we New Orleans, La. 


xii LIST OF PATRONS 


ne 
Grabenheimer, N........ i aperdutadivetwraramaed New York City | Grotta, Jacob... .......c cece cee secre esse NeW York City 
Grabfelder, S.........66. er eres Philadelphia, Pa. | Grover, Albert... . 0... cece eee eee eee eens New York City 
Grabosky, Hyman Leo...... opaur sane ewe Philadelphia, Pa. Grubman, Adolph J....... 2. eee ee New Yerk City 
Graboy, Samuel......... ccc cece neces Brooklyn, N.Y. Grudinsky, Nathan. .........ccceeee eee Montreal, Canada 
Grafman, Rev. Saul. .........-...0e--- eee Pittsburg, Pa. Grumbach, Css one ntsG hee £4 we won Heke Oars: Houston, Tex, 
Granbait, Samuel. .........0 cece cece ee ees Albany, N. Y. Grumbsaum,. aL. 46 ssa oeaene cies See Cleveland, Ohio 
Granstein, Ephraim. .............ee5e08: Chicopee, Mass. | Grunauer, Reuben...............002 eee New York City 
Grassman, 1... 0.1... peewee eee reece Waynesburg, Pa. | Grunewald, Theo...........-e+- eee New Orleans, La. 
Graupner, Edward W......ceccecceeeeeees New York City Grushlaw, Samuel... .... cee eee eee ee eees Philadelphia, Pa, 
Grean, Alexandre M.....ccecce eee ee ceneee New York City | Guckenheimer, E. ...........eesee ee eeees New York City 
Green, Alexander... ....cccccesceeseecene New York City | Guedalia, Jacob M.. 1.1... ce eee e eee New York City 
Green, Max......... Pere r Serr Philadelphia, Pa. | Guggenheim, Bernard. ............--+-+--- New York City 
Green, Samuel......... sa Sebo dig goannas aed New York City | Guggenheim, Mrs. Daniel... .............4- New York City 
Greenabaum, Emanuel..... eee es Seaford, Del. Guggenheim, Isaac. ......... hci hie ese eae ahaated New York City 
Greenbaum, Jacob. ........ceeeeeees San Francisco, Cal. | Guggenheim, J. C..........c cece eee eee? New York City 
Greenbaum, Jacob HH... se. cece cee wee eees New York City | Guggenheim, Murry. ..........-0-eeeeeeee New York City 
Greenbaum, Joseph. .......0 2c ec cee reece New York City Guggenheim, S. K.... 1... cece eee teers New York City 
Greenbaum, Leon E...... Torre ee Baltimore, Md. | Guggenheim, 8. R.......... ccc ee eee ees New York City 
Greenbaum, M......... Serre eer ee Cleveland, Ohio | Guggenheim, Simon. ......-..+.-eeee eens New York City 
Greenbaum, Samuel. .........e0ce cee eeeee New York City | Guggenheim, Wm............--seee serene New York City 
Greenberg, A, B......... cada athe! iciganacec waar’ New York City | Guggenheimer, J.C... 2... eee e eee eee New York City 
Greenberg, Abraham..........- arcabia Wise tos an New York City Guinsburg, Rev. Theodore... ............5 New York City 
Greenberg, Abram...........0ececeeees Rochester, N. Y. Guinzburg, Mrs. Victor... ....-eseeeeeeeee New York City 
Greenber®, CO. Asse. are bs4 6 keh wee aed eas Republic, Wash. Gumbel, S.......-.2- eee ieoiecis aShateese s New Orleans, La. 
Greenberg, Henry..........+. iba cee os New York City Guinble, Henry. cis ow creer eee cares Columbus, Ohio 
Greenberg, Herman..........0+- Sig nrgoeuiais New York City Guntzler, Theodore L........05se.eeee ees St. Louis, Mo. 
Greenberg) J. si 2ccu ce ee eds wee ee oes RenareGe: New York City | Gup, M.... 2... ccc cece ee cc ewer ern eens Mobile, Ala. 
Greenberg, Jacob. ....... Vase ede Seles aes Ra New York City | Guran, Dave...........0ccc cere eee eters New York City 
Greenberg, Jacob. ........ eer Te New York City | Gurofsky, Louis.............-++--+ eee Toronto, Canada 
Greenberg, Max... .cc ces cescccsvcesecerss New York City } Gutfreund, Gustav... ...- cece eee ee ees Des Moines, Iowa 
Greenberg, Meyer. .......seeee cece ter eens New York City | Gutfreund, Joseph, M.D... ........e0 ee eee New York City 
Greenberg, Moses........... we eceeeesseFhiladelphia, Pa. | Gutfreund, Sigmund Hugo. ............... New York City 
Greenberg, Philip..,.........e+2-65 ee Sea tan St. Paul, Minn. | Guthman, Leo.............e00 eee eee: Youngstown, Ohio 
Greenberg, R.......... advoen Bee Bama Scat Ironton, Ohio | Gutman, A.............. eee re New York City 
Greenberg, 8.......... see atl aie atu le Maree a eae Austin, Tex. Gutman, David............+. Pre ee eae Wheeling, W. Va. 
Greenberg, S.S..........+6. saacceeeesvee St. Paul, Minn. | Gutman, Mrs. E,.......-. cee eee eee ees New York City 
Greenberg, Simon...... ee ee ....-Brooklyn, N. Y. | Gutman, Mrs. Joel....... ica auaicah dl Gee Seem gee Baltimore, Md. 
Greenberg, William..... saa lacs i hg lele total Bie Brooklyn, N. Y. Gutman, Joseph M.. 2... cee eee e tee ee eens New York City 
Greenburg, Rev. Dr. William H..........----- Dallas, Tex. Gutman, Max... .4-s5 4:3. fob aes 4 eee New York City 
Greenebaum, E......... pacnaaea le osace erates macs Chicago, IH. Gutman, Moritz... .s.0043 sae sera ste os Binghamton, N. Y, 
Greenebaum, Emil......... weeeeesee- an Francisco, Cal. Griitnian, Ne Dace sea ee Nas Saad td ak Od og tes all oa Chicago, Jil. 
Greenebaum, F..........+.4. rE es New York City | Gutman, Nathan............. Ch ecerhtecntenns Baltimore, Md. 
CAVEOMEDIMUIIE Fle ie 6,55 eb sxe o's 6 nen AE Re OOS Chicago, III. CoCr ADOC, i546 Piao ee ee een. New York City 
Greenebaum, Henry............- £isa toe ees Chicago, Il. RE PERS wg Ato oe Sate SAREE soe cee kale eee New York Cit 
Greenebaum,. Lisoeicasecss ...ee.-9an Francisco, Cal. Guttenberg, Mitchell... ........ ee cee ee eee Rochester, N. ¥. 
(yeeahielaiti, Me cc5.5 gta = sos eee ce 0 San Francisco, Cal, CITRON fhe ico docanble SE RARE ORR Se ho Gerke es New York City 
Greenebaum, Moses E..... eet ea se Rae wees Chicago, Ill. Gritter, DaV iC v5.06 a 40 ee ais ee ee Brooklyn, N. 
Greenebaum, Sigmund..... S wke ee ace BL Francisco, Cal. Guttmacher, Rev. ROG Skee s e668 ee sare Baltimore, Md. 
Greenewald, B. F..........-ee00-% oe. Philadelphia, Pa. Gittman: Rev, Ado PRs 1. ee ceca os Syracuse, N. Y. 
Greenewald, David C....., 56 ia wee awa eae eee Bradford, Pa. (Sitttimets, DAEHAth. a2 ose ple sess es .....-Philadelphia, Pa. 
Greenewald, Hon. Joseph C.....ccceec seers Bradford, Pa. 

Greenfield, Bernard H., M.D............06 Newark, N. J. H 

Greenfield, Leo... .....sceeeee so eeeecees New York Gity | Haas, Mrs. Chas.........++.ee06- Rnoiewes Chicago, Ill. 
Greenfield, Rev. Samuel........... cw Rare New York City | Haas, Ignatius...........4. ere ree Buffalo, N. Y. 
Greengard, Ben... ....¢++-+-> vi seadtoeawats Chicago, Hl. Haas, Joseph... .. cae eene bdicp th seacate hha ove New York City 
Greenhouse, Martin E..... cb 94 oigase ea eee Philadelphia, Pa. | Haas, L.. 0... eee eee eee eee oer es New York City 
Greenhut, Hy. J-sa-04o5.0«ces i bere dis Bee wei Pensacola, Fla. Fas, MOPS. ask ee ees One 8 ee oe 8s Pittsburg, Pa. 
Greensfeldéer, Bernard. i454. 06.6 cecce eee ees St. Louis, Mo. Vigss  Sanie cgiauen ss Sen eae ose eee ee es Louisville, Ky. 
Greensson, Saul........606- On ee eter Bluefield, W. Va. Haase. Charles fects ice wa ugeslawet ee ots Memphis, Tenn. 
Greenstein, Marx B... 1.1... eevee veceeeesNew York City | Haberman, Eugene...... bidlo sh etai at scale ane hee Cleveland, Ohio 
Greenstein, MGrvis«.. 664 eis sce eee ee ....eeWilkesbarre, Pa. Hackenburg, William B...... re rea Philadelphia, Pa. 
Greenstone, Rev. Julius H.......... soc setae New York City | Haffenberg, Charles B......-. cece eee cece ne ee Chicago, IIL. 
Greenstone, Meyer......... Rakeesus te Gee Brooklyn, N. Y. Hafter, Charles..........+. ea ee eee Greenville, Miss. 
Greenwald, David C........ ceccivees pina DEmerd, +e. Hagedorn; J.J. 2... 2. seca Ses Sekt cleat Philadelphia, Pa. 
Greenwald, Mayor Joseph C............05: Bradford, Pa. Hahn. Aaron) MAD............ eee ere ee Cleveland, Ohio 
Greenwald, Oscar.......... seteckieieionact ates Milwaukee, Wis. Halting MURMMAIN? 6 cece cet eee ete eee es New York City 
Cresson, JOSODN. 24 5-cawaeinn 6 0sse. oat tae aliing Brooklyn, N. Y. Hahn, Henry.........+.. ds Sod a ns hI ed Newark, N. J. 
Gribbel. Joba, osc 4iic ts 04 re ....-FPhiladelphia, Pa. Hailparn, A@TON. 0... cee eee e eee eee eeees New York City 
Gribeschock, 1...Ai, DsDiBis oc ces ce tae esis New York City | Haims, Louis.......... ide ebeestehaisas to hea erotein hee New York City 
Gries, Rev. Moses J.......-see0> seers Cleveland, Ohio Haley, Charles......... eee ee N. Pittsburg, Pa. 
CAPT REL Lal» REM: Sate 6 b-side eddy % 40 wiv so be 6 el ahgien Columbus, Wis. EAU yh Ss oe Oa Ks oles wR ih cnistian San Antonio, Tex. 
Grinberg; Fy ios iskcere eas aaa hg 6 a eae Ree Pittsburg, Pa. Haller, Robert...... Eas eaters Ge nS haa es New York City 
Crane ie ako. bask 5G © ceccceces ce: MeKeesport, Pa. Haltnatic Hs Sea. ss saa es Pe Oe ee ee eer Berlin, Canada 
ASTOR PLONEES: and POAR SEs <2 a 60 45 6a'e's Bae Brooklyn, N. Y. | Hallou, Abe.......... whitey is natieliack ts Ssviacdeerenk New York City 
Grodzinsky; JaACODs .74-< <4 ee oc nese e see eok ts Pittsburg, Pa. Halper, Charles J...... eciSrialela eases we ihn aed oe Derby, Conn. 
Grominskey, Pv Pes Die w wes ones esas esate New York City Halperin, Charles.......... PEER ene ere eee New York City 
G@roll; Charles, Mae ws hse ans. Ghee wldavans oe daha New York City HUAI P IS Fld oaxG4 oo 6 sss wid oes oi Bing ace ws New York City 
Cranhart, Mangels saccsawiva 6 ons oe 60s « a Albany, N. Y. Prat ier ini; ds Withee. oic sce geese eee 6 eae ees New York City 
Gronfield, Emma......... wees eens New York City Tininerin, Bulag DDS: . ices ees ses sae w ee so Chicago, IIl. 
Grosberg, Oscar........... er ee Sharon, Mass. Halpern, Rev. I[...-........ weeeesveeeee Toronto, Canada 
Groarier: “MoOrrid, o22 Gaerne Dus 0s cdc esas .....New York City Halpern, J. M........-.5. eis Sigal tae WOE aks New York Cit 
Grosner, Sam. .....cceeeee etass alts ets Ate New York City Ve eho ots | Batts eS © i eee ee Baltimore, Md. 
Gross, Tgnatz.......0cceerees ne ere aye Scranton, Pa. Halpin, Henry. ... 2... cc cceceseeveccces New York Oity 
Gros Is. eal e wee ewe es iets weecccere se Necedah, Wis. Haltner, Samuel........-seer0. apd ayo alate Pittsburg, Pa. 
Gross, JONaS... cc cc cv esr eeeesvsceencs ... Cleveland, Ohio {| Hamburger, Alexis........ ee Orr eee Pittsburg, Pa. 
Gross, Louis........ 1 MERA aE Oe wae Brooklyn, N. Y. Hamburger, Samuel B......- cece cece csees New York City 
Gross, Ludwig......--.e--. sracararatavece ak sththice Necedah, Wis. Fam Fs Pileds ces ee ee eee ee ee Temple, Tex. 
Gross; Marcus. .0.oe ee eve tees vee den Hope Chicago, Ill. Hammelburger, 8S. P.... ocr ccc scoecascces New York City 
Gross, Max. ........08- Rees Seats 5 eae New York City | Hammer, Jacob W...... eer te ee rere New York City 
Gross, Michael C...... ate te tous tonapatetn doo enh’ New York City Hammerschlag, Henrietta..... we eeeeees+Philadelphia, Pa. 
Gross, Oscar.....+.scsecceee weeeeae. New Britain, Conn. Hammerschlag, Nathan. .......--.eeeseees Newark, : 
Grossman, H........06- ee ee ee .. Cincinnati, Ohio HAM OWIC 25d ook ee ie ROR ew ee eee Brooklyn, N.Y: 
Grossman, I......-06. gash Gpiatalveeis a area ahataia wet Waynesburg, Pa. Hanau, Rudolph.............- rtciawa aaa Washington, Pa. 
Grossman, Isidore.......-+.ee. Paik gues es New York City Hanauer, Henry..........- dus ally Ralbvaa Gils aoe New York City 
Grossman, Jacob M..... cece een eee eee eee Syracuse, N. Y. Hanaw, Henry... .....-scccccceeecenecerecces Mobile, Ala. 
Grossman, Louis......-..+6- eee eee Cincinnati, Ohio | Hanline, Alexander M........-eseeeeeeees Baltimore, Md. 
Grossman, Pincus. ......0 02s see cece eecece New York City | Hannah, George........ talent, Gia aNd gad were ecetas New York City 
Grossman, Rev. Rudolph, D.D............-. New York City | Hannes, Lazarus...........- Secs aune aie aes New York City 
Grosvenor, Rev. William M..............--New York City ' Hano, Jacob L.... .sseresveeecees weeeee- New York City 


LIST OF PATRONS xitt 

Hanes, PHN p 4 inn eee vs ke beara ewe New York City HT @ISOR 5 Ai gtiee ness e hewnae bes Oe oe ee Albany, N. Y. 
Hanower, Louis N... cee ee eee Arlington, N. J. eisey,, “eo: Woo x os es aed beers eee eo we Laneaster, Pa, 
PLANSODs ace stio Stina eae ale Benoa ewe ves ORS Galveston, Tex. Heisman, A. M......... Uses Sry WG he SacnneeNe Little Rock, Ark. 
Planshers MM hoe gules bie se ay aia eS oe thee Montreal, Canada Heisne, Isaac... .. 1... cee ce eee eee Philadelphia, Pa. 
Harburger, Hon. Julius................6-- New York City | Heksch, Alfred............. 0.0.00 e eee Philadelphia, Pa. 
Harburrer,: LitGs 442 4-4 saws accom wecgee aw s8 New York City Held, Chavléshc eo 4 eiorwoea 6 pies ol ae eaten New York City 
Hark; JOsephiecian tance tceee tedaae gee New) ork City |. Held, Jota Ags cece tes eas Sea ee ee PO eR ews Tyler, Tex. 
Harkavy, Alexander... 0.0... .... cee eee eee New York City Held; Jose plistac. ses oid an ea eee eee New York City 
Harlzavy, oor Samuel... oc. s ec es eve ewes New York City Hellenstein, PICT OYE Neb. Said 2:6 Go aise lene ante New York City 
FALOWS. OVI eis ca eee be ee eee es Milwaukee, Wis. Heller, Abraham A.........:0cceccceeeees New York City 
FLA IRIG. SOBAL ik & sce oe eo aharele a wie ele oe Washington, D. C. Heller. [sates she new oe ees ee ees East Boston, Mass. 
EAP NES PING ULI: coos eo ew a A Ria Oe ae wae Norfolk, Va. Heller, Jacob, M.D... 2... 2.0.0... ee eee New York City 
Harper, VASE EL. 4 soes-sbve ik ise occ RP Brewton, Ala. Heller. MaXs .25-2 e502 hehe Soke he a ak ae New Orleans, La. 
Pie Elias ai Antd oe ek Mie baw ee We he Oe Ottawa, Canada Heller, Richard. .......... 2.0 cece eee eees New York City 
Piartise Benya: . cc ee ce eee ak ee DOD New York City Heller: Roberts.2ysswer ous ween oepeweua yots New York City 
FlaATTiS, Berinattien.. ..sc2e6. oes ei ove w oa ge Philadelphia, Pa. Heelers Sisco Gesu eae We one care oe Rees New York City 
PUR iy SONBRIGE INS oe cies ea ee He de eS New-.ore City), Heller, 5. Wos.s4 outs caked sestisaen ce 4 New York City 
DISS oie ta tanto sce a 4 hae oa Re eS New York City | Hellerman, Benjamin.................... New York City 
Sia CAEL tia oon dae oe WW 4a ews ee pee Chicago, Ill. Hellinger, Leopold ange 6d Sewaods Reha ateeiea & New York City 
Harris, Mrsib os fet wie cate aaa’ 2s hs eae ee Chicago, fue! Hellinger,. Pauls iy igs es de sen ed ce sen eae New York City 
Harris, George W............0 02 e ee eee Cincinnati, Ohio Hellman, dic... 3304 «ign eke Soo cu 8 50s pees Canton, Ohio 
Harris; Hs . $14 45426 Lar eae snd t4 eee Baltimore, Md. Hellman, Isaias W........... eee eee San Francisco, Cal. 
Harris; Harry. i. eci20 Sos eee tees 5a Pittsburg, Pa. Helschman, Charles...........-.0-000e8> Brooklyn, N.Y. 
VIArris, ISAGCS a5 Lio shad Cae es bE PRS Boston, Mass. Henderson, Mrs. D.................- San Francisco, Cal. 
Harris; JacOW.s 044 i004 oes Vide ee Oe Kingston, N. Y. Henderson, Joseph J... 2... 0.0.00. Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Parris,” PROC ate hs ba vaca eee & oo Oe ewe Montclair, N. J. Henderson Pubic JS DPB EY ooo sew bed OS eee Henderson, Ky. 
TSE N Res AIO Se oc oa a ee aA SRS .Montelair, N. J. Hendricks, Mrs. A. S... 0... cece ee es New Y ork City 
Harris, Rev. Dr. Maurice H................ New York City Tiengricrs Henry OED cische sap oditb tl Ya Proc New York City 
Aare ie NOEs Sa cede od oa de dle & ae ee eo Philadelphia, Pa. FLO Y3 RANG = sk oa aelis ecb OS a ES is og pera Pa. 
WL SRPTIRS MPL ECE Soy BS os eb ou Var oe oe sie ae alee Portland, Ore. Henry, ehh Dear a ee Sateee a atco naan oa New York City 
TLaArPidOG, (ABPOM S65 eo. dos we Sew ee ees New York City Henry, W UNaU 3 ioe ice ws des wa ee nee BS ES New York City 
PE MEDEA sa EUCKSENS SOK 5. 5. e ee'G eek a doa wx 8 Pega New York City Hepler, Joseph......... cc cece cc ec sccce Charleston, S. C. 
Harrison, Josep E. . . 6 . oe oe es a eoneme ets Denver, Colo. Herbst, George... . 0... ccc cece eee eens New York City 
Pear tise. TORTI Ge 6 casa ova dase wR New York City Herman, i DF g (oC en eR eee eae ee New York City 
Piers hires Wa Pha os oo eee ans ae LORE Baltimore, Md. Herman. : He Fc iectcat hss ease vevaeds Schenectady, N. Y. 
itary AIRES Gr eaee 6 4 ose oP 6s ba 4 eS Philadelphia, Pa. Herman, Jacob......... eed elas ah Mecvaes he Bayonne, N. J 
art Ver eso Boho 5 ces os wb dvs os 4 Oe RE Philadelphia, Pa. Herman, Meyer......... a a.cdvcey iach Meanecaeeore Bayonne, N 
Hart, peer eS GOH o aate ehh wae Bath Beach, N. Y. Herman, Robt. cick os be sede eee kab Greenwood, Miss. 
Parts vnc te wasters ere rorT Bridgeport, Conn. Hermann, Fischel.......... ccc cece cs rccccee Boston, Mass, 
Hart, Hany i ai bossa sa ta tha rad eacae seca ee RS Chicago, III. FLOP ATs Os arses: cla taca nerd Fe Sod Sa RE aos New York City 
Hart, John J., D.D.B. 2.00... oc eee tee ewe New York City Hermann, Solomon, M.D..............08.. New York City 
Hart, JosephS...........000 ja aratos Grand Rapids, Mich. | Hernbute, Bernhard...... edie amarante ,..New York City 
Ware: Manni pi ke ta ha ose ee bay ayo See eee Chicago, Il. Hernsheim, Isidore..........cccccceeeeere New York City 
Hart: RODEEH 4 oc axe adeeb dearern anes Paceline as New York City tHerolds Sims 64s) $45s see oe wa eae. Shreveport, La. 
Hartfeld, DIV isis) thank woe aaa oat Wie ae Saye New York City Herringer, Died: cacti ass BN Mata ea aS shes y New York City 
Piaririgg ly pete Seid a te oes oes e em ear ene New York City Herrmann, Maurice. ....... ee ee re New York City 
HSrtrngns ROMs. 5 dite es ba eee a ve we se Chicago, II. Hershfield, David. . 2.2... cece eee eee New York City 
TAR PPAR Ms, Loe og ac aly eG ois os-aiw Cee a ow 6 ae New York City Hershfield, Isidore. ......... Piece cated ta New York City 
Hartmann, J. Sik. vs oe Rata ete wal ds Pattie eee Chicago, Ill. Hershfield, Levi........ shies: witera,eatiok cranes New York City 
TA ATOG OLN © HOS” scat te wuntale 4x 066 © 6-08 we ove es Youngstown, Ohio | Hershick, Sam...............00eeeeee- Bridgeport, Conn. 
Harvitt, Joseph,.D.D:8. ...... 0.0 cece ees New York City Herskovits, Albert... ..... 000 cee eecseeas New York City 
Haskell AEs Ge hee pee sec knees soca cae eg New York City | Herskovits, Ludwig............eeeeeeeee- New York City 
Hass, ES ACSC Gah OO, Gn ne Rn Louisville, Ky. Hertz, Emanuel... .......ccccecees eases New York City 
Hassell, Sylvester...........cceeccceees Williamston, N.C. Herz, Rev. Joseph...........200ceeeees Columbus, Miss. 
Hassenbusch, Samuel........ecc0.ec reece St. Joseph, Mo. Herzberg, Jos. A... .. ccc ccc cece ees eeeeeees New York City 
Hassler, Isaac Bh hte PO ire <4) 4%a 'dirgra ela duana’s aust s Philadelphia, Pa. Herzberg, Lis. Ls 24.54 4e-6ad case aos o aera een Gadsden, Ala. 
Fe Ep NGL, seated hd Soe at baw 'w We wwe wea Bal ata Pittsburg, Pa. Herzberg, Max... ..cccscescccvavee naieas Philadelphia, Pa. 
Hatch; Nathan cdc oa tems ec Cee ee oe Rees Albany, N. Y. Herzmark, D.............6- sede oe Washington, 
Hatowski, Benjamin..........00ee ec ee eee Chicago, Ill. | Herzog, Louis........:. sie eece ae Veet New York City 
Hatowski, PHUND sya as od ee nes ote aes Chicago, Ill. Herzog, Max........ccccecccecvceessee+ NeW York City 
Hatowski, Phillip........... sr en te hotcinenanoraaca ce Chicago, II]. Herzog, Sam........ ee et er tee Chicago, IIl. 
Matter. Mie Rissa aie ae obiieis te ore ee eae eo ees Norfolk, Va. Herzog, Solomon. ........cc cece eee eee teers Chicago, III. 
Patron, (bos ue eee Gaal wea es wees New York City Hess, Ferdinand. ........cccccccccscccees New York City 
Hausburg, Max ..........ccce0eeeeceee..-New York City | Hess, Isabella R...... 0... cece eect cece econ Troy, N. 
Hauser, Rev; George P...... cere cc ences Denison, Tex. Hess, Juss .c si Sea Nw ows ira lielactts Agente: 8 New York City 
1g ES RW EAC Es may > ONE Oa ee Montreal, Canada PEGS, SUMO NG wares bbe e oan eR aaa bees New York City 
PASTRY Layee oo oa ws ad dane en ee aie Montgomery, Ala. Pegs, SIMO, cis aoa shh bre erence 6: Gee av aca ees New London, Conn. 
Hascin Tew be C.y D.Dews asec cee oe os .. Cleveland, Ohio | Hessberg, Albert......... 0.02.0 ce cceceees Albany, N. Y. 
Payes: Mev James Mies cease ea ca dea een ae Dallas, Tex. | Hewitt, Hon. Abram 8. (deceased) . ie aie dug ecaise New York City 
Pa MO AONON Meek 2 ols ga 6 6m, bos eh SRS mw ws ale Ses New York City Heyman, [Iimanuel 8............2...2000005 Chicago, III. 
Se ae ediy: 0a Sh | Phe gp a New York City Heyman, Henry Ai jesds's he saws chee oes Philadelphia, Pa, 
PEGG by Uninet ao. be Ss ae aw owed wa Oa wees Laurium, Mich. Heyman, Henry Wisc. oc sc caw oe ees ea oes New York City 
1S ered «MeN V6 0 Sr giles Sarcasm tea eisai, New York City Heyman, Rev. Dr. Hugo................. Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Hecht;-Jacab: He «2 cio ened eee eek arey & , Boston, Mass. Heymat;, No Ds vie 344s vekeeee ete eagaweds New York City 
Hecht, MONIC 2.56656. sc0eseuwe iow aa ease Baltimore, Md. FIG Vintabi ge NARs oie os nie a's ess Sareea atees New York Gity 
Hecht, Rev. Dr. Sigmund. . SesdeasSasa ors Baas Los Angeles, Cal. Hickey: Wa Dees vas 0G ew eke a 6 eb Eee Dayton Ohio 
Hefler, LOUIS ated hr HOES Chas pees eee New York City Hill; Rev: 8, DiD: .c05. 560 dS wineaas eas Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Heflich, Sam..........2..6. Scaleiece< macere counted a New York City Hillis, Rev. Newell D...........0. 0.000 Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Heichman, Max....... etre eee re Tore Boston, Mass. HillkowaitZ; PRMD y ie .554.eee noes 4c eke es Ses Chicago, Il. 
Heilbron, Henry H................00 0005 Philadelphia, Pa. Hillkowitz, Philip, M.D................ 0000s Lenver, Colo. 
Heilbron; Owls so3-00s see Seas enadas eee 4 Texarkana, Tex. Hillman, I. N........... eee ee eee San Francisco, Cal. 
Heilbrun, David. .......... sipnltite S'tliate Serato ark New York City | EM Wiety Dig ecg c es cat eee eee eee ees Baltimcre, Md. 
Heilferin, Louis....... eer eee ee Shreveport, La.-| Hillman, Louis........... eee eee .. Baltimore, Md. 
Heim, George. . .... 2... eee ceeee ore ee New York City | Hilton, Joseph... 0 ccc. cece cee ee eee eee Newark, N. J. 
Heitti; Marcus. ia 'es su: . asia Moe aN eatleas obue ee New York City Hinechmann, Leopold, M.D................ New York City 
TEST AMGEN yy ecadmeg o's a see oe es eee we St. Paul, Minn. Hirsch, Alfred C......... Gee Mae aan icee. Philadelphia, Pa. 
RiGliMOts US os 4s Pate warns <6 so Nive, artatics Philadelphia, Pa. Hirsch, .Benj@MWs ccs oo. ce cc cc ec we aes Lafayette, Ind. 
Heimann, Julivsi.....is...e Benes Sears ee New York City Hirsch, Benjamin........... aire areas ke Pittsburg, Pa. 
Heimann, Leopold......... ceeceesceee.. Milwaukee, Wis. Hirseh, Celia R...... Lee was Sis were eee Des Moines, lowa 
Hein betwer 1 eats a cares sees pict N Aes, foo Denver, Colo. Pireaetis Orgy ss a ag ace eo os acts gdayis Stata cs ask Archbold, Qhio 
Heimlich, Daniel, M.D... ......ec cece wees Cleveland, Ohio PVAPSCUS SL gre eee Siscie n 6 aco ecw ea bw eee es es Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Heinberg, Mrs, CG, Tioscs...:- pireiniule meas Pensacola, Fla. FIIESCNS ASBRC: ors. dieu eend Roe nae eee New York City 
Heinberg, Rev. Israel....... stein tacts ..-..+Monroe, La. | Hirsch, Jacob F....... 0.0... .. 2c ee eee eee Altoona, Pa. 
Heine, Morris a3 hvG kes eee eae scape tieeteetaxe New York City Hirsch, Josep lie ies nc eae Webs bs be a oeew es Vicksburg, Miss. 
Heineman, Sam........- en ea ee Baltimore, Md. Hirsch, Jules......... Ga erang ar aielle cat aed Ake ge etd Houston, Tex. 
Heinemann, Herman: ........- Saree .New York City Hirsch, Leon..........05 ead bare wares we New York City 
Heiner, Charles. ..........0006 eb aid ape ane New York City? of ELS h Misineiacstuiaatee eet alede ante a bien a needs Holyoke, Mass. 
Heinsheimer, Edward L..... ee are eee Cincinnati, Ohio Hirrse hig cel 8 Sy Savi eacacsng acing Bae bree ie Gutes Philadelphia, Pa. 

einz, Maurice........... ceescesseese Wilkesbarre, Pa. Hirsch, Nathan....----... iN eos Beate eens New York City 


Xiv LIST OF PATRONS 
irsehy No Nish weet won ee ewes ill 
Hee sci er eo aed Oa okena wey 
Hirsch, Solomon............0cc cece ee ee eee Portland, Ore. Hyman, Re ae har ee we tk ene tetas 
Hirsehbere; As Bite eae tue da ek ew Roxbury ‘Mass. Hyman, TSM Dice cea he ena gf lites een 
Hirschberg, Abram...........ee cece eee eeee Chicago Il, | Hyman, Gerson eae era At Da oiler et ore Olly 
Hirschberg, Bic ganas creak bate aed oe Pes Youngstown Ohio | Hyman, Joseph ie ened acai eo. ate pales clea cae 
Hirschberg, David, ..............200 00 ees New York City Hyman, Juli oe ees ae aly 
Hirschberg, Hon. M. H........ sss. ese Newbuah Ni Yn Hyun Mourne @ sa ore’ One 
Hirschberg, Rev. Samuel..............6 Milwaukee, Wis. Hyman, Mottin Scat Aoeeinnn eet AA ed SSS ae 
Hirschberg, Solomon..............-.0000% Waco, Tex. Hyman, Sa : i ait OES 05 Ae eh ete) Nee 
Hirsehheimer, A..........0.0. cece eee cee La Crosse, Wis. Hyman. Samuel 1 USS nee ONE ea a Ne yon Cn 
disor mea Pca ee New York City | Hyman, Samuel [a aCe aint nrer at Now York Gity 
a Dee ou : L »mamuel Li. Le. ee eee ee eee ity 
Hirschinanh Josep ee Se ay haat ae | reer aeons eer er ern ret New Orleans, La, 
Hirschman, L. B... oe ee eee Pensacola, Fla. | Hymanson, A., M.D......-.........-.00 Hae tery oe 
pee oe Ah) ee ee ee New York City | Hyneman, Samuel M...........--6- 005, Philadelphia By 
irschman, Moses...........02.0ceceeeee inci i ’ Henry.........c.c eee ce W i se 
Hirsdansky, Simon............. 00002 eeee Now tk rates Be irr eapre eae rgre en aeons Renee 
Hirsh, Alfred Curtin. ..........0 0.0 c eee Philadelphia, Pa. J 
Hirsh be acc ctu eee cake e Meee Deke ee oes Akron, Ohio | yoo} 
Bape Wien soins ia an eeons ene es Memphis, Tenn. gel, Charles M..........--...00s seve Allegheny, Pa, 
LLG A LACUE Eee rs. b ids ae de 2G nee wr oes Austin, Minn Ifeld, Charles..........--.+-++++ Las Vegas Mex 
Ppa Ee eek «sc. vp eeiesietvssavees- Brooklyn, N.Y. | Heh, Julius... 0... see eee eee eed Albany, N.Y. 
Hirsh, PRC ES oso dca onal Sh the. ewe we Be Altoona, Pa. Ingber, Jacob: Mi). oc cc2s sks Gewese ee Bee Philadelphia ‘Pa. 
Hirshberg, Leonard Keene................ Baltimore, Md Ingersoll, Charles E.....-..- 2.2.6.6. eee P hiladelphia, Pa. 
HIROSE hcesn 5 Go ae iss a pe cse neat: E. Boston Mass. Isaac Brothers... .......02 0.0006. 06+ H03 Los Angeles "Cal. 
Hirshberg, Rev, Samuel.............005 Milwaukee, Wis. | 1884¢) Levi... 0... sees eee cence ee eees Cleveland,’ Ohio 
te Shr clpt lo) ete 300 Ont a rr ear Bridgeport ‘Conn. Isaac, William Be. .... 12.0... e eee eee ee. New York Cit 
Hirshman, Harry...............-.0005 New Haven, Conn, | 188803 A. 8.20... - 0-2 sree eee eee Paterson, N ig 
PEs RGN ead aie oss sas wernt € Sattenon tae oe Scranton, Pa. | 1saaes: Isaac S...... 1... eee eee eee e ee. New York City 
Hochheimer, Emanuel, M.D..............- New York Gity | Isaacs, Joseph. ......... 60. e eee eee ee. New York City 
CaN Gs ie ik ee eka che HP oh ae New York City | 1saacs: M. Bo... eee eee eee eee eee New York City 
HiGGbinmi Pte J. os cs cc pean adecuesaw ccs Easton: Pa Isaacs, Max, & Brother................... Louisville, K 4 
ToGhiiatis: Us etek cscs hock odes athind. ie aah New Vork. City Isaacs, MoseSec os ous Matec tstaated enue eak New York City ; 
Hochstadter, Albert Foo. 0200020000000 New York City | Lsaacs, N. Bo .. 6. eee eee eee ee ees New York City 
Hochstein, Mrs. J..... 0.0... eee New Orleans, La Isaacson, Jacob... 1.1... 6+. e eee eee ees Brooklyn, N Y. 
Hoedemaker, Henry........-.ssscccseeee New Y ork City Isacowitz, Julius... 0.0.0... ce eee eee Chicago “TH. 
Hol, Max. 46570 sh we. oe aw eb enndes Baltimore, Md, | Eseman, D. V. oe... esse e seen eee ees Newport News, Va, 
Hoffman, Charles........... 2.0.0.5 cena New York City Isenberg, Israel ...........-.-e see eee Wheeling, W. Va. 
Hotiinan. Taiuecsoanvn oaceneaencut mene se Chicago, Ill TPSrael SUS) 4 6) d en aie. e ace Dave & SPS ego iea Rs Lancaster, N. Y. 
Hollman, Wsaiee sepsis ab nace cage Mee ea WE New York Gity | Hstaels, Charles H...-...-..--0+-.- 0s - ees New York City 
Hoffman, I. M....... cee ee ce eee Manistique, Mich Israelson, Isaac 8... 2... eee eee ee eee Brooklyn, N Y. 
Hoffman, Mark........... ccc eevee ee eeee New York City Isseks, Abraham B............--.++--45. Bayonne, N. J, 
Hollander, Isidore.............00 eee eee Shreveport, La. | Te 
Hollander, oe Baltimore, Md. J 
ee pia hr aes i alepor ae ao a on a MTD Pine shoes sienecti tel econ at adlate New York City 
Holtz, DaCOD gens aca Watuhwe nade d om once New York City Tackles AL. Buc Pane Rhee taphe, ces _. New York City 
Holtz, LapMian caccas eens acdc Rochester, N. Y. | Jackson, Henry. (0000000200000 co Pebare Pa 
PIO ZOL LS. BS rise seca roars te ate kslneesh New York City Taekeou: R 8 OMe Pico da toda wa aas ioe Bae Ge 
Holzman, A....-- ces eeesececeesees. ss New York City ae b J T. A oheh seamen ee eer aE new ery 
Holzman, Benjamin M.................. New York City Tacob. JANils sete Gh utcras Caterer ee ; Stee Ga 
Holzman, Joseph, M.D... 60... eee Boston, Mass J neo. fou Busi hind ae eiacretenaas Gries 
Be ty er rae aioe Se Rontons Mas ieee : sous x nandiveitn ts ooh a anlar hal Sera anatalanaaach sites & Charleston, S. C. 
cuit. Kensas City, Mo: | Jacobo Ms 0c ey ee wane cae 
Hoe eee ee ee a oe tae eae ee Wea & New York City 
LODE, POUR ins ato etic. sos See ae eo as 11.) New York Gity Tacabi Henry cc attle sa vated ate eee are Noo ae 
PE EEE cae eR CORt Jeo i, ead i uti des icant i altar ate buae ata New York City 
Me ee ee Now Work City ae ee Ge a ee ee Detroit, Mich. 
FIG. TIOUE acs AA 5 GPa + oon Foes ne wd bags New York Wity ycchs. Jacob ROE Nie een rns, er ony 
Tigh PIN AC ce vcs esos se sok Pinedetatiet Ge. | Jacobs James 1. CE... yon Noe 
ruben nc fudacs... cle ead eco games gt eee ern ble NE 
Hornbein, J... see seaee.. eats wn Saeed Denver, Colo. Thcobs. Jon 8 Da eat hae ore ce, gad a 
Hornbein, Samuel...........secceeceeetcce Denver, Colo. J ceoke. Max RTO at EN Gate a ees 
SPI RS. BE AORN EN a Oiesecmmeee || lacche. Pe ee pe aa ae 
eae ae ne Ses feet oe a ae a een eared re Huntsville, Ala. 
Horowitz, Israel........0. 00.0 cece cence. Brooklyn N Y. | FT eabe. Rev Cod cd sepudueraie, New Mee 
HeHgltec ds ceickes, owe New Voi ack 6 Poronte same 
Pemoiesieeh cc. eden ee an Cite Boe ge ee me ages Montreal, Canada 
Horowitz, Prof, Moses. ..... sss se sees es Brooklyn, N.Y. | Jacobs, 8 W000 nical Cauds 
Cowie Mae Necbareh: ve cimatu . Ne he Montreal, Canada 
ea Oe hele Alvar ge Hested gkcr Fy sate Nese weed acs WRN aoe New York City 
UD ee Neo ated eens, Fe eens ane res New York City 
SS PTAC let a Noor aby Sam ca a a eae ay ages tose Ss ce a a ee ged Philadelphia, Pa. 
Ee ek oa ae tee g ae aneeee sonal OE LIE PO ae en ere New York City 
a eee serene ane £0, aE Jaco Deon: Joseph (deceased).............-, New York City 
Fa eee th Oe ese Sepals Boia seteon gS a a eee eg New York City 
Horwitz, Israel...........0cccccccccccsee New York City caechecn, Bee tc ns bcccee tes cde oe Monee), Vane 
Horwitz, Jennie G.I Baltimore, Md. |“daecuwenthctest occ... cereesce PP ere, 
Pear wite., DUGAN. wey aicne bec en occas cvs Rochester, N. Y. | J epee Samuel..........-.........Char Petepune ene 
Hosier LIM ce. ee Co ae Lore don TAN i sae a OS me eb hak Charlestown, Mass. 
PA GUEWOb he Wee ee os a sok 4's dag es 6 ores New York City pried Matis... eae a ee New York Gity 
Houston Instalment Gompany.. 1.112117. Hodsieg hed i ae aie ores POMPE Ne oc sale ake ota deta aie edad New York City 
opts ee ee imea co eeeree ese ee eae : MEDAN ere ibid acie tae es Roswell, New Mex. 
fia Bay toneee eras ses Fibs oe ee ea rien ie oe ated New York City 
Pipl: Tee Bec sheeses ov ee sain cece cases Houston Tex. Jaffe, D ct: ids € a at ROR See Gal 
ee te iets etc on Te = ae 8 1 = ae Aa a rae age ane el Sacramento, Cal. 
Hummelfarb, Morris...........0.0c00000e Baltimore, Mc ‘affe, Mose CORR aie ARCHER Stig Skew New York city 
Hurowitz, Samuel..................-....New York City Tutte: Sinot Dee RMS weston cg ba oases ee ore city 
Hurwitz, Abraham J., Ph.G............-5. Boston Mase. Taines Peter Me Seek ice a IO ARRAS eb 
Plirewikie DAViGes cathe ek ness ec eben ens. New York City | Jancower, Tes poe Oty Ne 
Wuirwitt, Mex ose New York City | Janko: NehewiahoMay 02002007 tery Ne aes 
Hurwitz, Samuel.........0..0.000.00000. New York City aa wit ‘ aes pete te sis teas Ny che Pa 
Husch, Daniel.....0.0.0...cceece ee acess New York City Takes 3 5S AI Riana: aay 
Hutkoff, Nathan..................2......New York Gity Th nite aky Le > ea ei nr eeeet ee sara 
Huttner, Samuel J.............- ccc ee eee. Pittsburg, Pa Tarmalowske. NMeyat Re Se ts gt ede Coane New err ay 
Sat an of ad ee nue ee dded bene Baltimore. Md. Serniilowslee. S oe Ne yore ed 
utz er, ar Da cael eee a oe ene ee * z > ° z a a a ew or. i 
Hye = el ees ee ee Rye va Aenea wi, Pe Tae Ritee sro seek cd oot Sage New York City 
Bee ears , La. astrow, Mrs. Bertha...................Germantown, Pa. 


LIST OF 
Jastrow, Morris J... ... ccc ee ee eens Philadeiphia, Pa. 
JAY s LODO] Giia-% hau oe eas Bias ie Bee a ES Newark, J. 
Pedel;. AATON 6603.6 oc bacnis eS 24S oS a eS Oe Newark, N. J. 
Jeltentk,.-P els) gcse. iw ete Pak ae cas Se New York City 
Jensen Ove. sce een hea s eee steed Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Jeshurun, George, D.D.8............-.045- New York City 
Sewel. THotace: Rio. d.4 obese 4 66 Se ORO Newport, R. I 
Jewish Hospital Fair of Brooklyn,,........ Brooklyn, N. Y 
Joachim ss oscar a tao eae ka Brooklyn, N. Y. 
WOUE, Ad cutie cesta ela ake Caw eee ned New York City 
JOG; TAClis oc nor eae ea ee wee ee RN Rochester, N. Y. 
JOfie: JOS PN ei .cc Vc eR ks wae ae Meee ORS New York City 
Joffe, Joseph, M.D......... 0... 06 ees Woodbine, N. J. 
DOME, SIUITUS 66 oe 0a he aorta ee eh Se WA eee Chicago, III. 
Joffe, Leon 84 DDS 6 .c9.2554 5655 tee anes Philadelphia, Pa. 
VOMCE SCO 6 ioc race wie an ee a ee oe Rie eee Paterson, N. J. 
Joline ck esha. Vi eb aie Weed Bats Ser ee Buffalo, N. Y. 
Jolles, Clinples. +-cac eas ceive ck hee esas Boston, Mass. 
doles; “Wd Wari ccke ss pee tala ek eee Seeds Boston, Mass. 
JONES LeeOl So ok seas s les eo Bee cae SHEA eee Boston, Mass. 
JOlles.< INOUIS e000 84deiu ws MERA wONS SYN ERAS Boston, Mass. 
NOTA ob lia> «gare to sce ued toe Wate oe Learaeetas Sets Cincinnati, Ohio 
JONAS, TLCNT Ys cc.c24 eke eae wee Sea eae oa Butte, Mont. 
Jonas, ae se tees Sen a eae hates, ee eal Oakland, Cal. 
Jones, D. (deceased)............002 0000 eee New York Cit y 
Jones, H. tale) Ol epee res WP eee mee ane er eerE New Orleans, La. 
JONES MOLCISe ia 4hara cae RE OR ee Rate a ee New York City 
Jones, Samuel... ... 0... ccc ccc ee eee New York City 
Jordan, Rev. Louis H................... Toronto, Canada 
JOFAON GOs Hived nde wee raed eiheeihe tens ee Philadelphia, Pa. 
Jorsch, Abel, D.D.S............ 000022 eee ee New York City 
Joseph, Mrs. Frederick................00--- New York City 
POSED hs 2 cian crea wba weer e.d a al Sra dk wR Houston, Tex. 
Joseph, 18880... 6.0566 oe chee eee tas BES Cleveland, Ohio 
Josephs 188A. ioc fhe eia vGrare oe dss ee Cincinnati, Ohio 
Josepli; JatoDs 144%.46-a abe hele oa peek Se Tacoma, Wash. 
Joseph, Solomon. ......... 0.0 cece eee e eee New York City 
Joseph, Rev. Theodore F.................. Seattle, Wash. 
Josephi, Isaiah... 2.0... 0... cee eee ees New York City 
Josephs, Isaiah... 2... 0. ce ee ee es New York City 
JUCISy: LEVIN ee hielo bee eee ee Se Oh aware’ New York City 
Jie; SIC OTE: vs doo e bs oq gee eae hae Be Eee New York City 
Jurim, Tobias, M.D. (deceased)... .......... New York City 
JUristWOWIS<2e:5 oo Ge wuleare a bh eels bales Philadelphia, Pa. 
K 
Wadisa; or As. Pian vices Peek ete Aware do ke Chicago, Ill. 
Kaffeman, Frederick. ............-2.-200: New York City 
Kahanowitz, bGiceanitelasings Geacaieere duedeid Mugs Ns . Greensburg, Pa. 
Kahne. 3. M62 2 osha wt elena eianewe eas Dallas, Tex. 
Kahn, Emanuel. ..... ccc. e sce cece cc cceces Easton, Pa. 
Kahn, Rev. Emanuel............... Grand Rapids, Mich. 
Kahn, HMilices stacks atta swen eves bees Galveston, Tex. 
Kann? bee od pier ahs ee POO et eee Houston, Tex. 
Kali, .cl0sep ised. 20054 hae ees atresia ngven Harrisburg, Pa. 
Kahn, Joseph M..... ccc eee ce es New York City 
He ality aU Ss a. san oat Seed oo ae aus OS aaa week New York City 
Kahn, Jus. cess eve tao ees ee cated Cokes Chicago, II. 
Kahn; been: De cies vee atdleerelae oa ee ee ewan Shreveport, La. 
Wealiti, JsOUISs &. 52 ta aiencrars Waited ad aaa ie cod New York City 
Kahn, loud wigs MeD) 95 o5 44a iw shinee New York City 
Kahn; Maurice De csc. ope ccc eeaeiue 6 8s ae we New York City 
Kahn, Moses Hes wae eas eidae een aawe se New York City 
Kahn, Solomon............00e0e2eeeeee Philadelphia Pa. 
Kahn, William....... 0.0... cee wees Charlestown, W. Va. 
Kahnheimer, Joseph..... ee ee ee ee ee Cardington, Ohio 
Waist Digs cca Ma ees tae e abated Jamaica, N. Y. 
Kaiser, Alois,........002005 din WReie erated, % Baltimore, Md. 
WSIS OT MG 8 pct ttn ged Beta ne RIS Ga RR MEE Burnside, Ga. 
Kaiser, Mrs. Maria.............020000- New Orleans, La. 
Kalisch, Samuel...... 02... ccc ee eee ee eee Newark, N. J. 
Kalishs Is00iS PF icoc44 bee te 6Gote baie es Chicago, III. 
Maliskl, Hyman: ..94cs so eos boa eas Sake ses New York City 
Kallman, Charles... ........ 0c ccc ce eee eees Boston, Mass. 
Kalmon, Friedy onic ss dessa duces eves esas Newark, N. J. 
Kamaiky, Leon... . 0... ccc ees New York City 
Hainer, waved hk eee ea eee oe ee es New York City 
Kamber, Minnie... 2.2.2... 202s ccseceeeens New York City 
Kamin, Meyer. ........ 0.0 cece cee ane ees Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Wea MING es dnc tens seinen Be eee Ss East St. Louis, Ill. 
Kaminski, Edward..... ee er ere New York City 
Kamm, William, D.D.&.....................- Chicago, II] 
Kampert, Dr. Gustav.............-0.20008- New York City 
Kandell, George... ...... 0. cece eee cee eee Philadelphia, Pa. 
Kane, H., MDD «4.5 ork ed eget wed ee tee Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Kann, Albert, M.D. 2.0.0... cee ee eee eee New York City 
Kann, WE Wie icas oars ash ee at Gee Riga un Syed mo De Pittsburg, Pa. 
Kanner, Gabriel. ...........-0 cc eee e ec ene New York City 
Kanrich, Ne erent a Be ed ao Gea aaa wate ots New York City 
Kantor, David... oo... cece cece cece ee ees New York City 
Kantor; eG sis tics 3 pick eens as Oe wees New York City 
Kantor, William L., M.D...............8-- New York City 
Banton DISMONG. 635. oi os cere eee Oe se New York City 
WAT ACs Sie. 2 a sy Sear te are tae Meas aha Sahat Trenton, N. J. 
Kaplan, eo Bernard M...........0+-- San Francisco, Cal. 
Kaplan. Cis i 5s 8a ae Se BE Reon ee Philadelphia, Pa. 
Kaplan, Tea Ms oe a tnd coe een Scie SM oes Brooklyn, N. Y 
Kaplan. ds. icine cu bere tan estes San Francisco, Cal. 


Kaplan, ne ae Rg tgteh-eavd ist Anica ts Ss Albuquerque, New Mex. 


PATRONS XV 
IS ADI AN s Mine! ite oie tek Be acaul e hp SOs HS New York City 
TRAD AI ie Mere shee SIRE LE ge whch ated sa ameea le gait Anniston, Ala. 
Kaplan LOUis eet Acca east watecackieed MESA es Chicago, II 
Kaplan, Morris...5 . oc5.c0i6 side nan bawueay Chicago, Ill. 
Kaplan, Paul, M.D. ....0 0.0... 0.0... New York City 
Kaplansky, CAL nO ak ea anes Montreal, Canada 
Kaplowitz, Deena: sO See oera One erat pare New York City 
Kappelbaumy Je es iccwen Gaon eer bee eS eRe New York City 
Karen, JOna bis 2 inc 6s oka week La eoee a Philadelphia, Pa. 
Karpas, Morris J.. M.D................... New York City 
Karr, Jacob AL... ce ee ee ee ees Philadelphia, Pa. 
Iaskel, Pale ox eeebasee pews ow wares eee New York City 
Kassel, Ab@. 33 535 0ab $6 bata t seas ek OoRG A New York City 
Kassel, Oia cai cate ati tas ae Acente Seis ake New York City 
Wassler. 6) cco eae Sie Dame Waa ate weber ORS New York City 
Kastenbaum, NAGAI deve arian aw Brooklyn, N. ¥. 
Waster, Jl: oi in3 24 eel Vai daca me eer Evanston, Wyo. 
Katchen, Julius L., Ph.G................,. Newark, N. J. 
Katlinsky, Lemuel............. 0.000 scenes Chicago, Ill. 
Katowsky, Phillip.................0.....-2065 Chicago, 1. 
WACECN Ae oo oMis we Oe OE SORE ne oes Hartford, Conn. 
Wattéen, [4s0Vio «ds fate ahes = 655686 Shae oe Allegheny Pa. 
Kates. Wek hare to patcticn Wie Gate ee oe Dermott, Ark. 
Weatz... Parise sci cia k Seas oi ob bees aes Albany, N. Y. 
Pea COR Sct ee EN es ku aig SAAS ON ES Philadelphia, Pa. 
MRE. SCAN ly. Saitek herent 64a We ee OS Gok en RY New York City 
Str. PATNIVON oot eos ob ce cas baw Omaha, Neb. 
Hutzet; [een Je PING. kk coe ea een Denver, Colo. 
Katzenberg, ! EA eee are ene ee ee eee Philadelphia, Pa. 
Katzenelenbogen, terics. <6. c eee eves New York City 
Katzenstein, Leopold... ... 2. ...0 02 ee ees New York City 
Katzinger, PIGMAPNS aso ou aoa oe en ee die aeege Chicago, IIl. 
Keariders, Tiriiatte. sti sos ce ede ee ee es New York City 
Bottiiaas, Bie. assay one no ok cc he Galen os Galveston, Tex. 
Wrawiiriit,: JACI: «aged > 6 e006 a alee eS es Portsmouth, Va. 
Kaueiag, Sertis. sce. sok ok ee ee oe ens Detroit, Mich. 
Weare, “MOSER yi cass eee es Sos Oa ee Detroit, Mich. 
Kaufiinan & Krieger... .............5.%5 Sioux City, Towa 
Kautman, Albert, MoD. ... 0.0. ce BRA Wilkesbarre, Pa. 
We aati NEG AN ono os 6 dnd ood oie ba oY a hha New York City 
Kaufman, Edward..............0..000065 Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Kaufman, Gustave. ......... 0000 eee eae New York City 
Kaufman, I., M.D................-0404. Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Kaufman, Isaac........... 0c ewe ee ce ee ee Portland, Ore. 
Kaufman, Mrs. Jennie....................New York City 
Kavnlimians 13.4 wench cca teeea nae town Lake Charles, La. 
Kaufman; (Mei ice keke gaseee dee ied dee Lexington, Ky. 
Kaufman, Maurice B......... ccc ee ee eae Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Kaufman, William...............0..2.. Montreal, Canada 
Kaufmann, Albert. ......... 0.0.00 cee eee New York City 
Kaufmann, [s9ae i. oo. canes ae oe oa we wi hein Pittsburg, Pa. 
Kaufmann, Theodore. ............00 00020 e Pittsburg, Pa. 
TSU SCO iy cbse tet a nara rn Cale sleigh ee diet ee ately Chicago, Ill. 
eatin Vio y at: Sores oa aan ean Washington, D. C. 
Kaush, William M..............0--000: Charleston, 8. C. 
Kativar. liev. 0; hx 6s cee bee 8S ee Toa Denver, Colo. 
Kayser, Leopold. .........- 0.2020. ee eens New York City 
Kayton;- Harmon. «64652545 ehhees ores New York City 
Kearney, Rev. John F......... 0.2.0. 20008. New York City 
Rehlmann; lives 6 eee ead eo ba SSR GSR New York City 
Meer, Li0uis 6 eon dak wn cee ee 3.4 aS OE oko Chicago, II. 
Keiffer, Mrs. Julius... ....... 2.00 eeeeee New Orleans, La. 
Keiler.. John. W a cc.oce i ao eek Hs oad see eee Paducah, Ky. 
Keiner, William. .............2.-00 00% Lock Haven, la. 
WGISOR: 49544 chad wees ooo k RAS ee Buffalo, N. Y. 
Keller: A (Mik eetecegrea has ee acs eh eee Philadelphia, Pa. 
Keller, Charles EB... . ccc cc ee ees Shelbyville, Il. 
Keller. Jacob. sc ev cv o6. bcd a4 8 eS BES Bete Houston, Tex. 
Kellerts Sake ices ed 284 Oe Shae ee ees Montreal, Canada 
Kempe, Samuel D.... 2... cece ee ee ee New York City 
Keinper,: 0; Ae ooo oak eae eee ae A Mees ass Jersey City, N. J. 
Kempner, Adolph. ....... 0c cece cece renee Chicago, Ill. 
Kempnericl. Hecke eeen eee caste es Galveston, Tex. 
Koenner,, Plijabe< 2c devs) sees eine ela Aes Duluth, Minn. 
Kent, Charles FF... . 2. cee New Haven, Conn. 
Kentucky University... ...... 0.0 ce eee eee Lexington, Ky. 
Kepelman, Rev. H............-2.02 00 eee Hartford, Conn. 
Kepold,. Ve Hak seed ties ak @ owe ee aes Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Kerts.. loco 6 esas coh bee e Shas ON ee Montreal, Canada 
Resets Je lina satetec das, aace ca eee Pia ehaie 4 Chicago, Ill. 
Kessler; Aa@roni.4.6456 04s ea wee orale Fes New York City 
Wessnery. Mi Vise G6 eh da he sace nS S4. a asplerwie Sw GO New York City 
Tests. Max. iniesk oo.c o eemGe es cts Eee ees New York City 
Kesterbaum, IN SENG do sanek does Sach eee ee Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Kestler, .J6Seplitc  Scetae guewas ees Ses oes Passaic, N. J. 
Kiernan. Peter: cee iss oa aes New Orleans, La. 
Pavan ies SEs Dy Ges Ye heyy coe ngs tor ose es Hk RS New York City 
aa | SD Oe 0 rr ae New York City 
King, Maxwell Benedict, M.D............... Boston, Mass. 
CTETEE PATOL haat Ek acca 2 eS ke DR OW GaSe Lafayette, Ind. 
Pe PPAR OILO) sles o353- 0,2 6.5 sak Soe be ie oe wee Pittsburg, Pa. 
Kanespachker, Mad... esc eee es tenes Allegheny, Pa. 
Kinkead, Rev. Thomas L........,....0.-. Peekskill, N. Y 
Kinsky, fis ae, oa RR eC New York City 
WireGnbatiin, MAS o cn eee eee eee sedan New York City 
WATSON DONE, Obs daled < sc kks tase ee see ewes Montreal, Canada 
HE MCHED as GUL GE ile bi orate SG Oe ee os Shreveport, La. 
Kirshberg, pues Ble ital cis ov acum iee abe eae ce Se aides New York City 
Wiss, rashes. ise% occas ccee ss Pou Ge aden None New York City 


xvi LIST OF PATRONS 


Kissick, W. A....... CUT Tee ore re Brooklyn, N. Y. | Kraus, Dan...... diss. he SSR Ee OS New York City 
FR ae a tee Piel ou: 5 ise aca ese uiae eo bia BSS Paterson,No Js. h Kaus; Die os awiadn own ere Bale qe wees es New York City 
PAGAN h ss Rie ar hosp Bienen Wie, OE Re Newport News, Va. | Krause, Adolph. ........... cece eee ee eee New York City 
Klatt, Friedrich......... alte dunbaeink scoeds See Milford, Conn. FIRS 4 Pe bee be etwas 8S ee en rr er St. Louis, Mo. 
Folate kG IROCMEPES: . 6 css vc cece seu aeveeeews New York City Krauskopf, Joseph...........2000 ese eee Philadelphia, Pa, 
POEs a all Os ce i arg Bards Ue ae SAE oreo ae Orange, N. J. Krauskopf, Rev. Mareus..............2065 New York City 
ROIS ATH id aah sion 6 aeh es 64.48 egerene GOS Pittsburg, Pa. WEVA COE RY eas AS ERO Pee ee Pittsburg, Pa. 
KAS DADS WS ce eis Stee Oa eee Philadelphia, Pa. | Krehbiel, Herman... ............0.-.006. New York City 
Klein, Rev. David, B.Ph., M.A............ Columbus, Ohio PO TORI Oech 9 Sis. 3 enn iG ahs ob a BO Sree soe ede oy Bradford, Pa. 
Ge ass teeth ey a WW iat sas greceon ewes As Cincinnati, Ohio | Kremen, Julius Jo... 2... ccc eee ee ees New York City 
POOH, ea ee os, 58 es eS Sa eA Philadelphia, Pa. COSY MAME ccs oieedad esa d at ae ees New York City 
Ul oniy eae g BS cl ie er a rr ae New York City TRRUCM PER any oo ho KOS AES SSS Providence, R. I, 
Teg LREROs SUSE dae va dy st eieewes Kee eas Helena, Mont. [JAPHMAKYs Goce acc ccc chi ee se eye newt ewes New York City 
PeiGiny, eC OUe asrr-< cess ede hows pore ae Kate Cleveland, Ohio TRPIstBHOE, GAUSS oe ee cc ee ke are bs was Newark, N. J. 
Klein, Joseph Alexander,............0000¢ New York City } oribty Vind. cing. os eee eee eee nes Baltimore, Md. 
WCU Pi acid ow bal Hon a Ah lo Se aaa Soe ie ahi ES New York City | Krivulin, Arnold...............0 cece eee New York City 
lens COW se ka Soh ea ech osiw whee sca ON New York City Krolik; Henry Avsiccc iss cei oe sed et ode aS Detroit, Mich. 
WGN MOSES 20 overs ben's 82 vate ee SS Se Philadelphia, Pa. | Kroll, BE. Lo... ccc ee nee New York City 
Klein, Rev. Dr. Philip. ..............-.0-- New York City Kroll, Herman. .-is085 oese bes eed ead New York City 
Kileiny SOlOmOns 6.64 o ies baad atcha eee Oh 4S New York City Oot RE BLN aor Re ee ee New York City 
Klein « Wallets 66.0: .s dw eadas ewwkwaed wes New York City | 2epone; JOG cc co s5G 2 os ee eek eee ewes New York City 
Kleiner, Nathan I...... ste aa shaad sree New Haven, Conn. | Kronengold, Adolph............. eee eee Brooklyn, N. Y., 
Kleiner t Av 3.3 o4 ie hae aioe ocala dats oka ee Chicago, Il. ePOMOURO. IPN Dia cas seks oa 66s bow ee ees New York City 
Wolemert:. 1. Bs cease osau ws blac ee Reem ees New York City Pe Pe ROT. EE CUTAN Neo seg a, ose a) sie weal eer ano Baltimore, Md. 
Kleinteld, Rev. Ay S os cgoe sce eee eee eee ee Paterson, N. J. Krulewiteh, Bernard, s..........00000e004: New York City 
Kleinfeld, Rev. Dr. Solomon............... New York City | Krulewitch, Isaac A........ ec cee ee ee eee ee New York City 
Kleinhaus, Samuel.............000000. Jersey City, N. Jd. PUNE MAIS Ts Gscd se eee See eas we New York City 
FBT Ney MED... ee ae ee Oakes ee 3 New York City | Kuder, M. A... ... ccc eee ee een eens Parkersburg, W. Va. 
Belewiety, Ais ice eee ee os oe re ....Providence, R. I. Lee OS] 2 oR ie a me A ae Re en New York City 
Klendman, Emanuel. ......... erer rere New York City | (Bai NE i eis es eta es eee Ce kee eee Baltimore, Md. 
Kline, Charles....... Be Geri ets deta ale gant votes Mat Allentown, Pa. Pe SN, IEEE Gicre eens a oak Ve ee HE See New York City 
Woltri6,: FLEGEV conde, 05 ae 8 aise telele ng et hares oats Anguilla, Miss. TREE at A RGEOP Cr eee, SA antics tae igria eS te Gn wie) owl's Siew Champaign, I}l. 
TOG PON UN aks eae boa oe Oe OSS o-ee Philadelphia, Pa. HRCA ES SRGE IES Fico dhe Bogs 56 oe o 8 FS eee ke Allegheny, Pa. 
Klingenstein, Jacob. ..........0cceceecaees New York City | Kulla, Jacob. ................ aire Brine cats New York City 
Knittschnitt,. 1s. "Waeesecswess omar ad New Orleans, La. FOGG ELC Ng Lig Nita ten 64 66 is bee's shee ee es New York City 
Knobloch, I........ ie 2d at cu arta tauahate Oia di Ga tala New York City | Kuposky, Barnett... 2.0.0... 20... cee eee Boston, Mass. 
Knoch, Ike........ Geni buciases tie 8 Gusta nacre Susanville, Cal. Koppeithenier, LouismB. . cic cee e ee dans Chicago, IIl. 
Rnopt, OAMUEs. jcc ccs cece ceuaskr a ea eek ake New York City Kpppermany’ bet. oeeas" «1 ss eaves beigtass pn dete New York City 
Kobacker, Morris ...... es he nr eet ee Toledo, Ohio Wevtes Gustave Bigs ov ie ek ae ee ees Roxbury, Mass. 
TOUTE, ARs sen iie ee se ip Meese ule Seren sees New York City Wir oe The NL ge hae er eae Swe eo swe os Cleveland, Ohio 
Koch, Henry....... bla BeR aga arane MOLI ea New York City Kurzman, Charles. ... 0... cece eee eee tenes New York Cit 
Koch, Samuel........ Seed eh cures aaa eae D ane Pensacola, Fla. Kussy, Miss Sarah......... Suave shorten entre s) Newark, N. J. 
Woetemany Freda... cee kee eee ene es .».New York City 

GOS: TERIUEL We os we ce ee eee ee ees New York City L 

ST GPEC: Sea lei iets k delaras oars wee a New York City Lachman, Hon. Samson. ........ ec. cece ees New York City 
Koffler, Samuel. .......... alee Ried aces New York City Pua Ede ASOT ON ae a 65-9 a 01 Here SoS New York City 
TOGTEAG SI GCOI Gs aa60 5 bene Sek Ded oe ese oR SS New York: Gutsy) Tackhn@imy, Ge inoar sce. cece ee een es Baltimore, Md. 
PGE SC PHATIIIED wrengrs dc oes Fede ann gw ose @ ule Christiansburg, Va. Ladinski, L. J., M.D... 2... cece eee eee New York City 
Kohler; Max. Discs... cc cee aes Maa bee Cincinnati, Ohio MATIN ICR Decl AD Gi's 0. 5-4 44, ais aot oe' ds wala, New York City 
Kohler, Ma xd... ssc cess ile Hecate GU New York City + Lambert; Sales Decco cc ete e ener eens New York City 
Kohlman, W.., M.D. sn seen kes e died New Orleans, La. Lig DET Us, GRIC NON as 6 a bee vas eee sh es New Orleans, La. 
Kohn, A. B......... 2 cee errr rerr rey Philadelphia, Pa. GTS. DENS Seer lines a wo taleees Sik Ee NSS Pittsburg, Pa. 
Kohn, Aaron...........-. Re ee een ee Louisville, Ky. Lamendort, Jacobs... ce cece cee eae New York City 
Kohn, Arnold pcicoc sos stb ede cecuanen owe Philadelphia, Pa. | Lampel, Sam...............6. sah eei ta. eacerha-d New York City 
Kohn, Dy... 4d ssaewdes Jeo Beis wise hoa e Boia: Sanaa New York City Lamport, S. Charles. ........--. deo hie Bees New York City 
Kohn, David.............- Pen ee te Philadelphia, Pa. Tanridat: Rev. Fgh. wc Sabotanatict aay acne eee Albany, Ga. 
Kohn, Edmund......... ial ee widitee dior hogan ee Now York City | Gatidaty. Raitt digs ssc cei cee ens Dai Rees Chicago, Ill. 
Kohn, Emerich..........-.00: 5 Sep n gee New York City Ep Peat. “POTION 5:6 add Saw eee wb eee Wilkesbarre, Pa. 
Rob, eG yieiscesa6055.5 604246443405 4o oS ROS Seattle, Wash. endeavors fess ares x: scshiegttaliaine De aiuieratoiergeeearehen ea Chicago, Il. 
Kooning: Bacisk eds eh eS VES ees oR Philadelphia, Pa. TSN SCL WER Sel ote ps es: Sia aew Saale aw Sad ao ES Rochester, N. Y. 
Kohn, Samuel......... en rn ere oe .-Philadelphia, Pa. Venice? RIALTO Silk ooo «oa eekco ene ee bee ead New York City 
Kohn, Simon l......... susie es Geckos rey Philadelphia, Pa. TLANUSS,. Lagan, BED... eae Seek eee wae New York City 
Kohns, Lazarus. ...........++- estas sca ges New York City { Landfried, C. J.. M.D........... gars New Orleans, La, 
Hoh nS) se iio ops as eras 4 5d oes Saeice as New York City fandman, Lowa t,, M.D... ..2.00. eee ee Cincinnati, Ohio 
Kohut, Rev. George A... cece cece eee ees New York City Tendo; Mes 04 s 25.44.00 + gate eect nde ewan ae Pittsburg, Pa. 
KolaskVs Bo wcwse ees eave aes usages New York City Landon, Amos "W...5 6. cece ee Malice atta’ Baltimore, Md, 
NCOIDER,, s-cuxracne ule ea we om Seater Gea Montreal, Ganada | Landon, Charles W...........--00e 002005 Baltimore, Md. 
Komie, Emanuel......... Eaves rere ee ee Chicago, Ill. TRVPISIOE s AID i, 6 ook 6 i eae be LE See Detroit, Mich. 
Kommel, B. 1... 2.2... ee eee ee re New York City Tene bere, OLAS de. De ks ae eh ae be ee oe Rochester, N. Y. 
Kommel, Isaac..........002 ce ceesceess New York City TANNSIGST OL Rls AED. sec ke eee eae eens New York City 
TCOMpGRE, Malistae MOD. ocean ie w eee wha New York City TentGla, Bile Shi icin ee aes Fob Ree wae Philadelphia, Pa. 
Koplatie Ms plneogs oes rrr: rt Chicago, Ti: |. Lanrowite, Leone ys.. oer es teen ees New York City 
Kopi, doseph Ty . 62 occ k cose se cee ble New York City {| Lapidus, H..............-. fete h tien das & New York City 
FROG PORN 6 0s a4 a ane a oo SR New York City TAPHGR:, AI does Ge pK os as ee Ke Washington, D. C. 
FODUMNS Daa pos baits bo aoe shee ase er erae es Philadelphia, Pa. OUR raul’, Uae ha poe Soe 6 oes a swe Sie eve eed BAS Oe GS New York City 
Kopold, Josephiciy csc ccse scent sees canes New York City ES Ero Dag WS oi ro Pittsburg, Pa. 
FOG S MOAI se ache < oe a oe ve Fa eine lo-w's wacked New York City Dasdisicy.- JOsetlin’. . 6. es cece eee ese eden Homestead, Pa. 
TG OWSEGI,  AUNUTE ls 9S os 0 a. vie es G8 ws eae ee ON New York City Tee LE OMIID Ws ea ee ewe een sas sees Be Troy, N. Y. 
PR CURES ANT by ETE Sy 5 ese ok SA be SR ew Be New York City Lasker, Isidore.........- prcakclsain candice: ap sits Rene eae tes Chicago, Ill. 
FEQUGT AAO E A tavece sey se ko 8 kd a wd Saw aw deh Wem FOG CACy (fp TOYS CIty iid Gedisig oot boa ee eke ee wh Haverhill, Mass. 
Kornfeld, Joseph Saul................2.. Montreal, Canada LOT PATEL is oso te basvev ba couso guy Portsmouth, Va. 
PRICE RANIIOE BBs 3b 6 6's 58 soe 4 son owe eee Elizabeth, N. J. Laubheim, Julius. .......... ch nares acini New York City 
Kornholz, Frederick W........0seseeenes Philadelphia, Pa. | Lauchheim, Jacob M................00050- Baltimore, Md. 
Karnik, ‘Gia gicn sss cece eee eee oe panes Boston, Mass. | Lauchheimer, Sylwan Hayes.............. Baltimore, Md. 
Kors, Charles: Pio 6 i 6d cate tuaeencde ols ag Philadelphia, Pa. UAE: Hic El we cee oes cas wc ee cae diss oemets SRE Are, 
Kory, Oly Bs a yacs saa eck eG dah a esata te oes Vicksburg, Miss. Dees BO araRiees fans oS ae ds baw Oh ey Baltimore, Md. 
TE GUGWIDA, NIGPTIS Ab oo ck cc SS ew cee eas as Brooklyn, N. Y. Lautmat, Gicisvos- seis anes eT ree Cleveland, Ohio 
eottarek¥ . “Seniviels o 66. ce ce ee web en ss Philadelphia, Pa. attiman, PF yo a atk an ek bao CHES 4 Cleveland, Ohio 
Kottek,, da@ob Digs. ccs eect asec eeees New York City } Lauterbach, Edward. ..............0.005- New York City 
Kraft, William, .6.0)... ss 0c eee eee eens Cleveland, Ohio Laventalls. Julusiws 6 ceccns ces ee veh oe exes Albany, N. Y. 
Krakauer, Jacques. .. 4.6... e eee ec eeees New York City Vaavitt, Wake ios bes Ae eee he ee eee Norfolk, Y@- 
FPA O Wels MAR otig ei ese seve eccen bee es Brooklyn, N. Y. | Lawrence, Benjamin B.,M.D............. Philadelphia, Pa. 
BCPA. Paseo crete s 8 bo ap alee wd ane sna New York City | Lazarus, David M..........0. cece eee ees Allegheny, Pa. 
ASD ac cat 2) eRe ie RRR ARS, Chicago, Il!. Lazarus, Frederick... ......0 cece eee ees Columbus, Ohio 
VRPRUNETS Sie pitta Maas i 6-86 ae Ce ee awe es New York City Lazarus, Henry Li... .. kc cc ee eee New Orleans, La. 
DCs dot to Sle | ee” 9 aaa a Cadillac, Mich. | Lazarus, Leon........... ccc eee e cece eeee Bayonne, N. Jd. 
PO PAMNET SESS Dinette forte o0 bei eck sna ee whee ea New York City Lazdon, Jacob: Biocivisccus Cobos oe REG EES Troy, N._Y- 
Krasnowetz, Rev. Nathan................ Owensboro, Ky. agede. Peet oie sate tua fabs dis aeelee Atlanta, Ga 
Kraus, Adolph... ..... ccc ccs e etter er tenes Chicago, Ill. |! Lear, Solomon........... 0.0 cece eee New Haven, Conn 


LIST OF PATRONS xvii 


i ye 


BA ee RL Al Cy eb Mea eee eS Montreal, Canada Levine, Leopold BE... 0... cee ce eee New York City 
Lebovitz, Bernhard. ........-c.0ceecceees Brooklyn, N. Y. Levinsky, Irene Ida. ............0000 eee ee New York City 
Tebovits: JaCODiisa esa. ccc eee scsi eats sate Chicago, II]. evinek yy. ose tee os ut oe eae A enaaas Toronto, Canada 
Mebowaelts MAE fete. ita sea 4 hae hoes Oe ee Boston, Mass. Levinson, Alexander... ........00cc cues New York City 
TOURS. PRBS eC hrsidia a obese SS OOS 6 he oe New York City [eS TSOM SA Sk dg ook cc ctod a Sak ae eee ES 4 New York City 
Lechner, Richard L........... Ri oe Brooklyn, N. Y. Levinson, JameS....... ccc cee ee eee Cincinnati, Ohio 
Lederer; Ephraim 205. ...5 cece eee eee Philadelphia, Pa. Levinson, Joseph... .........0.00c0 cece ees New York City 
Lesher nine, 655, Nise sheen ees eee eee Brooklyn, N. Y. Levinson, Leo... ......-...06. Pngreiaeturs New York City 
Leesersohn;,. Leonards"... 5 ce ee eee New York City PORTS A Ses % of on be Ge pees wa New York City 
Thefkowats. 6, Mia wax. ee ewe ee East Las Vegas, N. Mex. Bros Apical ak Ce a a a he ee eran New York City 
Letkowit#s Rey: David... ...6 2 cece eee cee Dayton, Ohio [OxSON yy SATOMOL: kooks eee eee eee dea eae Cincinnati, Ohio 
Lefkowitz, Hyman B..... Pe aieeel en narent aaa New York City Lewineteiti,., STAG. 6 6k ayes seen bas obs Baltimore, Md. 
DeWIMAN- Mict Mc nweae es hs esa S ae eke oe A He aes Peru, Ind. Letinthialy Revs Liss oii Gee eee eases Philadelphia, Pa. 
WBE ay OO MEE a) Sede oo ae ctw ee nn wee He Sa New York City Lavinthaly Rev. Dsidore. oi... 0.5.5. .064. Nashville, Tenn. 
THT. AP VIS od pak ghe eae ee ed eae ee a es New York City ig i ee bo hea New York City 
Peniiatl LOrey cee 60s cas oh es eRe OOO Ft. Wayne, Ind. Levison, Isidore. i... 0. c eee eee es ey York City 
Wiehe, Steel Wiingacs oc ya ee se eee Cleveland, Ohio EMIS, Gielen se os Ya hae eae EDS Wilkesbarre, Pa. 
ehovita: Bernhard: Oye. ees wes cee pee Brooklyn, N. Y. DEIR EA ESE See ia SA oa hee We BAA eae hw Springfield, Mass, 
Tene Ai he DIOMIG wai keke ee Re ee es Detroit, Mich. PeMibat; Visions ose dees HERR SEA Baltimore, Md. 
Lehring, WAR AE tac + Sens hk Bs dons’ BES Ss New York City Leviton, As Bia Ms Dis <s0Gs 24755 G Ree de aweads Chicago, Ill. 
Dether. 6. Poi dD «5 sss hk ee ace een Pittsburg, Pa. Leviton, Aaron. atin Oh eee acne hata nee etna New York City 
Leibowitch, TMG TRI OD 62% onal a eo eco neo eas New York City Levitt, M. J., M.D.................--..... New York City 
Leibson, Joseph, fy a ee eae ee ee ae ne Wilkesbarre, Pa. Levkowitz, S...........00c cee ee cere eee New York City 
Terchtenthith, Miaitiacs sa sces wesc eeveers Plainfield, N. J. TGC VOR Gk ceed on orn dae eRe ee ee Gloversville, N. Y. 
Te OLIOR: Dita itc-actclittans «Gree ss ae keene ee New York City Lover Miss Lv Bedi cics sce acisrte GREED Ree Attica, Ind. 
Tpit in, + OTE ened toy 8 ace 8 KR ROS aw eee BO Lowell, Mass. Levey; Bs Mince caw ds eee Ok cw i ee eas Fs New York City 
Leipziger, Emil A TT 9 a a ae Terre Haute, Ind. Nev ys Ac Ms aly oe ced eel one bas hs Perth Amboy, N. J. 
Leiser, Rev. Joseph. ......-..--.0. see eeee Lafayette, Ind. | Levy, Rev. Dr. A. R..... eee cece cere eens Chicago, IIL. 
ERUOROOES Ade ctet gh ae ois e80 Sara ae oth aiRad gee Chicago, Lil. LOVVi CASTOR: esr ee Sean eee whe Brooklyn, N. Y 
Lemenn, Isaae Ivan... 6c ee ee New Orleans, La. Levy, Abraham: ovsecocs ees oe ees Bee's Cae New York City 
Teemclsony JOREDMisspi's 6 eck es ee ee ee New York City Levy Abra iis co wrecid Did esate sete we Augusta, Ga. 
Lenchner, 8.0. cries cers c eee ee eens Pittsburg, Pa. | Levy, Achille... 0.0.0.0... c cece eee eee eens Chicago, IIL 
| Hi ste beet GT. Ga PRR on tea ne ee Montreal, Canada L6vy,: ATtnuUr G2 ss oe bl eedataeds cost eneas Rutland, Vt. 
Tiseitie: ASG eh se ta cretiuins s oboeielw o 8S ae Ke oa ew Newark, N. J. TGV. oc Se pale aha Sneek Rae eh ee Savannah, Ga. 
TARO REIDY, cual arise BGs + ohne S40 8 oe aks os New York City | Levy, Benjamin F............00. eee Elmira, N 

Leopold, Teane, NB ae (6: 6s. Wai sere are ace iye Philadelphia, Pa. | Levy, Charles 8. ..... 0... .ccc cect ceceees New York City 
Leopold, Msincc0. 22458 sha wea see eRe Ree Millville, N. J. TOW Dito d he he outa eae nets ne eke Baltimore, Md. 
Leopold, Simon... ....-..cce cece ee ee ee eens Berwick, La. | Levy, D...... cece cc ee cnet e eee aee New Orleans, La. 
Lerner: T60. 52d sks ba aceite Shee aes New York City Levy. DB ehh esa soe ae ee ee ee eS Wilmington, Del. 
Bhereoy. By Mevnabs 4s 55a Sao as Sw eis New York City | Levy, David. . ........... 2. cece eee eee New York City 
Tiesitisk Avec ieee See ea G eee LS New York City Levy, Rev. Edward I............-0e eee ees Selma, Ala. 
Lesser, Bost onder meee vatoseram@ ean meet Birmingham, Ala. Levy, Elias Henry... ........ cece cece eens New York City 
Lesser, George, M.D... 2... 0.0 cece eee ee ee eee New York City || Gevy; Fy lw. < c0s5s0 te ckaterds ees al ees New Orleans, La. 
Lesser, Henry... 1... cee cece ee ere e eres New York City | Levy, Ferdinand.............eeeeeeeeeees New York City 
besser. JUHUS. 4. o5 oe ogo sew ona oh Re wc St. Louis. Mo. Levy, Hie MDs eos ceiin eos as Se Rochester, N. Y. 
TeeSsebs Wick ks ae oe ae Pits Bes as oa eee Baltimore, Md. ev Vie se Meu ea eee ees Sa ee New York City 
Lesser, Se 26 wed eee LSet meee Seka Feds Augusta, Ga. | Levy, Harry... 2... ccc eee cece eee eens New York City 
Leszyusky,: Jess noes tet er sae de be bats New York City | Levy, Henry...........ec ce cee cece ences New York City 
Leucht, Revi Ji. Dawei esi b bi ooed ead New Orleans, La. Levy Hermans <oivaainde ee ores dada New York City 
Leucht, Rev. Joseph. .......-e eee eee ee eeee Newark, N. J. | Levy, Hiram...........---eeeeeeeeeeee Montreal, Canada 
Levanthal, Abraham M.............--08- New York: City (Levy, Dé acc. ncaa coakewe ee twetead ees New York City 
Levantine, Solomon...........0-0eeeeeee Albany, N. Y. | Levy, Isaac... ... cc cece cece e eee c cece eee New York City 
Levenberg, Dr. Bu. ecaasc cea ee eta ns Cleveland, Ohio | Levy, Isaac. .......cee eee e eee e ee cees Washington, D. C. 
Levensohn, Max......... cece eee eee eeee Worcester, Mass. | Levy, Isaac... .. cc cece eee e eee ence eee: Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Levenson, ADC.) casa suds 4 von tore dara Pittsburg, Pa. EaVV5. ISASO1 Sra ree G a Ohaan Hed eee es New York City 
Levenson, Henry H........... eee cere eee Boston, Mass. | Levy, Isaac. ....... ccc cece eee cere e eens New York City 
Levenson, Joseph ..... wc cree reece ee eee New York City Levy, Estee 4 32 betel os eae se aes New York City 
Levenson; JUMUS: csi s case a dee te «Oe eae Boston, Mass. Lev Vi de Bia cece ten ea sere oa bane cere NEW OTK Oily 
Leventhal Mince ek wcndioh saws oueee8ax Kansas: City, Mo. ||. Levy,-Js. Heys sie cata ccia se neesnana ees. New Orleans, La. 
Leventhal, My 3 oi heer acere ess ee re New York City | Levy, Rev. J. Leonard...........ceeeee eee: Pittsburg, Pa. 
Leventritt, W. Ro... 6... eee Sansa ae New York City | Levy, Jacques..........ccs cece eee ecvrecs St. Louis, Mo. 
IGOVAy DD eee wks eee Bb oo bs Ree wees Scrarton, Pa. LEVY). QOSCDD) icant tase hear tae cee ares te Rutland, Vt. 
Levi... Berths 348 evs whe et eae ee aan New York City Levy, JOseplhiece 42-2 s6-4e eh Wika tase eae Scranton, Pa. 
Levi, Rev. Dr. Charles S......... 5000+ eeeenees Peoria, III. Levy: JUWUSi ws osauws coaees dee oe eee Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Levi, David. .... 6.6... c cere cece cece ees »St. Paul, 8. C. | Levy, Kalman. ........- cece ee ee rece eeee Scranton, Pa. 
Levi BMP Sy pak vin ge anion sae ke ae wis New York City | Levy, L. Napoleon.........0ccecee cece eee New York City 
Levi, Ferdinand......... cscs eeee eee veenes Sumter, 8. C. | Levy, Leopold... .... 00... cece eee wees Natchitoches, La. 
Levi, Gershon B..... 6... ee ee cece eens Philadelphia, Pa. | Levy, Lesser.......... sees eee eee eeeeeens Denver, Colo. 
Levi, Rev. Marty. 4.042 os4eisaeeet ews Wheeling, W. Va. Levy LApMan 6. cscj kde tetas aes se Bee Cineinnati, Ohio 
Levi, Henleins ss. cede sent ia Seda ois New York City Tee VV 5 GOW Ss bach ob tas a Or ea een et a aaa Denver, Colo. 
Levi, rear ere eee ee Cleveland, Ohio | Levy, Louis....... peaiswe estes aiete es Mt. Vernon, N. Y. 
Leva; JOseiU oo outta Sale ea a eee a awe Oil City, Pa. Levy, WOuiS Ass 2 seve i Gis ee eae te eee eats Albany, N. Y. 
Levi, Leo ean (deceased) .......20.6.- Racca New York City Lev y5 Louis sic s sce obi ee we ee New York City 
LeV1,  LeOnr es ganks ch Caan soe a eee ees See New York City Levy, Louis Eduard...........cceseceeee Philadelphia, Pa. 
Weevil es WOWUIS aw 4) ke aah hoa eee eee New York City ev: Mi M.D yea sd seo bn 55 S560 b%08 New Orleans, La. 
POV PA 2s Son oad eee ar Bs Oe eee Toronto, Canada Tey Me Ado Ae oe Gi ews oa Sau ee Chicago, Tl. 
Levi, Solomon: W. vsca0s iSacan ee eieas ees Cincinnati, Ohio Levy, Wi Bi eae eee Soot eee eed San Francisco, Cal. 
Lévias.PeOl Oi a os Beta de 4 eh eee ees Cincinnati, Ohio | Levy, Me Gi ook sid 8 cones sees see caawag ees New York City 
Levien, Douglas A...... 0.0... ec eee eee New York City TeV ype Mcats fae eres eee oe tend Allegheny, Pa. 
Levin; Abraham ¢<i45. 6666-24 ane 858% Montreal, Canada TOV Vou Wes UNE Seat See erage itty Care a ad Galveston, Tex. 
Levin, Charles J....... cc ccc eee een eees Baltimore, Md. LeVive OV Me Bike oe ted eae asst ves San Francisco, Cal, 
evils Ellis < sedan oe ae @ Stee aysie BEE 8 Se New Haven, Conn. | Levy, Max............. betevsinges Rockaway Beach, N. Y. 
W@WiTis FAV NaNs ects te hone oO aw a ere GS e a New York City TeV yy. NARS oat Cre Sw te Re haa cise Saab ees New York City 
Lewin Wig Oe OMe hoa e 948 Bet ea a Sesion wh Baltimore, Md. bevy; Michael Svs ad at Sanit ees oa Baltimore, Md. 
eva oss hea cor ea Se ee bea a areetes Bayonne, N. J. TE6V Ve NOC ic ook ee bw etn Bee ie oa eae 85 New York City 
Bevin Dis on eae ew. bv des ae a ge ees Pittsburg, Pa. TSW 5 MOC aa ee ase ge ara knw eee a aH eS Norfolk, Va. 
Levin, Lows Hees s<sctecaiees 2e ass eee See Baltimore, Md. Levy OLS sucka tied Be Cede eee SG New York City 
Levin; louis ly iiss inte oe ee bie Ps deed New York City Levy. DlOrtisa av. cuie et eS eG eee ee Ras Omaha, Neb. 
Levin, Wouis’ lsc éc ccc ewst abt eed eee ee New York City Levy, Morris; M.D) « ccccucec cen ecsie awe cae New York City 
Levin, Mendilsissckesc5:0%46 oe 8S so cceRies Brooklyn, N. Y¥. TOV a. Nee aed ed od eOesie dis Gans toe Se eae New York City 
LOVIN, Ss Le wseeed Gant Sea See aaa we ee eee Duluth, Minn. eV ING [Bee Se then sacha tla gee oa ae ale ea ace at Seranton, Pa. 
Levin, William. 5.046662 s0%505s< 4 see Brooklyn, N. Y. Levy. Nathan: <3 6024 24c03h008008046 85.25% McKeesport, Pa. 
Levine Zoe Mii ei ke eae he Ae San Francisco, Cal. Levy, Oscar.........6. atte ha bray a cies erat ks St. Joseph, La. 
Levine, Aci sé 3465 be hb S¥eas ea 81503 oat Holyoke, Mass. Livy. Pel Sc cued ie Bitate aed ots ae whe ed B02 eee Baltimore, Md. 
Levine, ADram ci $666 6 hee eee ee ee oe a ORS Chicago, I]. Levy, Ralph. M.D son esc kak ons we een ees New York City 
Levine, AIbGP 242 632% 3teee eee eee New York City Levy, Robert, M.D............4..6- ere Denver, Golo. 
Levine, -D) : csv da tees 454 o) oF 54 aoee SR YS Norfolk, Va. | Levy, Robt. Ded et Sites ok eine tenes ce New York City 
Levitie, Tsaae eck 6.0% pr eee bee owt eat Schenectady, N. Y. Levy, 8) Lionelewscode.eed beat wade keane New York City 


evn: does ce career ca dacs meee so eee ee Cincinnati, Qhio. } Levy, 5S. W..... ceca scene cece Leh eeaw Galveston, Tex, 


xviii LIST OF PATRONS 

Beye, Samuels 44:50 ook 8a-6 shes £0 644 Nashville, Tenn. Lipschutz, Emil........ Sea lareanes osinas. Conte eS Brooklyn, N. Y. 
LGV VY, DAMUEL. 4-5 Shee beets oe sd Lake Charles, La. Dipskys Revi ako oe ee ae edees .. Rochester, N. Y. 
Levy, Rev. Dr, Samuel. ........ eee eee eee nee Waco, Tex. Lipstate,, Je e4 ova ow ee kos ba echtae bx MG, saibek B2 Tyler, Tex. 
POVY «Daniel Dic oie gow ob be GS Sw Be eee New York City Disk, Mattnewen cs vas tex ab ee boy e cea es New York Nae 
Levy, SMEG Sk 4. c Koda erate bn be bow Mow aaeee Titusville, Pa. Lisle, Heys Jaime sis sous ssw atime aad eee wae eas Gandy, Neb. 
LGV; OUNONG) 586 ace-atere Sa nee Oa ews Philadelphia, Pa. Lissman, Leonard..............0. cere Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Levy; “Peblas: hose akc ol be alee eilds ea New York City Lissmon, Edward. .......... 0000 c eee eees Brooklyn, N. Y. 
bevy) Walla. sn oa ast Md eee ae we Rian Cea Baltimore, Md. Pat PACODt Doce edid USAR NG wee SE EER eee Philadelphia, Pa. 
RVG Bile Bn. S2 Gre pining % oda deed en sea SAS New York City Lithgow, James R............ .....-Halifax, Nova Scotia 
Levon SACO spas hE EERG 6 a eee oe ee ee es Alpena, Mich. Eitowilels. An uae ne Sate, bad bh aree eee nace ae ane aice Salina, Kan. 
Tewengood, Lewiss. cccdecc ec ane cceececcs New York City Tittauer.. Nw es cccocn to cave walne oe bemeets New York City 
JoeB se cece H aw a8 ea sow eee ne ae Kansas City, Mo. Littauer, Nathan C.............. ice aede aye New York City 
Deen tile UtaPaje <catena a Ahitae o aie howe eeg acd Bee GORE ewark, N. J. Pactmann: Mews. ashe a eae Ss ee SL LAE Sea ee St. Louts, Mo. 
| ee as Vg Pes ge Dee: Oe oe Albany, N. Y. Veitys Damiely fs 3 5oe oe cated aon eee Gh aiele Me OS New York City 
Deiat, Soe ane note «bu i os dnaad WwW psnington, D. CG. Livenright, Florence K........ .eeeees Philadelphia, Pa, 
SWING; PASNEE So Shr oe ke ee Sa ee New York City Liveright, Henry. ........cceee sec eneaee Philadelphia, Pa. 
LAWIine, JUS, 43056 e455 0 Ee eee ora New York City Livingston, Bs fe ceeseg “cast ce casa eaten Eats ia Pittsburg, Pa. 
Lewine, Leopold E., M.D..............-.8.-. New York City Livingston, Louis D.............4. aaa hee New York City 
Lewinnele, Lesser oo iia cc ceca eevee tees Denver, Colo. Livingston, Rev. William............. Poughkeepsie, N. Y. 
Lewinsky, A a Oe ea and Pak New York City Lobel, Abraham D.........---eececeeeee: New York City 
Lewinsohn, Tiewisac ide accaesi er en te Chicago, Ili. Loble, Henry.......... Ba eea dst a Subeuhand Macnee Helena, Mont. 
TOWINSONMN, SAONIOUS & csc cae ceca eds New York City Loeb, Adolph............. si ake eh sare cos Ge wi doeaaorls a Chicago, IH}. 
Lewinson, Benno....... Leesan sew alaneieed New York City T6eb,: AWA 6 owes the de oa oa eae wes Philadelphia, Pa. 
Lewinthal, Rev. Isidore......2.+0+0e++ 20: Nashville, Tenn. | Loeb, Ernest M........ jes GAs eee aad New Orleans, La. 
Eewintial,< Magia sctaaa 60544 0 08S .Brookhaven, Miss. Loeb, Hanau A., M.D..... re Ee St. Louis, Mo. 
Lewis, Alphons net beb aCe OO Roce. Pee ieee PEG New York City Loeb. Hermann. 2s ss eewtewes ane eae dean Shreveport, La. 
bewis, OS ee ee ee New Orleans, La. Loeb. SACO OLE oiiea gs ote See waee pa Philadelphia, Pa. 
LOWide MROOE RR cic ep ianee § See ek a ee wale Chicago, Ill. | Loeb, Jacques..............-6-. pe 2 Montgomery, Ala. 
ieee | EA) oh gett Sta ee a New York City Loeb, James. vck ca ae petartokamae athe New York City 
Lewis; (We wee cwcadeaa > Sap chietense Salt Lake City, Utah Geb Laetitia eee eee eee ew Ee eo es Akron, Ohio 
LG Wits AEBRCs ve gaat heen de se pee Gace Brooklyn, N. Y. | Loeb, Mrs. L.......-......4.; fdas ora ale Philadelphia, Pa. 
Lewis, M. Aw... ccc cee cece eee eens Washington, D.C. | Loeb, Leo. ...... 0. ce ec ee ec ee eeeeee Philadelphia, Pa. 
Lewis, AVIARY A ceca girs 6 6.6 6a 4 Sewn we a aes New York City TOE, ICO sca is oi aoa hod bn aera en pele tte a Suede Chicago, II]. 
FCOWiS; MATHNUCla 6 ecg tae ses ck eee ..ee... Loronto, Canada Loeb, WsOUlss.2 366.24 Shoe kaa eae ei ase ws New York City 
Lewisohn, Miss A. .......-c0ceeeee wee. New York City Loeb, Mark: Besic4 co haik ot teed ewes eede Philadelphia, Pa. 
Lewisohn, Adolph (deceased). ..........--- New York City Leb.- Maurice: ose ike ees Cee eS New York City 
Lewisohn, Philip........ te er nr New York City Loeb, Morris. ........0.-0005 phsdise gia. Pinaatt gals New York City 
Lewison, Alexander............ ee ee re New York City TOGO A5s OD esera koe Se et aa ee ae we . seattle, Wash. 
Lewy ich 6 ets bees eeOhaak th Geacamand rand. eeckes Scranton, Pa. Loeb, DOlOMOn: 4. i d4 ssa cee ies Cone Vek! ‘New York City 
Lewy, Solomon.......... 6 esi ete. Baayen, hye New York City Loeber..2 3) MAD 65d 005e 5 oon Res New Orleans, La. 
Liachowitz, Aaron....... Ste ahaa ta Se ig ..+..-.-Shamokin, Pa. Loeser, David........... Rrafig eethegste Boiss Montclair, N. J 
Liberman, I...... Ae ree een oe er aera New York City TiC Vy es 8 aw soak ween seh cae ge hs ta dike a opot tae peace Easton, Pa. 
Liberman, Myron S8...... aoe eR alate Bane te. Otee Utica, N. Y. Loewe, Jacques, M.D... 0. cc eee eee ees Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Libersteitie DE, vodicaaccss o< ceeeeceeeess.- ot. Louis, Mo. | Loewenberg, W. B........ C06 Beek Ole Wabash, Ind. 
Tiehtpseh;. 1b sews eri eee s ee ical et aw as Texarkana, Ark. Loewenberg, Rev. William. . ea cosa Bai See Philadelphia, Pa. 
Lichten, William......... Stace alas horas -Philadelphia, Pa. | Loewenheim, Frederick, ...............--- New York City 
Laentenhere; AUPUSE a. cs ee ce cee eae. New York City Loewenheitz, LeOugieiate cans pig ete Saat Columbus, Ga. 
Lichtenstein, D.......... iariaiels scabies sve Richmond, Va Loewenstein, Isaac.......... si iain eae Charlestou, W. Va. 
Lichtenstein, [saac. 6.0... 0. c cece eee New York City | Loewenstein, J... .. cc cece cece e teenies Houston, Tex. 
Lichtenstein, J. ...ss45%-- in uae esnita har ov eeenice Richmond, Va. Eeewenetein, Oishi ois. osc es be eden eas Troy, N. Y. 
Lichtenstein, Joseph.............. patswwiae Richmond, Va. | Loewenstein, Bae NOR re ain Wie ate. Becs errr New York City 
Lichtenstein, Mayer........ GES AOR AL .Philadelphia, Pa. | Loewenthal, Jos aesucesads cece cece eee e nes New York City 
Lichtin. SIeary.c cache ek + Ma idpinein isnt ee New York City Toewenthal, Philip, MoD ey. 20.00.52 eee ees New York City 
TRO carck a WW aus os a6 8689 ediiardn 5 ons Chicago, Ill. | Loew enthau, Wisse: Mies 6. oss re ee New York City 
Lidschin, J...... pape Ries 2G reece dale Surende as New York City | Loewithan, WE EM Deitit oc sce eec enw New York City 
Lid’, Israelis Saccacavae- Re ee ee ee New York City PAPOOI. Disc ass -cdtt. eaten es ee ee ee ee Salem, Mass. 
Lidz, MAS sake Os snide = 5 Sai ecseiats ee New York City London,  Waveres .ptse ews sees Pe eee Selma, Ala. 
Rieherminn; David Figg. ese se ees ees New York City TOV IROTNETRD 6c ceive s-seb tee oe eb New York City 
Lieberman, G., M.D...... iia euiie etone eet iced Brooklyn, N. Y. Londoner, Jacob, M.D...... ides iatetase eaten Brooklyn, N. ¥. 
Lieberman, He. i. ..s.ese sess ibaa Gotti o Pepeays Chicago, Ill. | Long, Bernhard................- Stee Sar Wilkesbarre, Pa, 
Tre permis TSAR Cl G6 cc5 5 da vee cee eee be ee New York City Leones: Ora 25055 haa eae ees es aoe irs Wilkesbarre, Pa. 
Lieberman, J...... i ea nee arn eee eee Atlanta, Ga. Lorentz; Moses Div é.o<sctn eg ae citer eae Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Lieberman, Rev. M. fea inka ene ight weceeee. Kansas City, Mo. Gries cases ee wae ee ee eee Toronto, Canada 
Lieberman, Samuel.......... er St. yon h, Mo. | Lorinez, Simon... ........ 2. eee ee ee ee eee New York City 
Lieberman, Schloma.....ccsecccecescess Philade elp ia, Pa. Lorseh, Henry... i463 diuale es 86254 Gwkoens New York City 
Liebeskind, Abraham..............-....-New York City Lorsch, Solomon. ... 0.0.0.0 ce cece nes paises ate New York City 
Liebman, L..... Reena spigdias Regheol Bu wb Maes Hamilton, Ohio | Loth, M................205- veeeeeees. Cincinnati, Ohio 
Liebman, Mrs. L eye ee en ye Shreveport, La. Loucks, Leonard, M.D. .........2020-000e New York City 
Liebman, Louis..............6- seeeeees VOUNZStOWN, Ohio Louis, Julius P.......... Pe eS ey Wega Kansas City, Mo 
Liebman, Rudolph.............. ste St araleteg ee Dallas, Tex. | Louis, Mrs. Minnie D. ..-....... reas esta ons ete New York City 
Tse bOVIEZ, os sac aes - 3s +3 se cececececsss. NeW York City Louria, Leon, M.D..........- seca erer cere Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Lieser, Rev. Joseph...... Weenie Deee s .. Kingston, N. Y. Lourie, David A 222s ohewae ted ose ak owe se ws Boston, Mass. 
Tight; Bena ays sb sia ow eee ee iebaes New York City | Lovatskin, Joseph D............. weeees... Lowell, Mass. 
Tiehtetone: Gg MUD. oo cece eee re ee cm es Montreal, Canada dpaveman; Ac (3 4281090 3-68.ccesudee seat Birmingham, Ala. 
Likes, Albert H........ Oe ee ee Baltimore, Md. Lowenheim, A. A., M.D................. 0085 Chicago, Il. 
Tlenwite: Mews DIGNIG © ..-cdeens cae eee es Leavenworth, Tex. Lowenstein, Isaac. .......-0 cee cece e eee Newark, N. 
Lilienthal, Joseph....... er are re Pottsville, Pa. Lowenstein, Max... 20.2... cece eee eee eee New York Gity 
Tindal nde Wee Gs os oa 6s we cc eucceces Greensboro, C. Lowenstein, Max, M.D..............0--006-- New York City 
Lindenberger, Robert .......eeseeeeee ee eee: Astoria, Ore. Low enstein, Mich. oie dees gidlatsd eis didioe cues New York City 
Linder, William, M.D.........+-+.+-++---Brooklyn, N. Y. BGA SG 8 es GP he ae gear me Philadelphia, Pa. 
Laninets WRter ees... cece e sees eeseeess New York City TOW CLM lin df rick bp do Se Gordie a Wee ee SE New York City 
Lindwall, Max; . osc c cs ccccecescccscevegie NOW VOLK City ERE LYETG CE ets «is a: Beda ea wh ee ee, Philadelphia, Pa. 
Linenthal, Julius......... Se ie Ca ee REESE Chicago, Ill. LeawvrenGaal: WMG. ood so ey oe ewe dee ; .Rochester, N. Y. 
Linetzky, Hirsch......... seo 4 vee 06 bea: RIOD Oey Laweniritt. Wachel. 5066400 ea ees ieee On City, Pa. 
Linkin, Morris........ 6 bay ease elas Sais SRE RES Lowell, Mass, Lowery, Rew. doon F., LL. Des. cicce es ee eee. Troy, N.Y. 
Linkman, M., M.D....... eis altace ov6 6.454 PRE ON ork City Lowinstein, Ey.s4....02.2+005 ere: .Wilkesbarre, Pa. 
Lintherman, i a een eigtate ..Albany, N. Y. Lowman, I. L...... ee ee Pe Oe Los Angeles, Cal. 
Lipetz, Abraham ries 2 ad geielard nu cacdcetca gee _. Binghamton, N.Y. Lewy cP HDita ss see ees we talons vag lgeantesertar de webs Newark, N. 
Lipmesky,. Bicx 0%. +. bs near eenatnee’s Rae Asheville, N. GC. DE YSEAE Pic ght 5 Se de eee Pee er ae New York City 
Lippe, Charles. .........-eeeeeees ioe eR New York City Lubetkin, DTI ed 5 cash vitiatu doe tote aa OER a New York City 
Lippman, Israel... 2... peveveessess cae eew vork Gity’ | Dubin, David, 4 tn ee ene eee New York City 
Lippiian, se Moan... ees se ...5t. Louis, Mo. Luding, David G......... Sedat bocwmweeeionss New York City 
Lippman, Louis... 1.0... eee re ee ee ee nce® New York City Ludwig, L..... cee ee cence cece eee ..... Brunswick, Ga. 
Lippman, Morris L........ Rec armerrites f New York City Ligue: GAMO DD. 6.6. bok ee ee cs ee Se wes New York City 
‘Lippman; 8: Land... 2. eee Miatowvoin ,..New York City Lubler, A........ +0. Saltese Gils eines Mig eels ates Waco, Tex. 
Lippman, 8. L....... J cad So eumceet eee eas New York City | Luintz, Jacob. . 1. ..... ccc cece eee eee eens New York City 
Lippmann, Louis L....... big Meme ook hase Seattle, Wash. | Luntz, Charles J...... Sat cane Beem aliet ate hele Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Da Gselithe eis wee 6s oe eo SEs eH Montreal, Canada Tupin, E. J.,.M.D........... ; : . Philadelphia, Pa. 


Lipschutz, SG RBM Ba os es a eee ee .Philadelphia, Pa. 


juria, Samuel. . New York City 


LIST OF PATRONS xix 


Hurie, Abraham, « 6444 66 .62aese0 saw skews New York City | Manson, Lewis.......... eee rer Syracuse, N. Y. 
Icurite, Herman Ln ocean ae dk desea ESO ee New York City Marcus; ‘Aart: so 6.50 neh eee ee sae wae ow ee Pittsburg, Pa 
Lurie, GUIS 33.652 Sei od teense Aces oe okies New York City Mareus; AGGIDD es 4-525 5 eevee % ow Gaew eae aes Scranton, Pa. 
Lourie; Morris. 49.8 esc nae ees S tae es New York City Marcus, Emanuel.........00cccecereccees New York City 
Lurrie, Marcus S...........0. ccc eee ee eee Boston, Mass. VERE CUS, Mees tte Sad whduteas Sea aide BAG aeRO ED Pittsburg, Pa. 
Lustberg;, Mi. 644.045.9406 ow ea oes Sees Suis New York City Marcus, Rev. Jacob.......-..... cc eee eee’ Elmira, N 
TVster MBX ee = baile Sd enw ae aed ee ee Chicago, II. Marcus, Joseph Sis. oo secgece nee edad aaees New York City 
Lustig, Joseph... 0.0... cee cece eee eee eee Denver, Colo. Bi areusy Lewis aoa: 9c ostee tesaicjn! saree GS-5 So. Bethlehem, Pa. 
Lustig, Joseph... ......6.. 00sec eee reer aee New York City Marctis, Louis Wve as S494. 808 Fo Bee es Buffalo, N. Y. 
Lustig, Joseplts:<: c4 5, e09e tc eaas ate weeks Youngstown, Ohio Marcus Brothers. ........... 0000 cece eeee New York City 
butzky; Louis. i. < ca eet ntiaaines G5 oo 26 Baltimore, Md. Mareuson, Rev. Isaac E .................- Sandusky. Ohio 
Lyman, Isidor,. DUDS yo: decae ca eee de Sw ee Cleveland, Ohio Margoles, Louis L.... 2... cee ee ee ee ees Montreal, Canada 
yonwAy His se, bce kas 2eOs eG inwdees ewes New York City Mareoliesy Mid squcceigs eee edna ete ase eres Cleveland, Ohio 
DV OM bass cts ace hate SaaS See ee New York City Margolies). Sau. 6a ckee deta e beeen toes e cues Portland, Ore. 
isyon, Mrs.cDs Ti dzaeeeawen eee oareee aus ees Chicago, IIl. Margolin, Abraham J.........0....0.0000- Philadelphia, Pa. 
Tot, AHaLEys, 24 neki Gus eo taewwa terete: Providence, R. I. Margolis, Abraham. ....... ccc ccc cee eee ees _.. Chicago, Ill. 
AVON ii 18S 2 Sa ashe ah wave ececere anes Ourw ad ae Rie ears Chicago, Ill. Margolis, NaS so. ici cee ener eedoes 2 e4 Cincinnati, Ohio 
Lyon, Mark: Wie nin aoe oe oa as, Ore eae es Chicago, Ill. | Margolis, Jacob... 1... cece cece cece reece nee Chicago, Ill. 
Lyons, Rev. Alexander..............-.--. New York City | Margulies, Irving, M.D................... New York City 
LAVOUNS, Dnt tee Sg tee aE gees New York City | Margulies, M. ..... 0... cece ee eee eee eee New York City 
Ti VOTNS Miles cz ce ee PS a as aca Se Sense Oe New York City | Margulies, William, M.D................- Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Lyons, Josephic:ic<: csivecccde wera te Washington, D.C. | Mark, Louis H....... cece cee eee New York City 
TSVODS NE o:5 O Pget a hee, oo te RaRa ae Sea Se ae art 2% Appleton, Wis. Markel, Maxii3:. 427.54 Seas ee ehadun Gen bus New York City 
Dyers; Max 62a see edat a aawen esa hoe ei Utica; No Youd. Markell, Woaso scccasdsecennedwws deceased Chelsea, Mass. 
Lyons Phillips nccea's. bestest pee eak ae eee es Marion, Ind. Markewich, MAMUel:c.4 a vet' soe eee a ee bes New York City 
Lyons, Solomon. .........ceecececeeveues Huntsville, Ala. Markowitz, Benjamin... .....+.2.0+eeeees New York City 
Markowitz, He... e224 4 sctasacuwhealias wake New York City 
M MarKO WIE i Mics. s.o5 kb 8S eo Ca ORES ola Chicago, Ik, 
MiGAléer Nee. FP ws va andh pice sc cas eae e ees New York City | Marks, Albert S................. 0000 eee Philadelphia, Pa. 
MeAllistan,. Wir. Boor eaw ccs csc e ee ce wwaees Denver, Colo. Marks, Harris. 3.36 5 esate os sates ee eee Brooklyn, N. Y. 
McCabe, Right Rev. Charles cn gre reiar eS ee Rraoats Evanston, IIl. Marks; [saa De. ciice secs cea dieg win eee OSS New York City 
McCarthy, Hon. John Henry.............. New York City | Marks, Isaac L....... cee ee eee Philadelphia, Pa. 
McClosky, Plon.. Bernards:. 2... ee. cee ees New Orleans, La. Marks; Ma M.D: W065 3c ced We oe Rew RS Philadelphia, Pa. 
McCready, Rev. Charles, LL.D. ............ New York City Marks, M. Ses hasnt Saul ys ek New York City 
WeGLIAIth: BPR Bong so Bae ok koa ka ees es New York City Darke. ath: Ai. is. sete www so we tee oh Cleveland, Ohio 
McDonnell, Right Rev. Charles E.......... Brooklyn, N. a MATIOOTS MOAGOIOD. oo o4 64 658 Oe OK Oo we ee ON Baltimore, Md. 
McGinnis, Rev. William F., D.D...Westbury Station, N. Y. iGo gi) Pe og at ot» oe ra Providence, R. I, 
Mekec, Revd Wcchciisccccccccees Pattersonville, N. Y. DEOPROEN SG LANNE hod va me heed as eee wale ee New York City 
Me Kim, Rey, Randolplt H...........-+ Washington, D. C. Martin, Hon. John Me. C.............. Port. Gibson, Miss. 
MeL avieilinn Jo Bi avieddau os ssscs ec oes oe Toronto, Canada | Martin, Prof. W. R....... eee eee eee ee Hartford, Conn. 
MaeNsmiage,, ODT Ws tooo ses ic be se ee Albany, N. Ys: iy PLIES IG Royer 446.55 6-0 Soin, 4 caval s Adee ate Yonkers, N. Y. 
McNamara, Rt. Rev. Mgr. P. J., V.G...... Brooklyn, N. Y. Martie Stan cn gc esi eed eae ais 2 oes La Crosse, Wis. 
MeNulty. Pid noc eo eto n ae ae aed A. ee ts Pittsburg, Pa. Martinson,..fulius; M.D... 02. cee ee cae New York cry 
Maaget, Israel H..... cc ccc ee cee eee New York City RU PRM poe Slog bk oo ea eae EA UE ae Albany, N. Y. 
Maas, Revs Av dig Daliwaisk a owaese ere 6es Woodstock, Md. Racy Uwe HAOMIC si. soe ecace ORS eewe dees Atlanta, Ga. 
Maas, Oui c sis eho bee oe onan aie New York City Marx, Emanuel. ........ 0.00 - ecu e cece res New York City 
Maas. -t5 ng oe ite ee casene eee ed ool Sach es aa oe Selma, Ala. A Ech til) Cora amen Ree ne re ree ney eee ae nae Oe oe ge Chicago, III. 
HET he Re Ran Tl 2 ae Cleveland, Ohio MGR IMs Sua = bath wads teas eRe ee eh eee Galveston, Tex. 
jC Beer aaa Ta te Di (nr rrr ee aa are Baltimore, Md. Marx, Samuel: x25 4.036 Seas-00 aw eho He eke New York City 
NMAGKR CUROGIN IU sh. 6 65 4b Sead Sb eee eee eS New York City Marx, OlMONs i024 Ue ocee eee ye eat sees Tuskegee, Ala. 
Mackay, Bie tetanic tho a eeana 4 Rhee grachd tone ans ee Brooklyn, N. Y. Marx, W. Bennett............. Weehawken Heights, N. J. 
piackey Mies Ft, Bo cs ssaws wes ae ee eden New York City Marxs& Jacobson! ca ots seca caeae ts ey een New York City 
Macowsky: TSAGG. . acces a cee ede eas os San Francisco, Cal. Marymont; (Ais soc hee hale ee aaa etd Detroit, Mich. 
MADINA SMSO... o ocs ac. sev easier aeaes = Calgary, Canada | Mascovitz, Albert............0-.0ee- New Haven, Conn, 
MacRae, Rev. De Dosa tenn. St and ck ie Susie, 208 St. John, N. B. Masliansky, Rev. H.............- 2c eee eee New York City 
Madill, George A. (deceased). ........0008- St. Louis, Mo. Massell, Joseph, M.D..........0 000 e eee ene: Boston, Mass. 
Madoedofl, MLE. oc. ccc cc ccc ccevev ces. New York City | Master, Harris..................0 02 cous Philadelphia, Pa. 
Maduro, Mrs. Esther L.........0.00 cues Panama, C. Am Matheny Tec or cule hean me eeg cera ahs Rathod New York City 
Magid, GOW Bah ira ele sata eee ee oat Tallulah, Ga. Mat HO WS legen, aa hsanere aoe oll Sa aw een New York City 
Magil, Rev. Julius M., Ph.D............... Ligonier, Ind. Matsa eS. cris, fc, 54 Guns tien sine Gade WER TE New York City 
Magner, Morris: Acc ¢ 3.24. «60a Ge nee sh eee es New York City Matthews, Rev. M. A., D.D.........0...... Seattle, Wash. 
Magrill, Rev. Joseph...........eeeeeeees Cincinnati, Ohio IM ACZ A TSTAC LS cis ene- inns qk ate Re wee aus eH New York City 
Mahler, Abraham. ............0. 20 ceeeeee New York City Matzke, Av. sac. pace e Soo see ee ea Shee eek New .York City 
PST iy FE odes taeay ya: orcs sieas aolbuse! Sao ala aA Philadelphia, Pa. Maurer, Emil, M.D... 0... ee ec ce eee Philadelphia, Pa. 
Mainoff, Louis.............++s+eeeeee+++-Denver, Colo. | Mautner, Sigfried........... 0. cece eee eee Chicago, III. 
Mainthow, Po Viera hs ces eS Ratan eto etn a eS New York City Mavison, Joseph. .......--0e cere ce eee eee Boston, Mass. 
MaISCl An Vick cet ite dtew oe aaite aia eee Bane aerd Sh ak New York City May, TOW Vi nuk hha k eee es Charleston, W. Va. 
Naisel eg) 4 OED daa aed Sa OS Ree aw ee et New York City MAY) MOSESe aes 50855 45 See eee ee bee Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Maisel, WioUisece toc he Sakae oe eee te Buffalo, N. Y. Mayer, Av Au MD e sc sdnc teeny iemeas pees Baltimore, Md. 
Makover, Bernard 55 cate eaters acen Sew ieee ak Baltimore, Md. Mayer, Andrew......-:::- tae acest Gee Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Maan o Teg, segs cata ce bal Signchia toa aon oP ieee wera) New York City Maver, Mrs. Bu. c..ee ieee ee eee eens ee OREO New York City 
Malter, Henry, Mib? so <2644.46 d4a4nenaws Cincinnati, Ohio Mayer, Benjamin R...............0+-- Baton Rouge, La. 
IM aIE ISK Y 2553 dtu shea fol atvarehe oie wus 4 oe ech as Braddock, Pa. Mavyer,.GC, Oy 05.66 hed tae Ce we Miws ee CERO Philadelphia, Pa. 
Ma IU ZO TIS os. acaca- tas bd areas. G:K eso ata Banna dys New York City Maver, Charles. .......... 0... cee e cece reese Lineoln, Neb. 
NO hace watch eanttent aS ee ale tiy wne-dr act Boston, Mass. | Mayer, David... ............ 00 eee cee ee ees New York City 
Manam, Emanuel. .......... 2.0.02 cee cces New York City Mayer: Fol 6 .cuy sas oe nea be a ee aren o Me Re ‘inecinnati, Ohio 
Manasha, Ay icc ockGhavasalaaeee meee tees New York City Mayers: Pred icy nc0e eee ene obs eee oS BARR Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Marie) ACO) by ie: ase g tose, werd we cckias aerate, 8.0 best New York City Mayer, Gabriel H.......5 0.25 eee ee and Philadelphia, Pa. 
Mandel, Pd Ward occa cores 4s Sd 8 bd Rees New York City Mayer, Harry Hew... ci ee eee eee ee aa Kansas City, Mo. 
Mandel, Mrs. Emanuel...............000005. Chicago, Il. Mayer, Henry c.45 60 e506 ts eevee At New York City 
Mandel, Rev. Morris..............-..0000- Allentown, Pa. Maver, Dke. 6 ces dcus ces enya hee eS OS New Orleans, La. 
Mandel, Samuel..............20-020000- Philadelphia, Pa. Mayer, lsddGi.26.0 to. S arent Serb eee es New York City 
Mandelbaum, VE se WD sree eiatat aa as ge Wie ea Brooklyn, N. Y. MS Ver; JACOD sec yo oe abe 9s se eee a Ew Cleveland, Ohio 
Mandelbaum, Seymour sheridan he eine hey Baltimore, Md. Mayer, Joseph. .. 0.64606 s0s.00000cee cee es New York City 
Mandelberg, Max............-.200eeeeee Brooklyn, N. Y. Mayers, be0465.45 1 466 yt Ae es coma ae Cambridge, Mass. 
Mandelkern, Jiis 044 ass shee we eh se eo Go Sao New York City Mayer, Levinvecs sacks a tinev tee paw ses ese Philade!phia, Pa. 
Mandell We ose eet cP oes Albuquerque, N. Mex. Mayer, Lewis. ............ ccc eee eee eee Demopolis, Ala. 
Mandelstam, Isaac W.............4.- East Boston, Mass. Mayer.:Prol. Ma ioe ie ben am ey eae eed aoe New York City 
Mandelstamm, L............-. Pee eee ee nee me) New York City Mayer, Max......... Bit site) Gop eihatad arlene New York City 
Mandelstamm, M. .........00 2. eee eee New York City Mayer, Morriss:s ¢ <60446 684.0546 nena Seeds Demo ep Ala. 
Mandelstamm, N., M.D. ..........--20-0208- New York City Maver, MOPrris ei: ogee daha aie oR ES New York City 
Mandelstone, Isaac W..............- East Boston, Mass. Mayer, Osear Jog ne'er es Ra eas eRe Soe New York City 
Mandl, Nicholas M., M.D..............-.-. New York City Mayer,8; Jultus. ncisac esata ks ory oleseass Portland, Ore. 
Manishewitz, Miss Mamie F.............. Cincinnati, Ohio Mayer (Nasa sey oe Wad paraidaue bere e.cors New York City 
Mann, Benjamin ’A.......0.-- eee eee eens Albany, N. Y. Mayer, Theodore.............00020000ee Cincinnati. Ohio 
Mann, Emerson.........-...08- abet runs te Fargo, N. Dak. Mayerwit?: Rev: Be dics eon ta eed Os hws ke See Atlanta, Ga. 
Mann, Samuel.-s ic acck ad be nase ees eee oe eS New York City Mazer. Josephyc.i%ien wet auiends Mas eal ew ak New York City 
Mannheimer, 8............- deena Ge 28 ea Cincinnati, Ohio Meadow, Jacob... .... cece eee ee tees Brooklyn, N. Y. 


Menovitch, M. ...........00008 Spread: Bebe ete New York City Meadow, Samuel.......... 0.00 cece eee eee New York City 


XxX LIST OF PATRONS 


Medvedev, Paul... 0. ce eee eee ee ees New York: City |: Miller,-3 ovens deine se diobacen ee okes Montreal, Canada 
Mehrenlender, A. N., M.D..............45- New York City | Miller,Sam............ 0... cece e ee ee teens Cleveland, Ohio 
Meier: Mrsp Av odd anid sein Jaa eekess Portland, Ore. Miller SMO 32-9.5 2-2 ob Ok tek Bee Oe Philadelphia, Pa. 
Meisels, Raphael... ........ 00 cee eee eee Brooklyn, N. Y. Miller, MUO EE os Dk vases ote eee ees Baltimore, Md. 
Melinger, Paul.........0.02 2002 caceees weet New York City Miller, Mrs. William K..............- 000% Philadelphia, Pa. 
Mentgere MiGs sic eisai his ood ee ees soe pa New one Ane | MaMa Miz. arery ee a ee oaie es a ew eas Montreal, Canada 
ys Rel | fs ote cal | Sa A Philadelphia, Pa. RIMES) BENE is oie i eo ne eae eee oe New York City 
Meliors: SOBODE's if java ses ce te cd cee Ode Philadelphia, Pa. | Mincer, 8..... See eee ee ere . Chicago, Il, 
WCLESTION, <A OSED Us ose k Auk es oe oe ee New York City MINGOWSR Ye SD. 66 cin ko ae we bare ew owe ere Cincinnati, Ohio 
Melosehs dacs ws Ae eoidcip 6s hore we ta he SRO Neus Wari’ ity 7p As Bho cc Manas co endo hea cede Gas Rae e New York City 
ELA ey 0 ae: a, a New York City | Mintz, Jacob J.,D.D.S...............0... New York City 
MGI SOT. gisCTis.a) 6 Rees «bebo ae eae ee New York City | Mintz, Nathan cc... cc ec eee es eens New York City 
MUGYICUCNS ERE no seis Foe 8 ks Pee vo os SEMAN New York City Mirontz, Julius. .......sceceececveeeueece New York City 
Mendelsohn, Benjamin E............0...005: Chicago, Ill. Misch, Mrs. ENGAOGOS oo iiss 6 tod hee ewes Providence, R. I. 
Mendelsohn, Herman: T..........0000. haa New York City Misel, Nathan aE ee Brooklyn, N.Y. 
Mendelsohn, Isador.........-cec eee eee ee. Bacto,” . Maen) IS TT 2 sa awigs.s oes ke oh ee eee eee Portchester, N. Y. 
Mendelsohn, Rev. Dr.S................ Wilmington, N. C. pO RICE ot te Da OD a a New York City 
Mendelsohn, Sigmund. ............+.0204: New York City | Mitchell, Edwin Knox................... Hartford, Conn. 
Mendelsony Ji i co.icoa 24 oar ae ea Poa os SGM New York City | Mitchell, Harley B..............0eececeecs La Grange, HL 
Mendelson, Meyer.............0c0cee eee aee New York City Mitchell, Be Se ce MER Seg. 2) abide Src shoved Ac eS thea New York City 
Mendelson, Moses............0002cee eect eces irincaece Uli s: ') MEMiSER IS FBT cs Shs oie eee were oS ...Detroit, Mich. 
Mendes, Rev. Frederick de Sola, Ph.D....New York City | Mittelman, Israe]...................-. Middletown, Conn. 

Mendes, Mrs. Isaac P..............00000- Savannah, Ga. Mittleman, J. H., M.D...........-02. 0008: New York City 
Mendine, W. K................00000- New Orleans, La. NOG Hg Mis tres toting eas Nile racer Silane Sau Cincinnati, Ohio 
Menken, Percival S., Ph.D., LU.B........ New York City Moeller, Herman.......... 0.00 e cece eeees New York City 
Menline, Joseph Spencer. se, ato och ueicie the So Guanes New York City Mogulesko, SILMUNGS 4 bck oaw ee Seesaw s ss New York City 
Merksamer, Julius. ........ 0... ce cece eee New York City Moise, Marion. ..........ccccee cee eee ences Sumter, S. C, 
Merksamer, Leopold. ...........20-0 000s New York City Moidaweér. Meiyiie ected Sa ule eee Saas Philadelphia, Pa. 
Moerritts Max) 6 c-0 Soca gig adiansdd ea ace ewe Evansville, Ind. IMOINER Fed a iig oa) a8 hota Sie ew ariee S a eke natin wre Sots ee Chicago, Tl. 
Merz, Damiiel'sss 24) ccd oinis eoacaw cares nde Sa Philadelphia, Pa. Monash, I. Morris... .........0 0c e eee Charleston, S. CG 

Meseril 7; IS@ats sg uis co wah eee Cai dag we 28 Brooklyn, N. Y. Montfried, MAS: bye.0 led Gh Ra en ree ae, eee New York City 
Mesirow, E. B., M. we Steves ares areca we eee ae eee Chicago, III. Monosewit?,.. Fives ee ead eves Sawer sawn Ss New York City 
Messing, Jr., Rev. A. Jo... cece es eaees Montgomery, Ala. Mooney, Rt. Rev. Mgr. Joseph F., V.G..... New York City 
Messing, Aaron J., Ph. D. a deed ase ia clonal nai Not Chicago, Ill. | Moore, Geo. Foi... cee eee Montgomery, Ala, 

Messing, Rev. Henry a) aia hiekace coare tenn Cea eeae St. Louis, Mo. Moore, Prof. George F..............-. Cambridge, Mass. 
Messing: Mos 6 ocaq:aatcese wate hee So wwe es Indianapolis, Ind. MOS ie sss gan ok So aiecrd areata oe New Brighton, 8. 1., N. Y. 
Messmer, 8. -Gii.cisccsasew cee ov hae eer Green Bay, Wis Mord Rien oe els oki oe teen Stapleton, S. I., N. Y. 
Metzenbaum, Joseph..............602-. Cleveland, Ohio Mordecai, F. Moultrie........-.-ce+eeee ee Charleston, S. C, 
Metzger, David. ..05 cece b 2 oe See e ws awed New York City Morgan, Rev. D. Parker.................. New York City 
Metzger, Ni Anas vious os Saab iaew se 2 eles New York City | Morgan, Samuel........... 0... 0c eee eees Baltimore, Md. 

Meyer, Adolph H............-e0 eee eee: Nashville, Tenn. Moriarty, John 8.... 0... cc ccc ee te eee New York City 
Meyer, Mrs. Alicé@. ccc gence eens ss POSE EE Monroe, La. MaoroetO ds. ence Oa ieee 6 sucks crbg baie ante ts New York City 
NGVOr, Fy oie 5. Ses 5a bento ders eae ae aes aoe Rochester, N. Y. MGrEtis,: Fs corso cease VO RSS cod Memphis, Tenn. 
Meyer, Haren Els das Atta te Sas vin lta i pl Denver, Colo. Morris; Isaac: sc05 sb vies cas Raat edo ca ee Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Meyer, (I8Agies cic paws de 2S ee wee ese SOMMER Chicago, Il. MOrrisy (hi Lis nae o04.5.8 Go 2 ekg ccs eh ese hae Richmond, Va. 
Meyer, Rev. Julius os doch eh ae ee Milwaukee, Wis. NE OEDIS Me. oitaatcly essed © iiciedy ateain Reena Trenton, Tenn. 
Meyer, -Watlcs4cdend oud ae Sees Geena sae Brooklyn, Ne Morris) Me Tigi sno ied doh Ga eee eens Montreal, Canada 
Mever, Leo B., A.M., M.D................ New York City | Morris, N.L...............00. ee eae Salt Lake City, Utah 
Meyer, Leopold. ........ cee cece eee eee Chicago, Il. MOrCisa W oficciedc did Bk A Saais Ron bose are ee Sede Philadelphia, Pa. 
Meyer, Levy... .....ccsecccecccesesecees - NOW York City Morrison, Isidore D...........-26- ei ayaa oo New York City 
Meyer, Loouisies% eacn 4 ic bo:a oo de sO bead Ge New York City Morse, Godfrey... ...... 0. ccc cece eee e ee ees Boston, Mass, 
Meyer, Martin. ........... BLS exante der Nt aca Dt New York City | Morse, Jessie Arine............00c0 cee eens Boston, Mass. 
Meyer: Rabdi. us ceca widened site nae ees New York City Morton Jo: Si tsco2s 5 55 h48 Sad Sire ora SAG New York City 
Meyer, Rev. Martin A......... ccc eee eee ee Albany, N. Y. Moscovits, Albert. ...... 0.00 cee eee eeee New Haven, Conn, 
Me Vets Mass a3 acne eG ena hOe ae a wan wees New York City | Moscovitz, Albert...............000 00: New Haven, Conn. 
Meyer, Mier oO ack eae denna eece aeencites aase Reames New York City Moscovita; Mic: 5 shy dere 6 kita sape 2s Oey Ss New York City 
Meéver, Samuels sc cockuc.echd wean ee obo ke Once Macon, Ga. Moseovitz.- Meus eck ean esses ta ewe ee Brooklyn, N. Y. 

Meyer, Samuel... .......-cecccceeecceece New York City | Moses, Adolph................... 022s eee Chicago, Hl. 

Meyer, Rev. Samuel. .......ceccceccsccuce New York City Moses, Rev. Adolph... ........ 02 cee eee Louisville, Ky. 

Meyer, Sigmund T............ ...-.Long Branch, N. J. bases Sr AMPaC fan od Jac ose cease eee bk es Mobile, Ala. 

Meyer, Theodore, M.D............... Salt Lake City, Utah Moses, Miss Hannan EME dele ler BP Sie tacaraltes bined Aah Be New York City 
Meyers. (ASTON sx osc hat bd ee a ees Buffalo, N. Y. WHOSERi is Sea sddee eB ss 6k se Hao ee Rae ea Crestline, Ohio 
MeEVErs, ioe ata, aie ey Gee ROS New York City Mosessohn, fey, DORE kbs aie ee Aa Soo Portland, Ore. 
Meyers, PaO). oo oy ae eee eee ews kosws New York City NIGSSERBEIE Toc LGD: sats kno oS eee bese wee ses New York City 
MEY ODS, LiOUIS ods, apuca gee ee carhiae Rane acelae slend wee Buffalo, N. Y. Moshkowitz, T: Ne Be 5s ig oh ho @ seve lnider nt osig seer d New York City 
Meyers, D5) wn ciaauag aly aed wissen s eds Cincinnati, Ohio WEGBO VIED AION oie 6 coe os be ow 6 diek ere New York City 
Meverson, Li Biisses cade gue oleautecie els exes New York City MGSKOVIEZ, MOR Sos. bebe ewe eae ee New York City 
Meyerson, Meyer............cccceeccees Philadelphia, Pa. Moss, A. W.(dereated). .. 2... ce cece ee Akron, Ohio 
Miehael,. EUAS.) .4-. neve cues eben sok readies St. Louis, Mo. | Moss, Hartwig.......... 0... ccc cee eee New Orleans, La. 
Michaels [saa Dis abo cti aca di-datee Oe RSet ee New York City Mosson, Hermann. ......... 0000 cee ee eeee New York City 
Michael, hy FT) 0 ene a a Brooklyn, N. Y. Muhlfelder, David............2c00ce eee eees Albany, N. Y. 
Michael, M... eee eee eee e eee ene e ete eaes Mobile, Ala. Muhlhauser, Henry......... AER OE Eee ees New York City 
Michaels: My Maids sp$ seasece oer gs Oe Re ne Sees Athens, Ga. Miulits Fannie... 0.4445, essed cca eee SEAS Philadelphia, Pa. 
Michael) Ostar 21. cukcinasarnwe es seas es .Newark, N. J. | Muldberg, Moritz, M.D................05. New York City 
Michaelis, Michael... «sc0ccsne cogs ones sees New York City | Muldberg, S., M.D... 0.0... cece eee eee New York City 
Michaels; Siz, P yc tag ok daw aanem ower on emaeimn New York City | Muller, Alfred............. 0.0.00. 00s eeeee Denver, Colo. 
MICHE] Alcea wns Maye brk Gob ee axe enaraens New Orleans, La. Muller: AMIQP6s 3 eis 8h Sinaihadso ida Coe a EO s New York City 
Michinard, Pie MID Gd hte over ooh ee Be New Orleans, La. Moauller: Flo. o:ohe-s & bee eae hors So Philadelphia, Pa. 
Mielziner, Benjamin a Pathe a sitean ts ta, Sos hea eee ite aa dlcen ca Cincinnati, Ohio Muller, Isaias..............-0 ee ene ee eee New York City 
Mielziner, Benjamin G............. 0.06. Cleveland, Ohio | Muller, Mrs. J. Li... .. cece cee cee eee Los Angeles, Cal. 

Mielziner, Rev. Jacob................... Cincinnati, Ohio Mureck, William. .......... 0.00 e ee eee Brooklyn, N. Y. 

Mierenberg, HWarry........cc cece cece nceee New York City Mirslinens;, TRRAGi 8 ob ok ke gn es od Sabo New York City 
Mihalovitch, B............6.0.2+2-2-..- Oincinnati, Ohio Welsreras Birt Ae los. ces k sb woes oe @ oe nw De New York City 
Milch, Davide tos2) cence Siren nee New York City Wie tis Wish 6 op ke Oda 6 ae eo eS Montreal, Canada 
Miers, Aine i beccc cy ye ha gue arate was ee eae New York City Wate ATION wc sc cas cade ec codes coded Philadelphia, Pa. 
Miller, Baia cee eae oe ea ear ew Cakes Kansas City, Mo. Wives be Mls ae bs ck sets Oh de Ses GA A New York City 
Miller; Bartiqh 16 oc oe ocd cess on oe 2 eed en New Orleans, La. Myers, Rev. Isidore............0c eee eee Los Angeles, Cal. 
Miller, General Charles ............-...-... Franklin, Pa. Biyors, Mandel Kw... ew ee wee Colorado Springs, Colo. 
Miller, D. Hue ee Ore ree ree Pittsburg, Pa. Wipers “Mathie: . <4 666 d6444 50% ov ade beans New York City 
Miller, Geo. T., M.D. 0. cece cece eee eens New York City | Myers, Nathaniel... .........-. 0000 cee eee New York City 
Maller Fy oro cite oso) sce ata niece eta pie ei aes .... Philadelphia, Pa. Mivers, BiniOnse.. 66. ccc cc eee ee ee ec wens Montreal, Canada 
Miller; Diss y ai soe ain s Vas oS Raine Re Ree ees Paterson, N. J. |. Meyerson, Tx. Bus... 2- cee ck cece ee ees New York City 
Miller,. Tsaae) <5 civ wad fades eee ee as Washington, D, C. A cl Sis hy 1 a ne a New York City 
Millers TsidGre.. <6. 545.0 snes ae eee kees. 4 New York City | Myres, Max M.............cccccceccccecs New York City 
Miller, Mrs. J.B......... pap ek DOs. a wien Ar eee Newark, N. J. 

Miller: T0013 4 228 bhewadn she Gigaset aes Baltimore, Md. N 

Millet LOW Ss eck Goku ra ede Cees Sak hee aS Jamaica, N. Y. Nachman: (D)..3cietecu vies oer See Augusta. Ga. 
Miller, Louis M........... te Pr Or nee Baltimore, Md. Nachman, Israel.........0c cece cece eee cees Albany, N. Y. 


Miller, Raphael W., M.D................ Cincinnati, Ohio * Naftalin, Di... 1... fe ee cee cee eee eens Fargo, N. Dak. 


LIST OF PATRONS 


XxI 


a 


Naim ang AN oo dscartin-u Sites Sees aus ee oan es Baltimore, Md. 
Naphtaly, Joseph.................+..9an Francisco, Cal. 
Napplebaumy Liss ton c.cures ose awene ee wey New York City 
Nasanowitz, Abraham (deceased).......... Baltimore, Md. 
IN ASSONIOT, leents ke gio tsb seeks ao oe 4 daw Oe a 8S New York City 
WASSEMCE A Dorn cate bw b aie Go dale G ae a wees 4 Baltimore, Md. 
Nathan, Cero BN. sis cicbarnbiasa ieee New York City 
UNSERE Wy LIS 45 tine ed ode oo ed we Boston, Mass. 
Wetiiit, POOGaY ciei'ct? + os da ces see yee ae ene New York City 
PEA. OA WORT oe as a dee eee hives we ae Philadelphia, Pa. 
NAEHATc, DROOL 9 . cc cee eae ese ees we New York City 
IN GETHIAY, USIGOREs cei bk ce sack we eee oes ees Brooklyn, N. Y¥ 
Nathan, TRUS LV Sc gaxes bs 30" 655 ne 4) oS alse ka Sk, Se ea Troy, + 
sxe phic CTE. Ah x bodes owes Bie ea se SS Omaha, Neb. 
Nathan, Robert F.............-. 20 -e ee eee New York City 
TS EN iS Bi es art hE ace eGo adh he Ana aia ties New York City 
Nathan, Samuel......... Bai hes lk clas teh ih ag SDs Chicago, II. 
IN EVICLGCUETL SEAM sitios se oa eR a a ww New York City 
Nath: 2tGs wancde Oh ho koe eee Sea eka New York City 
NC IVAAISONTS dds Nyce eal oe ba oa Waa Rw ee we Philadelphia, Pa. 
PERE ERI rE TERNEL eitey ois dooce: oa wa ied be OE es Boston, Mass. 
AL NS: TANI ss ao og Sad oe See be bie ad MR Mars, Pa. 
Nauheim, Benjamins... 2... ce ee New York City 
NAUtr Dit, LRAT cy ges oa sede oe tee as New York City 
Wei Bhp ORO ed nS Seas a Sse eda wa aleie Wiel Oa Boston, Mass. 
Neethé; Ont. siecc tse os ee satan ins ...Galveston, Tex. 
Doe WHR AM ns vrs bb xs so 50a deeded week Newark, N. J. 
DICE, ISOM Gann s 5 ok 6 Se Oe Ea eee Pittsburg, Pa. 
INIT, ES hao cs eed se we PT re McKeesport, Pa. 
NGISONS SarOHED Ay Ricks ses ba ea ee ee es Providence, J 
Nelson, Rev. Leon M....... Wn nee & ate Bsns Cincinnati, Ohio 
Nemser, William.............ccc ec cee eens New York City 
Netzorg, Mrs. Ray S........ Sn Rr ca he Detroit, Mich. 
Neuberger, H.. Pay oniikd ok one deale hee eee: Chicago, Ill. 
Neuberger, J. B., M.D....... cece eee Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Netleld;: Ac. Wes cis Shilowa Shei a eae New York City 
Neugass, C..... snes ei hte ae a aetertiee ike watrok Brooklyn, N. 
NOUINANy As 6 26852 a ove ahve eS eae MARA New York City 
Neuman, Emanuel,............ i de egret neh as a New York City 
Newman, Ts ohn ce badeaew es oe eee an ee cee Pittsburg, Pa. 
Neuman; [onace. oc0 <. 4sr04.60 oo 46 56 Oe PREGA Chicago, II]. 
Neuman, Michael ............cccceeceeee Brooklyn, N. Y 
Neuman, MOvitz.. acc 0.46 sk wes SER RS oe ERS New York City 
Neuman: 6). occ 6 ncn ose eeste wevele bees New York City 
Neumann, Solomon, M.D. ........0.0 e000: New York City 
Neumark, 8, FE... .........5 ere re eee New York City 
NeUSCha U2) Wate oars rs er eaten bat New York City 
Neustadt, Joseph. ........ Sasha eaten ated New York City 
Neustaedter, M., M.D... . cece cece ee eens New York City 
New Albany Public Library an ee ree New Albany, Ind. 
Newberger, Louis... .......ec0ceeceeers Indianapolis, Ind. 
Newburger, Bernhard....... Pe etree ae eee St. Joseph, Mo. 
Newbureer, J. Mi... . ew cee ee eee ees New York City 
Newburger, Hon. Joseph E............... New York City 
Newburger, Max. .......... Sesion ees atehasec ke New York City 
Newburger, Morris........ceeccecceercs Philadelphia, Pa. 
Newfield, Morris. .......... fh aaa EA Bipanehan Ala. 
Newhal!, Daniel H....... 0... ccc eee eee ee Yonkers, N. Y. 
Newman, A.........0008% DaGtoe 2G aa eee es New York City 
Newman, Abraham L...e eevee ee ce ec neers New York City 
Newman, Edward Di... .. cc eee ee ee ees New York City 
Newnan: Tis s).¢4 cai eu. oivard taceh ace ess Pittsburg, Pa. 
Newman, beast oucrtartes eas aot sigsslntere aca Soe Baltimore, Md. 
Newman, H. J............ uta cubes a ateenaeate New York City 
Newman, Jacob.........0eeeceeeeseces Tarrytown, N. Y. 
Newman, Joseph. ... ... cece ee scence eeees New York City 
Newman, Rev. Julius...........2..4. MSS erat Chicago, Hl, 
Newman: 60. Fi) dca ew h haw ead sf eare tc Albany, N 
Newmans Moritz: ¢ 9.5 @aiegsae Sitios wo Vee New York City 
Newman, Nathan. ...... 2... cece ee eee eee New York City 
NGWIMSN: Dl ieu4 bogus hoa beeaea wala ceeds was Chicago, IIl. 
Newmark, Benjamin, ....-ecesceceeeecaes New York City 
New mark, OITIS 3c. aves awwae pusares orate we Los Angeles, Cal. 
Newmark, Rev. Hyman. .......-eccseeee: New York City 
Niedlinger, Lewis......sccccecececcecuees New York City 
Nistanberm UNS Bock os eo eee ee peeanedd eee Brunswick, Md. 
BCG S Dicks 05.0% ssa cane casane saree Bae A New York City 
MEO: ULEV WROD. 6 fu dae de da as awe wees San Francisco, Cal. 
PLATA Mere T1010 515 Oe rr are eee ee aerate re New York City 
Nightingale, James, M.D... 0. ccccce ceca. Worcester, Mass, 
INGE ENON: cr o.< oboe as a eS Reis ede Cea ee we Paterson, N. J. 
Noot, Tree: hanve: C ss cc os osc ee es rere New York City 
PSC ON En BR TO les Set eat wah «ivi aise end at a laser ARE OES Troy, N.Y. 
Norden, RE? I ca Ss2hg oh Bn Gh ecdcagh ett cm aol ave dhlak Chicago, T)). 
Norden, ERNE FET os. 5 oeyes Gi arene eas SOR awk ae Ges Chicago II}. 
Norden, Leopolds..s..0%s 00 oe eewey sielaios New York City 
Nord ty Nias a x5. Gece hala Miactoane 8 aistebeed ac asees New York City 
Northshield, CHaTIOS Snes eds Seki e do wees New York City 
Notes, MAPGUS. onossdecc en 6.0 Reeth obec Washington, D. C. 
Nourse, Edward E........ Si enbea- tana ea eas Berlin, Conn. 
Novacky Je Lig Mi Dice ssa: ele cwt eee aes a - Philadelphia, Pa. 
NUMER) Aus te idee et ws Rae ear a ne .New York City 
Nine Ties) 4 neve eso aus Se Le ee ee Savannah, Ga. 
Nusbaurn; Philip. (06 ss ca vaste wee eth ie ioe Bradford. Pa. 
Nusbaum, Sidney- Lb. ..6.scecccs cues tebe ean Norfolk. Va. 
Nussbaum, Ms eiecneeks Ra ela ws wists. ae a New York City 
Nussbaum, MY OCP: 650 wdecekas ha ea eta Beat ee Albany, N. Y. 


NVGy SIMON bits 58 ore ee cute tyme 4 . Wilkesbarre. Pa. 


Oberfelder,. Max... i6c0s0estecace rage iwes New York City 
Obernauer, Herman..........cceeereeeeee? Pittsburg, Pa. 
Ochs: Adolph Sii.2.5 646 s0 8 S08 6s FSS AES New York City 
OGhser 84 LAD sears ca CSS EE Fae Ow ee ae a New York City 
Ockooneff, Solomon.........-e..0206. New London, Conn. 
O'Connor, Rt. Rev. J. dw... cece ce ee So. Orange, N. J. 
O’Donovan, Rev. John F.,8.J............. New York City 
Oechsner, John F......... 2. ec ee ee ee ees New Orleans, La. 
Oesterlein, Jacob... 0.2... cc cece eee eee eee New York City 
Oestreicher, Isaac. ...... cc cee eee eee eae New York City 
Oettinger, Mrs. Henry............0222008.- Baltimore, Md. 
Ofienberc Samuel... 0-06.25 eebce reve eas Brooklyn, N. Y. 
EE oy) eM! OT 1 V1 SR a> Se Oa Chicago, IIl. 
Ogusky, Mh Reka ter dlbe isch oo alu dnbissity ad Slat eng thas & Uniontown, Pa. 
Ohavel Zion Congregation............... New Orleans, La. 
Oltsterity Pda occ ek pe a 9 5 we Om Philadelphia, Pa. 
GOlivetn,. Ben Zior: D. ... 2. cc ee ce ey Philadelphia, Pa. 
CA ee: Ces Cie fet ccc a. cw Aa ge Re EE New Orleans, La. 
Oppenheim, Deut... ecw e ee ete ne Spies Pittsburg, Pa. 
Oppenheim, aoe us ee ee eee Washington, D. 
Oppenheim: TeAAe, .. a. c- ceed ces ea eR OS Toledo, Ohio 
Oppenheim, Jacob. ..........ceceececceee New York City 
Opnemheim, Lows; .. 1.6. e seen wee ew aeNe New York City 
Oppenheim, Bamucel. .... 0.0... 0.00000 000 New York City 
Oppenheim, William............ pias ieee New York City 
Oppenheimer, Mrs. Anton.........-.-.005. New York City 
Oppenheimer, Fagtry D... 5... cee ee eee ees Chicago, II. 
Oppenheimer, Isaae, M.D. ..... 6.0... eee New York City 
Oppenheimer, Julius M............2.665 San Antonio, Tex. 
Oppenheimer, Sigmund (deceased)... ....... New York City 
Oppenheimer, Simon.............0006> Washington, D. CGC, 
COWAMISES Viger ites ba kee ee Lee eee Des Moines, Iowa 
By cit 1b Ae, Own ee a a Sob Gcbienigiee cate el ys New York City 
CPT LGN 2c Oe ce sc staccato ease wae neo! New York City 
Orier, Solomons... 6. ec cca eect Brooklyn, N. Y. 
COTNStOr IMO oo ek ce eae e dwe ex New York City 
Bo! 5 (oL, a non e e  a Washington, D. C. 
CUSED SIRPPIR Ech. oboe. Say lace soe obs Sedo Philadelphia, Pa. 
GC ae © fc er re San Francisco, Cal. 
Oser, Maarice Henry, D.D.S............... New York City 
Osroods. Se olieda ct cde Bae ee oy either ees Pittsburg, Pa. 
Oshinsky, POSED: 2ta 5 karen ack See eae New York City 
Oshlag, Js 5 MDS asic 8 a osetia sia law tens tec aa New York City 
Osk: Mareus: Disciciss orece andke beastie heen wes New York City 
Osterberg, Max E. E., A.M... ...... eee cece New York City 
Otesky.: Morris: <.c2c.k sas sudan seme se eke Newark, N. J. 
Ottenberg, Adolphus..............0500-08- New York City 
Ottinger;: Marx; cae ccwiirkiantasaeee aires New York City 
Ottinger, Moses............ Pee ere es New York City 
Ozersky, Louis A... .. ccc cece cee eee Youngstown, Ohio 
P 
Packard Brothers. ..........2cece0eeeees Syracuse, N. Y. 
PAL Pe ceed tk §.6.5 ond Bee etalee ater brice. es St. Louis, Mo. 
Paley Herma oss 6 Goes eke eae oem es New York Cit 
Paley. -JOnhs 24.42.44: sa: Pa ha eae eee See Se Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Paley, Peretz........... sole Ue athe shoud ad way ant New York City 
Palley, Samuel. ............00 cee ew atints % Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Palmbaum, George. ..........ee0000% Charlestown, W. Va. 
Palter, EFphraim............. Perr re Toronto, Canada 
Paper. LiC Wiss a4. i.9 wine BONN e Fae Ss St. Paul, Minn. 
Parelhoff, Rev. Samuel...........-0020008 Baltimore, Ma. 
Parges, j2 Uk I RE END AOE MON Chicago, Ill. 
Parham, F. W.4 M.D: .cc5 see keea en cows New Orleans, La. 
Paris sgt: 4 onc Sl wilt w Gk IA owes mae Aan Chicago, Iul. 
Parnas NU 565 ee hh i Pa a eee BRAK Rl we New York City 
Paton, Prof. Lewis B....... ccs e cece ee Hartford, Conn, 
Patton, Walter Mi. 6 ssccias csi sae Gee wea os Baldwin, Kan. 
Pearlman, Jacob. ....... ccc cece cee eee eee New York City 
Pearlman, William.........cseeee cere ee ee Pittsburg, Pa. 
Pearlstein, DNs hs Beha aa aoe eas Charleston, S. C. 
Peck, Leopold eante cite! aa Sede we sate ng foc tytn ie Sten New York City 
Peinstein, BINT cp sdesaslas ihe aisha ale celsgeah prayer ai letore ee al centh te Worcester, Mass. 
Peiser, Louis, IND As eacttels ecvsle ctu emai ad ald avtesarioglh New York City 
Peiser, Rev. Sinica eee Cleveland, Ohio 
Peixotto, Raphael................-.- San Francisco, Cal. 
Pellets Louise. scv-¥ sdtewds dere noe ee ad ES New York City 
Pellinian. SS: Mies2s-cds Ose od hae tle se pe whe New York City 
Pels, Talitise occ aie ia racie hada teed Baltimore, Md. 
Pelt 22 (Fis AM 2S See 38 es Se eee ORES Newport News, Va. 
Penny, Rev. William L., LL.D............ New York City 
Pereles, James M........cc cc ccccceccees Milwaukee, Wis. 
Peres, lerael Fes <sc4 deur ee eu ee ewes bs es Memphis, Tenn. 
Perezel, Adelbert... ....... 0... ce cee eee New York City 
Peritz, Prof. Ismar J.,Ph.D............... Syracuse, N. Y. 
Perla, Josep Necd sae 26 2 eG secned Sse S45 RS New York City 
Perlbere, So ccke cdot pawan ba Cie ok eek een Philadelphia, Pa. 
Perlman, Abraham..........0.00cceeerees New York City 
Perlman, Louis R..... wee cc we eee New York City 
Perlman, William. .......0...00es000 ew earnys Pittsburg, Pa. 
Perls, Fmanuel’.... oc ccccccccceeeeeues New York City 
Perlstein, Rev. M............ 0. cece cece tenes Chicago, Il. 
Perlstein, Ws Pics s saacd ante eears oe ou dee New York City 
Perry, i dwin Oe Pe ey ere hr ee ee Providence, R. I. 
Pesenberg, Abraham, .........0.0e sere ees New York City 
Péskinds Ass Mi D ie hse phew oon SSS eae Cleveland, Ohio 
Peters, Rev. Madison Ci DD eke oS Brooklyn, N. Y. 


Xxii LiST OF PATRONS 

Pevitz, “OSmer Jeon20 shee bate aes eteen Syracuse, N. Y. | Pullan, E......... her eee aA Ga tage oa ame eaters Ottawa, Canada 
Peyser, George B... 6. ccc eee e eee eee ene New York City PutZlers GibSON s csiac 6466 0 oe bare deere glee ws 0% New York City 
Peyser, Julide ds ca 8 ae cs es 04 ade es Washington, D. C. Pye, Saul M............ ee eee ae ere New York City 
Peyser, Nathan. ............00000e0e eee) NeW York City 

Pfaelzer, Bernhard........... 0.0. s eee eee Chicago, Ill. Q 

Piaelzer,. Davids ag i.2 50s qtincad wad Se Ree Say Chicago, Ill. | Quickmire, Samuel......... er ee ...$an Mateo, Cal. 
Piselzer, David Mwy 6a sends ee es wens ae oe Chicago, Ill. | Quigley, Rt. Rev. Archbishop James E..+.cere..e. Chicago, Ii. 
Piselzer. lc. se vucnbavie cata eee ee ees Chicago, 

Piaelzeri: MOS s..3.4.0 05 ace sat anen ee Philadelphia, Pa. R 

Pfeifer, SiMe sare oso eve eeeieee os. 8 aes eee New Orleans, La. Rabinoff, M........ Ne areca lemia sand a teala ee winaniy e aeanhiere Gah Chicago, II). 
Phe ps Bais oi ae iG Sea ee OS ie eae Shrevepert, La. | Rabinovich, F....... Lb see ema T ORs ola Ne Waka Oar ees Chicago, II}. 
Philip, Maximilian... .. 2... 66. ee ee New York City Rabinovitch, Joseph M................ Paterson, N. J. 
Philipson, Rev. David, D.D.............. Cincinnati, Ohio Rabiniowlta, Asan cwi swede oheus wee sees Stamford, Conn. 
Phillips, Adelin€ Io. cs:ccsceegears cee t4 ees New York City Rabinowitz, David... 0... ee ees Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Phillips; De Ho. wie se esa sy ates eee teers New York City Rabinowitz. He wd eke Gags wa ek Ew Baitimore, Md. 
Phillips,:-Haery v5 seed halve Ses Ok a oe Bae Chicago, If. RabinowitzZ,.bee s0 hla e4 abace te Senn bee ear New York City 
Phillips, IStdol., .cs.casawearaagatar wae Boston, Mass. Rabinowitz, He Aviscaiwie +s oexge ta eG Sua es New York Ciiy 
Phillips, N. Taylor. .......-.-..2--.0000- .New York City Ra DINO With) ce o3:bo Pea wae RS aR Gea New York City 
Phillips; Nathan 46 26st 6 eiucg cies ean Ako Seattle, Wash. RADINO WIZ) Jonk i h swan PKS SSPE SS San Francisco, Cal. 
Phillipson, Joseph. ...... cee ee eeeeceeeceees Chicago, Ill. | Rabinowitz, Louis... ..........-6- ee eee ew York City 
Phillipson, Samuel... ...0 00... 00 cee ee ee ees Chicago, Il. Rabinowitz, Samuel............. St. John, N. B., Canada 
Philo, Nev: Isador I sais oxacosnsne sk tind ex Akron, Ohio Rabinowitz, Zelig.... 0... cece cee eee eee Kansas City, Mo. 
Pia, Se ysis aaeudw sda ts eee Go ptie es St. Louis, Mo. Rachlin, David j2.9ac0.geeeee ce enews Brooklyn, N.Y, 
Pick. Bichard .s0. + owawa sca eos ae ea eet Chicago, Ill. | Rachlin, Morris... 0.0.0... cece eee eee Newark, N. J. 
BICECG 7A a pcan dvtbienian anaes wetcle ee ae Montreal, Canada |} Rachlin, William, M.D.................. Brooklyn, N.Y. 
Pierson, Rev. Arthur T.,D.D.............. Brooklyn, N.Y. | Radetiffe College.............5.--.-005- Cambridge, Mass. 
PIIGUS, Abd ohne See eens Os ee hee ey Mobile, Ala. Radin, Adolph M., Ph.D. .............065, New York City 
Pincus; Bernard: c150% 24 00g awww eased Philadelphia, Pa. | Radin, Matthias.........-......-..5.005: New York City 
Pincus Pauliiocouex il aie pe dew atendee Oe 223 New York City | Radin, Oscar. .......... 0. eee cece ee eee Pittsburg, Pa 
Pines: Jie WD ideew a CA ok ehedad ata ness Boston, Mass. Ratt Henry 1): 04 Sate ad Saw nts We Re OE Be ak OG Chicago, Il. 
Pincers Vi kcasteG Ch an adnldvate aan aay eee Montreal, Canada Ratiel, ‘Jacob: Mi iis eed ae eed es aed boa Baltimore, Med. 
Pirosh, Berthold, M.D..........0. 2000 eee eens Chicago, Ill, | Rahenovitch, Joseph M...............-55. Paterson, N. J. 
Pitkowsky, Max........ ee er tr ae New York City | Rains, H. 8... 0... eee eee eee ee ee eee New York City 
Pius, Alexander Sy * sion0 0% ek oebeeeceanes New York City | Raisin, Jacob S............-.-.: reese een Butte, Mont. 
Plant; Usage. coker nny eas Ee emene ye Philadelphia, Pa. | Raisin, Max...........0. scenes Si iaisid obi Meridian, Miss. 
Platzek, M. Warley. ... ... cece ee eee eee eee New York City | Raken, Simon C,.........---.--0 20 eee Philadelphia, Pa. 
Pisuts POuse ocean td cow wet aie eke ee Newark, N. J. PACES Nay ciesd aus te ald ee ae in Gee ee aaa Pee Olyphant, Pa. 
Plotz: OSC Dg sae do sah ada kes wer hx Brooklyn, N. Y. | Rambach, Hyman M.........0.-.0e eee eee Boston, Mass, 
Plumer, Samuel, 20.0.4 0 ¢44 62490504 65 46s New York Gity | Rappaport, Rev. A....... eee eeceeeees Petoskey, Mich. 
Pockrass, Bernard......... 0000 eee eeee Philadelphia, Pa. Rappaport, D. M... 1... eee ee eee eee eee New York City 
Pokrony Daves suuoielewa awe s4serenns New Orleans, La. | Rappaport, Solomon, .............-+++.55: New York City 
Polacsek, Maurice... .. 2.2... cee ever cece eee New York City Rappoport, Rev. Julius........... eee eee eee Chicago, [il 
Pollachek, John... 2... ee cect ee eee New York City | Rapport, Samuel... ... 2... see eee eee nee Durham, N. C, 
Pollack;. [Sa9.Gss4 aiccw o0 394 seat uae. obs Brooklyn, N. Y. | Rascovar, James........--+- sees e ee eeees New York City 
Pollak. Miibecd gw daria etow a oie ewe Cincinnati, Ohio | Raske, J. L..... ee ee Chicago, IM, 
Polley, JacoWsc5 decidceads vases nade tatcnw: New York City | Ratkowsky, Morris B..........5.0 esses New York City 
POUGCK, Jato U vis c04 0G ook 6:8 6 15S AO OOS Kees shos Mobile, Ala. Ratner, Aaron... 0... eee eee eee eee eee -»..New York City 
Polstein, Joseph. ......0...cceeecerceeces New York City | Ratner, Leo, M.D........ ce cece ee eens Brooklyn, N.Y. 
POM CWA ON 2 ooo etka Bek a hee net dO eae Ae ara New York City | Ratnoff, Nathan. ........... cece ee eee ee. New York City 
PODKIN;. TSARC. gcsco-di-gs 6.4 bw OWA wees ea eas Franklin, La. Raub; . Mares s «cobs W4's cosaye ss Sewanee o Pittsburg, Pa. 
Popper, Simon... ....-.ce cece eee eee eees New York City | Raub, Solomon. .......6. cece eee eset ees Dayton, Ohio 
Popper; Stepheny y.065 (es vaad eG need News eels Macon, Ga, Ranch, Max.......... seen eevee eeee ».-Charleston, W. Va. 
Popper, Dr, William,........0.0eeeeee eee New York City | Ravitch, M. L., M.D...cssecseeeeesreeseee sees: Lexington, Ky. 
Porges, BP's. cca en eet sens SS roe rr rn Chicago, II! Rayfel, Hyinan....--+- saeees se eescesssesecesss Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Porter he ae wba ae kee ERS New Haven, Conn. Raymond, Rev. Andrew V. V...... Sree Schenectady, N. Y. 
Porthory, Baron A......seeeeeee eA Ct ee New York City Rayner, Albert W....... reper rr ree re ... Baltimore, Ma. 
Posert,..Henry M.D... sedate oa 60k os ee Memphis, Tenn. TEBRCIGR, MACY CR ey eS bce eke ee ee een ene New York City 
POSNER). LOO. wasnt pias eeee ede es segues Galveston, Tex. | Reder, Ike... . 1. ee eee eee eee cece eee Akron, Qhio 
Posner, Samuel. ...... ccc cece cee tere cece Tacoma, Wash. REGS. SARC CSS 26h EG os Soo ee ew ees ...-Crestline, Ohio 
POSS; JDACODs6 62 is hoe ANS CRESS SES AS Milwaukee, Wis. { Reed, D. Boo... eee een ee eee er eee eee Cleveland, Ohio 
POSS; TOUS. hp co ak B40 8 Wala oe-e lee ws New York City Reese, Abraham..........eceee eee e ence Wilkesbarre, Pa, 
Post 20s cd vine Sasha ahaa tee hie aia New York City | Reesfield, David. .........e cee eeeees Newport News, Va. 
Potashinsky, Rev. Louis M....... | eeoeeelovelanu, Colo. | Rehlberger, Moritz. .......--eeeeeeeeeeeee New York City 
Potsdamer, J. B., M.D...............2 .o eek Biladelphia, Pa. ESIGN, OUSITIa he ARE So he ea eK eee wees St. Joseph, Mo. 
Potter, Rt. Rev. Henry C., D.D.. ...+ . Saw York City Reich, 8S. Moses... ... eee cee cece cece nees . Bradford, Pa. 
Powell, Rev. Herbert BE... .. cee eee ee ee Santa Clara, Cal. Reichbart Brothers... .....-e+seeee eee ees New York City 
POYES) Aivsk si08 Food eke take Sen St. John, N. B., Canada Rarcshert; RSW: SMUT. oe eee ee ee ee oe Uniontown, Pa. 
Poziskij;-Se Ge ogi t ls waco weld we Rae ds ee es Ashland, Wis. Reichman, William... ......-.-se0eeeee> New York City 
Pradwer; Albert: 442 x i6s-40¢ 0689 te Vee ds Baltimore, Md. Renee Be aac. acca ee eee cee Pittsburg, Pa. 
Prager, Wilhamis i006 00m dessin 5 os ae rein eres New York City | Reigelhaupt, 5., M.D......-.5-- eee eee Cleveland, Qhio 
Prago, William Li... ccc ee ee eee eee eee New York City | Reiner, Isidor......... 05+ e eee eee anes So. Bethlehem, Pa. 
Prensky,. Joseph os iis: ia ct ee cee aca oo Reese New York City RAR eee increta srs ke eee aaa ine ee ee ee New York City 
Prensky, Nathan...........-.e- cece reese Brooklyn, N. Y. Peer isa oy bos se ESS Se EEN ee SS New York Uity 
Present, PHiINID. oo ce cscoceg ee se ee tae ts Rochester, N. Y. PermsHereotda iy oR eo cd cbs 6a Oe CREEL OES es Boston, Mass. 
Préss; SacO Deca oa oa ooh Haw SiG neo eo eee New Haven, Conn. POOR) UP tee cleitye Raed seine acs Se 6 ae che ROS New York City 
Press; Maxon fh onvde-s cua bara avers Gare WS Middletown, Conn. Reinthaler, Jonas B., M.D... ec ee ee New York City 
Price, Barnett Lis. sc ev eeeecseSessatawss New York City Reis, Benedict...........000-: Fae ree Re ereen a ae New York City 
Price; Barnett: Lis. .ci0 be ten ee ee awe ae eke New York City bee. TSOP cae Pe ke see ea ees Cee Gate cn aes Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Price, Ira Maurice... .... cc ccc eee eee tee eee Chicago, IIL. OAT VIB hs sale te Sect a) 5 a a) de Wale Sas ay dares New York City 
Price, Rev. John. ...... 0... cee eee era: ... Pittsburg, Pa. FROISENET Ms 2 oe hike eee ce eee Saiatg. inch betes Buffalo, N. Y¥. 
Price; John Ay, MeDe ass oh 84 seeGeeecdee New York City Reismann, David, M.D.......... Haeucake Philadelphia, Pa. 
Pricey MOPS Jess vat $1 Pads Sey eeu aes New York City Reiss, Jacob, M.D............ spsaveraranrae eer New York City 
Priess, Abraham...........scceceecer scenes Chicago, Ill Reiter, (As We i546 ee oS as Rewues Savecha aig Res Bluffton, Ohio 
Prince: “He vans cword se cutathan eee Peneaee+ Houston, Tex Reiter: botisvd. ds 4.442520 65400% seen tease New York City 
Prince, Fenry. 44 i ches eres taiwaia hase New York City | Reshower, J........-.-ce sees ots tet umee tenia New York City 
Prinee, Dr. John Dyneley..............06. New York City Resnik, Philip. .............06. Lo lsoaeee Hartford, Conn. 
Sa he ugh: | Me > Oa ee eg eee ea ae Cleveland, Ohio Rice, Abraham. ........00sccscceeceeneas New York City 
Meas be whet: 460 Ce: i Brooklyn, N. Y. Mice. TIGRPV.2 24 leis 6 0 as Pr ry ry re New York Oity 
PRIEZKER: INICHOIEB? coos 6 oa os ee ee Chicago, Tl. Hide TSRSO Us. s cached ccs Mihnate Sa New York Qity 
Pere’. Je sete i. aa So AS ees eee es Montreal, Canada FEO? ERR et a oni VON ew ale Sot ween Scranton, Pa. 
I PORCAP SHOT Gay on 65 bs ee es BSE Hastings, Fla. Re Re Ms nee ath ace de dee eS! gone a wate Wheeling, W. Va. 
Prokeimer, Ed... .0.... 2. cee reece ee eees Newark, N. J. | Rich, Joseph 8... 0... ee eee cee ee eee New York City 
Priieicotis WOROI a... bb ot ese bas ea ek 4 New York City Pevel > Wie METIS on is ok ce sea Oe ree ee New York City 
Prokesoh, Samuel:d. .. 6 cc ee ce eee ees New York City PEGI gs WY TNEISUNAY) (buoys oss Soo 4 a eines geas wee Oe Se Newark, N. J. 
Prowler, David.......... Ae ey en New York City Richard, William V., M.D.............05 New Orleans, La. 
Pruyn, Robert C..... SAG Sectenae nas Te eee Albany, N. ¥. Richardson, Reve H. GG... 0.6.8 ee eee ee Clarksburg, W. Va. 
PRUZAI. Torn waa carsite ose s poe alee he at eine ts Sie Baltimore, Md. Richman, Jacob M......... ‘paved et wae Hartford, Conn, 
PDE FTA ig 12855 cocci codes e ete renscave New London. Conn. TSH Nah, aNSa A sf ek ee ee awe New York City 
Pulaski, Al. Mes cande pina deceawnsacowanretieut<s New York City | Richmond, Joseph........... iqteemetee eit Boston, Mass. 


LIST OF PATRONS 


XXxili 


Richter, Charles J...........0. 2 cece eee New York City Rosenberg, Joseph.......... 0.0.00 eee eee New York City 
Riehter,,.Daniels..ccosso4 saya gd 6 ewe R nos New York City | Rosenberg, Mrs. Joseph...........00202005 Bradford, Pa. 
Richter, Max cca. acess ah tetaro ace we eae New York City | Rosenberg, A... eee ees Pittsburg, Pa. 
Riegelhaupt, S., M.D..............2006: Gleveland, Ohio Rosenberg, L. & MM... 2. ccc cee New York City 
Rieger, Prank. 264 wes saad ssioe Gok ee sees New York City | Rosenberg, Morris............... Gs ewe thes Baltimore, Md. 
Riemer,.. Wailhbam ses 6 cs cack he ehh ews oS ees Brooklyn, N. Y. Rosenberg, Morris...............00000 ee Philadelphia, Pa. 
Riesér’ Ay Lose jG ha Bae aale Sh O Ow Sane Bas New York City Rosenberg, Simon........... cece eee eee Rochester, N. Y. 
Rifkin, Av. & CG. cuss sadakawsdncak ees Wilkesbarre, Pa. Rosenblatt, J........ cece eee Pe ee en ee Baltimore, Md. 
Riglander, Me Mies nce age oie osc ce eee New York City RosenDintt, Jini oie eth bee eRe R New York City 
Ringolsky. J. Js chia waSinw ass ews oe oe Kansas City, Mo. Rosenblatt, Rev. Levi................006- St. Louis, Mo. 
AIDING: Dos 238 sek ate Sa ech Op trere ea i  R New York City Rosenbloom, Dae, seats 6 eae a & oaths aon we Syracuse, 
Ripple,,. Hara: Fad esa oa had oe cae eee Vane Scranton, Pa. Rosenbloom, Henry...............eceeee- New York City 
Risnicoff, Morris... 2... .. cee ee ees Brooklyn, N. Y. Rosenbloom, Max Z......... cc cece ecw es Rochester, N. Y. 
Ristner, Mai ces ue he a se win eat nma dens New York City Rosenbloom, Solomon J.......-.......00. Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Ritayy Ho Bickel be OOeS le Se aie Paterson, N. J. Rosenblum, William,..............-506. Philadelphia, Pa. 
Riteh, Morris: 6 aiid eso ee we 24s 2S Philadelphia, Pa. Rosendale, Simon W...........0.c0esee08- Albany, N. Y. 
Rittenberg, Pic ou iii ok ha ao. g-de era Oa te Clarlestonwne @.. | Roseher, SO. sa j.40.4 ce ddeets ica i sages New York City 
Teil; AVC Gc Ms cane « vo ee so occ eae woe yam Philadelphia, Pa. Rosenteld,, Bisii15% oavy's de face eee Saeed a nerds Tucson, Ariz. 
Hobs ATOUGL ds. os ok cs cee ee ee bees om Washington, D. C. Rosenfeld, Bertie. .............. 0000 0c eee New York City 
Robbins, PAAPHOU FRE osc ged 68 6.4 Wo vee a New York City Rosenfeld, Chas. H......... ahs icie oe cstectaa Woodbine, N. J. 
Moire. OMIM ois oa wd cake ese e es New York City Rosenfeld, Js Hieron Senet Rak wees iw New York City 
PRGrISUENS BOLE BE Ab icins: 8d dee dai dd Vos wa eee New York City Rosenfeld, M. FB... . ccc cc cc cee ee ees New York City 
Fob bits AWB) vies ecco a + os ese 6p oes Boston, Mass. Rosenfeld, Mrs. Maurice..............060.... Chicago, IN. 
ROwert, PWNOM awk a ck cb eee cc ee cee wwe we Chelsea, Mass. Rosenfeld, Mrs. Rosa W...........00ceeeee Baltimore, Md. 
PUGS AEE yng Greeti do 4 d.0' eas eae see eee Boston, Mass. Rosen tela SN, fossa scnc aia scots 04) 6 ad oe Ganees New York City 
A Ee (os otc ae ta Boston, Mass. Rosenfeld, William I... 2... 0.0.2... eee eee New York City 
MPTSSIIEL ce OTS, acerek Go & sence we vi bo Mo we w06 Pittsburg, Pa. Rose@ntelty he Tis eo3 gi se aa ecton's Wate a eae oes New York City 
geo UIT ty 5g aa Me rr a New York City Rosenfield, Benjamin..................4... Elmira, N. Y. 
BODO WICH. STUB ssc ee cece cae be va ve New York City | Rosenfield, J. ...... 0.0.0... cc eee ee eee New York City 
ROWING WIECH FIOMIS ese. 5c tac ee cee e eee es New York City Rosenfield, Louis......... 0... cece cee e eee Pittsburg, Pa. 
RCH ICIMR IDS Olin stat actacee 6 esd Seiad ow ae ae eS New York City ROSEN ALGy Ee iecsid ee tase eet els Seats eens Chicago, Hl. 
Robinson, WE vate eco ie ain ia ualvatania’S ate Grim uteclette de se Detroit, Mich. Rosenheck, 1....... 0... ccc ecw ete eeee Brooklyn, N. Y. 
TRG DURBOI Wi cAseak web ok bos ad OSS bw we da eas Providence, R. I. Rosenheimer, D....... cee ees Chicago, Il. 
PR OWIIAORS “ale Das Gases << wo 06 ar ewle dear e's Los Angeles, Cal. Rosenhol 2; Js Wasi bGaaes eardas Tompkinsville, N. Y. 
FeO WISOT se STORBOMN S20. oe aos eo oe Ra we we New York City ROsenste ny Ave uivo ea nares nd Ra be ss sue oh New York City 
Robison, Lazarus (deceased).............. New York City | Rosenstein, Henry.................00000: Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Robitsek, ITE hase whe oan eave Seas Sue eee Basis New York City Rosenstein, Joseph. ......... ccc eee eee Philadelphia, Pa. 
Rochomowitz, David...... CRE Ce ee ere New York City Rosenstein, Louis... 0.0... cee cee eee eee eee Moline, Ill. 
Rodenhberg, George L............0 0008: Providence, R. I. Rosenstein, MM... 1... ccc ccc ee ee eens Philadelphia, Pa. 
ROGUE) Ely Wb Iie nc sab aoe od SA eee a eee New York City Rosenstein, Rev. Marcus.............-5---- New York City 
Roedel, Charles F........... Vib aiere es deereg ees New York City Rosenstock, Morris.............0.000 20: Greenville, Miss. 
PFE I VEGAS BOCs oe i ae Sava Sone g's, kee ee lphianale aa New York City FIGSENthG Xo j cise: is oa are BAS a RS 4 Wee Os Mt. Vernon, N. Y. 
Roeder, Mrs. Geraldine... ...........0---8- New York City Rosenthal, Adolph................cee ce eee Boston, Mass. 
Rogers, GustAvas Aw... si ccs cece ees evess New York City Rosenthal, Alexander... .......... 0000005 New York City 
IL ie wal eek getty at bth a vk ui a 4 ale bake 4 Ww aS New York City Rosenthal, Eliazer Lieberman........... Montreal, Canada 
WROGOIS,. Wa visas sane an ha Swale wap a ed oe yee Mass. Rosenthal, Rev. F. L.................. Baton Rouge, La. 
Rogers, Mark HH... 2... ccc ee ee ee cece eee ~New York City Rosenthal, George D.................0...- St. Louis, Mo. 
Rogers, Prof. Robert Weal foe eke es eetayite det Madison, N. J. Rosenthal, Harris Le... eee ec ee eee New York City 
Rosen, Nathan: coos oe ea wae ok eae Fee New York City Rosenthal, Harry . ise sida dee a a ee ack ass New York City 
Rohrheimer, Moses...........0.2.022006- Philadelphia, Pa. Rosenthal, Herman.................4 Charlestown, Mass. 
Romain, ATMan@ ..35éc.a0kcs ctaecew es New Orleans, La. Rosenthal, Isidore... 0... 0. cc eee Lancaster, Pa. 
FROMIAIN 5 Sere sig shee earweaatn ele sock oes Montreal, Canada Rosenthal: Fs cles ginad wtonehi aw a eb areced St. Joseph, Mo. 
Romane Davids aii ese ve eevee IS ES he ee Waco, Tex. Rosenthal, Lazarus.............0cee ee Manistique, Mich. 
Romansky, ea Headers gs Wheel Wo hae wi ee Wala Greenville, Miss. Rosenthal, Levi M.............0.00 0008 Montreal, Canada 
FRO TOTY WVe erine hod erecg Saute aie rae ae ea New York City Rosenthal, Max, M.D... 0... cc eee ee eee New York City 
Romp Me, MaDy cows we waco swe wee a 8 New York City Rosenthal, Meyer... 20... 0.0.0. ee ees Pittsburg, Pa. 
Roos, Isidore. ........ Cy eae eee ee New York City | Rosenthal, Michael, M.D.................. New York City 
Roos, Rev. J.S. (Rabbi)............ Dutch Guiana, 8. Am. Rosenthal, Mitchell... 2.0.0... 2. cece eee ees Cohoes, N. Y. 
HGDOe. PAIS IED sc 6 koe. og-4 4 6 osu woe eee eee Cambridge, Mass. Rosenthal, Moses......... 0.0.00 eee reese Petoskey, Mich. 
Rosahnsky, Herman, M.D.............. Brooklyn, N. Y. Rosenthal, eile isla sg: tetas ese ta tebe lan aad be Au Sable, Mich. 
HOSS OMTE, Ew atew wea 4 4 oso odd hoes Minneapolis, Minn. Rosenthal, S...0. 00... cs cccceesaeseases New York City 
URGES An RINE Rr is Oey cae 2 ae eo eda pO wS SD Providence, R. I. Rosenthal, Mrs. S..... 0.0... ccc ce ee eee Detroit, Mich. 
Bose: APIO GNOIWAIG Ss 6 oa cece on en eee New York City Rosenthal, 8. Co... cc ce ete ee aes Binghamton, N. Y. 
ERLISE yp SOLE a aah le oles sb 88.0 ed ee Bow Vicksburg, Miss. Rosenthal, William H............200e0ee- New York City 
Piseey. SEB rey iii dew ee vo Ga eek ea ea Manistique, Mich. Rosenthorn, Herin............cccccceeces New York City 
PACS: Ke. gto ead 64 da oh Pea woe ee Providence, R. I. Rosentreter, Au. o.s4caced Gale ess Weeks $9 St. Louis, Mo. 
Rose, Isaac..... is detente scardel a ataitpettade hae Montreal, Canada Rosenwald, D. S......... eee eee Albuquerque, N. Mex. 
HOSE) ACOD cided es Gees ews Seba Sw ae owe New York City Rosenwald, Julius... 2... 0... cece eee ee eens Chicago, Il. 
OSC Ms cece eae tte Mt tea ta tt ered aver ee dcardreee Mey New York City Rosenwsle, Ui Si.3 ties ho ss ees eG era eee Salina, Kan. 
Bose): MOPS sis os 64s 6 Fb Raia ee Sass ee Rw bite oes New York City Rosenwasser, Hic sigs e sh eee en os as New York City 
Rose, Oscar B cccuj-ctied C88 6066S 0% 24 es Toronto, Canada Rosenwasser, M., M.D.............2.2005 Cleveland, Ohio 
Rose, Samuel. 04 sews bas cea we eee es eee aes Newark, N. J. Rosenwasser, NTE hh esc oan rat New York City 
Rose, Solomon...........0008 pisegttoe etd tats Rochester, N. Y. Rosenwasser, Morris........---+-2e-eee eee New York City 
Rosebault, W ei aaa ks 6 oe oe 6 8 kee we New York City Rosenzweig, if SAL i ig em aS REIN NL ME: Detroit, Mich 
Roseman, William, M.D.,................ Baltimore, Md. Rosett. Morit tcc. jhe oss ou bb Ree dees New York City 
FROSON§ 2A ti 4c) cals ak aig al oe ae ee dawtie ee New York City Rosing, WOO Dig iiss age retest vd ahaa da os uae aus Buffalo, N. Y. 
Ose N,o He eeu vaca sade we ea Slee ep Toledo, Ohio Rosner, Sams ciated deh ae eos baP ne bees New York City 
Rosen; Mak «5 cacku ohs seo wk ewe Siw eke New York City Rosnick, Men ee ee ny ate a ere ee eee St. Joseph, Mo. 
Rosen, Nathan. « «660 i405 6446.4 wieee aes Baltimore, Md. Rosnosky, TSAAGs, ck Sanne mando eee Aue ia Boston, Mass. 
Rosenau, Rev. Dr. William...... ee eee Baltimore, Md. Tos6 Wyle Ios 3b-o.o. se ad ah Seana tee ee Be ee Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Rosenbach; ADs 3-2 oice a eeeieeae a ieuees Philadelphia, Pa. ROSS; SAMESS: 4 ois eo G9 se ood WE ae ews Montreal, Canada 
Rosenbaum, Henry W..............00000- New York City Rosskam, Isaac (deceased)............... Philadelphia, Pa. 
Rosenbaum, Morris... ......ecccecnecevecs New York City Rostow, Clarence, M.D...............-..-.- Newark, N. J. 
Rosen batim, S22D is 6p dewes a wed aakaeee New York City IGUNy Age las cce ia ae Boe a ch OSA clots s foes anes New York City 
Rosenbaum, Samuel..............0.--00: Laurium, Mich. Roth; Adolph, ac pick ioe bow ehi ceeded Brooklyn, N. Y¥. 
Rosenbaum, Walter S........... cece cece ees Chicago, Ill. POLIT lS coce a sea tice Lich ted anaes dag Beane eee Marshall, Tex. 
Rosenberg, Abraham. ........cccceeeceees New York City Roth, Mawar six. 40s cues doe we a ew Sarees New York City 
Rosenberg, Abraham H................2.. New York City Roth, 1 2) 061 2) ae ee nn ey a nee ee New York City 
Rosenberg Brothers. ........ 2.02 cece eee ees Everett, Mass. PUOUH iy SE POG iasi sens dnd wos Atacethaaeig Renin ae San Francisco, Cal. 
Rosenberg; C25 kc ce Reh 6h RAS OS Montreal, Canada oth, Henrys Maes ieee nins reece eda koe New York City 
Rosenberg, D...... cee ee ees ee ee eee McKeesport, Pa. Roth Trae gcd cd ig so whch 5 Oa ee eee ba New York City 
Rosenberg, Bw... cc ee eee eae Seattle, Wash. othe: Mia Tinc6 ose fir ene pitta ced daa ie ae New York City 
Rosenberg, Dr. BE... cee eee eee Cleveland, Ohio Roth, (Walhain sos ec' 2.5 ah wretce Gran eae ya Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Rosenberg, Rev. Erwin..........e0seee-- Brooklyn, N. Y Rothause, S. Snies BEGUN CMO ee yBonle canes Texarkana, Tex. 
Rosen bere, J ea es nies SoS ine eeaete eos New York City | Rothberg, Benjamin..................... New York City 
Rosenberg, J... 1... ccc ew ce cet seen eenns Pittsburg, Pa. | Rothblum, Saul............... 0.000005 Cleveland, Ohio 
Rosenberg, Jacob. . 2... 2... cece eee New York City HOCH GRU | Secor et tosias Sea eee eee ares Sas a ee ae New York City 
Rosenberg, Jacob, & Sons........+-.-.-+-- Pittsburg, Pa. Rothenberg, Leon... . ... 2... ce eee eee eee New York City 
Rosenberg, James. ........c0cccvseceeee Cleveland, Ohio ' Rothkowitz, Harri B........... cc eee eee New York City 


XXIV LIST OF PATRONS 


Rothschild, .0 Mis 902.3 bale os weer ee a ceed Chicago, IIil. Sarasohn & Son......... sce cee cece eeeres New York City 
Rothschild, Edward L................ 004 wPhiladelphia, Pa. {| Sarason, B............. 2... cee New Haven, Conn. 
Rothschild, Jacob.............cccsceeecces New York City Sarnoff, Mrs. Irene Ida................025. New York City 
Rothschild, Jacob.............00 000: Cawker City, Kan. ASS, OAIMUCL y fos hele Sadan ateace were ton ee Bee New York City 
Rothschild, MeeVee plc d tated eens aaa ne New York City Sauber, Morris........... 2.00.00 c cee eevee New York City 
Rothschild Ss Bic jaca deaeerdsdewwas ts anit Brooklyn, N.Y. | Sauber, Roberts... 5.04644 ¢sses kite natu Syracuse. N. Y, 
Rothstein, Isidore.... 0.2... . 0. ce eee cee eee Pittsburg, Pa. PAUCOMITCs Piso soe als Seba Ee weak FES Pittsburg, Pa. 
Rothstein, Rev. Leonard J............4. Kalamazoo, Mich. Sauer, Adolphs. .33 4265-608 says ve eee Baltimore, Md. 
Rothstein, Myer... ci aicce 6444 eae oe bees o4 Johnstown, Pa. Saukstone,, Jo Ls (wwku a eee ew ed sata Saeed Arcola, Miss. 
Rottenberg, Dr. Ignatz Morvay............ New York City Sil... MOEN ie ccoeis os oF Sh bale Rhee hea we ooE Allegheny, Pa 
Rovinsky, Alexander, M.D................ New York City at. Maciek ako ko Ses a ate aged geese eee Allegheny, Pa. 
Rovno, PIM as ie 4c ote Case aoe dunk oe Philadelphia, Pa. | Saul, Samuel....... 0.0... cece eee ee eee Allegheny, Pa. 
RUD C iy ies ote os oss woes Sea ew eee Charleston, 8. C. Saulson, William........... 0.0... cece ee eee Detroit, Mich. 
Ruben, Maurice............. 0. cc eee eee ee Pittsburg, Pa. Saunders, 12.. Dob suns ciait cern wae 8 eae 08 New Orleans. La. 
Rubenstein, Cy Aksu cucceesawarew es Pewee Baltimore, Md. Saunders, Ernest......... 0.00 cee eae enee Toronto, Canada 
Rubenstein, Jacob......... 2. cece eee eee Boston, Mass. Saunders, Julius. ........0. cece eee eee ees Toronto, Canada 
RAGIN AGO WAGs oo is Bee bt i kaa mere New York City Savage, Moses, M.D............0 0 eee eee: Baltimore. Md, 
Rubin, Paco oc os lise aa oa eet a aes we ws New York City DAWIN, HeVi le oie webs os Oi eree rk Sem ee ee Nae Tro Y. 
Rubin,-Joseph Hii. .csé cede wes baw alow as Philadelphia, Pa. PG JOE: Wola cic seisen'a ocd Date dridrers a nutes aaa South Bend, ind. 
Rubin, Max. ¢ cscs 230g Se ss ok Sansa wae eek New York City Sa. (Ouse cca feiss auaste gece ao halearaus ie woe dae Chicago, Tl, 
Rubi. Seven erat oma, 3 vet ea a Me dee eae Brooklyn, N. Y. | Saxon, Louis..............0. 2-2 e ee ee Binghamton, N. Y. 
PU WV ties ean ANG ea wk eet ee orn ee OSA Milwaukee, Wis. Schaap, Michael. ......... 0 cece eee eee: ew York City 
Rubinger, Charles...............0ccceueee New York City Schachne, Moritz.............0 0c eee eee Chillicothe, Ohio 
Rubinson Brothers..................-000- Brooklyn, N. Y. Schafer, Samuel M. .............-0 00000 es New York City 
Rubinstein, Everett, Ph.G................ Cleveland, Ohio Schafner,. Mrs: Hiscaccs sacd ca ccace domes Chicago, Il}. 
Rudawsky, 3s dae dads oie eared St. Paul, Minn. Scehalbes- See wok aaa eae aes kee 8a ees New York City 
Rudolph, Aw... eee ec eee eee Montreal, Canada | Schamberg, ney | Shae OS D ere never ene Philadelphia, Pa. 
Rushman, Townsend............20.005: Plainfield, N. J. Schanberg, Lewis Moe baa eiee cs co vn ome Philadelphia, Pa. 
Ruslander, Moses......+.-:+++ssceeeus MeKees Rocks, Pa. | Schanfarber, Rev. T....... cece ccc eee ees Mobile, Ala. 
Rutenberg, Charles.............c00cceees New York City Schapiro, Rudolph..............00 2 eee Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Ruth, Abrahams: «.40ice< ase esan egestas: New York City | Scharff, Monroe............ 0.2 cee ene ee Natchez, Miss. 
Rypins, Rev. [sae Doss oes ade eka due St. Paul, Minn. RSG RENIN, Faia Re Sudo wo edd ae ogg el ein a Bw San Francisco, Cal. 
Ryskind, Matthew H..............000000- New York City BORALMIS Neus on oda 5s éTaw bee et oe ema New York City 
GUANO WIS Bats ow bla wales we ew go ES Augusta, Ga. 
Ss Schechter, Prof. Solomon................. New York City 
Sabbathai, Lieberman..............00055 St. Joseph, Mo. | Scheff, Jonas 8... 2.0... ... ccc eee ween New York City 
Sabsevitz Brothers... 2.0.00... ce cece eee New York City | Scheib, Henry............ Sieersiaiale ahaa New York City 
Sabsovich, Prof. H. L..... 00. eee eee New York City Robdites MMCOES ey soc does ence os odsneacans Pittsburg, Pa. 
Sachs, Charles H.........0. cee cece ec eeees Pittsburg, Pa. Scheinberg, PSE IY We ns5 bates eee ea eK des New York City 
DAC HS 5. 2H i -82.oe5,o. oi a ceatu ne ee eee ese be eS Chicago, IIl. Per GH IEN RTE des od ace. G6. 6 Bae BG wea w aS Detroit, Mich. 
SACHS, KPa x os. ui dpe Go dee Mos eens ate eee aE New York City | Schellenberg, Charles B.................. Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Sachs, Isidor............0ce ee eee ee gees New York Gity [) @cbem, Simonis.s .. 1. cece eee dees New York City 
Bache UHUS ois seaacccectsavanstartiac ern eats sane 5 New York City | Schenkes, Isracl W........-... eee eee eee New York City 
Sachs, Moses A. .... 2... ccc cee eee eeeeee New York City ; Schenthal, Sylvan ........ dates acacia I Baltimore. Md. 
Dachsi< PMWM pi ovoid cya ew wees Cau weewlews Baltimore, Md. | Schepper, aon 5 deat attesting cn daca dire hae tone New York City 
Sachs) PAIN D is ¢ ect wae adn /eaes esa oy be New York City [vSeherbeb Ase eet5 1. cc cc ee bee ce ees ve eute New York City 
Sacks, HlArrisys aise Hocaataueen awn es New York City | Scherer, Tasch Dee iese Sick ee ioe ORE RE New York City 
DAC KS ys bis are Sa oe ORS Sue dewai eure wate wes Lynchburg, Va. RO GrINGMUEAN Si oe oS fens. uo Se atc dik GS wed ae Toronto, Canada 
Sacks, Perress.........2.0000. ......holling Fork, Miss. ROT (tls) ae | Ta) 0 1 ae ree Cincinnati, Ohio 
Sacks, Samuel... ........ 0.000000 ee ......Philadelphia, Pa. | Scheuer, Simon. .........-5--eceeeeeeeeee Newark, N. J. 
SAGVOransk yd ice home eiues se eek wee os wen Brooklyn, N. Y. Bt OHITGIE RIEL My fs Gea ve de bse bo bea e's OES New York City 
Safowitz, S.... .. ceca diveeratie owen 6S New York City | Bebiff, Jacob Hunt... 0... cece ese cee tame New York City 
PAlrO. ATOM sya 540s aids wh deel ea eis SA ole Ke New York City | Sohifi; Simons is... 2c. eee ee canted New York City 
Sa lid. Dr Moi aire cases tin iaa Sivavan is ees ates Danville, Il. | Schiffer, Alfred. ..........00 ccs ees eeeewes New York City 
Sakowitz,SOlonton. .......000cc0ccereeces New York City | Schiffer, Joseph............ 000 ce eee eeees New York City 
FP A Kins Ne ON aid kink SoG.adus Gio sare wate ee alee Norfolk, Va. Schittery Water Pe. kk ae en ew o abarete New York City 
Balamont, (ede Ho. ck cs deed wae adeeae Boston, Mass. She ledr Bo MR gaa «oa s,s: oe ace ws bv 649, o ote New York City 
DEW RS, a Wn R ice oo is 4 bh ae OE k OOS OTS Boston, Mass. RO PDINAIE: eres aE 64 ba vended a 6 td Gwe Sew Rae New York City 
POI PROMI oo 2S do ko dn ede ee eGR Dee es St. Louis, Mo. Schiller, PA ia Sit She Ste elon OV ah ea ewe New York City 
Salinger, PE a eos oa, ere tan es Grab a eo aG wee New York City | Schiller, Dr. Michael................. 00005. New York City 
SHOT). “Ase NARs occ be dd ve eas oe Wee e's Centerville, Iowa Schinasi DSTOUNEISS ace arass pa ete ase keh ee ete New York City 
EDIT a lanl CARS, eh a ma ee Goshen, Ind. | Schinze, N........ cece eee ee eee eee New York City 
Salit, WG WARE ES Goon k sks Gaels ealancnan Brooklyn, N. Y. Gehlaehter, Miss tis hates desta aldiow inh: axed wre ocd New York City 
Reed PR RN cs eee Nica, Sint Waa 3 ar orleans, SG Rae load Chicago, Tl. Schlang, gration nade ogc dean rar al Gen an a on aids ae thse Brooklyn, N. Y 
Baler; ISHAC 064i vies Sard eved eee eae e Philadelphia, Pa. Sohleiny 259 aic5 F-3 years Roe aie a ROS ES Philadelphia, Pa. 
Seller Ouls. 45 ass vea waa ead Oe Philadelphia, Pa, | Schleistein, M.......... 2... cee ec eee eee New York City 
Malmo, Mi goo esp ae Ghee b ws gee alee ae Beaver Falls, Pa. SChleSINGCL; cAigd. aie eee eh Oo eR Eee St. Louis, Moa, 
Salomon, He Ace eyo es gceva ke beh ote Vale oS New York City | Schlesinger, Anthony..............0.+000- New York City 
DaAlOmony: dig: teva meee ev Ree ea ee New York City Schlesinger: Ty: sag 5:3 acnspe eb goa ie a higsowe Sates New York City 
Salromoty IM. Loe y6i see ee ed weed ware we es Greenville, Miss, Schlesinger, Jacob... .... cece eee eee eee Newark, N. J. 
Salomonsky, Louis. ........ 0.000 cece eee New York City | Schlesinger, Le Roy.................. San Francisco, Cal. 
Salpeter, JGCODs...6 ss 0d waa ss Oaks Rew eek Brooklyn, N. Y Schlesinger, Louis. ...... 0... eee eee ee ees Newark, N. J. 
Salsburg, Abram........... 0. cc cece eaes Wilkesbarre, Pa, | Schlesinger, M........... cece ec ee eee ee Albany, N. Y. 
Balzs. Ma oi 4 ds cAnined atid seen ts wis Racha e wes New York City { Schlesinger, Morris, M.D................4.. New York City 
Salzberg, Louis...... 0.0... c cece eee teens New York City | Schlesinger, Simon............ 02020 e eee New York City 
Salzman, Rev. Marcus................00. Wilkesbarre, Pa. SwhlGwker, PoUGGION . o... cca cs cece vee ce eas New York City 
Salzman, Rev. Tobias................-48-- Baltimore, Md. ; Schlockow, Oswald............-. eee se eees New York City 
Salzman, We A. Bio Uk Dasa te Sa Biga New York City Schloesing, BMC, 22 oi a Load, Svaicg Renae ata eat ers Chicago, Ill. 
ERE Gls NS, ey 0 4s Bk Wie Odo wi Wee SAA New York City Schloessinger, Max, M.D...............4-- New York City 
PTE I oak) 46 cid Sin wg a dl e a Maree wees Bluefield, W. Va. Meee, FIOM so 6 wee ea Swe es Philadelphia, Pa. 
Samett, M. W., & Brother................. Canisteo, N.Y. RSME Es OTIS Sie cowl he vied a aN ee eee aes Baltimore, Md. 
AITMN Geese cue es ss dae bese ML ade we a oe be aes New York City RAGE EEL IY aly: che do 6 nuda d Geo SSR Ae New York City 
PARE IOMIG Gis soi exes bee ura snes ces Philadelphia, Pa. | Schloss, Nathan... ........ ccc cee e eens Baltimore, Md. 
PreGTUtRe A SE Mee ga ViG ad 6 eae Gime epi bare a Portland, Ore. ROL IOST MORIA Ts cc io ck a nd WA Oe eee ee Detroit, Mich. 
RE AB ORR Mas ok be RIG 6 yO ocha Gae G ae New York City Schmeidler, Leopold. ............0 seer ees New York Cit 
MSIIUIOISON : ORCUO.. 5 64.508 eee eG Kaeo ates ae 4 New York City NOHO NESOAMIE] 5.64 ecg ee chk wees oe Se Ithaca, N. 
MARUI Ri PAN: A cas seks eee oe aa ae 3s New Haven, Conn. SATII E VE eh ole ows Seb a Os Re a ae Providence, R. I. 
alere MEO ca cena oD eee New York City | Schmidt, S. H.......cccceceeee cece eeeune .-Manor, Pa. 
Sanders; Louies 22:5 b 4 ado de4 se Bae ees Brooklyn, N. Y. Schmookler, Henry B., M.D........ ....,-Philadelphia, Pa. 
Sandfield, Ac :iic..0ks eee edu seews San Antonio, Tex. Sechmultz, Samuel D............ Victoria, B. C., Canada 
Sanditen, Mordecai Hirsh................ Brooklyn, N. Y. SPREE TOOTS Nees Wein eee go ace ais cd Wade a ae baie ae SHS Pees Augusta, Ga. 
Sanvet,- POVipecns sa 2cohst ieee Meas beeees Dallas, Tex, SOMMESEr. TICNTU 6c wee ae kasd bee eda bas New York City 
Sanger SoMa 1 15 feces teil Seeds eel ee a Mes Waco, Tex. SCHHITZCL: MIGPCUS) cic oc vad ee ee eee ae New York City 
Sanguinetti, Percy A. ....6e cence eect eres New York City f Sebi. Biss adds ieee coi ees a eee an ss New York City 
Santer, Bernard.......... aig Cah I asa deci, New York City Schoen, Adolph, M.D (deceased).......... Yankton, 8. D. 
Santz, Simson V., M.D...... re See Philadelphia. Pa. SCHOCNs 2 iy usual oe Meee Sawa eee Sek New York City 
Saperston, Julius SC Was Rito cce er Otaees Buffalo, N. Y. Schoen, ten ite os hae anne s Bee es New York City 
Sapirstein, N. L., M.D..........0 0 eee ee eee Pittsburg, Pa. | Schoenberg, Isidor........ 0... 00 cs eee eee Baltimore, Md. 


SarasOhn, OM 4. os aisacaces eek weeks BS Kes Detroit, Mich. !' Schoenberg, L........ ccc eee ee eee .Providence, R. I. 


LIST OF PATRONS 


AXV 


pe 


Schoenberg, M.........00..c0ces ey St. Louis, Mo. 
Schoenberger, Wed... cc ccc wee cece ean: Cleveland, Ohio 
Schoenfeld, Benj. P.. ... cee cc cw ee ee ee NOW York City 
PCRS ED Nay Bk Pee b6 esd ie Mie aoe hae eb a GEO! Seattle, Wash. 
PIOMOCMMOD: IKON Ades os cave a bed be Voda cs a8 Elizabeth, N. 
PCHOOMTNOy HIGDEM. oo .ce ees ea eee Se ee ee Ww ashington, Pa. 
Sechomer, Abraham S..........0: eee re ee New York City 
SOO ile, MOSEDNE | i cso dard eeu Sav eaud eee Columbus, Ohio 
PRENGOUET > CORRE. ws cs case w ee eae ca eae Boston, Mass, 
Schreiber. Rev. Dr. Emanuel...............4- Chicago, Hl. 
POUR OTT IMM tg aS 6 boa. ack wUal oh e Bias Bee Sew a New York City 
SENIINE: MCMIGMNINs 6s kas ba eee REO ae oO OR New York City 
Schulang, Philip. .........0-0.0cccececces New York a 
Schiulmun; Abraham... .....cec cece eene- Brooklyn, N. 
MOHINIAI, ION lad 5 os eos ada Sea oe See ee as Brooklyn, N. ¥ 
SOE RIULE AA Phe, Ue ns Gee wind S's Wie w Sew ace Swe Minneapolis, Minn. 
oLsaur | ae: ty Oa? (2/619 ea a i rr PP Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Bebulwisn, LOWSe0., 205 sce cece eee nea Brooklyn, N. Y. 
tate hay Choad Mc: 5) rae Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Schulman. Rev. Samuel...................-New York City 
PRET GL Sil ck 8s Bua RE so oe ek gi base wb ie ain Shoes Olyphant, Pa. 
GEE NS hath tis ere oS a a we ede ee Chicago, Il. 
Schultz,Samuel D............... Vancouver, B. C., Canada 
Schumack, Rev. Ambrose.......... een New York City 
Preah. EAT ays scans 3 oe eee a See ee eas New York City 
rc [e] ONC) 5] MWR 229 2 Ses nr a Brooklyn, N. ¥. 
PIGRWAEC Ss Bia. etah bk So as 6S Paka oe Raa e's New York City 
GW A Rr ag. «6 i 2 eile eee SEES ON A New York City 
SOW WAG CNATIOS TE. 6 ion des ewes bbe e opens cae Chicago, Ill. 
PIG WAL, OMT EROER. bg ba ce 24 oe obs Cleveland, Ohio 
Og R a ed Bo 6: A a rr a a rear St. Louis, Mo. 
Sehwab, JOU. .0s <dsnk ew eee eas we be egaes Chicago, Ill. 
Schwabacher, Mrs. A........-+.eee00% San Francisco, Cal. 
Schwabacher, Mrs. Max..........00.200- New Orleans, La. 
Schwan, TMi oe sees eceenews Ae eseey ere New York City 
Schwarecz, Max M.......... ccc ccc eee eees Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Schwartz, Mrs. A... cece cece n ence ce eees Brooklyn, N. 
Schwartz, Aarons ciw.6in vi bewe ewes ewes Plymouth, Pa. 
Schwartz, Adolph. ..... .. ccc eae e ces enae New York City 
Schwartz; Ba Ms. sessis cast e@atagawen aeacws New York City 
Schwartz, Charles,.........c0ccc cc eeces Philadelphia, Pa. 
Schwartz, D..... cc ee ee ee Se a Lafayette, Ind. 
SchwartZ, David.aius ce0en 4 ack Goo oe RAS New York City 
Sch Wart 2a: Lisyetes ooh a hah wie ow Aue ww Sree eee Knoxville, Tenn. 
Schwartz, LOWS. docs 6e6 awe sick oe eaeds New York City 
Schwartz: My ub sate es Soo ONS Swe ewes Utica, N. Y. 
Schwartz, Mrs. M. M.... .. ccc eee eee eee New York City 
eb wat ee, GR sg gies wa eee eee ew ee ees New York City 
SSCL WELT ES, NUCV Oe Aries 6 ob a bu Sie oe 64 ols ara e oe New York City 
SAneeres, MONIES. WED)... ca ca ee eee cee ow aee New York City 
SS GAAWEE CBs USUITIE iicae-cs ce eo oS e pa Awe New York City 
Bohwartzbere, Alae, . ok ce ee ee ee eee New York City 
Schwartzberger, J. B., & CO... cece cee eee Shreveport, La. 
Schwarz, Me SNE ccc ot ee a ealew oaeanie ae Mobile, Ala. 
Schwarzkopf, Gustave. .......0.c0ceeeeeee New York City 
Schwarzschild, Samuel. .......-.02eeeeeee New York City 
Schwed, Oia le pee. <acess pals reread noir’ Somerville, N. J. 
Schweitzer, Mrs. Jacob........2ceeee: San Francisco, Cal. 
PCDAVEIZORs UUs g.. bi es ee edie ee ee ws New York City 
Scleweitser, OAMUCl,.. occ ace ee ee sees ee ee es Chieago, I. 
Schwob, Adolphe. Ee ere ere Stren e ee eee New York City 
REESE iy IVE ences Ee #6 0d. ctie os a aw ime ates Newport News, Va. 
Berimmer, dOSOPO SB i:.. 6 ec ee eee ee ns Montreal, Canada 
Te art Re ORE eo Se ere New York City 
PAL rls tede Maced Bs oa eae BER eas New York City 
GRUNGE, Woes 4 Se tvcies vn esos oe wk ea Re ek ae New York City 
Seasongood, PG aires 8 Sasi. 2 aha ist ws dor wide gry eee a Cincinnati, Ohio 
BIGGS Tons. oscar enn SERS 8% eee ere ee er re Pittsburg, Pa. 
BOGS. GhaPIOG< Caciik «Goh are Fee a ele HE Ab wed Allegheny, Pa. 
Petes BEOHIA  hee 4s os 5 Gk wa ae a Gia SSeS New York City 
SRST A AAR UE Bits coapsen ovieton Yao ado avai -d do ecarw a ae Northumberland, Pa. 
Seff, Reade OY OA ee ae ee are ee ae ere eee Baltimore, 
Segal, Poet NRG EE owed Bae ae dikcesas Poco Pa. 
Segal, baad, WII Sante cabin reverts en wise Philadelphia, Pa. 
eR SEE Eo, ee, SA 2 ee Pe a eee aren New York City 
Segal, MRE Ad oly 6 aaa Sok 4 9 wD a me Portland, Ore. 
RRP Fx Woe tod ath hah hts cok Daido Ba) aha ane oe Sa Portsmouth, Va. 
Seidenman, Selig, & Brother............... Baltimore, Md. 
Sarit, NAbhAt dls . 6 i ce Cee co eew aa wee New York City 
Seidmann, Migewe AWD) cs sks asin OS ES RP OS Newark, N. J. 
Seifter, F ROUEN lee 6 cea da bb oa Sevagwdaca Brooklyn, N. Y. 
SS eeliretl CAE SENE ed 8 ial exavied ocd d weds anes es os Se New York City 
Seigsmeister, Willam.............0+520-- New York City 
Seinsheimer, Henry A.........00 2 ee eee Cincinnati, Ohio 
SeltMa ty Ou sia do ewe Oe ae Oe ee ee ee Binghamton, N. Y. 
Seitz; Daniel. cc eit do ce Peewee es wes New York City 
Seldin, Nathan A... ... 2. cece cee ce ee re wee New York City 
Selig De haus Staak a eee Sole eas Philadelphia, Pa. 
Selig. G6, Mew ou cratsee Gace oS 26s eho SSS ee Chicago, III. 
Seliger, Solomon. ......-..-.+eceeeeeeeee Baltimore, Md. 
Seligman, Aaron. ...... cc ce ee ee ee eens New York City 
Seligman, Edwin R. A... 2... cece ee ee ene New York City 
Seligman, Isaac N.......... 2.2 ee cece ee New York City 
Selikovitz, Adolph. ........ 0 cece ee eee eee New York City 
Sellers oslo 9 4c5en beta Va eeat ka ee ere Morrillton, Ark. 
Sellers, Maurice M........... 2: ce eee ee eees Lynn, Mass 
Seltzer, Barnett. .... 0... 00sec eee ee ee eee Hartford, Conn. 
Selz, Morris. ...... 0... c cence eee eee eens Chicago, il 


MICENUG). Sire ee tase Har cognate Pinta Ste Ah ee iste Erie, Pa. 
Sensheimer, Charles..............-.-++..- New York City 
Serkau, Louls.............. Niverville, Manitoba, Canada 
Perwer, MOrrisss -«, saree ese ee Sa ie SS Se ew York City 
Bessler, ATHOI. 5 io 64 alee awe ba see eee New York City 
Setlow, Joseph H....... 0... eee ee ee New Haven, Conn. 
Shabad, Pca Vi Ai cated: ite catete ats Sin che na Gt Chieas o, Ul. 
Shabad, Henry NG oink oes 8 wets, atc ash ear Baas Chicago Ill. 
ER ig Abe ah eo cena edie Siaanenx em oaceaeels Nashua, N. 
Shaetler,. Davidwi<<2.sabs06 Giws Hondo eek es Pittsburg, Pa. 
Shaeffer, Samuel J...... 0... cee ee eee ee Chicago, IIl. 
Shiai. Carles 50 sa» adetustenccin on a Seca wee he aeabes New York City 
Shiaine: 3 Me 4s.¢asanwe dot ele eed kee New York City 
SHADING Ky 5 0 ccc kas wie ead ae Ne Ra ek ew een ae Louisville, Ky. 
Shapiray Divas itn ietanarew cane Megs ats Montreal, Canada 
Shapiro As.c.o ce ats-s sae ee ew RS Winston-Salem, N 
Shapiro, AGrON Ss 2bw saber ee ON eee gas New York City 
Shapiro, Adolph. ........... ces ee eee ee nee New York City 
Shapiro;;Cli.a. week be sacha s bean ae Pes New Haven, Conn. 
SHADIEO, (Diss cain GRO eE eee ee eas Montreal, Canada 
SHADING ple gece tis ade Gees Vyas de de ea eee Se .New York City 
Shapiro. Ll. a hou. os naga ee thee w as wea esate oe se Chicago, IIl. 
Shapiro, Mrs. Helen.............. Colorado Springs, Colo. 
SEE T Ee et ENN ORK 5. 94's Gilg n wa a Ae BRR ees eveland, Ohio 
SIREN EG OA OL ete hice ene 6 Oe ewe ee ee Chicago, Ll. 
PATE AEVEE Che Pal eno A asthe hoe Sako Sa ee gp SS Salt Lake City, Utah 
DPADIFG? PEOOU Se aii sca exe vee ee ea Kee Brooklyn, N. Y. 
SLTATIIV A: MENG wine a: + a ea a ate a ew ie Seta See New York City 
PANE APIS 8 vii. koe ace eee Ewa wR ees New York City 
AAI) GAGS iia) oss saa Phd te Reale kOe Montreal, Canada 
PSINECEVEE Cy. SARITA 2, ets da ace cen sata BHAA Seem BLES New York City 
SEDER te Ae, oe 6. de 8 oi og Vals Sie ele Ww UR OY New York City 
PRG; WACO ASS. 6 bbs cece eee weed as Washington, D. 
ST ATOM eae i ka a ee ee wee Dee Philadelphia, Pa. 
BHAT k dates fa cee baw e eee ee ee as New York City 
Shatz, ho i a en ee Philadelphia, Pa. 
rot] LAAT A a2 Dei, REY Oa eS Brooklyn, N. Y. 
So IVER OMIIED SS Pil aakudiand 6 0% Oo ace ele HR a ED New York City 
Sheffer, Harry Set ee ee een ee Millville, N. J. 
Sheffield, Heenan Big MDs bb wee end 3 es New York City 
Sei Oh, Gate 6a kG bed see ee ees ee ee San José, Cal. 
OTs MOE WS cart. ood ic o-doe'e ws au caw 2 dotatma Norfolk, Va. 
Stheftelson; BOlOMOn.... i... cee eens ea Philadelphia, Pa. 
Hees Vis aks ka ca ee a eee leee sites New York City 
CBT IVECO, chs 2 Sere es ook 6 ded are po ee Cee Pittsburg, Pa. 
Shenken; dulius,(8LD.... 0c. cee wees Philadelphia, Pa. 
Shenktiat: MAMUIEL:. 0.655 ce owe ene hes New York City 
Sheppard, E. Ey.. ccc. s cc tee i's eae see Toronto, Canada 
Sher, Bennett... 2.0... cece eee ene eeees . Pittsburg, Pa. 
Sher, PlAWatds: sos a ees baa seer amet New York City 
Sherbow, Rev. Jacob 8S...........-2+.00 Philadelphia, Pa. 
Sherman Hid oe sa sora ech eee Wen ee Binghamton, N.Y. 
Sherman, Louis I... 2... ce ce ee ee ee New York City 
Sherman. Mik ies sutetse sate teaees dca die ache ae Albany, N. Y. 
Sherman, Oscar. ..... ccc cree cece eeeeee Jersey City, N. J. 
Sherman, Samuel. ....... 0... e eee eee Fredericktown, Mo. 
Sherman, Samuel...........02c cece acces St. Louis, Mo. 
Shield, Jacob: Ss.os14 dovasedisaces ede segues Warsaw, Ind. 
ST LGR oes: ae hcsatec ce: aged lesa: Seed Se oom. Baynes New York City 
Shinkman, Samuel...........- eee ee eae New York City 
Dips (e aok vt eh RO eS eee ee ees Montreal, Canada 
Shiacheteky, Louis, MDs cas ak eka hae es New York City 
Siilesss. Aw, (tte wow a ceraee eens metaaha seek Chicago, IIL. 
Shievin, H.-S.¢ Mabe: cheticees aes oti t Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Shlivek, Hyman ........0e0 eee ce eee cees Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Slmiitter: HACIA OS). coos aan eee ae ee ea we Chicago, Ill. 
SOHO UIEILTE: SIOGEPBierg 5 5 6s eek eee ala eee Charlestown, Mass. 
ROOTS: TROW;, ASEROLOS 6 cc oa eae ea Sosa ee ews Newark, N. J. 
Shragge, Alexander. ......-.--5+0-05. Rat Portage, Canada 
SATE MOC, Gaby G ghiiys o°si sole bo aie wo SE ae Sa New York City 
St ARCOM da whee csc cae eee ee ee New York City 
Shulclarialey. IAGO dD, si. ee ke ee ee ee es New Castle, Pa. 
SW, OAR, bo 86s dN eee ke ew ees New York City 
SIKU Pave ke Meetecnsrete dos a awte ts Sank ey ae Montreal, Canada 
Oaths ctor t tie ac dea ed ee hee aes New Haven, Conn. 
NUR Tite ks SE: 160) a rr Baltimore, Md. 
Biumbere: GOAT Ee. oo. es kee ete cet dae New York City 
Vr 60 | RE col NF 5 ee a Boston, Mass. 
Shure; Mandel. «5.4.4 ¢s044.5 ¢2%404 14 bites Chicago, IIL. 
Shwartz, SIMON, ....6.00cccc cesses enece Cineinnati, Ohio 
Shweitzer, Julius... 2... cece eee teens New York City 
Sichel, Maurice... 6.004 260s ome se es ean New York City 
Sichel, Sigmund. .......... 0... eee eee eee Portland, Ore. 
Sickles, CUUSTAVUS 6 :c8 6 dol nce Sa 4G arp ew ae AS Newark, N. J. 
Sickles, Louis. ......... 0.20 cece cece ees Philadelphia, Pa. 
Sidenberg, Charles... 04 eiaa case eaa a. sated New York City 
Siebler, Bernard H... 0c. seen ea ee eile Cincinnati, Ohio 
Siegel, Avs soc n0d su0a%og eswen Can ea eg Wee pee aodoae 
piegel, (Henrys .é% 3.05 tae 2 ieeaaenm ss sab eee New York City 
Siegel; [Saaenyy ows aietawa et aGesweamauy New York City 
Siegel, Rachel U.. oo... cc ee eee Salt Lake City, Utah 
Siegel.” Samuel so. 6 ics ko va ood odo baw seer cds Newark, N. J. 
Siegelstein, L. E., eas ee: atv Gish abs autedl tame Cleveland, Ohio 
Sigmund, 8..... gach tshtnce sat eila WieRar eaac ica aad New York City 
Silberberg, Davide. ier eee eee New York City 
Silberberg, (Pred ax cus wwe sede gts Beate Bradford, Pa. 
Silberberg, Siegfried. ..........-.e0 ee eeuee New York City 
Silberblatt;. 8. ioc iaceeee od es o64 048 eh aes New York City 
Silberfeld, Rev. Julius.................00 08 Newark, N. J. 


Xxvi LIST OF PATRONS 


Silberman, David... ........--00 0200 ee eee New York City | Smith, Robert. ......... 0.0.2.2 eee eee eee New York City 
Silberman, [4 sewsesc'ed. 26 eva keewenre eae kt vew York City | Smith, Rev. Samuel G..................2.. St. Paul, Minn. 
Silberman, Jacob... ...0.0.......00- eee eee New York City MMOMNSKY ,. dvd isos See ao ie oF Oe eee New York City 
Silberman, Jacob L.... 0.2... eee ee ee Philadelphia, Pa. SUR ICT 3. bbe. 4 5 avs. oh ahaa eae eee aes R ees Philadelphia, Pa. 
Silberman, Max..3 sc 20 ses eae eee s Kee es New York City | Smyth, Jobn............. 00.5 e eee eee New Orleans, La. 
Silberman, Morris. ..........-.+2 005s eee New York City Snellenberg, Joseph W............2.20-- Philadelphia, Pa, 
Silbe. man, Samuel J... 2... ee ee eee New York City | Snellenberg, Nathan.................... Philadelphia, Pa. 
Silberman, Tanchum..................50- Baltimore, Md. Sobel, Isador: 2s vx os AG keel ek ewe CAs Od eRe Erie, Pa. 
Silberstein, Bernard... ........-.2. 0000 eee Duluth, Minn. Sobel, JGC0D. coos vicau baw a dad ohne Geen eks Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Silberstein, Solomon. .............-00005 Philadelphia, Pa. Sobel, Jacoby MoD, ick ce view e ae en eed eas New York City 
Silberstein, Solomon D.............--..-. New York City | Sobel, 8. RR... kee cee cece eee eee Pittsburg, Pa. 
Silke, Charlesd o s0.4 Gs ca bee eae Sede Perth Amboy, N. J. Sobel, Samuel. ....... 0.000 eee cece eens Brooklyn, N. Y 
Silver, Geor@e. .. os ae besa wees Sweet eee gine Chiente.. iu || Seble, No H., M.D. cane si tid ig ees Elmira, N. Y. 
Silver: TsidOr ).<a0e540ee8 Sheeran 4s oo ee aes PorsistatSone SON, Lk i obs eee h i eee ne eee ewan New York City 
Silvery. Cie eve sole w ne sea ee Sc OR New York City | Sokolower, J... 2.006. see eee eee sere bees New York City 
Silver, Moritz...........-..c+0e+eeceeeeee. Austin, Tex. Sola, Clarence I. de..........2022- eee Montreal, Canada 
Silverberg, E. Myers. ........--0- 002 ee eae Pittsburg, Pa. | Sola, Rev. Meldola de.................. Montreal, Canada 
Silverglade, M...........-..0.--.. heathy geen Cincinnati, Ohio Solinger, Js€wis. + s¢2: fs ss 4 <s80 de Bae Ais Centerville, Iowa 
Silverman, As gos. coved ean ew ee wo SR Brooklyn, N. Y. Solis, [saae Nu wus apc ee sek cee eee ea b vee New York City 
Silverman, George Morris............... Uniontown, Pa. Sollod;. Nathans.-i.0654 o2ees se eetnewe fees Baltimore, Md, 
Silverman, Rev. Herman..............-.- New York City | Soloborsky, Joseph...........c0 eee e ee ces Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Bilverman, boss ccs e sav eo ke wad be eew ee aote New York City Solomon, A. A.........-. Asters ee awe pores Philadelphia, Pa, 
Silverman, Joseph, D.D..............005-- New York City Solomon: A? Wy 246 cats. oe eee ee eaieies Pittsburg, Pa. 
silverman, Wiis caus oe fee ee es ae New York City Solomon, Aaron... 2... . cee ew eee cee Detroit, Mich. 
Silverman, Louis... 2.0.06... cece eee eee Quebec, Canada | Solomon, Alden............... 0c eee eeees Boston, Mass, 
Silverman, M. J.,.M.D................206- New York City Solomon, Rev. FE. Lew... ce ee ee ee ee Paterson, N. J. 
Silverman, Moses. ........¢-00 ese e eee ees Boston, Mass. Solomon, George. .........c cece eee cneee Savannah, Ga. 
Silverman, Samuel.........-0.0e0eee: New Haven, Conn. | Solomon, Mrs. Henry.............0-es eee eee Chicago, M1, 
DILVErMAN, SEOi4-6..6 565 Gene tw eewaneeieaeS Syracuse, N. Y. | Solomon, J...........-.....0--.++.-+---- Allegheny, Pa. 
Silverson, Abraham...............e+ eee New York City | Solomon, L.. 2... 2... ce eee eee eee eee eee New York City 
Silverstein; P< ov 6 od ase uekscae soos eee was New York City Solomon; DOs... 6 bc 3s Ma d-Asaie dele canara New York City 
Silversteins dss. cae og.sae eee sete ss oe Oe Sas New York City Solomon, M.-H, scies ad tacaed bed Soe Bees New York City 
Silverstein, Louis. .........0220 cece renee New York City | Solomon, Mark.............. 200 ee cence Rochester, N. Y. 
Silverstein, Morris..........00ceeceeeeres St. Louis, Mo. Solomon, Marx... 2... ec ccc e eee eee cee ees New York City 
Silverstone, Louis. ..........-000 eee ee eeee New York City | Solomon, Max...............0c sence: Beaver Falls, Pa. 
Simmons, David. ....... 0.0000 ee ee eee ees New York City | Solomon, Oscar......... 2... cc eee eens Cedar Rapids, Iowa 
Simmons, Rev, G. ......-ccccc seer ceenes New York City: 1. (Solomon, (Sosc-544 chee ews eee nO SiGe a ork eae oes Scranton, Pa. 
Simmons; Ge Hi odes wees tate eee ws Columbus, Ohio Solomon, 8S. D., AiBincssen vaesewas ce Ga ces Syracuse, N. Y. 
Simmons, Nathan...........0-0-00 eee e eee New York City Solomon, Sam: «oi ok sce se kale ee ee eds New York City 
SIMON s. Asx oo neh aie ee SS ew Eee ee Detroit, Mich. Solomon, Samuel. . ........0. 002 cee eee ees New York City 
Simon, Rev. Abram, ........-0¢-e eee ee Washington, D. G. | Solomon, Samuel EF... ......... 202 eee eee New York City 
SimOi, Webs tviad et Shek eG G Soe ee Nashua, N. H. Solomon; Saul. iss..oek eee ee ete ewe ees Montreal, Canada 
Simon, Gustav (deceased)... ...... 000 e eee Altoona, Pa. Solomons? Ai Bie vas ence FoGu Sia ew ens Washington, D. C. 
Simon, H.........++ecereeeeceseceess Manchester, N. H. | Solomons, Joseph R., D.D.S.............. New York City 
Simon, Hon. Joseph... ...... 0.0 eee cee ce eee Portland, Ore. Solomont, Simon.........0 cece eens eee eens Boston, Mass. 
Simon, Kassel... .......000008 i 5 Da Seoneee New York City Solon: MOSES .36:1s 54.4 ea eee ae ewe ee Chicago, IIl. 
SIMON OS) 755.6 eS as ewe ae ete a we dese wc Salt Lake City, Utah Solotar, Jacob: 44444 606s ou wee Oa wen bees New York City 
Simon, Solomon. .......0. ccc ee cece eeees New York City | Solotaroff, H., M.D.......... 0... 0c eee New York City 
Simonolt Hes oi sed saad doo Se a eae ew eraede New York City | Soloweitzik, Solomon................--.5. Westerly, R. I. 
Simons: Avie nae dace Cade eke es hawk ee ae Bradford, Pa. Solus, Joseph W........... 00 ec ee eee eee Philadelphia, Pa. 
Simons, Bs Ried s as 2S ata ka sek ees ees Philadelphia, Pa. Solgman,. FL, 034 42.06 sec eS aw oe ee Reels New Haven, Conn. 
Simons, David W... 2.66 sces ee cee enews Detroit, Mich. Sommet, Henry css «sie ce0ssaas sane pees New York City 
Simons,” LOWS «6 ccc ob wees Gas were aw od eee Chicago, Il. SUSTPNINUE RS INGE ote Re 65nd mde bie aa eee ae 8 New York City 
Simonsky, Sion ee 6 oess hs wis ee ee oe 0 be Toronto, Canada SB OVTIE: VA TICOU ISG 5. os kas oe ee eae es New York City 
Simpson, Alexander........-....000:- Jersey City, N. J. SNIVITODIEIWTEL © ONG SOs og oo ebb nee AeA eee Yonkers, N. Y. 
Simsohn, Joseph 8., M.D.......--2000 ee ee Philadelphia, Pa. SSTGE Ns CACO DAG sca os est de ed 5 Rae Washington, Pa. 
SiO Mise gv ae Rare SUE aS Soechn a ae ee ee New York City SEC CNET A SAEs ails ea i eas eG ae 8 ae SLES Philadelphia, Pa. 
Sindlery..Aved gs 5 ea-bcagrdode wa wees Ste we ES Baltimore, Md. BSiSric MENT, fe Poort x a ee Sa KR Oe ao WS Kase Baltimore, Md. 
Singer, Bese bien ne Bee eas Sire. wkd arecar wena Montreal, Canada Sati tel C lacie Se: 8 (01) ea er a ae aa Montreal, Canada 
Singer, Dr.-B; dow occa ka eae eds wietaceie-> G4 8S Philadelphia, Pa. Sinneborn, ONTYy. 626k ss eee eee eee ees Baltimore, Md. 
Singer, Frit. 4 sie 4s eb 4o cae aces SRR New York City Sanne borily AOUaiS so. 6 ee eee es bee eee New York City 
Singer, Henry B. 1.1... . ccc cece eee eee ees New York City | Sanneborn, Mrs. Leo... .........-.000-5-. New York City 
Singer, Isidor........ Sete atee ich aca a New York City ETAL OETA! DM cc prea Bs ces ok Sk da wwe. we oo Wheeling, W. Va. 
Singer id sia bales ae ae See are wt Toronto, Canada | Sonnenschein, Rev. S. H..............45, St. Louis, Mo. 
SIMBEL, JACODS Fis hee c eee wos oleae ow SS we Philadelphia, Pa. Sonstell, 1so0¢ os cde bbe eee wie eS mae McKeesport, Pa. 
Singer, M...........02000> calla acaanigiy tek te asians Norfolk, Va. Sockne, Joseph, D.D.S..............-2555. -~New York City 
SIMMEr. Mas kha ed aw EES AEE ET ELIS WS New York City | Sophian, Michael, M.D..................5, New York City 
Singer, Mayer 6 4454-0 4ernande we sew enwedas New York City | Sossnitz, Isaac, M.D. ..............--0- 008, New York City 
Singer, Moses..........6-- eal eae a eos Bret New York City | Sovenberg, Adolf.............-.-20005. Montreal, Canada 
Singer, Samuel M........ 0... eee eceeeveeee Baltimore, Md. BION: MHROTIRS ites Soy ee eo ches 3 8 eo eae New Orleans, La. 
Sinsheimer, Joseph. ..........ee eee eeeee New York City | Sparenberg, E.... 1... eee eee eee eee eee New York City 
Sipsen; Ss pcnscs cb eee wae nee pa eeaieaets knee Baltimore, Md. Spsroer. Ov, WIWIRME. 2.6. eee ee estes New York City 
Sirvan, Harry OC... . ccc ee ee ee eee eee Pittsburg, Pa. Speaker, Henry M................ Geo, Grates Philadelphia, Pa. 
Sivin Brothers.............0ccceecccecees New York City PEA ES IN 2 scr brta Re R 6 sein tp ls so Swe 5 Pittsburg, Pa. 
SivitZ, Rev. Mo Sys necc ces tea tateetaneeas Pittsburg, Pa. | Spector, Joseph............. eee eee ee eee New York City 
Skidelsky, Simon S.......... Gil acees arcane Philadelphia, Pa. See GOPSK V7 SEY UNAM 44 oe be eee eee ees New York City 
Skutch, Maxe <ise0 p04 iw scawew as baw eG Baltimore, Md. SwpltorakY, JOSEP yi oe. c ee ce eee es tae New York City 
Slatzker)-H diane ss cao 8 owen Mate De Ges « Altoona, Pa. | Sperber, David..............- 20.02 ees Montreal, Canada 
Slatzsky, John dnc 6. ei ceca tees Gee ee eee Boston, Mass. | Speyer, James. .... 2... cee ee eee eee eee New York City 
Slicer, Rev. Dr. Thomas R.........-.....-. New York City | Speyer, Leo... 1... ce eee eee eee eee eens New York City 
Slimmer, Mrs:-Aic a c10e64 wea ewes ala ele hat St. Paul, Minn. } Spiegel, Rev. Adoliph.................---. New York City 
Slobodien, Joseph..............-.-0.-- Perth Amboy, N. J. | Spiegel, Judge Frederick 8.............-. Cincinnati, Ohio 
Slobodkin, Harris A... .. cece cece eee eens Boston, Mass. | Spiegel, Julius. ... 1... 22. cece eee eens New York City 
Slomensky, TL... 2.2.0. e ese ences wees. Ottawa, Canada | Spiegel, Samuel, M.D.-.............-.----. New York City 
Slomka Ad oll: siu.0 sn a cases teehee seas < New York City | Spiegel, Wolf Max...........-.-..e8. eee Elmira, N.Y. 
Slomka, Adolph... 2... .... ccc cece eee n cece New York City | Spiegelberg, F.. 0... eee cee ee eee eee eee New York City 
Slomks, J&COD:. s<.45 546 iduews Sites oe’ oly New York City | Spiegelberg, I. N.... 22.2... eee ee eee eee New York City 
Slomowitz, Samuel..........0.-.00ceeeeee Billings, Mont. Spiegelberg, Levi... ........-- +e eee eee eee New York City 
Sloss, Mrs. Mi-C: cs 244 eo sbaw anes 2440 San Francisco, Cal. Spigil, Julius... 22... eee cee eee e eens New York City 
SlOSS, OSTA. 4.25 4.0: bwe See ere eee see gales San Francisco, Cal. | Spiro, Abraham C. (deceased) ...........-.. New York City 
Slote, Samuel H., M.D........ salad Aas ewes Brooklyn, N. Y. | Spiro, Abraham I1............. eee eee eee New York City 
Slotkin & Praglin. ............ dertomease ae New York City | Spiro, M., M.D..........- 0c cece cece ee eeee Allegheny, Pa. 
Sloves, N.......-800: ore rc er rrr Montreal, Canada | Spiro, Max...............:- ee ee New York City 
Slusky, Daniel......... eer re ey See Augusta, Ga, Spitz, Samuel... 1... ccc cece eee eee sean e eens Chicago, Il. 
Slutzker, H..........-00e% errr tere tk Altoona, Pa. | Spivak, C. D., M.D.........--- eee eee Denver, Colo. 
Slutzkins, Adolph S..... cece ces e scenes Brooklyn, N. Y. | Sporborg, Celia May, Pres.......-......55: Albany, N.Y. 
Smickler, Solomon...... Slane Sudceie avec eracaee 8 Cincinnati, Ohio Srolovitz, Max L.. 1... cee cee wees Monongahela City, Pa. 


Smith, Kallman........ secsceccceceeses New York City Stadecker, Leopold. ........ cece ee eee eens New York City 
Smith, Max........ re ree a New York City ! Stahl, S........ 6.02 eee eee Pn ar Albany, N. Y.- 


LIST OF PATRONS 


XxXvii 


i 5 i ee ee 


Staller, Max, M.D..........ce eee eee Philadelphia, Pa. 
Btander, ANNA... 06 oh ncduos occa ee eee ess New York City 
Stark, Joseph... 1... ccc eee eee tees New York City 
Starr. Hyman. ices s ccew Ge a ee RE Ni New York City 
Starr, Robert. 0.2... c065 sce e ak ns aes is New York City 
Starr, Rev. William E...........--22-0-06> Baltimore, Md. 
Stated As a soe a eee epee eare Meee te New York City 
Stearns, Benjamin. ........--.+ eee ee New Rochelle, N. Y. 
Stecker, Louis. .........- 02 cee eee eens Philadelphia, Pa. 
Steckler, Alfred... 0.0... 0c cee cee ccs eeen New York City 
Steiii Wooo. eae & ba 2s GASSER OS CS Chicago, Ill. 
Stein; Abrams. sox5 ¢040 08 heave ee EweRe New York City 
Stein; AGolf coe. osach4e caw ese chen tiem geek Chicago, Ill. 
Stein, Charles ]..... 0.2... cee eee eee Greenwood, Miss. 
Stein, Davids i0 iy soos eee hosed ice ReneS Chicago, Il. 
Stein, Fred Mi os ccc cece eee ece ees Dee’ New York City 
Bteltiy.. go ces eu sd oe Sw eek Cars os we RRO Lancaster, Pa. 
Stein, Isidor...........-.+eeeeeeee--..- New York City 
Steins. Mi 5 ads ns des oe aed eee See Washington, D. C., 
Stein, JOseph. o.0% oa b 64.9 4 Ss wes EER New York City 
Stem, Joseph............0000eeeeee22.. New York City 
Stein, Julius......... cece cece eee eens Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Stein. LeGs5 asa.) eee a pate Wis Brew aoe ers New York City 
Stein, M., M.D., D.D.S...............--. New York City 
Steins: Me Bed wecGiauns ba Seca ee oa bh aon Gee Stockton, Cal. 
Stein, M.. Wiese se esac ast cane tsa Philadelphia, Pa. 
Stel, oe wo 6 2 beh See ae ee hae eed New York City 
SLGlity Wiel Ls, poe Saco eiede Meee oes nae eee Chicago, I}. 
Steimbach,. Ay Bis, vncsawaneeb ee eae wea es New York City 
Steinbach, L. W.,M.D.................. Philadelphia, Pa. 
Steinberg, Charles J......... ccc cee eee eee Pensacola, Fla. 
Steinberg, Dn. 364 454% Seesaw nes Ses New Haven, Conn. 
Steinberg, Jacob. ....... ccc ee cee eee ees Carteret, N. J. 
Steinberg Brothers..........0.0 cc eee te eeee Toledo, Ohio 
Steinberger, Fos oo4 sass oh bien dd valle anes Bradford, Pa. 
Steindler, Maxeic's ¢.0c4:0 4.04 honed ed seeks New York City 
3teinem, Mrs. Joseph.........-.- eee eee eeee Toledo, Ohio 
Steiner, Alfred. 4c:c. cesta sees ei bs oe Brooklyn, N. Y. 
StOINGr,, GUIAININ, 6 ccc cs veces eee eee ees New York City 
SPATVET MIR UMDS 205g 5 5h Sosa Se ide Sa DoS Youngstown, Ohio 
Steinere Les Susvcikct «os ee ee ew cael eyed aeasaNe ake Hampton, Va. 
SEGRICT y GUO ik sy See's eco eae Des Oa eee Newark, N. J 
MOIST LOU Bedwas soe 5 co be oes eee ee Re de Brooklyn, N.Y. 
PGINIOMy UUUR Ge: onde ios oe See a oe Rea aes New York City 
MEGA: SAN gos, ole gk hag Siw SR od GS Sale Pittsburg, Pa. 
POL TER SC IND ctr cil 8 Nate Pa oa 5-2! 6.5 wae we eeiwac ale we whe See New York City 
MUCHAS ENOIIIREE Ny, wo ds 45.0 sd oe wis hoe ne oe New York City 
SSP WNAPIOS Mires co 4isae Sd wee ee ecw sine Albany, N. Y. 
re eh OD) EE eh) | haere Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Stee: Davide: cok 666.6 e4ae tes sos see ea we eae ee Chicago, Ill. 
Stern, Vavids cocci 4 awa aie ed aa ee Bee Philadelphia, Pa. 
Stern,- David Fe oc. hie eed eee eek bs wes oe New York City 
Stern, Eugene M........... cece eeeceeee Philadelphia, Pa. 
Stern; Ge esos iia ol ah oeiete Berke ea eae ewark, . 
Stern, Harry...........- ba oe ta ad ale aan Rh Sag Boston, Mass. 
Steriy Saas ih gb oaie-a sede b Wear ee Savon w a wares New York City 
Stern, [sadOre vice sys ein webs eaad fhe e ees New York City 

RETOY Gea oo Bache Cd Se ee eh Re as New York City 
SOE. Widacg bie tao k eS oe edo ecre SS Cumberland, Md. 
Stern, Jakesecs oe chos Ges Sea see Se 08 Las Vegas, N. Mex. 
Stern, Josels aos0% 2.6 bbe 9 beeper ceed New York City 
Stern: JGsepis. «ocak bk e es Sow we 8 eats New York City 
Stern, JOS@DN « 525 wee cede eles cu b55 04 Montreal, Canada 
Stern, Mrs: bi. Micw seus 34 cee see Se ow aart 208 Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Stern, Leopold... 1... ccc ce cee eens New York City 
Stern, Leopold H.. 2... cee ee ee ete New York City 
Stern; LOUIS. 1.4.6 b sare Paes wiW se ees Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Stern; 00S fd oe brcdee ees eee eres Sees New York City 
Stern; b0uis: 10244520208 one vane sai 28s Philadelphia, Pa. 
Stern, Rev. Louis. ...........000--0065 Washington, D. C. 
Steriis. i snak te oo Seeks otaea ee Rochester, N. Y. 
Stern. MH 38s ecwas Sad eee CERI aes Philadelphia, Pa. 
Stern, MauriGe@ so). oe Eda ee ea SS RE as New Orleans, La. 
Stern; MoseSiaccccscci baee soe hae ew ccke pes Allentown, Pa. 
Stern; Nathane... 19080084 an eiawe SERN New York City 
LOTUS CINAD ete ac's sae keve: iw dee hg a a WSS we Ses Trenton, N. J. 
SSE STE OR ID Le a: sc ok ee he be wle ew wale es Montgomery, Ala, 
DEGHis. MOIMUON ss. 66 cece aces ve ee cee ues Uniontown, Pa. 
MP erT Gh, Men 6 ase Gs od bh aas owe Re kS gee Portland, Ore. 
Sternbach, Charles (deceased)... .......... New York City 
Sternbath. MOmris..6. .. 66. oes de eee sew vk New York City 
Stari peng: \ Lhe os 6 5 ones pee a ds Oho eee Blew Columbus, Ga. 
Sternberger, Mrs. Pauline. ..........-...-. New York City 
Sternberger, Samuel...............000-- Philadelphia, Pa. 
Sterne, Simon (deceased). ...........-000- New York City 
Sternlicht, Isaac, M.D. .... 0... ee ee eee New York City 
Stems: ‘Cherlesv: . 02.264. 2c oe ewe ae sees Rutland, Vt. 
SECULAUIGT PRG WD) cca Coens baa cw dee ieee eee Chicago, I. 
PoE WOE bes Poe VES Sed Soa Sok ik ae ow be bo ee oe we ania whe Chicago, IIL. 
rieiel. Mra Pic, 66 kode ce see rena sO? New York City 
Stier, Mami s4sc 52 niece eat aweeal was: New York City 
Stifft, Charles 8). 2.224226 «206 be Reesens Little Rock, Ark. 
Stine; AlVErbice cae ca ben aieee eee Eee wes New York City 
Stine, MarcuS.0 6 dac5 sie as ks Gd se oaA ieee ws New York City 
Btiner, Max 4.33 fo Pe ts ee as ee OE CRAY New York City 
Stix; (Willian oo coc ose cates Cia se Aes aen St. Louis, Mo. 
Stoerger, Sigmund. .........eee ee ee eee: Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Stol, Sebastian, M.D............0.- eee eee eee Chicago, III. 


Stolaroff, A............ 9 aloes eta obcelner ates ein El] Paso, Tex. 


Stoll, Harry......esee eee Sa beeareeseseausaeeosras NOW YOrk City 
Stolz, Benjamin......--.+++¢- vébeseereesdsanes oyracuse,, Ns ¥: 
Stolz, Rev..J. Hicisesdsstediwtiaa tees Cumberland, Md. 
Stolz, Joseph... cee ee eee ese _..., Chicago, Ill. 
Stone, Alfred Holt............-2-- 008 Washington, D. C. 
Stone, Charles... 0.0... 0.02 cee eee eens Toronto, Canada 
Stone, J. Wo... ice eer ete Boston, Mass. 
Stone, Rev. John Timothy............-.-++: Baltimore, Md. 
Stone, Mrs, Julius.......... 0-02 eee eee eee ne: Chicago, Hl. 
Stone, Nathan H...............+2.++5+++New York City 
Stoneman, David..............0e eee serene Boston, Mass. 
Stotter, Dr. Henry B............-.00 eeu Cleveland, Ohio 
Stotter, Js). Dek 56 oc eke wae oes Cleveland, Ohio 
Strasbourger, Samuel.............. cc ee eee New York City 
Strashower, Max...........0... cece eeee Cleveland, Ohio 
Strashun, A., M.D... .. cc. ce ce ee ee eee Cincinnati, Ohio 
Strasser, [kes ic:3daws cee ot 2% kG wale cid een Albany, N. Y. 
Stratton, Asa EB... . cc ee ce eee Montgomery, Ala. 
Straulman; Ages-s6 i nse ose 0 40s 5 Ro ab prs. te eee New York City 
Straus, Ais cobs Soke Mek ee Ce te hes Las Vegas, N. Mex. 
Straus; Ae Ds ood Sa es Chet eee ea eae oh ee New York City 
Straus, Alexander L..... 2.0... ee eee Baltimore, Md. 
Straus. BOW Miro tedcc.c katara seeds See ORs Cnicago, IIl. 
Straus; WA: cis cass ye hetedeacee aneees New York City 
Stratis; (Sidon gy 105-5 Seaceeb slane oe ade ear wes New York City 
SGrallde. als Sho ata ta awa Beek eee Se uens Philadelphia, Pa. 
Straus, Joseph L..... ccc ee eee ee ee eee Baltimore, Md. 
Straus, JUWUSs ious esas ca ow hoes a aed Richmond, Va. 
Straus, Leopold............000 sce erence Montgomery, Ala. 
Straus; LOUIS: i555. Visas SES a OA ESS St. Louis, Mo. 
Straus, Nathan.............-- ee cee eee ees New York City 
Straus, Hon. Oscar BS... 2. ee ee eee New York City 
Straus; 5) Dic vs ucts poate thw eeandiw ein eeteers New York City 
Straus, Simon W.....0.2cccc cece ence cece ans Chicago, Ili. 
Drauss s By os x tiy, bora eee oe wh ee eee Newark, N. J. 
Strauss; Juliussy 2 ca oe oe ce eee ewe os New York City 
Strauss, Meyer...........-.00-e ee ee eeee Hamilton, Ohio 
Strauss, Dis 2 i ied beatae ee aa e Wilkesbarre, Pa. 
Strauss, Samuel... 2... ccc eee eee eee New York City 
Straussberg, Dr. M...........--- 2 ee eee eee Newark, N. J. 
Stream, .GOUIS..¢ 3 6c: be es eRe RO Ee ee eS New York City 
Streicher,, Miche bce debs ewe con enees Providence, R. 1. 
Streitfeld, Harry A......... 2. cece eee Philadelphia, Pa. 
Strelitz., Henry ss 4.6c40 0 66 ieee Hea Chattanooga, Tenn. 
Strook, Sol. M.......... pt oe ills a er essa Sale og Fine New York City 
Strouse: Ad lees os tain fae ei ee le eee Se Freeport, Pa. 
Strouse, Mrs. Hennie...............-0e0005 Baltimore, Md. 
Strouse, Isaac... 1... eee cee eee eee Baltimore, Md. 
Strouse, Leopold.............2 ec eee eee Baltimore, Md. 
Strouse, Samuel........... 200 cee eee eens Baltimore, Md. 
Strouss, Isaac... 0.2... ce eee eee Youngstown, Ohio 
Strunsky, Elias........ paar e resice San Francisco, Cal. 
Stulman..Moow<s-4224 a4 oo eeec he wie see ee a Baltimore, Md. 
Stumer, Lowis. Mi vince eens, c tes eekoes vee Aes Chicago, II. 
turtz, Samuel... 2.0... cee ee eee eee New York City 
Suesskind, Adolph. .......... 00. e eee New York City 
Sugarman, Martin L...........- 0c eee ee ee Omaha, Nebr. 
Sullivan, Rev. J. Wow... cc ee eee eee Centerview, Mo 
Sullivan; Ps Foss ¢ ois oo 8a 54S Sew RR ees Lowell, Mass. 
Sulzbacher, Joseph H............00ee0000- New York City 
Sulzbacher, Louis............ eee eee ee eee Braddock, Pa. 
Sulzberger, Cyrus L.. oo... cee ee eee eee New York City 
Sulzberger, Ferdinand. ..........+.++---+: New York City 
Sulzberger, Hon. Mayer............-0..5. Philadelphia, Pa. 
Sulzberger, Tes ith Roe: dca Eh Aas be OR ES Chicago, Il. 
Sulzberger, SoOlom0ns 6454. .0..0000002008. New York City 
PIG THET HELE ¢ Es ABs cacao ade 6 a oss e046 oe eels Little Rock, Ark. 
Summerfield, Moses. .........0cs02eseecee St. Louis, Mo. 
Suriner, PHU Sa Db as 6c ak eee ese ee ees Boston, Mass. 
Sundelson, Adolph, M.D............00 000s New York City 
STIMU ho dks abics cr aNGe Cee ss ae eo ve a eran bas Pittsburg, Pa. 
PGECIILS hn ekltt Bier se os oe he ee Oe Yee’ Aliegheny, Pa. 
Pipettes Nis Suhel baaS Ris vis ne RS EEO Res Pittsburg, Pa. 
iravite, UN. pasntnaalee os ee as a a ke Scranton, Pa. 
Suskind: Farris: dzone Bete ioc esses naa ate te New York City 
Susskind, S. J..........- aati Wi ta Bie Ae cons Philadelphia, Pa. 
Sissi a bons sai 2 Sik g- rte Mew Nace eee es Youngstown, Ohio 
Svarcz. (Mano os x64.64 «bts de eee esau Baltimore, Md. 
Swartz, Miss Anna... ... cee ee eee eee eee Pittsburg, Pa. 
Swartz, Fred. M......... cece eee eee Providence, R. 1. 
akong (THOMAS Su 45 sees ees ees ais Brackettville, Tex. 
Swett, 2i< «ss. 4i0000 caus Gib ata Sie aes artes Portland, Ore. 
Switz, Reve M.. 2 ccc4s cseee cues ee ee ee Pittsburg, Pa. 
Svdemany; Avs. 2%. ars caw tee tee Se ew ad Boston, Mass. 
Syrkin, Arnolds... evs euage se eettwwees New York City 
Szold, Miss Henrietta............ g's Bot welch New York City 
A 
Taledano, Albert........... 0c c cee e ees New Orleans, La. 
TalpOS Oia v ond hua Ste Sie ears We Gea Montreal, Canada 
Talpis, Ralph: Tic 2's scxn spew a2 os eee eS Paso, ‘Tex. 
Tamor, Abraham I......... en ee New York City 
Tandlich, Samuel, M.D..........0002 eae New York City 
Tannenbaumy Ag ees 4 sas eee eee Skee ee ees New York City 
Tannenbaum, L.. .... ce ee ee ee ee eae New York City 
‘Tannenbaum Ub. «20.6 066 ts awn ees cee ee ees New York City 
Tannenbaum, Simon, M.D...........-.-.. New York Cit 
Tanner, Joseph M...... esi Gieuie ue ee eee Salt Lake City, Uta 
Taplitzky, Jacob...... wecsceeesseeesss- Loronto, Canada 


XXVili LIST OF PATRONS 


Tapolsky, Harry........c.cccevecee .. Pittsburg, Pa. Ungerleider, M., M.D... ....... ccc eee Chicago, IU. 
Tarnowski, Samuel.........ececcccseveeee " New York ay Unterberg, Israel... .. 2... cc eee ee ees New York City 
TParsiiiss [SA aG@, wid is oss wae psa oS ae eae ae Brooklyn, N : 
eee NE sca se0d one din eld Paste ausrabionad ses Brooklyn, We oo y 
TAUDOL Peter sco ies ee A eo Re Oe New York City 
Tauber, DORN ards sx .54 560 0.6 bla ole he W wreauare New York City Valenstein, M............c0e00% ae ee New York City 
PAUSE AMOUR irks a was ow es Mei aeeaca ths New York City | Valentine, 8.............. 0. eee oes Obed: New York City 
Tausig, Faas ees oa a pd La arenas New York City | Vanamee, William...............0005 Middletown, N. Y. 
PAWN OSE ea oF oss vides So 60 nee Oe ss dees Myles, Miss. Van de Water, Geo. Ru... ce ee ee New York City 
PGS WNIT pv 6 «e549 eed wae & ee ey ee a Chicago, Il. Wh Leer Char Bae, 4 kes aew ek owe wee ee Seaford, Del. 
LG Fl a SOL Vc LA a as a Seattle, Wash. wan. Leer, Sirs: Hannah... 2.65 ese eee Baltimore, Md. 
Bed to aks ee < Ur \e a a New York City | "Wan Saalte, Boia... cee ees eee eae New York City 
EUR ASITUEIAD LNG a eo iaco 4 oe Gs aie @cere 2 Ae whee New York City | Van Taube, G....... 0... ccc ccc cee Montvale, N. J. 
Teitelbaum, BACAR go te “ics, aie Biss tee) Deocdr's Krdianwrdrsera G New York City Wat Waoener, Nes: Bl. Fi ce ce ee ins Troy, N. Y. 
Teller, Din. cha es ix ode catees Philadelphia, Pa. Wars BOUIUE igeeiies 5 0e4 ads a Sos 4 eS New York City 
Pellet MON ITATIANAT, . oo oases betes We eb oes Philadelphia, Pa. Wiis its. sha a eava outs 8 6044: Kom bed bceavk cs So dow eS Chicago, Ill. 
AWS NES VA EES 5 oc oe oe rr Philadelphia, Pa. Velleman, PERRIS ene wi oo 6 nak dete aac Risk Ged New York City 
Tennenbaum, 8. (deceased).......0.0.06: Cincinnati, Ohio Bg ci els Stee) 2) Mt ee re a re Philadelphia, Pa. 
‘Teplitz, Benjamin soa g cee bee ae cans bad Pittsburg, Pa. WOnben, PAGHES UE 45s sas ka ou aw Bema eeds Philadelphia, Pa. 
Tepper, Martin, D.D.S.............00 00s New York City Vineberg, Hiram N., M.D................. New York City 
Terr, Jacdire cvveus unas eee ee iahnata ates New York City Vineberg, M. ( deceased). . .. Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada 
Terr, Louis........-.-.-..- ees lang, Brune aie Philadelphia, Pa. Vinissky, Bh. Woes eek ote ewe sa 8 ha eee eos ee Chicago, Ill. 
iy) Clee Dee © Pea St. Paul, Minn. MIMSOM UG sends ew 6 eed aie eed RAO ate Res Austin, Tex. 
PAO GOR cAI G60 «6-5 Su when SS Send wo ie oe New York Cit Vogel, Heinrich, M.D. ..............05-05- New York City 
Thacher, Hon. John Boyd.............00008: Albany, N. Y. Vogel, JOStp Nig oo dS Hes a a eRe earn New York City 
TL AAIGE ACO Gites. od ia es 84 ov SRO AOS New York City MOPOISt@ltly Wisco d ku ose 4a Wa RS eRe ERE New York City 
hethéimer, Gates, . 0... ce cc eee ee te Syracuse, N. Y, Volmer; HeGnies a2 do 65s ban Po Beas Charleston, W. Va. 
PER PETOTIRIEN SMM Cees cogs ecg goss gba a we Bae New Orleans, La. Volpé, Arnold D........... Fed sed ee x New Rochelle, N. Y. 
"ADAM OTe WEES des Bois aaa eho a eee os Philadelphia, Pa. Volpe, Harold Dy ..045.054 56640 ce we we ous New York City 
EU APLNGIMMONG SAIMelds 5. shoo se oa a Oo ek OSs Baltimore, Md. Volter, Adolph, .o64 cae dds ee ieee ees eee ts New York City 
FOUTS a os as oo eo cede aed 8 Hale ee BA New York City Voorsanger, Jacob......ccsevee er eeee San Francisco, Cal. 
TROMPSOMS Vo Peias ooo ce ce os Sts Mesa Ne aah de sg New Orleans, La. Vorhaus, Louis J.........6.06. Varah meen New York City 
SPROQVGNAS SACU aie sn cwe vee se 0s oe ace ws East Boston, Mass. 
Thurnauer, Charles M..............0-005 Cincinnati, Ohio Ww 
Liehé,: HOWarGyc 25 ba-ici.oeere wd blow tise ad dale Saye Dallas, Tex. 
"Licktin,- Charles: 2 ccs. aa sued dae ee ete eaten Chicago, Ill. Waensy Ase os adnan eo hs been wesw eM Philadelphia, Pa. 
Vietenbrun,  Beiecsncts own aaes y Pe UV ees Baltimore, Md. | Wachsman, Isidore..... sal 6 tdac bits ance a Sofa nat 8 Albany, 
Tierkel,...avid, Biss ¢aitevudeee eesieas Philadelphia, Pa. Wacht, Samuel..... 2... cc ee eee eens New York City 
CLA ZER Ay DD cals, seas Dw nee aie Bee ei KES Portland, Ore. Waener, Isidor.. ... 0... cee eee eee ees Brooklyn, NY. 
Tintner,. Leonards sce wcdees cee eyed aes Pittsburg, Pa. Wainzimer, Philip... ............ ee ee eee New York City 
EP ISU ORL AMOI dic. as ee 25 6 Seid Fes 8H 5x erties New York City | Waisman, M.................. ae ee New York City 
Tisthier, SAMUECl oi... 2s ce cee eee ees ga eE New York City Ws thie iets 6-2 OV doy ooo ok Ge Re KE Philadelphia, Pa. 
Titlebaum, MRGHAM Jc. cid once ced seman Boston, Mass. mi FagrT] fru SA clk: cp a ee On New York City 
PRivil; NAPHAG: Gages scecesoeseusasade Kansas City, Mo. | Wald, H., M.D... ......cccccecccccecrees New York City 
PORIAS ETAT OS Thgs es 4 0.8 ay be bo eww ee SARE New York City Ww aldheim, PR dp OW tie oo Sas ask Soy hs ds ce WR ae St. Louis, Mo. 
Tobias, Julius D,......... nila iaile: 0 40: Seed New York-City | Watdiien, L6uisso05 6c... ee ce renee Toronto, panes 
FPO PINGE. JPET wats bse ve bas aee bea ae Washington, D. C. Riis eats (hah ers. 0-00 (ee ne Albany, N. Y. 
ge eg ae it PV co a | EN New York City W aldstein, Me MCLEE NPS 2 aos (Sas del Sanaa BA Boston, Mass. 
Todes, SONNY aoa: 5s a ewe: 8 o's ee: Ww. Bo W heRO Baltimore, Md. Walker, Adolcpt.....2....... ee rer ona Brooklyn, N. Y. 
UL COUR) aks Weaken OF a howe cited wer 4k sy doe oe Montreal, Canada | Wallach, Karl "Wiis... cece cee cen New York City 
Tonkonogy, Nathaniel, M.D............... New York City Ww allach, WEOMERE PS ORE oc bas Se eee ne New York City 
TOI CE TOTIG Ls ug eR as «8 oa oooh eb bo cee a wens New York City WAL EPISTHIT: Wadi oo Sig kd ack He ok OA 48s Wee Oe LO Troy, N.Y. 
TMEe eae FUE es ou kw. kee Beale ww so RN ‘Torani, Canade. | SWallete bo o0 7 wa oawce es we ee kee ees Philadelphia, Pa. 
POIANA IRELOUH Navas, Gough uid «'ece & stace 4 4 aa ae BS St. Louis, Mo. Wialsest dey. Waites. 6c soces eves oes Little Rock, Ark. 
Tour, PA a tees 6 ead od id aa v4 aaah Pueblo, Colo. Wy leit Me, OMe gas See eee Ge ee as ne eee « Troy, N. Y. 
Tay, Prat. fi. D:.D., LUD... 442.2263 Cambridge, Mass. | Walter, Abraham............ccceeeeeseee Baltimore, Md. 
Tracy, Samuel Cohen eet eer datas Hartford, Conn. Walter, Bernhard..... 1.0... cece eeeee New York City 
Trager, Isidore... .. 0... ccc ec eee Cincinnati, Ohio Walter: Ni Rig. coo a exi eck x ie Saree Bee ted Baltimore, Md. 
Traitel, Benjamin D........... 0.00 e cee eee New York City BR i eam 4 0) Ay er Philadelphia, Pa. 
‘Trapp. Kdward Av. 453 ics ooetan ck ease New York City W altoff, D. Py Ce se fd aye oe ak que ack Brooklyn, N. Y. 
ORs SPU yas Gate e Yas os 6 bo a Moe OY ee HS Pittsburg, Pa. Warburg, WN et. cc 6c oc bdo ssbb ames New York City 
Traugott, Rev. Abraham................. Springtield, Ul. BEA, TWN 5. Sead, toe Sop ss Rea ok Pet alas, ch So Bh tate Bridgeport, Conn. 
eh ig Us| EY CPM 5 NG tan) 27 College, Ga. WR nRROM ISOS asics. ¢ cee ob dd ev avs ween New York City 
Dre: Weel ss FUMTS gsc xa oe 9 6 vs 86 oe eet Waubay, 8. Dak. Rd UR SMR & ik a oP ae ee New York City 
Trorehlinger,. AVI s... ie c ee ec ae eee eee s St. Louis, Mo. Bh g la gene” Ce ies Oke ra no ee Chicago, Ill. 
Prevod! MOENBec aay eae ee oe wee ee aes New York City W RASErOIA Rs THENTY. bs 6c ss oa eee eee New York City 
Triedberg, US cir ee oA 8 Gotan de weed cose Shel, amN New York City Waoatmbn, Alexanders... ..6+..0. esse ees Bayonne, N, J. 
TRIOS, LOTMA. 5 lite 666 oe a hae oe de ees Charleston, S. C. | Watman, George... 2.0... cs cece eee eee New York City 
TRORIY, -IOTUANOS hh 66655646 cae teases Brooklyn, N. Y. WY AMOI. Pie aie eh cd oe lee WAR eo Bn a Macon, Ga. 
SE EOME > SMU RVMIMCNS GM oo bb bls Gea Sw ee ae es Pittsburg, Pa. Fy MORES Rl ER ERO Seon, 2" ac Bas, p's Gabo ae ea es New York City 
"ErGeb; ae, Wi Ges og ccd oe eee Pe oes Cincinnati, Ohio Weber, Davida. cose tes eaees Meee ds cera Philadelphia, Pa. 
SEUCMISGr, ME RUS whi ke aS a elses 4160S eae Rn eeew eles New York City Webster, Jacobi is ees eee ao eae New York City 
TEPYV ON, AVEV =: Dia aie tre yo oo weve ee eg Petersburg, Va. | Wechselman, Solomon...............++005 New York Cit 
"uch Michael « sc.c5 ay iae le sis SR odie ew ache Brooklyn, N. Y. Wechsler, A. H........... Leiba Dur ee ee Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Tuedberg, A... .. cc. ee eee ewww e eee ee ee NOW York City Wechsler, Isaac... ck ce teens New York City 
PP UE REI ocd deve he ear a I At ae Ee New York City | Weeden, P. H. 1.0.2... 0... ccc eee eee ees New York City 
EPUEMOT SA bce cle ict ntarheeshuect ee ade ee Ae aaa Chicago, Il. Wehart, Mrs, “Charles 3.05.5: 4 4a eves coe Sas ey Peoria, Il. 
Turner, Rev. J. W... ccc ccc ewe c cc eacecs Evansville, Ind. Wehlau, 2... MaDoe s,s bien oe cee ee ae Scranton, Pa. 
Turtletaub, J........ diss ied Sight Bh Gein eed heer gain are Charleston, 8. C. W etl. Ay Ose Soe a ew ee eae ees East Liberty, Pa. 
Tutelman, Nathan..........cccccevcaee Philadelphia, Pa. Weil A DPaNaMs isi 5466s 5 S466 Hee eS Fort Wayne, Ind. 
Tutelman, William, ..........0 eee eee eee Philadelphia, Pa. Wel Ls 2. bard he hae Gee eee UR eR Montgomery, Ala. 
Twining, Prote Nis ococ vag 4.0 bee res odes oe ak 2 Nipomo, Cal. Weil, Dawid Toi Sle he Mb titrae hha s Beast ek New York City 
Tworger, PIM sss 2 aie sie ee ee eee Be Geen Boston, Mass. W etls does onic view cement, Bae S eae eerie Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Wreeil, Wdmondsss s oi.cts oe ne sae eae tee ees New York City 
U Well... HONGY: 665 3 6 OS eee Ma PORES Pelham, x XY, 
Ufland, Abraham..........00. cece ccueees New York City | Weil, Henry........... 02... cece ee eeee Goldsboro, N. C. 
Oe AW oie deed Se Oe ae ba hd at Ea New York City | Weil, J. Boo... ccc ce cc ee teens Los Angeles, Cal. 
Uhlmann, Simon. ... .. ccc eee te ee ee eee New York City | Weil, Jacob.................4. iki Geue tas Philadelphia, Pa. 
Ulanov, Prof. Nathan... ...... cece eee New York City | Weil, Jacob AL... .. ccc ee ee eee New York City 
Ullman, AdGIph so: acted oe ees tat eed aa ey Cincinnati, Ohio | Weil, Jonas. ........0.. 0.00 ccc eee eee New York City 
Ullman, Nathan............ Sida te tutte nae New York City | Weer Pie Pg tins ona bia gee See She aes San Francisco, Cal. 
Ullman, Sigmund... .......c0csceseeceees New York City | Weil, Leo A... .. cc eee ec eee ee eee East Liberty, Pa. 
Ulman, Alfred Joo... ccc ccc ce eee eeeuee San Francisco, Cal. Welle eO thi .fo3.24.0 dak whe aaa ee giatans Montgomery, Ala. 
Ulmann, TORE uric a Shes or daae Barb 2 eae Siatee- 9 Bre New York City | Weil, Leopold... .... 0.0... ccc ce eect ee teens New York City 
Una, G..g-cae es oleae ees dod wri bce ce Be Sik eat hte New York City Weil, Leopold... . 0. ee cc ee ee ees New York City 
Ungar, Max.......s-06- i Baehdinay 1 Oe aig scenes a Halifax, N. S. Weil; b0UI8 ose e ok biG eae he aw eRe Chicago, Hl. 
Unger, David... ......... ieee Batata eae New York City = || Wells Newso46 246 iat wareeaia weg bee ones New York City 
Unger, Menry- We ioe Se bake oo 4 as Ab Sew New York oy Weil Tha cnn dn PaaS Reale alana Sew oss Spokane, Wash. 


Unger, Samuel Ji... . ccc ce ccc eens Plainfield, N. Weil, Samuel............2.ceeceee eee Youngstown, Ohio 


LIST OF PATRONS 


Weil, Samuel. 0.0... cece eee eee eee cece New York City 
WV er i Wo deaf agra OR ae BS Gh Ae OE EERE New York City 
Weiler li 035 25k ri eo eae week ee oe eS New York City 
Weinberg, Benjamin L.............05. Minneapolis, Minn. 
Weinberg, Jacob... 0... . ccc cee eee eect eee Lancaster, Pa. 
Weinberg, James........0 ccc ese recaees Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Weinberg, Joseph. .......... cece eee eens Greenville, Miss. 
Weinberg, Julius..............000-604 Atlantic City, N. J. 
Weinberg, Morris... 1... ee ee cece ee eeee ee: Baltimore, Md. 
Weinberg, Nicholas Jo... .. ccc cece eee New York City 
Weinberger, B.... 1... . ec cece eee eens New York City 
Weinberger, Emma... .......0.0eee eee e eee New York City 
W Crm bereery Foe scn ied cab eae a Sea Gs ew oa ae New Orleans, La. 
Weinberger, Henry. .....-...0ec0 eee eens New York City 
Weltiberger; JOnaSs.-x 64245 ese eae ee eer ees New York City 
Weinberger, Mo... cece ce ee eee tee Plainfield, N. J. 
Weiner, Alexander.........-..+: Rockaway Beach, N. Y. 
Weiner, Jacob... 1... se ece rec ee eee eeeee Philadelphia, Pa. 
Weiner, Leopold 8... oo. . ce ec eee eee eee New York City 
Weiner, Richard. . 0.0... cc eee ee eee New York ae 
Weinfield, Henry. .........-..cec ec eees Montreal, Canada 
Weingart, S. 06... ccc eee e ete e neces New York City 
Weingart, SOle 3.35.86 6 4G eae ee ok OSS OSES Scranton, Pa. 
Weinhandler, p06 (0) | 0) § Cee et eee er Ne New York City 
Weinhandler, M.. ..... ce cee ce ee eee eee New York City 
Weinreb, ASD U Pisa eas oan coached van cee New York City 
Weinshel, JACOD) 2 aaa ea Sethe ane Sete net New York City 
Weinshenker, SO OLA Ss sa yioc Gta ea aed ee ee es Chicago, Il. 
Weitisteins: Ac nat ox cbt wo 6 ee oh eee BS New York City 
Weinstein, De hecuttekoe strate Gtarseow ke Scase Gy ae ade Chicago, Ill. 
Weinstein, Revi Bos iiise sewed eke eee ea es Goshen, Jnd. 
Weinstein, Hemry..... 0. ccc ee cee ee ene New York City 
Weinstein, lo MDu.: c2vcadeawae tans tee tte New York City 
Weinstein, Joseph, MD ee sess he bata bee aes we New York City 
Weinstein, Morris. voc. 4 cca ea Veaes oi oe eke New York City 
Wenstetnt, Sh occd Uw tép-be aoa. 6 be New York City 
Weinstock, Harriss... 50060 cn cease rent ses Sacramento, Cal. 
Weinstock, Louis. .......0.ccc cece eeeees Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Weinstock, Lubin, & Co... .... cece eee eee Sacramcito, Cal. 
Weis, Malis woisn an oS ka 6 ce cne eae New Orleans, La. 
Weis: Brothers: 044 6554 ets ek an ha ee meee Boston, Mass. 
W GISDETE. Desa cou ek oe ok eed oe eee Pittsburg, Pa. 
Weiskopf, Henry. ........0c ce cece eee Minneapolis, Minn. 
Weisman, Abraham...........0022000 New Haven, Conn. 
Weisman, [saac.........cccreesseeereeaee New York City 
Weisman, Isidore..........0e0s0e- ..Minneapolis, Minn. 
Weisman, Mayer.........cccereseeser tees Boston, Mass. 
WOISTNAT 4s Se w 2 ey ccd ee See ae eed eee Bg es New York City 
We1ss:, Alls 6c um do ein deed ee he ewe ee wee Brooklyn, N. ¥. 
Weiss) Ao es olor ew euaanie. ee oo 6 HOS Los Angeles, Cal. 
Weiss, Abraham... ...... cee eee eee ee eee New York City 
WV C1SS, NOD ea i Sato uae ccd em oaeaie ewe Philadelphia, Pa. 
Weiss, Charles, .........cceseecreeesees Philadelphia, Pa. 
Weiss, Rev. Harry... ... cece ee ee ee ee rene, Macon, Ga. 
WeOISS. [sa 8. 3/244. w eek Ue bear bles Philadelphia, Pa. 
Weiss, ~ISadore 2.5 ¢ aceupaqatesy é edn Does Chicago, Il. 
W 018s). is. Wosbee ee Attias haa Pe kok vee Mobile, Ala. 
Weiss, Jac0bi.n.sciscnsts ie cee e dead be a4 New York City 
WY 618s VOSCOI i ase i ode ore Sor Barnet one Eat New York City 
Weiss, RODePt os 6.444 28s essen enone sew Ss Galveston, Tex. 
Weissbrot, Samuel...... 0.0... cee ee ees New York City 
Weissman, Reuben. ............ 00 ee eee New York City 
Welttier: Moritg...,s i «c¢s34se aebes ee ae ees New York City 
Welwart Chased awe Ro a a wane eae Gk EE eS Pana, Jl). 
WONG i Fla sh hk doi ge heckue Bb Rae ase Montreal, Canada 
WONG eS ce kt io ae eee Sees eee New York City 
Wenning, Gottfried... ...... 0. cece eee eee Olmus, Tex. 
Werbelowsky, A......... ce cercescnevvas Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Werbelowsky, David.............-00008- Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Werdenschlag, David..............00 00 00- New York City 
Werner, Edward M.......... 00 eee eens New York City 
WV CENIGT CEL te luca 2 areclb-ass buat pase a ae donee New York City 
WeElheiit Di see BON. so. 56 ste ee ee ye te ess New York City 
Wertheim, Al Aa Oe a AD New York City 
WRCFEBCINCS:. TSIBG ey. ee eee es eed Allegheny, Pa. 
Wertheimer; aeons cis. 6c ce ee ce ees New York City 
WACO Pole: VOUT 289 dea os es 4 MRR SOS New York City 
Westfeldt, Bes NN cara ae cs ase oath gate Gua G New Orleans, La. 
Westheimer, SUSI sate os ailcet > Gua nee wa weeded St. Joseph, Mo. 
Westin, M. ito Reichel sata tnete ts New York City 
WH URUCEE ~ Meo weG GD oj pe ecw bone wee ca eS Montreal, Canada 
Wroxler. So WV sac catered os oe oc ee ne Oe aw ee ete New York City 
PVGRIST, OGIOMON ee. ce ees eee ws New Orleans, La. 
Weyl, Maurice N..... cc ce cee ceceseeeeen Philadelphia, Pa. 
Witte :C...o8 eewaces seas ahaa ws se Allegheny, Pa. 
White, Rev. H. F...... Apidalens eee saad Philadelphia, Pa. 
White; ls Oi MD ira oue Genie, aera vi bes 4 Ges Chicago, II] 
White, PRNID «vcs. seaweed oe ies suas aes Exeter, N. H. 
Whitehill, Edward. ........ ccc. cee eee ee Philadelphia, Pa. 
Whitelaw, JONAS. Chane ei ee Pee eee are New York City 
Whitestone, Simon........ Sao wee hears oie Pittsburg, Pa. 
Whitlock, Philip... . 2.2... cee eee Riehmond, Va. 
Whitman, Esther........... peisaudt i eweath oes Boston, Mass. 
Whitteker, Rev. W. F..,......-..205- Amsterdam, N. Y. 
Whitul, Fr........ vi donot She Pe ere ee New York City 
Widder, PPOIOM Ya asc 6 a ware hard ate ce pO Sees New York City 
Wiener; David... iis ecsaadeee eae a ous os Pittsburg, Pa. 
Wiener, Henry. ........++. sea ie eile, BO ea New York City 
Wienstein, H............... ee are ne New York City 


XXix 


Wiernik, Peter... ..........4. ae New York Be hee eae ects gen, «cuter a scans oes SNe rie 
Wies Brothers ........ecccceccecceteuccess Boston, Mass. 
Wilbush, Benjamin... .......6. euaver cued woe Houston, ex. 
STL ais, ot aN) be OE a eae er Peoria, Ill. 
A ULL esr ee TAT MINE is cia 5 w sas Wo A hoiside Gig lene wala. Ss New York City 
Wilder. orriss MD. 6 ic cc es dec ee eee New York City 
WU lA oi oe cola sis a. Ww 6 Sls Sana oleh Po Warwick, N. 

Wy MtaTS ic Bit xe s kd a Eo dod wo Ea aed ww REE Jew York City 
Wile, BYE eo ok ee ck ek Btebncne lh as ede Buffalo, N. Y. 
WV TDG: SRUFIM Mined oa a Se bu bears Shek ae 4 Rochester, N. Y. 
Wilenzig, Bad sedis G8 ies, a ae Baltimore, Md. 
WY TtMGiy Cle 0G Seletak aod ws Oe aceite x eee woul e deem poe Baltimore, Md. 
Wilk, AERIS: Socek Aa age neat Minneapolis, Minn. 
Wilkes. MOP NLD... occ kaw eee ee eae ea New York City 
Ww ilkoff, WINK. oo... cess cc cecceaccs Vounestow n, Qhio 
W illiams, 7 SOS a a te Sefer aa wp ee Worcester, Mass. 
Williams, Rev. Dr. Leighton. .............. New York City 
Willner, Revi W o0.c464044054 dew ei ewes Meridian, Miss. 
Wilner, Samuel. .... 0. cee ec cee ce ee ee ee NOW York Cit 
Wilson, Rev. George..........c cece wees Gibson City, Hl. 
Wilson, Jerome Js i 644.6% «dew eek ate See oS New York City 
WT Zig, idicd oc store cin av ra ween taneie. 8 Rata ak Birmingham, Ala. 
Winchel, Geo. OC... oc. cc ccc ee ee ees New York City 
Wineburgh, | Bs) 6) gh ones ee ean eee ae Geers oe New York City 
Wineland, Elias. ....... cc ccc ee eee ees Philadelphia, Pa. 
Winer. Pasiesda eos esa} io ewe hae na ees Olean, N : 
Winer, Hoty is< 66 a¢sswonceaie avers Chattanooga, Tenn. 
Winer, Hermans) 44:.¢s-san baaee ae teas 6S 8 New York City 
Winkelman, Samuel...........0...000ees Manistique, Mich. 
Winkleman, SO). scene s« datas Gi eat eee Rochester, N. Y. 
Winkler, Vane oy tee a eee Be aee ee Cincinnati, Ohio 
Wansteing bOuisiee so 4 ig4 ek Yee ee Portland, Me. 
Winter, Morrisios cs ci.0b bes bw he See oe es Boston, Mass. 
AV INUOF NOG es cide 6 ove da gin Rea eae ae pee ee Grae 8 New York City 
Winternitz, David... .... eee eee ee eee ee Las Vegas, N. Mex. 
Winternitz, Samuel L............. 00020000 Chicago, Til 
Wintner, aah Leopold, Ph.D............. Brooklyn, N. Y. 
W Introd; Jo Dl Beech Ge iS SG we eS Philadelphia, Pa. 
Wisdom, M. NN Sess reahia Serratia Gris Ke NS da laiat Mads New Orleans, La. 
Wise; ANG@USts 26 cn05:i eae ues si wee ee S5ERS Philadelphia, Pa. 
Wise, Barnat..... 0... ee eee eneee rade Sauatens Pittsburg, Pa. 
Wise, Fenny: Bec cerca i gous aokeaeeaned aes New York City 
Wise, Otto Irving... .... 0... cee eae San Francisco, Cal. 
Wise, Rev. Jonah B.... 2... eee eee Chattanooga, Tenn. 
Wise, Rev. Dr. Stephen S...............-4. Portland, Ore. 
Wise, Solomon... .... ses eeeeeee cece renee Abbeville, La. 
Wise Brothers... css ..ceenee eed eoweaas Yazoo City, "Miss. 
Wiseman, Harry S...........--se0e8- Indianapolis, Ind. 
Witmark; Isidor: ond cpeteees cee aba: New York City 
Witt, Tey. Louis: cr ccen dato aoe hosed ees Pueblo, Colo. 
Witt; Samuels anv osu gate ecenebs aces New York City 
Witte; Maxs« 6s d2ce4 cased 2 Goaee oes alebees New York City 
Wittenberg, Rev. David eee eee Jacksonville, Fla. 
Wittenberg, Joseph, M.D. ...........0.05. New York City 
Wittenberg, Louis............-00e0ee ees Philadelphia, Pa. 
W poten, Rev. Cornelius.......... a le aha Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Weel: due) Sot) Beeb ut oe So isd dua wae aoe as New York City 
Wohigemuth, NM soi tata 2k or Ae ae Aira tt ache aera cag ea New York City 
WY IAG TAS Bak Gare eck a baie elo ee eae Grand Island, Nebr. 
Wolbarsht, Hyman.........sccecceeeecee Baltimore, Md. 
WwW olberg, AOGNE 6 <a0s 4.00 énc ems ewes ses New York City 
A RA i a RN on sca uh gg Saal tidvava wane oe New Orleans, La. 
Ww olf, Mra Atrahsim §...6.466 04204 eee hos Philadelphia, Pa. 
RES. Aa DERE LS citys cos. josie Geddes See a hem eNO Philadelphia, Pa, 
Wot, siexander -I., M.D... . 622. ces eas St. Louis, Mo. 
ULES UTIs oh BAM 5 Geb food # wwe wae Ree Philadelphia, Pp: 
Wilks ICHIGINET SS 60a cas cee ates ee oe a Mee Philadelphia, Pa, 
WOM; SOMATA TES oo oss 56 ele Be 8G ae 6S Sees Boston, Mass. 
WGI). GIBTOHEO 7. uv csc ee 5 eee 60 sore ee Philadelphia, Pa. 
WG ot beter et ig. casi Gsd akg seo. 4 Oe ao ae eae Pittsburg, Pa. 
WAITS SPER ora ee is bee owe ee eek Philadelphia, Pa. 
AAO E Seat OLIEA Sr gas dove nia a -aateie wa aps Philadelphia, Pa. 
WV CHE PUR UED Bre GS nee oe he 8G ee we ao A Rae Yhieago, Ill, 
Wolf. ‘Bmanwel 5. .405 Sis cesar ae oe drew aw Malone Bayou Sara, La. 
Wolt, Gessel, M.D) cae oc tee eka ches New York City 
Wolf, Henry AS sn hsautt Seca em ete ereanaiere. he Chicago, Hl. 
W oll. Hermann: 24:4.05 cries as eee Mewes Yonkers, N. Y. 
Wolf, D5 ha: bar Ueelaai ev anlerca ty op yal ein eae ae New York City 
W olt.. Mars. Li. Jina ic 54.4 0% awd Meal ha Bway ae Cleveland, Ohio 
Woll, -DOUIS. 24. cesar abe aes ple ees hs Philadelphia, Pa. 
Weolt, lg MoD a4 c we 2 ee ot eases a -Yonkers, N. Y. 
Wolt, Miriam H..........eececececeeees . Philadelphia, Pa. 
Wolf, Pe ees tS ase AER Ae Aida aecacns eee a sed Pittsburg, Pa. 
WGlh, Siete 8 6550 a: ai'eic ee wae ee Bw Ms Philadelphia, Pa. 
Wolf, Hon. Simon...................- Washington, D. C. 
Wolfe, A Ol DG iy: 50524: a oare rae te ies Bo ae os Port! and, Ore. 
Wolfe, Fatih? 20%, seace.g ok ea eiee wean Gee Hamilton, Canada 
Wolfe, Menko H........ cc ccc cece ee eee New York City 
Wolfe, NEOPIIS 5. Sie Sty aed yee a's Ne nacececeoteen ks Brooklyn, N. Y. 
UW EG cc olsen acs cere Wis ave tee wie alien xb Bide ed New York City 
Wolfenstein, Dr. S..........ecccceeeeues Cleveland, Ohio 
Wool Ac Nig curr as ee ise eG sabetnanees eu New York City 
Wolff, Emil............ Pan et erate a ere Pare New York City 
Wolff, Harris. ..... CRS eee eee Sel ns New York City 
Wolff, Henry........... Ee I a eee Allendale, S. C. 
Wolff, Isaac. ......06- Mies Re dae ees New York City 
Wolff, Mrs. Robert............. K Gtenasbw a ate ase Chicago, Ill. 
Wolff, Samuel.......... Kieeowin bess Chicago, Hl. 


Wolff; SelomoOthrs é0sssnda ceed eee eee ex ’ New Orleans, La. 


LIST OF PATRONS 


XX 
Wolffner, Henry L., M.D..........00000% St. Louis, Mo VYounker, Fallin o's teas wide ober ek Wak New York City 
Wolfneir, Mrs. W. Fi... ce cc ee ees Peoria, Ill. Yudelsons. As’ Byc3 sack osc bGs walk we MORE Ls Chicago, Il. 
Wolfsfeld, Simon... ..... ccc eee eee New York. Cit Nae be i iret 5 ce 8 oho es BS ss REET ED New York Gity 
Wolfsohn, Jacob M.... 0... cece ee eee ees Chicago, Il. Yutzy, Rev. Jacob ......0. ccc cecccceces Selinsgrove, Pa 
Wolfsohn, IVE 8 8 Me cts ite wh eel oak tec dy New York City 
Wolfson, Dav 1diilc sds was aco ackeare ss aliec odie Billings, Mont. Z 
Wolfson; REV. G iain 64 oie os Hee Oe EASE owell, Mass. DROCKGW, Miic ooo xies oe a FREER New York City 
Wolls0ny Diss 34s cue ad Bate as Philadelphia, Pa. | Zakon, Louis I........... cece ee eee eee eee Pittsburg, Pa 
Wolfson, Lj MUD: 5 6404.eik ceed ioe eeee.s o's Philadelphia, Pa. Zander; Gustav. <i vee s o.4eeea ode Geese toes New York City 
Wolfson, Meyer Woes hwigta Se ear hove ate biyhad 6 New York City | Zander, Herman..............00eeeeeces Nashville, Tenn. 
Wolfson, MOniss <4: .eibeeka wee daetie cows New York City Zarach, Isaac, M.D... 1... ccc eee eee New York City 
Wollstein, LOUIS).3 ck barra ee eenacnate Se New York City Zarembowitz, A......-s.ec- Riera ih atte ie Waren New York City 
Wolper, Wed eae ip nin oe Ae eae Boston, Mass. Zausmer, Wolff. .........4.. pit ecg RE New York City 
Wolpert, Mayer. ..........-cecees .. Minneapolis, Minn. Zechnovitz, Samuel. ....... ccc eee ee eee New York City 
Wolsey, Rev. Louis.........c.ecccecees Little Rock, Ark. Zederbaum, Avg MED tie st jae eee a Denver, Colo. 
Wolsey, William... 0.0... cece ee ee eee eee eee Clare, Mich. Zeisler, Samuel......... Wig hoa dy Bed a sele e Saha New ease ity 
Woodward, Frederick E......... BN eas Washington, D. C. DOWER AN es Men b eal la Bea eae Seon ...e.eBrooklyn, N. Y. 
Woolf, Tete fo es ho ataen oe whe wee New York Cit Zelenko, Joseph... 2.1... cece ec eceesccvees New York City 
Wool f, Mics og MeO ute cas aoe San Francisco, Cal. Zelezny, Morris..........ce08 Big tee dean iets New York City 
Woollson, Dio tenet saccee ky peta oan Brooklyn, N. Y. | Zéliqzon, Dr. Maurice........ error Cleveland, Ohio 
Woolner, Mrs. Samuel, Sr...........0c ce eee Peoria, Il. Zepin, Rev. George........... th ses te: Wie Cincinnati, Ohio 
Worman, Max N............. etna alsbia de Brooklyn, N. Y. Zetlin, Biiseinn 6 eae es a deaeaanee duende Saat New York City 
Wormer, David si o6% dss cae nee ee Ses eee 2 es Chicago, WI. Zetner, Charles. ..........000+ ieiachcen Philadelphia, Pa. 
Wormser, ye) Wh 6 are Seren we Pauioes wheats Scranton, Pa. Zielonka, Rev. Martin......... ie lace CS aca od rl Paso, Tex. 
Wormeer, Mrs. Isidor........ cece eee eee New York City Zimmerman, C. L., D.D.S...........-2- 220 Chicago, Ill. 
Wright, Sophie B............. 0000 eee New Orleans, La. Zimmerman, Hyman........ sto evavatle Sa ebet New York ‘City 
WPubel.: Dooc.4vdsauweds Gene Seas eens Middletown, Conn Zimmerman, M.L., D.D.S....... cece eee Philadelphia, Pa. 
Wyman, S......... sane eicaraie 8 Sp aheie in eee Cleveland, Ohio Zimmerman, MOIS; cs cg so bcwcrets ave gee New York City 
Aindler, Pvc vi sedaae swe ee es Kia ieesasiecstn eee New York City 
ae Y Zinman, Morris............ rere Philadelphia, Pa. 
Yedeikin, Nathan............+ i alegssaats diab ie New York City | Zipkin, M. W................... Pee oo New York City 
Nha Meco Merete ats Sue, a ass 6 OWE DN Oe SES Denison, Tex. Ziporkes, J........-05eee8 adamant einer’ New York City 
Wewell, Horace Fics... ce eww cas Albuquerque, N. Mex. Zippert, Max...........66- tea ead eGities New York City 
Yog, TRGOP. Ss: c ake os ccce ae eee re New York City Diving Tate Vs. g Saco cvs ew sehole teed aia ese & Brooklyn, N. Y. 
ee N eee isias ee as are hamid a: Newark, N. J. | Zoffer, Henry. .... 0... cee cece cece eens Rochester, Pa 
Yohalem, Benny....... Pee a aon arated a New York City | Zoline, Elijah. Na LG Be ockceacus Eee at Meare Sete ysis Chicago, Ill 
Yorkel, 9 ear Oe EE ON New York City | Zolotkoff, Leon, Tle Be vaccine ? ieee ae Chicago, Il 
PCLT N eg WAPI OS rte Gs 6 oie.4 8 eave ew wae ees Yonkers, N. Y. Zuosmer, Wolff. ........ceceeceeccsceuees New York City 
SSIES Ta, SEES og: 6-408 6 4 08 OR ow we ae as Waltham, Mass. Zucker, Lys ses see Per woken ees psi ge hued New York City 
Young, Horace G.......2-2-+ wiraguae edad ame es Albany, N. Y. Zuckermann, Manfred......... a slg tae Bi tata New York City 
rGHaeighy AI Ne Sects s,s oh aw ok es See Rw Ba eee New York City Zukor, Adolph. (west bie needa saekeve iia NOW ork City 
Young, Rev. S. Edward....... sie teeeatiad wre sede Pittsburg, Pa. Zundelowitz, Aw... 2... cece wee en veces Wichita Falls, Tex. 
Scungermee, MOSES et iaag se ire on one ae Somerville, Mass. | Zussman, Samuel, M.D........ »+ee.-span Francisco, Cal. 
Younker, A..... Oa Bieale avait ol ne aS see aiecils Des Moines, Iowa | Zwetow, Samuel R........ ee re ee ae Denver, Colo. 
EUROPE, ASIA, AFRICA, AND AUSTRALIA 
A Altarag. Toc s2503 cewek es ...... Manchester, England 
Aaron, D. H..... Si eeae etn ed ise .London, England Altman, Albert: Liss ss eecde65 ea ges eeu ses Dublin, Ireland 
Aaron, Harry............6- Pe eee "Lancaster, England Altof, Colonel A. ..05 oes eee eee eesas London, England 
PEEO Uy lei iek hci Sa wR ROO ERS , England Amsterdam, Univ. of, Biblio. Rosenthaliana, 
Abarbanel Pipeary (ee RE ere he rr je Palestine Amsterdam, Holland 
Abelheim, A., M.D.............. Johannesburg, So, Africa | Andrade, Jacob A. P. M.........06- Spanish Town, Jamaica 
Abelson, Rev. J oshua, BAe suas dee Bristol, England Andrade, Mrs. Rebecca da Costa......... London, England 
Aberdeen Public Library.............. Aberdeen, Scotland | Andrade, 8. V. da Costa. .....-.-.-.-00- London, England 
Aberdeen, University of...........-56: Gainey Scotland Annenberg, Mark ..........00005 be Gees London, England 
Aboal. Avis: 6 osax 64a eb eee aera be Cairo, Egypt Ansell. iy Mineo 4 rw here he a a Sak London, England 
Abraham, D. E. Jc. sce ee sehen Soe Shanghai, China Aria College Re ye tee re eee es Portsea, England 
Abraham, James. ......... 6s healt London, England Arnhold, Philipp. ........... err ocr London, England 
Abrahams, B. Lionel ........ oka RES London, Engiand Aschkenasi, Israel ].......... ee ee London, England 
Abrahams, Daniel.............002-22 0) Glaseow; Seotland |} Ascoli, BH... . cc cece ee ee eae ee Manchester, England 
Abrahams, H. A... ccc ee cee eee ees Lamdot. surgiang Ash, Hoi.) ou. tho eke ee bw a eds eNO NR ERGs Cardiff, Wales 
Abrahams, Israel, M.A........ 00 cee eee Cambridge, England Ash, Michael. .............c cece erences Abertillery, Wales 
Abrahams, Lu... sco. os cece baw aoe eee London, England Ass’n for Study of Jewish Relig............... Puna, India 
Abrahams, Louis B., B.A...........-.. . London, England | Auerbach, Isidore.. ..........6.-+-0-02- London, England 
Abrahams, M............ee00. Port Elizabeth, So. Africa Auerbach, ene arene © rene aen ten rere Liverpool, England 
Abrahams, Rev. M.........ce cece eee eeee Leeds, England Austrian Imperial Library................ Vienna, Austria 
Abrahams, Morris. ........ ccc rece eeees London, England Avner, Mark. .......-..0000- eS cota ae London, England 
Abrahamson, A. D...... ccc w ec esac esene Cardiff, Wales 
Abrahamson, Joshua..........-02ee cece eee Cardiff, Wales B 
Abrahamson, L. S........ 0. cc ee ee ee eee Newport, Wales | Bacher, Prof. Dr. Wilhelm............ Budapest, Hungary 
Abrahamson, Max. ..... 0. cece eee ee ee eee Leeds, England Baden, The Grand Duke of.......... Carlsruhe, Germany 
Académie Impériale des Sciences... .St. Petersburg, Russia | Baker, Mrs. D.............ceceeeees Manchester, England 
Académie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres. .Paris, France Baker, Perey Pe ic.63 26 os chne bab d Sees Glasgow, Scotland 
Académie Royale des Sciences.......... Brussels, Belgium | Bala Theological College.........-0--+-02-+- Bala, Wales 
Accademia dei Sienza.........eee cece ee eens Milan, Italy Balfour, Rt. Hon. Arthur J.........-.-. London, England 
Adelman, Joseph. ....... cc cece eee Manchester, England Balkind, A.........eceeee Newcastle-upon- Tyne, England 
Adler, Elkan N. MA ccs oe Ce enas London, England PalOlig: Mites ie Goi wha ae ew See Manchester, England 
Adler, Dr. Herman, ‘Gide Rabbi British Empire, Bambus) W oicc sce cece eee eee Eee Berlin, Germany 
ondon, England Baptist College... 2.0.0.0... 000. eee eee Manchester, England 
Adler, Marcus Nathan, M.A............. London, England Baranov, Herman...........02eee002> Vryheid, So. Africa 
Adler, Rev. Michael, B.A...........2-- London, England Barber, Rev. W. T. A... ccc ee ees Cambridge, England 
Adler, Solomon, ......cccceeseeeueeeas Glasgow, Scotland Barbican Mission to Jews ...........5.-5 London, England 
Aguilar, The Misses. ....... 56 apes aeons London, England Barder, Samuel............00eeeeeeceees Bristol, Englan 
AlliONn, MAS doce. 3s Kee cide oe a eee eee London, England Barnett, Aaron......ssscecccceeaeee: Barry Dock, Wales 
Aitchison, G., ReAic sa. scneces ECL ere London, England Barnett sone besa bidet eater ae ....- Birmingham, England 
Alone Dine oy owe 86 ee eee CPE eRe Belgrade, Servia Barnett, Max... ......cesssceees 09 Cape Town, So. Africa 
Alexander, Wet aia eed 6 esau. a% Johannesburg, So. Africa Barnett, S ig Se Birth doll Sa hc ing ig sia ou ee A eae rg ondon, England 
Alexander, Henry. ........ Newcastle-upon-Tyne, England Barnett, Solomon. ........0ee88 we eeeee..- Newport, Wales 
Alexander, LOUWIB si .0 6 6 d0-3:9.668 wade e aes Shefheld, England Baron, Bernhard...........cceeeceeeees London, England 
Alexander, MOMs: acaecesd ods tee Cape Town, So. Africa Baron, Rev. David. .............02000-- Londen, England 
Alfandary, | |, SOE Me hee eer ane a aren London, England Barons Hee. 644s 3452426 4G as RSE London, England 
Alford, Rev. George, M.A........ Leamington Spa, England Barrett: Wilson (deceased)............--- London, England 
Alliance Israélite School.......... Constantinople, Turkey | Barry, Rev. William, D.D............. Dorchester, England 
Alliance Israélite Universelle................ Paris, France Barsht, Av ioc icas avs ieeeesoaeen eee eee London, England 
All Souls’ College. ........ 00004 piace aa Oxford, England | Barth, Dr. Jacob.......... eee er Berlin, ‘Germany 
Aiptavich, Hesse Fe ake. eens s erat Southsea, England Basch, E..........006 seececcceeees Buluwayo, ‘So. Africa 


LIST OF PATRONS 


xxxi 


ee a ee a aca 


Bash, Phillip oss4 cuvin vos ao cs eMail Birmingham, England 
Battersea, Lord. ..... 0... cece cece erence London, England 
Bauer, Gs Miia e een eee teens London, England 
Bauer, Le Chevalier de..........2.,05+ Brussels, Belgium 
Baumann, Max........--se0eeee: Johannesburg, So. Africa 
Baumberg, A. H......... 000 eee ee eee Sydney, Austraha 
Baur, Charles... so... 4.00000 005 lealnd ne ial ears Paris, France 
Baur, Leonis-. ccs 620s seeds sada EES BAS Paris, France 
Beirnstein, Harris M.............00-05- London, England 
Beirnstein, Mrs. Jane. ....-..-.....--+--- London, England 
Belilios, Hon. Emanuel R., C.M.G., ete. ... London, England 
Belisha, Albert Isaac. ...............05. London, England 
Belisha, Barrow Isaac..............-. Manchester, England 
Belkind, Israel..........-.0.00085 Rishon-le-Zion, Palestine 
Benas, Baron L., J.P... 0. cee eee Liverpool, England 
Bendeon, George ... 0.00. ec eee re eee eee London, England 
Bendry, Rev. A. P...... ccc eee e eee Cape Town, So. Africa 
Benjamin, Hyman............... Middlesborough, England 
Benjamin, Isaac... ......0666- emda eee ene Llanelly, Wales 
Benjamin, Richard................. Nottingham, England 
Ben-Oliel, Rev. Maxwell M.............. London, England 
Benscher, Martin...............--..2--- London, England 
Benscher, W... 2... ccc ccc ence tern venes London, England 
Bensusan, The Messrs............ Bexhill-on-Sea, England 
Bentwich, Herbert, LL.B............... London, England 
Benzinger, Dr. Immanuel............ Jerusalem, Palestine 
Berkhamsted Gram. School, Rev. Dr. Fry, 
Berkhamsted, England 
Berlin, University of..........0..200000- Berlin, Germany 
Berliner,. Ags. ¢0s.i06 eed es 00 1S R eee Berlin, Germany 
Berlinski, Solomon J... 2... 0.0020 ce eee? London, Englan 
Berlowitz, L...... <o HS SOS CxO EEL ae London, England 
Berlyniy. Mis ode oid eae ooo kek Birmingham, England 
Bern, University of..........--20+20++: Bern, Switzerland 
Bernard, O. L... oo. cee eee E. Northam, W. Australia 
Berner Hochschul Bibliothek........... Bern, Switzerland 
Bernfeld, Dr. Simon..............0002055 Berlin, Germany 
Bernfield, S...........500- ee ee en London, England 
Bernstein, Jo. 36 eee e es eve es at Johannesburg, So. Africa 
Bernstein, Max............0020 eee eee asgow, Scotland 
Bernstein, Solomon ........ cui bares Manchester, England 
Bertish, Marcus........... Pe re verae Mee Bristol, England 
Berwitz, Louis... .... ccc ccc cece asec eeaes Belfast, Ireland 
Besso, Moses... . 2.20 ce eeccccc cece: Manchester, Englan 
TSCSSO,. 1s oy onc aroma be atnace Ale e § koe RR Manchester, England 
Besso, Samuel. ......... ee a or Manchester, England 
Beteshi, JOseply 25k... ee he ee Manchester, England 
Bethencturt; Cs dé. ...5 068... ee awe eee Paris, France 
Betts, Mrs: Ka Mak.) cc. e ness ceereawens London, England 
Bevan biy Pte del a 600s ee taewanb es London, England 
Bhinjekar, Wias Th... 0.0 6s s oeSe obsess Bombay, India 
Bibliothéque des Bollandistes........... Brussels, Belgium 
Bickersteth, Rt. Rev. Edward Henry, D.D.. Exeter, England 
PIO 7s is xe eviG «2 ae es @ ods eee Southport, England 
PSP RR, Sy he dre vos kee do we hee Manchester, England 
Birmingham Public Library.......... Birmingham, England 
Birnbaum, Bernard... .......ce eee neee London, England 
Birnbaum, E..............ccceee eee Kénigsberg, Germany 
Birnstingl, Avigdor L.............-.--. London, England 
Bischoffsheim, Mrs. C........ 0.225200) London, England 
Bishop of Bangor, The.............. Menai Bridge, Wales 
Bishop of Exeter, The......... Racine ey: xeter, Englan 
Bishop of Lichfield, The................ Lichfield, England 
Bishop of London, The..............-.. London, Englan 
Bishop of Neweastle, The. .Neweastle-upon-Tyne, England 
Bishop of Ripon, The.........000.eee eee es Ripon, Englan 
Bishop of Stepney, The. .............0.. London, England 
Bitton do eek his 4 Sv 2k Os oe eds London, England 
Black, William George, F.S.A.......-..-> Glasgow, Scotland 
Blaiber@, S. iw cccacca hee ce woe RRA eee London, England 
lau, Dr; Ludwigt) sco sacs exces Cheeses Budapest, Hungary 
Blaustein, Me .c6 6 6 os ceca ee oe BORGES London, England 
Blaustein, FobiaS.........-. eee eee eee London, England 
Bles,, As Ji Sie s g4 gy oes ee eS 54 Me Bas Manchester, England 


Bloch, Rev. Dr. Philipp..........-. ees Posen, Germany 
Bloom, Abraham.............-6. Middlesborough, England 
Bloom, Rev. E...... 6... cee eee eee Merthyr-Tydvil, Wales 
Bloom, Goodall... 2.2... 0.0.00 cece Beel Water, So. Africa 
Bloom, Isadore...........0.0005 Middlesborough, England 
Bloom, Mrs. Louis.............. West Hartlepool, England 
BIG OR en ees 5 BEE Bed Sea ester, England 
Blumberg, Harris. . .......00. 0+ sees Manchester, England 
Blumberg, Isaac... ........2 eee ee eee Manchester, England 
Blumenau, Louis. .......-.. 00 e eee ences Dublin, Ireland 
Bodleian Library. .......0.. ccc eee eee Oxford, England 
Bojanowo, Dr. J. Theodor...........-..-. Posen, Germany 
Bolloten, Joseph.........-0-.ee ee eee Upper Bangor, Wales 
Bomash, Ty Seu. 6b oe ons Sng ee Ao ee es ..- Cardiff, Wales 
Bootle Free Publie Library and Museum. . Liverpool, England 
Bowman, L. G. M. A... . 2. eee eee London, England 
Box, Rev. George H., M.A........---..- Chingford, England 
Bradford Free Library..........0000 005 Bradford, England 
Bradford, Mayor of. ........0000 eee ee Bradford, England 
Bradshaw, Race c.4 se n0 ee cade Yee OS Dublin, Ireland 
Braininy: Dr Rec cscow ds bose eo aos Charlottenburg, Germany 
Brancdes, Dr. Eduard ............... Copenhagen, Denmark 


Brann, Mig Pho De sc.c vase ae Ae wee wires Breslau, Germany 


Bransky, Ellis ............ Newcastle-upon-Tyne, England 
Brighton Publie Library.............. Brighton, England 
BYU Ns 4h wie cb ehdnhiareks 6 os nse a 5 oes London, England 
Pipi git: Ts sis aries Geta Se sae ce oe ee ales London, England 
SPEEA, WN ee ote Suen a Sie ao: as os Sow os GS ve RE Dublin, Ireland 
Bristol Public Library. oc... ec ees Bristol, England 
British and Foreign Bible Society... ..... London, England 
LTT Ripe ROAD og * 0 6 A ert tae Nachod, Austria 
FIG URIAK I. tals 5.6 Pay acs, 3's 26 oo see Hl Sydney, Australia 
Bromley House Library............. Nottingham, England 
TSEOR aN SAO Rae Paid 66 oa we es Manchester, England 
Browo- Berar § onsaaa sven oases oe ces hs Sheffield, England 
Brown Pha Tepes eaten sis cies se Ee Sheffield, England 
Brown, Lewisinss sis28ss 09 Newcastle-upon-Tyne, England 
Bows MGiriss sty gon eate eee es es inburgh, Scotland 
TSPO WH DUD Ge ed eS Rw ha ee Edinburgh, Scotland 
Browne, Rev. W. J....... _....Rathfriland, Down, Ireland 
Browning, Prof. Oscar... King’s College, Cambridge, England 
Brill, Rev. Dr. Adolf... .. Frankfort-on-the-Main, Germany 
Brussels Bollandists Society............ Brussels, Belgium 
Pte Ns Pee ce nee wave Maa «a Shs eR Manchester, England 
Buber; Molomon ec 4 2) paid e cess Caalonkene Lemberg, Austria 
Biiehler, Dr Adolis 2<.scc ke... os eae ae wera Vienna, Austria 
Bueks, Morris. s,s s av beeg os cas beeeetes London, England 
Budge, Ment ys. 2. cGancoe ed os ao dat eed Hamburg, Germany 
Buetow, Max pac iqacetiee oe es sie South Shields, England 
IPCI; LOWS: 64 thicdains «30s bates Dudley, England 
Pry es Brae e208 x caaets 6 oe a Za Copenhagen, Denmark 
Bialeys Fih6 oon s ee ee CA y ts © a <5 ieeenn ees Belgrade, Servia 
Buluwayo Chovevei Zion Association. .Buluwayo, So. Africa 
C 
Cabrol, Rev. Fernand.............. Farnborough, England 
CARDULY) Desa. fkarand ee do hes 0's os baw OS Worcester, England 
Cahen; ISOM. no. csc dies as ae. Roabteawales Paris, France 
Caiden, Michael.......... jas oo Saas London, England 
Cambridge Free Library.............. Cambridge, England 
CAMmPrass, ID ViNRlies shoe ince e+ i oa Soa eo ae Leeds, England 
Cate: TSARR oc aie wwraed ss io e accu Manchester, England 
Cantor. Vic 5. Sob ketieeasin «600s bx arene London, England 
Caplan, [sages oo .icws diedawg oss esos Johannesburg, So, Africa 
Cardiff Free Library ..¢.au... 0. sees gene Cardiff, Wales 
Cano, Lr, SACORs caaeacses «ss os nea ge Breslau, Germany 
Carpenter, Rev. J. Estlin,................ Oxford, England 
Carpenter, Rt. Rev. William Boyd......... Ripon, England 
Gasenll, JOB. ju.240n tea aao ss sas ens Birmingham, England 
Castello; Jamesi sis. ccs te55 0-6-0 55 »....- London, England 
Castighone.OTs 25,055 a0 Sook os ss TE RES Triest, Austria 
Cagalet. Rev: Bie My si vas i 0 sce eeedas London, England 
Chatein, <se6ree, BiB w see. <0 a ee g ess Sheffield, England 
Chatiber alti Foss sce ve OG» 6 0 ev alee paces Barnsley, England 
CGlariliti. REGs iiessto-eea es vs oa OR eG Chelmsford, England 
Chapman, Rev. Jolittos aig 2. os date oes London, England 
Charles, Prot. i..H.7 DiDic.. . 0. . dicaecas Oxford, England 
Cheetham Free Reference Library .. ..Manchester, England 
Chelsea. Public: Library s435 55. -. 6008 eb London, England 
Chevtie, Revs Te Kae iis. 26s 505-5 weak Oxford, England 
Chief Rabbi of Austria, The.............. Prague, Bohemia 
Chief Rabbi of Belgium, The............ Brussels, Belgium 
Chief Rabbi of the British Empire, The. .. London, England 
Chief Rabbi of Bulgaria, The.............. Sofia, Bulgaria 
Chief Rabbi of Denmark, The....... Copenhagen, Denmark 
Chief Rabbi of France, The................. Paris, France 
Chief Rabbi of Holland, The.......... Amsterdam, Holland 
Chief Rabbi of Hungary, The.......... Budapest, Hungary 
Chotsner, Dr. Jo, PROD igaas. ss. . S8 eas Ramsgate, England 
Christ Churet Library ce.4. «26s s<asenake Oxtord, England 
Christ’s College, soa. occue--- es 3 eee Cambridge, England 
Church House Library, Westminster...... London, England 
Cla Bare p25 2 oe Snes OE os oe KER S Manchester, England 
lenin Wiel. SUCANs 5 x5) WES Ge oo 1-6 PRR Re Oe London, England 
Closetibere: Tsdaes .464.ac04% 20 <0 bod Sees London, England 
Cobban, James MacLaren............... London, England 
Coe, Rev. G, G5 EVRAGABE 2... ok cae Bournemouth, England 
GCohens> REV. ABPOG 0 ies oa so os + Se wes Hea London, England 
Cohen: Alfredo: C0 pac 2. 6c. cater nies London, England 
Cohen, Arakie. ... 1.2... . 0.0 e ee eee eee eee London, England 
Cohen, B:i JePisih ck hoe ad Oe eR Bradford, England 
Cohen, Barnett... .. 06.2 cee ec cee eeaee London, England 
Cohen, Benjamin L., M.P............... London, England 
Cohen, Charles 2... ¢..0 6:50.54 w¢4.04/0-0 Ree eS ALS Leeds, England 
Cohen, E. Arakie... 2... 00.20.0002 ee ees London, England 
Cohen; J; Mi Di ace dcns 6 ea eren so SRR eae Caleutta, India 
Cohen, Fi Ty .§ 50 5 Gk bade oo ees Manchester, England 
Cohen, Rev. Francis L..............--.. London, England 
Cohen, Hi: Biewcc os Seeagts ad eee Saratoga, So. Africa 
Cohen, Hon. Henry E...............-..- Sydney, Australia 
Cohen, Mrs. Herbert... .........--.004. London, England 
Cohen, Dr. Hermann................-, Marburg, Germany 
Cohen, Hyman................ Stockton-on-Tees, England 
Colien,. Israel e305 34odeesesdeea neha ee bee k Cardiff, Wales 
Cohen, Israel Wolfe... ..........0206- Manchester, England 
Cohen, 3. 4-22 eda aceuaee ....-Manchester, England 
Cohen, Jacob Biss. oss e655 ba oe ed a ee Hull, England 
Cohen, James de Lara. ...........-..... London, England 
Cohen, Joseph. ..........0e ee eeeeee Birmingham, England 
Cohen, Joseph M......... cece ee ee ee eee London, England 
Cohen, Mrs. Julia M.. 2.2... .. ee eee eee eee London, England 
Cohen, Leonard. ..........0 0. cee cee ees London, England 


xxxii LIST OF PATRONS 
Cohen, Louis S., J.P..........0 000 eee Liverpool, England Edinburgh Public Library............ Edinburgh, Scotland 
Cohen. Micke sede oes ye etaletvenita ee Sunderland, England Edinburgh University............... Edinburgh, Seotland 
Cohen, tev. M.I., B.A... 2... ee eee Buluwayo, So. Africa Edwards, Rev. Thomas Charles, D.D.......... Bala, Wales 
Cohen, Morris. .........0005 Newcastle-upon-Tyne, England Ehrenberg, Israel. ............-... 000005 Reading, England 
Cohen, Nathaniel L............-......-London, England Whips VOU es oe ea a ee oe 8S Londoa, kngland 
Cohen, Neville............... Nes South: Wales Australia l| Pasisht: Bouse tigi s kee chee koe eee ees Rhyl, Wales 
Cohen, Palipies ses eee see ee ee ew bee Birmingham, England PT JO APORTTIS., ap oe eee NaS ew be Moscow, Russia 
Cohen, Puilip............6. Newcastle-upon-Tyne, England Pals eiiee AVIS oA sg oes oa Sok ewe as Manchester, England 
Cohen; Si; & COs. ccna vee tees « + ieee ada Batavia, Java HISHGG, Bd Me Wee Rot a a bes WY ee eae London, England 
Cohen, Samuel... 22.6. .00c005 2 fe HERS Sos London, England | Emanuel, Ald. A. Leon, J.P........... Portsmouth, England 
Cohen, Samuel.............-.. 4 Sondre Manchester, England Emanuel, Barrow, M.A., J.P............ London, England 
Cohen, Samuel I... 2... cece ee ee eee eee London, England Emanuel, Rev. G. J., B.A........... Birmingham, England 
Cohen, Samuel J..........-6- ery es Manchester, England Peraitiel: Sipe cee de ee oe ee Birmingham, England 
Cohen, Rev. Susman. .........0202.005.5 London, England PUUROT Aly 26iNe4 vw one be ee dese ee as ... London, England 
Conen, Wie Kees sae costa ate eae Merthyr-Tydvil, Wales ECR) OOO, ab ha) 4 Win oe aS aa Johannesburg, So. Africa 
Cohen, W. R...... ....2.. ; bad edna Walgett, Australia Eis watt Chea i dos a See ee oS Wa Re Brunn, Austria 
Cohen, Woolf H... .. 2 sccs cee s bad ate London, England PGTINO? GOGO DLE atric S64 Sa ee on a VS Edinburgh, Scotland 
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Cohn, Dr. Heinrich Meyer................ Berlin, Germany PBST Ae bog aioe hohe d+ Se ose Sie iy Gates Derby, E:ingland 
Coli JOSHUSs 6 s608 d o0 2) ea ek ere MORON London, England PEA OIS SCR PRESSE 65S oS rc WR Eo a a London, England 
Collins He Aes a4 ch bore obs oe RRR ESS London, England Erdberg, Abraham......... Newcastle-upon-Tyne, England 
Constitutional Club.......... dus: Sree tes London, England Erlangen, University of............... Eelatioen: Germany 
Conybeare: F.C. edie nace es os AMD RRES Oxford, England BC MIS. Ve canes is eae gcncp ice oe att Breslau, Germany 
Cope: 1 Giss< dh ecercaee e 2% iid aah dle eda Retaae London, England Errera, Prof; Veo. oo .. ca ec ee ewes *,... Brussels, Belgium 
Copenhagen Jewish Congregation , ...Copenhagen, Denmark WSlPrinianl; GSO D. xt 4. . .s ae es oe eee ee es London, England 
Copenhagen Library ...... dike es aaa Copenhagen, Denmark Esterson, Rev. Wolffe ....... 6 RictcarcaNa te oie London, England 
Corfield, Prof. W. H., M.A............... London, England Pde Pew ti cokacatettee Sc nach ae 5 ae OA Strasburg, Germany 
Cornill, Dr. Karl Heinrich.............. Breslau, Germany Ezekiel, Ds. Abraham... ...cscccc cee ceases Bombay, India 
Cotton, Aa@TONns <6. ec see eh a ed ORS Birmingham, England Ezekiel, Joseph...... ee ee rer Glens Od eet Bombay, India 
Cotton, Bs Micexc cea es vue bee Birmingham, England POA ENCED Litto oso aee aes Poe AK Oe OS Shanghai, China 
Coudenhove, Dr. Heinrich, Count von... .Ronssperg, Austria Darel SS obah aiole os oad Se es Saree d Shanghai, China 
Cowen, David............. i che Glatateae Wigan, England 
COWEN, Ji us beh Sea 0 eae a es London, England F 
Cowene Link Oke ve ea ee eet Dee Derby, England Pamidits TOC elas ic cs eas oe as yeeie ars Breslau, Germany 
Cowen, Maurice ....... 0.0 ee ee eee Manchester, England Faculté de Théologie Protestante............. Paris, France 
Cowley, Arthur EB... 5. 6. oeake des epee gues Oxford, England Waitt, CWAVIEG. pie Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Fingland 
Craigie, Mrs. P. M. T. (‘John Oliver Hobbes’’), Falkirk Publie Library..... ale he ai eap eal Falkirk, Scotland 
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Croydon Public Libraries ..............- London, England Fedderman, Lionel......... rae Manchester, England 
Feilitzen, Capt. O. V., R.S.N..... 0... Stockholm, Sweden 
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Daltroff, Albert.......... PT ee ee ee Paris, France Peéldinad; Rev. Was GA... i eee eae ees London, England 
Dainpier, Miss Margaret G.............-.. Beccles, England Playa; GRE |. ssc ese OS ie ek ee ee Leeds, England 
David;.D. Age cs ok h Hkh oes os hee Eee Caleutta, India [fgek Egy kA < ROO et an rrr ee Hull, England 
David, Salem S...... Sd contcghlt thts tat Gg gals eae abet Bombay, India SPCR VLOG pee Rg AEE ws 4.12 vod 4s ES wie swe See Hull, England 
TO Viel Se Wick ia erie db aerecaep ts ease oe ROR ES London, England Fersht, Barnett Abraham............... London, England 
Davidson, David................- East London, So. Africa TRS EA Yn tte ook eo 88h ARs .. Birmingham, England 
Davidson, Rev. George ..... bse Neer Edinburgh, Scotland Pinbwrert, SaAMiuel jo. 6 eve cee eee ee Manchester, Hngland 
Davidson, H. R............. ..Barrow-in-Furness, England Pine, israel. .s-oa-ieg ss ss eee eee Merthyr-Tyavil, Wales 
Wawiss Js Hiss re os ees ctenas ete Birmingham, England RET 71 = Ds (Ree el Ea 5 a ee ...,Penrhiweeiber, Wales 
Davis i ie eee el he eee es Manchester, England Ein du Diced Ps as Loieatian viel aera pee ap tes Rhymney, Wales 
Davis; David Mivcd. «oes octane eeu ss London, England Fine, Lows: <9 ¢-a4 ode sens 66s Caer Bristol, kengland 
Davis, Mrs. Bliza. « cc 086405 eee nau Ses London, England Pine, Mark ooscc3 4 seat sa 694s .... Johannesburg, So. Africa 
Davis, Rev. Gs tiin MiAc. dons oeaeee dice i dees Bath, England Finestone, David. ........ 2.0000 0c ee Southport, England 
TSN ELOTTIS§ kh a ed NOS oe ee Walsall, England Finestone, Louis... ¢ 2644s ses ee + lee ates Sheffield, England 
Davis, Isaac........0....0002-2++24-++.-London, England Finkelstein, Dr. S....... RS eae pibaenats Manchester, england 
Davis, Israel, MwA. . 00.4.0. 5 Be wetieas evans London, England Finn, Samuel. ............22202000> South Shields, England 
Davis, Morris.............. Newcastle-upon-Tyne, England Finsbury Publie Library... ............. London, England 
Davison, Rev. W. T., D.D........... Birmingham, England Fisher) Mace ase e eae s 4 eo ses bes Rea London, England 
Dawson, 5. Baie cces ost Wee 54-sehaoe Lancaster, England Fisher, Moss......... 002 e eee eee Birmingham, England 
Derby, Harl of. ... 00 ea ees wa wa no Petele Prescot, England Fis WO WN loc 44 24.48 wea 8 eared bak oe BM Pont-y-pridd, Wales 
Derby Public Library................0005 Derby, England Flatow, Jacobi Wronker............... Dewsbury, England 
Derenbourg, Prof. Hartwig......... 0.02005. Paris, France Fleming, Isidor. ....%.6s0d. 66. aeagers London, England 
Deutsch; Felix... so. 00.05 cedawea ieee Berlin, Germany Fligelstone, Frank. ......-...00000 602 ee- Rhymney, Wales 
Deutsch, Franz... 2.0.0.4 5 uh deese vanes London, England | Flinberg, H. M............-- 00s sus Manchester, England 
Deutsch-Judischer Gemeindebund......... Berlin, Germany | Florence Jewish Theological Seminary........ Florence, Italy 
PIGUEECH. F VIGEOR ce dee Slee 6 os os caress Magdeburg, Germany Fiorentin, Meise J..............--.. Manchester, England 
Devonport Free Public Library........ Devonport, England Follick, Coleman, . 22.20.4605 6002. ean eawonis Cardiff, Wales 
Piekamin; DP. Bras. occa ce ec ee was Miinster, Germany Fowler, Rev. J. T., D.C.L., University Library, 
Driekoris, dy NOES Vida ss oc cena oe ees Bradford, England Durham, England 
TTIVITICY BODOG Sale nis. paws we ae cs He Cambridge, England PVaAnNGOs Mocks nda suka e neces eae Shumla, Bulgaria 
Doliwian, JEGGD? 2 ie soedis ss acti eee, eee Leicester, England Frank, Revs Dry Becsieae sede C5 does Cologne, Germany 
Donald, Macalister, M.D.............. Cambridge, England Frankel, Dr. Sigmund.............20.. Breslau, Germany 
VOTRE RIMS bcc Ace Fas aos sew Sosa ws abe Southport, England Frankenburg, Alderman, J.P......... Manchester, England 
Dorchester Missionary College........ Wallingford, England Yrankenstein, Louis. .............06- Manchester, England 
Dorchi Zion Association............Manchester, England Frankenstein, 8...... God bee ease Gimeno Southport, England 
i BS n= PN be ©, 2: RA ee Birmingham, England Frankenthal, AdolphL................. Bern, Switzerland 
Dorfmann, N. Isaac. ....6.....0002 00s Liverpool, England Frankfurt-am-Main Stadtbibliothek, 
Dorshei Zion Association. ........... Cape Town, So. Africa Frankfort-on-the-Main, Germany 
Dresden, Gearee. s6-3 eélcc cc cs ea 3 eet London, England Frankfort-Loge.......... Frankfort-on-the-Main, Germany 
Prey fis; Charles, PRD. a: 2. ee. Manchester, England | Franklin, Ellis A..............00 0 eee ee London, England 
Dreyfuss, Dr. Robert.............-.0: Strasburg, Germany Franklin, Ernest L.. 2.0... cee ee eee London, England 
PIPIVET; SRG. Pos tag ANG 29s. ads eee vie Oxford, England Franklin, Frederick S...........60024-. London, England 
PART, ACO: 44 Se Pasties ss ba We Wa a os Manchester, England Franklin, Henry A... ....... 0. ce eee eeee London, Englan 
Dunner, Rev. Dr., Chief Rabbi........ Amsterdam, Holland Franklin, Jacob Hyman................- London, England 
Dupare, M.... 2. eee eee eoeeseessees.- LOndon, England Franks, Arnolds ices 4 ilk. gv ed vie Wee ews Wigan, Englan 
Durban Publie Library................ Durban, So. Africa Franks, Lawrence. ........000cce cece ees London, England 
Durham, University of..............0.. Durham, England Franks, Michael... 2... ... 2. cee eee eee London, Englan 
Duveen,<s died 23. sinew hed seas oe ieee London, England | Franzos, Dr. Karl Emil................. Berlin, Germany 
Fraser, .Usrael se acs ssw dk $5 4H 8 wk Manchester, England 
E Frauenberger, Dr. H....... Diisseldorf-am-Rhine, Germany 
Waid ahi Vi occ Wiate ening HESS ONE oats London, England | Free Church College.............--2+- 005 Glasgow, Scotland 
Eckstein, Rev. Dr. A... .... ce eee eee Bamberg, Germany Freecom; Aws-cns 6 Gees eh bed a ne Ra eine Bs Perth, W. Australia 
Ecole Speciale des Langues Orientales Vivantes, Paris, France | Freedman, A. I....... 0... ee eee ee eee ees Dowlais, Wales 
Edells, A. H..... BB 4 ar videraece ee ali tae cab legs on London, England | Freedman, Rev. David I., B.A.......... Perth, W. Australia 
Edelman, Albert.................. Broken Hill, Australia Freedman, George............ ..ee...,. Glasgow, Scotlan 
Edelshain, Adam...............00 00005 Glasgow, Scotland Freedman, Isaac. .........2.5 02 ee eee Stockport, England 
Edinburgh Jewish Public Library...... Edinburgh, Scotland ! Freedman, L..........600 eee e een eevee London, England 


LIST OF PATRONS 


xXxiii 


Freedmann, Herman... ...........2.-. Manchester, England 
Freeman, Samuel....... 0.0.00. ce eee eee Belfast, Ireland 
Freiburg, eee Ocal ats eis cetoeeace Freiburg, Germany 
Freimann, Dr. A....... Frankfort-on-the-Main, Germany 
Freucdenthal, Di SaeCOUs. 2 2.40% eevee ore Bees Breslau, Germany 
Friedbinder, My i.e ce a oe ee oe RE RS London, England 
Friedcberg, Rev. Sip eh. 4 cee bn ale os Liverpool, Fngland 
Friedlander, Le Liss 644 s00 4 s40e es SRR London, England 
Friedlander, Dr. .M. i306 ica vc wad eee ee Vienna, Austria 
Friedlincler, Dr. Michael... ............0. London, England 
Friedlander, Mrs. Wulf.......-..-..46. De Aar, So. Africa 
Friedman, Aaron... 2... cece eee ee eee eee Leeds, England 
Friedrich- ‘Loge XXIX, No. 444...... Heidelberg, Germany 
Friend, Capt: Bi Js i i608 dhe ee ws PR London, England 
Friend, Henry............ are are Sunderiand, England 
Fiirst, Revi ds civcsead seewskvewe oe eee Edinburgh, Scotland 
Fyne, Revi Sis css ee tiniees oak ols Gane Swansea, Wales 
G 

Gabriel, H. Ae peg ak deg ates SB aaate a weemerens Pagham, England 
Gabrieisen, G. P.. aah iS Ghent eS Nata Mh Liverpool, England 
Garson, David 8 Pe ne ee ee Manchester, England 
Gartman, Mrs. R. i sabtdve Wiah-daseae Seine eres SA at London, England 
Gaster, Very Rev. M., Ph.D... 2... 0. 002.. London, England 
Gautier, Prof. Lucien, Ph.D... 2.02... Geneva, Switzerland 
Gelten;. Reve J. Dove oii dors Sake ck patent London, England 
Gelbert, Maurice J., Ph.D... 2.0.0.0 00 00000.. Bristol, engl and 
Geilmann, Bernard. .......--+.- eee. London, England 
Gembitski, | Sy B ee ear mie remit ere “Manchester, England 
Gembitski, William. ..........0... ... Manchester, England 
Geneva Public Library haa Be area du. Bas Bee Geneva, Swit zerland 
Genussow, M. LL... 0... ee ee ee Cape Town, So. Africa 
Gerson, Plas chiar cones bani: Johannesburg, So. Africa 
Gestetner, Dav il oc on cardde oe se Ronee eae London, England 
Gesundierty ik oa gc$ 4s Chea wee eee ee eS Brighton, Fingland 
Gidney, Rev. W.T.. occ ce ee se . cuae tite London, England 
Ginzbete,. Die a bike vcs oh Lee deere Amsterdam, Holland 
Ginzberg, Wess ben one's eeleae ak eee Odessa, Russia 
Gittlesohn, Herrmann.............-. Merthyr-Tydvil, Wales 
Glasgow, University OF sik ha sacs eek OR Giasgow, Scotland 
Glaskin, WV cco a one peice eet Warsaw, Russia 
Glass, Ty Seto out ea tucie ws A ecru s Riae Hartlepool, Jingland 
Glass, Harris..< 64034 ba eho be de eG Manchester, England 
Gleitzmann, Henry..............- 000005 London, England 
Gluckstadt, Tia. 46a dee acecaen awa oe Copenhagen, Denmark 
Gluckstein, Myer... 0... ce ee eee London, England 
Gobits; Dr. Po Jick oak Sa Se eek oe totes Amsterdam, Holland 
Goldberg, Barnett... 2. .6 css oo 5 0 See sigan Swansea, Wales 
Goldberg, Hs Hess thes ck ius 08, vaaees London, Engl and 
Goldbete, Hii. 24424 setawa eae ou aoe eho London, England 
Goldberg, Harris............0.06 » oie hoes Bristol, England 
Goldberg, Hyam.. wi. .2 cs. c beans bee wares Swansea, Wales 
GOLD ORE pia ieiuig 25h as eGere & Sais Bakow Bw OR Buluwayo, So. Africa 
Goldberg, Li. ccckiscceteaeadiws 1 Ata Manchester, England 
Goldberg, Louis. ........ 00sec ee eeeee Durban, So. Africa 
Gola Hyg 2% % diosa ature SPAS al Johannesburg, So. Africa 
Goldman, Henry...........00020008- Sunderland, England 
Goldreich, Drandsyineest eles etedine Johannesburg, So. Africa 
Goldring, JaCODed abo e eens cea heeas Tulcea, Rumania 
Goldschmidt, A...e ccc eee eee Hamburg, Germany 
Goldsmid, Colonel Albert E. W.......... London, England 
Goldsmid, Captain L. C. ................ London, England 
Goldsmid, We iOnG) oa. os 64s eee Johannesburg, So. Africa 
Goldsmid, O. FE. d’Avigdor...........-. Tunbridge, England 
Goldstein, |. oa 0 ee ee rarer mrer tN Sydney, Australia 
Goldstein, Jacob. .......5 0.05000 tenet ead Hull, !ingland 
Goldstein, Rev. Julius ee ere, aor London, England 
Goldstein, Rev. S. A... ... ee ee eed Auckland, New Zealand 
Goldston, Rev. Nehemiah. . rat oY tee L ondon, England 
Goldstone, Alfred. .... 0.0.0.0 0.2 eee Birmingham, England 
Goldstone, Hew 0... ee eet ea SORT Hull, England 
Goldzicher, Edouard... ........ 2.00000) Brussels, Belgium 
Goldziher, Ignaz, Ph.D............... Budapest, Hungary 
Gollancz, Rev. H., M.A., Litt.D........ London, England 
Goodman, Barnett dod (a are. shen, Gad ee Birmingham, England 
Goodman, David.............46. Wolverhampton, England 
Goodman (Her. 2264604 aeee ete wes Johannesburg, So. Africa 
Goodmans Nis sesg a aS be een a ee ee ap Preston, England 
Goodman, Moses.......... 0c eens Merthyr- Tydvil, Wales 
Goodman; Pal. oa. ands Ss ak RSA Bem London, England 
Goodman, SS naplsuin Boe araice fe eecar se ego anes London, England 
Goodman, Bis 26. taal rae ais eh Lens Preston, England 
Goodman, Solomon Joseph... ..........-. London, England 
Gordon, | CE AA ARIE oh en Londonderry, Ireland 
Gordon. JONAS sai as. gees ee tow een Birmingham, England 
Gordon: o..2. cag a. Se eelhes eee eek ares Edinburgh, Scotland 
Gordon, OPTIC ssc oes aed Stes tycacs Hogwarts Birmingham, England 
Gore, Rt. Rev. Charles, M.A., Binoy of Birmingham, England 
Goéteborgs Stadtbibliothek.............. Goteborg, Sweden 
Gotliffe. Solomon Lewis......... ..- Manchester, England 
Gotthelf,, Montz... 65.02 aG wena 26 Oe wee eee Sydney, Australia 
Gottingen, University of............. Gottingen, Germany 
Géttinger Gesellschait der Wissenschaften, 


Gittingen, Germany 


Gouldstein, Rev. Julius A............... London, England 
Gow, Rev. James, M.A., Litt.D......... ‘London, England 
Green, Michael A...... 0... cece eee eeeee London, England 
Greenberg, Charles L............. Johannesburg, So. Africa 


Greenberg, Israel S.. Si reeeditesan eves ietiens Birmingham, England 


Greenberg, Tecpold M Daa nen ere cr ted oy. London, England 
Greenberg, 8. Zo... oe ee ee es a ees Bo. Africa 
Griqualand W. Hebrew Congreg'n....Isimberley, So, Africa 
Groot, Laurence de... 0... cc ee ees Dublin, Ireland 
Gross, Dr. P., L.R:C.P. Lond... caertietedd London, England 
Gross, Williariiccsan doana sciiev eta aeee London, England 
Grossberg, Solomon ....... 2.00. cee eee London, Ingland 
Grosvenor Gallery Library .............. London, England 
Griin, Maurice... ........ee005 (4 1 oee de LNOn,. 2meland 
Grunwald, Dr. M........ 00.22 eee e eae Hamburg, Germany 
Gubbay, Reuben nuce cena aeteaacrcesane Paris, France 
Gudansky, Rev. Abraham................ Dublin, Ireland 
Giidemann, M., Ph.D., Chief Rabbi........ Vienna, Austria 
Guinsberg, B.....-.. eee ee Eee Johannesburg, So. Africa 
Guinsberg@eJd. Hiecivc coe eee ove .. Johannesburg, So. Africa 
Guinsburg, A... 6.6 ee eee ... Johannesburg, So. Africa 
Gundelfinger, Prof. Dr.............-. Darmstadt, Germany 
Gunzburg, Baron D. von..... peruse ee St. Petersburg, Russia 
Guttmann, Rev. Dr. J.......... oe... Breslau, Germany 
Guttmann, Dr. Michael................ Csongrad, Hungary 
H 
Hass. Henrie coe Sele sus oes aed tee Sees es Paris, France 
FAS OCS, 4 538 ERS SE Soe eS London, England 
Haggard, H. Rider.............005: Ditchingham, England 
Haileybury College. ............02 20s Hertford, England 
Halévy: JOS@ pls 2 354.45. 29 eis tae eee tas Paris, France 
Hallenstein, H... 0... 0... es Holstein, Germany 
Hailgarten, Chas. L....... Frankfort on-the-Main, Germany 
PV ALDOR MG Rg 2. hees ee ne aie wnat natal a ose Preston, England 
Hamburger, Fritz... 0.0... .0.0000 08% Carlsruhe, Germany 
Hamburger, Rev. Dr. J.... 0.0... ee ee ee Strelitz, Austria 
Hampstead Public Libraries. ............ London, Ene aud 
Hanson, Rev. G., D.D.. oo. ee ee London, | ingland 
Harbour, Charles . ed ghia ta Bilin est ty ee London, Engl and 
Harkavy, A., Ph.D. Suto te sow Elica aches eae St. Petersburg, Russia 
Harrasowitz, Otto. ¢. 6d 64.43 espaele® Leipsic, Germany 
FLATS) Nek 6 oe eae ee eae rN eed a Glasgow, Seotland 
Harris, Lieut.-Col. D...............- kKwimberley, So. Africa 
Harris, Ephraim, M.A... .......0.0-0- Manchester, England 
Harris, Herman «a... once cee cs oe ae! London, England 
Harris, Rev. Isidore, M.A............4.: London, Engiand 
Harris, J. Rendel.......... 000 sees Cambridge, England 
Harris, Lidnels 4:5 cxccd es Posh. 2tee Sere Tredegar, E ngland 
Harris, Marcus: « ein cas ba 05 dood 1S Radars Blaina, Wales 
Harris, Merton ........... eer en Manchester, E ‘ngland 
PVATDIS ON 655 Pancakes atone ae a9'a goto Landport, E neland 
Harris, Nathaniel... . 2.0... ... 02 ee ee eae London, England 
Harris, Rev. Raphael...........0.--00005 London, England 
Harris, S. Louis............ dads Skee Tredegar, England 
Harris, SIMON . «ce nc hea Oo owas sm ere Kidinburgh, Scotland 
Harriss: WOE 4.20446 bees Bo wes ae eee London, England 
Harris, Woolf... 2.0... 0002 ee eee .. Cape Town, So. Africa 
Hart TIenry 4.6 4508s ei awnomores ia ea London, Ingland 
Hart, Henry, JsPic6 sies hc eas eet Dover, Iengland 
Hart, sir fsrael, Je oa coed 4 OOw vo Soe Leicester, I:ngland 
PA Aart) x de Avs Actus enare dou be es ‘iste Mae a Derby, Iingl land 
Part JOS aS 2 iccace oe tee eee eae a ee Plumstead, Iengland 
Hart; PR yo.6 9644. ks 3 hss Ria eee Manchester, England 
Hassid, Jc POLIDOT Es v4 -dc0 dso os oo. BEPeoRe Saloniea, Turkey 
Hatchard, INICSSUS! a cwig ee Uk aeate ah eS London, England 
Hatvany-Deutsch, Alexander de........ Budapest, Hungary 
Hatvany-Deutsch, Josef de............ Budapest, Hungary 
Hawkins, C. W............06- Beale date Dunedin, New Zealand 
Heavy, Pl a aiaice vaca ean 4.4 ote weer London, England 
Headingly College... 2.2... eee ee ee eee Leeds, England 
Hebrew School......... ee eee Birmingham, England 
Hechler, Prof. W. H.............. aes aie. ee Vienna, Austria 
Heidelberg, University of............ Heidelberg, Germany 
Heilbron, David...... gibt Sika sete ah aera we Glasgow, Scotiand 
Heimann, Sigmund.............. Johannesburg, So. Africa 
Heming, IsidoP (b:55 oc fi Ga sew knee eee London, England 
Henriques, Alfred G., J. Po... oe. eee ee Hove, England 
Henry, Charles S..... a ee ene ee London, E neland 
Henry, Pip Si seaqreauwuds wee dares oh Gow ashe London, Engl: land 
Hepker, H............ eer rn eee rn Buluwayo, So. Africa 
Herbert, R. J..... Shee a ates ashes Sone London, England 
Hermann, Sigmund .. ile paola aN Johannesburg, So. Africa 
Herson, he ah pt atadeenreone hosoae London, Engiand 
Hertz, Rev. cs Joseph H......... Johannesburg, So. Africa 
Hertzberg, A FAs ibeabty adalat eee ee Brisbane, Australia 
Hertzberg, A. M............ 006. Smee ‘Brisbane, Australia 
Herzl, Dr. Theodor (deceased)...........4. Vienna, Austria 
Herzog, PLOV, TRAD DLs 4-4 id watered awe gta aere ras Leeds, England 
Heymann, Hermann...........-.Johannesburg, So, Africa 
Heymann, Maurice. ........ 00.00 eee eee London, England 
Hildesheimer, oh Dr. Hirsch............ Berlin, Germany 
Hill, Rev. W. B.. aed erates <a staan eae Blandford, E ngland 
Hiliman, Beli gicscapayavarespes a ee kee Norvals Pont, So. Africa 
Hilson, 8. . ..s2ee ee cece cee eeeee Johannesburg, So. Africa 
Himann, Sigmund..... ij daabaee tees 4 Johannesburg, So. Africa 
Himmelsfarb, Dr. Gooes.... ccc cece ceecaee Odessa, Russia 
US hiats oe gol oe a Ramsgate, England 
Hirséh, Benjamin. iw. ..e cca s sees Ilalberstadt, Germany 
TirsGli POMEDs PF Faces. cee be eee ee London, England 
Hirschfeld, Professor H..............0-. London, England 
Hoffman, CHM dG ca sc ca Pera ae London, England 
Hoffmann, Dr. David.......... Given eens Berlin, Germany 
HGMMUNE, Aes sess bac bes pda ss ee ee London, England 


Hogan, Revs Riceeshi 4 Os eee ee eee Lochgelly, Scotland 
Hogg, Prof. H. W....... Fallowfield, Manchester, Eingland 
Holberg, Frederick..........0...05- Birmingham, Iingland 
FIGFOWItA DE, Bisccts Sorc diaenn Pte te Soe etl eae Leipsic, Germany 
Horowitz, Rev. Dr. M..... Lalani 3 Main, Germany 
Hoster, Mrs. Constance. ......-0c0e ee ees London, England 
House of Lords Library.............20.- London, England 
Hudson; Gods 2hcer oi tbw ed ooo a Pek London, England 
Hull Public Libraries..............00c0cee- Hull, England 
Hull Subscription Library. ................. Hull, England 
Humanitatsverein Wien, ‘Bnai Brith”. .... Vienna, Austria 
Hyam, Joseph C... 0... 0... cece eee ee Algiers, No. Africa 
Hyamson; As Missi 6.4 ee eet eke wees London, England 
Hymans, GLenry <. 6.242 65.439 .4 eer d hae London, England 
I 
Tago-Trelawny, Major-Gen............ . Liskeard, England 
Isaacs, Abraham. ............0 cc ee eee London, England 
[saaes, De is nae eee oe os ee "Cape Town, So. Africa 
Psa ac03; TOS 24 ni ge pie, dS Melg Me ee BS wees Glasgow, Scotland 
Isaacs, Rev. Harris.............005 Kimberley, So. Africa 
Isaacs, Henry......... 0. cece cece ec ec ee ee Leeds, England 
Tsaaes, Sir Henry A... oc. eee ee London, England 
Isaacs, TSAaG: Avs 8 es ho ana Pade des Manchester, England 
Isaaes, Isaac A... ee eee Melbourne, Australia 
Isaacs, Isaac Judah.......... Sees Manchester, England 
Tsa80S. ics 4456306 hc Bee ee aes London, England 
Isaacs, Maurice... 1.0... ce ce ee ee ee ees London, England 
Isaaes, Maurice.......... pte Bl a ea Edinburgh, Scotland 
Isaacs, MOSS. ......-. 0c cece cece nceeret Brighton, England 
Isaacs, Rufus D., K.C., M.P.. 2.0.0... London, England 
Isaacs, POlOMOMN s. ¢ c:a0k3's ere wie bese eS Stockport, England 
Isaakowitz, A....... wae gots gag eat sare « London, England 
Isacowitz, Ceram “Orange River Colony, So. Africa 
Israel, Shalom B... 1... kc ee .. Bombay, India 
Israel. Theolog. Lehranstalt............... "Vienna, Austria 
Israelite School. .4 cas e404 se beb arse ws ee wes Bombay, India 
Israelitische Allianz er ee ..es... Vienna, Austria 
Israelitische Cultusgemeinde.............. Bruan, Austria 
Israelitische Cultusgemeinde......... ......Vienna, Austria 
Israelitiseche Gemeindebibliothek......... Prague, Bohemia 
Israelitisches Lehrerseminar........... Budapest, Hungary 
Israelstam, A......... ar ica ta ielar Bote Johannesburg, So. Africa 
Izckowitz, Lazarus J...........- .. Muizenberg, So. Africa 
Jacob, Rev. Dr. B............... . .Géttingen, Germany 
Jacob, Rt. Rev. Edgar, D.D. Oxon.., 3 
Newcastle-upon-Tyne, England 
JACOUS) Aden See Ske R ds ee efile ae eee London, England 
Jacobs, Rev. el Ceo ae Pree ere: Brighton, Engiand 
Jacobs, NDOAS ic-adwaaumeG made s nated ae Sunderland, England 
J8CO0S:.. Bi Si s4 wns ads Ged oe ea A Hull, England 
Jacobs, Barnete sss occa scwea sees s peas Cardiff, W ales 
Jacobs, Benjamin ie. c2:s acon wis oo oo: ones Sheffeld, England 
Jacobs, Bertram, LL.B..............--.- London, England 
Jacobs, D. Montague.......... eee Salisbury, So. Africa 
Jacobs, Herbert Levi... ..........2220-5 London, England 
Jacobs, Israel........ Be a Pen shndig we aah Sunderland, England 
Jacobs, Lesser R...... Ae Fe re eh shad Sas London, England 
Jacobs, M. B......... ‘i teeeeeeeeess Cwmbran, Wales 
Jacobs, Maurice... 1... cee eee .. London, England 
Jacobs, Morris....... eer a ed ee Aberdare, Wales 
Jacobs, Morris............. wc eeeeee West Kirby, England 
Jacobs, Nathan. .......... eee ees ..-London, England 
JACODS) 952244 ee Raw ees te dg chird e AIR Se We 23k nS Newport, Wales 
JHCODY) Oise oe5o es Re eed ee reer Peano So. Africa 
Jaffé Brothers.............002005 ‘ .. Limerick, Ireland 
Jatte, JON: <2 4a soe see ane ee OS Caaeense Nice, France 
Jaffé, Sir Otto, J. P., co ine bak Gate oe anaes Belfast, Ireland 
JANOVSKY) Oi eke Se OS Re et: Petersburg, Russia 
Japan, The Emperor of.............-0-02020- Tokyo, Japan 
JADDELS Biocee wine ee eae tec ead BES London, England 
Jaré, Rev. Giuseppe, Chief Rabbi............ Ferrara, ltaly 
Jena, University of.............0- ie iil ates Jena, Germany 
Jessel, Albert H., M.A......0..0c.ee ee eee London, England 
Jewish Colonial Trust... .......2.00006- London, England 
Jewish Literary and Social Society....... Tredegar, England 
Jewish Theological Seminary........... Budapest, Hungary 
Jews’ College... 6... cee eee ee eee London, England 
Jews’ Hospital..............4- reas London, England 
Joe, Max’. j0use waite dase Sie Johannesburg, So. Africa 
DOUG. We aor ett ee eS SN eee ke Krugersdorp, So. Africa 
nae Rylands Library............... Manchester, England 
JOnaS: Wie coe he wad oo the eae aew oaks @ Birmingham, England 
donee Albert Victor. 0... 0... c cee ce eens London, England 
Jones, Rev. R. Hifion......... 0.0.0 ee eee Anglesey, Wales 
Joseph, Dieece tease CR ee seve eee eewes 6 }eRODOOD, AeA 
Joseph, Rev. D.......- tabs ob be sees ea 7G SEO, Wermany 
Joseph, a Hans H,...... aaie Ging bess eaters Newport, Wales 
Joseph, Leo... ..... eer errr ry ae ye Cardiff, Wales 
Joseph, hewis: « eiala'e a Weare F906 wos 4 o gigs ee PO 
Joseph, Rev. 1 aie nr re arene London, England 
Joseph, Moritz Coban chad obws ous 2ane eo England 
Judah, Miss K............ pe bso eo es «Laer ODEO, ENGIS, 
K 
Kahn, A., M.A............ vee ..London, England 


Kahn, Rev. Rabbin Jacques............065. Paris, France 


LIST OF PATRONS 


Kahn, Zadoe, Grand Rabbin de France...... Paris, France 
Kais. Universitits- und Landesbibliothek, Strasburg, Ger. 
Kaiserman, L......... 0... 00 eee ee eee Manchester, England 
Kaiteer, Hyman... ... ce cc eee eee eens Dublin, Ireland 
Waliski: 1sadé ss 2.5. eva sebowuciawe seaoees London, England 
Kkanin, Ny MDs gat See eheaees Johannesburg, So. Africa 
lvarpeles, Emil....... PN ren ae Mee ee re Vienna, Austna 
KXarpeles, Dr. G........ ita Me ott sarah Pie BOK ce Se Berlin, Germany 
Katz, Osear...........00- ..eseeee. Manchester, England 
FS RULIMIAT :. Pose oe- acta es oo ees aid Ga eens Hartlepool, England 
Kaufmann, A. J... ees London, England 
KXayserling, Dr.M., Chief Rabbi (deceased) Budapest, Hungary 
Weble Colleees a y.0 55: Seer la Ob ond. @-atty wets Oxtord, England 
Kelvin, Lord, G.C.V.O., ete.......0...... London, England 
Ikennard, Mrev EAs) cawessuaee Hampton Wick, England 
Kersh, Myer, ee Pee ee ee ee Manchester, England 
Kessler, Leopoldin cu icewcs choca tee Johannesburg, So. Africa 
Kilburn Publie Library... .............. London, England 
Kindler, [sa aG. 656.5 2G town 6 we eee Manchester, England 
King’s College. «oe... 2. das ede eres Cambridge, England 
King’s College, Wilson Library......... Aberdeen, Scotland 
Kingston-upon-Thames Public Library. . Kingston, England 
Kirschbaum, Isaac... ........- ee ee wees London, England 
Kisch, Benjamin. goa ea gle Oks 6k RA London, England 
K. K. Hof-Bibliothek.................... Vienna, Austria 
Klein, Hermann, F.J.I.............2.... London, ‘England 
Klein, Dowis wei case sen 8 oy oat e Wee ey London, England 
Kleinfeld, Oisia. iwes 2s eae a oie eee Vee London, England 
kletz, i at i ene mee tee Manchester, England 
Klingenstein, Wal ani sie: ody eae oes eee London, ngland 
OAL NTO rn FORD ele ALE clvasties duaest Se and-¥ ut Ag eta Ane Cochin, India 
Konig, Dr. Eduard........ University of Rostock, Germany 
Jsénigl. Akad. der Wissenschaften. ........ Berlin, Germany 
IKXénigl. Oefentliche Bibliothek.......... Dresden, Germany 
Kénigl. Universitats-Bibliothek........... Berlin, Germany 
FLCEMTOIC. SIPING. cence oe kk ea eee Budapest, Hungary 
TCPaIISHEIDIEN, UTS ig oe eee en es London, England 
Krakauer, Solomon Maladie sd seat dy ate etere Barnsley, England 
Krauss, Wire Saniiiel's: cc. ssc sabes cent : Budapest, Hungary 
Ixriegsfeld, PEW TIO ie oe hoes BOR Oe ee London, England 
Kroner; Dr: Thegdors.. .. ck eee eu Stuttgart, ‘Germany 
FCM SMOR Mel Sok 2 a alhhdiers « sek gavena ea St. Petersburg, Russia 
L 

Lambert, Baron............. iPeiens oe . Brussels, Belgium 
Lambert, Mayercccs.6i cae ch eee ee SO eee aris, France 
Lancashire Independent College. ..... Manchester, England 
Landau, Annie E., Rothschild School, Jerusalem, Palestine 
Landau, Hermann. ..........-eeeeeeese London, England 
Landau, MarTCUS = 23205 lei eeteeos ereSks London, England 
Landauer, Dr. S........ ee er Strasburg, Germany 
Lander, Julius. . .......- cece ee seees .London, England 
Ta ries: 5 eet Bis ES aed Sia Shanna roe ie Odessa, Russia 
Landman, Judah...... in hah ane: Rae ee nae Leeds, England 
Langermann, Max...............- Johannesburg, So. Africa 
apne, Wicexaseuaas 4a ease Buenos Ayres, So. America 
Lara, Isidore de....... ca “asa aide SB coats Paris, France 
Daredo; Miedo ies acca eee awe wl wR eee London, England 
Larkinson, Samuel.........-.06% WwW olverhampton, England 
Laserson, Morris M.......... Newcastle-upon-Tyne, England 
Laserson, 8S. M..........00.- cranes Manchester, England 
Laski, Nathan............ svisle cteeeact Manchester, England 
Lasry, Solomon. ........... 0.0 c eee ec eeeee Tunis, Algeria 
Lawrence, Rev. Z.......... paced INES Sunderland, England 
Lawton, Wisk rice twiadeucta SG OER CTR Hull, Engiand 
Lazare, Bernard........... acai ea Bylercah autre Meaoeaens Paris, France 
Lazarus, Abraham ..........-.-00eeeees London, England 
Lazarus, Prof. M., Geh. Reg. Rath.......... Meran, Austria 
Lazarus, Maurice........... Neweastle-upon-Tyne, England 
La Zarus; Soho vcce 4 6dr e ene are nd tee Londonderry, Jreland 
Lazarus, S. L..... 0.2... eee ee ee eee» LOndon, England 
Lebus; Harris sc 00.65 sdsece ss deeb aeeen London, England 
Lediker, M............. .oeeeee JSOhannesburg, So. Africa 
Lee, Bdward, co 336 ace eee bo way eee London, England 
Lee, Samuel. . .-c.cc 66d ede nds a eRe eR eee Dudley, England 
Leeds Free Public Libraries...........+---. Leeds, Engiand 
Leeds Library (Commercial Street}......... Leeds, England 
Leef, Edward de... 2.0... cee eee eee London, England 
Lees, Rev. Robert James........-....- Plymouth, England 
eH Dere 2. Las ssi Hau ares ta Ce «eee See Bolton, Engand 
Lehmann: «63:5 264 aed eeeeee oS London, England 
Leicester Public LADPSEY ois do eee anc Leicester, England 
Leighs, Hic escces as eles a aubten arlceh at lhet Aldershot, Eugiand 
Leipsic, University of, .........0220e eee: Leipsic, Germany 
Lemberger, A......... Pee Ie .Manchester, England 
Leroy-Beaulieu, Anatole nthe ty Segre spi ated eee Paris, France 
Lessmann, Mi. é64. bees ot vs vas whee ’ Hamburg, Germany 
Lessner,S. D............ seis Ais Coe, iatemMiaths Nagasaki, Japan 
etter Like hie oe hoe oases igh ow o ee Manchester, England 
Lettman, Dr. M............... Sn cradle Zurich, Switzerland 
Leuw, Sidney. 626 664 00s eee es dea London, England 
Levene, John M..... 0. cece cece ee esees London, England 
Levene, Myer...............4- ee ee Belfast, Ireland 
Levene, Rev. Samuel... saitoitereg oven team iae Ramsgate, England 
Levenson, M.........2200005 Peers ei ht Ammanford, Wales 
Levenstein, Bing, Fetes ee eed e's avers Sane Birmingham, England 
Lévi, Israel..... Wes ial eee Oa eae eee weer Paris, France 

OV: Tobit be ar BAe ONE Cardiff, Wales 
Levi LOS 42 44266 eos Ho ea Ae ea A Cee .Hull, England 


LIST OF PATRONS XxxvV 
nn 
evi; Pies tha eee eee cae eee Manchester, England | Marks, G.S.... 00... ccc cece ee eee eee London, England 
TeV, Os Minos ah ba ee ae wets a4 kidgbaston, England | Marks, Harry H., J.P., M.P.............. London, England 
Tevin.: OS€plts .caiwiwe cases waous eee eee Dublin, Ireland Marks, Jacob... .....5.4. sane his wo Cape Town, So. Africa 
evin, Juss 4455 sve oo S eee a eS London, England Marks, J8COD...c35 445444 ¢¢theae es eae Edgbaston, England 
Levin, Revi Dts Meg vs s4. 36 ita ee awe Berlin, Germany Marks, M...................+.-...---MManehester, England 
Levinshons Mix seals a cewee tose tae oe cee London, Iingland Marks, Morris............,Newcastle-upon-Tyne, England 
Levinson, Aaron. .. 2... cece eee eee eee Manchester, England | Marks, Moss............0-.0 000220 ee ees London, England 
Levinson, Rev. Abraham...........--5- Brighton, England Marmorek, Dr. Alexander................... Paris, France 
Levinson, Rev, Isaac... 2.22... 0 eee London, England | Marmorek, Oskar................-; Tere Vienna, Austria 
Leviseurs. Migs egu4e e536 owt kine Bloemfontein, So. Afriea | Marsden, Maurice I........... Bagneéres-de-Bigorre, France 
LOVV 6 Aen c84 a sede 5 US ae OER Middlesborough, England Marsden; Rodolpli yo o.. acdeeaus fanless London, England 
Levy, Abraham.............00e ese eeee .London, England Marshall,.Reved. Ti, MAA. pecs obs dau Manchester, England 
OVY- Bow. ce ee wee ee ee eaes Brighton, England Martin, Richard B., M.A., M.P........... London, England 
Levy; Be Wok ook cas eee ss ee es cee Ragan London, England Wrartines, Foo Wine sd seis smatganea Waa eae London, England 
Levy ds Hy ic dsb Oh Pte eS AAO London, England Marx: Tleriiait < ci ie as ani sone aes wd,s London, England 
Levy, Jacob........00.+505 Newcastle-upon-Tyne, England Marx; (HSrri ADH cs, o ella dee eae ee London, England 
Lévy, Joseph. ic. 6 dacees oe ess Rarer ed Manchester, England NIGER: Lays & eee ack eet: ~SALO A 4. oma London, England 
Levy. Joseph: .6 cc bcc eee ete oe OE EE OSE London, England Masterman, Dr. Ernest W. G.... 2.0.2.4: Jerusalem, Palestine 
Levy. Jos, He 6. is eek te sce sa eeee ede London, England Mayhatimn,. Rev. Di Basie. xe ie oe os Bones Berlin, Germany 
Levy, Judah «6: 4..4464460.0% «sb aearses London, England Mayer; Napntanls 4 slack cas «ork ae Bark words London, England 
OV V5 Lic Aien ood bie sa ew hee as a SON Alexandria, Egypt Mayor: Revid) is SiAge: . caegniz ares Kingston, England 
eV 7 Ma: casina vad eke nd 36k eS Oe London, England | Melbourne Public Library............ Melbourne, Australia 
Levy, MOSS. ...c. ccc ccuseecenbewn South Shields, England NelGhsY Tuawis Sova s.aldan . eG cease ek Oe Cardiff, Wales 
OV acd eae Wetere Sa AOU SL ee eR ee ES London, England BIB CCAR Is ccd ecd ahadee + ac Newcastle-upon-Tyne, England 
LOVY, Bi et nS aa aw os ote RS South Shields, England Mundelsetin Land case. deiwues one Dunedin, New Zealand 
Levy, Rev. 8., M.A.... 20... 0... cee eee London, England Mendetsotiny, Mi sccsccwaa. daeisaw ena Birmingham, England 
OV Y 5 a Asis SSE eal ek Va ia RD AE Southsea, England Mendelson, M. D.......... Newcastle-upon-Tyne, England 
Levy, Saul 6 46 4st eis eo eee Middlesborough, Engiand Mendelssohn :,..B.. %.. ie.65 6. sae eer ee ewe @Hs E> London, England 
Levy, SIMON, « sca 6 ee ee ee + EES riacpow, Scotland | Mente Us Vices cvvcGede hg as praccaens London, England 
Lewin, Maurice... .........0022 002 ee eee London, England TGP Nie oe 2 coe dank whee, © 0 Rug em es Sane RTE London, England 
Lewinsky, Rabbi................55. Hildesheim, Germany Merkel. As. ooo urs we hod ae Newcastle-upon-Tyne, England 
Lewis, Lady..... Salutes pe aKes ate oes London, England Mesquita, D. Bueno de. .......222--005. London, England 
Lewis, Harry Reginald... ............... London, England Meyer; Eduard... Ph: Ds. 2. sg-scaca santas hes es Halle, Germany 
Lewis, JACOB. 4 i nisi ce es bu cea RRaaeat Cardiff, Wales Meyerstone, Hymann...........-+:: Manchester, England 
Lewis, L60tied ews ea cs sooo 3 WERE Cape Town, So. Africa Michael, Gustave, M.B...........+--2-- London, England 
Lewis, Deny 2 2232 Gee ae eian de¥* Johannesburg, So. Africa Michaels, Maurice A........--2 eee Manchester, England 
Lewis, Mrs. Moss. ........-000ceeees Manchester, England Michaelson, C. Pi... wo. ce ee Edinburgh, Scotland 
Lewis, Solomon J.. ...... eee e eee eee Manchester, England Michaelson, H..............0.0088- Birmingham, England 
Leyden University of............5-4055 Leyden, Holland Machaelsony Jiooscc. os ss. s Rama as eae we RRS ‘ardiff, Wales 
Leyton Public Libraries. ............... London, England | Michelson, Asher...........-- Stockton-on-Tees, England 
Liberman, Hin. ces eu ce ok ee ees Cape Town, So. Africa Nicheleen, MoT hed oo... Babee eee me Griitz, Austria 
Libraire Durlacher......... 00000000 see e eee Paris, France Mickler: Abaics2%. 0 oe cos Newcastle-upon-Tyne, England 
Laeberthal, Was is. svcnk ius 6 oes Bhs Vosburg, So. Africa Mildmay Mission to JewS..........+.-6- ondon, England 
Liebster, L., M.D., L.S.A. 2.2.2... 0.-2..- London, England Miles, Wee Vardi digo. sc ot swe en beatae Freemantle, Australia 
DG Mie oa, s Bk tee dS awa ee 6 Pee Scarborough, England Aa e rs WO ic ite os ae os i He oe ee London, England 
Lightman, Victor. .... 2.406466 awake ners Leeds, England Mindelsohn, Justinian.............. Birmingham, England 
Liknaigtry, Dr. B............0.-. Johannesburg, So. Africa MiIndelsonn, My gis ssa. os Red wereses Birmingham, England 
Lintine: Dz. Fo. seca lw ee ows 1h 8B Birmingham, England Missionary College... 22.0... eee ee eee Dorchester, England 
Lipinski, David... 3.565 2404506 SREP Rw eho Hull, England Mitehell Librety. c. o... ss sailsak esis oe Glasgow, Scotland 
Lipkind, Revi'Gig ss .5 644 eoow sob Ree ORs London, England Mitehell. Markova. 2c. tee a ePRRE Veo Sydney, Australia 
Lipshytz, Rev. ©. Tos. 605 26 «hates Mitcham, England Motatta, Frederick D. .. . sian di eadeawes London, England 
Lisbona, Raphael H...........-..-- Manchester, England Montagu, Sir Samuel, Bart............-.- London, England 
Littmann, Dr. M... 2... 0. cc ee ee eee Zurich, Switzerland Montefiore, Claude G., M.A. ....0000-0-- London, England 
Liverman, Philip...........-.-.+-- Birkenhead, England Montefiore College. ...... 0.0 ccceeeees Ramsgate, England 
Liverpool Free Public Library.......... Liverpool, England Montgomery, Mrs.......- 0. ecu e ee ee eee eens Bray, Ireland 
Loewe, James H... 2.2... ce ee eee eee London, England Moore, Js Ts ce id 6 bowed y eZee eeorwes London, England 
Lolli, Eude, D.D., Chief Rabbi (deceased) ..... Padua, Italy | Moosa, J......00.5.+000cs¥ an eebegus pda Shanghai, China 
Loopuitc Sy W cases Ahead ee ee es Amsterdam, Holland Moro, Arthur. « cos .s0900 .Skdwavowece hues London, England 
TOties Nivis ChseeG he ihe ee ee eee ees Pentre, Wales Morris, Biciccse sd ie ees toe ee ce eee ae Durham, England 
‘otery. Mrae Mee cies coat hdaweretabbyan London, England Morris, To ica cick ka eae oo see aed sae London, England 
Lotinga, M........00-5500- Neweastle-upon-Tyne, England MOIris, Jiso sce is oe les ds Bae EP ewes Carlisle, Engian 
Low, Emmanuel.........ccececcewacen Szegedin, Hungary Moser, Jacob, J.P... ......:8enedesaennss Bradford, England 
Léwy, Ernest Dis cosas cae eos tages London, England Moses, David. .....0.06. 01 088 ete basomes os London, England 
‘Lubash, Se. ci sc cncas des Sb whe deal aegee MOOR London, England | Moses, Mark... 1.0... . cc eee eee eee ees London, England 
bUDY) tlives Weise seen sot ia eas DRI London, England | Moses, Samuel, M.A... .... 0.0.00 e ee eee London, England 
Lueas, Henry.........-- errr ey te London, England Moses, Hon. Silas Meyer.............---0-- Bombay, india 
Lumley, Maitland. .......... 00002 e nee London, England MOSS) As os 6 e806 hee dd oS e ee Oe London, England 
Tint 2p Micgicencacewee oe SS ea eer sec eM Birmingham, England | Moss, Eric. ...........cce sees ere ceeees London, England 
Lyon; Hise einai eens Die sao as Sogtengee Landon, toneland | Moss, Nev... cc ceeds ee es ee epehaseeae London, England 
Lyons, Abraham,........ceeceeeeerenenes Swansea, Wales } Mudie’s Select Library.................. London, England 
Lyons, Frank 1... 0.2... sees cc some caine London, England Muhsam, Rev. Dr... 0.2... cc ee eee ees Gritz, Austria 
Lyons, Hines. sdeae ee (giv satonsieaes Liverpool, England | Mundy, A...... 2... cece c eee eeneeerneee London, England 
byons, Mie Aucce eae cers ee gee oaks Johannesburg, So. Africa Myer, Ernest Alex. ..... cc cceeecc ences London, England 
Lyons, Marks.........-2-seeeeeeeree Monmouth, England | Myers, Arthur M................. Auckland, New Zealand 
Lyons, Councilor Marks J. S........-... Ebbw Vale, Wales | Myers, Asher I. (deceased)............... London, England 
Lyons, Soloman..........c2+seeeeeeeeees Swansea, Wales Myers, H. 8.2.62. ces ou eed Gateshead-on-Tyne, England 
Lyttelton, Rev. Hon. Canon E,, M.A...... Hertford, England | Myers, Isaac...........0cee eee eee Birmingham, Iingland 
M Myers,. Rev. J,. Boos occ4 is bobs Me te wes Belfast, Ireland 
. mn Myers, M. Bw ci cee are Middlesborough, England 
Maedonald, Rev. Frederick William ...... London, England | Myers, Moses. ..........0ccceeeeeceeecees Leeds, England 
MaeBorigld. “Wriacr dle bid ey ec ie eas ee Maynooth, Ireland | Myers, Moss S.......... ccc eee ceeeecee London, England 
Math. JOseps iin idome reese este ee aS Wrexham, Wales Myers, Phineas... .. 62.6 6 sieanaw2e ee) Wak He Hove, England 
MeKilliam, Robert, M.D... ......-----0+ Lendon;.Fneland: | Myers, S.... 2... 02.0600 s shateaned oem Hanley, England 
Madras Literary Society.........00ee eee ees Madras, India Myers, Samuel Peel, J.P... 0... ccc eee ee eee Iikiey, England 
Magnus, Sir Philip, B.A...... ee ake lees London, England Myers, Sclomon....... os ¥ eq tanlewe es London, England 
Maizels, Joseph. oi ccs cade ee ee eed ree London, Eengiand | Myers, Victor. ......00...8febeqaaeneens London, ‘ngland 
WN ES.; MOTT cc culigie ceed cas se see e 84 Pont-y-pridd, Wales | Myers, Wolf.......... << (hte RE a OEERAG London, <ngland 
Manchester College... ....---++eeee+> +. .Oxford, England 
Manchester Free Ref’ce. Library (4 copies), Manchester, Eng. N 
Manchester Zionist Association ....... fanchester, England | Nachim, Rev. Michael... ............--- London, England 
Mandelkern, Dr. Solomon.........-+---- eipsic, Germany | Nahon, Raphael ............0.26----2-- London, England 
Mandelstamm, Dr..........-+-05 Se eee Kiev, Russia Nahum, Victor di H...... doe atiee esas Manchester, England 
Marcus, Joseph. ... .. cece eee ee ee eee een London, England | Napier, Rev. F. P.... 2.0... - eee eee eee Guildford, England 
Marcus, Theodore......... ee eres Liverpool, England Naples National Library.................--. Naples, Italy 
Margowski, Max. ... ..eeseccer cc teeeees London, England INCH aT, 4) Pos nk Soest eee ee oe eo oes London, England 
Margulies, Dr.......- cece cece ee eees Matintenete Florence, Italy | Nathan, Myer S., LL.B... ............-. London, England 
Margulies, S. H.......+..- eaten Bad Aussee, Austria | Nathan, Nathan Alfred........... Auckland, New Zealand 
Marks, Charles...... Saleen eee Stockport, England Nathan, 8S. J... . 2... eee ee eee Singapore, Straits Settlements 
Marks, Daniel.........eeee+++eeeeee++.,London, England | Nathanson, Leopold..... .eeaees., Copenhagen, Denmark 


XXxXVi LIST OF PATKONS 


National Library of Ireland..............-. Dublin, Treland 
Nelson Public Library......... ed area, Sick Nelson, England 
Neubauer, Prof. Adolf..............200-- Oxford, England 
Neuenburg, Iernest.........Neweastle-upou-Tyne, England 
Neumann Drs iG ata eae aes Ossmannstedt, Germany 
Neumann, Dr. E., Chief Rabbi..... Nagy-lxanizsa, Hungary 


Newcastle Public Library. ..Newcastle-upon-Tyne, England 
Neweastle-upon-Tyne Literary and Pitlosaphical Society, 
Newcastle-upon-Tyne, England 


New Collete.. ceivec ba Gea oeoe s aeetas Edinburgh, Seotland 
NO@wW iss Dal Cae es SAGs Da oe eR ee London, England 
NEN APE ¥ tases! G18 re Weis preety BE Os ae S Wigan, England 
INimiatis 1a a. > oscs cis Saw kee eee eae os Blackburn, England 
Nordau, Max, M.D... 0... 0. ec eee Paris, France 
Norfolk and Norwich Library............ Norwich, England 
Norwich Free. Library: ..u:01o acc ices bs Norwich, England 
Nottingham Central Free Public Library, Nottingham, Eng. 
Nowack, Dr. Wilhelm................. Strasburg, Germany 
Natt; aired: 2 4 oo wk eee oh ard & ak os Harrow, England 
O 
Ochs, James F...... 0. ce eee eae London, England 
O’Connor, His Honour Arthur, K.C...... Durham, England 
Odessa Society of Jewish Clerks........... Odessa, Russia 
RSME ts Pia teasiieges ca de be daa a we eS Sunderland, England 
ADE SVSI, TONG aie ass ek cae oo ow Se Sunderland, England 
2 ats OM SON 3 DR ee ee i Oy ae Pore Leyden, Holland 
Oppenheifn, SamuelB...........6. casaue London, England 
WEMSITUCHIIGRS AGS utes 6 kok nas anne ss eR London, Englan‘l 
Oppert, Prof. Gustav......... ee ee Berlin, Germany 
QOMOT sD NES bck soos 6 kas os OS Oe ER Ged Paris, France 
Orelli, Drs Konrad son... 6. ec ee ees Basel, Switzerland 
CIE OUR logos an ac to ae aes ae wh es London, Englan 
Osterley, Rev. W. O. E., B.D............ London, England 
Owens College, Christie Library... ... Manchester, England 
P 
Padua, University of... .. 0... cece eee eee Padua, Italy 
Palestrant, Misch aren ces ow 26-48 eae Re a ee Leeds, England 
almer, George William, M.P............ Newbury, Englanc 
Paris, LiG00 bccciytens 2 cee tle ea Ae ees London, England 
Paris, University Of os kceccas £265 Oe o4 Seed oa Paris, France 
Pariser, Lewis A... 0... cece ee ees Manchester, England 
Parker, Rev. Joseph, D.D. (deceased)..... London, England 
Parsons, Rev. L. H..... edo alayst vente ye Sta London, Fngland 
Pasay Ac ee Cte, Bop acinn itn tows adok ac ae ae London, England 
Pass, Charles de ...... 0.0.02 ec eee eens London, England 
Pass, Daniel de... 0... ce ce ee eee London, England 
Pearlman, Benno.......... 00. c eee eee ens Hull, England 
PearlinAnise v.01. eased ae eR ee Ss South Shields, England 
Peli catiy Fl nc! oe esa chat e eee eee aes London, England 
Penkar, Samuel S., L.C.E..............-6-5 Bombay, India 
Perles, Rev. Dr. Felix.............. KSnigsberg, Germany 
Perreau, Abbé Pietro... 0... ce ees Padua, Italy 
Piibbs, OWCh: wis Oa ed nie PS a eee Sligo, Ireland 
Phihppson, Francis. ............0080005 Brussels, Belgium 
Philippson, Martin, Ph.D................ Berlin, Germuny 
PS Pee oa gpd ie ee ek esa Redan, shag ate ke Leeds, England 
Phillips; Rev. [sadaes 6.45.64 4044 eos oes Portsea, England 
Phillips, Rev. Jacob. ............ Port Elizabeth, So. Africa 
Phillips; Josephy. «sic s0ées 40 Seed eh vee es London, England 
Phillips, M. David .. 00.6.0 - cece cree eees London, England 
Pali sy es actos on oer ees ace Bee seen Cardiff, Wales 
PTS 3 cee ee as acace sas ee tegen ae es aes Jardiff, Wales 
Pinn, Benjamin................-- Johannesburg, So. Africa 
TAN: ie oho Sed we Gea sero Sees Cape Town, So. Africa 
Pinna, Montague I. de. ..............06. London, England 
Plate; Samuel... 34 se ckta wes wiwtece gees Stockport, England 
Plotzker, David. 2.0... 0.0.2 eee eee Manchester, Eingland 
Plotzker, Lesser ........... 00 ee eue Manchester, England 
Plotzker, Marcus... ..........0-2.+52-- Manchester, /:nglan 
Plymouth Free Public Library......... Plymouth, England 
Polack. Revidhs BAG ossok Si we ows oe eo Bristol, England 
Politzer, J 08 plow cc & 6 a4 Seaver n eras Aan London, England 
Porges, Rev, Dr ON 6. ocn9 84 oso e epee Leipsie, Germany 
Poznanski, Dr. Samuel. ...............0205 Warsaw, Russia 
Pozner, Montague... 2.0... 0. ce eee eee London, England 
Prag; JOS@Dly «os e165 eee eaten sss eRe ROO London, England 
Prag, Julius. 3. 4 ee hes sew aes Merthyr-Tydvil, Wales 
Preece, Sir William H., K.C.B., ete,. .....London, England 
President of Switzerland, The.......... Bern, Switzerland 
Pretorm Zionist Library. .............. Pretoria, So Atrica 
Price, Louis..... Pe ee re ets ee Preston, England 
Pritehard, Wm. H..........6.. .. Johannesburg, So Africa 
Prise’ Joe esi Seg ok & Res ee as BAN RSNe Vir Phil, Wales 
Pyke JcSepls cae kaa we Boater ena London, England 
R 
Ra biiovitZ lice ove eerie se ve keewe eases Eden, Australia 
Rabinowitz, Rev. J. (deceased)...... Cape Town, So. Africa 
Raffalowich, I. ......... atariy wicca Px Manchester, England 
Ramsay, Prof. W. M., King’s College... Aberdeen, Scotland 
Ramsden, Sir John W., Bart.............. Slough, England 
Raphael, A..........-.0-. Jews’ Hospital, London, England 
Raphael, Albert P...... 20... ee eee Cape Town, So. Africa 
Raphael, Miss H......... Jews’ School, Manchester, England 
Rashkovski, Nis ces pods $4% 6544 oe50.4-04 S004 Odessa, Russia 
Ratner e Becca is eee eta Ba eee eka heels Wilna, Russia 


Ratzker, Joseph........-..06- .. Johannesburg, So, Africa, 


a eS ee 
Eee ee eee 


Razsovich, Jacques......... 0000. eee eee Paris, France 
Reading Publie Library................ Reading, Itngland 
Reale Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale........ Florence, Jtaly 
Reebaciss WOlts oo ccow ks Heenan et oS ee ee Leeds, England 
Retort Cli 0.2 foc ka oh A had oe Bee nas London, Eng!and 
Reinach, Salomon. ... 0.00.00 eee eee eee Paris, France 
Reinach.. Theedor: <i: 6 o6 wad $44 he eas Sew! Paris, France 
Reiniger, Prot: AG) 490004 neh te heen a oe Brinn, Austria 
Reithinger, Albert... 0... 0 0. eee eee ees London, England 
Reitlinwer, Alfred. He ce. ci vs ewes eae nae Paris, France 
Reitlinger, Frederic. ..........0. 00s cee eens Paris, France 
Reitlinger, Sigismond .. 0.0.0.2... cece ee eee Paris, France 
Rieado, B. Israel... . 2... ee ee Amsterdam, Holland 
Ricardo, Joseph... 66. ke wee co ato 0 os Shes London, England 
Richards,;.De M. 5 asccaas dived eure Aberdare, Wales 
Richardson, Harry. os. cess ee ee aly London, Jingland 
Ricker, 184 duvets oad oe Cee ws a Be St. Petersburg, Russia 
Rieger, Rev. Dr. Paul.............-... Potsdam, Germany 
Tea DO oe och aero? Sate Bae se eS Pais Birmingham, England 
Ring, Maurice .. 23062000 p40 2a eees os eee London, England 
Ripon, Marquis of... 0.2... eee ee London, England 
Rittenberg, B............. Newcastle-upon-Tyne, England 
Robertson, Prof. James, D.D............ Glassow, Scotland 
ROINBINE Do 6 oe pb ed dee wee See eRe RS Cape Town, So. Africa 
Rooth, Mdwards.. co xen ee uw ew do ek oss Pretoria, So. Africa 
Rosefield, Adolph H................--5. Longford, Ireland 
ROSONi docs be be ha ee ee ee ees Johannesburg, So. Africa 
Rosenbacher, Dr. Arnold............002- Prague, Bohemia 
RosenDa Mn De oi aos fauna Fal ee bared was Liverpool, England 
Rosenbaum, Henry...........-.-000005: London, England 
Rosenbaum, Rev. M....... Newceastle-upon-Tyne, Fingland 
Rosenbaum, Sol. .......... 0. eee eee “‘redegar, England 
Rosenberes J: 2.< 65 fos le cada on He we eke London, England 
Rosenberg, Louis... . 0... 000 ee eee Manchester, England 
Rosenberg, Mark. .....5.-000e08 +e e00s Liverpool, England 
Rosenberg, Morris Levy............... Brighton, England 
Rosenberg, Simeon...... ... Neweastle-upon-T yvne, England 
FLOSBTIEOOUE Pilose nate boas Was 4 ees So Manchester, England 
RGSeeTES TICETO AIRS 6. ek as we ne os London, England 
ROSE RENEE So cbia ie a apse Sa eae Gh wey ie Bie ers London, England 
Hosenstoek, ius: 294. ee eee London, England 
FROSEHEN plot, Mae irked aos os we Os ed FO Oe Breslau, Germany 
Hosentnal: Palke sn og2 ce ec ee ce eens London, England 
Redeurthal Terao so. 3 ec. oo a ee eee oo London, England 
Hosenthal, dohm 2. BLD... 0.0.66 hee ees Dublin, Ireland 
HOSeTiGHale, Me saes Ga vbw ax Newcastle-upon-Tyne, England 
Hosertiiat« Mev. Micke oi cae wie eee ewes London, England 
Rosenthal, Mark A... 2... eee eee Johannesburg, So. Africa 
Rosenthal, Vasili... 2... eee eee ees Poltava, Russia 
Thosernthall, Accuce recurs o4c08en ee ye Manchester, England 
Rosenzweig, Rev. Jo... 6. ec ee eee Bangor, Wales 
Rossdale, Mre: Nellie... . 0... eee eee London, England 
Rostock, Umiversity Gf... 6.066 ee ee eee Rostock, Germany 
dee ay Re Bande Steins Soke Oe eae a PR w SS London, England 
Rothsehild, Rt. HontieLord... oc. eee ces London, England 
Rethaehitd Bivedl eam ies tek oe ee eee es London, I:ngland 
Rothseliiid, The Hon. Charles............ London, ltngland 
Rothschild, Baron Edmond de............... aris, france 
Rothschild, Leopold de, C.V.O. .......... London, Fngland 
ECSU INE Soha rts ck BAD Gap ied 6 3. Rds eRe ew enw el Cardiff, Wales 
TRO WIRY FROG NVA Ruse ok cone new ees Cape Town, So. Africa 
Royal and University Library.......... Breslau, Germany 
Royal Danish Academy of Sciences . .Copenhagen, Denmark 
Royal Dublin Society............06.20005. ublin, Ireland 
Roval Library: .4 css Ga ee oe ees Berlin, Germany 
Roval Library :.d<6 4 fo <e2es 04 oe st iere Sox Munich, Germany 
Roval Library... eens Pare eee The Hague, Holland 
Rowal uibrany : ovo 4 ose bo Pages Stockholm, Sweden 
Roya! Library of Belgium.............. Brussels, Belgium 
Royal Umiversity... 0... 0c eee ees Berlin, Germany 
Royal University ......6 05 00+ s amewnaaes Ghent, Belgium 
Royal University....... EY Gottingen, Germany 
Royal University....... * 98-2 SA Aree ore Halle, Germany 
Royal University: <6. .00 0.85 sce GRR Ree ee Upsala, Sweden 
Rubenstein, Harris............-e0.2.5005: Llanelly, Wales 
Rubinstein, M........ nh eee Johannesburg, So. Africa 
Ryland) Cid aia ed erage vat anda s Oe Southerndown, England 
Saalleld Acces co 8b oak eR Ree e eee Manchester, Iengland 
Sachs, Leopold Katzenelbogen. .......... ondon, Engiand 
Sackery Joy c.342444.254.c% ¥ erro sania nannies Odessa, Russia 
Sacdig, Mufti Mic. : ci. 6 ose ieee Quadian, Gurdaspur, India 
Saffer, Nathan... .... 5.4555 4am tase atta eeds, England 
Saffert ¥) As. ics naae oe s-o ah aoe ee Charlton, England 
SHORT Agesval a aGiat ee eae d Newcastle-upon-Tyne, England 
Saver, Judah Li... 2.6 ee es Ce arhin He as Cambridge. England 
St. Andrew’s, University of.......-. St. Andrew's, Scotland 
St. Deiniol’s, Library............5--5. Hawarden, England 
St. Patrick’s, College..............-0-- Maynooth, Ireland 
St. Paul’s Cathedral Library............. London, Engiand 
Salaman, Mrs. Myer......... tL raskatesas London, England 
Salfeld, Rev. Dr. Sigismund............Mayence, Germany 
Salinger, MoSveesysadee cee «fhe e ewe phuess London, England 
Salmen, Albert Berl... ........ ee ery or Londen, Englan 

Salomon: Bi« 4.4.24:s0% Sea 2S ee Mewes AS Manchester, England 
Salomon, Rev. Dr. Berendt .......... Manchester, Englan 

Salomon, Fr. E........... eee eater art Copenhagen, Denmark 
Salomon, Frederick........... ve eee, SOuthport, Engiand 


LIST OF PATRONS 


Xxxvii 


Salomon, Louis... ......0ccceceueues ,..London, England 
Samson, Samuel 44.006. os dau a eee de ee London, England 
Samuel, Albert B... 0... cc eee ee ee ee Bourgas, Bulgaria 
Samuel, Charles... .... ccc cece eee cee aee London, England 
Samuel, Haeem...... .....lsraelite School, Bombay, India 
Samuel, IS8a@..ovo04 views nees aves eRe ERS Cardiff, Wales 
Samuel, Rev. Isaac... . 1... cee eee ee eee: London, England 
Samuel Lis. cae see oted ea ceislers seeeeeee HOUtHSeA, England 
Samuel, Sir Marcus, Knt. ..... ...-......London, England 
Samuels, Simon H.... 2... ee ee eee Manchester, England 
Sanday, Rev. William................055 Oxford, England 
Sandeman, Albert G......... den en God arte ae Ware, England 
Saqui, Horatio... ........0008s Gaus neces London, England 
Sassoon, Charles Isaac............66. Brooklands, tengiand 
Sassoon, Sir Edward, Bart., M.P........ ‘London, England 
Sauerbach, Roger......... ereavieds i Kang tae Paris, France 
Saul. David oc os wn sos a Os SE ae Sa es, Br Morriston, Wales 
Saunders, Solomon, J.P... ce... 0.2 a es Adelaide, Australia 
Saxe, Edward A. de... 0... eee ee eee London, England 
DA VETS e Nad coin So beads ssi ea a ede ane Cork, Ireland 
BaAVers, Pe osc gin dle e des brag ieee wie seo LM Cork, Ireland 
Schachter, Prof, Dr. Max. 66445 2 eens Budapest, Hungary 
Schapiro, Max. sesso saa, < eRe Odessa, Russia 
Schatunowsky, Gregory. ....... Kamenetz-Podolsk, Russia 
Schechter, Dr. oe goa alten dec (late of) Cambridge, England 
DCHeier la Las caer wre kieR es pha w een wales London, England 
Schishka, David =. sss .032.2 eto eee London, England 
Sehlom, Morris.................-0005 3 day eee England 
Schmid, Dr. Maximilian, Chevalier . .London, England 
Schmidt, A. Sclimitoll., «4.0 0c wiper ge ss oe: Hull, England 
Schneideman, Marixe sua suds Newcastle-upon-Tyne, England 
Schreiner, Dr. Martin................... Berlin, Germany 
Schiirer, Dr. Eemil........ University of Gottingen, Germany 
Schw ab, DDFs MOISE 5 oe hich oo dane a es bw eS: Paris, France 
Schwabadorf, Dr. Neumann....... Ossmannstedt, Germany 
Sehwartz, W 11 2 ee ON are, A London, England 
Schwarz, Rev. Dr. Adolf...... Sie aveiges Carlsruhe, Germany 
ORT AE SE, PRET a ioks sai Sa Fas Hers te GS Bradford, England 
PIVESS NE Ce temas cbf eS 2 db Ss ode barea was London, England 
SOM ROZIONL GI Bek cc oak ks cb wwe eee bee eeu Paris, France 
Seer UW IES IV oes. og ae Sie oa we London, England 
Seott, Very Rev. Archibald, D.D...... Edinburgh, Scotland 
Seeligmann, PPENEC-2°4 5. goa kneels Amsterdam, Holland 
Segal, Solomon......--..+- Newcastle-upon-Tyne, England 
Pelrverir Wen aee os io os oe ane 6 RC ee oD London, England 
Selve er, Cee cies es ape Darmstadt, Germany 
POC HNEY, PONE GI, 5 fgg ki aie sae od a Oe a ee Paris, France 
Servi, Chev. F., Chief Rabbi........ Casale Monferrato, Italy 
Setof, ee EO rl cde London, England 
Seymour, Fe SOY ee eer ee ee ee London, England 
phaffer, Los. ccs sci ean ah nes op ee Mees Preston, England 
Shaler Me osncs4 60 os os oe Gara oom hee Bolton, England 
Shaffer, Mendle......... rr ee Manchester, England 
Shaffer, Nathan... 0.0... . 0c cc cee wees Manchester, England 
Shalom, Ezra. ccc sc cas cece oe 0 bmiels a Manchester, England 
Shane,’ Aves. 34 25 4a wacwlewe arn k PERSE OS Brynmawr, Wales 
Shane, Isaac Minden........... cighes ia ice Stroud, England 
Shapiro, Max............. eee e eee Mossel Bay, So. Africa 
Shapiro, Morris A... 0.2... eee eee Carnarvon, Wales 
DNADIVO, Secs cs 5 caw aewarke beware te ee Johannesburg, So. Africa 
Sharp, REV de xcwis aa seed 2s Sep London, England 
Sharpe, Rev. To Wo. ck cle es ORE ER REN London, England 
MUAtZ, Pee 2 y5s ob she de da ad Soe ates: RM OE eee Cardiff, Wales 
Shepherd, MM. Aves. Ai0 ous 4s cn pee meee Swansea, Wales 
Sherwinter, Jacob... 2.0.0.0... eee Edinburgh, Scotland 
Shonman, <0 oy mein mnt i to Ae London, England 
Shrimski, Daniel, M.L.C., J.P....... Auckland, New Zealand 
Shrimksi, 0. Lisa 6aa0 so eae oso Se Auckland, New Zealand 
Sieff, Ephraim ..4 <.sasieck et ovgeeeed Manchester, England 
Siegfried, Dr. Carl......... 0.0... eee eee eee Jena, Germany 
Siemms, I, D. Samson-.. .........0..0.. London, England 
Signet Library. Bick soled er eh dk ncean ack “ateoueslec Edinburgh, Scotiand 
Silvera, David. .......... 0000 eee ee Manchester, England 
Silverman, Ms $105 0d «94 dodo eae Wake wews London, Fingland 
Silverstone, IVE Te acco. gh je thie tad lal pe heh tas a London, Iengland 
Simmons, Bernard Rintel............ Birmingham, Eingland 
Simmons, George Alexander. ............ London England 
Simmons, HNP 9.3 er Sas eee OR Renee Bristol, England 
Simon, Rev. Isidore. ............20. Manchester, England 
Simons, Jo... ....0. cc ceecsceeecseecse Abertillery, Wales 
DlUNONS, MOSSs is, 6 ado eae de sat ore eas wed London, england 
BINOIIS £ Dani ok we Va eG, Onle sp Bees London, England 
Simonsen, Rev. D., Chief Rabbi..... Copenhagen, Denmark 
Singer, Rev. Simeon...........00e0ee0e- London, England 
Shlovek. Gcaaeae aoc. vaya aoe eae Edinburgh, Scotland 
IDOE iste ce a tote ine Rae ee We eee BS Amsterdam, Holland 
DIUMEKOs Bi caie acd ceca fae oe ee oe Sas Middlesborough, England 
Smith, Rev. George Adam, M.A......... Glasgow, Scotland 
Snowman, Pcie Gel D Riera tear rereer omen ceria an rere yr London, England 
Society of Antiquaries. ..........5..60-- London, England 
Society of Biblical Archzolegy.......... London, England 


Society for Promoting Christianity Among Jews, 
Dublin, Treland 


Sollas, A. M......... ee ee ee ee Jamaica, West Indies 
Solomon; David jo 6 sdaescegereage ee whe s os London, England 
Solomon, Harriss B........ Newcastle-upon-Tyne, England 
Solomon, James H.... 0... cee eee ee eee London, England 
Solomon, Joseph. ........... ener gets .London, England 


Solomon. Joseph Bernard. .............. . London, England 


Solomon, Solomon J., A.R.A. . .London, England 


eoeeeteeneet 


Solomons, Maurice E., J.P............20055 Dublin, Ireland 
Somech, David E................... Manchester, England 
Sonéntfeld). Re is6 46 25 acc 0 Ba Fok te sidehaicats London, England 
Pega lets. Fs besa tas eon se pas ts ee re ree eee Paris, France 
Speculand, Nene NAVer cia ce kee. Glasgow, Scotland 
MBIA TICy alo Snag Sn Seni +5 oe oo ad Edinburgh, Scotland 
Spencer, Herbert (deceased) . ene Brighton, England 
Spielman, Miss Miriata ee icc... ce ee London, England 
Spielmann, Sir Isidore, F.S.A............ London, England 
Ririeiriaii, blacks +54.4.05c2epne seed eae London, England 
Spielmann, Marion H., F.8.A............ London, England 
NTS ke eiendes. acs tala aes ve ChWage eke ae FS London, England 
BIST THE on cce oy Sarkar ee he as we Birmingham, England 
EO Beet She eed EEA © oN Raa Wee E Ed Cork, Ireland 
Spolianski, Frol. Ossipovich............... Ginn Russia 
PACA Pes :d cua niece bast Fea ER eS REDE GS Hesse, Germany 
State: University, «Message sheets oe? Leyden, Holland 
Stave, Pir Aries. oy pu oe 4 tee University of Upsala, Sweden 
Rite wate aces ae Da E Soe SES Manchester, England 
Ste MA. kcctasnkn wale + age London, England 
Stein, Ludwig, Ph.D...........-..0.25.. Bern, Switzerland 
Steinart, Mo oc ki sas eat cws ee dames Manchester, England 
Steindorff, Prof. Geo. ....... University of Leipsic, Germany 
Steinhart, Bic iccos ss ck os sels Ree London, England 
Steinschneider, Dr. Moritz.............-.. Berlin, Germany 
Stern, Edward David, B.A.............. London, England 
Stern; Gustav ccs ieee olave We iv olae Sececeig aes Hove, England 
Stern, Rev. Joseph F. wo... . eee ee eee London, England 
StGmmneimic Mieco kG ee ale PES Re London, England 
Stettaer: Gey eas jad ce a ane BO Sees London, England 
Stewart, Rev. Alexander...............Aberdeen, Seotland 
Stock, Te Sisk cole aie Saale hut tnd a on beet London, England 


Stockhoim Society of Jewish Literature. .Stockholm, Sweden 


Stoloff, Rev. W......... Hila tes week eee London, England 
Stone, Ree. Darwell... ....-.ceeeeee. W allingford, England 
PLOT Ds ule. Oi soak We Sats oS ae Mets Manchester, England 
SONG Sis td Bees Woe eee ale eae SS Halifax, England 
Stoneyhurst College, Browne, Rev. J.... Blackburn, England 
Story, Rev. Adam, D.D................. Durham, England 
Strack, Prof. Hermann lL............ . Berlin, ‘Germany 
Strasburg, University of............. Strasburg, Germany 
Stratton, Stephen S................. Birmingham, England 
Strisower, Dr DEO 6 yc goes 3 University of Vienna, Austria 
Strump, Benjamin.................20-2. Glasgow, Scotland 
Stuns Nees oe ead, ow awe cae eee Edinburgh, Seotland 
Stungo, Solomon S................4. Edinburgh, Scotland 


Stuttgart Kgl. Israel. Oberkirchenbehérde, 
Stuttgart, Germany 


Summerfield, D........... Neweastle-upon-Tyne, England 
Summerfield, Isidor ....... 00.00. -02 0 ee London, England 
Sumner, Peace 4. tas. oh crete wey hoe Birmingham, England 
Surowicz, Saul Severin.............. Ciechanowiec, Russia 
Susman, Joseph. ..... ccc esse eee eeee Manchester, ngland 
Sutro, Teenie es Catearmte eons Johannesburg, So. Africa 
Sutton; Co Wei ew SAW. Oh ewan eS Manchester, England 
Swale Mick wack oka ed Coe eae ee Amsterdam, Holland 
Swete, Prof. Henry Barclay, D.D....... Cambridge, England 
Sydney, Algernon E...........-..-0000: London, England 
Synagogengemeinde zu Breslau.......... Breslau, Germany 
Tachati, Prot: DY oli 2 es6 sdeeaa eee bas Brunswick, Germany 
Talegamkar, I. A... . cee ee eee Bombay, India 
Tannenbaum, A... .. cece cece ee eee London, England 
Tate Central Library.............02000- London, England 
Taw lor Ole Pitas she tne ws a ies ee le tse OER Hounslow, England 
Taylor, Rev. Charles, D.D., LL.D....... Cambridge, England 
MCU SONl,- Wiiok aa Su ee ek eek ke ear eek ates Batavia, Java 
Tennant, A), iosckits wectuacaian gece. eee ohh ee Norwich, England 
Thomas, Isaac. ccwc aaa ee a 6 ee ees Birmingham, England 
PHOMA Stone 65x pho wd cae ho eg eaky we aed Leicester, England 
Thomas, Rev. William,..............005 Aberdare, Wales 
Tobias, Mark... 2.0... ee ee eee London, England 
A OIG a) aly feu dees anirach tee gata bk lak ww eeee London, England 
FITS eee h a ke Si ce cath tesa tests Saal ah ada nied aa ay London, I:ngland 
Toohey, Philip Mareus..............625- Limerick, Ireland 
Tarress Mie oe aa as a ates oe teas ..Manchester, England 
Trefecea College. .... 0. 0... cece ee ee Tagarth, Wales 
Treissmann, David..........2005- Johannesburg, So, Africa 
Trietseh;. Davis: co seecs css. eae pte .....Berlin, Germany 
Ei IN oe woe thew oe Wonca ae hace hee dew wee Byelos tok, Russia 
Trinity College............. (34 temas pies rete England 
Trinity College: . 45 ¢ias.06 i os beets Dublin, Ireland 
Tuck, Adolph «2: ..0.400 364. o« agrew Oke London, ‘England 
Tuck, Gustave. vo ie a 2kaics oo Aa ee ees London, England 
Tuck, Herman.............. xa oars London, England 
Turin National Library.............2....-0-. Turin, Italy 
Turok. Uc soe rian Bed cee owe eee Woedstock, Se. Africa 
U 
Unitarian Home Missionary College ...Manchester, England 
University Hall. ......... isthe ae dd Sad aes, Bo London, England 
Utrecht, University of..........0..00000- Utrecht, Holland 
e . V 
Vambéry, Dr. Arminius.............. Bunoee: Hungary 
Vandamm, George .......... 00 eee eee eee London, England 
Van Mentz, Abraham.................. London, England 


LIST OF PATRONS 


XxXxviii 
Van Thal, M..... OR ee en ee eee ee London, England 
Vatican Library Sia sete ye rable nace Pte Aare ghia Rome, Italy 


Vaughan, His Eminence Cardinal ideeraven)) 
London, England 


Venetianer, Dr. Lo... cc eee Neupesth, Hungary 
Ventura: Mart inal as cp- wanda ers ave tae w dguca cok Leeds, England 
Vesterman, C. ..... ccc sere c ees Yekaterinaslaf, Russia 
Visetti, Chevalier Albert... ........-.2... London, England 
Vivante, M. di Sabbatai.............. Manchester, England 
Vogelstein, Rev. Dr. Hermann........ Konigsberg, Germany 

on Giinzburg, Baron David......... at Petersburg, Russia 
Vredenberg, Jo... . cc cece eee ees .Amsterdam, Holland 

Ww 

Wace, Very Rev. Henry, D.D..Dean of Canterbury, England 
wa itsh, Dr. Joseph........ Kamenet z-Podolsk, Russia 
Waley, A. Sic cocks cehrvess wl oeeee Chantilly, Oise, France 
Waley, Simca J ie Gs Gilani Stel gale, Melee eagle Reigate, England 
Wallach, Siepfried ....54 «ss 0 dees he ba eaen Essen, Germany 
Wansker, JOSEP aio: o-5s oa ow widcerceZBoNs Manchester, England 
Wansker, pone ee reek ee re ee Manchester, England 
Warburg, Miis¢ oss xcs eat che Bdeees Hamburg, Germany 
Warburg, M. Mis & CO) ci< 4 takes ose Hamburg, Germany 
Wartski, Isidore............00.e00e-+.+..-Bangor, Wales 
Wartski,, Mofrisis scx. sacce. eaweeyee ewe ee Bangor, Wales 
Warwick, Countess of............ Warwick Castle, England 
Wasserzug, Rev. D., B.A. ....0. 00-000: London, England 
Watson, Sir John. ........00. cece eee eee Hamilton, Scotland 
Weehsler, Bs. i. ss4 3 és ss ceeuceeeoeies London, England 
Well, Bu Biko onxud ss oe eeeee eee ee ae London, Ingland 
Weil, Ma jOE Se 6 a6 tans 6 a ods he ee petaes London, England 
Weill, Rev. Julien. a i0:5 a5 4c. eeaes ae CAE & Paris, France 
Weinberg, EL Wicd nace wih deed a haga Nottingham, England 
Weinberg, Israel... ....... RS Ro eavees London, England 
Weinberg, Marcus...... ace da RE DRED London, England 
Weiner, Doe i icsacobecds cas debe bon eee eee Dublin, Ireland 
Weiner, Samuel... .... 202 2see8e wens eG London, England 
Weissberg, Ci. hun oe oud oc that ea grees Dublin, Ireland 
Weisz, Rev. Dr. Max..........2.00085 Budapest, Hungary 
Wellhausen, Prof. J......... Gottingen University, Germany 
Wernikoff, 8........ 0... 0c ee ee eee Johannesburg, So. Africa 
Wertheimer, Aj os... 6 os +s shee eeonee ees London, England 
Westminster College... .......000005s Cambridge, England 
Wharman, Samuel ...........00000000 es London, England 
WIENER) Deo 5 iis aces 4-64 + Mere aa ate Belfast, Ireland 
Wigoder, Dr. GeorgeS........ 0.0.00 c ee eeee Dublin, Ireland 
Wilenski, Henry. ... 0.2... 0. cee ee eees London, England 
Wilkes, Sam................ Gateshead-on-Tyne, England 
Wilkinson, Rev. Samuel H............ Brentwood, England 
WHES, dice kc5 ca wa cla aia ay atari Middlesborough, England 


LIBRARIES, CLUBS, SOCIETIES, 


A 
Abarbauel Library..............0006 Jerusalem, Palestine 
Aberdeen Public Library............ Aberdeen, Scotland 
Aberdeen, University of............... Aberdeen, Scotland 


Abraham Lincoln Lodge, I. O. B. B., No. 190, 
Bloomington, Il. 
. ot. Petersburg, Russia 


Académie Impériale des Sciences. . . 
. Paris, France 


Académie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres. 


Académie Royale des Sciences.......... Brussels, Belgium 
Accademia dei Sienza...........6 26. ee eee Milan, Italy 
Adas Israel Congregation................ Louisville, Ky. 


Adath Yeshurun Congregation Sunday-School, 
Syracuse, N. Y. 


Aguilar Free Library. ..............00000- New York City 
Alameda Public Library.................. Alameda, Cal. 
Alliance Israélite School.......... Constantinople, Turkey 
Alliance Israélite Universelle............... Paris, France 
All Souls’ College... 0... 0.0.0... ee eee Oxford, England 
Altoona Mechanies, Library...............: Altoona, Pa. 
American Geographical Society. ........06. New York City 
American Israelite Club..................... Troy, N. Y. 


American School for Oriental Study and Research, 
Jerusalem, Palestine 
Amsterdam, Univ. of, Biblio. Rosenthaliana, 
Amsterdam, Holland 
Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite Library. .Portland, Ore. 


Andover Theological Seminary............ Andover, Mass. 
Appleton Library, Lawrence University..Appleton, Wis. 
AVIA, COUC BE at) orig Meet Mahe cenct atta wuad Portsea, England 
Association for Study of Jewish Religion...... Puna, India 
Auburn Theological Seminary.............. Auburn, N.Y. 


Augustinian College of St. Thomas of Villanova, 
Villanova, Pa. 


Austrian Imperial Library................ Vienna, Austria 
B 
Bala Theological College... 0.0.0.0... cc eee eee Bala, Wales 
Bangor Theological Seminary............... Bangor, Me. 
Baptist College. ............ 0.0000 0e Manchester, England 
Barbicau Mission to Jews..........0e eee London, England 
Baylor University... ....0....... cece e ee eee Waco, Tex. 
Berkeley Divinity School Library...... Middletown, Conn. 
Berkhamsted Grammar School...... Berkhamsted, England 


Berkshire Athengwumi... 0.0.0.0 cee ee Pittsfield, Mass. 


a a. 


Williams, Rev. A. L., M.A.............5. Royston, England 
Wilhams, Louis)». .:05 4.00 qeewse 6 eas Stockport, England 
Williams’s Library, Dr................. London, England 
Wilmers, E By Se cad TaS ioae ey. fe cede abet wacenee Yl an le Gk London, England 
Waviber eg, So 7 oc) bs he aie Bares wae we ee Landport, England 
Wineberg, Reuben...........000 2 cee eee Waisall, England 
W ititer sis 4:0 Seen 6595 Wa aw PSR eS Stockport, England 
Winter, Rev. Dr. Jac. cic cc es theese Dresden, Germany 
Wolf, Rev. Ay Mikes 34 ce sere carla as Manchester, England 
Wolf, riven Adee a PROG LS6.e 4s eR Dresden, Germany 
Wolf, Haman: 25 62 enn eee as oe tees be ake ae Leeds, England 
Wolf, DGION 56.5 asd Heck cae © BE ER London, England 
WY Gl Wao ois eee dy hw Oo unas «GE ERERERE London, England 
Wolfe, Abraham... 6.6 60k ees weess Bradford, England 
WOME. “MIGSATIOET 0. 6s cae eee vo eres Sunderland, England 
Wiolte; ator. tts ceo oh wo dee ae ees Manchester, England 
Bis Ne ists. coda ahe 6. eo ecard wae « 4 ARAN Penygraig, Wales 
Wes ORAS Sear la 5 ds hc we ns CR eS London, England 
Wiollets, evs Pip .. 6.4. se adits ates: Cardiff, Wales 
WV CTLRCE: LIBADIC orpehes oa: een ee alas all gate Birmingham, England 
Wolfman, Samuel....... ae o6 weq@ataatea Chester, England 
Wolfsbergen, TAB AYY ocak co se os SEER ERO London, England 
WOMANS Bicheno os © sow de ewes a A Cologne, Germany 
TE SON gota OY Gerd oe 5 A'G Ae a FE ROY ane Leeds, England 
Woolf, Abraham CE ee Rotess< London, England 
Wels AIGOTE Nios 6 goo 6 ose ee 6 4 ae London, England 
WOE Tere Pia ei ogres 4 nd wee sca 6 a Re RBS London, England 
Woolf, Gabriel............ Newcastle-upon-Tyne, England 
Wool, Leopold M,... 6... 666 os ang ceten London, England 
WIL y IBIS Ss Sen eis a 5 say, sow eu eS Birmingham, England 
Woolf, Rev. William............,. Johannesburg, So. Africa 
Woolfe, BOWS ee iet os bine de % oo eRe London, England 
Woolfe, EBS Eig oS as hs os Sw GS Rw ween Wrexham, W ales 
WV aT ,-P OBCIIDE dosh nis es oo be a ool Manchester, England 
Woolstone, Eugene................e00-. London, England 


Workmen’s Libr ary and Literary Institute, Tredegar, England 
Worms, Baron de, F.8.A., V.P.R.S.L.....London, England 
Wright, W. Aldis, M. A., Trinity College, Cambridge, England 


Wiirttemberg, University Ore tare Tiibingen, ‘Germany 
Zz 
AT Teg 1d Oa Eo) co 2) Fy re ee, Nee London, England 
PRT Ge! RCC th ANS ain, oe dhe KW, 06 dies aoe BRA Cairo, Egypt 
PT Or, VeAah See eke haw wena’ ...Portsmouth, England 
Zeffert, Isaac David......... in 3 a rae Leicester, England 
Ziegler, Ge Goes 684 6 ose b es eee Carlsbad, Bohemia 
AimMan; HArvriss 6 osc ds ve save ce whwe eds London, England 
Zlocisti, Dr THO aha nowsree 3 tie ons 5 PORES eee ENA Germany 
Zossenheim, Maximilian............... Harrogate, England 
Zuckermann, A...... ce ee eee eee eee eee Warsaw, Russia 
INSTITUTIONS, ETC. 
Berlin, University “a ee eee ee ee ee Berlin, Germany 
Bern, University of............. bhattic’ Bern, Switzerland 
Berner, Hoch Haelal t pibliothek BL adn tien Bern, Switzerland 
Beth-Ahaba Sunday-School..............-. Richmond, Va. 
Beth Elohim Sunday-School............. Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Beth-E) Sabbath-School. ................. New York City 
Beth-Emeth Sunday-School................ Albany, N. Y. 
Beth-Israel Congregation.............006. Houston, Tex. 
Beth Israel Congregation................... Macon, Ga. 
Bibliotheca Rosenthaliana........... Amsterdam, Holland 
Bibliothéque des eae ene cas ee eae Brussels, Belgium 
Birmingham Lodge, I. O. B. B........ Birmingham, Ala. 
Birmingham Public eee ere tere Birmingham, England 
Blackstone, James, Memorial Library..... B ranford, Conn. 
B’nai B'rith Library............6...5. San Francisco; Cal. 
B’nai Israel Congregation............... Kalamazoo, Mich. 
B’nai Israel Congregation.......... Sacramento City, Cal. 
B’nai Israel Sunday-School................ Natchez, Miss. 
B’nai Jehudah Sunday-School ........... Kansas City, Mo. 
B'nai Jeshurun Congregation, ............. New York City 
B'nai Jeshurun Religious School........... New York City 


B’nai Yeshurun Congregation Sunday-School, 
Des Moines, Iowa 


B’nai Yeshurun (Kaha! Kadosh)........... Dayton, Ohio 
B’ne Jeshurun Library..............06- Milwaukee, Wis. 
Board of Education.............00.0000- Newourg: ~ & 
Bodleian Library... ........ 00.0000 eee. Oxford, England 
Bootle Free Publie Library and Museum.. Liverpool, England 
Boston Atheneum... ........ 000.0 cee eee Boston, Mass. 
Boston Public Library..................... Boston, Mass. 
Boston University. ........ 0000 eee eee eens Boston, Mass. 
Bowdoin College. ....... 0.0... nce eee eee Brunswick, Me. 
Braddock Lodge, F. O. B. B, No. 516...... Braddock, Pa. 
Bradford Free Library. ........c0c0ee Bradford, England 
Brattleboro Free Library................ Brattleboro, Vt. 
Brighton Public Library. ............... Brighton, England 
Bristol Public Library.................. Bristol, England 
British and Foreign Bible Society........ London, England 
Bromley House Library........... Nottingham, England 
Brooklyn Library, The...........e.e005. Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Brooklyn Public Library. ............005. Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Brooklyn Y. M. C. A... ccc eee eee eee Brooklizn, N.Y. 
Brown University oe pean eane a Gites Providence, R. T 
Brussels Bollandists Society. agua eds waa iaaaleee Brussels, Belgium 


LIST OF PATRONS 


Buffalo Public Library, The............... Buffalo, N. Y. 
Buluw ayo Chovevei Zion Association. .Buluwayo, So. Africa 
Bureau of American Ethnology.......... Washington, D.C. 
Bureau of Education. ............04 065 Washington, D. C 


Bureau of Rolls and Library, Department of State, 
Washington, D. C. 


Butte Free Public Library................. Butte, Mont. 
Cc 

California State Library................ Sacramento, Cal. 
Cambridge Free Library............. Cambridge, England 
Cambridge Library............00.00055 Cambridge, Mass. 
Cardiff Free Library..........-00eeeeeeeeee Cardiff, Wales 
Carnegie Free Library.........0..eceeeee Allegheny, Pa. 
Carnegie Free Library................-+.. Bradford, Pa. 
Carnegie Free Library................. Charlotte, N. C. 
Carnegie Free Library. ........0.00e000- Nashville, Tenn. 
Carnegie Library... ........0esceecers eras Pittsburg, Pa. 
Case Memorial Library...............68. Hartford, Conn. 
Cathedral Pray: Association, The......... New York City 
Century Club, The.,........... Pe ee ee New York City 
Century Co., Thee Se eT Pee ee New York City 
Charleston Library es eee aera ts at ete ae oa Charleston, S. C 
Chattanooga Publie Library........... Chattanooga, Tenn. 
Cheetham Free Reference Library..,...Manchester, England 
Chelsea Public Library.............0.- London, Englan 

Chicago American............0cccc ccc eees Chicago, IIl. 
Chicago Public Library.................005; .Chicago, Ill. 


Children of Israel Congregation.......... Wisaohie Tenn. 
Christ Church Library..............0008 Oxford, England 
Christ’s College... 0... 0.0... cue eee Cambridge, England 
Church House Library, Westminster....London, England 
Cincinnati Club, The..............0000: Cincinnati, Ohio 
Cincinnati Public LADEALY oo howe Fonts Cincinnati, Ohio 
City LADrary y 3a a5 Gea ek be AOS OST eae RASS Lowell, Mass. 
City Library Association, The............ Springfield, Mass. 
Cleveland Public Library Cees Beeateewr ee Cleveland, Ohio 
Colgate University. .... 0.0... cece cc eee Hamilton, 'N. ¥ 
College of the City of New York......... New York City 
College of St. Francis Xavier,.............. New York City 
Columbia Seminary. ...... ccc cece n eevee Columbia, S. C 
Columbia University. .......ccc cece cc eee New York City 
Columbus Publie Library................-.- Columbus, Ohio 
Congregational Library..............00+02- Boston, "Mass. 
Connecticut State Library.............. Hartford, Conn. 
Constitutional Club. ........ ccc eee ences London, England 
Copenhagen Jewish Congregation. ....Copenhagen, Denmark 
Copenhagen Library. ..........0++6- Copenhagen, Denmark 
Cornell University... 45.4054 hese ou ww oe Ithaca, N. Y. 
Crerar Library, The John. ...........0.-005 Chicago, III. 
Croydon Public Libraries.............. London, Englan 


Crozer Theological Seminary, Bucknell Library, 
Chester, Pa 


D 
Dallas Public Library...............-0.-05: Dallas, Tea 
Dayton Public Library............-...+--- Dayton, Ohio 
Derby Public Library... .... 0.0. cee eee eee Derby, England 
Detroit Public Library..............52-25 Detroit, Mich. 
Deutsch-Jiidische Gemeindebund........ Berlin, Germany 
Devonport Free Public Library...... Devonport, England 
Dickinson College... ... 0. ce ec ete eee ee eee ‘arlisle, Pa. 
Divinity School...........00 0000 ee es Cambridge, England 


Divinity School of the Protestant EKpiscopal Church, 
Philadelphia, Pa. 


Dorchester Missionary College...... Wallingford, [England 
Dorchi Zion Association...........-. Manchester, England 
Dorshei Zion Association..... .....Cape Town, So. Africa 
Drew Theological Seminary Library......Madison, N. J. 
Durban Publie Library.........-...-% Durban, So. Africa 
Durham, University of.............5.. Durham, England 
E 
Fast Orange Free Library............ East Orange, N. J. 


Ecole Speciale des Langues Orientales pe aes Paris, France 
Edinburgh Jewish Public Library. . _ Edinburgh, Scotland 


Edinburgh Public Library............ Edinburgh, Scotland 
Edinburgh University. 2c0.570....... Edinburgh, Scotland 
Blips Public. ABTA Y sis ciara ce oe eee weds Ejmira, N. Y. 
Et Paso. Public. Gibrary: «6oa.%. 06.55.0055 El Paso, Tex. 
mani lol, COnBrORatiONs, os5 te. eee Dallas, Tex. 
Emek Branch Lodge, No. 61, I. O. B. B..Fort Wayne, Ind. 
Enoch Pratt Free Library...............-.. Baltimore, Md. 


Episcopal Theological School Library....Cambridge, Mass. 
Erlangen, University of .....-.5..006. Erlangen, German 


Barns Cho vey PiOn. < oo ec gio ee ee eee Baltimore, Md. 
Evelina de Rothschild School....... Jerusalem, Palestine 
F 
Faculté de Théologie Protestante........... Paris, France 
Falkirk Public Vibrary..........-...-++ Falkirk, Scotland 
Fall River Publie Library.........-...--. Fall River, Mass. 
Finsbury Public Library.........-....-- London, England 
Florence Jéwish Theological Seminary..... Florence, Italy 


Forbes Library.........- 500050 eee Northampton, Mass. 
Frankfurt-am-Main Stadtbibliothek, 


Frankfort-on-the-Main, Germany 


d 
i 
H 
He 
d 


5 a Sl SSOP sh AO § a 
1 


Xxxix 


Frankfurt-Loge .......... Peenbiore ones i ete at ees |. ge ee es a yeah yan 19 eae A Ce 


Franklin and Marshall College........... Lancaster, Pa. 
Free Church College.............-.00-: Glasgow, Scotl and 
Free Library of Philadelphia, THC in 6a% . Philadelphia, Pa. 
Free Public Library.........0-0..eceeeee "New Haven, Conn. 
Free Public Library....... Ra eareens ee St. Joseph, Mo. 
Free Public Library..............2008- Worcester, Mass. 
Freiburg, University of........... oa Eure Germany 
Freundschaft Society, The... ............. w York City 
Friedrich-Loge X XI No. ‘444. Heidelberg. Germany 
Friends of Zion. Ses diacars eaukne cares Philadelphia, Pa. 
G 
General Theological Seminary............. New York City 
Geneva Public Library............... Geneva, Switzerland 
Georgia State Library... ......cc cece ween eens Atlanta, Ga. 
Glasgow, University of................ Glasgow, Scotland 
Goteborgs Stadtbibliothek.............. Goteborg, Sweden 
Gottingen, University of........... Gottingen, Germany 


Gottinger Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften, 
Gottingen, Germany 


Gratz College... 0... cece eee Philadelphia, Pa. 
Griqualand W. Hebrew Congregation. Here So. Africa 
Grosvenor Gallery Haprary: siticel bc ese wes ....- London, England 
Grosvenor Library...... wie ‘zee eaiees Seeree Buffalo, N. Y. 
H 
Hailsyburg College ..,........ Siena Hertford, England 
ampstead Public Libraries............ London, England 
Harlem ibrary..c c062-0i06-0 ss 04.06 6 2.6% septa New York City 
Harmonie Club............ wale wiietote 5 .New York City 
Harris Institute Library.. eaipatats -W oonsocket, - 
Hartford Public Library........ age .Hartford, Conn. 
Harvard University............0+.-:. ' Cambridge, Mass, 
Haverford College.........0ccee0e5 aatelecet Haverford, Pa. 
Headingly College...........0008: a cneetee Leeds England 
brew Circle of Women........ Pe oe a Troy, N. Y. 
Hebrew Educational Society............. Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Hebrew Educational Society.........-... Philadelphia, Pa. 
Hebrew Literary Association.........-.+...- Chicago, Il. 
Hebrew Literature Society............ .. Philadelphia, Pa. 
Hebrew National Association.............-+. Boston, Mass, 
Hebrew Orphan Asylum..........000e00- Baltimore, Md. 
Hebrew Orphan Asylum.............04.. Brooklyn, . Y. 
Hebrew Orphan Asylum. .............666% New York City 
Hebrew Orphan Home.............02¢:00% Atlanta, Ga, 
ehh ds retide (4 (0) ORR Df ct. rr Birmingham, England 
Hebrew Sheltering Guardian Society...... New York City 
Hebrew Union College...............+-- Cincinnati, Ohio 
Heidelberg, University of............ Heidelberg, Germany 
Helens: Pablic. Library. :ce5 0.56. eea ces ces Helena, Mont. 
Henderson Publie Library................ Henderson, Ky. 
Hiram College Library..........-..s0csc008 Hiram, ‘Ohio 
Hot Springs Council of Jewish Women..Hot Springs, Ark. 
House of Lords Library.............000: London, England 
Howard Memorial Library............ New Orleans, La. 
Hull Publie Libraries... 0.0... cc ee ee te ee Hull, England 
Hull Subscription Library ................ Hull, England 
Humanitatsverein ‘'B’nai Y 3) Pitle oboe eas Vienna, Austria 
I 
Illinois State Library. ........... 0c eae. epringe Ti. 
Independent Order B’nai B’rith............ ew City 
Indianapolis Hebrew Congregation Sabbath School. 
Indianapolis, Ind. 
Indianapolis Public Library.......... Indianapolis, Ind. 
Indiana University Library............ Bloomington, Ind. 
O. . Lodge No. 434...........2..-- Houston, Tex. 
I. O. B’nai Brith... .....-.- ese ee eee cece New York City 
Iowa Masonie Library............... Cedar Rapids, Iowa 
Iowa State Library...........0..0 020 ee Des Moines, Iowa 
Iroquois Social Club... 0.2... ccc eee Utica, 'N. Y. 
Isaiah Congregation Sabbath-School.......... Chicago, IIl. 
Israel. Theolog. Lehranstalt............... Vienna, Austria 
Israelite School... 2... 0... cc cee eee eee eee Bombay, India 
Israelitische Allianz ........ 0c cee ee wees Vienna, Austria 
Israelitische Cultusgemeinde............. Brinn, Austria 
Israelitische Cultusgemeinde............. Vienna, Austria 
Israelitische Gemeindebiblicthek........ Prague, Bohemia 
Israelitisches Lehrerseminar.......... Budapest, Hungary 
J 
Jackson Street Synagogue.......ceeeeeeees Mobile, Ala. 
Jacksonville Public Library......... .. dacksonville, Fla. 
Jefferson Club, The................25 .... Richmond, Va. 
Jena, University of. ........0-ee cee eeees Jena, Germany 
Jewish Colonial Trust..........0.0.005, London, England 
Jewish Congregation, The........ .Copenhagen, Denmark 
Jewish Foster Home and Orphan ‘Asylum. . Philadelphia, Pa. 
Jewish Literary and Social Society. . _. Tredegar, England 
Jewish Orphans’ Home..............-:+ New Orleans, La, 
Jewish Theological Seminary........... Budapest, Hungary 
Jewish Theological Seminary of America....New York City 
JEWS CONGBE 3 Goin cha Sos Oh eae RE eS London, England 
Jews’ Hospital.......... Fe Aas Wi reese hen ON. ven London, England 
John Rylands Library............... Manchester, England 
Johns Hopkins Uni Versity .occes caua een aes Baltimore, Md. 


xl 
K 

Kais. Universitits- und Landesbibliothek, 

. Strasburg, Germany 
Kansas City Public Library............. KKansas City, Mo. 
Kansas State Historical Society........... Topeka, Kan. 
Keble College... 0... ce ee eee Oxford, England 
Kellogg Hubbard Library............... Montpelier, Vt. 
Keneseth Israel Free Library........... Philadelphia, Pa. 
Kilburn Publie Library................. London, England 
King’s College. ..... 00.000. ce eee Cambridge, England 


King’s College, Wilson Library........Aberdeen, Scotland 
Kingston-upon-Thames Publie Library. . Kingston, England 


Ix. Ik. Hof-Bibliothek. oo... 0. ee. Vienna, Austria 
KKGnigl. Akad. der Wissenschaften........ Berlin, Germany 
Konigl Oeffentliche Bibliothek......... Drexden, Germany 
Koénigl. Universitits-Bibliothek.........Berlin, Germany 
L 

Lancashire Independent College.....Manchester, england 
Lane Theological mney Suse dk Se hota he Cincinnati, Ohio 
Lasker Lodge, The Ed..... Ens is ariel, ah aaradeg ete @ Tyler, Tex. 
Leeds Free Public NS o} 9} (= ae ne rere Leeds, England 
Leeds Library (Commercial Street)........ Leeds, England 
Legislative Assembly Library........... Quebec, Canada 
Leicester Public Library............. Leicester, England 
Leipsic, University of. ..-......- 0. cee Leipsic, Se 
Lexington Public’ Librav yin... eee es Lexington, Ky. 
Leyden, UMiVersity gil. oc eegd csc eae ee ces Ley den, Holland 
Leyton Public Libraries....... pera ace oe London, England 
Libraire. Durlacher:..c5 4c. so 3s ee eae eats Paris, France 
Library of Supreme Court....... ee Aas Montgomery, Ala. 
Lincoln Library.........-..- See aes Springfield, Ill. 
Liverpool Free Public Library... woes eeLiverpool, England 
Long Island Historical Society..... Lisi ee Brooklyn, N. 

Los Angeles Public Library,..........--- Los Angeles, Cal. 
Louisville Public. Gibraryics. ces ccc cases . Louisville, Ky. 
Lynn Publie Library..... bck Rebbe 4 be Pewee sws LYNN, Mass: 

M 
McClelland Library............ cesecceceesePueblo, Colo. 


McCormick Theological Seminary....... Chicago, Il. 


McMillan Free Library, peut ees oungstown, Ohio 
Macon Public Library... flat ia Sel eet atte -Macon, Ga. 
Madras Literary Society. adh heat ccttaidheu ta eels .....-Madras, India 
Maimonides Free Library......... eer re a New York City 
Maine State Library......... ek ean eer Augusta, Me. 
Manchester City Library........ Beis aa ai "Manchester, N. H. 
Manchester College........... 0.0000 e ee Oxford, England 


Manchester Free Reference Library (4 copies), 
Manchester, England 


Manchester Zionist Association...... Manchester, England 


Marietta College... 0.0.0... ee wee F ..Marietta, Ohio 
Maryland Historical Society.............. Baltimore, Md. 
Masonie Library Association............Des Moines, Iowa 
Meadville Theological School.............. Meadville, Pa. 
Melbourne Publie Library............ Melbourne, Australia 
Mereantile Library....... Aa tee Ew Wee te Ge St. Louis, Mo. 
Mercantile Library. .......... Biwi yada rch atic ce New York City 
Mercantile Library. ........ cece eee eaeeee Phiiadelphia, Pa. 
Meriden High School... ........ 2.000 eee ee Meriden, Conn. 
Metropolitan Museum of ‘Arte. ssceeceeeees New York City 
Michigan State library ee eee ee ... Lansing, Mich. 
Mickva Israel Sunday-School............. Savannah, Ga. 
Mildmayv Mission to Jews....... sate taeaeee London, England 
Milwaukee Public Library.............-. Milwaukee, Wis. 
Minneapolis Athenrum Library..... .. Minneapolis, Minn. 
Minnesota Historical Society, The......... St. Paul, Minn. 
Missionary College.............006- Dorchester, Eingland 
Mitchell Library. ............00000 000s Glasgow, Scotland 
Montelair Public Library. ..... ios erate eS Montclair, N. J. 
Montefiore Club... 2.0... ec ce eee ees ...Montreal, Canada 
Montefiore College, The. .............6 Ramsgate, England 
Montefiore Congregation... ...........000- Marshall, Tex. 
Montefiore: TIOME. 6. sua c a nrecis sw aden gad New York City 
Mudie’s Select Library.................London, England 
N 
Naples National Library.................5. Naples, Italy 
National Farm School...............000- Doylestown, Pa. 
National Library of Ireland................ Dublin, Ireland 
Nelson Public Library. ss ccactac ees eds Nelson, England 
Nevada State. LIDPary. co. sac6 03 wre’ aernee Carsou City, Nev. 
New Albany Publie Library ............ New Albany, Ind. 
Newberry Library, The...... B sctia ho Boa tah hie abn % Chicago, Ill. 


Newcastle Public Library. ...Neweastle-upon-T yne, England 
Neweastle-upon-Tyne Literary and Philosophical Society, 
Newcastle-upon-Tyne, England 


New CONCRE: 5 o<-34656 2608 14600 444.6 Iedinburgh, Scotland 
Newcomb College, H. Sophie......-..... New Orleans. La. 
New London Publie Library...........New London, Conn. 
New Rochelle Public Library..........New Rochelle, N.Y. 
Newton Pree-liirart. oe 26. fae 8 oe easy Gwe Newton, Mass. 
Newton Theological Institution. ..... Newton Center, Mass, 
New York Public Library (Astor, Lenox, and Tilden 
Foundations), The........-...+.-006- New York City 
New York State Library.............25005- Albany, N.Y. 


Norflollc Library sccclas 54 obo See eek eas Norfolk, Va. 


LIST OF PATRONS 


Norfolk and Norwich Library.... Norwich, England 


Normal University... .......0000 eee Las Vegas, Mex. 
Northampton Publie Library......... Northampton, Mass 
Norwich Free Library..........0.....-, Norwich, England 


Nottingham Central Free Public Library, 
Nottingham, England 


O 


Odessa Society of Jewish Clerks........... Odessa, Russia 
Ohavei Zion Society. 2.0.0... 00 ee eee “New York City 
Ohaway Zion Literary Association, The. ‘Minneapolis, Minn, 


Omaha Public Library..............--2-005- maha, Neb. 
Osterhout Free Library................ Wilkesbarre, Pa. 
Owens College Christie Library, The. .Manchester, England 
P 
Pacific Hebrew Orphan Asylum...... San Francisco, Cal. 
Padua, University of........... 0.020000 00- Padua, Italy 
Paris,. University 08 nico 3 ves wean isan ey Paris, France 
Peabody Institute... 0... 0. cee ec ee ee ee ee Baltimore, Md. 
POTN COMEHS ohics, coe U ees Ooh bed Gin ciaean gt eee S Oskaloosa, lowa 
Pennsylvania State College........... State College, Pa. 
Pennsylvania State Library.............. Harrisburg, Pa. 
Pensacola Library Association............ Pensaco'a, Fla. 
People’s Institute... 2... ee ee ees New York City 
Peoria Publie Library............0. 0.000000 Peoria, Ili. 
Plainfield Public Library................ Plainfield, N. 
Plant Memorial Hebrew Free School, The..Newark N. af 
Plymouth Free Public Library........ Plymouth, England 
Portland library Association.............. Portland, Ore. 
Pratt Institute Free Library.............. Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Presbyterian College... 0.0.0.0... 00. c eee eee Halifax, N.S. 
Pretoria Zionist Library......... .Pretoria, So. Africa 
Princeton Theological Seminary.......... Princeton, N. J. 
Princeton University... ......-c cece eee Princeton, N. J. 
Progress Clubs... « ¢0e. aw ce ks ee be Bade eos New York City 
Progress. OW eine dw Geta bee eha’ Philadelphia, Pa. 
Protestant Episcopal Divinity School..... Philadelphia, Pa. 
Providence Public Library............065 Providence, R. I, 
Publie Library and Reading Room....... Bridgeport, Conn. 
ete Q 
Queen’s University. .... ree a we ce inte Kingston, Canada 
R 

Radcliffe College............. hegre Sener Cambridge, Mass. 
Reading Publie Library.............. Reading, England 
Reale Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale......... Florence, Italy 
Reform Club, The..................06. London, England 


Religious Schoo! of Ohib Sholim Conereeavon, 
Baltimore, Md. 


Religious School Temple Beth Israel.. ..Portland, Ore. 


Religious Schoo! Temple Emanu-El......... New York City 
Residence Library University Settlement...New York City 
FREMHOMIS: (LADISEY Co 35S. 5st. ce ee aes Rochester, N. Y. 


Riggs Library, Georgetown University. .Washington, D. C, 
Rochester Theological Seminary Library. . Rochester, N. Y. 
RoekiOra Puli LATEST ool d eo fe see ee es Rockford, Hl. 
Rodef Sholem Congregation Sabbath-School, 

Youngstown, Ohio 


Rodeph-Shalom Congregation............ Philadelphia, Pa. 
Rosenberg Library........ da Wig eed ele eee Galveston, Tex. 
Rosenwald Lodge No. 545............05 Las Vegas, N. Mex. 
Rostock, University of............... Rostock, Germany 
Royal and University Library Re eee Breslau, Germany 
Royal Danish Academy of Sciences. Copenhagen, Denmark 
Royal Dublin Society ........... 0.000.000 Dublin, Ireland 
Roval Mibraryinss os atin eee id eset ees Berlin, Germany 
Roval Library .........-. Pee tre ee a Munich, Germany 
ROVAl Dibtary: os 4cees west be eee ee 42.5 The Hague, Holland 
Royal Library.... 2.0.0. c cece ee ee eee Stockholm, Sweden 
Royal Library of el Bare eae ace ee Brussels, Belgium 
HOVE] UNIVersily bese w eee Sh 6 SSP egies Berlin, Germany 
Royal: University s..<0624 Seu ace loin Dek es Ghent, Belgium 
Royal University.........--2.000005- Gottingen, Germany 
Roval University vscce cclacaean hee ewan au Halle, Germany 
Roval-University 2c.ces eek oo cae e aes % Upsala Sweden 


Sabbath-School Congregation Temple Israel. Jonesboro, Ark. 
Sabbath-School Indianapolis Hebrew Congregation, 


Indianapolis, x nd. 
Sage Library, Gardner A.............New Brunswick, N 
St. Agnes Free Library...........006- ..... New York ‘City 
St. Andrew’s College Library...........005 To ronto, Ontario 
St. Andrew’s, University of. ........ St. Andrew’s, Scotland 
St. Deiniol's Library Tia ORUN 6. 5 Gis Sas Hawarden, England 
St. Louis Public Library........ tetera te ane ...5t. Louis, Mo. 
Sto Tormits nr yrereies on auectees dca eee bas St. Louis, Mo. 
St. Michael’s Passionist Monastery. hee Hoboken, N. ds 
St. Patrick’s College........... ses .. Maynooth, Irelan 
St. Paul’s Cathedral bP 52) 28 oy re London, Brees 
St. Paul Publié Library. cs tAcd oc ce cece es St. Paul, Minn. 
San Franeiseo Public Library.......... San Francisco, Cal. 
Scranton Publie Library. ic.c.. cc. cee eee Seranton, Pa. 
Seattle Publie Library..........0.004¢02 2008 Seattle, Wash. 
Signet Library. ........e.0eeceeeceees ane oe Scotland 


Sir Montefiore Association. ......... Cincinnati, Ohio 


LIST OF PATRONS xii 


a Sg ee ee ee 


kinner Library, The Mark.............Mlanchester, N. II. 
Smith College, The Philander............. Little Rock, Arx, 
Smithsonian Institution, U. 8. National Museum 

Washington, D.C, 
Society for Promoting Christianity Among Jews, 
Dublin, Ireland 


Society of Antiquaries..........0.0000ee- London, England 
Society of Biblical Archmology............ London, England 
Soviet vy Library ssn 2e6 ewe t ete siek eins New York City 
Somerville Public Library .........0.0045 Somerville, Mass. 
Southern Baptist Theological Seminary..... Louisville, Ky. 
Spokane City Library............000-005: Spokane, Wash. 
Stancdard< lubis-s.4 Gases Shaw eh te ees Uniontown, Pa. 
Statedibtar 2s cock pu ak eee ta ee ae gs Boston, Mass. 
State: Dibrat yg a hee ee ke Ske NS a et Raleigh, N. C. 
State Universtly. ioc tsds deca ewaaneed Leyden, Holland 


Stockholm Society of Jewish Literature. .Stockholm, Sweden 
Stoneyhurst College....................Blackburn, England 
Strasburg, University of............... Strasburg, Germany 
Stuttgart Kgl. Israel, Oberkirchenbehorde 
Stuttgart, Germany 
Sunday-Schoo! Board, Congregation B’nai Yeshurun, 
Des Moines, Iowa 


Swarthmore College Library.............. Swarthmore, Pa. 
Synagogengemeinde zu Breslau.......... Breslau, Germany 
Syracuse Publie Library...........02.000: Syracuse, N. Y. 
T 
Tacoma Publie Library..............0002- Tacoma, Wash. 
Tate Central Librarv............0-ee02% London, England 
Temple Emanu-El Sabbath-School......... New York City 
Temple Beth-El Sabbath-School............ Detroit, Mich. 
Temple Emanu-El Sabbath School......... New York City 


Temple Emanu-El Sunday-School Library Spokane, Wash. 
Temple Emanu-E! Sunday-School Library Milwaukee, Wis. 
Temple Emanu-El Sunday-School Library_ Milwaukee, Wis. 
Temple EFmanu-E] Sunday-School Library Birmingham, Ala. 


Temple Israel East Side School............ New York City 
Temple Israel Sabbath-School..............St. Louis, Mo. 
Témple Mibrarys cs Woes as ee ee ee ee Norfolk, Va. 
Temple Library, The...............--.-005 Cleveland, Ohio 
Temple Sinai Congregation.............. New Orleans, La. 


Terre Haute Section Council of Jewish Women, 
Terre Haute, Ind. 
Bala, ales 


_ United States... 0... eee ee eee eee Lancaster, Pa, 
Tiphereth Zion Society. ......+. ee eee eee eee Pittsburg, Pa. 
Toledo Public Library. .....-0-..eeee2 ee eee Toledo, Ohio. 
Toronto Public Library.................Toronto, Canada 
Traverse Public City Library.......... Traverse City, Mich. 
Trefecca College... 0. cc ccc ee eee eee eee Talgarth, Wales 
Trimty Colletsi.s 6440 ok bie hse e eas Cambridge, England 
Trinity COUCEE vi. scons + hee bats oe SS ae Dublin, Ireland 


Tulane University. ....... 0000s e eee eee New Orleans, La. 
Turin National Library..........-+-e0008 -....Turin, Italy 


C 

Union Theological Seminary............... New York City 
Unitarian Home Missionary College....Manchester, Englan 

United Hebrew Charities... 2.0. ..... 0000065 New York City 
University of California (Semitic)............ Berkeley, Cal. 
University of Chicago Press, The.............. Chicago, 1]. 
University Hall... 0.0... eee eee eee: London, England 
University of Kansas. = ...Lawrence, Kan. 


are: yden, Netherlands 
o...+.a04.UuUrham, England 
; ...-Ann Arbor, Mich, 


University of Leyden.......... 
University Library......... 
University of Michigan....... 


University of Pennsylvania, The.......... Philadelphia, Pa. 
University of Rostock, The..............Rostock, Germany 
University of Toronto Library............ Toronto, Canada 
University of Wisconsin. ..........0 eee eee Madison, Wis. 
Utica Publie Library... . 02.000. s.seeneetiown Utica, Ne Y, 
Utrecht, University of............-00002 ee Utrecht, Holland 
V 
Vanderbilt University.........00eseeeeees Nashville, Tenn. 
Vassar College: 2.4 sseanda cae nee oes Poughkeepsie, N. Y. 
Vatican Library ¢ oie aa eek dae tea ees Re Rome, Italy 
Vine Street Temple Sabbath-School....... Nashville, Tenn. 
WwW 
Washington and Jefferson College.......... Washington, Pa. 
Washington Publie Library............ Washington, D. C. 
Wellesley College... 0... cee we eee Wellesley, Mass. 
Wells College Library... ...... ccc cece eee eens Aurora, N. Y 
Wesleyan University Library........... Middletown, Conn. 


Western Reserve University (College for Women), 
Cleveland, Qhio 


Western Theological Seminary..........--. Allegheny, Pa. 
Westminster College... ...... eee eee Cambridge, England 
Wheeling Public Library.......-....... Wheeling, W. Va. 
William’s Library ,Dr._.......-.2---2 eee ee London, England 
Wilmington Institute Free Library........ Wilmington, Del. 
Wolf Lodge, Simon, ].O. B. B. ...........- Savannah, Ga. 


Wurttemberg, University of ........... Tubingen, Germany 
Y 
Yale University........ 0.20 +- esse eeeeee New Ilaven, Conn. 
Yonkers Public Library....... 00sec ee eens Yonkers, N. Y. 
Young Hebrew Zionists.........+006- .....Syracuse N.Y. 
Young Men’s Gymnastic Club............ New Orleans, La. 
Young Men’s Hebrew Association... ......6-. Atlanta, Ga. 
Young Men’s Hebrew Association........... Bradford, Pa. 
Young Men’s Hebrew Association......... Memphis, Tenn. 
Young Men’s Hebrew Association ........ New Orleens, La. 
Young Men’s Hebrew Association.......... New York City 
Young Men’s Hebrew Association......... Philadelphia, Pa. 
Young Men’s Hebrew Association .......-. Wilmington. De) 
Young Zionists of St. Paul........ seeee. ee St. Paul, Minn. 
Z 
Zion Library...... 2c eee eee eee eens New Haven, Conn. 
Zion Society of Rochester. ......--+e5 ...kRochester, N. Y. 


SUPPLEMENTARY LIST, UNITED STATES. 


A 
Aronson, Mayr.......- eee c ees c ener eerece Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Ascherman, T. BE... ee ccc ee ee eee ee ttes Chicago, Til. 
Auerbach, Louis,.... 00. e eee e ee twee ences New York City 
B 

Balleisen, Wolf. ......2sccceccnseteesen Brooklyn, N, Y. 
Baskin, Julius......... 00 eee ee ee cee enene New York City 
Beard, Newman.......-+.ee reece eeeees Philadelphia, Pa. 
Beatman, William. ..........- eee eee ee ees Hartford, Conn. 
Benjamin, A., M.D.... 0... eee ee eee ee eee ..Newport, Ky. 
Bergman, A...... 0 sce ee eee eet ees Philadelphia, Pa. 
Bergman, Morris.......... c++ essere ereee Brooklyn, N._ 

Berkowitz, Isaac... 1... cee eee eee eee New York City 
Berkowitz, Max... 2... cece eee cere eeees New York City 
Berkowitz. Samuel... 2... 0.0 ee ee ee ee eee New York City 
Berman, Max DD... 1... cee eee eee Hartford, Conn. 
Bisgeier, Jacob... 1... eee eee eee eens New York City 
Bleichrode, J. B. 1.2... eee eee eens New York City 
Bloom, David... bi ebb CEES Ped See NEW York City 
Bookstader, Peyser.. 2... eee ee eee eee eee New York City 
Brandstein, Herman I..........------ Bensonhurst, N. Y¥. 
Brown, Louis... 6... ee eens Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Buegeleisen, H. D... 1.1... eee eer eres Brooklyn, N. Y. 

C 
Cahn, Louis DD... ccc ee ee eee ees New York City 
Catholic University of America,....... Washington, D. C. 
Cohen, Adolph... .. ce ee tee ee eens New York City 
Cony, Rudolph... ... eee eee reece eee e eres Chicago, Il. 
D 

Deschamps, J. M.... eee rere eeee pein Sates Anamosa, Jowa 
DeSola, Moses... ....cc cere eee eens Curacao. D, W._I. 
Dombek, Samuel. ....... cee cece ee eeeres Brooklyn, N. Y. 


Drucker, Ephraim......-.. Beith Sed is es fat oo New York City 


iD 
Earl, Jr., George H.. 1... cee eee eee Bryn Mawr, Pa. 
Bisenstaedt, A. Lew... ce ee eee Mt. Vernon, N. Y. 
Ellner, Saul oc. vce cosas Cee hoe Pe ee New York City 
Plsass, “Otto ca estea cd eaw ged ase Sere ee Bet New York City 
F 
Faggen, Solomon....... see ceeeeecenes Philadelphia, Pa. 
Parbish, Max Py 440i ace aeou 80s oo ears aes New York City 
Fitz Public Library...........0¢ ce eee eeeee Chelsea, Mass. 
Fleischman, Samuel...........0+ eee cee ees New York City 
Fowler, Bishop C. H........ cece ee ee eee New York City 
Freiberger, David. ..........-.00000+0++-New York City 
Freid) 1sig0ine vie fies ee oe aa we eae es New York City 
Preilanden): Maxis aia dae dee Rab a8 98S Re Shs Hazelton, Pa. 
G 
Glazer, Samuel... 6s sescwe iva nwa we Mewes Hartford, Conn. 
Glotzer: Sainueldecs 445 0340si atone ee as Hartford, Conn. 
Goldberg, Hiram... .....-cs cee cece ees Philadelphia. Pa. 
Goldberg, Michael.... 0.0.0... .0 0 eee ee eee Hartford, Conn. 
Goldin: Ths eas ca0 6) ea ore ed 124 ee PS New York City 
Cioldén, Maxie) 66 26d Se eee eee a sae Philadelphia. Pa. 
Goldman, Selig. < ..¢ sae eb awe ORs So aes Worcester, Mass. 
Goldschmidt, Herman E..... 2... 2. eee ee New York City 
Goodman, . MaX 6 sens sis 06649 20445 eens Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Gottfried, Harry..........000+e eee eee NOW York City 
Gouled) Peters oi cess hbo es Cheb Ree ae New York City 
Greenberg, Rev. D..... 0 ee cece eens New York City 
Greenhoot, A. A.... op SABRE We Wade eer New York City 
Guggenheimer, Sig, 8.2.60 2 wesc cere e eee New York City 
H 
Hamburger, B....... ee cee ener e ee eens New York City 
Heilprin, William Aw... .. ee eee ee eee New York City 
Heineman, Rebecca........eceeeeeeeee es NeW York City 


xlii LIST OF PATRONS. 


Henriques, Edward. ........00-2 cece eeee Brooklyn, N. Y. 
ee eer ee ree ee eee ee eee Terre Haute, Ind. 
Hirsch, Isaac L., M.D...... 0.00 eee ees New York City 
Hirschhorn, Lewis... 0.0... c eee cece e ees Cincinnati, Ohio 
Holloway, Rev. HE. SS... cece cece ee eee New York City 
I 
Tmmercut, sss os ee te dA eed ee as New York City 
Indiana State Normal School........... Terre Haute, Ind. 
Jsaaes, Isidor Ricci csc see 8944.64. 5A Swe S ee es New York City 
J 
Jones, Iosviasatid Vier etter eetad eels Nashville, Tenn. 
Joseph, Tryine Wi sie es eda ek whee ee Ree New York City 
Joseplhi, LOWS ics sueewed et eude Gene New York City 
K 
FASS G Mis Sorter eee wy ales, ee erage taro ales Hoboken, N. J. 
Fie cite EG tee oe Ae wane ace. We a are Cleveland, Ohio 
Katz, Michael, M.D...................08- New York City 
JKaufmann, Nathan.......... 0.0.0.0 02 eee Toledo, Ohio 
Trecsler, Dla Niag.2 285 privet eure wa ha teeee Maes New York City 
WISE, TRG 2 peo Soa. ae Pekar O See New York City 
TWleing A Golplix oe 22. 6s. vact co ae S Se ee wlan Los Angeles, Cal. 
WAGES COD 6 yee ss Rs Boe RS ees New York City 
Ixone, Samuel C...........00005 Sarivacnas Hartford, Conn. 
Keppleman, H. P............204- gees rate Hartford, Conn, 
Krause, Mermanide eds ea a ehw ses eee Ses New York City 
Iyrause, Louis......... ieee ehcia wie a eke aiate New York City 
L 
banda, Maur C6tcc5. 45 S54 ohne ce Pewee Se New York City 
Langer, Samuel... .... cence eee cect eenee New York City 
Letkowitaliacaauv5ac6ks chance eee ceeds New York City 
Lehman, Charles... ....-.- eee ee ce eeerees New York City 
Levig Migs Ualev24-cs kbwae ooh Oat 6 aes Buses Oil City, Pa 
LE@Viny DOLIS ci dessets acateew Sse th eas alee SS Philadelphia, Pa. 
Levine, Charles: < sig4c cvs sides ace ciwkcad New York City 
Levine, Joseph Rice sec ccc eee cece ees Brooklyn, N, Y. 
Levy, BEM ait sa 52 coe 0 2c esa oa eee Owe New York City 
Levy DAViS Or eatin iat ete ees cee Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Levy. TA. Pin eck eee es be oeeeg ease ke erin Hartford, Conn. 
Levy, Israel N.. 22... eee ees be trance kes New York City 
Levy, Julius...... he'd spent acevece a tehseate een a Brooklyn, N, Y. 
Levy, bOuis’.ciacu nett exw chee Qin dene New York City 
Lewy Arthurs 2 ole Cees ers aes eS New York City 
Lichter, Abraham....... cee cece ee eee ee New York City 
Teer Max: 224226067 % ek wae ae ee Philadelphia, Pa. 
Lindheim, Reuben... ......-.0ee ee weer eres New York City 
Lippman, Samiuel... 4 osc esse eee oes New York City 
Loewith, Sigmund......... cece eee eens Bridgeport, Conn. 
M 
Mandel: ‘Chas Ticedecu lic we tae ceey hve Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Marin, Simmonds. os essa chest bee sade eee ns New York City 
Marcuse; Ales J oc sa 4 se ecewia a nee Oia See New York City 
Maurgolies, Hyman S............000--00- Philadelphia, Pa. 
Marks. Henry <sice ns ewer ees Bau Rice e wees Pittsburg, Pa. 
Marx: Prof: Alex sic i. hte a wasn Packed aw New York City 
Mayer. Max Ths.c ss Seca aid anus U.a.2 bs ola Brooklyn, N.Y. 
Maver« Paul csev2es cesses desis ees Geo es New York City 
EEE poy e INS sets ce acetone tyoal Sue cealae ay baal wee AE eee es Toronto, Can. 
Miller, Michael... 0... ee ee ee ee eee Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Miller,“ SidneV PE yesh oes ewee yee ean sees Brooklyn, N. Y. 
NOSS, TSGAG.4sn5420 s Reh eaa Se ea Hem eels Bridgeport, Conn. 
N 
Nathan, -Marvins .6.c.4-66.06 s449 65048 os Philadelphia, Pa. 
Naumburg. Elkan..................200005 New York City 
Newman, Serenus L., M.D..........200 00s New York City 
O 
Offen, Morris.......... phe eles Greve edvetatece 3 Philadelphia, Pa. 
Ortleff, Rev. EK. E............. Cie Cis Greenville, Ohio 
P S 
Parsell, Henry V. A.......... bieta ehe dt Seate treet New York City 
Peikes, Deis cata. 6 6.9 e0 hara wa, eee oo bis ORT New York City 


Perlo, Samuel s.cacisaeiessid dees dan dwawk New York City 
Polstein;. [saad ccecaisa cat wise 4G acaio- geal Noes eek New York City 
Pormerant 7. Mak c'cio.o5 6s ainld silanes ka SES Philadelphia, Pa. 
PQEIS Teo ui ete igedeet st Age See ae SER Re Hartford, Conn. 
Pritz, Cathic os.4 0% « o< ts % Sid ace bkece cae aisha 9 Cincinnati, Ohio 
R 
Rickman, Samuel J...... SG ote ods aes Hartford, Conn. 
Rod, Barnet W...... cc ce cc cc ccc ee New York City 
ROS, LOUIS S 6's bce ehoie wns i hae ene New York City 
ROSON, FBS osetia aan ne Salo werek oun Hartford, Conn. 
Rosenbaum, MM... 2.0... 0. cc ccc ee eee eee Bonham, Tex. 
Rosenblatt, C.F ig secc5 25 ae 43 eeaussy Mado ue doen New York City 
ROSCNtHA) Se Di ce eae eos hled Oh ee Se dnc hake New York City 
Roth, Dr: Hermans o:5 ss ese s 84600 6S beak es New York City 
1 Soe «age © Ree e eon a er ne er tate ee nt as rane ne Entra -, New York City 
Rothstein, Sam.............. Se ee ee New York City 
GRUDOVICS, LOD vee AW ota di Ses hae ey ae ee Chicago, Il. 
NS) 
SaOwWsky, Wi. o2s60 04 0sasewee he ee edees New York City 
Salamon, William............0ccec ee eeeee New York City 
Bamuels. Te. Swen oesceaiese gore y we aveeaes Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Sapolsky ADL 6566 a he ed Ba waa co db dow ahs New York City 
Sarfaty, Joseph............... re New York City 
Schlager, Simon... ..... 0... cee eee ce eee New York City 
lc UTS) LEN Gy ed 0c 0a er a New York City 
Sehoenbanni MS... 6c ea eee cece ae eeu New York City 
SCUMILGEE, WV Ola ls hei cake eee bee bac b awe s New York City 
PSG Aig ES IPLED scale sso aoe ko bw dw ae 8 ob es aw Worcester, Mass. 
GWA ER ROOM og 6 ok keeles eu sie ere we eee wa Philadelphia, Pa. 
Schwartz, Michael... .......... ccc eevee New York City 
DEideman;-AGGDY Do. cesses wean Philadelphia, Pa. 
peidenberg, Henry C.. 20... ce cee es Brooklyn, N. Y. 
ele, arth ICOWis. . 0... es kee ee ee eee ha New York City 
PS Nig I Sse i'n ae Sih a a asin ee land a RBs Brooklyn, N.Y. 
PSR MOOT Ma Siete ax = 5S ellee aced dope WES New York City 
rolog: Aye joe) E18" le na ra rh a Brooklyn, N.Y. 
phedinsky, Marris. isc 4 sve a se oceSe ceed dee New York City 
Siegfried, Reuben............20 cece eee nee New York City 
BIVer.W Olfis inna anv a ctert aaa ane eae New Haven, Conn. 
Simons, (Bo Berry. 4.656 in wae ee ee eas he ee New York City 
KO. PMD et tet eeeeace a Sa sus ae mace aes Evansville, Ind. 
Slater, Josep ose 5 sitew te eign Shee PR we aha New York City 
lon ts IsOUIS dies trek aie coe tbe cane eno we ked New York City 
Solomon, J. Foo... ccc cece esse ese sesees es sNew York City 
Souweine, Adolphe....... cece cece eee ees New York City 
Spicehandler, Chas..........02.0cceee cues New York City 
Stearns, Wallace N........c ee eee ees Grand Forks, N. D. 
Steinhaus, Isaac...... cee ee eee eee eee New York City 
POLO T UNL PSs: Daa % aaine tae dre we uel ev ndaee a oe Gee dak New York City 
Stratics: Annie) wis saise sad paw une adanes New York City 
Strauss, SaAMuUel:. oo swe oes wee ge 64 we ae Bae Danville, Ind. 
lyst MP ooh ae 84 aca now th ae ae wR Howe as Hartford, Conn. 
T 
Sera ya Lies LFS eulgsd cca ede oak whee. cand aah eae Brooklyn, N. Y. 
Putts: Come@e ac gers os aseiard 8 eS se we eee Tufts College, Mass. 
U 
Ullman, Jacob B..... cc eee ee eee New Haven, Conn. 
University ChiD eiccine ee oe caw bs Ge es Philadelphia, Pa. 
WwW 
Webster, Mrs. Myer BS... .. eee ccc ees New York City 
W Gist ati: Mag ten awed w& sidan ee avdennd br etie Gw Farwell, Mich. 
Werner, Samuel..... 0.0.0 ccc ce cece eee eeee New York City 
White; AUP UStAsS 45 6 eacd baaarwierac eared Seo Brookline, Mass. 
Wilhamson; Ms 6 c4s5eM swe eedeeeetdans New York City 
Wolf, Abraham.......... ee eee cece eee ees New York City 
Wolf, Lillie. ............ pnd lag TW odin the! Mae att New York City 
Wolfman, Philip.............00. Reentee ye New York City 
Z 
Zucker, Dr. Morris..........e00- ise saree New York City 
ZDweighalt, S..ccsvccccscccsvecscaves woeeeNew York City