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About Google Book Search Google’s mission is to organize the world’s information and to make it universally accessible and useful. Google Book Search helps readers discover the world’s books while helping authors and publishers reach new audiences. You can search through the full text of this book on the web atthtto: //books.gqoogle.com/ THE Jewish Encyclopedia A DESCRIPTIVE RECORD OF THE HISTORY, RELIGION, LITERATURE, AND CUS- TOMS OF THE JEWISH PEOPLE FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESENT DAY Prepared by More than Four Hundred Scholars and Specialists UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE FOLLOWING EDITORIAL BOARD Cyrus ADLER, PH.D. (Departments of Post- Biblical Antiquities , the Jews of America). GoTTHARD DeEuTSCH, PH.D. (Defartment of History from 1492 t? 1903) Louis GINZBERG, PH.D. (Department of Radb- éinical Literature). RICHARD GOTTHEIL, PH.D. (Departments of History from Esra to 1492; Llistory of Post- Talmudic Literature). EMIL G. Hirscu, PH.D., LL.D. (Department of the Bible). ISAAC K, FUNK, D.D., LL.D, Chairman of the Board JosEpH Jacoss, B.A. (Departments cf the Jews of England and Anthropology; Revising Editor). KAUFMANN KouHLER, PH.D. (Departments of Theology and Philosophy). HERMAN ROSENTHAL (Defartment of the Jews of Russia and Poland ). SOLOMON SCHECHTER, M.A., LiTr.D. (Defart- ment of the Talmud). IstpORE SINGER, Pu.D. (Department of Modern Biography from 1750 (0 1903}. CRAWFORD H. Tov, D.D., LL.D. (Departments of Hebrew Philolozy and Hellenistic Literature). FRANK H. VIZETELLY, F.S.A. Secretary of the Board WILLIAM PopprerR, M.A., PH.D. Associate Revising Editor ; Chief of the Bureau of Translation ISIDORE SINGER, Ph.D. Projector and Managing Editor ASSISTED BY AMERICAN AND FOREIGN BOARDS OF CONSULTING EDITORS COMPLETE IN TWELVE VOLUMES EMBELLISHED WITH MORE THAN TWO THOUSAND ILLUSTRATIONS FUNK AND WAGNALLS COMPANY NEW YORK AND LONDON Hosted by Google Hosted by Google The Jewish Eneyclopedia. Vol. If (From ‘*‘The World’s Work.’* Copyright. 1901, Doubleday, Page & Co.) Photograph by Mandelkern, BAR MIZWAH RECITING HIS PORTION OF THE LAW Hosted by Google Hosted by Google THE Jewish Encyclopedia A DESCRIPTIVE RECORD OF THE HISTORY, RELIGION, TOMS OF THE JEWISH LITERATURE, AND CUS- PEOPLE FROM THE KARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESENT DAY Prepared by More than Six Hundred Scholars and Specialists UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE FOLLOWING EDITORIAL BOARD Cyrus ADLER, PH.D. (Departments of Post- Biblical Antiquities ; the Jews of America). WILHELM BACHER, PH.D. (Departments of the Talmud and Rabbinical Literature). GOTTHARD DEutTscH, Pu.D. (Department ef fistory from 1492 to 1906). RICHARD GOTTHEIL, PH.D. (Departments of Listory from Esra to 1492; SfTistory of Post- Talmudic Literature). Emit G. Hirscu, Pu.D., LL.D. (Department of the Bible). ISAAC K, FUNK, D.D., LL.D. Chairman of the Board JosErpH Jacoss, B.A. (Departments of the Jews of Englandand Anthropology; Revising Editor). IKAUFMANN JKKOHLER, PH.D. Theology and Philosophy). (Depariments of IIERMAN RoseNnrHar (Department of the Jews of Russit and Poland ). IstIpoRE SINGER, Pu.D. (Department of Alodern Biography fron 1750 to 1906). CrawForD H. Toy, D.D., LL.D. (Departments of Hebrew Philology and Hellenistic Literature). FRANK I. VIZETELLY, F.S.A. Secretary cf the Board WILLIAM Popper, M.A., PH.D. Associate Revising Editor ; Chief of the Bureau of Translation ISIDORE SINGER, Ph.D. Projector and Managing Editor ASSISTED BY AMERICAN AND FOREIGN BOARDS OF CONSULTING EDITGRS VOLUME II APOCRY PHA—BENASH ES D WAGNALLS COMPANY FUNK AN NEW YORK AND LONDON COPYRIGHT, 1902, 1909, I9I2, BY FUNK & WAGNALLS COMPANY All rights of translation reserved Registered at Stationers’ Hall, Londen, England iPrinted in the United States of Americal LITERARY DIRECTORATE EDITORIAL BOARD CYRUS ADLER, Ph.D. upe partments Of Post-Biblical Antiquities and the Jews of America.) president of the American Jewish Historical Society 3 rian, Smithsonian Institution. Washington, D.C. GOTTHARD DEUTSCH, Ph.D. (Departinent of listory From L497 to 1902.) Professor of Jewish History, Hebrew Chion College, Cincinnati, Ohio; Editor of ** Deborah.” LOUIS GINZBERG, Ph.D. (Department of Rabbinical Literature.) New York; Author of “Die Haggada bei den Kirchenvatern.” RICHARD GOTTHEIL, Ph.D. (Departments of History from hzra to 1492 and History of Post-Talmudie Literature.) professor of Semitic Languages, Columbia University, New York; Chief of the Oriental Department, New York Public Library ; President of the Federation of American Zionists. JOSEPH JACOES, B.A. (Departments of the Jers of England aiut Anthropology > Revising Nditer.) Formerly President of the Jewish Historical Society of England } Author of “Jews of Angevin England,” ete. MARCUS JASTROW, Ph.D. (Departinent of the Tabnuct) Rabbi Emeritus of the Congregation Rodef Shalom, Philadel- phia, Pa.; Author of “* Dictionary of the Talmud.” MORRIS JASTROW, Jr., Ph.D. (Department of the Bible.) Professcr of Semitic Languages and Librarian in the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.; Author of ** Relig- jon of the Babylonians and Assyrians,’’ etc. ibras KAUFMANN KOHLER, Ph.D. (Depurtinenis of Theology and Philosophy.) Rabbi of Temple Beth-Fl, New York; President of the Bear. of Jewish Ministers, New York. FREDERICK DE SOLA MENDES, Ph.D. (Chief of the Bureau of Translation; Revising Editor.) Rabbi of the West End Synagogue, New York: Author of **Out lines of Bible History,” ** Child’s First Bible,” ete. HERMAN ROSENTHAL. (Department of the Jews of Russia and Poland.) Chief of the Slavonic Department, New York Library. ISIDORE SINGER, Ph.D. MANAGING EDITOR. (Departinent of Modern Biography from 1750 to 1902.) CRAWFORD HOWELL TOY, D.D., LL.D (Departincuts of Hebrew Philology and ITelenistic Literature.) Professor of Hebrew in Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.. Author cf * The Religion of Jsraei,”’ “* Judaism and Christianity,” ete. I. K. FUNK, D.D., LL.D. (Chairman of the Board.) Editor-in-Chief of the STANDARD DICTIONARY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE, ete. FRANK H. VIZETELLY. (Neeretary of the Boar.) Associate Editor of “ The Columbian Encvelopedia,” ané on “ne STANDARD DICTIONARY Editorial Staff, ete. AMERICAN BOARD OF CONSULTING EDITORS BERNARD DRACHMAN, Ph.D., Rabbi of the Congregation Zichron Ephraim, Dean of the Jewish Theological Seminary, New York. B. FELSENTHAL, Ph.D., Rabbi Emeritus of Zion Congregation, Chicago ; Author of “A Practical Grammar of the Hebrew Language.” GUSTAV GOTTHEIL, Ph.D., Rabbi Emeritus of Temple Emannu-Fl, New York. EMIL G. HIRSCH, Ph.D., LL.D., Rabbi of Chicago Sinai Congregation, Chicago, IL; Professor of Rabbinical Literature and Philosophy, University of Chicago; Editor of the ** Reform Advoeate.” HENRY HYVERNAT, D.D., Head of the Department of Semitic and Egyptian Literatures, Catholie University of America, Washington, D.C. J. FREDERIC McCURDY, Ph.D., LL.I.. Professor of Oriental Languages, Chiversity College, Toronts, Canada; Author of ** History, Prophecy, and the Monuments.” H. PEREIRA MENDES, M.D., Rabbi of the Shearith Israel Congregation (Spanish and Portv- guese), New York; President of the Board of Jewish Ministers, New York. MOSES MIELZINER, Ph.D., D.D., President of the Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati, Ohio: Au. thor of ** Introduction to the Tahnud.”’ GEORGE F. MOORE, M.A., D.D., Professor of Biblical Literature and the History of Religions in Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.; Author of ‘**A Commentary on the Book of Judges,”’ ete. DAVID PHILIPSON, D.D., Rabbi of the Congregation Bene Israel; Professor of Homiletics, Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati, Ohio; President of Hebrew Sabbath School Union of America. IRA MAURICE PRICE, B.D., Ph.D., Professor of Semitic Languages and Literatures, University of Chicago, Il].; Author of ‘* The Monuments and the Old Testament,” ete. LITERARY DIRECTORATE SOLOMON SCHECHTER, M.A., Litt.D., President of the Faculty of the Jewish Theological Seminary o¢ America, New York; Author of ‘* Studies in Judaism.’ JOSEPH SILVERMAN, D.D., President of Central Conference of American Rabbis: Rabbi of Temple Emanu-E], New York. JACOB VOORSANGER, D.D., Rabbi of the Congregation Emanu-El, San Francisco, Cal.; Pro. fessor of Semitic Languages and Literatures, Uni- versity of California, Berkeley, Cal. EDWARD J. WHEELER, M.A., - Editor of * The Literary Digest,’’ New York; Author of ** Stories in Rhyme,” ete. FOREIGN BOARD OF CONSULTING EDITORS ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A., Coeditor of ** The Jewish Quarterly Review "; Author of ‘t Jew- ish Life in the Middle Ages,” etc.; Reader of Rabbinie, Cambridge University, England. W. BACHER, Ph.D., Professor in the Jewish Theological Seminary, Budapest, Hungary. M. BRANN, Ph.D., Professor in the Jewish Theological Seminary, Breslau, Ger- many; Editor of ‘*‘ Monatsschrift fiir Geschichte und Wissenschaft des Judenthums.” H. BRODY, Ph.D., Rabbi, Nacbod, Bohemia, Austria: Cocditor of ** Zeitschrift fiir Hebriische Bibliographie.” ABRAHAM DANON, Principal of the Jewish Fleological Seminary, Constantinople, Turkey. HARTWIG DERENEBOURG, Ph.D., Professor of Literary Arabie at the special School of Oriental Languages, Paris ; Member of the Institut de France, S. M. DUBNOW, be = Author of * isturiya Yevreyev,”” Gdessa, Russia. MICHAEL FRIEDLANDER, Ph.D., Principal of Jews’ College, London, England; Author of “The Jewish Religion,” ete. IGNAZ GOLDZIHER, Ph.D., Professur of Semitic Philology, University of Budapest, Hungury. M. GUDEMANN, Ph.D., Chief Rabbi of Viena, Austria. BARON DAVID GUNZBURG, St. Petersburg, Russia. A. HARKAVY, Ph.D., Chief of the Hebrew Departinent of the Imperial Publie Library, St. Petersburg, Russia. ZADOC KAHN, Chief Rabbi of France; Honorary President of the Alliance Israélite Universelle; Officer of the Legion of Honor, Paris, France. M. KAYSERLING, Ph.D., Rabbi, Budapest, Hungary; Corresponding Member of the Royal Academy of History, Madrid, Spain. MORITZ LAZARUS, Ph.D., Professor Emeritus of Psychology, University of Berlin; Meran. Austria. ANATOLE LEROY-BEAULIEU, Member of the French Institute; Professor at the Free School of Political Science, Paris, France; Autbor of ** Israél chez les Nations.”’ ISRAEL LEVI, Professor in the Jewish Theological Seminary ; Editor of * Reyue des Etudes Juives.”* Paris, Franee. EUDE LOLLUI, D.D., Chief Rabbi of Padua; Professor of Hebrew ut the University, Padua, Italy. IMMANUEL LOW, Ph.D., Chief Rabbi of Szewedin, Fiingary ; Author of Die Aramaischen Pilanzennamep.” S. H. MARGULIES, Ph.D., Principal of tie Jewish Theological Seminary; Chief Rabbi of | Florence, Italy. H. OORT, D.D., Professor of Hebrew Language an: Archeology at the State University, Leyden, Holland. ABBE PIETRO PERREAU, Formerly Librarian of tue Reale BPillioteca Palatina, Parma, "taly. MARTIN PHILIPPSON, Pnu.D., Formerly Professor of History at the Universities of Bonn and Brussels ; President of the Deutsch-Jtidische Gemeindebund, Berlin, Germany. SAMUEL POZNANSKI, Ph.D., Rabbi in Warsaw, fussia. E. SCHWARZFELD, UL.D., Secretary-General of the Jewish Colonization Association, Paris, Trance. LUDWIG STEIN, Ph.D., Professor of Philosophy, University of Bern, Switzerland ; Editor of * Archiv fiir Geschichte der Philosophie,” ete. HERMANN L. STRACK, Ph.D., Professor of Old Testament Exegesis and Semitic Languages, Univers'ty of Berlin, Germany. CHARLES TAYLOR, D.D., LL.D., Master of St. John’s College, Cambridge, England; Editor of ** Sayings of the Jewish Fathers,”’ etc. PREFATORY NOTE ——— principles explained at length in the general preface in the first volume. Only in one particular has a deviation been made from the planthere adopted. The delimitation of the various departments in some instances having proved extremely difti- cult, it has been found desirable to indicate, in the case of each article, the department editor who is responsible for its appearance in the volume, by printing the initial of the editor on the left-hand side and the initials of the contributor or contributors in larger type on the right. When articles have been passed by the Executive Committee of the Editorial Board, instead of by the department editor, the initials “E. c.” appear at the left. NEW YORK, June 20, 1902. FUNK & WAGNALLS COMPANY. TT: present volume of THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA has been carried out on the Hosted by Google SYSTEMS OF TRANSLITERATION AND OF CITATION OF PROPER NAMES“ a ee A.—Rules for the Transliteration of Hebrew and Aramaic. 1, All important names which occur in the Bible are cited as found in the authorized King James ° version; ¢.g., Moses, not Mosheh; Isaac, not Yizhak; Saul, not Sha’ul or Shail; Solomon, not Shelomoh, etc. @, Names that have gained currency in English books on Jewish subjects, or that have become familiar to English readers, are always retained and cross-references given, though the topic be treated under the form transliterated according to the system tabulated below. g. Hebrew subject-headings are transcribed according to the scheme of transliteration ; cross-refer- ences are made as in the case of personal names. 4. The following system of transliteration has been used for Hebrew and Aramaic: x Not noted at the beginning or the end of a word ; otherwise’ or by dieresis; e.g., Ze’eb or Meir. 5 b ? 2 5 5 with dagesh, p ty sh 1 9 nh > m 5 without dagesh, f eos 3 d ome in yz nt mh a WG Ds pk 1 w 3k ys 7T Note: The presence of dagesh lene is not noted except in the case of pe. Dagesh forte is indi- cated by doubling the letter. 8, The vowels have been transcribed as follows: > a ~ wu - @ = -€ 4 o - ¢@ en = 0 = 2 Kamez hatuf is represented by o. | The so-called *‘ Continental’ pronunciation of the English vowels is implied. 6, The Hebrew article is transcribed as ha, followed by a hyphen, without doubling the following letter. [Not hak-Kohen or hak-Cohen, nor Rosh ha-shshanah.]} B.—Rules for the Transliteration of Arabic. A, All Arabic names and words except such as have become familiar to English readers in another form, as Mohammed, Koran, mosque, are transliterated according to the following system : 4a < kh u sh rd gh wy 2 eas a ws wil ae Ce «) ah vot os & 3 ¥ oth yr Lt ey WF Gi j2 ls 2 J t! ws e em 2. Only the three vowels —a, i, u—are represented : > aorad — tor? ~ york No account has been taken of the imadlah; i has not been written e, nor u written o, * In all other matters of orthography the spelling preferred by the STANDARD DICTIONARY has usually been followed. Typo- graphical exigencies have rendered occasional deviations from these systems necessary. x 3. A. 5. SYSTEMS OF TRANSLITERATION AND OF CITATION OF PROPER NAMES The Arabic article is invariably written al; no account being taken of the assimilation cf the / to the following letter; e.g., Ab& al-Salt, not Abu-l-Salt; Nafis al-Daulah, not Nafis ad-Daulah. The article is joined by a hyphen to the following word. At the end of words the feminine termination is written ah; but, when followed by a genitive, at; ¢g., Risdlah dhat al-Kursiyy, but Hvat al-Aflak. No account is taken of the overhanging vowels which distinguish the cases; e.g., ‘Amr, not ‘Amru or ‘Amrun; Ya‘akub, not Ya‘akubun; or in a title, Kitab al-amanat wal-‘itikadat. C.—Rules for the Transliteration of Russian. All Russian names and words, except such as have become familiar to English readers in another form, as Czar, Alexander, deciatine, Moscow, are transliterated according to the following system : Aa a Ila nr Tuy sheh B 6 b Oo 3) ‘Db b mute Bs v Il a ro bi y ['r h,v, org Pp r bb halfmute Ax d Ce § BS ye Ee e and ye TT t 09 e bennoe: sy H ah | Vy uw 10 to yu 3 3 % Pp tS Ag Yt Mu é XX kh 8 e F hk k I] 1, tz -¥ ce Ia d Ya ch Vik Z Mm m il m sh Rules for the Citation of Proper Names, Personal and Otherwise. Whenever possible, an author is cited under his most specific name; e.g., Moses Nigrin under Nigrin; Moses Zacuto under Zacuto; Moses Rieti under Rieti; all the Kimhis (or Kambhis) under Aimhi; Israel ben Joseph Drohobiczer under Drohobiczer. Cross-references are freely made from any other form to the most specific one; e.g., to Moses Vidal from Moses Narboni ; to Solomon Nathan Vidal from Menahem Meiri; to Samuel Kansi from Samuel Astruc Dascola ; to Jedaiah Peninit, from both Bederst and En Bonet; to John of Avignon from Moses de Roquemaure. ‘When a person is not referred to as above, he is cited under his own personal name followed by his official or other title; or, where he has borne no such title, by ‘‘of” followed by the place of his birth or residence; e.g., Johanan ha-Sandlar ; Samuel ha-Nagid ; Judah ha-Hasid ; Gershom of Metz, Isaac of Corbeil. Names containing the word d@’, de, da, di, or van, von, y, are arranged under the letter of the name following this word; e.g., de Pomis under Pomis, de Barrios under Barrios, Jacob d’IWlescas under Jilescas. In arranging the alphabetical order of personal names ben, da, de, di, ha-, ibn*, of have not been taken into account. These names thus follow the order of the next succeeding capital letter : Abraham of Augsburg Abraham de Balmes Abraham ben Benjamin Aaron Abraham of Avila Abraham ben Baruch Abraham ben Benjamin Ze’eb Abraham ben Azriel Abraham of Beja Abraham Benveniste In order to facilitate reference, complete groups of all persons bearing such common names as Aaron, Abraham, Jacob, are given in small type in a group immediately under the first key-word. * When Ipn has come to be a specific part of a name, as Ipn Ezra, such name is treated in its alphabetical place under ‘*I.”* LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS [Self-evident abbreviations, particularly those used in the bibliography, are not included here. ] Abot, Pirke AD ever .-++Abot de-Rabbi Nathan Ab. aia vc ta bodah Zarah Cl TOC. savcesecceces at the place ‘ Nu Uae toes in the year of the Hegira “Fei des Jud.. Allgemeine Zeitung des Judenthums Aue. Poi Hist. Soc. American Jewish Historical Society Am. Jour. Semit. | 4 merican Journal of Semitic Languages Jiang.c-eeee ore a Sadie ew. Assoc...Anglo-Jewish Association Apoce sgeeqetaeesee Apocalypse rer Apocrypha .. Apostolical Constitutions *“Arakin (Talmud) ar ist syed oale nes Archives Israélites AIt cwcecceereeeerets article A, Toccecvscccceees Das Alte Testament Ay Vecseeceecceerees Authorized Version Decestienasoees See eae ben 07 bar or born Bab . geseen nes Pi asia (Babylonian Tetmudy: Bacher. 4e sa . Bacher, aoadi der Palastinensischen Amo- Amor ; raer Bacher, "ag. “Tan. ...Bacher, Agada der Tannaiten Bar wcccsrccevcscsess Baruch B. Buvseeceeneeeees Baba Batra (Talmud) B.C vines eeseeraeeeee before the Christian era Bek gis csceka sees Bekorot (Talmud) Benzinger, Arch...Benzinger, Hebriische Archaologie Ber csc cers seaetwes Berakot (Talmud) Berliner’s { Berliner’s Magazin fir die Wissenschaft des Magazin.......f Judenthums Bikn ak xeaces cone . Bikkurim (Talmud) By Kuve aioecseuus Baba Kamma (Talmud) Be Misicncetensince Baba Mezi‘a (Talmud) letin de | de la Histori Boletin Acad. Hist. ds a Real Academia de la Historia 7 | Briili’s Jabrbicher fiir Jiidische Geschichte Brill’s Jabrb..... ; and Litteratur Bulletin All. Isr....Bulletin of the Alliance Israélite Universelle CPi iacd ecediasa ee ADOUL CaNhiccceiscansses Canticles (Song of Solomon) Cant. Ris eviews enix Canticles Rabbah Cat. Anglo-JJew. (Catalogue of Anglo-Jewish Historical Ex- a EXD. sees $ hibition ev aieeuvea geek ke common era ch. in bibliog. and ( chapter or chapters Cheyneana ie L Encyc. Bibl.... § Cheyne and Black, Encyclopedia Biblica T CHOU ieseeccces I Chronicles TE CHO 5.6 ee eees-s os II Chronicles CTs Avwvisseve sexs Corpus Inscriptionum Atticarum eT -Gaskces staan Corpus Inscriptionum Greecarum Cole Weciccwessetxes Corpus Inscriptionum Hebraicarum , Oras Ie Frere Spaoditwieies Corpus Inscriptionuin Latinarum re Li Sues eats erie Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum COD ica vine cys eerenan Colossians COP rinses err res Corinthians Ary ree eT een died Dts ues Creer ee Deuterononist AM Fy sini eres Daniel De Gubernatis, ae Gubernatis, Dizionario Biografico degli Diz. Biog....... Scrittori Contempcrauet DOM ives ces Seeas D sole almud) ev Derenbourg, Essai sur Histoire et la Géo- berenbourg, Hist } graphie de la Palestine, ete. [021 ee Deuteronomy DOU Reid sawow vcs Deuteronomy Rabbah De penitence bien Elohist ECC) cx scsi tiene ees Ecclesiastes CCl Bic sercatecs Ecclesiastes Rabbah Ecclus. (Sirach)....Ecclesiasticus OO Sie kveno en eae edition Eduy Sexe ices ‘Eduyyot (Talmud) Encye. Brit......... Encyclopedia Britannica BING os edezes regan English 1) ree an ee Ephesians Epiphanius, Heres. Fpiphanlits Adversus Heereses Sade Key eebaris Erubia (Talmud) each and ! Ersch and Gruber, Allg. Encyklopadie der = Hai Encye..{ Wissenschaft und Kiinste Foie ain wee abana wx Esdras 111] ean Esther Esther R ..Esther Rabbah Cb SEQ. cecececccass and following Eusebius, Hist. Ecel.Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica Ex CVS ea ei Sa Exodus Exe Reset yeeseus Exodus Rabbah 2) Sg rare tear oe Ezekiel Frankel, Mebo..... Frankel, Mebo Yerushalmi First, Bibl. Jud.... First, Bibliotheca Judaica Fiirst, Gesch. des ( os ; he Karaert.... .... 5 Furst, Geschichte des Kariierthums : ner Galatians aster, Hist. of ; , ss Bevis Marks.... __ | Gaster, Bevis Marks Memoria! Volume : Geiger, Urschrift und Uebersetzungen der Geiger, Urschrift. Bibet in Ihrer Abhangigkeit von der In- iG neren Entwicklung des eee eiger’s Jiidische Zeitschrift fur ssen- Geiger’s Jiid. Zeit. | “chart und Leben Geiger’s Wiss, ( Geiger’s Wissenschaftliche Zeitschrift fiur Zeit. Jiid. Theol. § Jiidische Theologie GON Janasaucseasiens Gemara GON 6.5.2 ccaen cons Genesis Gen. Ri... cee ... Genesis Rabbah Gesch.. .- Geschichte Gesenius, Gr. se Waw: te Gesenius, Grammar Gesenius, Th....... Gesenius, Thesaurus Gibbon. Decline Saas History of the Decline and Fall of and Fall........ the Roman Empire 4 Ginsburg’s Masoretico-Critical Edition of Ginsburg’s Bible.. {1 the Hebrew Bible 0 Carer ere SS Gittin (Talmud) Graetz, Hist........ Graetz, History of the Jews Gratz, ion ree Gratz, Geschichte der Juden HAD cscdscesveey vans ry TARP cscs dale ..... Hage. HAG viewed nieneases Hagivat (Talmud) Hal ivegenus -Hallah (Talmud) Hamburger, - Hamburger, Realencyclopidie fiir Bibel os. Vitec k has und Talmud Hastings, Dict. { Hastings, Dictionary of the Bible Heb. reer re rere Epistie to the Hebrews ICDs 5 cage cerns Masoretic Text Herzog - Hauck, ologie und Kirche (2d and 3d editions re- Real-Encyc..... Hon ee cee a Brae § Hirse iographisches Lexikon Hervorra- Hirsch, Biog. Lex. “gender Aerzte Aller Zeiten und Volker Herzog-Plitt or | oto ‘yklopiidie fiir Protestantische The- HOM saseccddtevewes Homiletics ov Homily ROU os hares a issues Horayot (Talmud) TAU cia ss Baw ieee cass Hullin (Talmud) 1. peli onesies eres same place OCU CiNdatiesar Aedes same author [SA ciaucage sr caksens Isaiah Isr. Peake .Israelitische Letterbode AV tcakecd Seasme bates Jahvist Jaarboeken . bea ett aes Jaarboeken voor de IJsraeliten in Nederland § Jacohs, Inquiry into the Sources of Spanish- Jacobs, Sources.. 4°" Jewish History Jacobs and Wolf, - ee At Bibl. Anglo-Jud. t Jacobs and Wolf, Bibliotheca Anglo-Judaica Jahrb. Gesch. der ¢ Jahrbuch fiir die Geschichte der Juden und ; des Judenthumns ea oe - Dio { Jastrow, Dictionary of the Targumim, Tal- Jastrow, Dict..... Y niudim, and Midrashbim : Jellinek, B. H...... Jellinek, Bet ha-Midrash DOP eo visto ee aeeeewares Jeremiah Jew. Chron......... Jewish Chronicle, London Jew. Hist. Soc. Eng.Jewish Historical Society of England Jew. Quart. Rey....Jewish Quarterly Review Jew. World ........ Jewish World, London Josephus, Ant...... Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews Josephus, B. J...... Josephus, De Bello Judaico , apes Contra | Josephus, Contra Apionem VOSN: Kasicn ne Sead ese Joshua Jost’s Annalen..... Jost’s Israelitische Annalen Jour. Bib. Lit......dournal of Biblical Literature nae cum! Tustin, Dialogus cum Tryphone Judxo Kaufmann ‘Ge- zi Caan zur Erinnerung an David Kauf- denkbuch.. Kayserling, Bibl. ma Kayserling. Biblioteca Espaiiola-Portugueza- Esp.-Port.-Jud.. Judaica RO? o6csei vs taenaees Keritot (Talmud) Wels xdaGauew saat. Ketubot (Talmud) Ki as sv escwusse. 4565 Kiddushin (Talmud) (| Rarer eer rae Kilayam (Talmud) Biss sais savesw .-...Kinnim (Talmud) xii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS Se Rib age, ecssdenes .Kilayim (Talmud) MIN ts Seu aeiawwe ches Kinnim (Talmud) } “ie * eons enone) ; Semitic Studies in Memory of A. Kohut Krauss, Lehn- ( Krauss, Griechische und Lateinische Lehn- woOrter.......... { worter, ete. PA 8o 55s 6 haweees Lamentations Lam. R.........0.4. Lamentations Rabbah UCase shite Soteeuwcte-s in the place cited LOY pie ccc bb seeiw ees Leviticus Lev. R...... ere Leviticus Rabbah ee eta tind ¢ Levy, Chaidiisches Wérterbuch, etc. Levy, Neuhebr. | Levy, Neuhebraisches und Chaldaisches érterb....... Worterbuch, ete. , SE eer Perr ane Septuagint | | N Perea en eee ae a married Ma AS ie cieicnc ues Ma‘aserot (Talmud) Ma‘as. Sh.......... Ma‘aser Sheni (Talmud) MACE isc dea wiiedaat Maccabees i MAK oe ccc eee ee eaes Makkot (Talmud) | Maksh............-. Makshirin (Talmud) i) 1: | Rea ean ec Malachi MAS coud buyin tien Masorah Massek...........0. Masseket Matte eedcciesaevoos ean McClintock and Strong, Cyclopsedia of Bib- Prone eS . tical. Theological, and Ecclesiastical Liter- MCG... . see eee e ee ees Megillah (Talmud) MO Meida steed ciaiesie's Me‘ilah (Talmud) MOK la s-tcdee sea vee Mekilta Men ..... md:tace-aseo Menahot (Talmud) Mid..... ssvecceeee-Midaot (Talmud) Midr.......... abies Midrash Midr. R............ Midrash Rabbah Midr. Teh.......... Midrash Tehillim (Psalms) Mik........ Letereak Mikwaot (Talmud) NF ert re ere Mo‘ed Katan (Talmud) p § Monatsschrift fiir Geschichte und Wissen- Monatssehritt..... 1 schaft des Judenthums Mortara, Indice....Mortara, Indice Alfabetico MB ii ce scesws eke eats Manuscript ae Frag. Hist. ek. Fragmenta Historicorum Grseco- |p? &. Cree ae es INGZ eee eee a eoRs Nazir (Talmud) NiGig cis bases ....-no Gate INC oo. css veceewt ex Nedarim (Talmud) Nef .........6.-26.- Nega im NG@Dcigeiss ca seseks Nehemiah 1 od Deere eee ...New Testament Neubauer, Cat. | Neubauer, Catalogue of the Hebrew MSS. Bodl.Hebr.MSS. § in the Bodleian Library Neubauer, G. T....Neubauer, Géographie du Talmud NU iwi cde ch eeass Numbers Num. R............ Numbers Rabbah ODA. ose seeesee Obadiah Oest. Wochenschrift.Oesterreichische Wochenschrift ON as sGice wurace races Ohalot (Talmud) OUR 6 ewss acelin’ Onkelos Orient, Lit.......... Literaturblatt des Orients a wise tetera Vulie ih Old Testament P Ke eE Seas saree ReNs Priestly code ( Pagel, Biographisches Lexikon Hervorra- Pagel, Biog. Lex. 7} gender Aerzte des Neunzehnten Jahrhun- { derts Pal. Explor. Fund..Palestine Exploration Fund Pauly-Wissowa, { Pauly-Wissowa, Real-Encyelopidie der Clas- Real-Eneye,.... { sischen Altertumswissenschaft PONG viaeed cece ours Pentateuch POS 45 seesaw bn saeus Pesahim (Talmud) POSE ics ccna eekucee es Peshito, Peshitta Pesik. R.......0.06. Pesikta Rabbati Pesik. Oy re re Pesikta de-Rab Kahana Sd 11 | ener Pen eta ae Philippians Pirke R. El.........Pirke Rabbi Eliezer PROV es asiesasi islets Eas PS ci aveeeaciel ale eaet Psalm Resatsea wt etsee eee Rabbi or Rab (before names) Pea ss ( Rahmer’ s Jiidisches Litteratur-Blatt ReEgPesty ....ececseee Regesty i Nadpisi Rey. AS ...ececeeees Revue Asiatique Rev. Bib........... Revue Biblique Rey. Et. Juives.....Revue des Etudes Juives Rev. Sém.......... Revue Sémitique Ry. iicckseicscist Rosh ha-Shanah (Talmud) : : 4 Ritter, Die Erdkunde im Verhaltnis zur Ritter, Erdkunde. |“ watar una zur Geschichte des Menschen Rom................ Romans Roest, Cat. { Roest, Catalog der Hebraica und Judaica aus | ee Biv: { der LL. Rosenthal’schen Bibliothek R. V ‘ .. Revised Version Salfeld. Martyro-¢ Salfeld, Das Martyrologium des Niirnberger logium,........ ‘ Memorbuches ESO vnis cose oteews I Samuel TL Sais cena ce II Samuel SON cecs.0secod Boek Sanhedrin (Talmud) S.B.0O.T....... § (Sacred Books of the Old Testament) Poly. "i chrome Bible, ed. Paul Haupt , Schaff-Herzog, A Religious Encyclopxdia ENC¥Gi. os ho esos Schrader, ( Schrader, Cuneiform Spec pons and the CAEL fe ossvies ‘ Old Testament, Eng. trans. Schrader, K. A. T. ; ene Keilinschriften und das Alte Tes- Schrader, x Biisiax Schrader, Keilinschriftliche Bibliothek Schrader, K. G, F, / Schrader. Keilinschriften und Geschichts- 1 forsebung Schiirer, Gesch..... Schtirer, Geschichte des Jiidischen Volkes SOM covecéaiev scans Semahot (Talmud) SHAD. 64eses eevace Shabbat (Talmud) SEDs css 64 eed ons Shebi‘it (Talmud) Shebu.............. Shebu‘ot (Talmud) BOOK 6 6svciy is veece s Shekalim (Talmud) Sibyllines .......... Sibylline Books Smith, Rel. of § set Smith, Religion of the Semites Stade’s Zeitschrift fiir die Alttestament- Q Stade's Zeitschrift ) “Tiche Wissenschaft Steinschneider, {| Steinschneider, Catalogue of the Hebrew E Cat. Bodl....... § Books in the Bodleian Library te ra . { Steinschneider, Hebraische Bibliographie Steinschneider, be Hebr. Uebers... ; Steinschneider, Hebraische Uebersetzungen SU eGhagc ese eene te Sukkah (Talmud) SV cc opts meso wents under the word SVM itavinesorsecs eas Symmachus VA As Sadewneleston Ta‘anit (Talmud) TAN. eiebesanketaes Tanhuma TAUB ic wiessataxee es Targumim Targ. O............. Targum Onkelos Varg. Yer.......... Targum Yerushalmi or Targum Jonathan TOT saccwages sateuigee Temurah (Talmud) DER fap cinta pee tb eae Terumot (Talmud) THOSS.006 csc iss . Thessalonians TAM vik oes eda ateves Timothy TON secede veveness Toharot OR eciee, aictNen ee eae 8 Tosafot "POSOD v.84 oS elek Tosefta TANS es eocees bees translation Tr. Soe. Bibl. ' Transactions of the Society of Biblical Ar- ATO So ich.5 9 Sears 4 cheeology CTY essa cules echidiete' shy Tebdul Yom (Talmud) Boy eee er ‘Ckzin (Talmud) Univ. Isr....... . Univers Israélite Urkundenb...... ; .Urkundenbueh Vess. ISr...... .aeee Vessillo Israelitico VOS i538 caches sts enies Voskhod (Russian magazine) VaR tsetse doa ware Vulgate Weiss. Dor ......... Weiss, Dor Dor we-Dorshaw Wellhausen, ' Wellhausen, Israelitische und Jiidische Dede Gechawcarecs ) Geschichte Winer, B. R........ Winer, Biblisches Realwoérterbuch Wisd. Sol........... Wisdom of Solomon Wolf, Bibl. Hebr... Wolf, Bibliotheca Hebreea ‘Wiener Zeitschrift fiir die Kunde des a K WwW. ee -M.. ‘) Morgenlandes Ste Sosa eee Yadayim (Talmud) a ond’ “vend ciekre Yad ha-Hazakah PAIK. 5 aeant iawn’ Yalkut NOW pea easin ck Yebamot (Talmud) VOPR ssi siassanecads Yerushalmi (Jerusalem Talmud) YHWH..... Smee eee Jehovah PAD nets oie esd Gaws Zabim (Talmud) Z.D.M.G } Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenlind- ppt ts per ne Fe » isehen Gesellschaft ZOD 03 a Fea owned es Zevahim (Talmud) MOC cate secansad ta bins Zechariah Zedner, Cat.Hebr, | Zedner, Catalogue of the Hebrew Books in Books Brit.Mus. ( the British Museum Zeit, fiir Assyr..... Zeitschrift fiir Assyriologie paris Ana \ Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palastina-Vereins Zeit. far Hebr. Bib). Zeitschrift fiir Hebraische Bibliographie Zeitlin, Bibl. Post- + Zeitlin. Bibliotheca Hebraica Post-Mendels- Mendels........4 sohnniana VA 1) | eee eet ear Zephaniah Zunz, G.S..........Zunz, Gesammelte Schriften _ Zunz, G. V.........Zunz, Gottesdienstliche Vortrage ZUNZ, Literatur-_ ' Zunz, Literaturgeschichte der Synagogalen POSCD vs aves , 4 Dl rinaadean ae : ‘Zunz, Die Ritus des Synagogalen Gottes- Zunz, Ritus...... + dienstes ANNZ. SP eee stds Zunz, Synagogale Poesie des Mittelalters Zunz. Z. G..........4Unz, Zur Geschichte und Literatur NoTE TO THE READER. Subjects on which further information is afforded elsewhere in this work are indicated by the use of capitals and small capitals in the text ; as, ABBA ARIKA; PUMBEDITA; VOCALIZATION, CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME I Cyrus Adler, Ph.D., President of the American Jewish Historical Society ; Librarian Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. A.. A. Bm......A. Blum, Rabbi in New York. A. Bu.. ., Adolf Biichler, Ph.D., Professor Jewish Theological Vienna, Austria. Seminary, A. Dp........ Abraham Danon, . Principal Jewish Theological Seminary, Con- stantinople, Turkey. A. Bu..ceees A. Eckstein, Ph.D., Rabbi in Bamberg, Germany; Member of the Central Committee of the Alliance Israélite Universelle. A. F........A. Freimann, Ph.D., Librarian of the Hebrew Department, Stadt- bibliothek, Frankfort-on-the-Main, Germany. A. Fe.......-Alfred Feilchenfeld, Ph.D., Principal of the Realschule, Firth, Germany. A. Fl.......A. Fleischmann, New York. A. Ha......Alexander Harkavy, New York. A. H.N....A. H. Newman, D.D., LB.D., Professor of Hebrew and Cognate Languages and Old Testament Exegesis, McMaster Uni- versity, Toronto, Can. A. Kai......Alois Kaiser, Cantor of Temple Oheb Shalom, Baltimore, Md. A.L. L....Albert L. Leubuscher, New York. A. Lo.......A. Loewenthal, Ph.D., Rabbi, Tarnowitz, Germany. .. Albert Porter, Associate Editor of ** The Forum,” New York: Revising Editor ** Standard Cyclopedia.” A. R........ A. Rhine, Rabbi, Hot Springs, Ark. A.S.C.....Alexander S. Chessin, Professor of Matheinatics, Washington Uni- versity, St. Louis, Mo. A.S.1...... Abram S. Isaacs, Professor of German Liferature, University of the City of New York; Editor of ** The Jewish Messenger.’’ New York City. A.V.W.I...A. V.W. Jackson, Ph.D., L.H.D., Professor of Indo-Iranian Languages, Colum- bia University, New York. A. W. B...A. W. Brunner, Architect, New York. A eee Be tsc2cs .... Mrs. Bolaffio, Milan, Italy. B. B........Benuel H. Brumberg, Contributor to * National Cyclopedia of Amer. ican Biography,’ New York. B. D........Bernard Drachman, Ph.D., ' Rabbi of the Congregation Zichron Ephraim, Dean of the Jewish Theological Seminary, New York. C.F. K.....Charles Foster Kent, Ph.D., Professor of Biblical Literature and History, Yale University, New Haven, Conn.; Author of ‘‘ A History of the Hebrew People.” C.J. M.....Charles J. Mendelsohn, Philadelphia, Pa. C. L.........Caspar Levias, M.A., Instructor in Exegesis and Talmudic Aramaic, Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati, Ohio. C. R. C.....Lieut.-Col. Claude R. Conder, LL.D., Formerly Superintendent of the Survey of Palestine by Palestine Exploration Fund. D......00...,Gotthard Deutsch, Ph.D., Professor of Jewish History, Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati, Ohio. D. B. M.....Duncan B. MacDonald, B.D., Hartford Theological Seminary, Conn. Hartford. D. G........Baron David von Giinzburg, St. Petersburg, Russia. D.1I. F......D. I. Freedman, B.A., Rabbi in Perth, Western Australia, D. W. A....David Werner Amram, LL.B., Attorney at Law, Philadelphia, Pa.; Author of ** fhe Jewish Law of Divorce.” E. Ba....... Emanuel Baumgarten, Translator of ‘ Hobot ba-Lebabot,” Vienna, Austria. ©. Ban.....Eduard Baneth, Ph.D., Professor in the Hochschule, Berlin, Germany. E. C......... Executive Committee of the EDITORIAL BOARD, E.G. H.... Emil G. Hirsch, Ph.D., LL.D., Rabbi of Chicago Sinai Congregation, Chicago, Ml.; Professor of Rabbinica) Literature and Philosophy in the University of Chicago. E. Lé....... Emile Lévy, Chief Rabbi of Bayonne, Franee. ..... Eduard Meyer, Ph.D., Professor of Ancient History, University of Halle, Germany. E. Ms.,.....E. Mels, New York. E. Me. E.N........Eduard Neumann, Ph.D., Chief Rabbi of Nagy-Kanisza, Hungary, xiv CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME II E. Sch......Emil Schtirer, Ph.D., Professor of New Testament Exegesis at the University of G6ttingen, Germany; Author of ‘* Geschichte des Volkes Israel im Zeitalter Jesu Christi.” E. Sd.......E. Schwarzfeld, LL.D., Secretary of Jewish Colonization Associa- tion, Paris, France. F. Bu,......Frants Buhl, Ph.D., Professor of Semitic Philology at Copenhagen University, Copenhagen, Denmark; Author of ‘‘ Geographie des Alten Palastina.”’ F.C. B.....F. C. Burkitt, M.A., Editor of ‘‘ The Fragments of Aquila,” Cam- bridge, England. ¥F. H. K....Frank H. Knowlton, M.S., Ph.D., Assistant Curator of Botany, U. S. National Museum, Smithsonian Institution, Washing. ton, D. C. F. H. V....Frank H. Vizetelly, Associate Editor of the ** Columbian Cyclope- dia,’”? and on STANDARD DICTIONARY Edito- rial Staff. F.L. C.....Francis L. Cohen, Rabbi, Borough New Synagogue London, England. Coeditor of ‘* Voice of Prayer and Praise.” F. Ss. eeeeoee —rlaminio Servi, Chief Rabbi of Casale-Monferrato, Italy ; Edi- tor of ** Il VessiJlo Israelitico.” F. de S.M..Frederick de Sola Mendes, Ph.D., Rabbi of the West End Synagogue, New York. F. T. H.....F. T. Hannemann, M.D., New York. G............michard Gottheil, Ph.D., Professor of Semitic Languages, Columbia University, New York; Chief of the Oriental Department, New York Public Library ; Presi- dent of the Federation of American Zionists. G. A. B.....George A. Barton, Ph.D., Associate Professor in Biblical Literature and Semitie Languages at Bryn Mawr College, Bryn Mawr, Pa. G. A. D.....G@. A. Danziger, New York. G. A. K....George Alexander Kohut, Ph.D., Formerly Rabbi in Dallas, Texas. G. B. L.....Gerson B. Levi, Philadelphia, Pa. G. F. M....George F. Moore, M.A., D.D., Professor of Biblical Literature and the His- tory of Religions in Harvard University, Cam- bridge, Mass. Author of a Commentary on the Book of Judges, ete. G.J........,Giuseppe Jaré, Chief Rabbi of Ferrara, Italy. Gi Diesen ces Goodman Lipkind, B.A., Rabbi in London, England. H. B........H. Brody, Ph.D., Rabbi, Nachod, Bohemia, Austria ; Coeditor of * Zeitschrift fiir Hebriische Bibliographie.”’ H. Ba.......H. Baar, Formerly Rabbi in New Orleans and Superin- tendent of Hebrew Orphan Asylum, New York. H. F........ Herbert Friedenwald, Ph.D., Formerly Superintendent of Department of Manuscripts, Library of Congress, Washing- ton, PD. C.; Secretary American Jewish His- torical Society, Philadelphia, Pa. H. G. E....H. G. Enelow, D.D., Rabbi of the Congregation Adath Israel, Louis- ville, Ky. H. Hir..... Hartwig Hirschfeld, Ph.D., Professor in Jews’ College, London, England, H. I.........H. Tlliowizi, Formerly Rabbi in Philadelphia, Pa. H. M....... Henry Malter, Ph.D., Assistant Professor Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati, Ohio. H. M.S....H. M. Speaker, Gratz College, Philadelphia, Pa. H. R........ Herman Rosenthal, Chief of the Slavonic Department of the New York Publie Library. H. S........ Henrietta Szold, Secretary of the Publication Committee of the Jewish Publication Society of America. H. Ve.......H. Veld, Rabbi in Amsterdam, N. Y. I. B......... Isaac Bloch, Chief Rabbi of Nancy, France. I. Be........Immanuel Benzinger, Ph.D., Professor of Old Testament Exegesis at the Berlin University, Berlin. I. Ber.......Israel Berlin, Chemist, New York. I. Br........I. Broydé, Diplomé of the Ecole des Hautes Etudes; Late Librarian of Alliance Israélite Univer- selle, Paris, France. I. D.........2%srael Davidson, Ph.D., New York. I. Hu.......Isaac Husik, Tutor, Gratz College, Philadelphia, Pa. I. L.........Israel Levi, Professor in the Jewish Theological Seminary, Paris, France; Editor of ‘** Revue des Etudes Juives.”’ I, Lo........ Immanuel Liéw, Chief Rabbi of Szegedin, Hungary. I, Ly........Isidore Lévy, Paris, France. I, M. P.....Iva Maurice Price, B.D., Ph.D., Professor of Semitic Languages and Literature in the University of Chicago, [ll.; Author of *“The Monuments and the Old Testament.”’ J. .cccveseees dOSEDh Jacobs, B.A., Formerly President of the Jewish Historical Society of England; Corresponding Member of the Royal Academy of History, Madrid; Author of ** Jews of Angevin England,” etc. J. Ba........ Jules Bauer, Rabbi in Avignon, France, J. Chisccnid: Chotzner, Ph.D., . Rabbinical Lecturer at Montefiore College, Ramsgate, England. J.D. E.....J, D. E. Eisenstein, New York, CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME II XV John Dyneley Prince, Ph.D., pene: Professor of Semitic Languages, New York University. j. F. McC..J. Frederic McCurdy, Ph.D., LL.D., Professor of Oriental Languages in the Uni- versity College, Toronto, Canada; Author of ** History, Prophecy, and the Monuments.” J. Friedlander, Ph.D., Rabbi in Beaumont, Texas.° J. G. L.....0. G. Lipman, Assistant Agriculturist, New Jersey State Agricultural Experiment Station, New Bruns- wick, N. J. Bombay, India. _... Morris Jastrow, Jr., Ph.D., Professor of Semitic Languages, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.; Author of “Religion of the Babylonians and As- syrians,”’ ete. J. L.S...... Joseph L. Sossnitz, New York. J. M. C.....cS. M. Casanowicz, Ph.D., U. 8. National Museum, Washington, D. C.; Author of ** Paranomasia in the Old Testa- ment.”’ J. M. Hillesum, Librarian of the Bibliotheca Rosenthaliana, University of Amsterdam, Holland. J. M. H.... J.P. P......John P. Peters, D.D., Rector of St. Michael’s Church, New York; Author of *‘ Nippur, or Exploration and Ad- ventures on the Euphrates.” J. So........ Joseph Sohn, Formerly of “ The Forum,” New York. J. Sr........Marceus Jastrow, Ph.D., Rabbi Emeritus of the Congregation Rodef Shalom, Philadelphia, Pa.; Author of ‘ Dic- tionary of the Talmud.” J. T.........0. Theodor, Ph.D., Rabbi in Bojanowo, Posen, Germany. De. VPs teeuk J. Vredenburg, M.A., Rabbi in Amsterdam, Holland, J.W........Julien Weill, Rabbi in Paris, France. 5: eee Braans Kaufmann Kohler, Ph.D., Rabbi of Temple Beth-El, New York, K.H.C..... Karl Heinrich Cornill, Professor of Hebrew and Old Testament Ex- egesis, Breslau University, Breslau, Germany. Li Bo. .ce0se Ludwig Blau, Ph.D., Professor at the Jewish Theological Seminary, Budapest, Hungary; Editor of ‘ Magyar Zsid6é Szémie *’; Author of ** Das Alt-Jiidische ‘Zauberwesen.”’ -....-louis Ginzberg, Ph.D., New York ; Author of “ Die Haggada bei den Kirchenvatern.” L. Grii.....Lazarus Grinhut, Director of Orphan Asylum, Jerusalem. L. Hii eeeeas L. Huhner, A.M., LL.B., New York. L. L........L. Lowenstein, Rabbi in Mosbach, Germany. L. N. Peovee Ls. Nathensen, Copenhagen, Denmark. L. G... L.N.D.... Lewis N. Dembitz, Attorney at Law, Louisville, Ky.; Author of ** Jewish Services in Synagogue and Home.” L.S......... Ludwig Stein, Ph.D., Professor of Philosophy at the University of Bern, Switzerland ; Editor of ** Archiv fiir Ge- schichte der Philosophie.”’ L. V........ Ludwig Venetianer, Rabbi in Neupest, Hungary. M............Dr. S. Mtihsam, Chief Rabbi of Gratz, Austria. M,. B........ Moses Beer, London. M. C........M. Caimi, Corfu, Greece. M. C.C.....M. C. Currick, A.B., Rabbi Anshe Chesed Congregation, Erie, Pa. M. Co....... Max Cohen, Counselor at Law, New York. M. F........Michael Friedlander, Ph.D., Principal, Jews’ College, London, England ; Translator of Maimonides’ ‘“‘Guide of the Perplexed.” M. Fi....... Maurice Fishberg, M.D., Surgeon to the Beth Israel Hospital Dispen- sary ; Medical Examiner to the United He- brew Charities, New York. M. Fr...... M. Franco, Principal of the Alliance Israélite Universelle School, Shumla, Bulgaria. M. Ga......Moses Gaster, Ph.D., Haham of the Spanish and Portuguese Jews, London, England. M. J. K....Max J. Kohler, M.A., LL.B., Attorney at Law ; Recording Secretary of the American Jewish Historical Society, New York. M. K....... Moritz Kayserling, Ph.D., Rabbi, Budapest, Hungary; Author of ** Ge- schichte der Juden in Portugal,’’ etc. M.L. B....Moses Lob Bamberger, Ph.D., Karlsruhe, Germany. M. L. M....Max L. Margolis, Ph.D., Associate Professor of Semitic Languages in the University of California, Berkeley, Cal. M. M. K....M. M. Kaplan, New York City. t ....Max Rosenthal, M.D., Secretary of the German Dispensary, New York. M. Ra......Max Raisin, Cincinnati, Ohio. M. S........Moise Schwab, Ph.D., Librarian of the Hebrew Department at the Bibliothéque Nationale, Paris, France; Trans- lator of the Jerusalem Talmud. M. Schw...M. Schwarzfeld, Rabbi in Bucharest, Rumania. ME Whee Max Weisz, Ph.D., Rabbi in Budapest, Hungary. M. W.L...Martha Washington Levy, B.A., Late of ‘* The International Cyclopedia.” N. R........N. Rashkovski, Odessa, Russia. M. R. M. Ro. xvi CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME II QO. F.........0scar Friedlander, Vienna, Austria. P. B. eveves . Philipp Bloch, Ph.D. $ . Rabbi in Posen, Germany. P. J.........Peter Jensen, Professor of Semitic Philology, University of Marburg, Germany. P. W........Paul Wendland, Ph.D., Berlin, Germany, Opera.”’ P. Wi.......Peter Wiernik, New York. R. W. R.... Robert W. Rogers, D.D., Ph.D., Professor of Hebrew and Old Testament Exe- gesis, Drew Theological Sem., Madison, N. J. .....-LSidor Singer, Ph.D., MaNaGING EDITOR. ha): ee Samuel Baeck, Ph.D., Rabbi in Lissa, Germany. S. Ba.......Solomon Bamberger, Strasburg, Germany. $a vcawanest S. Janovsky, Attorney at Law, S. K........S. Kahn, Rabbi in Nimes, France. S. Kr.......S. Krauss, Ph.D., Professor Normal College, Budapest, Hun- gary; Author of *’ Griechische und Lateinische Lehnw Orter.”’ S. M........5. Mendelsohn, Ph.D., Rabbi in Wilmington, N. C. S. Man.....S. Mannheimer, B.L., Instructor, Hebrew Union College, Cincin- nati, O. S.M. D.....S. M. Dubnow, Odessa. Russia; Author of * A History of the Jews.” St. Petersburg, Russia. Coeditor of “Philonis oe S. R.........8. Roubin, Rabbi, Woodbine, N. J. S. Si........S. Spielvogel, Geelong, Victoria, Australia. T.....c0002..,Crawford Howell Toy, D.D., LL.D., Professor of Hebrew in Harvard "niversity, Cambridge, Mass.; Author of “The Religion of Israel,’ ** Judaism and Christianity.” T. H........Theodor Herzl, Ph.D., President of the International Zionist Con- gress, Vienna. Austria; Autbor of “Der Ji- dische Staat.”’ T. S......... Tobias Shanfarber, Ph.D., Rabbi of Ausche Ma’arab Congregation, Chi- cago, Ill. Vv. B.. ees0aes . Victor Basch, Professor at Rennes, France. V. C........ Victor Castiglioni, Professor, Triest. Austria. V. R....-... Vasili Rosenthal, hremenchug. Russia. Ww. B........ We Bacher, Ph.D., Professor at the Jewish Theological Seminary, Budapest. Hungary; Author of “Die Agada der Tannain,”’ ete. W.M.......William Milwitzky, Late of Harvard University Library, Came- bridge, Mass. W. M. M...W. Max Miiller, Ph.D., Professor of Bible Exegesis in the Reformed Episcopal Theological Seminary, Philadel. phia, Pa. W. Rei.....W. Reich, Rabbi in Vienna, Austria. W.S........William Salant, M.D., New York. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME II N. B.—In the following list subjects likely to be sought for under various headings are repeated under each. Traditional ascriptions are denoted by quotation-marks. PAGE ‘sAlexamenos prays to His God.” From a graffito in the Collegio Romano.......... istawadecesewn eee Alliance Israélite Universelle Girls’ School at Bagdad........... 0... cece ere en rrr: 2 1 Altar of Ba‘al at Petra, Idumeea........ cece esse ceces CA WEEE W Maw see ede Deus eae seseeeease O00 __— Phenician, with Bust of Ba‘al as a Sun-God........ Saaa ete Mu ewitte ene Sees oe jeicaieedeaeeee tole Amsterdam, Ark of the Law of the Sephardic Synagogue at........ccccccccercccccvcscecccsevcecees 108 Apamea, Coin of, with Supposed Representation of Noah’s Ark.............cc0es ible Sata o eons aie — 25 Apple of Sodom oo eee eveeerve Boe eeoee ee eevee eervr®eeevpeseeveseet eoeeeseeaeseesdeese eevee ee eaeeees er ee avoeue SBeoeeoeeuvegre O2 Aqueduct, Track of Siloam........... errr eer ree ee ee eee Aqueducts Leading to Jerusalem, Plan of......... See Ce Eee Tee ee eee eee eee 32 Aquila, Fragment of His Greek Translation of JI Kings XXiii. 15-19 2... oe eect eee ee plate facing 34 Ar Moab, View of the Ruins of......... oie eases eee cere cere reece ree reaeeseeseeteseseenoneancs 40 Arad, Hungary, Interior of Synagogue at....... 0. cece tee cerccenccecccccesseseseccsacesesssces 60 Ararat, Near Niagara, Foundation-Stone of Proposed City Of........cceescevccccccsccceccesccccess UF —__— View of Mount, from the Russian Frontier.......ccccccccccccccccncsccccusersecsesescsesess+. ta Arba KaulOl. cscs tes oo tase Vent wed ne CaM ASSES he pCR RNA NACOSS WK SO NOS SC bee SAE Rewaseeeeras LO Arch, Robinson’s, at Jerusalem.......... sthtarla aise uaaresguene as 04 tne Ste ecc sie a Oe awe boca ane a es eeweeheewess LLL Archelaus, Herod, Copper Coin of.......... Siveueetrou ean VOGT eS eae igitidue eetakincaseveansesaseas:. IC Archeology: see ARCH, ROBINSON’s; ASHKELON; Ass; BowL; Corns; PoTrEery; SEAL; VASE. Archers, Company of Egyptian, at Deir el-Bahari................ spPaaee Dads ebweG ahaa eee eee tases d- ic) —— Persian, as Body-Guard of Darius,............. situs ween EC TEC CTT ore ee ee Oe ee Architecture: see ARK OF THE Law; RoBINSON’s ARCH; SYNAGOGUES. Aretas IV. Philodeme of Nabatwa, Bronze Coin of, with Hebrew Inscription.........ccccccccceseee 89 Aristobulus, Judas, Copper Coins of, with Two Cornua-Copie............ Diam 6 KeeweeReae ee eeeaee: 00 “ Ark of the Covenant.” After Calmet......... 0.0. cece eee cece cece enees ‘stetepereieeeesaeas: 100 Ark of the Law, Earliest Representation of, Now in the Museo Borgiano at Rome.....ccecccesessess 107 —— —— from the Synagogue at Modena, 1505 c.E....... aataeds ee ere tees seas eae seegeeweee 111 — —— of the Sephardic Synagogue at Amsterdam. .......ccccccccccncccccesecccvceccsccccessess 108 ——— —— of the Synagogue at Bayonne, France........... ie eOWwae side 4 WO ei wk OSA Oe9Ss be Case eeOUG —— -—— of the Synagogue at Gibraltar........... Micees See ee eT TE ee ee 109 —— —— of the Synagogue at Pogrebishche, Russia ............. soe aureaiea¢ bs SeGesesaseeceescecs:. 110 —— Symbolic Representation of, Now in the Museo Borgiano at Rome..... i ores Se wineaia akin 108 “Ark of Noah.” From the Sarajevo Haggadah............cccceccccececees asp esintiou's'ee sees oeeae Lake Ark of Noah, Resting on Mt. Ararat............0.eceeee Bigudi Oise ap bert Lite Gw enters esse ves eeeese Lie -—— —— Supposed Representation of, on Coin of Apamea...........6.. TT ee ee eT ee ere ee Arkansas, Synagogue at Little Rock...........ee00% See Seawater eee naa Sebeeheeseaseweament Lis Army: Assyrian Soldiers on the March...... ee er sie bis Be weak a dGOOae esau eee a wee. bel —— Company of Egyptian Soldiers............... sGintSe ad ame aea Slee e/siaie o Wiew RS Ew NS eS wae heNusewe Lee ——— Persian Foot-Soldiers ...........0.0cccceeceeee bis aiwhi-e die/Du Wise wae a sired petse W eiee sree eis eeoeeeser leo ——— see also ARCHERS; ASITKELON, SIEGE OF, Arnon, Gorge at the Mouth of the River............. oe SarU Gorse a0. k Wb bnGs 6S Se Me weR area ee eeweseaaear Loe Arnstein, Fanny von, Society Leader in Vienna..........c00..e0e Kcedavawus awed satareeeaeeesees ous Loe Aron, Arnaud, Grand Rabbi of ptrasburg, A ISACO» ..446ockade ones seeaeeeeus Siviweeuses tease eeaeeael doe “Aron ha-Kodesh”: see ARK OF THE Law. Arragel, Moses, Presenting His Castilian Translation of the Bible to Don Luis de Guzman............ 189 Art: see ARcH; ARCHITECTURE; BowL; Corxs; Porrery; SEAL: Vase. xviii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME II PAGE Artom, Benjamin, Haham of the Spanish and Portuguese Congregation of London............-..... 156 —— Isaac, Italian Patriot, Diplomat, and Author....... cc... ccc cece ee cece tere eees eae ae Peet “Oy Ascoli, Graziadio Isaiah, Italian Philologist....... 4 Daa wet Eee ant bate oaeanead ee ee ee 171 “Ashamnu,” Music of......... iwi see Akeus eG wes ON Sas eee eee aaa ee kes eee re re reer eas bd | Ashdod, View Of Moderns 35 daco054 ddwakc bees” W935 568 OSs ows ek ie eee awd PUG A eee eta 178 Asher, Asher, Physician and Communal Worker, London, England......... paid meneoasre- Wide er Mase seins . 181 “ Ashirah,” Musie of....... Se ee ee Aa leste weed Sheba Wace p arene bee eases ROA ee ea ae aw ees 188, 189 Ashkelon, Inhabitants of Ancient..... Ge eared A eee Ra ane oe asehe oa ieee Te Or eae ib | =—== Plan OF The. ANCIent- Oily Ol. ovine cues dae oeueae oie eu Comme w ous ebaeedsa coat gee Rees .--- 190 == plere Of, by Rameses Wo iwtaiie cies ae se oaewa we ce cide en pared Sooo eae eeoniesdaeeaness aweewe 102 mesa View Ol. RUINS: OF ANCIONG 54 scabs sales (RG See Game tues eee wy aalsewea Nae ee tat wnena oun ee etry LOL Ashkenazi, Zebi Hirsch, Rabbi of Amsterdam... ........ ccc ccc cere ccc cececccscccccectesseccesesess OQ “ Ashre,” Music of.......... EBs Lie Are aeen We ERA DOS OD AOA W NS SRG 9 BREE OEE EN ERE Cs A OMe Wa Ae RUE “ Ashre ha-‘Am,” Music of................0- Sale Gh OG Uekcet Ga NOREEN OR VERT ON SG HARES Cae een OO Asia, Map Showing the Distribution of Jews in......... Pee oats sea aby pow eerd ceeded Seether UO Asia Minor, Map of the Ancient Jewish Communities in...... msieh eid ava tetas tive Oa cl avennuiensnnrs ake Gee cea ee Tee Asknazi, Isaac Lyvovich;: Russian Painter. c in wc oe ta.0 sis saG onakieeedsis oe ered des oaetewewesaeceee ed C14 Ass, Phenician, with Panniers.......... pakke Shale eee his eee ace arn ine ewe bw ew OR Oh eRe Oe eee, Col Syrian, Showing Manner of Riding......... shapalnc ihe Gita A atela Whale AU RAE OES GGG COdee ee Bouoe eel Ass-Worship: “The Mocking Crucifix.” From a graffito in the Collegio ROMANO: s4cwswieaacenieand wee Assyria: see ARMY; ASTARTE; BEARD. Astarte as a Sphynx.............. sees Scie h edna ra Ace CMa Onlad Nota Osean me hiee ranean ened. woe as the Goddess of Love. From an Assyrian cylinder .........cccccec ccc s cece sees er scscerecses LAD WILK DOVE: 4 dois S45 neacleentoeaa es Bors ated dea Kgl Vets a ease eee eosin tawsenecseee Dears a0 Astrolabe. -Proni Ma ase Tobia.” 1707 oe scat ce ae hen wtie coke ewes hides Soh ewes eee te wes ee 244 Astruc, Elie-Aristide, Chief Rabbi of Belgium. ..........cccecscnsccc oc ccessceccecsseeccccescesecs OO ——~ Jean, Physician and Founder of Modern Pentateuch Criticism. ......... cc cee eee cee e cere eeeeee GOR Asylum: see AUERBACH, BAaRUcuH. Athias, Joseph, Imprint:or Printer’s Mark of 2 .s00..00% ve ssea seca o 5 oad eee sccw ane sect Hasse eee ene es & R00 Atonement, Day of, with Rites on Preceding Day. 1. “Malkut.” 2. “Teshubah.” 38. Visiting graves. 4. * Zedakaly” in graveyard, 5,“ Kapparale” sis ass sense vee even ldnr ese sS4eseuwaessee ee OO ———~ —— German Rite. After Picart...... i Saahaueieg ae Sd ive oop alice Sod 8 te aah are ae ree seetien 2O0 —— —— Jews ina New York (East Side) Synagogue Confessing Their Sins in the Prayer “ Ashamnu” 288 —— —— Observed by the Jewish Soldiers in the German Army Before Metz, 1870............... sO “ Attah Hore’ta,” Music of.... eoeaetret @eerese @ eoe@esevwreres eeeeoe74#wxeeseenreeereeeseeeeeeweesreereeetPeeewvreeeseeteeeee Ge ee # 289 Auerbach, Baruch; Orphan Asylum, Berlin... oescee 4005s see ssa taNeew eee da eiseeea ses oven eo Berthold, German Author.... ..........2-.. tae catenanans pees eaves: sia Sees wei je Appa eauees tiaras 300 Augsburg: Seal of the Jewish Community, 1298..... ce Udine eee au ee eeveteeewhstesasegens U0 Augusta, Ga., Synagogue at... ee @ ee 6 @ @eseeeee&:ves. @eeeoeee1;,etoeeeereeereeereeet &@6@e¢eesteoenseeoeeoeesevneerteertrt=eee+ee og? ®@® ese eo 6 # 311 Auspitz, Heinrich, Austrian Dermatoiogist...............00..000- re ee eee ee . 317 Auto da Fé, Held in the Plaza Mayor at Madrid in 1680 Before Charles JI., His Wife and Mother, From a painting by Rici..... Ee Pee Ee re ee eee ee err woe plate between 340-341 —— — Presided over by San Domingo deGuzman. From a paintingin the National Gallery at Ma- drid, attributed to Berruguete, 15th century.......... iol ctehiee users geaae sha eesauerees 339 Autographs of Jewish Celebrities ............. ee eee ere OCT eee ee tere plate between 376-377 Acosta, Uriel. Frankel, Zechariah. Lasker, Eduard. Munk, Salomon. Aguilar, Grace. First, Julius. Lassalle, Ferdinand, Noah, Mordecai M. Auerbach, Berthold. Geiger, Abraham. Lazarus, Emonia. Rachel. Bamberger, Ludwig. Goldsmid, Sir Isaae L. Leeser, Isaac. Rothschild, Baron Lionel de. Benfey, Theodore. Gordon, Judah Loeb. Loeb, Isidore. Rothschild, Mayer A. Benjamin, Judah P. Graetz, Heinrich. Léw, Leopold. Rubinstein, Anton. Borne, Ludwig. Haleévy, F. Maimon, Moses ben (Maimonides). Schulman, Kalman. Carvajal, Antonio Ferdinand. Heine, Heinrich. Marx, Karl. Smolenskin, Perez. Crémieux, I. Adolphe. Herschel, Sir William, Menasseh ben Israel. Spinoza, Benedict de. Dawison, Bogumil. Hirsch, Baron Maurice. Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, Felix. Steinitz, Wilhelm. Derenbourg, Joseph. Hushiel bar Elhanon. Mendelssobn, Moses. Weil, Henri. Deutsch, Emanuel. Isserles, Moses. Meyerbeer, Giacomo. Wise, Isaac M. Disraeli, Benjamin. Jellinek, A. Moilcho, Solomon. Zacuto, Abraham. D'Israeli, Isaac. Kaufinann, David. Montefiore, Sir Moses. Zunz, Leopold. Einhorn, David. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME II xix svignon, France, Synagogue ab. ... ss ecsescsee es reeseeee eee. sritgtes eee t ees renee enon eeeees 352 ae jon Solomon ben Jacob, Haham of the Sephardic Congregations in London and Amsterdam...... ne me Shesh Me’ot,” Music Of... 6. ccc c cece eee e ee ce eee eee n enna nae ee en een e ee en eee etenaee 361 pa‘al, Altar of, at Petra, Idumea..... cc. cece cece cece ee ere ee enone ee ee ee ee sees ot __ as Phenician Sun-God . seen een eee tener sneer ee aces ena reens SD Be AA le eh Nate ice Gab cine fete of Ba‘al Hamon, asa Phenician Fire-God Ssgolh otto Seeahses fokyin ata eh aval cl ota Re uted aunans tensa es Gas Oa eA ee 34 «Babel, Tower of.” From the Sarajevo Haggadah (14th century)......... 2. cece cece ence eee ee eeees saa Babylon. View of the Ruins Of........... 0. eee ee ener eee Pewee ia TRONS CROS OUES SEN Sa RE: 399 Babylonia: see Basxton; BowL. . ; Bacher, Wilhelm, Hungarian Scholar and Orientalist.......... ccc cece er eee newt eee cent enna eee seeees oo Badge on an En Pls DEW i west setsawe den yan's feet e tree ee eee ee eres CAs aluaeewenewrraeene eats = 426 ___ Showing Different Forms of, Worn by Medieval Jews............eeeeeeeee es colored plate facing 426 Badges and Hats Worn by Jews in the Middle Ages..... eee ee eer ee eee Ore ee 425 __ on the Garments of Jewish WPilGSte sina kie hcl Gi Gat aia dk ene an eae oe te ei eae taeda 425 Baer, Seligman (Sekel), Writer on the Masorab........65c0 ccc reece ecssanencteesnesees Lipa erneeels 433 Bagdad, Girls’ School of the Alliance Israélite Universelle Rosaceae wtae Pewee sera aa wa ee ee 437 Babya ben Joseph ibn Pakuda: Page from Editio Princeps of “Hobot ha-Lebabot”...........eeee06- 449 Baker, Egyptian... 0... ce cece eee ee eee eee eee ec ee cnet tenet een e eee e eee cents eee e teeny 461 Bakery, Egyptian Royal. ... 2.0... ec eee e eee e ce ne cenetee eee eee nent e een e net e etn ee ee ees 463 “Bakewell Hall” as located on Ralph Aggas’ “Map of London” ......... sce c ees ee creer eceeeeeeers 461 Baking, Egyptian Royal Bakery, Showing Different Processes of....... 0.0... cece cence cece eens 463 ste IVER NOW Sed ID OVINe TOF gene. wantin alee ein cyte whe epee tee erty tend eh eeaeee aaa ee 462 “Balaam and the Ass.” From a “Teutsch Chumeshi? 2 26 acuwdc terevicaeawteuted pee Ruan esate scat ar aes 466 Balance: Egyptian Weighing Money. ...........-.seccsceccucenecncsecvensseeceees ere ee ee ee 470 Balsany Pla tonnes Saws cise eins a Hs Sane eae ook oh 4 Oana ee hoe Os Meee pews hy. si Ale We Aes 16 Baltimore, Olieb Shalony. “Temple ales soca haa wtiesdes beeiw seed ond shale arid + Oise ein. bee CGS 06 Soc 478 Bamberger, Ludwig, German Deputy and Political Economist. ..........--...-.. cece eee eee eee eee 484 Bar Kokba, Bronze Coin of the Bar Kokba War. Struck over a coin of Titus................. cee eee 305 ___- __— Bronze Coin of the Second Revolt, First Year. Showing a three-stringed lyre............. 006 __.—-— Bronze Coin of the Second Revolt, with obyyss niind, “The Deliverance of Jerusalem”.... 506 _—_— —-— Copper Coin of the Second Revolt, with Palm-Tree and Vine Branch ............ ee 506 Bar Mizwah, Son of the Precept, Reciting His Portion of the Law................... ewes a Frontispiece Barber: see BEARD TRIMMING. Barcelona (View of Monjuich), Supposed Site of the Jewish Cemetery at............0000. Pe ere O27 Barit, Jacob (Jankele Kovner), Russian Talmudist and Communal Worker............ She cela ona eG 530 Bathay,udwie, German. ACl0r 54.75 sone ube tamu aen toe. ounce ee adeiewsedaseds iit Wtemmarenes o41 Baraett.Jolin;. Boo ish COMposer dsc sa satersk e420 dss Gea wiivadvie Teas eeu apes seGoer esewnewenee 942 Rartolocci, Giulio, Italian Bibliographer of Jewish Literature. ...... 0... ccc eee cece eee eeees 347 Basel, Bronze Medal Struck at the Second Zionist Congress at (Obverse and Reverse)..... eee as ov — Card of Admission of a Delegate to the Second Zionist Congress at .........-.ececceees Se ekies 570 —— Meeting of the Second Zionist Congress at... cc cece eee cence eee ee eeveeees mintaleareleause orate 069 Basevi, George (Joshua): sce FrrzwiLuraM Museum, ASK Clas. OV Iaes: 252k uiee nick arent ed Rowe ooe Oe Raceline stars heel Bat Sete fevedenes Ce ee er ae rere? 978 INOW: WZ SCH SE IA lGStINe cts cacns's ng tsdele aun eat ae walneal sane eue Gon we iach ais ie dea riaisays . a9 Basnage, Jacob, Christian Writer of Jewish History.......... 0... cc cc eancseeeceecenecees a benw ated 580 Bavaria: see AUGSBURG. Bayonne, France, Ark of the Law of the Synagogue at... 0... cc cece ce ee eee e cece nenace Spa iweereen 606 Beard, Captive Jew with Clipped. From the British Museum..........ccceceeccecvees errors via Ole ela Judean om Bey ptevess Gusicharoclaot ewe tadcencitenatce’s peewee jo Paaite dae ak oe ate 613 —— of a Russian Jew at Jerusalem... .. 0... cee ccc cece ee nee ee teeeeesceens images ireawes 614 —— of a Semite of the Upper Class. From the Tombs of the Beni-Hassan............... cages eeas 612 ~—= Olan Assynian King. After Botta: is assss en ccieicebdanadbebiaeehin canes davewsistawaleeus seueee Old —— of Jewish Envoy. From the Black Obelisk in the British Museum............. wie aiid iaetee sears 612 —— Trimming. From Leusden, “ Philologus Hebreeo Mixtus,” 1657,...........006- Si aee eee eee ia 614 Beck, Karl, Austrian Poet. ......0. 00000 ccc cece cc cccceuveneccectecceucuueaterecenes wdeha wana’ 622 Beer, Benjamin ben Elijah: see LAMLEIN MEDAL. ——— Bernhard, Hebrew and Talmudic Scholar.............cccecccecccecceccevccees iS aietsarslon Gen whan 633 xXx LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME II PAGER Becr, Michael, German Poct.............00.008 Siu eevateteroenays ee ee Jee bedasne diene dace wee O84 Peter, Austrian Writer on Jewish Sects.......... wide tine eee pies eee ae mee ee eeaen MSS ees .. 685 Beer-sheba, Wells of... 0.2... cee ee ee cet ete eens are ceehad Bata te eee et icis eanita e.wanees Hosein ONE Belais, Abraham ben Shalom, Rabbi of Tunis........ iavaeeiss égiceces Te en ee eee . 652 Belasco, David, American Playwright.......... eS iinalate agents eee ee Ce re ee eee nareae es 658 Belmonte: Arms of the Family.............. eee Se ee eee ee ee er ee eT ree 665 “Bemoza’e,” Music of........... 0000 ee Pe ee er reg ere Pigcthpte Rate e aia a tuats Cea eewrs oa bir eere eee aes 671 Ben-Ze’eb, Judah Lob, Jewish Grammarian and Lexicographer............ Rie Gih eine a ase e a aa ee Rae OOS Benamozegh, Elijah, Italian Rabbi... 2.0... ek cece cee eee ate nubs suche eee eaceeaba 684 Beni-Hassan (Beard of a Semite of the Upper Class), from the Tombs of the ............0005 eeceeees 612 Berlin, Baruch Auerbach Orphan Asylum at...... oes te thd ak cnats See pees ee er 299 Bible, Fragment of Aquila’s Greek Translation of IT Kings xxiii. 15-19 ........... wr»... plate facing 34 Moses Arragel Presenting to Don Luis de Guzman His Castilian Translation of the.............. 189 3iack Obelisk, Beard of Jewish Envoy from the............. bisa orwris iase iad ent Wis Sa ecag hoa is wins muae Saree 612 Bowl, Magic, with Hebrew Inscriptions, Found Among the Ruins of Babylon.............00eeees ... 402 Bread: see BAKER; BAKING. Cambridge, England: see FirzwinLtiam Museum. Candlestick, Golden, Representation of, on Glass Fragments...........ccecccveccccceccees L07%, 108, 140 Caricature: see BADGE. Cemetery: see ATONEMENT, Day or; BARCELONA. Ceremonial: see ATONEMENT, Day OF; BAR Mizwau. Coat of Arms of the Belmonte Family........... 2... ... 00005 Oe ery Pe ee sereee eames, OOD Coins: see APAMEA; ARCHELAUS; ARISTOBULUS, JUDAS; BAR KokBA; SIMON MACCABEUS. Confirmation: see BAR Mizwau. Costume: sec BADGE; Harts. “ COVendit Ark Or the.” sATtemCalnets.4 4 iccaccas ob own shuren ae wat awa cleo ROG SN eee econ LUD Darius, Body-Guard of............. iG bun cwevaw weak jeoee dese SCs Dic wesw ebeeee betes eweeeaesr 20 Day of Atonement: see ATONEMENT, Day OF, Deir cl-Bahari, Company of Egyptian Archers at....... st REEDS wee ames Ped bee ee Kear eeamesie tess LOO Dove in the Arms of Astarte.......... seyenteene ve saaher aeeens came eetaes sSinacuiewa eee Representation of, on a Glass Fragment in the Museo Borgiano at Rome.............eeeeeseeee- 107 Egypt: see ARCHERS; ARMY; BAKER; BAKING; BALANCE; BASKETS; BEARD; RAMEsEs IT. ; SPHYNX. Flishegip pat Elishama, Seal Bearing Inscription of........ stud AGGe aac eahew ees ctantewecsseeense, 440 England: see CAMBRIDGE; LONDON. Esdiid, Modern Ashdod, View of........... peiiseusewe pu aeeeiaRaes ile Paces ho ERLE eae LO Ethnology: see ASHKELON, INHABITANTS OF ANCIENT; ASHKELON, SIEGE OF; BEARD. Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, England, Designed by George Basevi..... sroaunaaie Vinee ee ke snesar Ole Forest: Assyrian Soldiers on a March Through a Wooded Region........... ‘Ge Sea aweeae chs apie? eee Foundation-Stone of the Proposed City of Ararat Near Niagara...... ickeiue eae a ateee ewes he France: see AVIGNON; BAYONNE. Georgia: Synagogue at Augusta........... SeWWaer ed soauw tenants Sots aiutau ni Saale ale aw ai wera eey 0 Oe Gibraltar, Ark of the Law of the Synagogue at......... Vameadid hate wigs oueter ee eawesew eases. LOU Graves: see ATONEMENT, DAy OF. Hats Worn-by Jews: the Middle: A268 is iiiiee:é.0 iste oan e65 G04 69.4 SOO Wi wh G0e oe 60 EOO Reese Tee eeed Heo see also BADGE. Hebrew: see INSCRIPTIONS; SCRIPT. Herod Archelaus, Copper Coin of............ ee Tee eT CET EET TCT eT eee ee Te eee ee 78 “ Hobot ha-Lebabot,” Page from Editio Princeps of Bahya’s........ccccccssccccceccsscvesccsccscecs 449 Holland: see AMSTERDAM. Idumeea: see PETRA. Imprint of Joseph Athias............ Pith Greed a roiatd sua Gate ache Merete ss Sarde es REEw Mois od aie eae N awe aeeewt SOO Inquisition: see AUTO DA FE, Inscriptions, Hebrew: see BowL; Coins; SEAL. Italy: see MopENa. Jerusalem: see AQUEDUcTs; BEARD; Roprnson’s ARCH. “Jew Mount”: see Monsvutcn. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME II xxi PAGE - see LONDON. Ty fo Jew » sristobulus, Copper Coins Ol aio bs HW ee Oe AAW CORRE SENSO BRS R ROUSE ORES eee 95. Judas “K apparah %» see ATONEMENT, Day OF. «¢ Lagmlein Medal”: Attributed to Benjamin ben Elijah Beer........ccccceseccsececcerececereesces B82 Lions Representations Gl. OIG Ass hn bawseauye sie. ciceb oeaueeyweeteundeeelaseteew eexeseebeed le, 100 Little Rock, Ark, Synagogue at SoS Ss eotreerceeresceeseanenees- ene: OOS eee nt ee a eee pn 113 ndon, Ralph Aggas’ Map of, Showing the Location of “Old Jewry ” and “ Bakewell Hall” ........ 461 0 ; Maccabeus, Sinion, Shekel of.. SFT CSTE ARHSHS SESE SHCHHHHSHHSSSHESEHSHHTHHELHEHTCEHSHEH HT HHSHEEH SH THEHOHEHOHEHH EZ EHS 138 Maarid: see AUTO DA FE. ic; see BOWL. ree ». see ATONEMENT, Day OF. Manuscript: see AguiLa; BADGE. Maps: see AQUEDUCTS; ASHKELON; Asta; Asta Minor; Lonpon. Medals: see BASEL; “LAMLEIN MEDAL.” Metz, Day of Atonement, as Observed by the Jewish Soldiers in the German Army in 1870, Before.... 287 Moab: see AR Moan. Modena, Ark of the Law from the SYHASOSUC Abscess evs deeseevewenes eoecreene recone eeseeseesneeneseaeae @ 111 Money, Egyptian Method of Wielohin os 2 p6 ave ered soars Ged aebea oo eu wN Skew Olea aaa wee OSe0 erasers 470: Monjuich, “ Jew Mount,” Supposed Site of the Jewish Cemetery at Barcelona.........seeececerceeee Onl Mount Ararat, from the Russian Frontier.......cescceseeece sere eeeee cere ee rececrteseesecesseseess 8 Geetwese 110 Music, “Ashamnu”..........6-.00. siesSbni gris 66: o bil WS 9: Sie rae 6 ei Sie wie a's Si Moyisl ois Bah OA wre NS SiOseo 8 os @ ASIAN co tg. Aes eke Ee Po RE a ET re Oe nT ee eee ee Re Tay Oe AEE ES fois MB Rat! ans AGHIO yc charve Gata senses Sa eaie Rw weed Giaeee OO. arae een a Nels Go Re dees Ce eer sane sesaree CUS Bs METS MARTIN. “2665.0 aiae Sols AES A oa Ore baa Oe Aes hese eee eae IAI AOE s ORR Rete wae a oeeeeeeeseee CUD OA tal FOkG th sx ateeuads oa caaiet Mees oe Wo Vamwiec cea os NSN Seen es Vase se twas shee tes aeueueeeeacOe he RG Sigs NE OL <5 cacti px Rei aetna ewes se 66-6 Ure we bes oe Salen ere eu eanas MUR eUNeae eseeee- COL p= edn AIVOUH E's a:b BEd. “eG Naaw a wae eae eaewtekad Ga sae tue Wad ew Sewn ee Sawa cuiea owes awe Ole Nabateea: see Aretas IV. New York Jews in an East Side Synagogue Confessing Their Sins in the Prayer “ Ashamnu”........ 288 Noah: see ARK OF NOAH. Oheb Shalom Temple, Baltimore ....... sp Sesis Grain a eos A cee a Aaah a ew lala te eee ae Scena wane ours OOO. Orphamdsyhim, Bartel: Avierbach, al Berlitiss.<, ss iscsateaekaveu g Mtiseie is ssly'oe nage st s:0Ggn es Seeeesoetems OOF Oven, Modern, as U sedeur Sy itis nctiin Fane oe wew sw ek dG AS OS. bau naae Cokes Sees tad oe eeu ae Reaweewe«éewe: BO" Palestine: see Aqreptcts; Ar Moss; Asupop; ASHKELON; Asra, Map or; JERUSALEM. Persia: sec ARCHERS. | Petra, Idumea, Altar of Ba‘alat....... 0.0. ce eee eee pe en ee ere rE eee errr rer ae yt, Phenicia: see Ass; ASTARTE; Ba‘aL, ALTAR OF; Ba‘an Hamon. Plants: see APPLE OF SopomM; BALSAM PLANT. Pogrebishche, Russia, Ark of the Law of the Synagogue at. .....cccce cece sce cnccccscevencccececses 110 Portraits: see : ARNSTEIN, FANNY YON. AUERBACH, BERTHOLD. BASNAGE, JACOB. ARON, ARNAUD. AUSPITZ, HEINRICH. BEcK, KARL. ARTOM, HAHAM BENJAMIN. AYLLON, SOLOMON BEN JACOB. BEER, BERNHARD, ARTOM, ISAAC. BACHER, WILHELM. BEER, MICHAEL. ASCOLI, GRAZIADIO ISAIAH. BAER, SELIGMAN (SEKEL). BEFR, PETER. ASHER, ASHER. BAMBERGER, LUDWIG. BELAIS, ABRAHAM BEN SHALOM. ASHKENAZI, HAKAM ZEBI HIRSCH. BARiT, JACOB (JANKELE KOVNER). BELASCO, DAVID. ASKNAZL, Isaac LVOVICH. BARNAY, LUDWIG. BEN-ZE’EB, JUDAH LOB. ASTRUC, ELIE-ARISTIDE, BARNETT (BEER), JOHN. BENAMOZEGH, ELIJAH. ASTRUC, JEAN. BARTOLOCCI, GIULIO. Pottery, Hebrew, Bottles Found Near Jerusalem......... Pe Ce ee ee Cee er errs © A) Printer’s Mark: sce ImpRINT. Rameses II. Besieging Ashkelon...........cccc cece cece cues Scpbad Sie blame Maeiawes cele ew ineege eee an Lee Robinson’s Arch, PET ULS HME IIN gioco fore sesere oraesvein eee no araetiave abies Shae eede bee tela se Se hak On DOME eee Ak eS 141, Russia: see POGREBISHCHE. Scale: see BALANCE. Script: see AQUILA. xxii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME II PAGE Scrolls of the Law: see ARK OF THE LAW. Seal of Elishegib bat Elishama......... .. Lpaaiee war Cowie nee aeeese puee ate Gunad Me a arua ee cee steers es 140 woe OF the Jews Of Aumsuuty, 1208 oi a siedsn duce eSeneheg me ween ee leeseereris tae Ue ennw eae ed 306 Sephardic Synagogue at Amsterdam, Ark of the aw Ohi s eee Sees 6Gciesone eee eae wna e eee 108 DHEKE) Of IMO DACCADENS 2 <5 4 sce Cewek Sear che Base Ree eee SA EOS ee eee ew eRe A eRaaS 138 Shields: see ARCHERS; ARMY; ASHKCLON, SIEGE OF, Siege of Ashkelon by Rameses II......... alt Mie Diocese ae erasiutius psexeaeiexaenes ee ee ee 192 Signatures: see AUTOGRAPHS. “ Siloam, “Prack Of Aqueduct: Ol is :s.sicvnesw eceete ew ace vgs terse s 64 a4 irs ans Sead a we Ree Cee OAS Ge 32 Simon Maccabeus, Shekel of.......... PO TE eee Oe EE Ley TER ee Ee eam mee Mee ne re ee ere 138 Sodom, Apple of..............eeee Lace ev ciewew eer iis ewlead ensued sale Suee eases ae os 5eouayeseeeus 25 Soldiers: see ARCHERS; ARMY. Spain: see AUTo DA FE; BARCELONA, Sphynx, Goddess Astarte as a..... ba ates Te eee eT ee ee Rn ee er en ee re re ere 239 Sun-God, Ba‘al as a.... 02... eee ee ce eens eevee a aie aie ain ace SUG Sine a Wea Ae w IS enia ek watnne eae 319 Symbolic Representation of the Ark of the Law... ... ccc cee cece eee cece cece ee tet ete eenseeneneee 108 Synagogues: see AMSTERDAM; ARAD; ARKANSAS} ATONEMENT, Day oF; AUGUSTA; AVIGNON; “ BAKE- WELL Hatu”; BALTIMORE; BAYONNE. Syria, Modern Baking- -Oven Used in...... bige Sane eee ket Rea baay sAthoonsaesemimuas eee egos aes 462 ‘‘Tallit Katon,” Small Tallit or Arba’ Kanfot........cccceccceccn cece ceecenessneess ey eee 76 Temple: Oheb Shalom; Baltimi0re:« ices i0vas veiw sinws twee ee endenvees AGA ig SH ye area Rie wees ceseee 478 Temple, Representation of, on Bottom of Glass Vase........... She wiaiw sawed sata eine tree Male sialaiieda batty 140 “Teshubah”: see ATONEMENT, Day oF, “Tower of Babel.” From the Sarajevo Haggadah............00.08 eeitaes ee eeeetewuses Secewee ga OoO Types, Jewish: see BAacbap; Bar MizwauH; Bearp; NEw York. United States: see ARKANSAS; AUGUSTA; BALTIMORE; NEW YORK. Vase, Bottom of, with Representation of the Temple and Golden Candlestick... ........cecceseeseces 140 Weights Used by Egyptians in Weighing Money............... sahara tend aisareWisieieienen oeinewes am arr ed ATO Wells of Beer-sheba *e@esnuvrrvree eens eeaereere ev ee @eoe2a td @ @eeaeeoevnneseeoeeecogevoeeseoeeeoeeeveneasesv eee geoeveaeeeevneteoeaevere 837 ‘‘Zedakah’’: see ATONEMENT, Day OF. Zionism: see BASEL. “ Zizit,” Fringes of the Arba‘ Kanfot eeeese eeseoean eon eoeeneve een 0 eeegeeeteeoeoeeoeseeese S®eeneoese oes eeoe*?easzpese eo ot aB THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA APOCRYPHA : § I. The most general detini- tion of Apocrypha is, Writings having some preten- sion to the character of sacred scripture, or received as such by certain sects, but excluded from the canon (see CANON). The history of the earlier usage of the word is ob- scure. It is probable that the adjective azéxpugoc, “hidden away, kept secret,” as applied to books, was first used of writings which were kept from the pub- lic by their possessors because they contained a mys- terious or esoteric wisdom too profound or too sacred to be communicated to any but the initiated. Thus a Leyden magical papyrus bears the title, Moiséwe iepa BiBioc andxpudos eixahovuéryn oyddn } ayia, “ The Secret Sacred Book of Moses, Entitled the Eighth or the Holy Book ” (Dietrich, “ Abraxas,” 169). Pherecydes of Syros is said to have Jearned his wisdom from 74 horvicwy ardxpvda BiB2ia, “The Secret Books of the Phenicians ” (Suidas, s.7. Bepexbdyc). In the early cen- turies of our era many religious and philosophical sects had such scriptures; thus the followers of the Gnostic Prodicus boasted the possession of secret books (aroxpigovc) of Zoroaster (Clemens Alexandri- nus, “Stromata,” i. 15 [857 Potter]). IV Esdras is avowedly sucha work: Ezra is bidden to write all the things which he has seen ina book and lay it up ina hidden place, and to teach the contents to the wise among his people, whose intelligence he knows to be sufficient to receive and preserve these secrets (Xii. 36 et seg.). (sce Dan. xii. 4, 9; Enoch, i. 2, eviii. 1; Assumptio Mosis, x. 1 et seg.) In another passage such writings are expressly distinguished from the twenty-four canonical books; the latter are to be pub- lished that they may be read by the worthy and unworthy alike; the former (seventy in number) are to be preserved and transmitted to the wise, because they contain a profounder teaching (xiv. 44-47). In this sense Gregory of Nyssa quotes words of John in the Apocalypse as év aroxpi-dore (“ Oratio in Suam Or- dinationem,” iii. 549, ed. Migne; compare Epiphanius, “ Adversus Heereses,” li. 3). The book contains reve- lations not to be comprehended by the masses, nor rashly published among them. __Inasmuch, however, as this kind of literature flour- ished most among heretical sects, and as many of the writings themselves were falsely attributed to the famous men of ancient times, the word “ Apocry- pha” acquired in ecclesiastical use an unfavorable I].—1 ES connotation; the private scriptures treasured by the sects were repudiated by the Church as heretical and often spurious. [ists were made of the books which the Church received as sacred scripture and of those which it rejected; the former were “ canonical ” (see CANON); to the latter the name “ Apocrypha” was given. The canon of the Church included the books which are contained in the Greek Bible but not in the Hebrew (see the list below, § TII.); hence the term “ Apocrypha” was not applied to these books, but to such writings as Enoch, the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, ete. (see below, § WT.). Jerome alone applies the word to all books which are not found in the Jewish canon (see “ Prologus Galeatus ”). At the Reformation, Protestants adopted the Jewish canon, and designated by the name “ Apocrypha” the books of the Latin and Greek Bibles which they thus rejected; while the Catholic Church in the Coun- cilof Trent formally declared these books canonical, and continued to use the word “ Apocrypha” for the class of writings to which it had generally been ap- propriated in the ancient Church; for the latter, Prot- estants introduced the name “ Pseudepigrapha.” § II. Apocryphal Books among the Jews. Judaism also had sects which possessed esoteric or recondite scriptures, such as the Essenes (Josephus, “B. J.” ii. 8, $7), and the Therapeutse (Philo, “De Vita Contemplativa,” ed. Mangey, ii. 475). Their occurrence among these particular sects is explic- itly attested, but doubtless there were others. In- deed, many of the books which the Church branded as apocryphal were of Jewish (sometimes heretical Jewish) origin. The Jewish authorities, therefore, were constrained to form a canon, that is, a Jist of sacred scriptures; and in some cases to specify par- ticular writings claiming this character which were rejected and forbidden. The former—so the distine- tion is expressed in a ceremonial rule (Yad. fii. 5; Tosef., Yad. ii. 13)—make the hands which touch them unclean—o'i7 Mx PROD WIP N35; the latter do not (see Canon). Another term used in the discussion of certain books is 333, properly “to lay up. Store away for safe-keeping,” also “withdraw from use.” Thus, Shab. 30), “The sages intended to withdraw Ecclesiastes”; “they also intended to withdraw Proverbs ”; 74. 133,“ Hananiah b. Hezekiah prevented Ezekiel from being withdrawn ” ; Sanh. 1004 (Codex Carisruhe), “although our masters with Apocrypha THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 2 So ee ee ne a a ee ea drew this book” (Sirach), etc. It has frequently been asserted that the idea and the name of the Greek “Apocrypha” were derived from this Hebrew ter- minvology. (See Zahn, “Gesch. des Neutestament- lichen Kanons,” i. 1,128 e¢ seg.; Schiirer, in “ Protest- antische Realencyclopiidie,” 3d ed., i. 623, and many others; compare Hamburger,“ Realency klopiidie,” ii. 68, n. 4.) “Apocrypha” (azoxpvoa 3132ia) is, it is said, a literal translation of D*7)93 DY SD, * concealed, hidden books.” Closer examination shows, however, that the alleged identity of phraseology is a mistake. Talmudic literature knows nothingof aclassof BSD O'N33—neither this phrase nor an equivalent occurs —-not even in “Ab. Rt. N.” 1.1, though the error ap- pears to have originated in the words 1 D333 used there. Nor is the usage identical: }3) does not mean “conceal” (avoxpivrecv translates not p33, but wD and its synonyms), but “store away ”; it is used only of things intrinsically precious or sacred. As applied to books, it is used only of books which are, after all, included in the Jewish canon, never of the kind of literature to which the Church Fathers give the name “ Apocrypha”; these are rather D397 OAD (Yer. Sanh. x. 1, 28¢), or pon MHD. The only excep- tion isa reference to Sirach. The Book of (magical) Cures which Hezekiah put away (Pes. iv. 9) was doubtless attributed to Solomon. This being the state of the facts, it is doubtful whether there is any connection between the use of ?)3 and that of ATOKPVGOC, § III. Lists of Apocrypha; Classification. The following is a brief descriptive catalogue of writings which have been at some time or in some quarters regarded as sacred scripture, but are not in- cluded in the Jewish (and Protestant) canon. For more particular information about these works, and for the literature, the reader is referred to the special articles on the books severally. First, then, there are the books which are com- monly found in the Greek and Latin Bibles, but are not included in the Hebrew canon, and are hence rejected by Protestants; to these, as has already been said, Protestants give the name “ Apocrypha ” specifically. These are (following the order and with the titles of the English translation): I Esdras; II Esdras; Tobit; Judith; The Rest of the Chapters of the Book of Esther; Wisdom of Solomon; Wis- dom of Jesus, the Son of Sirach, or Ecclesiasticus; Baruch, with the Epistle of Jeremiah; Song of the Three Holy Children; History of Susanna; Destruc- tion of Bel and the Dragon; Prayer of Manasses; I Maccabees; II Maccabees. These, with the excep- tion of I, II (III, IV) Esdras and the Prayer of Ma- nasses, are canonical in the Roman Church. Secondly, books which were pronounced apocry- phal by theancient Church. Of these we possess sev- eral catalogues, the most important of which are the Stichometry of Nicephorus; the Athanasian Synop- sis; and an anonymous list extant in several manu- scripts, first edited by Montfaucon (see Schiirer, “Gesch.” 3d ed., iii. 262 e¢ seg.); further a passage in the “ Apostolical Constitutions ” (vi. 16), and the so- called Decree of Pope Gelasius (“Corpus Juris Ca- nonici,” iii. Distinctio 15). References in the Fathers add some titles, and various Oriental versions give us a knowledge of other writings of the same kind. A considerable part of this literature has been pre. served, and fresh discoveries almost every year prove how extensive and how popular it once was. A satisfactory classification of these writings ig hardly possible; probably the most convenient scheme is to group them under the chief types of Biblical literature to which they are severally re. lated—viz. : 1. Historical, including history proper, books, and haggadie narrative. 2. Prophetic, including apocalypses. 3, Lyric; psalnis. 4. Didactic; proverbs and other forms of “ wis. dom.” The assignment of a book to one or another of these divisions must often be understood as only a potiort; a writing which is chiefly narrative may contain prophecy or apocalypse; one which is pri- marily prophetic may exhibit in parts affinity to the didactic literature. . § IV. Historical Apocrypha. 1. First Mac. cabees. A history of the rising of the Jews under the leadership of Mattathias and his sons against Antiochus Epiphanes, and of the progress of the struggle down to the death of Simon, covering thus the period from 175-135 n.c. The book was written in Hebrew, but is extant only in Greek and in trans- lations made from the Greek. — 2, Second Maccabees. Professedly an abridgment of a larger work in tive books by Jason of Cyrene, It begins with the antecedents of the conflict with Syria, and closes with the recovery of Jerusalem by Judas after his victory over Nicanor, The work was written in Greek, and is much inferior in his- torical value to I Macc. Prefixed to the book are two letters addressed to the Jews in Egypt on the observance ot the Feast of Dedication (7D13N). 3. First Esdras. In the Latin Bible, Third Esdras. A fragment of the oldest Greek version (used by Josephus) of Chronicles (including Ezra and Nehe- miah), containing I Chron. xxxv.—Neh, vii. 13, ina different, and in part more original, order than the Hebrew text and with one considerable addition, the story of the pages of King Darius (iii. 1-v. 6). The book is printed in an appendix to the official editions of the Vulgate (after the New Testament), but is not recognized by the Roman Church as canonical. 4, Additions to Daniel. a. The story of Susanna and the elders, prefixed to the book, illustrating Daniel’s discernment in judgment. b, The destruction of Bel and the Dragon, ap- pended after ch. xii., showing how Daniel proved to Cyrus that the Babylonian gods were no gods. ce. The Song of the three Jewish Youths in the fiery furnace, inserted in Dan. iii. between verses 23 and 24. These additions are found in both Greek transla- tions of Daniel (Septuagint and Theodotion); for the original language and for the Hebrew and Aramaic versions of the stories, see DANIEL. 5. Additions to Esther. In the Greck Bible, enlarge- ment on motives suggested by the origina! story: a, The dream of Mordecai and his discovery of the conspiracy, prefixed to the book; the interpretation follows x. 3; 6. Edict for the destruction of the Jews, after iii. 18; ¢c., d. Prayers of Mordecai and Esther, story THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 3 cror iv. 173 € Esther’s reception by the king, taking af ° ad te j oF to defend themselves, after viii. 12. In the ioe a these additions are detached from their con- we d brought together in an appendix to the ion an ner, with a note remarking that they are not found VOOB, ° "ew. sneer Manasses. Purports to be the words fthe prayer spoken of in II Chron. xxxiii. 18 et seq. ; : D bly designed to stand in that place. In many a aipts of the Greek Bible it is found among the pieces appended to the Psalms; in the Vulgate st is printed after the New Testament with III and IV Esd., and like them is not canonical. | 7, Judith. Story of the deliverance of the city of Bethulia by a beautiful widow, who by a ruse deceives and kills Holophernes, the commander of the besieging army. The book was written in He- prew, but is preserved only in Greek or translations from the Greek; an Aramaic Targum was known to Jerome. 8, Tobit. The scene of this tale, with its attract- ive pictures of Jewish piety and its interesting glimpses of popular superstitions, is laid in the East (Nineveh, Ecbatana); the hero is an Israelite of the tribe of Naphtali, who was carried away in the deportation by Shalmaneser (“Enemessar”). The story is related in some way to that of AHIKAR. 9, Third Maceabees. (See MaccaBres, Books OF.) A story of the persecution of the Egyptian Jews by Ptolemy Philopator after the defeat of Antiochus at Raphia in 217 B.c.; tucir steadfastness in their relig- ion, and the miraculous deliverance God wrought for them. The book, which may be regarded as an Alexandrian ccunterpart of Esther, is found in manu- scripts of the Septuagint, but is not canonical in any branch of the Christian Church. § V. Historical Pseudepigrapha. The books named above are all found in the Greek and Latin Bibles and in the Apocrypha of the Protestant versions. We proceed now to other writings of cn3 same general class, commonly called “ Pseud- epigrapha.” 10. The Book of Jubilees, called also Leptogenesis (“The Little Genesis”), probably Novy mwa, in distinction, not from the canonical Genesis, but from a larger Midrash, a 739 '3. It contains a haggadic treatment of the history of the Patriarchs as well as of the history of Israel in Egypt, ending with the institution of the Passover, based on Gen. and Ex. i.-xii. It is a free reproduction of the Biblical nar- rative, with extensive additions of an edifying char- acter, exhortations, predictions, and the like. It gets the name “ Book of Jubilees ” from the elaborate chro- nology, in which every event is minutely reckoned out in months, days, and years of the Jubilee period. The whole is in the form of a revelation made through an angel to Moses on Mt. Sinai, from which some writers were led to call the book the “ Apocalypse of Moses.” (See APOCALYPSE, §V.10.) It was written in Hebrew, probably in the first century B.c., but is now extant only in Ethiopic and in fragments of an old Latin translation, both made from an intermedi- ate Greek versior Brief mention may be made here of several similar works Containing Haggadah of early Hebrew history. of v. 1 in the Hebrew; f. Edict permitting | Apocrypha ca. ** Liber Antiquitatum Biblicarum,” attributed to PHILo, This was first published, with some other works of Philo, at Basel in 1527 (see Cohn, in “ Jew. Quart. Rev.” 1298, x. 277 et seq.; Schirer, ** Gesch.”’ 3d ed., iii. 541 et seq., additional literature). Extends from Adam to the death of Saul, with omissions and additions—genealogical, legendary, and rhetorical—speeches, prophecies, prayers, etc. The patriarchal age is despatched very briefiy ; the Exodus, on the contrary, and the stories of the Judges, are much expanded. The author deals more freely with the Biblical narrative than Jubilees, and departs from it much more widely. The work is preserved in a Latin transla- tion made from Greek ; but it is highly probable that the orig- inal language was Hebrew, and that it was written at a time not very remote from the common era. Considerable portions of it are incorporated—under the name of Philo—in the Hebrew book, of which Gaster has published a translation under the title ** Chronicles of Jerahmeel” (see Gaster, l.c., Introduction, pp. Xxx. et seq., and below, a). b. Later works which may be compared with this of Philo are the Hwa Sw oA WAN, Aw aD, and the yd) wats, on which see the respective articles. ¢. To a different type of legendary history belongs the He- brew YOSIPPON (gq. V.). d. The ‘* Chronicles of Jerahmeel,”’ translated by Gaster from a unique manuscript in the Bodleian (1899), are professedly compiled from various sources ; they contain large portions ex- cerpted from the Greek Bible, Philo (see above), and ‘* Yo- sippon,”’ as well as writings like the Pirke de R. Eliezer, etc. é. Any complete study of this material must include also the cognate Hellenistic writings, such as the fragments of Eupole- musand Artapanus (see Freudenthal, ‘* Hellenistische Studien ’’) and the legends of the same kind in Josephus. § VI. Books of the Antediluvians. The Book of Jubilees makes repeated mention of books contain- ing the wisdom of the antediluvians (e.g., Enoch, iv. 17 et seg.; Noah, x. 12 et seg.) which were in the possession of Abraham and his descendants; also of books in which was preserved the family law of the Patriarchs (compare xli, 28) or their prophecies (xxxii. 24 et seg., xlv. 16). These are all in the literal sense “apocryphal,” that is, esoteric, scriptures. A considerable number of writings of this sort have been preserved or are Known to us from ancient lists and references; others contain entertaining or edify- ing embellishments of the Biblical narratives about these heroes. Those which are primarily prophetic or apocalyptic are enumerated elsewhere (x., xi.); the following are chiefly haggadic: 11, Life of Adam and Eve. This is essentially a Jewish work, preserved—in varying recensions—in Greek, Latin, Slavonic, and Armenian. It resembles the Testament literature (see below) in being chiefly occupied with the end of Adam’s life and the burial of Adam and Eve. According to an introductory note in the manuscripts, the story was revealed to Moses, whence the inappropriate title “ Apocalypse of Moses.” On the apocryphal Adam books see ADAM, Book oF. Other apocry phal books bearing the name of Adam are: The Book of Adam and Eve, or the Conflict of Adam and Eve with Satan, extant in Arabic and Ethiopic; and The Testament of Adam, in Syriac and Arabic. Both these are Christian off- shoots of the Adam romance. Apocalypses of Adam are mentioned by Epiphanius; the Gelasian Decree names a book on the Daughters of Adam, and one called the Penitence of Adam. Seven Books of Seth are said by Epiphanius (“Adversus Heereses,” xxxix. 5; compare xxvi. 8; also Hippolytus, “ Refutatio,” v. 22; see also Jo- sephus, “Ant.” i. 2, § 8) to have been among the scriptures of the Gnostic sect of Sethians. Apocrypha THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 4 Se ee On the apocryphal books of Enoch see Apoca- LYPSE, § V., and Enocu, Books oF. The Samaritan author, a fragment of whose writing has been preserved by Eusebius (* Preep. Ev.” ix. 17) under the name of Eupolemus, speaks of revelations by angels to Methuselah, which had been preserved to his time. A Book of Lamech is named in one of our lists of Apocrypha. Books of Noah are mentioned in Jubilecs (x. 12, xxi. 10). Fragments of an Apocalypse of Noah are incorporated in different places in Enoch (which sec). A book bearing the name of Noria, the wife of Noah, was current among certain Gnostics (Epi- phanius, “ Adv. Hvereses,” xxvi. 1). Shem transmits the books of his father, Noah (Jubilees, x. 14); other writings are ascribed to him by late authors. Haim was the author of a prophecy cited by Isidore, the son of Basilides (Clemens Alexandrinus, “ Stromata,” vi. 6); according to others he was the inventor of magic (identified with Zoroaster; Clementine, “ Rec- ognitiones,” iv. 27). § VII. Testaments. which may have described his contest = nonis,’ ‘ 2 Salor th Hiram, a frequent theme of later in wisdom Wi writers. t of Hezekiah is cited by Cedrenus: but Testamen tees quoted is found in the Ascension of the S ise VII. Relating to Joseph, Isaiah, and Ba- h. Other Apocrypha are the following : me " Story of Aseneth. A romantic tale, narrating Aseneth, the beautiful daughter of Potiphar, ner of On, became the wife of Joseph; how the es gon, who had desired her for himself, tried to pe Joseph, and how he was foiled. The romance exists in various languages and recensions. The Greek text was published by Batiffol, Paris, 1889, A Prayer of Joseph is named in the anonymous list of Apocrypha, and is quoted by Origen and Proco- ‘us, In these fragments Jacob is the speaker. 19. Ascension of Isaiah, or Vision of Isaiah. Origen speaks of a Jewish apocryphal work describing the death of Isaiah. Such a martyrium is preserved in the Ethiopic Ascension of Isaiah, the first part of which tells how Manasseh, at the instigation of a Samaritan, had Isaiah sawn asunder. The second part, the Ascension of Isaiah to heaven in the 20th year of Hezekiah, and what he saw and heard there, ig Christian, though perhaps based on a Jewish vi- sion. Extensive Christian interpolations occur in the first part also. A fragment of the Greek text is reproduced in Grenfell and Hunt, “The Amherst Papyri,” London, 1900. 90, The Rest of the Words of Baruch, or Paralipomena of Jeremiah. (Ceriani, “Monumenta,” v. 1, 9 et seq. ; J. Rendei Harris, “Rest of the Words of Baruch,” 1889; Dillmann, “Chrestomathia /Ethiopica,” pp. 1 et seg.; Greck and Ethiopic.) Narrates what befell Baruch and Abimelech (Ebed-melech) at the fall of Jerusalem. Sixty-six years after, they sent a letter by aneagle to Jeremiah in Babylon. He leads a com- pany of Jews back from Babylonia; only those who are willing to put away their Babylonian wives are allowed to cross the Jordan; the others eventually become the founders of Samaria. Jeremiah is spir- ited away. After three days, returning to the body, he prophesies the coming of Christ and is stoned to death by his countrymen, § IX. Lost Books. Other haggadic works named in the Gelasian Decree are: the Book of Og, the Giant, “whom the heretics pretend to have fought with a dragon after the flood”; perhaps the same as the Manichean T'vydvzetoe Bi820¢ (Photius, “Cod.” 85), or Npaypareia tov Trydvtwv; The Penitence of Jannes and Jambres. (See Iselin, in “Zeitschrift fiir Wissensch. Theologie,” 1894, pp. 321 et seg.) Both of these may well have been ultimately of Jewish origin. § X. Prophetical Apocrypha. 1. Baruch. Purporting to be written by Baruch, son of Neriah, the disciple of Jeremiah, after the deportation to Babylon. The book is not original, drawing its motives chiefly from Jeremiah and Isaiah x1. ef seq. ; affinity to the Wisdom literature is also marked in some passages, especially in ch. iii. The Epistle of Jeremiah to the captives in Babylon, which is appended to Baruch, and counts as the sixth chapter of that book, is a keen satire on idolatry. Apocrypha Moses ($ VII. 16). What now remains of this work, in an old Latin version, is prophetic in character, con- sisting of predictions delivered by Moses to Joshua when he had installed him as his successor. Moses foretells in brief outline the history of the people to the end of the kingdom of Judah; then, more fully, the succeeding times down to the successors of Herod the Great, and the Messianic age which ensues, It is probable that the lost sequel contained the As- sumption of Moses, In which occurred the conflict— referred to in Jude 9—between Michael and Satan for the possession of Moses’ body. 3. Eldad and Medad. Under this name an apocry- phal book is mentioned in our lists, and quoted twice in the “Shepherd of Hermas” (ii. 84), It contained the prophecy of the two elders named in Num. xi. 26. § XI. Apocalypses. Most of the prophetical Apocrypha are apocalyptic in form. To this class belong: Enoch, The Secrets of Enoch, TV Esd., the Apocalypses of Baruch (Greek and Syriac), Apoca- lypse of Zephaniah, Apocalypse of Elijah, and others (see APOCALYPSE, and the special articles). Apoca- lyptic elements have been noted above in the As- sumption of Moses, the Ascension of Isaiah, the Tes- taments of the Twelve Patriarchs, and others. § XII. Lyrical Apocrypha. 1. Psalm cli., in the Greek Bible; attributed to David. “ when he had fought in single combat with Goliath.” 2. Psalms of Solomon. Eighteen in number; included in some manuscripts of the Greek Bible, but noted in the catalogues as disputed or apocryphal. Though ascribed to Solomon in the titles, there is no internal evidence that the author, or authors, designed them to be so attributed. They were written in Hebrew— though preserved only in Greek—in Palestine about the middle of the first century B.c., and give most important testimony to the inner character of the religious belief of the time and to the vitality of the Messianic hope, as well as to the strength of party or sectarian animosity. The five Odes of Solomon in “ Pistis Sophia” are of Christian (Gnostic) origin. 3. Five apocryphal psalms in Syriac, edited by Wright (“ Proceedings of Society of Biblical Archeol- ogy,” 1887, ix. 257-266). The first is Ps. cli. (sepra, § 1); if is followed by (2) a prayer of Hezekiah; (8)a prayer when the people obtain leave from Cyrus to return; and (4, 5)a prayer of David during his con- flict with the lion and the wolf, and thanksgiving after his victory. § XIII. Didactic Apocrypha. 1. The Wisdom of Jesus, the Son of Sirach (in the Latin Bible entitled Ecclesiasticus). Proverbs and aphorisms for men’s guidance in various stations and circumstances; a counterpart to the Proverbs of Solomon, The author was a native of Jerusalem, and wrote in Hebrew; his work was translated into Greek by his grandson soon after 132 B.c. The Syriac translation was also made from the Hebrew, and recently considerable parts of the Hebrew text itself have been recovered. The book is included in the Christian Bible—Greek, Latin, Syriac, etc.—but was excluded from the Jewish Canon (Tosef., Yad. ii. 13 e¢ seg.) Many quotations in Jewish literature prove, however, its continued popularity. 2. Wisdom of Solomon, Yogia Lo7oudvog. Written in 2. Assumption of Moses. Sce above, Testament of | Greek, probably in Alexandria: a representative of Apocrypha Apollos THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA g Hellenistic “ Wisdom.” Solomon, addressing the ru- lers of the earth, exhorts them to seek wisdom, and warns them of the wickedness and folly of idolatry. Noteworthy is the warm defense of the immortality of the soul, in which the influence of Greek philo- sophical ideas is manifest, as, indeed, it is through- out the book. 3. Fourth Maccabees. The title is a misnomer; and the attribution of the work to Flavius Josephus is equally erroneous. The true title is Tlepi avroxpd- ropog Zoyicuo®, * On the Autonomy of Reason.” It is an anonymous discourse on the supremacy of relig- ious intelligence over the feelings. This supremacy is proved, among other things, by examples of con- stancy in persecution, especially by the fortitude of Eleazar and the seven brothers (IT Macc. vi. 18, vil. 41). The work was written in Greek; it is found in some manuscripts of the Septuagint, but is not canonical. § XIV. Apocrypha in the Talmud. There are no Jewish catalogues of Apocry pha corresponding to the Christian lists cited above; but we know that the canonicity of ccrtain writings was disputed in the first and second centuries, and that others were expressly and authoritatively declared not to be sa- cred scripture, while some are more vehemently inter- dicted—to read them is to incur perdition. The con- troversies about Ecclesiastes and the Song of Solomon will be discussed in the article CANON, where also the proposed “withdrawal” of Proverbs, Ezekiel, and some other books will be considered. Here it is suf- ticient to say that the school of Shammai favored ex- cluding Ecclesiastes and the Song of Solomon from the list of inspired scriptures, but the final decision included them in the canon. Sirach, on the other hand, was excluded, appar- ently as a recent work by a Known author; and a gencral rule was added that no books more modern than Sirach were sacred scripture. The same decision excluded the Gospels and other heretical (Christian) scriptures (Tosef., Yad. ii. 13). These books, therefore, stand in the relation of A poc- rypha to the Jewish canon. In Mishnah Sanh. x. 1, R. Akiba adds to the cat- alogue of those Israelites who have no part in the world to come,“ the man who reads in the extraneous books” (D387 O'HD3), that is, books outside the canon of holy scripture, just as éw, ertrinsecus, extra, are used by Christian writers (Zahn, “Gesch. des Neu- testamentlichen Kanons,” i. 1, 126 eé¢ seg.). Among these are included the “ books of the heretics” (D°3"»), z.e., a8 in Tosef., Yad. quoted above, the Christians (Bab. Sanh. 1000). Sirach is also named in both Tal- muds, but the text in the Jerusalem Talmud (Sanh, 280) is obviously corrupt. Further, the writings of Ben La‘anah ( aay }3) fall under the same condemnation (Yer. Sanh. l.¢.); the Midrash on Ecclesiastes xii. 12 (Eccl. R.) couples the writings of Ben Tigla (x5gn j2) with those of Sirach, as bringing mischief into the house of bim who owns them. What these books were is much disputed (see the respective articles). Another title which has given rise to much discussion is "5D no won or BW (szfre ha-meram or ha-merom), early and. often emended by conjecture to py"p7 (Home- ros; so Hai Gaon, and others). See HoMER 1N TAL- mub. The books of “Be Abidan,” about which there is a question in Shab. 116, are also obscure. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Texts: The Apocrypha (in the Protestant sense) are found in editions of the Greek Bible; see espe. cially Swete, The Old Testament th Greek, 2d_ed.3 sepa- rately, Fritzsche, Libri Apoeryphi Veteris Testament Greet, 1871. Of the Pseudepigrapha no comprehensive cor. pus exists ; some of the books are included in the editions of swete and Fritzsche, above; and in Hilgenfeld, Wessias Ju. dieortan, 1869. See also Fabricius, Codex Pseudepigraphus Veteris Testamenti, 2 vols., 2d ed., Hamburg, 1722, 17 which is not replaced by any more recent Work. For editions (and translations) of most of these writings the literature of the respective articles must be consulted. ‘lranslations: The An. thorized Version may best be used in the edition of C. J. Ball, Variorum Apocrypha, which contains a useful apparatus of various readings and renderings ; the Revised Version, Apo. erypha, 1895; Churton, Uneanonical and Apocryphal Seriptures, 1884; a revised translation is given also in Bis- sell’s Commentary (see below). Of the highest value is the German translation, with introductions and notes, in Kautzsch, Die Apokryphen und Pseudepigraphen des Alten Testa- ments, 2 vols., 1899. Commentaries: Fritzsche and Grimm, Kurzgefasstes Exvegetisches Handbuch zu den Apokryphen des Alten Bundles, 6 vols., 1851-60 ; Wace (and others), Apoc- rypha, 2 vols., 1888 (Speaker’s Bible); Bissell, The Apoc. rypha. of the Old Testament, 1890 (Lange series). The most important recent work on this whole literature is Sehtirer’s Geschichte des Jtidischen Volkes, 30 ed., vol. iii. (Eng. tr. of 2d ed.: Jew. Peopie in the Time of Jesus Christ), where also very full references to the literature will be found. T. G. F. M. APOLANT, EDUARD: German physician; born at Jastrow, city in Westpreussen, Prussia, Aug. 21, 1847. He was educated at the gymnasium at Deutsch-Krone and at the University of Berlin, where he received the degree of doctor of medicine in 1870. He was an assistant surgeon in the Franco- Prussian war (1870-71), and, on returning to Berlin, engaged in practise in that city. In 1896 he re- ceived the title of “Sanitiitsrath.” Apolant has contributed numerous papers to Vir- chow’s “Archiv fiir Pathologische Anatomie und Physiologie und fiir Klinische Medizin” (“ Ueber das Verhiltniss der Weissen und Roten Blutkérper- chen bei Eiterungen,” etc.); the “ Berliner Klinische Wochenschrift ” (“ Ueber Applikation von Karbol- siureumschlige bei Pocken,” etc.), and otker medical journals. Pe oete Wrede, Das Geistige Berlin, iii. 3, Berlin, S. ¥F, T. H. APOLLINARIS or APOLLINARIUS, CLAUDIUS: Bishop of Hierapolis, Phrygia, in 170; author of an “ Apology for the Christian Faith,” which he addressed to Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. He wrote also two books “ Pros Joudai- ous” (Against the Jews) and other works against the pagans, and opposing the Montanist and the Encratite heresies, besides other books, all of which are now lost. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Eusebius, Hist. Eecl. iv. 27, v.19; Jerome, De Viris Tlustribas, ete., p. 26; Epistole, p.84; Fabricius, Bib- lioth. Greeea, vii. 160; Tillemont, Mémoires, t. i., pt. ii. 4 i F. H. APOLLONIUS: One of the Judeans who, about 130 B.c., went to Rome to make a covenant or league of friendship with the Romans. He was called by Josephus “the son of Alexander.” See JouNn Hyr- CANUS. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Josephus, At. xili. 9, § 2, xiv. 10, § tT” G. APOLLONIUS or APOLLONIUS MOLON: Greek rhetorician and anti-Jewish writer: flourishec 7 ga te Oe s chetaamie-ct lie father, Malan. always, designated by the Bane 0 11s = 1eF, pie ; He was called by his patrony mic mainly to distin- aish him from his somewhat older contemporary a onius Malachos. Apollonius Molon was still Apor’ d asa distinguished master of the art of speech ae ie year 75 B.c. Josephus, however, concerns seacele with him simply as one of the most promi- ent and most pernicious anti-Jewish writers. ie Born at Alabanda, in Caria, Apollonius afterward emigrated to Rhodes, wherefore Cicero styles hin 6 Volon Rhodius ” (“ Brutus, ch. Ixxxix.). He soon eclipsed his contemporaries poth as a master of ora- tory and as a practical advocate, and had as pupils poth Cicero and Julius Cresar. It was at Rhodes, no doubt, that Apollonius ap- yopriated the J udxophobic ideas of the Syrian stoic PusIDONIUS (135-51 B.c.), who lived in that city, and thence circulated throu ghout the Greek and Roman world several wild caluninies concerning the Jews, suchas the charges that they worshiped Follower an ass in their temple, that they sacri- of ficed annually on their altar a specially Posidonius. fattened Greek, and that they were tilled with hatred: toward every other ‘nationality, particularly the Greeks. These and sim- ilar malevolent fictions regarding the Jews were adopted by Apollonius, who, induced by the fact that the Jews in Rhodes and iu Caria were very numerous (compare I Mace. xv. 16-24), composed an anti-Jew- ‘sh treatise, in which all these accusations found em- bodiment. While Posidonius had confined himself to incidental allusions to the Jews in the course of his history of the Seleucide (compare C. Miuller, “ Frag. Hist. Greece.” iii. 245 ef seg.), Apollonius outdid his master by undertaking a separate book on the sub- ject. Such appears to have been the character of his treatise, Which, according to Alexandcr Polyhistor, was a ovoxevy (Eusebius, “ Preparatio Evangelica,” 1x. 19), a polemic treatise—as Schttrer renders the phrase ~—against the Jews. The polemic passages, however, must have been interwoven witha gencral presenta- tion of a Jewish theme—probably a history of the origin of the Jewish people. For it is the complaint of Josephus that Apollonius, unlike Apion, far from massing all his anti-Jewish charges in one passage, had preferred to insult the Jews in various manners and in numerous places throughout his work (/.¢. ii. 14). Theassumption that Apollonius’ book was of a historic character is confirmed by the fragment in Alexander Polyhistor, which gives the genealogy of the Jews from the Deluge to Moses, and by an allu- sion of Josephus which indicates that the exodus from Egypt was also dealt with therein (J.c. ii. 2). In con- nection with the exodus, Apollonius gave circulation to the malicious fable that the Jews had been expelled from Egypt owing toa shameful malady from which they suffered, while he took occasion to blacken the character of Moses also and to belittle his law, char- acterizing the lawgiver of the Jews as a sorcerer and his work as devoid of all moral worth. Besides, he heaped many unjust charges upon the Jews, re- proaching them for not worshiping the same gods as the other peoples (/.¢. ii. 7) and for disinclination to as- Soclate with the followers of other faiths (ii. 86). He thus represented them as atheists and misanthropes, THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA a Apocrypha Apollos and depicted them withal as men who were cither cowards or fanatics, the most untalented among all barbarians, who had done nothing in furtherance of the common welfare of the human race (ii. 14). No wonder these groundless charges excited the anger of Joseplus, who believed that they corrupted and misled the judgment of Apion (Zc. ii. 7, 15 et seq.), and who therefore zealously devoted the entire second part of his treatise against Apion to a refutation of Apollonius. The latter was thus paid back in his own coin. Josephus does not hesitate to accuse him of crass stupidity, vaingloriousness, and an immoral life (Z.c. il. 36, 37). ° See APION. BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. Miiller, Fragmenta Historicorum Graco- rum, li. 208 et seq.; J.G.Mtitler, Des Flavius Josephus Schrift- gegen den Apion, p. 230, Basel, 1877; Pauly-Wissowa, Real- dneye. ti.s.u. ; Gratz, Gesch. der Juden, 3d ed., iii. 347 ef seq. 3 Schirer, Gesch. 3d ed., iti. 400-403; Vogelstein and Rieger. Gesch. der Juden in Rom, i. 85; Th. Reinach, Textes d’Au- teurs Grecs et Romains Relatifs au Judaisme, pp. 0 et seq. G. If. G. E, APOLLONIUS OF TYANA: Pythagorean philosopher and necromancer; born about the year 3B.C.; died, according to some sources, in the thirty- eighth year of his age. In Arabic literature his pame is cited in the form “ Balinas” or “ Belenus,” which has often been mistaken for “Pliny.” He is mentioned in connection with magical writings, and is called by the Arabs Sahib al-Talismat (“The Au- thor of Talismans”). They attribute to Apollonius “Risalah fi Tat’hir al-Rubaniyyat fi al-Markabat,” a work that treats of the influence of pneumatic agen- cles in the world of sense, and which also deals with talismans. Anintroduction (*‘ Mebo ”) to this treatise on talismans, “Iggeret al-Talasm,” was composed by ananonymous writer; itis found in Steinschneider Ms., No. 29. Itis full of Arabic words, and contains a few Romance ones also. The translator says at the end that the whole book is of no value, and that he has translated (or copied) it merely as a Warning against “serving strange gods.” It is probable that acopy of this translation existed in the library of Leon Mosconi (Majorca, 14th century), where it seems to occur under the title “Bel Enus”-~—No. 37 of the catalogue (“ Rev. Et. Juives,” xxxix. 206, x1. 65). It is also cited by Joseph Nasi (16th century) and perhaps by Abba Mari. According to Johanan Alemanno (died 1500), Solomon ben Nathan Orgueiti (of Aix, Provence, about 1390) translated from the Latin another work on magic by Apollonius. The Hebrew title of this second work was nosy n> non (“Intellectual Art”); fragments of it are found in Schénblum MS8S., No. 79. BIBLIOGRAPHY: For Apollonius and his supposed writings see J. Miller, in Pauly-Wissowa, Real-Encyclopdidie der Classi- schern Alterthumswissenschaft, iii. 146 et seqg.; and Got- theil, in 7. D. M. G. xivi. 466; on the Arabic and Hebrew translations see Steinschneider, Hebr, Cebers. § 420 (= Z, D. M. G. xiv. 489 et seg.) ; First, Canon des A. T. p. 99, at- tempted to identify Apollonius with Ben La‘anah, whose wri- tings were condemned (Yer. Sanh. xi. 28 @). G. APOLLOS: A learned Jew of Alexandria, and colaborer of Paul. Of him the following is told (Acts xviii. 24-28): He came (about 56) to Ephesus, as “an eloguent man and mighty in the Scriptures,” to preach and to teach in the synagogue; and his fervor of spirit and boldness of speech attracted the Apollos Apologists attention of Aquila and Priscilla—Jews who had espoused the cause of the new Christian faith in Corinth. They found him not sufficiently informed in the new doctrine; for he knew “only the baptism of John ” when he spoke to the people of “the way of the Lord.” So they expounded the way of God to him more fully; and, turned into a firmer be- liever in Jesus as the Messiah, he went to Achaia, where he converted the Jews to his new faith by his arguments from Scriptures. This is illustrated by another story which immediately follows: While Apollos was still at Corinth, Paul found in Ephesus about twelve disciples of John the Baptist who had never heard of the Holy Ghost, but had undergone baptism for the sake of repentance. Paul succeeded in baptizing them anew in the name of Jesus; and then, after “ Paul had laid his hands upon them, the Holy Ghost came on them; and they spake with tongues, and prophesied ” (Acts xix. 1-6). The sect, then, to which Apollos, as well as these twelve men of Ephesus, belonged, were simply Bap- tists, like John; preaching the doctrine of the “Two Ways ”—the Way of Life and of Death—as taught in the “ Didache,” the propaganda literature of the Jews before the rise of Christianity. They were thenceforward won over to the new Christian sect probably under the influence of such ecstatic states of mind as are described here and in the writings of Paul. Whether Apollos belonged to the class of thinkers like Philo or not is, of course, a matter of con- jecture. But it is learned from Paul’s own words (I Cor. i. 10) that while working on the same lines as Paul, Apollos differed essentially from him in his teachings. Four different parties had arisen there: one adhering to Paul, another to Apollos, a third to Peter, and the fourth calling itself simply “of the Christ.” “Who, then,” says he, “is Paul, and who is Apollos, but ministers by whom ye believed, even as the Lord gave to every man? I have planted, Apollos watered . . . we are laborers to- gether. . . . Let no man deceive himself. If any man among you seemeth to be wise in this world, let him become a fool that he may be wise... . Whether Paul, or Apollos, or Cephas, or the world, or life, or death, or things present, or things to come; all are yours; and yeare Christ’s; and Christ is God’s” (I Cor. iii. 5-28), Evidently Apollos be- trayed more of that wisdom which Alexandrian philosophers gloried in. Wherefore, Paul contends that “not with wisdom of words” (I Cor. i. 17) was he sent to preach the gospel. . . . “The world by wisdom knew not God, it pleased God by the fool- ishness of preaching to save them that believe. For the Jews require a sign, and the Greeks seek after wisdom ” (¢). 21, 22). Originally the people of Cor- inth were, according to J Cor. xii. 2, not Jews, but Gentiles. It is, therefore, easy to understand why Apollos’ preaching appealed to them far more than Paul's. Still, the difference between the two “ apos- tles” (J Cor. iv. 9) was not of a nature to keep them apart; for Paul, toward the close of his letter to the Corinthians, says: “ As touching our brother Apollos, I greatly desired him to come unto you: .. . he will come when he shall have convenient time” (I Cor. xvi, 12). We have reason to ascribe to Apollos some THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 8 influence in the direction which led to a blending of the Philonic Logos with the Jewish idea of the Mes- siah—a Hellenization of the Christian belief in the sense of John’s Gospel; though many critics since Luther are disposed to attribute to him the Epistle to the Hebrews. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Weizsacker, Das Apostolische Zeitalter, p, 268; Blass, Commentary on Acts, pp. 201, 208; Friedlander, Der Vorchristliche Jiidische Gnosticismus, 1898, p. Brae T. APOLOGISTS: Men of pious zeal who de- fended both the Jewish religion and the Jewish race against the attacks and accusations of their enemies by writing, either in the form of dissertatiors or of dialogues, works in defense of the spirit and doc- trines of Judaism, so that its essentials might be placed in the proper light. It was in the nature of things, therefore, that they were impelled to expose the general weakness of the positions of their antag- onists, and to attack those positions rigorously ; hence the apologies are, at the same time, polemical ar- raignments. So long as the Jewish state was inde- pendent and respected by neighboring peoples, and so long as religious reverence retained its hold upon the heathen nations with whom the Jews came into contact, i¢ was unnecessary to ward off attacks on their nationality, on their religious teachings, or on their manners and customs, They dwelt in harmony with Persians when Cyrus established the Persian empire, and later with Greeks; they dwelt alongside of Parthians and New Persians, and their Judaism received no manner of offense. But when the Jewish state fell into internal decay, and the Greeks, with whom the Jews held the closest rela- tions, lost their reverence for their own deities; when, furthermore, with the translation of the Bible into Greek, the Hellenes were introduced to a literature that clainied at least equality with their own; and, finally, wher the Egyptians were by that translation informed of the pitiful réle their ancestors had played at the birth of the Jewish nation, these peoples felt themselves severely wounded in their national van- ity. It was, accordingly, in Alexandria that anti- Jewish literature originated, to withstand which the Jewish Apologists resident there devoted their energies. Manetho, an Egyptian temple scribe at Thebes, was the first to assail the Jewish nationality with all manner of fables invented by himself. The First Opportunity to disseminate misinfor- Attacks in mation concerning the Jews had been Egypt by afforded by the Syrian king Antiochus Heathens. Epiphanes, whose wonderful stories concerning his experiences in the Tem- ple of Jerusalem were seized upon and elaborated by the anti-Jewish writers of Alexandria. In this city, the capital of Egypt, dwelt numerous Jews who were distinguished for their intellectual activity and moral life, and many Greeks detested the Jews for their difference in moral ideals, founded as they were upon religious codes quite different from their own. Alexandria was accordingly the market where un- scrupulous writers were certain of finding sale for their multifarious calumnies against the Jewish peo- ple. In Alexandria, consequently. the earliest Jew- | ish Apologists made their appearance. THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA st generation of Jewish Apologists flour- , the beginning of the first century B.c. to the middle of the second century of the common era. In this period are in- The fir ished frou e e . arene cluded those Apologists who encoun- ee ogists. tered the attacks of the ancient hea- thens. The early Greek fashion of nder a pseudonym had been transplanted ‘ Alexandria ; works were issued purporting to be roductions of the great men of antiquity. The first i wish Apologists were, therefore, strictly in the on when they used pseudonyms in their replies to the ceaseless libels with which the anti-Jewish wri- ters assailed the religious literature, the manners, and the customs of the Jews. These Apologists drew a picture of the grandeur and moral elevation of Juda- jsm, and, in accordance With the prevailing custom, ascribed their writings to heathen poets and prophets. The most important of these apologetic writings are the “Sibylline Books” and “The Wisdom of Solo- mon.” he “SibyNine Books,” composed partly in the middle of the second, partly in the first, century z.c,, contrasted the lofty ethics of monotheism and the righteousness and morality of Ju- ‘‘Sibylline daism with the follies of idol-worship, Books” and and with the selfishness and sensual- ‘The Wis- ity of heathendom. “The Wisdom of dom of Solomon” uses still darker colors to Solomon.” paint the immorality and viciousness, the utter corruption and shamelessness of the heathen world, and portrays, in contrast there- with, the moral atmosphere emanating from Jewish religious writings. The author of this book lved probably about the time of the Roman emperor Calig- ula (37-41). Among the Apologists in Alexandria mention must also be made of PHILO, one of the most eminent philosophical thinkers of Judaism, who flourished about 40. Philo sought toillustrate to the heathen world the beauty of the Jewish Scriptures by endeavoring to prove that both Judaism and the bet- ter Helienic thought in the writings of Greek philos- ophers aimed at one and the same mark; that the Jewish prophets and the Greek speculative thinkers strove after one and the same truth, and that, there- fore, the difference between Judaism and Greek phi- losophy was one merely of external appearance or expression. The best apologetic work of this period, and indeed of any period, is that written in Rome by Flavius Josephus (born about 87), which he entitled “ Against Apion, or Concerning the Ancient State of the Jew- ish Nation.” Apron, who was a contemporary of Philo, had, at the request of several Alexandrians, handed tothe emperor Caligula a calumnious memo- rial full of the worst accusations and slanders against the Jews. He had simply compiled everything to be found in previous writings of this character, and added to it whatever he could devise in the way of malicious invention. This slanderous petition, no doubt, made its influence felt at the time Josephus was writing his history in Rome, and impelled him to publish his “ Apology ” (vindication), which con- Sisted of two books. He controverts the allegation that the Jews have no history and are a new nation. The stin g of the charge came from the circumstance writing Uu Josephus. Apollos Apologists that, according to the view then prevailing, the re- spectability aud dignity of a nation were in.direct proportion to its antiquity. He exposes the falsity of the calumnies circulated against Judaism, and illustrates the mental incapacity of his opponents to grasp historical truths. Through the whole work there breathesa spirit of warm admiration for Moses and his civil and religious legislation; it acknowl- edges appreciatively whatever is great and good among allancient peoples. This “ Apology ” of Jose- phus furnished the model after which the Church fathers patterned all their apologetic treatises, the writing of which they were frequently called upon to undertake in defense of Christianity. No further apologetics of this period have been preserved, although the venom that Apion injected into the minds of his contemporaries continued to work among Roman writers, who saw in the Jewish nation a stubborn enemy of Rome and an opponent of the national cult. But in the Talmud and Mid- rash many religious conversations have been pre- served, in which prominent teachers like Johanan ben Zakkai, Joshua ben Hananiah, Akiba, and others de- fend Judaisni and its doctrines, Dialogues, such as these, between cultured representatives of Judaism and heathenism, were, as a matter of course, quite free from fanaticism; they were, in tine, friendly con- tests of wit and wisdom without the least trace of animosity or bitterness. The second series of Jewish Apologists covered the period from the second to the fifteenth century, and was concerned in repelling the attacks of Christian- ity and, to a small extent, of Islam. Christianity, having received from Judaism its dcctrines of pure morality and of love of one’s neighbor, was con- strained, in order to furnish grounds for its distine- tion, to proclaim that it had come into existence to displace, and to fulfil the mission of, Judaism. It endeavored to prove the correctness of Attacks by this standpoint from the Bible itself, Christians the very book upon which Judaism was and founded. Wherefore Judaism had no Moham- further reason to exist! The Jews, medans. however, were not yet ready to accept this decree of self-extinction, nor to permit Christendom to take possession of the relig- ious and ethical ground held by the Jews. Here, then, was an occasion for some very sharp polemics between the offspring and the parent who declined to die. The fact that both sides appealed to the same source of authoritv—the Scriptures—served also to narrow and intensify the struggle. So long, how- ever, as Christianity refrained from throwing the Brennus-sword of worldly power into the scales, the discussion partook of the same peaceful nature as those friendly passages of arms recorded in the Tal- mud and Midrashim, and displayed more of the na- ture of good-humored rallying than of serious debate. Jewish scholars, referring to Num. xxiii. 19, expressed their objections to Christianity in the single passage: “Tfaman say that he is God, he is deceiving thee; if he say that God is man, he will repent it. If he claim to ascend to heaven, he may say it, but he shall not do it” (Yer. Ta’anit i. 1). But with the growth of political power in the Church, the attacks of the bishops upon Jews and Apologists Apoplexy Judaism took on a harsher animus. The silence of the Jews for several centuriesin the face of such at- tacks was a deplorable error, especially in view of the fact that the bitter effects of this anti-Jewish literature were felt in the keenest degree. This silence can be accounted for only by assuming that the Jews of those days were not afraid of any en- during consequences from these attacks, or from the influence of the Christian propa- Silence of ganda upon their own coreligionists. the Jews. The fundamental principles of Chris- tianity — Trinity, Incarnation, ete.— were deemed by them to stand in such direct con- tradiction to both the spirit and the letter of the Bible that it seemed like a work of supererogation to point out the contradiction. Aside from this, these attacks were written in Latin or in Greek, familiarity with either of which had been lost by the Jews. Whenever any vernacular discussions, founded upon such material, occurred, the crass ignorance of the Christian clergy of the day ren- dered the victory of the Jews an easy one. in cases where cis can not stand. erivative of ofddpa, ** much,” the regular rendering of the adverb Nn, : . te Plate, left-hand column, three lines from bottom. It ane noticed that the same corrupt form is used both for yod fen in tee dust as in the Hexaplar form MIMI, i.¢., 1 ,writ- In the square character. , method of exegesis was to lay great stress upon the meanings hidden in the lesser parts of speech. Instances are ws xatévavte avrov for 7412, Gen. ii. 18; and avd éyxatwrv cov for J3IPr, Deut. iv. 3. This scrupulosity may be contrasted with the Targumic freedom of Aquila’s n7Anorevoare pot for box, Jer. li. 34, where the metaphor that Nebuchadnezzar had “ eaten’ Jerusalem has been turned into prose. Aquila as a Witness: 1. Consonantal Text.—The extreme literalness of Aquila’s methods enables the reader to restore with confidence the Hebrew from which he translated. There are a few in- stances where he preserves old readings found also in the Septuagint; ¢g., DIN for oN (Symma- chus and Masoretic Text) in Ezek. xxvii. 16, and 4m for mH (Masoretic Text) in Zeph. iii. 18. But as a rule he supports the ordinary Masoretic Text; €.g., 4 ™poo3d/wore ovdouata in I Sam. xiii. 21 implies BD} AYY|N asin the Masoretic Text, and xaredépero kai apua Kal ixxog in Ps. lxxvi. 7 agrees with the Masoretic Text against the better reading you") DID ‘235 attested by the Septuagint. The nuiera- tion of the Psalms agrees with the Hebrew against the Greek; in this article, therefore, Aquila is uni- formly quoted by the Hebrew reckonings. 2. Aquila represents a period in Jewish exegesis anterior to the Masoretic vocalization. Here priority in time does not invariably mean su- Vocaliza- periority of reading: where it is a ques- tion and tion of knowledge of Hebrew rather Interpreta- than of purity of transmitted text, the tion. later scholars often do better than their predecessors. Thus Aquila can hardly have been right in connecting pon’ in Hab. i. 10 with «2é0¢, or in taking po in JI Kings xxiii. 12 as the Hiphil of wn (“to run”), Aquila also has an unfortunate habit of dividing rare Hebrew words into their real or imagined component parts; e.g., in Isa, xviii. 1 he renders Oyby (“a rustling ”) by oxa oxca, and in [ Sam. vi. 8 for p}9N3 of the Masoaretic Text he has év be: xovpac, as if he had read ft) 34N2. On the other hand, there is much to be said for his division of ayow> (Ex. XXXxil. 25) into two words. NY pes (“fora name of filth”) is read or implied by the Targum, by the Peshitta, and by Symmachus, as well as by Aquila (compare Isa. xxviii. 8, 18; xxx. 22). The Samaritan has wows. In Deut. xxxiii. 2 Aquila has tip déyza for NI WR. It is interesting to note that Aquila does not agree with the Masoretic punctuation in pointing the names of heathen gods (¢.g., MIDD and j"3, Amos v. 26) with the vowels of pw (“abomination ”). Aquila’s renderings of the Hebrew tenses are often most inadequate. It is only on grounds of imper- fect knowledge that the aorists can be defended in passages like Kai émiBivoyde avéBy ex tHe Ho Kai émdrice Kav 76 Tpbowrov tHe yOovde for MDP INI moana 3p 55> nsx npwm pann qo in Gen. ii. 6. Examples of pedantic mistranslation such as this suggest that Old Hebrew was very imperfectly understood when Akiba revived philological study by his allegorizing exegesis of the particles. The transliterations of Hebrew words into Greek letters are of some interest as showing the pronun- ciation current in Palestine about the middle of the second century. The most noticeable points are the complete disappearance of all four gutturals and the Aquila representation of y (in the Cairo fragment of the Psalms) by 7; ¢.9., recov for sry. This feature reap- pears in the names of the Hebrew let- ters attached to the Book of Lamenta- tions by the original scribe of “Cod. Vaticanus (B).” It may be conjec- tured that the scribe of the Vatican MS. took them through the “ Hexapla” from Aquila’s version. In some points Aquila agrees rather with the New Tes- tament than with the older forms found in the Sep- tuagint; e.g., for by ma he has B77, not Barby (compare ByOavia in the New Testament). In Ezek. xxx.17, where the Septuagint has Haiov ré,ewe, Aquila has Qv for }}x%, but Symmachus and Theodotion have Avy, oF Aquila’s translation occupied one of the columns of Origen’s “Hexapla,” and so was accessible to ‘Christian scholars. Very considerable use of it was made by Jerome in preparing the Latin version now known as the Vulgate, though (as we might expect) the more pedantic features are dropped in borrow- ing. Thus in Ex. xxxii, 25 Jerome’s propter tgno- mintam sordis comes from Aquila’s et¢ dvoza pirrov (aypw), and for “Selah” in the Psalms his semper follows Aquila’s dei. More important for modern scholars is the use made of Aquila’s version in Origen’s revision of the Septuagint. The literary sources of the Latin Vul- gate are merely a point of Biblical archeology, but the recovery of the original text of Translit- erations. Original the Septuagint is the great practical Text of task which now lies before the textual the Sep- critic of the Old Testament. Recent tuagint. investigation has made it clear that Origen’s efforts to emend the Greek from the Hebrew were only too successful, and that every known text and recension of the Septuagint except the scanty fragments of the Old Latin have been influenced by the Hexaplar revision. One must learn how to detect Origen’s hand and to collect and restore the original readings, before the Septuagint is in a fit state to be critically used in emending the Hebrew. The discussion of this sub- ject belongs rather to the criticism of the “ Hexapla” than to a separate article on Aquila. It will suffice here to point out that Aquila’s version is one of the three sources by the aid of which the current texts of the Septuagint have been irregularly revised into conformity with a Hebrew text Jike that of our printed Bibles. For the association of the Targum of the Pentateuch with his name see ONKELOs. See also BIBLE, BIBLIOGRAPHY: Field, Origenits Hexaplorum que Supersunt, Oxford, 1875; Wellhausen and Bleek, Hinleitung in das Alte Testament, 4th ed., pp. 578-582, Berlin, 1878; Burkitt, Frag- ments of the Books of Kings According to the Translation of Aquila, Cambridge, 1897; Taylor, Origen’s Hexrapla (part of Ps. xxii.), Cambridge, 1901; S. Krauss, in the Steinschnei- der-Zeitschrift, 1896, pp. 146-168. [See also Taylor’s Sayings of the Jewish Fathers, 2d ed., pp. viii. et seq. ] T. F. C. B. — —In Rabbinical Literature: “ Aquila the Pros- elyte” (337 po py) and his work are familiar to the Talmudic-Midrashic literature. While “the Sev- enty ” and their production are almost completely ignored by rabbinical sources, Aquila is a favorite personage in Jewish tradition and legend. As his- THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Ry torical, the following may be considered. “ Agu; the Proselyte translated the Torah (that is, the whole of Scripture; compare Blau, “Zur Einleityy in die Heilige Schrift,” pp. 16, 17) in the Preseng, of R. Eliezer and R. Joshua. who praised him ang said, in the words of Ps. xlv. 3 [A. V. 2], ‘Thou an fairer than the children of men: grace is poured inty thy lips; therefore God hath blessed thee for ever.’» This contains a play upon the Hebrew word “ Yafyo. fita”” (Thou art fairer) and the common designation of Greek as “the language of Japhet” (Yer. Meg ; “1e). In another place similar mention is made tha Aquila announced his translation of the word naps in Lev. xix. 20 in the presence of R. Akiba (Ye Kid. i. 59a). The parallel passage in the Babylo, nian Talmud to the first-cited passage (Meg. 39) shows that by “translated in the presence of” jg to be understood “under the guidance of ”; conge. quently, Kliezer, Joshua, and Akiba must be ye. garded as the three authorities by whom Aqui governed himself. This agrees with what Jerom, says (in his commentary on Isa. viii. 11); viz., that according to Jewish tradition, Akiba was Aquila’, teacher—a statement which was also borne out py the fact that Aquila carefully rendered the particle MN every time by the Greek ovv, the hermeneuticg system first closely carried out by Akiba, although not original with him (B, K. 418). This would place Aquila’s period at about 100-130, when the three tannaim in guestion flourished. This accords with the date which Epiphanius (“De Ponderibus et Mensuris,” chap. xiii.-xvi. ; ed. Migne ii. 259-264) gives when he places the composition of Aquila’s translation in the twelfth year of Hadrian (129). A certain Aquila of Pontus is mentioned in a tannaite source (Sifra, Behar I. 1 [ed. Weiss, 106): ed. Warsaw, 102«]). And, seeing that Irenzus (¢.¢. iii, 21) and Epiphanius (/.c.) agree that Aquila came from that place, it is quite probable that the reference is to the celebrated Aquila, although the usual epithet, “the Proselyte,” is missing. Aquila of Pontus is mentioned three times in the New Testament (Acts xviii. 2; Rom. xvi. 3; IL Tim. iv. 19), which is only a mere coincidence, as the name “ Aquila” was no doubt quite common among the Jews, and a hag. gadist bearing it is mentioned in Gen. R. i. 12. Zunz, however, identifies the latter with the Bible translator. Friedmann’s suggestion that in the Sifra passage a place in the Lebanon called “ Pontus” is intended has been completely refuted by Rosenthal (“ Monatssehrift,” xli. 93). A more difficult question to auswer is the relation- ship of Aquila to the “ proselyte Onkelos,” of whom the Babylonian Talmud and the Tosefta have muck to relate. There is, of course, no doubt that these names have been repeatedly interchanged. The large majority of modern scholars consider Relation to the appellation “Targum of Onkelos,’ Onkelos. as applied to the Targum of the Pet tateuch, as a confusion (originating among the Babylonians) of the current Aramaic ver sion (attributed by them to Onkelos) with the Greek one of Aquila. But it will not do simply to transfer everything that is narrated of Onkelos to Aquila, se ing that in the Tosefta (see index to Zuckermandel’ edition) mention is made of the relation of Onkelo THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 37 aliel. who (if Gamaliel II. is meant) died short- e accession of Hadrian, while it is particu- the relations between the pious proselyte “he emperor Hadrian that the Haggadah delights and It is said that the emperor once asked the A sae , prove that the world depends, as the Jews Og Ri ae spirit. In demonstration Aquila sey eee camels to be bronght and made them ad rise repeatedly before the emperor. He ae “d them choked, when, of course, they could aca * How can they rise?” the emperor asked. no . sane choked.” ‘But they only need a little air, re spi rit,” was Aquila’s reply, proving that life ‘< not material (Yer. Hag. ii. V. beginning 77a; Tan.. Bereshit, ed. Vienua, 3b). Concerning Aquila’s con verston to Judaism, legend nas the following to say: Aquila was the son of Hadrian’s sister. Always strongly inclined to Juda- sam, he yet feared to embrace it openly in the em- peror’s proximity. He, therefore, obtained permis- sion from his uncle to undertake commercial journeys abroad, not so much for the sake of profit as in order to see men and countries, receiving from him the parting advice to invest in anything the value of which was temporarily depreciated, as in all proba- pility it would riseagain. Aquila went to Palestine, and devoted himself so strenuously to the study of the Torah that both R. Eliezerand R. Joshua noticed his worn appearance, and were surprised at the evi- dent earnestness of the questions he put to them con- cerning Jewish law. On returning to Hadrian he confessed his zealous study of Israel’s Torah and his adoption of the faith, surprising the emperor, how- ever, by stating that this step had been taken upon his, the emperor’s, advice. “For,” said he, “I have found nothing so deeply neglected and held in such depreciation as the Law and Israel; but both. no doubt, will rise again as Isaiah has predicted ” (Isa. xlix. 7, “Kings shall see and arise, princes also shall worship”). Upon Hadrian’s inquiry why he em- braced Judaism, Aquila replied that he desired very much to learn the Torah, and that he could not do this without entering the Abrahamic covenant: just as no soldier could draw his pay without bearing arms, no one could study the Torah thoroughly without obeying the Jewish laws (Tan., Mishpatim, V. ed. Buber, with a few variations, ji. 81, $2; Ex. R. xxx. 12). The last point of this legend is no doubt directed against Christianity, which ac- knowledges the Law, but refuses obedience to it, and is of all the more interest if taken in to Gall Iv after th larly with connection with Christian iegends concerning Aquila, Epiphanius, for instance, relates that Aquila was by birth a Greek from Sinope in Pontus, and a relation (wevbepidyc) of Hadrian. who sent him, forty-seven years after the destruction of the Temple (that is 117, the vear of Hadrian’s ac- cession) to Jerusalem to superintend the rebuilding of that city under the name of “_#lia Capitolina,” Where he became first a Christian and then a Jew (see AQuiy.a). A reflection of the alleged adoption of Christianity by Aquila, as related by Epiphanius, may be dis- cerned in the following legend of the Babylonian Talmud in reference to the proselyte Onkelos, hephew of Titus on his sister’s side. According to ee Aquila this, Onkelos called up the shade of his uncle, then that of the prophet Balaam, and asked their counsel as to whether he should becomea Jew. The former advised against it, as the Jews had so many laws and ceremonies; the latter, with characteristic spite- fulness, replied in the words of Scripture, “Thou shalt. not seek their peace nor their prosperity ” (Deut. xxiii. 7 [A. V. 6]). He then conjured up the founder of the Church, who replied, “Seek their peace, seek not their harm; he who assails them touches the apple of God’s eye.” These words in- duced him to become a Jew (Git. 563, 57a). The founder of the Church (according to the Jewish legend) and the mother-church in Jerusalem (accord- ing to the Christian version) were the means of Aquila’s becoming a Jew. The traces of the legend concerning Flavius Clemens, current alike among Jews and Christians, seem to have exerted some influence upon this Onkelos-Aquila tradition; but Lagarde goes so far as to explain Sinope in Pontus as being “ Sinuessa in Pontia,” where Dimitilla, the wife of Flavius Clemens, lived in exile. Jrenzeus, who wrote be- fore 177, states that Pontus was Aquila’s home. It is very questionable whether the account of Aquila in the Clementine writings (“ Recognitiones,” vii. 32, 33)—an imperial prince who first embraced Judaism, and then, after all manner of vagaries, Christianity —was merely a Christian form of the Aquila legend, although Lagarde supports the assumption. The following Midrash deserves notice: Aquila is said to have asked R. Eliezer why, if circumcision were so important, if had not been included in the Ten Commandments (Pesik. R. xxiii. 1160 et seg.; Tan., Lek Leka, end; ed. Vienna, 20, reads quite erroneous- ly “Agrippa” in place of “ Aquila ”), a question fre- quently encountered in Christian polemic literature. That Aquila’s conversion to Judaism was a gradual one appears from the question he addressed to Rabbi Eliezer: “Is the whole reward of a proselyte to con- sist in receiving food and raiment?” (see Deut. x. 18), The latterangrily answered that what had been sufficient for the patriarch Jacob (Gen. xxviii. 20) should be sufficient for Aquila. When Aquila put the same question to Rabbi Joshua, the latter reas- sured him by expounding “food and raiment” as meaning metaphorically “Torah and tallit.” Had not Joshua been so gentle, the Midrash adds, Aquila would have forsaken Judaism (Eccl. R. to vii. 8; Gen. R. Ixx.5; Ex. R. xix. 4, abbreviated). The purport of this legend is to show that at the time Aquila had not been firmly convinced. His work is less familiar in Rabbinical Literature than his personality; for not more than a dozen quotations from his translation are mentioned. The folowing are interesting evidences of His Work. its general character. He translates “Wy, the name of God, by &&coc kai ixaroc, “worthy and competent,” a haggadic etymology (see Gen. R. xlvi. 3; compare Hag. 12). The Hebrew word 3" in Lev. xxiii. 40 he translates by ddup (“water”), thus securing a resemblance to the He- brew original, and at the same time supporting the Halakah (Yer. Sukkah iii. 58d; for parallel passages, see Friedmann, p. 45; Krauss, p. 158). pinoza of Crescas. Moses Mendelssohn and Solo- mon Maimon, the two Jewish friends of Immanuel Te their point of departure from the Arabic- ficient Philosophy, as Baruch Spinoza had done. Suf- enuy ae of the bond of inteliectual con- I —4 salia in re Rosia, 187 insisting U Arabic-Jewish Philosophy Arabic Language Among Jews | tinuity is the fact that the same Solomon Maimon, who assumed the name Maimon simply out of rever- ence for Maimonides, was gratefully described by Kant ina letter to Marcus Herz as the critic who understood him best, and who had penetrated most deeply into his “ Critique of Pure Reason.” Jews play merely a secondary réle in the history of philosophy: they are transmitters of thought, apostles of culture, typical representatives of the intellectual continuity of the human race. The first Jew who was a real philosopher of prime mag- nitude, Spinoza, evolved his system not as a Jew; no more than Descartes framed his as a Frenchman and Catholic, or Leibnitz his as a Protestant and German. Philosophy has divested itself, more and more decisively, of all narrowing restraints of secta- rianism and nationalism, and, like science itself, has become more and more cosmopolitan. The Arabic- Jewish philosophy was the last that could be desig- nated Jewish. To-day there are still Jews who philosophize; but there are no Jewish philosophers, BIBLIOGRAPHY: There is a mine of information in the annota- tions to Solomon Munk’s Guide des Hyarés; as also in Stein- schneider’s monumental Hebr. Uehers. Berlin, 1893. General treatises npon Arabic-Jewish philosophy exist only in the form of sketches, such as thatof Munk, already mentioned, and in the manuals of the history of medieval philosophy by Ritter and Stéckl; Lasswitz, Gesch. der Atomistik; Prantl, Gesch. ad. Logik ; also in the Encyclopedias of Ersch-Gruber, Her- zog, and Encye. Britannica. Useful for the literary history is the Ueberweg-Heinze Grundriss der Gesch. d. Philosophie, &th ed., 1898, ii. 237-258. Thesketch of I. 8. Spiegler, Gesch. d. Philosophie ad. Judenthums, 1881, is of little practical value. Much that is valuable may be found in the larger histories of Jost, Graetz, and David Cassel. The essay on Jewish-religious philosophy by Philip Bloch in Winter-Wiinsche, Jiid. Lit. 1894, lj. 699-798, is thoroughly reliable, as is also G. Karpeles, Gesch. dad, Jiid. Lit. 1886, pp. 419 et seq. Of monographs may be men- tioned: On the Cabala, Ad. Franck, Systéme de la Kahbbatle, 1848, 2d ed., 1889 (German by A. Jellinek, 1844); D. H. Joél, Die Religionsphilosophie des Sohar, 1849. Among works deal- ing with special problems and individual exponents of Arabic- Jewish philosophy, the most important are M. Joél, Bettrdige zur Gesch. d. Philosophie, 1876, and David Kaufmann, Gesch. ad. Attributenlehre in d. Jitd. Religionsphilosophie, 1877. See also the studies by Moritz Eisler and A. Sechmied], Optimism and pessimism in Jewish religious philosophy have been treated by H. Goitein, 1890; the doctrine of the Freedom of the Will, by L. Knoller, Das Problem der Willeusfreihett, 1884, and by L. Stein, Die Fretheit des Willens, 1882. J. Guttmann has furnished excellent monographs upon Saadia, Ibn Gabirol, and Ibn Daud. A conclusive monograph upon Maimonides’ philosophy has not yet been written; but his ‘* Ethics ” bas been luminously treated by Jaraczewsky, Zeitsehrift ftir Philosophie, 1865, and by D. Rosin, 1876. L 8 kK, . ARABIC LANGUAGE AMONG JEWS, USE OF: The precise period of the first settlement of Jews in Arabia is unknown, and it is therefore impossible to say when the Arabic language was first employed by them. Historical data concern- ing the Jews of Arabia do not reach further back than the first century of the common era; but, judging by the important positions which they oc- cupied then in parts of Arabia (compare Yakut, “Geog. Worterbuch,” ed. Wistenfeld, iv. 461 et seq.) and by the purely Arabic names which they bore, Jews must have already been settled in the country for several centuries. Among the ante-Islamic poets there were a number of Jews; and a certain Sarah, a Jewess, wrote some Arabic verses, in which she poured forth her grief at the massacre of her tribe of Kuraiza (Néldeke, “ Beitriige zur Kenntniss der Poesie der Alten Ara- ber,” p. 54). A Jew, named Al-Samau‘al, made him- self as famous by his loyalty as by his poetry, and Arabic Language Among Jews Arabic Literature of the Jews THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 50 a SS SS OS ee ee the Arabs to-day still use the phrase, “as loyal as A\-Samau‘al,” to express unswerving fidclity (Frey- tag, “Proverbia Arabum.,” ii. 828). The son of Al- Samau‘al, Shuraikh, also occupied an honorable place among ante-Islamic poets. In adopting the Arabic language, the Jews in- troduced into it a number of Hebrew words and expressions which, in certain portions of Arabia, where Jews were numerous and influential—as in the Yemen district, for example—have entered into the native vocabulary. It is owing to this that the Himyaritic inscriptions abound in Hebraisms and words which are altogether unintelligible to Arabs of other localities. With the conquests that, began immediately after the death of Mohammed, the Arabic language crossed the frontiers of Arabia and spread rapidly among the Jews of other countries. In Egypf, Syria, Palestine, and Persia, which were conquered by the second calif, Omar, the Jews soon learned to use the language of the conquerors Adopted and adopted it as their mother-tongue. by Eastern As early as the beginning of the eighth Jews. century, scarcely fifty years after the conquest, a Babylonian Jew, Jawaih de Bassora, translated a medical work from Syriac into Arabic; it is thus evident that at that period the Babylonian Jews were already familiar with the Arabic language. As Babylonia then exercised a religious hegemony over the whole Jewish world, it became necessary for the Jews of other countries —at least for Jewish scholars—to understand the official language of Babylonia. Consequently, when Africa and Spain were conquered under Walid I., the Jews found no difficulty whatever in sustaining intercourse with the Arabs. The adoption of the Arabic language by the Jews residing in Moslem countries had a salutary ef- fect also upon the Hebrew tongue. The Arabs at- tached great importance to the correct use of their language; and thus the Jews, who always cherished a deep love for the Hebrew tongue, were led to turn their attention to the deplorable state into which their own language had fallen. They set about polishing it, as it were, and created a grammar for it, modeled after that of the Arabic. Hebrew poetry, which in the seventh century resembled nothing so much as a lyre with broken strings—it was without rime or meter—began, under the influence of the study of Arabic poetry, to assume elegant rhythmic forms, and soon surpassed the latter in sonorousness and polish. But upon the written or literary Arabic language the Jews likewise exerted a special influence which was not s0 wholesome. Jewish writers, treating of subjects pertaining to religion and Judaism, were forced in some degree to conform to the culture of the people for whom they wrote, the great mass of whom, though speaking Arabic as Char- their mother tongue, were not able to acteristics read it, and were unfamiliar with its of Jewish- niceties of style and complicated Arabic. grammar. Jewish authors were there- fore compelled to transliterate the Arabic into Hebrew characters and to simplify the grammar. The system of transliteration was as follows: for each Arabic letter the correspond, Hebrew was given. The letters @ 4 c3y 8 which have no equivalents in Hebrew, were repre sented by 10 ¥73N, with dots above or belo, the letters. The vowel-points were rendered Cithe by the same signs as used in the Arabic or by 4, vowel-letters 4&8. In regard to grammar, the Jey, avoided whatever could embarrass a reader wh, was not well versed in Arabic literature. Thus, fo, example, the broken-plural forms, so numeroys ; literary Arabic, were reduced to a minimum, Only such being retained as were familiar to all. [Dy purely orthographic signs, like the af in the thinj person of the plural, were generally omitted. (Gg, trary to grammatical usage, the second or third raq. ical letter of a weak verb was gencrally retained ;, the conditional and imperative moods, to indicate t, the reader the three radical letters of which the ver, was composed. The rules of syntax were very muq relaxed; and the style of what may be convenient}, termed “Judeo-Arabic” often presents the san, characteristics of disorder and confusion that oy met with in the Hebrew vernacular literature of th, Middle Ages. With the overthrow of the dynasty of the Alm. hades at the close of the thirteenth century, th Arabic language ceased to be spoken by the westen Jews; but for many centuries it continued to }p cultivated by Jewish scholars of all countries for the sake of the many beautiful literary relics whiq Jewish authors have left in that language. It js still spoken by the Jews of Algeria, Morocco, Tunis Egypt, Tripoli, Yemen, and Syria. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider, in Jew. Quart. Rev. xiii 303-311. G. 1. Br. ARABIC LITERATURE OF THE JEWS: From the time that the Arabs commenced to develop a culture of their own, Jews lived among them ant spoke their language. Gradually they also en ployed the latter in the pursuit of their studies, » that Jewish literature in Arabic extends over all the branches in which Jews took an interest. Indeed. the material is so vast that it is impossible to givea comprehensive survey of it in small compass; ant it is owing to this circumstance that there is no work on the subject, although one by Steinschneider has been in preparation for many years (see “Z.D.M.G- liii. 418). 1. Early Literature: The earliest literary pr ductions are not of a specifically Jewish character but are similar to those of the Arabs. They consis of poems composed in celebration of public or pt vate events, and date from the second half of tl fifth century of the present era, The first was com posed by a poetess of Medina named Sarah, whe bewailed the slaughter of a number of her people by an Arab chief. The same event is alluded to" some other verses by an unknow First Poem poet. About the middle of the sixt! Isby a century there flourished in Nort! Woman. Arabia Samau‘al (SAMUEL) IBN ‘Alt YA, whose name is often mentiod and whose verses are to be found in the most 5° table compilations of ancient Arabic poetry. At the > Te wah 4 Arabic Language Among Jews THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Arabic Piterattcs of the Jews 51 . Yohammed there lived in Medina the poets ; wrote commentaries on the Psalms, Lamentations, — rime ue 1px ABI AL-HUKAIK, Ka’ab ibn Asad. and Ecclesiastes (MSS. British Museum, 2515-17, sr-Re woman), Ka‘ab ibn al-Ashraf (assassinated | 2520; Hirschfeld, “Arab. Chrestom.” pp. 103-109), Asma ( of Mohammed), Al-Sammak, Aus of Ku- | Next to him must be mentioned Yusuf Kirkisani, oe t al-Diyal, Shuraih, Jabal ibn Jauwal,and | whose “Kitab al-Anwar we al-Manakib ” (O°"5NA'D) raiZ- * Farhad of Khaibar. Toward the end of Mo- | forms an introduction to his commentary on the finally * career the convert Al-Husain. who as- | Pentateuch (Bacher, “Jew. Quart. Rev.” vii. 687- 710; Harkavy, “Mém. Russ. Arch. Soc. Sect. d's ine | : han eee name Abd Allah ibn Salam, wrote homi- sumet Llegends drawn from Jewish sources, | Orient.” viii. 247-321; Poznanski, in Steinschneider, acret aan ae : aay me ee : lies een the first elements of the “Hadith” | “Festschrift,” pp. 195-218; dem, “Semitic Studies ae tradition). He was followed by Yamin ibn | in Memory of A. Kohut,” pp. 485-456; Hirschfeld, (Mosic® min), Ka‘ab ibn Ahbar, and Wahb ibn | 75. pp. 116-121). The most fertile of all, however, Yamin ( Benja pikh (the last two hailing from Yemen), all | is Jefeth ibn ’Ali ha-Levi (Hasan al-Basri) (Commen: eee oe converts to Islam. Of other literary pro- | tary on Daniel, ed. D. 8. Margoliouth, Oxford, 1891). ol Arab Jews in this early epoch there is | Besides his “Sefer ha-Mizwot,” he wrote commen- “ord, . 2 e ° e . . ae ae » mentioned by an anonymous author of the | tion to linguistic questions than his contemporaries. a. This work, which Sprenger (“Leben | His son Levi (Abu Sa‘id) commented on the Pen- ninth century. ehre Moh ; Lagherne pook of revelation, was not an Arabic a ‘ork, but was probably only a compendium of rab- ee discussions, which its author naturally styled canna Abd Allah ibn Saba, who is supposed to have been & Jew, was the first to ascribe divine ponors to the calif Ali. He founded the Shiite sect of the Sabaiyya. This ends the first period, a spe- cial feature of which is that all its literary produc- tions have been transmitted through Mohammedan channels (see Delitzsch, “Jiid. Arabische Poesien aus Mohamm. Zeit,” 1874; Noldeke, “Beitrige zur Kenntniss der Poesie der Alten Araber,” pp. 52-86; Hirschfeld, “Essai sur |’Histoire des Juifs de Me- dine,” in “Revue Etudes Juives,” vii, 167-193, x. 10-31). 2. Karaites: It was in the second period that Arabic began to be used asa scientific language. The first to employ it for theological works were the Karaites. The founder and oldest teacher of this sect, indeed, still employed the rabbinic dialect ; but later on, when the guif between the Karaites and the Rabbinites widened, the former employed Arabic, not merely on account of the spread of that language, but apparently out of spite to the Rab- binites, whom they wished to prevent from reading their books. It was evidently for the same reason that the Karaites afterward employed Arabic char- acters for Hebrew quotations and translations. There is not much variety in the Arabic writings of the Karaites, as they nearly all have the same tendency, and were composed in defense of narrow religious views. The branches chiefly dealt with are Biplical Exegesis, Halakah and Theology. Po- lemics against Rabbinites, and Linguistics. There 1s, however, still so much uncertainty as to many details, that final results can not in many cases be obtained till further researches shall have been made among the manuscripts in the various public libraries. With the beginning of the tenth century Karaite literature enters its fullest period. The struggle was reciprocal, and is no doubt largely Apogee of responsible for the growth of Arabic Sains works among Rabbinite Jews. There ature. was hardly one prominent Karaite writer of this period who did not waits Saadia. The first claiming mention is Su- an ibn Rubaim (Salomon b. Jeroham), who tatcuch and on Joshua, and composed a compendium of the “Agron” (dictionary) by David ben Abraham of Fez. David b. Boaz (998) wrote commentaries on the Pentateuch and on Ecclesiastes, and also a “ Kitab al-Usul.” The beginning of the eleventh century is marked by Yusuf al-Basir (Ha-Ro’eh), who wrote several works on theology and halakah: for example, “ Al Muhtawi” (The Comprehensive One), several re- sponsa, the “Witab al-Istibsar,” on the law of in- heritance, of which some fragments are still extant, and the “ Kitab al-Isti‘ana.” of philosophic character (see P. F. Frankl, “Ein Mu‘tazilit. Kalam,” in “Sit- zungsber. der Wiener Acad.” 1872, pp. 169 ef seg.). About 1026 Abu al-Faraj Harun ibn al-Faraj com- pleted his grammatical work “ Al-Mushtamil” (Poz- nanski, “Rev. Et. Juives,” xxxiii. 24-39). He was also the author of a commentary on the Pentateuch. Ali b. Sulaiman, of the twelfth century, left, be- sides an exegetical work on the Pentateuch, an igron based on that of the above-named David ben Abra- ham. Karaite literature, after its de- Karaite cay in Asia, found a new home, in the Literature thirteenth century, in Egypt; but its in productions were inferior to those of Egypt. the preceding epoch. Israel b. Sam- uel ha-Dayyan of Maghreb composed a treatise on “Six Articles of Creed,” another on the ritual slaughter of animals, and, finally, a “Sefer ha-Mizwot.” A work similar to the last-named was written by his pupil, the physician Jefeth ibn Saghir (Al-Hakim al-Safi); and another is known as the “Siddur of Al-Fadhil” (Isaiah Cohen ben Uzziyahu) (Steinschneider, “Cat. Berlin,” ii. 48; other ritual works, MSS. Brit. Mus. Or., 2581-82, 2536). Ju- dah ben Meir (also called Al-Hakim al-Thafi) wrote a commentary on Esther. Among commentators on the Pentateuch mention should be made of Al- Mu‘allim Abu Ali (Sahl ben Mazliah al-Imam), Abu al Sari, Abu al-Faraj-Furkan, and Al-Mukad-. dasi. The most important author of the fourteenth cen- tury is the physician Samuel of Maghreb, whose chief work was “ Al-Murshid ” (The Guide). Besides. this, he wrote prolegomena to the Pentateuch. In 1415 Elijah ha-Dayyan wrote a work on the calen- dar rules, of which a Hebrew translation exists in St. Petersburg. An important “Chronicle of Kara- | I i by . . . ° quer “except of the so-called “Kitab al-Ash- | taries on all the Biblical books, and paid more atten- ammed,” i. 49) believes to have been Arabic Literature of the Jews ite Doctors” was compiled at the beginning of the fifteenth century by Ibn al-Hiti (G. Margoliouth, “Jew. Quart. Rev.,” ix. 429-3). As late as the seventeenth century David b. Moses Fairuz com- posed a treatise in imitation of Balyah tbu Paku- dah’s “Guide to the Duties of the Heart.” Even at the present day, Arabic is used, although not largely, by Karaites in Egypt: in that language they read the Passover Haggadah (ed. Presburg, 1868). 3. Saadia: The development of Arabic literature among Rabbinites is indirectly due to the Karaites. Saadia of Fayum (see SaapDiA GaAon) was the first to enter the lists against the latter with various po- lemical treatises, of which various fragments have lately come to light. His works not only extend over every branch of Jewish learning then in exist- ence, but he even created a new one; namely, relig- ious philosophy. It was evidently his intention to prevent Rabbinite Jews from making use of Karaite writings of any kind. His translation and commen- taries on nearly the whole Bible earned for him the name of “The Commentator”; and his version of the Pentateuch in particular obtained such popular- ity that it was looked upon in the light of a Tar- gum, and is still so considered in Arabic-speaking countries, Itis found in Yemen MSS. side by side with the Targum Onkelos. Under the title “Ag- ron,” he also produced a philological work, the only existing fragment of which has recently been pub- lished by Harkavy, together with the remains of his “Sefer ha-Galuy ” (“Studien und Mitthcilungen aus der Kaiser]. Bibl. zu St. Petersburg,” v.). He also wrote a treatise on “ Ninety [seventy] Unique or Rare Words in the Bible” (the original is lost, but the Hebrew version has been edited by A. Jelli- nek) and a large grammatical work. For liturgical purposes he provided a prayer-book, which he en- riched with many compositions of his own, whilst the directions were written in Arabic. He also wrote a chronological treatise, and another on the Jaw of inheritance (H. Derenbourg and Mayer Lam- bert, ix., “ Traité des Successions,” etc., Paris, 1897). (For Saadia’s philosophical writings see below.) To the number of pseudonymous writings under his name, belong a Midrash on the Decalogue (ed. Eisen- stidter, Vienna, 1868; Joseph Shabbethai Farkhi, 1849)—which is, however, nothing but a paraphrase made for liturgical purposes—and a description of man (Steinschneider, “Cat. Berlin,” i. 48). 4. Bible: Having thus briefly sketched the man- ner in which Jewish-Arabic literature was brought into existence among Rabbinites, it will be best to outline its further development according to subject-matter. Next to Saadia, Gaon Samuel b. Hofni of Bagdad (died 1034) wrote commentaries on various Biblical books, but only part of them survive (Samuel b. Hofni, “Trium Sectionum Pos- teriorum Libri Genesis Versio Arabica,” 1886). The decline of Jewish learning in Irak was followed by its rise in Spain; and Arabic appears as the favor- ite language for Jewish writings. Hatz al-Kuti, the Goth (1000-1050), composed a metrical para- phrase of the Psalms (A. Neubauer, “ Revue Etudes Juives,” xxx. 65-69). Moses ha-Kohen Gikatilla of ‘Cordova, (1050-1080), stimulated by Abu al- Walid’s grammatical and lexical writings, composed com- ‘py Abraham b. Daniel Lumbroso. THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA bo mentarics on the Pentateuch, the Prophets, Psalm Job, Canticles, and Daniel; but only fragmen, of them have been preserved, in the form a quotations in the works of later authors (§, Po, nanski, “Ibn Jiqatilla Nebst den Fragmenten Sei ner Schriften,” Leipsic, 1895). To the same pey;, probably belong two anonymous translations , Ruth. Isaac ben Judah ben Ghayat (1039) left » version of Ecclesiastes (ed. J. Loewy, Leyden, 1884 A younger contemporary but very bitter OPPoneyy of Moses Gikatilla was Judah b. Balaam of Toleg, (1070-1090). His commentaries on the Bible hay likewise been but incompletely handed down Neubauer, “ The Fifty-third Chapter of Isaiah,” p 384-385; Bacher, Stade’s “Zeitschrift,” xiii, 199. 155). Fragments of an anonymous commentary On the Psalms, dating from the twelfth century, g), preserved in the library of St. Petersburg. In ity the physician Hibat Allah (Nathanael) commenta on Ecclesiastes. He subsequently embraced Islam At the beginning of the thirteenth century Josep, b. Aknin, Maimonides’ renowned pupil, is suppogeg to have written a commentary on Canticles and, treatise on Biblical measures (Munk, “Notice gy Joseph b. Jehoudah,” in “Journal Asiatique,” 1849 xiv.; Steinschneider and Neubauer, in “ Magazin’ 1888). A commentary of his on the Pentateuch j, mentioned by Al-Muwakkit (MS. Brit. Mus. Ad 27294, p. 166). Somewhat later Tap. Com- hum of Jerusalem composed commen. mentaries. taries on the Pentateuch and on Many other parts of the Bible (“ Comme. tary on Joshua,” ed. Th. Haarbriicker, Berlin, 1869. “Comm, on Judges,” ed. Goldziher). Isaac b. San. uel ha-Sefardi (end of the fourteenth century), wh» commented on the Prophets, likewise lived in Palestine (Steinschneider, “Hebr. Bibl.,” xix. 13), xx. 10). A commentary on the second book of San. uel was written by Isaac b. Samuel (Margoliouth, “Jew. Quart. Rev.,” x. 385-403). Part of this com. mentary is to be found in the Bodleian Library, Ox. ford. In the fifteenth century there flourished ii Yemen Abraham b. Solomon, who compiled nots on the Prophets (Poznanski, fc. p. 68). to the Prophets the matter of oracular speaking aid teaching. The various steps to these different fure. tions, and the special devotees in service about thee places, are found in numerous cases mentioned in the Old Testament. See LEVITEs, PRIESTS. The original purpose of the sacred offerings jg wrapped in obscurity. For the non-bloody offerirg, the peace-offering, the burnt offering, the sin-offy. ing, and the trespass-offering there are specific rg. ulations and significance. The condition of ‘he offering itself, the process of offering, and the resilt of the same upon the giver are all laid down in he codified rules of the Pentateuch. Few if any of jhe things connected with the life of Israel are so fully treated in the Old Testament as the subject of “offering.” See SACRIFICE. Like their neighbors, the Israelites had sacred feist. | times. These are seen very early in the history. Hits | and moreare found of the feasis of the new moonid ! the Sabbaths. The yearly feasts were the Passover, ! the First-Fruits, and the Tabernacles or Ingatherhg. : Each of these had its special regulations as to tine, | duration, and attendants. Upon the centralizaion : of worship at Jerusalem, certain modifications tok place both in the accompaniments of the festval — days and in the places where they were formerly held. As time went by the number of such cays iucreased. See FESTIVALS. Israel was put under strict discipline in the matter of personal cleanliness, both in reference to worhip — and to every-day life. Obedience to these demands - secured immunity from certain diseases and prevented © the spread of others. Such discipline attached 2 - wholesome sacredness to worship and enhance the . value of human life and health. It prepared the na- tion to conceive of a holy God, and to render Hma clean service. The preceding sections have indicated merey il outline the main subdivisions of Biblical Archedogy on the basis of the latest investigators. They point the reader to certain skeleton facts, which may be clothed with flesh and blood by careful painstaking research on the Old Testament. For archeology in post-Biblical times, see Basnet: Batu, CEREMONIES, CosruME, Numismatics, M7s!G SYNAGOGUE, ete. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Fenton, Harty Hebrew Life, 1880; Baa ger, Arch, 1894; Bissell, Biblical Antiquities, 1888; 19, Die Alterthtimer des Volkes Tarael, 3d ed.. 1866 ; Keil, Ain : der Biblischen Archaealugic, 2a ed., 1875: Nowack, 26" THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 35 ogte, 1894; Schiirer, Gesch. 2d ed., 1890; Stade. Archaewod rolkes Israel, 2d ed., 1889, especially vol. i., book Geach. oe 518. For the bearings of extra-Biblical material on vil PP Archeology. see Ball, Light from the East, London, Bibi senrader, C. I. O. T. 1888; Vigouroux, La Bible et les 180); Or rtes Modernes, 5th ed., Paris, 1889; Boscawen, The wo vey thee Monuments, London, 1595; Evetts, New Light Bible & oly Land, London, 1891; Recent Research in Bille onthe Hot ed by H. V. Hilpreebt, Philadelphia, 1896; . History, Prophecy, and Monuments, 1806, ii. vii. . {-i¥.2 SAYCE, The Egupt of the Hebrews, London, 1895 ; ‘ Patriarchal Palestine, London, 1895: idem, Raees of ia Testament, London, 1891; Price, The Montwnents th estament, Chicago, 1900. he Old Testa + ns : I. M. P. and j. SK. CHER, ARCHERY: The bow as a weapon ., war and the chase was familiar to the Hebrews inv patriarchal times Gen. xxi. 20, xxvii. 8, xlviii, Jonathan and Jeli were expert archers (II cam. i. 22; II Kings ix, 24); the tribe of Benjamin ‘vas renowned for its sons’ skill with the bow (1 Chron. viii. 40, xii. 2); and David, after the battle of Gilboa. sought to encourage archery practise in Judah (IJ Sam. i. 18). The impulse thus given seems to have taken root, so that 250 years later the rophet Hosea speaks of the bow as representing Israel’s military power (ch, i. 5). From the figures extant in Assyrian monuments it appears that the usual tactics with the bow were to cverwhelm the enemy with repeated showers of arrows, and then close in with sword and spear upon the harassed ranks, In Ps. cxx. 4 there is a refer- ence to the practise of affixing burning material to the arrow-head, no doubt for setting fire to a be- sieged town. For further detailsand Hebrew terms in connection with Archery, see ARMY. E. C. F. pe S. M. ARCHEVITES (4358): A people whom Asnap- per brought from Erech or Uruk, a political and re- ligious center of Babylonia, and settled in Samaria. They wrote to Artaxerxes concerning the building of the Temple at Jerusalem and had the work on it stopped (Ezra iv. 9). Erech (Uruk) is mentioned in Gen. x. 10. J. IR. G. B. L. ARCHEVOLTI, SAMUEL BEN ELHA- NAN ISAAC: Italian grammarian, and poet of the sixteenth century. Many of his piyyutim were Archeology Archimedes embodied in the Italian liturgy, notably his * Song on Circumcision.” He was an excellent Talmudist, and, when quite young, reedited or rather supplied with extensive textual references, the ‘“Aruk of Nathan b. Jehiel under the title “Sefer ha-‘Aruk” (Venice, 1531). His book “Degel Ahabah” (The Banner of Love), an ethical work with commentaries, was printed in Venice (1551), The most notable of his works are (1) “‘Arugat ha-Bosem” (The Bed of Spices), a Hebrew grammar (Venice, 1602; reprinted, Amsterdam, 1780), and (2) “Ma‘yan Gannim” (A Fountain of Gardens), fifty metrical letters, designed to be models for students of this form of composition (Venice, 1553). Of these two books the more im- portant is the Hebrew grammar, because the subject is exhaustively and originally treated. Twenty-five out of the thirty-two chapters are devoted to the rudi- ments of the language. Chapters twenty-six and twenty-seven treat of Hebrew accentuation ; chapters twenty-cight and twenty-nine discuss perfect style; chapter thirty treats of steganography and bublical cryptography, and chapters thirty-one and thirty- two treat of the nco-Hebraic meter, with original models of style and method. The last chapter please John Buxtorf the younger to such an extent that he translated it into Latin, appending it to his transla- tion of the Cuzari (1660). Archevolti, who loved the Hebrew language and delighted in its poetical phra- sing and shading, was disinclined to uphold the ideas advanced by Judah ha-Levi, who, though one of the greatest Hebrew poets, did not care to treat Biblical subjects poetically, maintaining that they did not readily lend themselves to such treatment. Arche- volti held the opposite view, and in respectful terms wrote against his famous predecessor, employing the Talmudic bit of satire, “The dough must be bad in- deed if the baker says it is.” BIBLIOGRAPHY: First, Bibl. Jud. s.v.3; Steinschneider, Cat. Boal. No. 7004; Delitzsch, Zur Gesch. d. Hebr. Poesie, p. 6. G. G. A. D. ARCHIMEDES: The greatest mathematician of antiquity ; born in Syracuse about 287 8.c. Hisin- fluence on Jewish literature was not extensive. Only two of his works have come down. 4M\s, to usina Hebrew translation. Ka- COMPANY OF EGYPTIAN ARCHERS AT DEIR EL-BAHARI, (After Wilkinson, “ Ancient Egyptians.’””) Archipherecites Ardit lonymus ben Kalonymus (after 1806) twice turned the treatise “On Conoids and Spheroids” into Hebrew, under the title SSHYYNIs WID5a. Le is said to have made use of an Arabic translation of Costa ben Luca, though Arabic bibliographers know nothing of such a translation. An unknown author—whom Steinschneider surmises to have been the same Kalonymus—translated xix/ov ud@yorg under the title Muy mvp. ovo DIN 7p, from the Arabic Archers as Body-Guard of Darius. (From Maspera, “ Passing of the Empires,”’) of Thabit ibn Kurrah (the Hebrew title is to be cor- rected to ADwp3a, which means “extension,” and corresponds exactly to the Arabic “ Masahah ”). Abraham bar Hiyyah shows a perfect knowledge of the theories of Archimedes in his “ Encyclopedia of Mathematical Sciences ” (compare Steinschneider, “ Hebr. Bibl.” vii. 92); and the same is true of Abra- ham ibn Ezra, in his astronomical work “ Reshit Hokmah.” BIBLIOGRAPHY : Steinschneider, Hebr. Uebers. 8310; Z. D. M. G. 1. 172 et seq. G I. Br. ARCHIPHERECITES (ap yigepekirar): Grecized form of the Aramaic XP Ob Ww = “heads of the school” (pirka, literally “chapter,” bence “dis- course”). The name occurs in Justinian’s “ No- THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 8 es vella,” No. 146, Ilepi ‘Espeiwv, of the year 583, in which the Archipherecites, the elders, and the teach. ers are forbidden to use their power of anathema jy order to prevent the reading of the Greck version o¢ the Bible in place of the Midrashic or Targumie in. terpretation. BIBLIOGRAPHY : Gratz, Gesch. der Juden, iii. 859, note 7; Krie. gel, Corpus Juris, tii, 640, Compare ACADEMIES IN Parpg. TINE. K. ARCHISYNAGOGUE (apyiovvaywyoc; Heb, NDI we): Synagogue-chief. The use of this name as the title of the officer who supervised mat. ters pertaining to the religious services of the syna. gogue can be traced from the time of Jesus to about the year 300 (Pes. 49). It occurs several times jp the New Testament. The distinctive function of the Archisynagogue was to select suitable men for the reading of the Law, the reciting of prayers, ang for preaching ; since in ancient times the synagogue did not have regularly appointed officers for the performance of these duties. Despite the specifie. ally Jewish character of the functions of the Archi. synagogue, however, the name is borrowed from the Greek, and was therefore used throughout the Roman Empire where Jews were settled, but not in Babylonia. Hence, the Babylonian Talmud, when mentioning the Archisynagogue, finds it necessary to translate the word by p37 (Ket. 8; compare Yer. Ber. iii. 1, 62). From the Jerusalem Talmud (¢.c.) it further appears that in cases of necessity the Archisynagogue of a community had to act as its reader, In consonance with the nature of his office, the Archisynagogue was chosen for his piety and good moral character, while in the case of an archon the essential requirements were social position and in- fluence. The Pharisees therefore regarded the Archi- synagogues as inferior only to the DYN “ssh (“disciples of the wise”), the Jewish scholars (Pes. 49>. This passage is, however, of Palestinian origin), Like most of the offices of the pharisaic Jews, that of the Archisynagogue was not limited as to time, but was usually held for life, and not infrequently was hereditary; the Pharisees holding (see Torat Kohanim Ahare Mot viii., ed. Weiss, p. 88a) that the son had aclaim upon his father’s office unless he had shown himself unworthy. This explains why the title Archisynagogue was sometimes attached to the names of the wife and the children, as found on some Greek inscriptions. It was used, no deubt, to indi- cate that they were members of an archisynagogal family. BIBLIOGRAPHY : Schirer, Gesch. ii. 364-367, 519; Gemeindever- fussuny, pp. 25-28; Weinberg, VM. G. W. 1897, p. 657, A. L. G. ARCHITE: IJnhabitant of a town or district on the southern border of Judah probably connected with the Erech (A. V. Archi) of Josh. xvi. 2. Hushai, David’s friend, was from that region (I Sam. xv. 32). It would appear to be somewhere in the neighborhood of Ataroth, but has not beet identified with any certainty. sis J. ARCHITECTURE, JEWISH. See ALMEMABS; AMERICA, JEWISH ARCHITECTURE IN; ARK; CEME THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 87 ERIESS GALLERIES; GRAVESTONES; HOSPITALS; py, A. V. “em- rods”’—that is, hemorrhoids); and a plague of mice was sent over the land (20. vi. 5; the Septuagint, v. 6). The affliction of boils was also visited upon the people of Gath and of Ekron, whither the Ark was successively removed (7). v. 8-12). After the Ark had been among them seven months, the Philistines, on the advice of their diviners, returned it to the Israelites, accompanying its return with an offering consisting of golden images of the boils and mice with which they had been afflicted. The Ark was put down in the field of Joshua the Beth-shemite, and the Beth-shemites offered sacrifices and burnt offerings (¢. vi. 1-15). Out of curiosity the men of Beth-shemesh gazed at [A. V. “looked into”] the Ark; and as a punishment over fifty thousand of them were smitten by the Lord (7d. 19). The Beth- shemites sent to Kirjath-jearim, or Baal-Judah, to have the Ark removed (76, 21); and it was taken thither to the house of Abinadab, whose son Eleazar was sanctified to keep it (2). vii. 1). Kirjath-jearim was the abode of the Ark for twenty years (7b. 2). Under Saul the Ark was with the army before he first met the Philistines, but the king was too im- patient to consult it before engaging in the battle (76, xiv. 18, 19). In I Chron. xiii. 8 it is stated that the people were not accustomed to consult the Ark in the days of Saul. At the very beginning of his reign David removed the Ark from Kirjath-jearim amid great rejoicing. On the way to Zion, Uzzah, one of the drivers of the cart on which the Ark was carried, put out his hand to steady the Ark, and was smitten by the Lord for touching it. David in fear carried the Ark aside into the house of Obed-edom the Gittite, instead of carrying it on to Zion, and here it Inthe Days stayed three months (IT Sam. vi. 1-11; of David. I Chron. xiii. 1-13). On hearing that the Lord had blessed Obed-edom be- cause of the presence of the Ark in his house, David had the Ark brought to Zion by the Levites, while he himself, “ girded with a linen ephod,” “danced before the Lord with all his might ”—a performance for which he was despised and rebuked by Saul’s daughter Michal (I Sam. vi. 12-16, 20-22; I Chron. xv.). In Zion he put the Ark in the tabernacle he had prepared for it, offered sacrifices, distributed food, and blessed the people and his own household (II Sam. vi. 17-20; I Chron. xvi. 1-3; II Chron. i. 4). Levites were appointed to minister before the Ark (I Chron. xvi. 4). David’s plan of building a temple for the Ark was stopped at the advice of God (II Sam. vii. 1-17; I Chron. xvii. 1-15; xxviii. 2, 3). The Ark was with the army during the siege of Rabbah (IT Sam. xi. 11); and when David fled from Jerusalem at the time of Absalom’s conspiracy, the Ark was carried along with him until he ofdered Zadok the priest to return it to Jerusalem (II Sam. XV. 24-29). When Abiathar was dismissed from the priest- hood by Solomon for having taken part in Adoni- jah’s conspiracy against David, his life was spared because he had formerly borne the Ark (I Kings ii. 26). Solomon worshiped before the Ark after the dream in which the Lord promised him wisdom (2b. THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 1Q4 iif. 15). In Solomon’s Temple a Holy of Holies (Heb; sa5, A. V., “oracle”) was prepared to receive the Ark (#b. vi. 19); and when the Temple was deg; cated, the Ark, containing nothing but the ty, Mosaic tables of stone, was placed therein (ib, Vili 1-9; If Chron. v. 1-10). When the In Solo- priests came out of the holy Place mon’s after placing the Ark there, the Tey, Temple. ple was filled by a cloud, “for 4, glory of the Lord had filled the house of the Lord” (I Kings viii. 10-11; I] Chron. y, 32 14). When Solomon married Pharaoh's daughte, he caused her to dwell in a house outside Zion, is Zion was consecrated because of its containing the Ark (II Chron. viii. 11). King Josiah had the Ar put into the Temple (II Chron. xxxv. 3), from whigy it appears that it had again been removed by some predecessor. The only mention of the Ark in the Prophets j, the reference to it by Jeremiah, who, speaking in the days of Josiah (Jer. iii. 16), prophesics a time whep the Ark will no longer be needed because of the righteousness of the people. In the Psalms the Ark is twice referred to. Jp Ps. Ixxviii. 61 its capture by the Philistines jg spoken of, and the Ark is called “the strength ang glory of God”; and in Ps. exxxii. 8, it is spoken of as “the ark of the strength of the Lord.” The Ark is mentioned in only one passage in the Apocrypha (II Mace. ii. 4-10), which contains a legend to the effect that the prophet Jeremiah, “being warned of God,” took the Ark, and the tabernacle, and the altar of incense, and buried them in a cave on Mount Sinai, informing those of his followers who wished to find the place that it should remain unknown “until the time that God should gather His people again together, and receive them unto mercy.” The Ark is called by several names in the Bible, as follows: TI. “ The ark” (;axn) : Ex. xxv. 14 et al.; Lev. xvi. 2; Num. iii, 31 et al.; Deut. x. 2 et al.; Josh. iii. 15 ¢f al.; I Sam. vi. 13 et al; II Sam. vi. 4 ef al.; I Kings viii. 3 et aly I Chron. vi. 16 et a@l.; Il Chron. v. 4 ef al. II. ‘The ark of the testimony” (1. nay5 yann): Ex. xxxi7: (2. mayn pe): Ex. xxv. 22et al.; Num. iy.d et al.; Josh. iv. 16. III. a “ The ark of the covenant”? (1. 7937 y14KN): Josh. iii.6 et al; (2. Poa pn): Josh. iii. 14. b “ The ark of the covenant of the Lord’* [YHwH]; com- pare IV. @ (1. Ay pena pws): Num. x. 33 et aly Deut. x. 8 et al.; Josh. iv. 7 et al.; I Sam. iv. 3 et al; I Kings iii. 15 et al.; I Chron. xv. 25 et al.; If Chron. v.2 etal.; Jer. iii. 163 (2. yA AAD 29ND) : Josh. iti. 10. c “The ark wherein is the covenant of the Lord. which he made with our fathers, when he bronght them out of the land of Egypt” (223 WR my Pend oe Ww V8 DAW PANS OMAN wT. ws N oy): 1 Kings viii. 2b d‘“*The ark wherein is the covenant of the Lord, that he made with the children of Israel”? (m3 oe Ws pVNA Gyaws oa Dy maa ws mi): IE Chron. vi. Ll. e ‘The ark of the covenant of the Lord of all the earth”: compare IV. b (paxiv $3 pax mean pax): Josh. iif. Ul. Ff “The ark of the covenant of the Lord of hosts [or YHWE of hosts], who dwelleth between the cherubim ” ; com- pare IV. 4, j (293937 SW) MWIY Ay TMI TN) : [Sal iv. 4. g ** The ark of the covenant of the Lord [or YuwH] your God”; compare IV. ¢, € (o9°NOx ANA MvT3 pI) : Deut. xxxi. 26; Josh. iii. 3). h“ The ark of the covenant of God”: compare IV. fi 9 (qynoxa mena pax): Judges xx. 27; 1 Sam. iv. 4; I Sam. xv. 24; I Chron. xvi. 6. 105 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Ark of the Covenant a “The ark of the Lord [YHwu]”’; compare III. D (yx an.) : Josh. iv. ll et al.; Sain. iv. 6 et al.; Il Sam. vi. 9 et al.; I Chron. xv. 3 et al.; U1 Chron. viii. 11. p “The ark of the Lord [YHWH], the Lord of all the earth’’; compare IIL. e (pana $3 pW AIT TAN) : Josh. iii. 13. ¢ “Tne ark of the Lord God [or YawH]”’; compare III. g (m1) TR PINS) s T Kings ii. 26. a“ The ark of the Lord lor YHWH] God of Israel”? (jx ayaqze WON AW): I Chron. xv. 12 et al. r “he ark of the Lord [or Yuwu] your God”; compare Ul. g (aaaeew AWM PWN): Josh. iv. 5, “The ark of God”; compare HI. h (1. oymabx yras): 1. sam. iii. Bet al; (2 OAONA pas): I Sam. iv. 13 et al.; lI Sam. vi. 3 et al.; I Chron. xiii. 5 et al.; If Chron. i. 4. “The ark of our God”; compare IL Qpabs pws) : 1. Chron. xiii. 3. . n “The ark of the God of Israel” (Ssner rox yA): TSam. y. Set al. 4 “The ark of God which is called by the Name, the name of the Lord [or YHWH] of hosts who dwelleth between the cherubini”’; compare IIL. f (nap Aes OTN NIN poy OII97 WW MRIS TWD OL oe): WSam. vi. 2, RK. V. j “The ark of God, the Lerd [or YHwWR], who dweileth between the cherubim, which is called the Name” [lit- eral translation]; compare III. f (mm. sm osxn pas Sy SIP AN DIIWA Qe): I Chron. xiii. 6. y. “The holy ark” (esp y5N) : TT Chron. xxxv. 3. yI. “The ark of thy [God’s} strength” (q1y pyWS) : Ps. exxxii. 8: Ii Chron. vi. 41. {V. @ Different names for the Ark predominate in differ- ent books, as follows: In Exodus, Nos. I, and IL. 2; in Numbers, Nos. IJ. 2 and III. d, 1; in Deuteron- omy, No. If. 6, 1; in Joshua, Nos. IV. @ and II. a,1; in I Samuel, Nos. [V. @ and f, 2; in II Sam- uel, Nos. IV. a and 7, 2; in I Kings, Nos. I. and III. 6, 1; in I Chronicles, Nos. I. and IT. 6, 1; and in ll Chronicles, Nos. I. and UII. }, 1. C. J. M. J. JR. ——In Rabbinical Literature: The Ark, by reason of its prominence in the Bible, forms an important subject of discussion by the Rabbis, a great many sayings relating to it being found throughout the Talmud and the Midrashim. They discuss the di- mensions, position, material, contents, miraculous powers, final disposition, and various incidents di- rectly or indirectly connected with the Ark. Such discussions at times embody popular legends, and are also of interest as reflecting the poetical spirit which animated many of the rabbis. Thus it is related (B. B. 99) that the available space in the Holy of Holies was not in the least diminished by the Ark and the cherubim—that is to say, that through the working of a miracle the Ark and the cherubim transcended the limitations of space. With regard to the position of the Ark in the Holy of Holies, there is the following picturesque sayingin Tanhuma, Kedoshim, x.: * Palestine is the center of the worid, Jerusalem the center of Palestine, the Temple the center of Jerusalem, the Holy of Holies the center of the Temple, the Ark the center of the Holy of Holies; and in front of the Ark was a stone called 7°’ 45x, the foundation stone of the world.” In Yoma 728, and Yer. Shek. vi. 49d, it is recorded that Bezaleel made three arks which he put inside of one another. The outside and inside ones were made of gold, and measured respectively ten cubits and a fraction and eight cubits, while the middle one was of wood and measured nine cubits. Again, accord- Ing to one opinion (Yer. Shek. vi. 49c), there were two arks traveling with the Israelites in the wilderness. One contained the Law, in addition to the tablets of the Ten Commandments, and the other the tables of stone which Moses had broken. The one that con- tained the Law was placed in the “tent of meeting ”: the other, containing the broken tables, accompanied the Israelites in their various excursions, and some- times appeared on the battle-field. According to still another view (J.c.), there was only one Ark, and it contained both the Law and the broken tables (Ber. 8); B. B. 145). R. Jobanan in the name of Simon ben Yohai, basing his opinion on the repetition of the word “name” (py) in II Sam. vi. 2, maintains that the Ark contained the Ineffable Name and all other epithets of God (B. B. 1.c.; Num. R. iv. 20). Marching in the vanguard of the Israelites, the Ark leveled the hills before them (Ber. 540; see ARNON). It carried the priests, who in turn were to carry it in the passage of the Jordan (Sotah 33a). When King David had the Ark brought from the house of Abinadab and carricd upon a new cart, the two sons of the latter, driving the cart, were tossed by an invisible agency into the air and flung to the ground again and again, until Ahitophel explained to David that this was ow- ing to the transgression of the Law, which enjoined upon the sons of Kohath to carry the Ark upon their shoulders (Num. vii. 9; Yer. Sanh, x. 29u). When the Philistines despatched the Ark upon a cart drawn by two inilch-kine without a driver, the kine not. only took the Ark straightway to Beth-shemesh (I Sam. vi, 8-12), but they also sang a song (taking “ wayish- sharnah,” v.12, “and they took the strai ght way,” as derived from shirwh, “a song”). According to R. Meir, their song was the verse, “I will sing unto the Lord, for he hath triumphed gloriously ” (Ex. xv. 1); according to R. Johanan, “ Give thanks unto the Lord, call upon his name” (Ps. cv. 1); others suggest Ps. xclli., xevii., xeviii., xcix., or cvi.; but R. Isaac Nappaha has a tradition, preserved in Tanna debe Eliyahu, xi. (compare ‘Ab. Zarah 245), that they sang the following processional hymn: Rise, O rise, thou acacia chest ! Move along, move along in thy great beauty! Skilfully wrought with thy golden adornments! Highly revered in the sanctuary’s recesses! O’ershadowed between the twin Cberubim !” —Midr. Sam. xii.; “Ab. Zarah l.c.; Gen. R. liv. ‘““When Solomon brought the Ark into the Temple, all the golden trees that were in the Temple were filled with moisture and produced abundant fruit, to the great profit and enjoyment of the priestly gild; until King Manasseh put an image of an idol in the Temple, which resulted in the departure of the Di- vine Presence and the drying up of tbe fruit” (Tan., Terumah, xi.; also with slight variations, Yoma 39b). The Ark was not merely a receptacle for the Law; if was a protection against the enemies of the Israel- ites, and cleared the roadgin the wilder- A Van- ness for them. Two sparks, tradition guard in relates, came out from between the two the Desert. cherubim, which killed all serpents and scorpions, and burned the thorns, the smoke of which as it curled upward sent a sweet fragrance throughout the world, and the nations of the earth exclaimed in wonder and admiration (Cant. iii. 6), “What is this that cometh up from the wil- derness like pillars of smoke?” (Tan., Wayakhel, vii.) Opinions are divided as to what finally became of the Ark when the Temple was destroyed. Some, basing their views on II Chron. xxxvi. 10, and Isa. xxxix. 6, declare (Yoma 5380) that it was taken to Ark of the Covenant Ark of the Law Babylonia, while according to others (76.) it was not taken into captivity, but was hidden away in the Temple, in the apartment where Its Ulti- the wood for fuel was kept; and it is mate Fate. related that acertain priest, while doing his work in that apartment, noticed that some of the stones in the paved floor projected above the others, He no sooner began to tell the story to a fellow-priest than he expired. That was regarded asa sure sign that the Ark had been buried in that place (Yer. Shek. vi. 49¢e). Another tradition records that it was King Josiah who hid the Ark and other sacred vessels, for fear that if they were taken to Babylonia they would never be brought back (2d. ). “Why was a distance of 2,000 cubits always maintained between the Ark and the people? In order that when the march was stopped upon each Sabbath day, allthe people might travel as far as the Ark to offer their prayers” (Num. R. ii. 9). “One son of Obed-edom betokens by his name, ‘ Peulthai, for God blessed him’ (I Chron. xxvi. 5), the blessing brought upon his father’s house; he honored the Ark by placing a new candle before it every morn- ing and evening” (Num. R. iv. 20.). Ark is used figuratively for a teacher of the Law in a farewell address; “If Obed-edom was blessed greatly for keeping the Ark in his house, how much more should he be blessed who shows hospitality to students of the Law?” (Ber. 630.) J. SR. I. Hv. —In Mohammedan Literature: In the Koran the Ark of the Covenant and Moses’ ark of bul- rushes are both indicated by the one word “ tabut,” which term certainly comes from the Hebrew “tebah,” through the Jewish-Aramaic “tebuta.” The reference in the Koran to the Ark of the Cove- nant occurs in the middle of the story of the choice of Saulto be king. There the people demand a sign that God has chosen him, and the narrative continues (ii. 249): “and their prophet said unto them, ‘ Lo, the sign of his kingship will be that the ark [¢abu?] will come unto vou with a “Sakinah” im it from your Lord, and with a remnant of that which the family of Moses and the family of Aaron left— angels bearing it. Lo, in that is verily a sign for you if yeare believers!’” Baidawi (ad lec.) explains “tabut” as derived from the root ¢d (return), and as thus meaning a chest to which a Tabut, thing taken from it was sure to re- Sakinah, turn. It was the chest in which the and Law (Taurat) was kept, and was about Remnant. three cubits by two, and made of gilded box-wood. ‘“Sakinah,” he says, means “rest,” “tranquillity”; and it came to the Israelites in the coming of the Ark to them, or it was the Taurat itself, brought in the Ark and calming them by its presence (sce SHEKINAH). Moses was wont to make it go on before in battle, and it would steady the Israelites and prevent them fleeing. Others said that there was in the Ark a figure of chrysolite or ruby with the head and tail of a she- cat and with two wings. It would utter a moaning sound, and the Ark would rush toward the enemy with the Israelites following it. When it stayed, THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 106 they stood and were at ease, and victory came. p the “remnant” in it is meant the fragments of the broken tables, the staff and Clothes Composi- of Moses, and the turban of Aaroy tion After Moses died, God took it up to of ‘‘Rem- Himself, and the angels now brought nant.” it down again. But others said that it remained with the prophets that succeeded Moses, and that they gained Victories by means of it until they acted corruptly and the unbelievers took it from them. So it remained jp the country of Goliath until God made Saul kin He then brought calamity upon the Philistines and destroyed five cities. Perceiving that this wag through the Ark, they placed it on two bulls, ang the angels led it to Saul. Al-Tha‘labi, in his “ Kisas al-Anbiyya” (p. 150 of ed. of Cairo, A. H. 1314), gives details as to the earlier and later history of the Ark. He brings jt into connection with the important Moslem doctrine of the Light of Mohammed, the firg History of all created things, for the sake of of the which God created the worlds. The Ark. Ark was sent down by God from par. adise with Adam when he fell. In it, cut out of a ruby, were figures of all the proph. ets that were to come, especially of Mohammed and his first four califs and immediate followers, At the death of Adam it passed to Seth, and go down to Abraham. From Abraham, Ishmael re. ceived it as the eldest of his sons. It passed then to [shmael’s son, Kedar, but was claimed from hin by Jacob. Kedar refused to relinquish it, but was divinely commanded to give it up, as it must remain in the line of the prophets of God, which was now that of Israel. On the other hand, the Light of Mohammed, which shone on the forehead of every lineal ancestor of his, remained in the Arab line of Kedar. So the Ark passed down to Moses. How and when it was lost, the Moslem historians do not state. According to Ibn ‘Abbas, a cousin of Mo- hammed and the founder of Koranic exegesis, it, with the rod of Moses, is now lying in the Lake of Tiberias, and will be brought forth at the last day. The story of the image with the cat’s head and tail is traced back to Wahb ibn Munabbih, who was of Jewish birth. It has probably some Midrashic origin. What is apparently an earlier Earlier form of this latter legend is given in Form the “ Hhamis” of Al-Diyarbakri (i. 24 of Legend. et seg.; compare ed. of Cairo, 13802). In it the chest with images of the prophets is not connected with the Ark of the Cov- enant. The chest, called also tabut, which had been given to Adam as above stated, was in the possession of the emperor Heraclius, and was shown by him to ambassadors from Abu Bakr, the first calif. It had been brought from the extreme West (Maghreb) by Alexander, and so had passed to the Roman emperors. D. B. M. —— Critical View: A classification of the passages in which the Ark is mentioned (compare Seyring, i2 Stade’s “Zeitschrift,” xi. 115), shows that in the older sources (J., E., and Samuel) the Ark is called simply “the ark,” “the ark of Yuwu,” or “the THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 107 kof God.” In Deuteronomy, and in writers under ronomic influence, it is called “the ark of the enant of YHWH”; while the priestly sections pit it “the ark of the testimony.” In I Sam. iv. the re is taken into battle, and both Israelites and Philistines are affected by it as though Yuwu Him- if were there. | ; As the Egyptians, Babylonians, and other nations nad similar structures for carrying their idols about Wilkinson, “ Ancient Egyptians,” iii. 289; _“ Handwérterbuch,” under “elippu”; and »Jsaiab,” in 2S, BO. 2 , 78), critical scholars hold that the Ark was mn the earliest time a kind of mov- able sanctuary (see Well- paused, * Prolegomena,” 5th ed., p- 46, note; Stade, w(fesch.” i. 497; Nowack, « Archiologie,” ii. 3; Ben- ginger, © Archiologie,” 867; Winckler, “Gesch. Israels,” ; 70; Couard, in Stade’s “Zeitschrift,” xii. 53; and Guthe, “Geschichte des Volkes Israel,” p. 31). As the corresponding shrines of other nations contained idols, so late tradition has it that the Ark contained the tables of the Decalogue (I Kings viii. 9, 21). As the two versions of the Deca- logue, that of E. in Ex. xx., and that of J. in Ex. xxxiv., differ so radically, critics hold also that there could have been no authoritative version of the Command- ments deposited in the Ark, but believe that it contained an aerolite or sacred stone —-similar to the sacred stone of the Kaaba at Mecca— which was regarded as a fetish. The fact that in J. (the Judean source) the Ark is not prominent, Yuwu being consistently represented as dwelling at Sinai while his angel goes before Israel (Ex. xxxiii. 2), and that in E. (the Ephraimitic source) the Ark plays a conspicuous part, led Wellhausen and Stade to be- lieve that it was originally the movable sanctuary of the Joseph tribes, from whom, after the union of the tribes, it was adopted by the nation. This view has been generally adopted by other critics (see refer- ences above). In the historical books the Ark plays no part after the time of Solomon, when it was placed in the Temple. Couard believes that it was carried from Jerusalem in the days of Rehoboam by the Egyptian king Shishak (Stade’s “Zeitschrift,” xii. 84). That Would adequately explain its disappearance from history, While the Ark figures in Deuteronomy and in the Priestly legislation, there is, as Couard points out, no evidence that it was actually in existence as peute se hung in front of it. Ark of the Covenant Ark of the Law an object in the cult at the time that those codes were combined; it appears to represent merely an ideal in the minds of the compilers. BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. Lotz, Die Bundeslace, Leipsic, 1901; J. Meinhold, Die Lade Jahweh’s in Theol. Arbeiten aus d. eae Meee Wissenschaftlichen Predigerverein, Bonn, J. JR, G. A. B. ARK OF THE LAW.—In the Synagogue (wtp jNN): A closet or chest in which are kept the Torah scrolls used in the public worship of the synagogue. The Ark is placed in or against the wall of the syna- gogue, toward which the worshipers turn in the solemn parts of the liturgy—the wall in the direction of Jerusalem. The Ark is always JO GEO = ces 4, = ~ — [en ST Supposed Earliest Representation of an Ark of the Law, in the Museo Borgiano at Rome. (From Garrucci, * Arte Christiana,”) placed a few feet above the floor of the nave and is reached by steps. As the Torah is the most sacred and precious possession of the Jew, so is the chest which holds it the most important and ornate part of the synagogue. Itis called “ Aron ha-Kodesh ” (the Holy Ark) after the Ark of the Covenant in the Tab- ernacle and the Temple (Ex. xxv. 10 e@ seq., xxxvii. The perpetual lamp (4'7pn 43) is usually From the platform near it the priests pronounce their benediction on festivals (com- pare the expression y2175 aby, R. H. 315; Shab. 1189), and in modern Ashkenazic synagogues the bimah or almemar—the platform from which the prayers are recited and the lessons of the Torah read by the pre- centor—is placed near it (compare in the Talmud the expressions mann ‘AS ay and ppnn ‘Ab [Ber. v. 4; R. H. iv. 7, 345], for performing the func- tion of precentor), Whenever the Ark is opened the 1 et seq.). Ark of the Law THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 10 @REBE 57 aa saan aaa +eyI/1| inl vg ssf] ALE WENT ARK OF THE LAW OF THE SEPHARDIC SYNAGOGUE AT AMSTERDAM. (After Picart.) congregation rises in reverence for the Torah it holds, and when it is empty, as on the Feast of the Rejoi- cing of the Law (Simhat Torah), when all the Torah scrolls are taken out to be carried in procession, a Symbolic Representation of an Ark of the Law on a Glass Dish in the Museo Borgiano at Rome, (Yroun Garrucci, “ Arte Christiana.’’) a a a i ee re burning candle is placed in it. Before the Ark there is frequently placed a curtain of costly material, calied puroket after the curtain which in the Taber. nacle and Temple screened the Holy of Holies (Ex. XXVii. 21, xxxvi. 35, xl. 21). It may be safely assumed that the Ark constituted from the first an integral part of the synagogue edifice. The synagogue was considered a sanctuary next to the Temple (Meg. 29a; see Targum to Ezek. xi. 16), and the Ark as corresponding to the third division of the Temple, the Holy of Holics. The ap- plication of the term ba to the Ark is therefore not appropriate, as this name was given to the second or middle division of the Temple (I Kings vi. 5, 17; vil. 50). It is equally certain that the Ark served from the beginning as a receptacle for the sacred scrolls used in the service of the synagogue, although the older accounts do not expressly mention it. This may be inferred from the analogy with the Ark of the Covenant in which, according to tradition (Deut. x. 2 et seg.; I Kings viii. 9; If Chron. v. 10), the tab- lets of the covenant, or the Decaloguc, were de posited, and the place of which was taken by the Ark and the Torah. In the Mishnah the Ark is referred to not as fi: but as Aan, the word used in the Old Testament (spelled without *) for the Ark of Noah (Gen. Vl- viii.) and the Ark in which Moses was hidden (Ex. ! 3, 5). Its preference for the term “ Tebah ”~ may be due to a desire to distinguish between the Ark of the THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 109 ear qapernacte and Temple. and that of the synagogue ‘pare. however, the Baraita). The vulgar crowd Guan a deadly sin in calling the sacred shrine simply rat ” (Shab. 32a). In Megillah iii, 1 this gradation hare edness is given: From the proceeds of the sale awogue an Ark may be purchased; from those k. wrappers (for the Torah scroll) ; from those — at sacl of il svn of an Al Ark of the Law | dentally that the sacred books were kept in the syna- gogue (caSsareiov); Chrysostom (347-407) refers in “ Oratio Adversus Judos,” vi. 7 (* Opera,” ed. Mont- faucon, vol. i.), to the Ark («¢Swrdc, the word by which the Septuagint renders the Hebrew }}9x) and in “Orat.” 1.5 to the “Law ” and the “Prophets” which were kept in the synagogues. Itis only Mai- ANT? SVT TE Uf fosr sts “HANKS ARK OF THE LAW IN THE SYNAGOGUE AT GIBRALTAR. (From a photograph in the collection of Hon, Mayer Sulzberger.) of wrappers, books (that signifies, according to Mai- monides’ Yad ha-Hazakah, Hilkot Tefillah, xi. 14, the Pentateuch and other parts of the Old Testa- ment in book form); from those of books, a Torah scroll (compare also Shulhan ‘Aruk, Orah Hayyim, § 153. 2), According to Ta‘anit ii. 1 the Ark was port- Able, Josephus (“ Ant.” xvi. 6, § 2) mentions inci- monides (Yad ha-Hazakah, Hilkot Tefillah, x. [xi.] 3) and Bertinoro (to Ta‘anit ii. 1) who state ex- plicitly that the sacred scrolls were preserved in the Ark. A. J. M. C. Architecturally Considered: In earlier times and in-less important synagogues the Ark was Ark of the Law Ark of Noah gencrally a movable piece of furniture, so that in case of disturbance or danger it could be readily removed with its contents. In its most rudimentary form it was merely a wooden case or closet, raised from the floor sufficiently high for the congregation to see the scrolls of the Law when the doors were open. Sometimes the Ark is fashioned as a recess or niche in the wall, and the design is then very properly considered in connection with the architectural treatment of the interior of the synagogue. When this method is adopted it is generally ornamented with columns, cornices, and arches; and when built of stone or other rich materials, presents an appearance of great dignity. Examples may be found to-day in some of the London synagogues, a particularly notable one being that in Great St. Helens, which itself isa fine piece of classic design. In this structure the Ark is a cur- tained recess in a semicircular wall. It is flanked with pilasters and coupled a = Sah ‘amt a Corinthian columns, which are surmounted by other columns and arches supporting a_half-dome, a fine effect of stateliness being attained by this sim- ple treatment. Amore modernexample , is found in the synagogue # Mickve Israel, of Phila- *‘ delphia, where the Ark occupies practically the entire eastern end of the building. Here, also, it takes the form of a recess in the wall; and it is CAG TE framed with columns and Sa pilasters supporting hie a round arch, in the tympanum of which are the tables of the Law surrounded by stained glass. When the doors are opened, a base of while mar- ble is disclosed, and on thisrest the scrolls. In the synagogue at Amsterdam there is an extremely beautiful Ark treated architecturally with Ionic columns, cornices, and pediments; the central portion is raised higher than the sides and contains the tables of the Law elaborately framed and surrounded by carving. This Ark is specially notable from the fact that it is divided vertically into five parts, each having separate compartments with doors, and all con- taining scrolls. Notwithstanding its elaboration, however, it has no relation to the interior design of the building, and must be considered rather as a handsome piece of furniture placed in the position of honor. In many of the important synagogues in Europe the Ark is treated in the same way. In Wiesbaden, Florence, and Paris are three instances of this. THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Ark of the Law in the Synagogue at Pogrebishche, Russia. (From Bersohn, ‘‘ Kilka Slow,”’) Lig The Ark in the synagogue in each of these Cities ; a superb structure made of stone, marble, ang . aie ee : ch metal work; but the main line of the walls ALain. which it is placed has been recognized in its design and while it is a separate structure, it still ane a consonant part of the interior and harmonizes With it without losing its distinctive importance. The Ark in the Temple Emanu-El in New York is an unusually elaborate piece of Moresque design It is richly carved, entirely constructed of Wood and colored in the manner of the Alhambra, In the Temple Beth-El, New York the Ark is made of onyx and Colored marbles, and is placed against a Sem). circular. background of marble ay mosaic, — Richly wrought and gildeq bronze is used for capitals and othe, ornamental parts, and for the doorg_ which latter are counterweighted, ang rise instead of sliding to the sides These doors are of open design, 50 a yay that, even when they are closed, the ane yO scrolls may be seen, ag the ay a interior is illuminated with electric lights. The approach to the Ark of the West End Syna. gogue, New York, is by four steps from the main floor, giving upon a broad platform extending nearly the whole width of the building; from the center of the rear of this again, rise four semicircular steps leading to the actual Ark. This is of elaborate Mo- resque design and work- manship, in which strong relief is obtained by the use of light oak fretwork, embedded in black walnut panels, in the central sliding doors whieh conceal the scrolls. Handsome — walnut pillars, which repro- duce the form of those of stone that support the portico of the exterior of the building, and of those of onyx that uphold the galleries, flank the Ark. The whole structure is set in an arched recess in the south wall of the building, and receives light in the daytime from rows of Mo- resque windows of stained glass, placed close to- gether and filling the extent of the arch. By night. concealed gas or electric lights are skilfully adjusted to illuminate the salient points of the design. The pulpit and the reading-desk, occupying their custo- mary positions, repeat the mosaic ornamentation of the combined oak and walnut, characteristic of the Ark, An equally elaborate Ark is that of the “She arith Israel ” congregation in New York, the Sephat die place of worship; a colored plate of it forms the frontispiece of vol. i. of this Encyclopedia. ntl (a vA . \ E = ot ‘ Mie ers mi Fo ft id) j11 pe Ark isalways surmounted by a representation . the two tables of the Law, while a perpetual hangs in front; silver and bronze lamps of rich lam nansbip are often placed at the sides. The work ef. st rs be Poy Prepare ae 2) Spat J SEENON — Aer Wage gf 2 serra —__— weer ences 4 3 al Re ge See SS ad ae Ark of the Law from the Synagogue at Modena, Dated. A.M. 5265 = 1305 C.E. (From the Musée de Cluny.) doors, except in the Sephardic synagogues, are cov- ered by curtains, and the walls of the interior are also adorned with rich hangings. The Ark is approached always by at least three Steps, but sometimes many more are used, and—as in the case of the Paris synagogues—a fine effect is obtained by marble steps and balustrades. A. A. W. B. ARK OF MOSES (“tebah”): For three months Moses was kept hidden by his mother, and when she could no longer conceal him, she made a box and launched it on the Nile river (Ex. ii. 2-3). The box Was made of rushes, and was lined with slime and Pitch to make it water-tight. Midr. R. to Ex. i. 21 Says that the pitch was placed on the outside of the ae so that its odor should not be offensive to the ant. J. IR. G. B. L. THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Ark of the Law Ark of Noah ~- ARK OF NOAH.—Biblical Data: The vesse! occupied by Noah and his family during the Deluge (Gen, vi. 14, vii., viii.). The English name should not be confounded with the Ark of the Covenant. The Hebrew name, 73N, is the same as that of the chest in which the infant. Moses was placed on the banks of the Nile. It wasa box-like structure made of gopher-wood, a species of pine-tree not found in Babylonia, but brought, as was frequently done, from the Mediterranean coast land. ‘It had three stories and a roof. In the paral- Jel Babylonian flood-story no mention is made of the material; but in the main the descriptions agree. In either case the vessel was made water-tight with bitumen and provided with cells or rooms. The pro- portions, as given in Genesis, show regard for safety and rapid movement under steering. The huge dimensions of the Ark—300 cubits long, 50 cubits broad, and 80 cubits high—were never reached in the construction of ancient vessels, but would have been necessary for the accommodation of all the ani- mals that survived the Deluge. It was really a great. house set afloat, and was so called in the Babylonian version (“Flood Story,” line $1). Its purpose, ae- cording to both accounts, was to accommodate Noah and his family and the animals of every kind that were to populate the earth after the waters subsided, In the Babylonian account the Ark rested on Mount Nisir, east of the Lower Zab river, therefore not far from the starting-point; and the high water lasted but a week. Noah’s Ark, after tossing about for a year, rested in the highlands of Ararat or Armenia, and stories have been current at various times to the effect that remains of it had been found in that re- gion, as, for example, in Josephus, “Ant.” 1. 3, § 6 (see ARARAT and FLoop). See Schrader, “ Cunei- form Inscriptions and the Old Testament,” i. 46-60. J. JR. J. F. McC. In Rabbinical Literature: One hundred and twenty years before the Deluge, Noah planted cedars. from which he afterward made the Ark (Gen, R. xxx. 7; compare Christian parallels; Ginzberg, “Monatsschrift,” xii. 411). This lengthy period was requisite, partly in order to urge the sinful peo- ple to amend their ways, and partly to allow suffi- cient time for the erection of the Ark, which was of very large proportions. According to one view the Coin of Apamea, with Suppesed Representation of Noah's Ark, (From Maspero, * Dawn of Civilization.”) Ark consisted of three hundred and sixty cells, each ten yards long by ten yards wide; according to an- other it consisted of nine hundred cells, each six yards long by six yards wide (Gen. R. xxxi. 11; compare commentaries on the passage for the exact mathematical computations). The lowest of these Ark of Noah Arkansas stories was used as a depositary for refuse; in the second the human beings and the “clean” beasts were lodged, and the uppermost was reserved for the “unclean” beasts. A differing opinion reverses the order, so that the refuse was deposited in the third a c ARR eel Wan tn a a NY EEO A yg ee aig IETS, a eR eed SVS St AT a fi Al ag lw oie Piaf fs Some The Ark of Noah Afloat. (From the Sarajevo Haggadah.) story, from which it was shoveled into the sea through a sort of trap-door (xarapaxryc; Gen. R. L.c.). For purposes of illumination, Noah used precious stones, bright as the sun at noonday (Sanh. 1080; Yer. Pes. i. 27); Gen. R. d.c.), which shone by night and were dull by day. The stones were the sole light in the Ark, since the stars and planets did not fulfil their functions during the Deluge (Gen. R. xxxiv. 11). Another miracle witnessed by the occu- pants of the Ark was the entrance of the animals. They were not led in by Noah, a task which would have been impossible for any human being; but God caused them, as well as the spirits of those whose bodies were yet uncreated, to gather there from all sides (Gen. R. xxxi. 18, xxxii. 8; Zeb. 116a; for Christian parallels see Ginzberg, “ Monatsschrift,” xliii. 414). Another Midrash says that the an- gels appointed over the various species of animals brought each his allotted animal with its necessary fodder (Pirke R. El. xxiii.). In regard to the feed- ing of the animals, the greater number of Haggadot say that each received suitable food at the usual time (Tan., ed. Buber, Noah ii.; Gen. R. xxxi. 14); and since Noah was constantly emploved in feeding them, he did not sleep for a moment during the year in the Ark. As Noah was an exception among his contemporaries, so also were the animals that were destined to be saved. They were the best of their species, and, unlike the other animals of the time, they remained true to their proper natures, with- out overstepping the limitations which nature had prescribed for them (Tanhuma, /.¢. v.; Gen. R. xxviii. 8; Sanh. 108¢). Besides the regular occu- pants, the Ark supported Og, king of Bashan, and the immense animal “ Reém,” neither of whom, owing to their enormous size, could get into the Ark, but held fast to it, remaining alongside (Pirke R. EL xxiii.; Gen. R. xxxi. 18). In order that Noah on his entrance into the Ark might not be molested by the wicked people, lions and other wild animals were placed to guard it. A beam of the Ark was found by Sennacherib, and he made an idol of it THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 119 (Sanh. 96a). Another beam of the Ark was usegq the gallows for Haman, according to Midrash Ay Gorion, iv.; ed. Buber, 19a (see FLoop Ix Rag. BINICAL LITERATURE). J. SR, L. g. In Mohammedan Literature: Mohammeg), conception of the Ark of Noah was of an ording, ship. He refers to it frequently in speakin of Noah, and in all but two cases uses the word “ fu), » which is clsewhere his usual word fora ship, i one passage (sura liv. 14) he calls it “a thing boards and nails”; in another (xxix. 14), “sating) » which he also uses elsewhere of a ship. There is, therefore, 1ittle Koranic material tha need be considered under this rubric. A curioyg expression in the Koran (xi. 43), “And _ he gaig ‘Ride ye in it; in the Name of God it moves ang stays,’” probably means only that at all times it wag under the care of God. But some commentators (Baidawi, ad loc.) have thought the meaning to ph, that Noah said, “In the Name of God!” when he wished it to move, and the same when he wished jt to stand still. It is mentioned (xi. 46) that it settled on al-Jugj This name must go back to a flood-legend current among the Syrians of the east Tigris, in which the Ark settled on the mountains of Gordyza. But in Moslem tradition this has become a specific moun. tain, lofty and long in shape, near the town called Jazirat ibn ‘Umar, on the east bank of the Tigris, in the province of Mosul. So Yakut (s.e. ii, 144), and Ibn Batuta passed it on his travels (ii. 139), Mas‘udi (“Golden Meadows,” i. 74) states that the place where the Ark grounded could be scen to bis day, but there do not seem to be current among Moslems any of those tales so common in Jewish and Christian legend of remains found by adventur- ous travelers. Probably the Moslem al-Judi was much too accessible. According to Yakut a mosque built by Noah was still to be found there. flee 4c ve on 3 Se ; rt Say Ph io re 4 % The Ark Resting on Mt. Ararat. (From the Sarajevo Haggadah.) On the dimensions and plan of the Ark there was much difference of opinion. It is evident that Mo- hammed’s conception of a simple ship had beet changed by outside influence. Baidawi (/.c.) gives the Biblical dimensions of 300 cubits by 50 by 30, and expands only in explaining that in the first of 413 ve three stories wild and domesticated animals were qged. in the second were human beings, and in ane third the birds. But other professed. legend- aatnerers. £0 much farther. Al-Tha‘labi_ in his © Kisas al-Anbiyya ” (pp. 31 et seg.) and al-Diyar- pakri im his “ Khamis v give stories of how Noah, ynder the direction of Gabriei, built a “blouse” of ;-wood—after having first grown the trees for purpose—Wwith dimensions of 80 cubits by 50 by or, according to others, 660 by 330 by 33; or, again—and this on the authority of Jesus, who raised ) SHEM to give the information to his disciples— 1.200 by 6). On every plank was the name of a srophet. and the body of Adam Was carried in the middie to divide the men from the women. When Noah came near the end of his building, he found that three planks, symbolizing three prophets, were missing. and that he could not complete the “ house ” without them. These planks were in Egypt and were brought from there to Noah by Og, son of Anak, the only one of the giants who was permitted to survive the Flood. The last of the Ark seems to pave been that Noah locked it up and gave the key to Shem (Ibn Wadih, i. 12). 1. SR. D. B. M. ARKANSAS: One of the South-central states of the United States; admitted June 15, 1836; seced- ed May 6, 1861; and was readmitted June 22, 1868. Arkansas has about three thousand Jews. Though their settlement in different parts of the stete can be traced to comparatively carly days, thei: com- munal activity is of but recent development. A curious item of circumstantial evidence in this mat- ter is the old marriage law of Arkansas (Statutes of 1838), which was so worded as to exclude Jewish ministers from performing the ceremony. This law remained unchanged until 1873, when, through the exertions of M. A. Cohn of Little Rock, the blunder was corrected In the revised statutes. There are in the state but five congregations of snficient size and means to employ a permanent minister and to hold regular services; namely, Little Rock, Pine Bluff, Fort Smith, Wot Springs. and Jonesboro, The communities next in size are Texarkana, Helena, and Camden. The most important Jewish community in the state is Little Roch; it is the oldest as well as the largest. The tirst Jewish settlers there that can be traced were the Mitchell family (three brothers), who came from Cracow, Galicia, in 1838. From that year until the Civil War there was little Jewish immigra- tion; but during the war and imme- diately afterward the influx was comparatively large. In 1866 a congregation was formed and in- corporated with M. Navra as president. On March Is, 1867, a charter was granted to it under tlie name “Congregation B'nai Israel of Little Rock.” The Members worshiped in the Masonic Temple under the jeadership of a hazan, 8. Peck of Cincinnati, Who resigned in 1870. In 1872 J. Bloch was elected rabbi; and the congregation moved into a hall, pre- Paratory to building a temple. This temple was Completed and dedicated in September, 1873. Bloch served until 1880, and was succeeded by 1. W. Ben- jo tea the ye o Little Rock. Son, Whe held office from 1881 to 1888; he was fol- | rateur, and tailor, i].—§ THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Ark of Noah Arkansas ae lowed by M. Eisenberg, who occupied the pulpit for the remainder of the year. He was followed by Joseph Stolz as rabbi, who was at the time a student in the Hebrew Union College of Cincinnati. The rabbis succeeding him were: Emanuel Schreiber (1889-1891), Charies Rubenstein (1891-1897), Harry H. Mayer (1897-1899), and Louis Wolsey, the pres- ent incumbent. The membership (Sept., 1899) is 170; and the Sabbath-school has 100 pupils and 5 teachers. The building now occupied was built during the ministry of Rev. C. Rubenstein, and was dedicated in May, 1897, by him and Rabbis Wise, Samfield, and Stolz. Recently there has also been established an Orthodox congregation, having a membership of 18. Their present leader is a hazan, 5. Carmel. With the growth of the community and congregation the following societies were organized : Synagogue at Little Rock, Arkansas. (From a photograph.) The Concordia Club (social, 1868); The Hebrew Ladies’ Benevolent Society (for the relief of the poor, 1869); Little Rock Lodge, No. 158, I. O. B. B. (1871); Kesher She] Barzel (1876); Hebrew Relief Society (1892); The Temple Aid Society (formed by Rabbi Rubenstein in 1892, to aid in building the temple). Many Little Rock Jews have been prominent in public life. One of the carliest settlers, Jonas Levy, was mayor from 1860 to 1865, and Jacob Erb (now in Chicago) occupied a position as county judge from 1890 to 1894, while Jacob Trieber is at present the judge of the United States Circuit Court. The estimated population is 40.000, of whom the Jews number 900. The latter include many mer- chants, a banker, lawyer, school-teacher, sash and blind manufacturer, photographer, and pawnbroker. Jews are also engaged in the following trades: baker, barber, confectioner, laundryman. musician, restau- It is perhaps worthy of note that rkansas Arles many of the Jews of Little Rock and other Arkansas cities were members of the Confederate Army. Pine Bluff has a Jewish community almost as large as that of Little Rock. The proportion of Jews to the total population being greater, they are more influential in public affairs. Between 1845 and 1850, a Jew named Wolf—now in the New Orleans home—came to Pine Bluff. From that date the influx of Jews continued until to- Pine Bluff. day (1902) there is a Jewish popula- ‘tion of some 700 or 800. In 1867 the congregation Anshe Emeth was organized with 20 members. Bloch, a teacher in the public schools, was rabbi, and M. Aschaffenberg, president. In 1871 Bloch resigned and was succeeded by Fligel, who retained office for four years. His successor was M. Greeneblatt, at whose death (1885) Rev. Isaac Rubenstein was appointed. He held office but one year, and was succeeded in 1887 by the Rev. Ferdinand Becker. During his long term the con- eregation increased to its present membership, 76; and he conducted a most successful Sabbath-school. On his retirement in 1898 he was succeeded by the present incumbent, Rabbi Joseph Kornfeld. The population of Pine Bluff is estimated at 12,000, of whom 800 are Jews. The majority of the Jewish inhabitants are merchants; and there are several lawyers, a physician, and a school-teacher. The trades followed by Jews are: carpenter, laun- dry, printer, and tailor. Fort Smith, the community next in size, is con- siderably smaller than Little Rock or Pine Bluff. Although there were Jews here as Fort Smith. early as 1845, it was not till much later that there were enough to form a congregation. The earliest settler that can be traced was Edward Czarnickow, who came to Fort Smith from Posen in 1842. He was followed by Morris Price (1848), Michael Charles (1844), and his brother, Louis Czarnickow, and Leopold Loewen- thal (1845). From 1845 to 1865 several business houses were established, and the greater part of the business done was carried on with the Indians that flocked to Fort Smith. The first organization was the Cemetery Associa- tion. It was established in 1871, and the next year it purchased a plot for a cemetery. Louis Tilles was president. The Hebrew Ladies’ Benevolent Society was also organized in that year. From its inception it has beena great power for good; reliev- ing the poor, and contributing generously to the building of the temple. Jn 1890, through the efforts of Rabbi Messing of St. Louis, a congregation, consisting of about 25 members, was formed. A. Traugott was appointed minister. With the aid of the Ladies’ Benevolent Socicty a lot was bought and » temple erected. In 1895 Traugott retired and was succeeded in 1896 by Max Moses. During the min- istry of the latter the debt on the temple was almost entirely liquidated. In 1898 Moses was succeeded by Max C. Currick, who served till the end of 1901. The membership has greatly increased, there being now (1902) 44 full members and 25 associate mem- bers; of these about 10 live in neighboring towns. The Sabbath-school, which has 40 pupils and 3 teachers, is in a most prosperous condition. Besides THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 114 the organizations mentioned, there are the Progreg Club (social), with 40 members (1899); and a nee lodge of the I. O. B. B. (1879), at one time ver prosperous, the membership of which hag fg] from 380 to 7, The total population of Fort Smith is estimate at 20,000, of whom 230 are Jews. The only trade pursued are: tailor, cutter, photographer, ang ii holsterer. Van Buren, a suburb of Fort Smith, contains : few Jewish families, most of whom are members of the Fort Smith congregation. Hot Springs has a Jewish population of 17 in 10,000. There have been Jews in Hot Springs since 1856, when Jacob Kempner came there from Cra. cow, Galicia. The congregation was organized in 1878. F, L. Rosenthal was the first rabbi, and wa, succeeded by the present incumbep; Louis Schreiber. On account of the large numbers of sick poor that flock to Hot Springs, the demand upon the community is very heavy; and to meet it the Society for the Relief of the Sick Poor was organized jn 1899. The first Jewish settler in Jonesboro was Morris Berger, who arrived in 1882. In 1897 there were enough Jews to form a congregation. In Septem. ber of that year Rabbi Isaac Rubenstein was called to the ministry. Through his untiring efforts the temple was completed, and was dedicated on Jan, 2. 1898. He died in Jan., 1899. In August of the same year Adolph Marx began his Jonesboro, ministry, and served until 1900, whey Texarkana, he was succeeded by J. Ellinger, Helena, The total population of Jonesboro js Camden. 5,000, of whom 125 are Jews. Both in Hot Springs and Jonesboro the only trades pursued by Jews are those of tailor and shoemaker. Texarkana, Helena, and Camden have Jewish com- munities of about the same size, numbering each between 100 and 140. None of them has either a permanent rabbi or regular services; but they all have services during the autumn holidays, generally conducted by a student of the Hebrew Union Col- lege. The oldestof these communities is Helena, its congregation having been organized as far back as 1869. It had permanent rabbis until 1887. They were: A. Meyer (1880-1881), L. Weiss (1882-1884), A. M. Block (1885), and A. Gustmann (1886-1887). Abraham Brill served as rabbi from 1900 till 1901. Each of these communities has a social club, 4 s0- ciety for the relief of the poor, a literary society, and a local lodge of the I. O. B. B. Scattered through the remainder of the state, in the towns of Brinkley, Batesville, Conway, Ozark, Paragould, Malvern, Newport, Paris, Fayetteville, Searcy, and Dardanelle, there are some four or five hundred Jews. They are in no greater groups thad five families to a town; with the exception of New- port and Conway, which have each about 55 Jews. As: M. C. C. len Hot Springs. ARKITE(S): Ancient people of northwester® Palestine. In Gen. x. 17, I Chron. i. 15, the Arkite (pn yn) is mentioned as a son of Canaan and opens THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 415 series of the chiet Phenician cities. The city of a from which the name is derived, is the modern ; Tell ‘Arka in the Lebanon, northeast of Tripo- s ae a brook called River of ‘Arka (not the Sabbati- a River of Josephus!). The city occurs in Egyp- . inscriptions, about 1500 B.c., as “(L)rkun(a)tu ti yf. Muller, “ Asien und Europa,” p. 247); in the rns Letters (122 et seg.) as Irgata,Irganatu. The ygsytians mention Irkanat as hostile under Shalman- “or .; Tiglath-pileser II}. subjected Arka (De- sisecli “ Paradies,” pp. 272, 284; Schrader, “ Cunei- Hee Inscriptions and the Old Testament,” i. 87, 246). In Roman times Arka (Arké, etc.) was an important fown, called Cesarea Libani. It wasa Roman colony nd famous for the cult of Venus Arcitis (Macrobius). . a fortress it played a prominent part in the Cru- des. 42 — S The strange form Ariki in the Septuagint, in Jose- nus, and in the Samaritan text is not intelligible. POR. W. MM. ARKOVY, JOSEPH: Professor of clinical dentistry at the University of Budapest; born in Budapest, February 8, 1851. He graduated in 1876 from the university of his native city, and then went to London, where for several years he prac- tised in the German Hospital. In 1881 he estab- ished a Clinical hospital at Budapest, which was amalgamated in 1890 with the general clinics as the “Department of Dentistry.” Arkovy is the pioneer of scientific dentistry in Hungary, and the author of several works on the subject, the more important of which are: “A Fogak Gondozdsa” (1881); “A Fogbél és Gyékhartya Bantalmak” (1884); and “Diagnostic der Zahnkrankheiten ” (1885). He has also published several essays in Hungarian, German, and English dental journals. Arkovy has been bap- tized. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Acta Reg. Scient. Univ. Hung., 1883-1885 ; Pallas, Lexikon, t. 8. M. W. ARLES (Latin Avrelas or Arclate, Hebrew roan, soa, sidan. xdas, vandos, stdox, tous, ‘Sox, xd ao): City of France, in the department of Bouches du Rhone; ancient capital of Provence. The date of the settlement of the Jews in Arles is lost in antiquity. According to a legend, the em- peror Vespasian placed Jews on three vessels, which were abandoned by their captains in the open sea. One of these came to Arles, another landed at Bor- deaux, and the third reached Lyons (“Siddur,” Roe- delheim, 1868, ed. Baer, p. 112). This legend makes it probable that there were Jews in Arles during the first centuries of the com- mon cra. But the first official docu- Early § ment concerning them dates from 425. Settlement. In that year the empcror Valentinian II. addressed to the pretor of Gaul, and to Patroclus, bishop of Arles. a decree, enjoin- ing them to forbid Jews and heathens to take up the Career of arms, to enter the magistracy, or to possess Christian slaves (Papon, “Histoire Générale de Pro- Vvence,” i. if.). These restrictions, however, were hot carried out, or, at any rate, did not last long; for some years later the bishopric of Arles was oc- Arkansas Arles cupied by Saint Hilary (429-449), who cherished the most kindly feelings toward Jews in general, and especially toward those of Arles. In 476 the Roman dominion in Gaul came to an end, and Provence fell into the hands of the Visi- goths. Euric conquered Arles, where he settled for along time. So long as the Visigoths remained at- tached to Arianism, the Jews enjoyed all civic rights. In 508, when Arles was besieged by the Franks and Burgundians, the Jewish inhabitants valorously de- fended the city. Arles fell into the hands of Clovis, and Bishop Cesarius was openly accused by the Jews of treason. The bishop’s adherents, however, accused a Jewish soldier of having thrown a letter to the besiegers, inviting them to climb the wall at a certain place. The soldier was put to death, and the bishop wasacquitted. But this relatively happy state of the Jews did not last. Arles, like most towns of southern France, fell under the dominion of the Merovingian kings, whose fanaticism weighed heavily upon the French Jews. The bishops were encouraged by Chilpcric himself (561-584) to attempt the conversion of the Jews; and Virgilius, bishop of Arles, displayed such zeal for the salvation of Jew- ish souls, that even Pope Gregory the Great thought it necessary to moderate it by a stern rebuke (sec S. Gregorii Pap I. Magni Epistole,” ii. Ixv.). With the death of Dagobert I. (688), on which occasion the power passed into the hands of the Carlovingian dynasty, the state of the Under French Jews in general considerably the Carlo- improved. The Carlovingian princes vingians. cfficaciously protected them from the attacks of the clergy. Jewish history has nothing to record of thishappy period. It takes up the thread again with the death of Louis le Débon- naire (814-840), when Boso, count of Provence, sup- ported by Pope John VIII. and the clergy, founded the kingdom of Burgundy with Arles for capital. In 850, the Jewish communities of Lyons, Chélon, Macon, and Vienne, to save their children from bap- tism, sent them to Arles, where Bishop Roland showed himself most favorably disposed toward the Jews. The usurper (879-888), as a token of his grat- itude toward the clergy, transferred his rights over the Jews of Arles to Rostang, archbishop of this town. Boso’s son and successor did the same in 921 to Bishop Manasse. This form of transfer was sanctioned later by the German emperors, who ac- quired rights of suzerainty over Provence. Thus Conrad III., in 1147, granted to the archbishop of Arles, Raymond of Montredon, among other of his regal prerogatives, the jurisdiction over the Jews of his diocese. Frederick Barbarossa in 1154 confirmed and extended these privileges. The archbishop un- derstood how to make the most of the power be- stowed upon him, and laid heavy taxes upon the Jews of Arles. And yet their state was tolerably favorable in comparison with that of the Jews of other towns in France, who suffered much from the Crusaders. The archbishop watched carefully over his property, and permitted none to interfere with his Jews. According to Benjamin of Tudela, the Jewish community of Arles counted at the second half of the twelfth century about 200 families. At their Arles _ Armenia head were six rabbis: Moses, Tobias, Isaiah, Solo- mon, Abba Mari, and Nathan (see Benjamin of Tudela, “ Travels,” i. 5). They lived in a separate quarter of the town, and had their synagogue in Rue Neuve (Noble de la Laugiére, “ Abrégé Chrono- logique de l' Histoire @’ Arles,” pp. 301, 312). Their chief trade consisted in selling kermes, which is used in dry-salting. In 1215 Archbishop Michel de Moriére regulated the administration of the Jewish community of Arles. Onevery Feast of Tabernacles the Jews had to elect three members, who were to administer the community. The elected members as- sumed the title of “rectors,” and they were invested by the archbishop with full power. The rectors were responsi- ble for their acts to the archbishop. The first rec- tors assigned by the archbishop himself were: Du- rantus (Durant), Salvetus (Salves), and Ferrerius (Ferrier). Trinquetaille, a suburb of Arles, also pos- sessed quite an important community, which disap- peared in 1800, when this suburb was united with the town. The counts of Provence gradually established their power in Arles, owing to the incessant conflicts between the archbishop and the Christian inhabitants of the city; and the state of the Arlesian Jews ac- cordingly changed. Thus Charles I. of Anjou offi- cially deprived the archbishop Bertrand of Malferrat of his rights over the Jews (1276). This circum- stance occasioned much suffering among the Jews of Arles; for the clergy could now undisturbedly excite the fanaticism of the Christian inhabitants against them. Charles I. of Anjou, it is true, ac- corded to all his Jewish subjects every kind of pro- tection; and on one occasion energetically took their part against the Dominican friars, who tried to in- troduce the Inquisition into Provence. But Charles’ successor had not his energy, and the state of the Jews of Arles gradually grew worse. Thus Charles IT. (1285-1309), incited by the clergy, issued ordi- nances, according to which the Jews were forbidden, on pain of a fine of two silver marks, to employ a Christian servant, to hold a public office, or to lay aside the distinguishing yellow badge. The first half of the fourteenth century was a relatively happy epoch for the Jews of Arles under the reign of Robert of Anjou, who The cherished kindly feeling toward them; Fourteenth but the second haif was just the re- and verse. The presence of Joanna on the Fifteenth throne of Provence gave scope to the Rectors. Centuries. enemies of the Jews, and the most odious restrictions were placed upon them. Jews could not, for instance, testify against a Christian; nor were they allowed to visit the pub- lic baths on any day during the week but Friday, which was set aside for their exclusive use; they were forbidden to do work on Sundays; no Jew could embark for Alexandria, and only four could take passage by the same boat for any of the other parts of the Levant. In 1844 the Jewsof Arles had much to suffer from the riots following the blood accusation against Samson of Reythane. Such riots were repeated every few years, and Louis III. (1417-1484) saw the necessity of appointing special officials for the pro- THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 11g tection of the Jews. These functionaries, “conservators,” exercised jurisdiction over the y ed and maintained order in the communities, Jy a the mob attacked the Jews of Arles, and Maltres; even the conservators. King Réné (1484-1489) f ed pressed the functions of these guardians; and py ordinance of May 18, 1454, granted to the Jew, the right to retain their ancient customs. He, likey; : authorized them to build a fortress in their quarter in order to protect themselves from the attacks ‘ the populace during Holy Weck (Noble de Ia ay giére, 2b. p. 801). : With the death of King Réné (1484-1480) the Jey lost their last protector. On the 13th of Nisan, 5 ' (April 8, 1484), when Provence was annexeg France, a band of laborers from Dauphin, Auve; ois, and the mountain districts of Provence, ative by misery, attacked the Jews of Arles, ransacked their houses, killed several women, and compelled about fifty persons to embrace Christianity. Theg violent outbursts were repeated in the summey of 1485 (S. Kahn, in “Rev. Et. Juives,” xxxix, 119 In 1488 the Jews were definitively expelled fron Arles, to which place they never returned. Among the eminent persons associated with the town of Arles may be mentioned: R. Moses (tens, century); Judah ben Moses of Arg Prominent (eleventh century); Judah ben Tobias Jews (twelfth century); Abraham ben Dp,. in Arles. vidof Posquiéres, called also Abraham ibn Daud (twelfth century); Samug ben Judah ibn Tibbon, Meir and his son Kalony. mus, Isaac ben Jacob Cohen, Gerson ben Solomon (thirteenth century); Levi ben Abraham, who took part in the religious controversy of 1803-1306; Jo. seph Kaspi, Kalonymus ben Kalonymus, Don Com. prad of Arles, Kalonymus ben David ben Todrog, Isaac ben Joseph Kimhi, Tanhum ben Moses (four. teenth century); Nathan ben Nehemia Kaspi, Isaac Nathan ben Kalonymus ben Judah ben Solomon (fifteenth century). The following physicians of Arles may also be mentioned as having acquired distinction, the first two being engaged at court: Maéstro Bendit, prob- ably identical with Bendich Aun, physician to Queen Joanna in 1869; Benedit du Canet, one of the physicians of Louis XI.; Maéstro Salves Vidal ef Bourrin, and Asher ben Moses of the family Valabrégue (1468). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Papon, Histoire Générale de Provence, I. ii et xeq.; Depping, Les Juifs dans le Moyen Age, p. 18; Nostradamus, Histoire et Chronique de Province, passill; Gross, in Monatsschrift, 1878, 1880, 1882; idem, Gallia Ju daica, pp. 73 et seg.; Rev. Ht. Juives, x]. 74; xii. 62, 154. G. S. K,—I. Br. ARLI(ARLES), JOSEPH JUDAH, of Sienna. See JOSEPH OF ARLES. ' ARMAVIR: The oid capita! of Armenia, on the southeastern slope of Mount Ahaghoz, said to have been founded by King Armais in 1980 n.c. Mose of Chorene (fifth century) has the tradition that when King Vaharshak settled in Armavir (149 B.C.) he built a temple there and asked his favorite, the Jew Shambu Bagarat (Bagratuni), to give up hist ligion and worship idols. Shambu refused compl: ance. Moses also relates that when King Tigran® II. (90-36 B.c.), in order to take revenge on Queet THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 417 atra of Egypt, sent an expedition to Palestine, (ler ied a great number of Jews into captivity, ee settled them in Armavir and in Vardges. He ; on to state that later they were transferred e Armavir to Ernanda; and under King Ar- a é : . i ee (85-127) again transferred into the new capital Sa tashat. When King Sapor II. of Persia invaded ‘ments (360-870), he led away from Artashat 80,000 menian and 9,000 Jewish families, the latter yrought by King Tigranes from Palestine, and then completely destroyed the city. LIOGRAPHY : Faustus de Byzance in Langlois, Collection pistoires Arméniennes, i. 274, 275; Regesty i Nadpist regests and Inscriptions), pub. by the Society for the Pro- rotion of Education Among the Jews of Russia, pp. 37 ef seq., etersburg, 1899. oF H. R. ARMENIA: Formerly a kingdom of western Asia, now (1902) apportioned among Russia, Tur- key, and Persia. According to the Peshitta and Targum Onkelos. the “Minni” of the Bible (Jer. Ii. 97) is Armenia-—or rather a part of that country, as Ararat is also mentioned (Isa. XXX Vii. 38 ; I Kings xix. 37) as a part of Armenia. The In cuneiform inscriptions speak of “ Man- the Bible. nai” in the same neighborhood (Schra- der, “K. A. T.” 2d ed., p. 423). In ancient times the Armenians were in communication with Tyre and other Phenician cities, in which they traded with horses and mules (Ezek, xxvii. 14). The Meshech meutioned in Ezek. xxvii. 18; xxxii. 96: xxxviii. 2, 8; xxxix. 1, and in Ps, cxx. 5, are probably the Moschi (Assyrian, Mushku and Musk), the inhabitants of the Moschian mountains, between the Black and the Caspian seas, which contained rich copper mines. “Tubal” (Assyrian, Zubal), which is always mentioned in connection with Meshech, is the name of the Tibareni, who lived to the south- east of the Black sea. The name of the Moschi is perhaps preserved in Mzchet, the ancient capital of Iberia (Georgia), now asmall village and station onthe Transcaucasian railroad, about fourteen Eng- lish miles from Tiflis. Descendants of the Jewish captives who were carried away from Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar have lived in great numbers in the Parthian and Persian countries adjoining Armenia, and, oceupy- ing themselves with agriculture and handicrafts, at- tained wealth and lived peacefully under the rule of their “ Princes of the Diaspora ” (“resh galuta ”), who were supposed to be descendants of David (M. Brann and D. Chwolson, in the article “ Yevrei,” in Entziklopedicheski Slovar,” vol. xi., 8.7, St. Petersburg, 1894). According to Moses of Chorene (fifth century), King Hratchai (Fiery -Eye) obtained from Nebuchad- nezzar, king of Babylon, a distin- Early vuished Jewish captive, named Sham- Settlement. bat (which name, according to A. Harkavy, is identical with “Sabbat ”), Whom he loaded with honors. From Shambat de- Scended the family of Bacratunr (or Bagration), Which heads the list of the Russian nobility (see Bobrinski, “Dvoryanskie Rody,” i. 1, St. Peters- burg,1890). When Vagharshak, brother of the Par- thian King Mithridates I., and the founder of the Atshak dynasty, ascended the throne of Armenia Arles | Armenia 150 B.c., he introduced a new rule in the govern- ment of the country, nominating the Jew Bagarat, a descendant of Shambat, hereditary viceroy (naha- rar, satrap), and coronator (aspet); that is, the official charged with the duty of placing the crown on the head of the ruler. This dignity and duty remained with the Bagratuni family until the end of the Arshak dynasty in 483, The coronation, thence- forth, depended for its validity upon the perform- ance of this act (N. O. Emin, “Minutes of the Sixth Session of the Fifth Russian Archeological Con- gress,” held at Tiflis, September, 1881, to be found in “Russische Revue,” xviii. 809-311). But accord- ing to modern critics (Gutschmid and others) the work of Moses of Chorene is of a later date and his statements are open to question. During his expedition to Palestine, to take venge- ance on Queen Cleopatra of Egypt, Tigranes took a great number of Jews captive. He settled them in Armavir and in the city of Vardges, on the river Ksakh, which subsequently became a large commer- cial center. ing Arsham, the brother of Tigranes, imprisoned the coronator Hanania, and deprived him of all honors, because he liberated from bond- age the Jewish high priest Hyrcanus. Josephus relates that Cleopatra took part in Autony’s expe- dition to Armenia, when Antony subdued Armenia and “sent Artabazes, the son of Tigranes, in bonds, with his children and procurators, to Egypt ” (“ Ant.” xv. 4, $3). He also states that the Herodian house was related to the roval house of Armenia (* Ant.” xviii. 5, § 4; ¢>. xiil. 16, § 4). Many captive Jews were removed by Arsaces (85-127 of the common era) from the city of Ernanda and settled by him in the capital of Artashat. Ac- cording to tradition, the family of AMartuyti, which was of Jewish origin, came from Oriental Aryan countries to Armenia in the reign of Arsaces. At the end of the reign of Arshak, during his iniquitous persecution, the Persian king Sapor IT. (about 860) ordered the destruction of the fortifica- tions surrounding all the Armenian Carried cities, andalso commanded that all the Away by Jewsand Judaizers of the city of Van, Persians. who had been transferred to that city during the reign of Tigranes, should be taken into captivity and settled in Aspahan. Faustus, the Byzantine (4th century), in descri- bing the invasion of the Persians in the time of King Sapor IT. (810-380), relates that the Persians re- moved from the city of Artashat 40,000 Armenian and 9,000 Jewish families; from Ernandashat 20,000 Armenian and 30,000 Jewish; from Zeragavan 5,000 Armenian and 8,000 Jewish; from Zarishat 14,000 Armenian and 10.000 Jewish; from Van 5,000 Ar- menian and 18,000 Jewish; and from Nakhichevan 2,000 Armenian and 16,000 Jewish families (860-370). This great mass of Jews, according to Faustus, had originally been transported from Palestine by King Tigranes Arshakuni. While these figures may be exaggerated, there can be hardly any doubt that Armenia at that time possessed a large Jewish pop- ulation (see Ersch and Gruber, “Encyklopadie,” xxvii. 440 et seg.; Gritz, “Gesech. der Juden,” iv. 422; Jost, “Gesch. der Israel.,” ii. 128, Leipsic, 1858; Harkavy, “Vyestnik Russkikh Yevreyev,” Armenia Armilus 1871; “Razsvyet,” 1882-83; F. Lazarus, in Brill’s “ Jahrbuch,” x. 34, 35). In the Talmud (Yer. Git. vi. 48) a rabbi, Jacob of Armenia, and the Academy of Nisibis are referred to, Which goes to prove that Jewish In Jewish scholarship flourished there. In the Literature. second century Jewish prisoners of war were brought from Armenia to Antiochia, and were ransomed by the Jews there (Yeb. 45a). To the question (Bab. Sanh. 94a) whither were the Ten Tribes driven, Mar Zutra (third century) answers: “To Africa;” and Rabbi Hanina: “To the Slug (nbdp] mountains.” Africa is said to be Iberia (Georgia), and Slug may be, as Harkavy suggests, Cilici, between Assyria and Armenia (A. Harkavy, “Ha-Yehudim u-Sefat ha-Slavim,” pp. 105-109, and his reply to Stcinschneider, H.B. ix. 15, 52 in “Roman ob Alexandrye,” 1892, p. 82, note). Armenia is also mentioned in the Midrashim: “God said, if I let them pass through the deserts, they will die of starvation. Therefore I lead them by the road of Armenia, where they will find cities and fortresses and plenty of provisions” (Lam. R. i. 14). See also Cant, R., Amsterdam ed., p. 198. The Karaite Ibn Yusuf Ya‘kub al-Kirkisani, in treating of Jewish sects in his Arabic work, written in 937, speaks of the sect founded by Musa al-Za‘fa- rani. Musa—known under the name of Abu-Imran of Tiflis—lived in the ninth century. He was born in Bagdad, but settled in the Armenian city of Tiflis, where he found followers, who spread all over Ar- menia, and under the name of “Tiflisites” (7¢fz- styim), still existed in Kirkisani’s time. “It is in- teresting to know, by the way,” says Harkavy, “that in the ninth and tenth centuries such a large Jewish community existed in Tiflis, in which a separate sect could be formed” (A. Harkavy, in “Zapiski Vostochnavo Otdyeleniya Imperatorskavo Russkavo Archeologicheskavo Obshchestva,” viii. 247; tdem, in “ Voskhod,” 1896, ii. 35, 86). Hasdai ben Isaac, in his letters to the king of the Chazars (about 960), says that it was his intention to send his letters by way of Jerusalem, Nisibis, Ar- menia, and Bardaa, which fact is proof of the exist- ence at that time of Jewish communitiesin Armenia (see A. Harkavy, “Soobshcheniya o Chazarakh,” in “Yevreiskaya Biblioteka,” vii. 143-153). Benjamin of Tudela in his “Travels” (Mas‘ot: 1160-1173) says that the power of the Prince of the Exile (Exilarch) extends itself over all the com- munities in the following countries: Mesopotamia, Persia, all of Armenia, and the country of Kota, near Mt. Ararat. In Nisibis—“a large city, richly watered ”—he found a Jewish community of about 1,000 souls. Pethahiah of Regensburg, in his “Sib- bub ha-‘Olam” (1175-1185), narrates that from Cha- zaria be traversed the land of Togarma, and from To- garma entered into the land of Ararat (Armenia), reaching Nisibis in eight days. In another passage he speaks of large Armenian cities, containing few Jews. “In ancient times the Jewish population [of these cities] was large; but owing to internal strife, their numbers were greatly reduced. They scat- tered and went to various cities of Babylon, Media, Persia, and Kush.” In 1646 the Spanish adventurer Don Juan Me- THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Lig nesses came to Constantinople to offer Turke dominion of a whole Armenian province inhabiteg be Jews (Hammer, “Gesch. des Osmanischen Reicheg 4 vy. 892). For modern history, reference may ‘ made to the respective cities and countries, : BIBLIOGRAPHY: For the main facts of this article Mog Chorene has been retied upon. Moses Chorenesis, eg. yo ton, London, 1736; Istoriya Armenii Moiseya C horensige* transl. by N. O. Emin, pp. 36-37, 54-56, 60-69, 75, 82, 98 3th 105, 109-110, 113,172; Langlois, Collection des Histoire, 8 méniennes: Faustus de Byzance, i. 274-275; Drevna™ Trudy Moskovskavo Archeologicheskavo ODshehes 1880, supplement, p. 100; Regesty i Nacdpisi, Nos. 134 i 136; Schiirer, Geschichte, 3d ed., jij. 1-88; A. Harkayy ¢ Yazykye Yevreyev Zhivshikhv Drevneye Vremya na R; Ob etc., St. Petersburg, 1865, and the above-mentioned won Hamburger, R. B. T. ii. 72, 1281-1286, 1307-1810, 1883, ij gor 1592; Jost, Gesch. des Judenthums, i. 336-340, Leipsic, [g5-" Mommsen, Rimische Gesch. v. 489, Berlin, 1894; M, J,’ i Fr Martin, Ménwires Historiques et Géographiques sup Tat ménie, i. passim, Paris, 1818; Neubauer, G. T. 370 10), 407, Paris, 1868; and works mentioned in the text, ae G. Il. RB. —-In Rabbinical Literature: According to, old tradition, which has found striking verificatio, in recent discoveries in Assyria, Mt. Ararat (Gey villi. 4) was held to be an Armenian locality (Targ Yer. ad loc.; Josephus, “ Ant.” i. 35). The render. ing of “ Minni” (Jer. li. 27) by “ Armenia,” as give, in the Targuin, has also been verified. On the othe; hand, the identification of Harmonah (“ Harmon” Amos iv. 3, R. V.) with Armenia (Targum, ad loc.) is probably based upon the false etymology of mon, as if the word were composed of har (moun. tain) and monah (19%) (Armenia). It is probably on this false etymology that the Haggadah bases the statement that upon their jour. ney from Palestine to the places whither they were deported, the Ten Tribes passed through Armenia, “This,” adds the Midrash, “was probably ordained by God in order that the Israelites might pass through cultivated regions where they could easily procure food and drink, and not through the desert, where they would suffer from hunger and thirst” (Lam. R. to I, 14). Apart from Nisibis, which can not well be included in its limits, the Talmudic and Midrashic sources know almost nothing of Armenia, An amora, Jacob Armenaya by name, is mentioned (Yer. Git. vi. 480, below); yetit is doubtful whether the epithet “ Armenaya,” here really signifies “ Arme- nian.” Equally doubtful is the import of the passage (Yeb. 45a), where Jewish captives are mentioned as having been transported from Armon to Tiberias. This Armon, contrary to the statements of Rapoport and Neubauer, can not be identical with Armenia. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Neubauer. G. T. pp. 870 et seqg.; Rapoport, ‘Erek Millin, pp. 205, 206; Kerem Hemed, v, 218, i; 172. i a) ARMENIAN VERSION OF OLD TESTA- MENT. See BIBLE TRANSLATION. ARMILUS: In later Jewish eschatology and legend, a king who will arise at the end of time against the Messiah, and will be conquered by him after having brought much distress upon Israel. The origin of this Jewish Antichrist (as he can well be styled in view of his relation to the Messiah) is 4 much involved in doubt as the different phases of his development, and his relation to the Christi? legend and doctrine. | Saadia (born 892; died 942) is the earliest trust: worthy authority that speaks of Armilus. He me tions the following as a tradition of the ancients, 419 pence of the eighth century at the latest: If the jews do not prove themselves worthy of Messianic salvation, God will force them to re- gaadia’s pentance by terrible persecutions. In consequence of these persecutions, a of scion of the tribe of Joseph will arise and wrest Jerusalem from the hands of the Edomites, that is, from the Chris- rans: the Arabic text of Landauer, p. 239, has cor- yectl¥ ” Jerusalem, A and not i. Temple,” asin the He- prew translation, which has 1t owing to an erroncous »terpretation of the Arabic “al bait al mukaddas.” Phereapon the king, Armilus, will conquer and sack the Holy City, kill the inhabitants together with é¢he man [Messiah] of the tribe of Joseph,” and then pegin a general campaign against the Jews, forcing shem to flee into the desert, where they will suffer untold misery. When they have been purified by sorrow and pain, the Messiah will appear, wrest jerusalem from . I firmly believe that the Creator—blessed be His name !— is alone worthy of being worshiped, and that no other being is worthy ef our worship. 6. I flrmly believe that all the words of the Prophets are true. i. I firmly believe that the prophecy of Moses, our master— peace be upon him !—was true; and that he was the chief of the Prophets, both of those that preceded him and of those that followed him. 8. 1 firmly believe that the Law which we possess now is the same that hath been given to Moses our master—peace be upon him! 9. I firmly believe that this Law will not be changed, and that there will be no other Law [or dispensation] given by the Creator—blessed be His name! 10. I firmly believe that the Creator—blessed be His name !— knoweth all the actions of men and all their thoughts, as it is said: ‘“*Hethat fashioneth the hearts of them all, He that con- sidereth all their works ” (Ps. xxxiii. 15). 11. I firmly believe that the Creator—blessed be He !—re- wardeth those that keep His commandments and punisheth those that transgress His commandments. 12. I firmly believe in the coming of the Messiah; and al- though He may tarry, I daily hope for His coming. 13. I firmly believe that there will take place a revival of the dead at a time which will please the Creator—blessed be His name, and exalted His memorial for ever and ever ! According to Maimonides he that rejects any of these articles is an unbeliever, and places himself outside of the Jewish community. The Karaites. Artisans Joseph Albo reduces the articles to three funda- mental principles: 1, Existence of God: Comprehension of God’s unity, His in- corporeality, His eternity, and of the fact of His being the object of man’s worship. 2, Revelation: Comprehension of prophecy, of Moses as su- preme authority, of the divine origin and immutability of the Law. %. Retrihution : and of Resurrection. These three principles have, in the main, been adopted also by modern theologians, both conserva- tive and liberal, as the fundamentals of Judaism in the religious instruction of children as well as in the confession of faith to be recited by proselytes; some (e.g., Bidinger) laying especial stress on the immor- tality of the soul, others (¢.g., Stein) on the priestly mission of Israel, or the Messianic hope. Einhorn posits the following five Articles of Faith: 1. God the Creator. 2. Man in His image. 3. Revelation (through Moses). 4, God the Judge. 5. Israel His priest-people. The Central Conference of American Rabbis, in 1896, at Milwaukee, Wis., adopted the following four (or five) articles in the “ Proselyte Confession ”: L. God the Only One. 2. Man His image. 3a. Immortality of the soul. 3b. Retribution. 4, Israel’s mission. K ARTISANS.—In Bible and Talmud: The general term for “artisan ” in the Bible is “harash” or “horesh,” which, derived from a verb meaning “to cut,” is applicable to any worker in a hard sub- stance, such as metal, stone, or wood (compare the use of this term in a general sense in II Kings xxii. 6, xxiv. 14; Jer. xxiv. 1, xxix. 2). At times it is used more definitely of a carpenter (Jer. x. 3; Isa. xli. 7), of a metal-worker (Hosea xiii. 2), or of an armorer (I Sam. xiii. 19). Usually, however, the term is qualified by the addition of the material, as “harash eben,” a worker in stone (IJ Sam. v. 11); “harash ‘ez,” a worker in wood (20.); “horesh nehoshet,” a worker in bronze (I Kings vii. 14); and “harash barzel,” a worker in iron (JI Chron. xxiv. 12). From the same root is derived “haroshet,” skilled work, defined, as above, by the addition of “eben” or “‘ez” (Ex. xxxi. 5). In traditional literature the terms for “artisan ” and “ handicraft” are “umman ” and “ummanut” respectively (Song Sol. vii. 2, “om- man”). Leaving to special articles a detailed description of the various crafts and occupations mentioned in Bible aud Talmud, it will be sufficient to give here a general summary of specialized occupations, where- in, for completeness’ sake, unskilled laborers are in- cluded. The smelting of gold and silver is undoubtedly one of the oldest crafts knowntoman. The “zoref” (Judges xvii. 4; Isa. xl. 19, xli. 7, xlvi. 6; Jer. x. 9, 14, li. 17, and elsewhere) or “mezaref” (Mal. iii. 2-3), literally “smelter,” is the goldsmith or silver- smith. The smelting was done in the “kur” (smelt- ing-pot, Prov. xvii. 3, xxvii. 21) or the “mazref” (ib.). In traditional literature the “ zahabi,” Aramaic Comprehension of the divine judgment Terms. THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 159 from the “kassafi” or * kassaf” (silversmith), Cop per and bronze were worked by the “horesh Neho shet” (Gen. iv. 22; I Kings vii. 14). In the Mish. nah he is called “mezaref nehoshet” (Ket. vij. 10). in the Talmud “hashshala dude” (kettle-smith, Ket. V7a; see, however, 2b., where “ meza, Workers in ref nchoshet” is differently explaineg) Metal. Iron, like gold, was smelted jn the “kur” (Deut. iv. 20; I Kings viij, 5. Jer. xi. 4). The “harash barzel” (iron-workey 9, smith, II Chron. xxiv. 12) is called in traditiona| literature “nappah” (one who uses bellows) 9, 66 - $ . pehami” (one who uses charcoal). Mention is also made of the “tarsi” (chaser or embosser; compare Léw, in Krauss, “Lehnworter,” ii. 277a; and Jas. trow, “ Dictionary,” s.v. OW, i.). The “harash ‘ez” (worker in wood, Ex. xxxi. 5) is called in traditional literature “naggar,” ang means “carpenter” as well as “joiner.” As gpe. cialists in this calling are mentioned the “saddaah» or “saddana” (maker of stocks, Pes. 28a) and the “kazzaz” (feller of trees, Cant. R, ii. 2; Lev. R xxiii.). Carving is mentioned in I Kings vi. 29, ang elsewhere; “kiyyur” (paneling), in traditional literg- ture (B. B. 530). Workers in stone were the “hozeb” (quarryman or stone-cutter, I Kings v. 29), who hewed the stone from the rock, and the “horesh Workers in eben” (stone-polisher, II Sam, v. 11), Wood In traditional literature the first is and Stone. called “hazzab,” the latter “sattat” (B. M. 1184). Those who chisel mill- stones are called “nekorot” (Tosef., Kid. v. 14; Kid. 82a); engravers in stone are “pattahe abanim” or “mefattehe abanim” (Yer. Shek. iv. 48¢; Kelim XXix. 5). The “boneh” (builder) is called in traditional liter- ature “bannai” (Kelim xxix. 3; Tosef., Kelim, B. B. vii. 2; Yer. Hag. ii. 77); B. M. 1188), who is differentiated from the “ardikal” or “adrikal’= Assyrian “dimgallu” (the architect or eyestone-setter, B. M. e.; Targ. I]., Sam. v.11). The specialized term for wall-builders is “ goderim” (II Kings xii. 13) or “harashe eben kir” (IJ Sam. v. 11). To this trade belong the “ pison” (mortar-maker, Kelim xx. 2), the “tah” (plasterer, Ezek. xiii. 11), and the “sayyad ” (whitewasher, lime-burner, Shab. 800). The “yozer” (potter) is in traditional literature “nahara” (Targ. Isa. xxix. 16). As specialists in this trade are mentioned the “kaddad ” (jug-maker, M. K. 130; Pes. 553, MS.M., ed. 9°73), the “ godel tannurim” (oven-maker), the “godel kele zurah” (art-potter, M. K. 11a; Yer. Shab. vii. 10d}, and the “kaddar” (maker of pots, Tohar. vii. 1). The “zag- gag,” Aramaic “zaggaga” (glazier, M. K. 18); Yer. ‘Ab. Zarah ii. 40c), is specialized into the “nofeah kele zekokit ” (glass-blower, Yer. Shab. /.¢.). Here belongs the “hofer shihin” (ditch- Workers in digger, B. K. 50a). The “bursi” Clay, (tanner or hide-dresser; see Krauss, Earth, and “Lehnworter,” s.v.) or “‘abbedan” Leather. (Kelim xxvi. 8) had as assistant the “shallaha” (flayer, skinner, Shab. 495), who prepared the hides for tanning. As special- ists in this line are found the “shakkaf ” or “ usbkafa” “dahabi,” “dahabana ” (goldsmith), is distinguishes 153 shoemaker, Tosef., Kelim, B. B. i. 15; Git. 680), the “raz‘an” (belt-maker, Pes. iv. 6), the “sarag” (narness-maker, Kelim xxiv. 8), the “zakkak” (maker of leather bottles, Mik. ix. 5), and the “san- delar” (sandal-maker, Yer. Hag. iii. 78d). In the textile industry a number of crafts are mentioned, such as “zammar” (the wool-weaver, ‘Bduy. ili. 4; Kelim xxix. 6); “ pishtani” (the beater of flax, Yer. Yeb. xiii. 18¢; Gen. R. xxxii.3); “ma‘a- zela” (the spinner, Eccl. R. vii. 9); “azloya” (the net-weaver, B. M. 246); “kiwwaah” (the common weaver, Shab. 1132, 1402); “oreg” (the weaver, Yer. Shek. v. 49a); “ gardi” (wool-weaver, Textile Kelim xii. 4); “tarsi” (the artistic Industry. “sericarius” (the silk-weaver, Pesik. R. xxv.; Cant. R. viii. 11, where the word appears in corrupted form); zabba‘, zabba‘ah” (the dyer, B. K. ix. 4; Git 520); “kobes” and “kazzara” (the fuller, Ber. 284; Tosef., Kelim, B. M. iii. 14; Yer. Ber. iv. 7d). Connected with this are the occu- ations of the “hayyat” (tailor, Shab. i. 3), the “godel miznefet ” (turban- or cap-maker, Kelim xvi. 7); and the “ashpara” (clothes-cleaner, ‘Ab. Zarah 20d). “Ma‘aseh rokem” (the art of embroidery) and “ma‘aseh hosheb” (the art of fine weaving) were known and already highly developed in Biblical times (compare EMBROIDERY), Mention is also made of the “sakkay ” (sack-maker, Kelim xiii. 5), and of the “sarad” or “saddar” (net-maker, Yoma g5a; Mek., Ki Tissa; Yalk., Ex. 827; Tosef., Kid. y. 14). AGRICULTURE afforded work not only to the field- laborers but to the “tahona” (miller, Yer. Peah i. 15c), and the “nahtom ” (professional baker, Hal. ii. 7). The baker was the “ kefela” (kazy/oc, restaurant- keeper, Tosef., B. M. xi. 30). The “kallay‘ ” parched the grain and offered it for sale, and the “ garosah ” or “dashoshah ” (grist-maker) manufactured differ- ent kinds of groats or pearl-barley (Men. x. 4; M. K. ii. 5). Cooking, in Talmudic times, developed into an art, so that one boasted of knowing a hun- dred ways of preparing eggs (Lam. R. iii. 16). The “megabben” (cheese-inaker, Tosef., Shab. ix. [x.] 13); the “ tabbah,” “ tabbaha” (butcher, Workers in slaughterer, or “shohet,” also profes- Agricul- sional cook, Bezah 28¢; Hul. 18a; tural Tosef., Ber. iv. 10), and “kazzab” Products. (meat-seller, ‘Eduy. vili. 2); the “hal- itar” (confectioner, Yer. Hal. ii. 58¢e); the “sodani” (brewer, Ber. 440), and the “bassam ” or “pattam” (manufacturer of spices, druggist, Tosef., Kid. ii. 2; Yer. Yoma iv. 41d) supplied other necessities of the household. Fish and game were provided by the “haram” (fisher, Yer. M. K. li. 815) and the “rishba” (fowler, Hul. 116a). The hunting of deer is frequently mentioned in the Tal- mud and Midrashim (Shab. xiii. 5; B. M. 850). Cattle-raising required the services of a “nakdnd ” (herder, Lev. R. i. 9), of a “ro‘eh” (shepherd), and of a“karzila” (assistant, B. K. 56). The “pattam” fattened animals for the market (Tosef., Bezah, iii. 6). Other occupations dealing with cattle are “ahuryar ” (equerry, Meg. 124; differently explained in Jastrow, “ Dictionary,” s.v.), “baham” or “bak- THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA weaver, ‘Ab. Zarah 176; Suk. 510); Artisans kar” (cattle-raiser and cattle-driver, Deut. R. iii.6; Yer. Bezah v. 6385), “gammal” (camel-driver), “hammar” (ass-driver, Kid. iv. 14), and “karar” (carriage-driver or wagoner, 7. Bab. and Yer.; B. M. vi. 1). The demands of personal comfort, which in most instances called for manual labor, though the occu- pations themselves were scarcely those Other of Artisans, were filled by the “ ballan ” Occupa- (Ba2evetc, bather, Sheb. viii. 5), with tions. his attendants, the “ turmesar” (@epuar) ; the “oleyar,” “ olearius” (clothes-keep- er, Yer. Ma‘as. Sh. i. 52d), and the “udyatha” (the female superintendent of the vapor-baths, Yer. Sheb. viii. 38a, “Zosime, the udyatha”); the “sappar” (hair-cutter, Kid. Z.c.), and the “ gara‘” (barber and blood-letter, Kid. 82a). The women had their “ gad- delet,” “godelet,” or “megaddelet” (hair-dresser, Kelim xv. 3; Kid. ii. 3). In the interest of landowners worked the “kay- yal” (measurer, Yer. B. M. ix. 12), and the “ma- shoah,” “mashohaah” (surveyor, Kelim xiv. 3; B. M. 1076), The care of the city required the labor of the “ibbola’ah” (gate-keeper, watchman, Niddah 67D). Traffic and communication by land gave emplov- ment to the “ kattaf ” or “sabbal” (load-carrier, B. M,. 1183; Yer. B. M. x. 12¢); to the “iskundara,” “ bal- dara,” “dawwar,” “tablara” (the courier, Kid. 210; Yer. ‘Ab. Zarah i. 89d; Esther R. i. 8; Shab. 194; Targ. Prov. xxiv. 34; Pesik. R. xxi.), and to the “ba‘al aksanya,” “ushpizkan,” “diyyora,” “pun- daki” (the innkeeper, Pesik. R. xi.; Meg. 26a; Ta‘an. 21a; Git. viii. 9). Communication by water was kept up by the “sappan” (seaman, Sheb. viii. 5), the “mallah” (sailor, Eccl. R. ix. 8), the “mab- bora” (ferryman, Hul. 94@), and the “naggada” (tracker of vessels, B. M. 107)).. The ship had also an “amodaah” (diver, R. H. 23a). Finally, mention must be made of the “zappat” (pitch-burner, Mik. ix. 7); the “dikulaah” (basket- maker, B. B. 22); the “Jiblar,” “libellarius,” “sofer,” “safra” (writer), who wrote documents as well as books (Shab, i. 8; Git. viii. 8; ‘Ab. Zarah 9b); and the “ kabbora’ah ” (grave-digger, Sanh. 26d). In primitive society most of the handicrafts are carried on by members of the family as occasion demands. It is only with the advance Handi- of civilization that work becomes spe- erafts and cialized and a class of Artisans devel- Women. ops. Thus even in Talmudic times, side by side with specialized crafts- men, a great deal of work was done by the women of the family. The Mishnah Ketubot (v. 5) sheds light on this subject: “The following are the things which a wife is under obliga- tion to do for her husband: the grinding, baking, washing, cooking, nursing her children, making the bed, and spinning wool. If she has brought bim one maidservant, she needs not be obliged to grind, bake, or wash; if she has brought him two maids, she needs not cook or nurse; if three, then she needs not make the bed or spin wool; if four, then she is at liberty to spend her time sitting in the armchair. R. Eliezer says. Even if she has brought him a hundred maids, she should be forced to spin wool; for leisure leads to idiocy.” Something similar is found a hundred years later (Yeb. 632). Artisans A trade which would necessitate business inter- course with women is looked upon as improper (Kid. iv. 14); for every one who deals with wom- en has bad leaven in him, otherwise he would not have chosen such a trade (Kid. 82a; compare Jastrow, “Dictionary,” s.z. \p). But, like all theo- ries, this rule was not always carried out in practise; even scholars disregarded it (compare Pes. 1130). See also LABor. Nevertheless there were several trades regarded unfavorably by pepular opinion. This is well ex- pressed by R. Meir (about the year 140): *“One should teach his son an easy and cleanly occupation. One should pray to Him to whom riches and possessions belong : for in every trade there is wealth as well as poverty ; but neither wealth nor poverty is dependent on the occupation, but rather on the meritoriousness of man” (Kid. iv. 14). And R. Judah ha-Nasi (about the year 200): ** There is no occupation which will disappear from this world. Happy he who has seen at his parents’ home a fine trade; but wo unto him who has seen his parents engaged in an unpleas- ant trade. The world can not get along without a manufacturer of perfumes, neither without a tanner. Happy he whose trade is manufacturing of perfumes; wo unto him who is a tanner” (Kid. 82b). Drivers of asses and camels, shepherds, sailors, wagon-drivers, storekeepers, and crockery-dealers are looked down upon, “for their Estimation trades are robbers’ trades ” (Kid. iv. 14; of Certain Yer. Kid. iv. 66¢ et seg.). The follow- Trades. ing occupations are also looked upon with disfavor because they bring one into contact with women, and neither king nor high priest should be chosen from among those who fol- low them—namely, the trades of goldsmith, carder, millstone-chiseler, pedler, weaver, barber, fuller, leech, bath-man, and tanner (Kid. Z.c¢.). Classification by trade and the formation of gilds are mentioned in the Bible. Thus, gilds of gold- smiths and perfumersare referred to in Neh. iii. 8. Gilds of potters and weav- ers seem to be indicated in J Chron. iv. 23. These gilds seem to have been hereditary, similar to the later families of Garmu and Ab- tinas, who tenaciously retained in their respective families the special knowledge of baking the show- bread and preparing the holy incense (Yoma iii. 11). The coppersmiths or embossers had a separate syna- gogue (Meg. 26a; Naz. 52a). In Alexandria there was a perfect organization of the various trades. In the synagogue the goldsmiths, silversmiths, smiths, embossers, weavers, etc., sat each in a separate group (Suk. 514). Among some trades there existed also mutual insurance (B. K. 1163). See also Aarr- CULTURE, BAKING, Batis, BOTTLE, COOKERY, Cop- PER, Corron, DYEING, EMBROIDERY, ENGRAVING, FLax, FULLER, Guass, Iron, Laspor, LEATHER, Metrats, NAVIGATION, PoTTERY, SPINNING, WEAV- ING, BIBLIOGRAPHY: S. Meyer. Arbeit und Handwerk im Tal- mud, Berlin, 1878; Delitzsch, Jiidisches Handwerkerleben zur Zeit Jesu, 3d ed., Erlangen, 1879; J.S. Bloch, Der Ar- heiterstand bei den Paldstinensern, Griechen und Ri- mern, Vienna, 1882 , Rieger, Versuch einer Technologie und Terminologie der Handwerke in der Mischnah, Breslau, 1894; G. Liwy, Die Technologie und Terminologie der Miil- ler und Bicker in den Rabbinischen Quellen, Leipsic, 1898; Schwab, Répertoire, ii., s.v. Métiers. C. LL, J. SR. Gilds. THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 154 ARTISANS—Medieval: So far as they Wer allowed by the restrictions of the trade gilds, nan: Jews of medieval times obtained their livelihood 4 working with their hands. Benjamin of Tudela (1171) refers to many manufacturers of silk jp the Byzantine empire, to dyers in Syria, and glag. makers at Tyre. A little later King Roger of Sicily brought Jewish silk-weavers to south Italy to foung that industry (Gritz, “Geschichte,” vi. 268), In. deed, the trade of dyeing seems to have been almog a monopoly of Jews in southern Europe, and Wag certainly their favorite form of industry, the tax ley. ied on them being called “ Tignta Judxorum ” (Gide. mann, “Culturgeschichte,” ii. 312). The Jewish silk manufacturers of Italy were alg, distinguished (zbzd. 240). The Jews of Lyons, when expelled in 1446, established an important silvery. smith business at Trevoux. In Sicily the Jews ap. peared to have almost a monopoly of handicrafts and the authorities in 1492 protested against the edict of expulsion, because, as they said, “nearly a}) the artisans in the realm are Jews.” Among the Jews of Germany and north Frauce in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries are found masons, tanners, card-painters, armorers, stone-engravers, glaziers, and even makers of mouse-traps, while among the ip- habitants of Spain before the fifteenth century were to be found shoemakers, silversmiths, weavers, me- chanics, carpenters, locksmiths, basket-makers, and curriers (Jacobs, “Inquiry,” pp. xv, xxiii). About 1620 the majority of the Jews of Rome earned their living as tailors (Rieger, “Rom,” 198). Among the Artisans mentioned in the inscriptions at the Prague cemetery of the seventeenth century are furriers, carpenters, locksmiths, glaziers, potters, wood- cutters, wheelwrights, and wagon-makers (Hock, “Familien Prags”). When it is remembered that many of these occupations could only be filled by persons who had entry to the gilds, which were re- ligious fraternities as well as trade-unions, and did not admit the Jews, there is a remarkable variety of handicrafts in which Jews can be traced during the Middle Ages; see the lists at the end of chapter xii. of Abrahams’ “ Jewish Life in the Middle Ages.” There is, however, considerable variation in the amount of handwork shown by the Jews in the Mid- die Ages according to place and time. Where the central government was strong an attempt was made to use the Jews as indirect tax-gatherers, and here very little handwork is found; where, on the con- trary, the central government was not all-powerful, the Jews had freer access to the more natural means of carning a livelihood. Ofcourse, throughout Jew- ish history a certain number of employments in which handwork is required had to exist among them for religious purposes. Thus they require a special class of butchers and even of bakers, while their barbers also have to be acquainted with Jew- ish custom. That the exclusion from the gilds was the main cause of the relatively small numbers of Artisans among the medieval Jews is shown by the fact that, as soon as restrictions were removed, handicrafts were adopted by the Jews. Thus within fifteen years of the “Judenordnung” of Bohemia, 1797, which opened all occupations to Jews, there were over 400 Jewish Artisans in Prague (Jost, “ Ge- 155 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Artisans —— oe _: OC roa a ne gchichte,” ix. 167). Ten years after the first Jewish rraining-school for handicrafts was opened in Copen- pagen in 1795, there were no less than 740 engaged jn handicrafts out of 1,170 adult males (Jost, zid. xj. 5). See ENGRaviING AND ENGRAVERS; GOLD- anp SILVERSMITHS. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Abrahams, Jewish Life in the Middle Ages, ch. xi.. xii; Albert Wolf, twas tiber Jitdische Kunst und Alfere Siidische Kttnstler ; in Mitteilungen der Gesellschaft w~ fiir Jiidisehe Volkskunde, ix., 1902, pp. 12-74 “A. J. _- Modern—Statistics: Frequent expulsions and increased restrictions on residence during the lat- ter Middle Ages furthered the diversion of the Jews junto commerce, and especially into pedling. But during the last two hundred years handicrafts have found favor and have been taken up again, so that to-day out of the 3,000,000 Jews who may pe regarded as of working age over 1,000,000 earn their living by manual labor. In the East, Jews are frequently found as Artisans. Those in Morocco include tinsmiths, boot-makers, and carpenters (‘maltzan”). In Arabia they occur as armorers, silversmiths, and masons; in Persia, as silk-spinners and glass - grinders (Polak). Chubinsky declares that in Russia “Jews are prized as workmen owing to their zeal and cleverness” (“ Globus,” 1889, p. 377). He gives the percentage of Jewish Artisans in the southwestern provinces of Russia as forty per cent of the total number of Artisans, and in the cities fifty per cent of the total. At Jerusalem, in 1879-80, Sydney M. Samuel found 416 heads of families pursuing 29 handicrafts, among whom were tinkers, goldsmiths, watchmakers, smiths, turners, and masons (“Jewish Life in the East,” p. 78). In 1881 Fresco reports 882 Jews of Damascus earning their living at handicrafts, no less than 650 being weavers (Anglo-Jewish Association, “ Re- port.” 1882, p. 78). Among the Russian Jews who passed through Liverpool in 1882, 1,730 out of 1.848 were Artisans and agriculturists (Mansion House Fund, “Report,” p. 10). Nor is this a re- cent development. As far back as 1840, of the 30,000 Jews of Berdychev 600 were tailors, 380 tine and coppersmiths, 850 shoemakers, 200 car- penters and coopers, 160 furriers, 90 bakers, etc. (Jost, “ Geschichte,” xi. 2947). In view of the anti- Semitic attitude of Rumania, it is curious to con- trast in the following list the number of Jews and Gentiles engaged in different trades at Bucharest in 1879 (“ Jew. Chron.” Sept. 5, 1879): Oceupation. Gen. | Jews. Occupation. | Gen. | Jews. Tinsmiths...... 61 729 |} Woodturners.. 45 | 61 PEUOrS e000 2 ; 46 689 || Cabinetmakers| 33 57 Painters........ 21h 354 || Bookbinders..| 41 | 42 Braidmakers...; 97 251 Lampmakers.. 4 48 Silversmiths ... | 4&8 164 ‘| Hatters ....... Ti 28 Watchmakers .. 48 112 «|; Brushmakers.. 0 18 Coppersmiths... 34 65 —_—— "TOURS Ss.6 3.468 719 =| 2,618 In an enumeration of the Jews of Kishinev in 1887 (“‘Ha-Yom,” No. 280) very large numbers are given of those engaged in handicraft, among whom may be mentioned: Cigarmakers...1,117 | Seamstresses.... 452 Tailors. ....... 896 | Fishmongers and 684 butchers...... 295 Tinsmiths ...... 202 299 | Coopers.. -.... Capmakers.... 123 Glaziers....... 94 Bakers and COOKS....... Bookbinders .. The Jews of some of the European capitals have shown considerable taste for handiwork, as is in stanced by the following tables: | Budapest. 1870 | Vienna, 1869 Oecupation. (Korési). {| (Jeitteles). SP ARTIOS ce tgitscda uk Ps eee Bee | 1,638 | 50d Shoemakers .........00-005- | 316 119 Carpenters: 644 662d vee kas cates 75 59 SE UIT HAT Sosa ewes sem cditen.a ins 23 95 Loeksmiths.....5......0s000- 106 56 Upholsterers ............... 116 58 PUIG S55 8X3.85 Wie wosae os 140 10 SEW OLE 25a se gaeaetewe alas 235 17 Watchmakers .............. | 57 BD Bookbinders........cecceees 33 ot BUheHein.. ocus Sus deewr cues 120 81 By a later census taken in Budapest statistics are furnished of the Jewish Artisans in that capital on Jan, 1, 1900; these are given according to the occu- pations in which they were engaged, as follows: Total. Occupation. Jews. Jewesses. Food preparation, ........ 2,480 244 2,424 CAOTOUR ii-ces a5ees oman 3,610 1,471 5,081 BuUpaig’ vec iGeneseaiasiaa 292 293 TOMMIG s c0% be Gaasden Fe nar 150 114 264 POLIGRY ois scaieretaes fogs e 83 2 85 WOO0G is aadan bepress walt 616 4 620 Metals: ivieteeaceet courses 2,147 54 2,197 GHaniGnis, oe suduuas sacs 909 19 928 INGUStlidl Ares cdsicdwsaws 82 61 643 BNOTAVINE 00 ss ioe aaa 0 310 11 321 L@@ther....sscesvocssces 188 1 189 PARDEE stick cedeues arises 178 41 219 Oil or grease ............. 128 4 182 AVON 05 ceti naka VG does 185 13 198 Miscellaneous ....... 6.44. 694 | 2,364 3,018 | 12,552 | 4,404 16,912 In a census of the Jewish Artisans of Algeria, the foHowing were the handicrafts most popularamong 10,785 proletarians enumerated (“Revue Socialiste, ” 1899): Shoemakers......+..+-.e++. ¢30 | Soapmakers..........5... 74 TANOVS .s%ctocdieueeiesesis 504 | Painters............00- .. % Workmen ...... sceccccees 371 | Trimmers ............- at Blacksmiths..........00- ais LIBS) MESONS Sis pdecies clteaees 51 CigarmakefTs...........0008 131 | Tanners......... cceeees 45 Coachmen...........cceeee 24 | Workers in wood........ 41 Coachbuilders.............. lIL | Dyers. ............ ioe 39 CarpenteYrs ........ cece vees 102 In only a few instances can complete figures be given, owing to the general absence of any informa- tion as to religion in occupation statistics; but the interest of such statistics is the greater from their rarity. The following are, so far as known, the only official figures giving the actual number of Jews engaged in handicrafts, arranged according to countries and cities; though some are of rather early date, it seemed desirable to include them, in the absence of later particulars. Unfortunately, no official statistics on the subject are available for the United States. Place. Date. | Number. Authority. AIGETIO Sicaida wees eee} 1899 32,875 | °° Revue Socialiste.” POBAGe 5S eewasio sas 1857 | 129,588 | Soloweitschik. PYUSSiA 0 ocso seins cone 1861 |} 11,445 | Engel. GHGs: “syeacicesenvt .| 1895 43,246 | ‘Statist. Jahrb.”’ ae Russian Pale of Set- ( ~ Jacobs’ ‘“* Persecution tlement.......... ¢| 1888 | 293,507 of Jews,”’ 1890, p. 26. MAG cendevee eetitaee 1898 | 395,942 | Soloweitschik. BOP saccade scvedewn) 100 3,725 | Schwabe. Budapest .......0..-+.| 187 4,791 | K6érési. London ....seeeseee -+| 1898 of Soloweitschik. VIPAT eessaana vee 1869 4,378 | Jeitteles. Artisans Aruk THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 156 SS 068 a Ge gw ee ae Of the actual trades followed, the most popular are the making of clothing and shoes, just as in the non-Jewish population. The cigar and jewelry trades also are favorite occupations of the Jews; thus over 60 per cent of the diamond-polishers of Amsterdam are of Jewish faith. All these are mainly trades that can be followed at home in the worker’s own hours, and are known to the econo- mist as “domestic industrics.” Jewish workmen drift into these naturally, as thereby they are en- abled to refrain from labor on their Sabbath. Be- sides, the simpler processes of the tailoring and shoe- making trades are casily acquired, and therefore prove attractive to the Russo-Jewish immigrants. This has given rise to much so-called “sweating.” However, it is in Russia especially that the Jews have shown the readiest inclination to manual indus- tries; the large number of nearly 400,000 mentioned in the foregoing table applies only to the fifteen governments of the Russian Pale of Settlement in 1898, and must be supplemented by at least another 200,000 for Poland, where Jews are rapidly taking to manufactures. Ju 1888, of the Jews of the Pale, 12 per cent. were Artisans, which is a higher propor- tion than in the general communities of either France or Prussia; and the percentage had increased by 1898. Despite the fact that there are so many Jewish Artisans, the proportion of Jews earning their living by manual labor is generally much less than that of the general populations among whom they dwell. This is mainly due to the fact that they are concen- trated in the towns. The following table gives the percentage of adult workers among the Jews and the rest of the population for the countries and towns mentioned at the time indicated: Authority. Place Date Jews. | Others. Italy .....ceeeeeeeee- 1870 2.0 22.0 | Jacobs. PTUSSIR 95:6-Secane kee 1861 18.97 39.41 Engel. apa || “Statist. COivs csisiacgeaiacs 1893 19.31 | 36,06 ) Jahrb.” 1999. BOT y fayennh eens 1871 2h.4 Die Schwabe. Budapest..........-. 1871 22.9 --++ | KOrési. do te de" | 8.8 > Ses @rearesertveentese Je et. oF ’ Jahrb.”” 1899, D TATENE: ud ode one Fa iS wae Jeitteles. i This table shows by comparison that the percent- age of Jewish Artisans in the countries and cities specified averages only one-half of the number of handicraftsmen of other faiths. This is not so much due to any aversion on the part of Jews to manual exertion as to their special attraction to and capacity for commercial pursuits (see COMMERCE). Up to within a few years the Jewish Artisans did not show much inclination to combine and organize themselves into gilds or unions; but recently a large number of trades-unions and benefit societies have been formed by them in Wilna, London, and New York. Jews show a special aptitude for work in which great muscular strength is not required, but are capable of working for many consecutive hours. Their capa- bilities for higher or finished workmanship is a mat- ter of dispute. In London and New York they have certainly revolutionized the cheap-clothing trade, and by that means seriously affected the trade in second-hand clothing, which was itself until recently a Jewish monopoly. For the actual trades in Which Jews engage see HANDICRAFTS, OCCUPATIONS: for the influence on their position see SocraL CoNDItIox and for the recent attempts to train hand workerg see EDUCATION (Trade Schools). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jacobs, Studies in Jewish Statistics, iv, yj London, 1891; L. Soloweitsehik, Un Prolétariat Méeon ny Brussels, 1898 (English statistics to be used with caution), ne J. ARTOM, BENJAMIN: Chief rabbi of the Spanish and Portuguese congregation of Londop. born at Asti, Italy, in —_— 1835; died at Brighton, ae near London, Jan. 6, 1879. He was left fatherless when a child, and his maternal uncle supervised his early training. His theolog- ical education he owed to the rabbis Marco Tedeschi, of Trieste, and Terracini. At twenty he taught He- brew, Italian, French, English, and German. His first appointment was that of minister to the congregation of Saluzzo near Genoa. While rabbi of a congregation in Naples he received a call to London, where he was installed as chief rabbj of the Spanish and Portuguese congregations of the United Kingdom (Dec. 16, 1866). Aftera year’s stay in England, he became so proficient in English that he could preach in that language with eloquence, Deeply interested in Anglo-Jewish institutions, he directed his attention chiefly to organizing and sup- erintending the educational establishments of his own congregation, the Sha‘are Tikvah and Villareal schools, Although of Orthodox views, he welcomed moderate reforms, and endeavored to promote any en- terprise tending toward the union of discordant fac- tions. He was author of various odes and prayers in Hebrew, and several pieces of Italian poetry. A selection of his sermons delivered in England was published in 1873. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jewish Chronicle, January, 1879; Jewish World, January, 18.9; London Times, January, 1879. J. G. L. ARTOM, ISAAC: Italian patriot, diplomat, financier, and author; born at Asti, Piedmont, Dec. 31, 1829; died at Rome Jan. 24, 1900, and was bur- ied at Asti. At the age of sixteen he was ready for the university; but the higher schools of Piedmont excluded Jews, so he, in 1846, removed to Pisa, where he entered the university to study law. At the outbreak of the revolution against Austria in 1848, Artom, despite his frail constitution, joined the students’ battalion commanded by Professor Montanelli, and took part in the battles of Curta- tone and Montanara. At the close of the war he resumed the study of law, and in 1858 received 4 doctor’s degree from the University of Turin. In 1855 Artom entered the Foreign Office of Tus- cany in the capacity of volunteer, or supernumerary, Benjamin Artom, 157 gud three years afterward was made private sec- retary to Count Cavour. Clerical attacks on Cavour included among the charges against Private him the fact that his chicf secretary gecretary was a Jew. In reply, Cavour ex- to Cavour. pressed the highest opinion of Artom’s ability (Chiola, “Lettere di Camillo Cavour,” jii. 806). On the death of Cavour (June 6, 1861), Artom wished to retire from active political life, but was dissuaded by Count Arese, who, having meanwhile been ap- pointed ambassador to France, induced Artom to accompany him to Paris and to accept the post of secretary of legation (1862). . When Pasolini was installed minister of foreign affairs, Artom was ap- pointed chief secretary. Soon after, however, he resumed his diplo- matic career, first as counselor of legation at Paris, and later as minister plenipotentiary to Denmark. In 1x66, during the peace negotiations with Austria, Artom and General Menabrea were chosen to repre- sent ltuly; and on the outbreak of the Franco-Prus- sian War, in 1870, the former was sent on a diplomatic mission to Vienna. From 1870 to 1876 Artom was again connected with the ministry of foreign affairs, in the capacity of under-secretary of state. He was elected senator of the kingdom, March 28, 1877, being the first Jew to sitin the Italian legislative body. Artom is favorably known as a writer both of prose and of poetry. Of his verses many were in- spired by special occasions, his most effective liter- ary effort of this kind being an ode upon the death of Victor Emmanuel (Turin, 1878). Among his prose essays are (1) “ Relazione Sugli Stuadii Supertori nell’ Universita di Heidelberga” (Bologna, 1868); (2) “Vittorio Emanuele e la Politica Estera”; and (3) a brief record of the Italian ministry of forcign affairs, (published in the “IX Gennaio”). Other publica- tions by Artom include a volume commemorating the death of Victor Emmanuel IT., Bologna, 1882; and an Italian translation of Gneist’s Isaac Artom. Artom’s “Rechtsstaat; Lo Stato Secondo il Literary Diritto; Ossia la Giustizia nell’ Am- Works. ministrazione Politica,” Bologna, 1884. But the most ambitious and by far the most important work of Artom is the biography of his former chief and friend, Cavour. This work, written in collaboration with A. Blanc, and entitled “L’Cuvre Parlementaire du Comte de Cavour,” was published in Paris in 1862, and was soon afterward translated into Italian. As senator, Artom prepared two reports—ovr.e on the Italian treaty with Zanzi- bar (“ Trattato di Commercio col Sultano di Zanzi- bar,” Rome, 1886); the other on certain commercial and maritime negotiations with France, Spain, and Switzerland (“Facolté al Governo di Mettere in Vigore il 30 Giugno, 1888, le Convenzioni di Com- THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Artisans *Aruk mercio e di Navigazione che Fossero per Concludersi con la Francia, la Spagna, e la Svizzera,” Rome, 1888). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Vapereau, Dict. des Contemporains, 8.v.; Gubernatis, Dict. International des Ecrivains du Jour, S.V. S. F. S. _ARTON (formerly AARON), LEOPOLD EMILE: French adventurer; born in Strasburg in 1849; settled in Paris in1871. He wasimplicated in distributing among statesmen and politicians the bribes of the Panama Canal Company, which sought to secure the authorization of the Chambers for the company’s financial operations. During more than four years the name of Arton was on all Hps in France. He was many times the object of violent interpellations and stormy debates in both the Cham- ber of Deputies and the Senate, and was a steady menace to the stability of more than one French cabinet. He fied in 1892; but the French police never really tried to capture him until 1895, when he was arrested (Nov. 16) in London, and extradited. He was convicted by the Cour d’ Assises of the de- partment of the Seine (June 27, 1896) of defrauding a dynamite company, and sentenced to six years’ imprisonment at hard labor. The judginent was annulled, and the Cour d’Assises of the Seine-et- Marne department condemned him to eight years’ seclusion—which was considered less severe than hard labor—Nov. 6 of the same year. While in prison he produced his famous “ Note- book ” (“Carnet des 104”), which contained, accord- ing to him, the names of the 104 deputies and senators whom he claimed to have bribed. A consequence of his revelation was a new interpellation in the Chamber of Deputies to the minister of justice (March 22, 1897). A legal prosecution was author- ized against three deputies, among whom was the former friend of Arton, Alfred Naqurt, and one senator. This proceeding reawakened the violent passions believed dead. A new parliamentary com- mission Wenquéte was established by the Chambers June 29, in order to investigate the revelations of Arton; and this was followed by a new sensational trial Dec. 18, 1897, which lasted until Dec. 30, and resulted in the acquittal of all politicians accused by Arton, who, a few months later, was himself pardoned. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Meyer, Konversations- Lexikon, 5th ed., 8.v.; La Grande Encyclopédie, under Panama. 8. H. R. ARUBOTH: A district, probably in the south of Judah, where the son of Hesed, a commissariat officer of Solomon, had his headquarters (I Kings iv. 10). J. IR. G. B. L. ‘ARUK (q1ny): Hebrew expression for “ diction- ary,” corresponding with the Arabic “ta’alif,” and derived from “‘arak [millin]” (Job xxxii. 14), “ar- ranged words” (A. V. “directed words ”). A Biblical dictionary, under the title “ Mahberet ha-‘Aruk” (Composition of the Dictionary), was written by Solomon ibn Parhon of Aragon in the twelfth century. A Talmudical ‘Aruk was first composed by Zemah Arumah Aryeh Loeb ben Paltai, a gaon of Pumbedita, at the close of the ninth century; but only traces of it have been pre- served (see Rapoport’s biography of Nathan, the author of the ‘Aruk, in “Bikkure ha-‘Ittim,” x. 24; and Kohut’s “‘Aruk ha-Shalem” [Aruch Com- pletum] I., introduction, xviii.). The work generally quotedas “‘Aruk” is the great Talmudical dictionary composed by Nathan ben Jechiel of Rome, and completed in 1101. (See NATHAN B. JEHIEL.) Of this greater work different compendia were made later on for the use of larger circles of readers, with the explanation in modern languages of difficult words, under the title “Sefer ha ‘Aruk ha-Kazer” (The Smaller ‘Aruk), and were used by Sebastian Miinster, Reuchlin, and other Christian scholars. See J. Perles, “Beitriige zur Gesch. der Hebriiischen und Aramiischen Studien,” 1-112, Munich, 1884. K. ARUMAH: A place in Ephraim not far from Shechem, where Abimelech, the judge, took refuge (Judges ix. 41). It has been identified with El ‘Ormeh on the hills southeast of Shechem. J. IR. G. B. L. ARUVAS (AROVAS), ISAAC: Rabbi and author; son of R. Hananiah Aruvas; lived in the seventeenth century. He filled the office of rabbi in several African communities, and later settled in Venice. He is theauthor of “Emet we-Emunah” (Truth and Faith), a religious school-book published in Hebrew and in Italian (Venice, 1672). The work contains the 613 precepts and prohibitions arranged in the order of Maimonides’ “Sefer ha-Mizwot,” the thirteen articles of faith of Maimonides, a number of ceremonial laws modeled upon those of Joseph Caro; and several ritual laws. It is highly spoken of by Moses Zakut and others. Aruvas was also the author of “Zibhe Zedek” (Thank-Offerings of Righteous- ness), Venice, 1662, a rhythmical-alphabetical poem on the ritual law of slaughtering, to which are ap- pended commentaries. a. M. K. ARUVAS, MOSES BEN JOSEPH: A phy- sician and translator; lived in Cyprus and Damascus in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. He trans- lated Aristotle’s “Theology,” a pseudepigraphic work, from the Arabic into Italian. This transla- tion, made at the request of Franciscus Roseus of Ravenna, became the basis for Nicholas Castellani’s Latin book, “Sapientissimi Philosophi Aristotelis Stagirite Theologia,” which Roseus presented to Pope Leo X. and published in Rome, 1519. Aruvas afterward translated the Arabic text into Hebrew. In this translation there was very little of the origi- nal Latin. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Munk, Mélanges, pp. 248, 249; Steinschneider, Hebr. Uebers. p. 244, G. M. K. ARVAD (the classical ARADUS): A town men- tioned by Ezekiel (xxvii. 8, 11) as having contributed materially to Tyre’s commercial greatness. Men of Arvad rowed the ships and manned the walls of Tyre. In the genealogical list of Gen. x. 18, and in the cor- responding list of I Chron. i. 16, Arvad is given as an offshoot of Canaan, hence the term “ Arvadite.” The city, now called Ruwad or Ruweida, was built on an THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 158 island, the very small size of which compelleg the building of tall structures. It early gained Pronj. nence as a commercial center, and was able to wit, stand Thothmes and Assurbanipal; but later it pe. came secondary to Tyre, and this was its Conditioy in the days of Ezekiel. It did not, however, luge itg prestige and importance, for it is mentioned in I Macc. xv. 23 that Lucius the Consul writes to Aradus ordering it not to oppress the Jews. J. IR, G. BL, ARYEH (7, “lion”): A name commonly found among the Jews. The first person known to have borne it lived inthe middle of the second cep. tury (Pes. 113d). His real name, however, was Judah, and “Aryeh,” or to give the more exact and fuller form,“Gur Aryeh” (Lion’s Whelp), was a compli- mentary addition to it (borrowed from Gen. xlix, 9). There is no evidence of any other such use of the word; but among Italian and German-Polish Jews on the other hand, frequent use was made of Arye) as a religious name along with the secular names Leo, Leopold, Léwe (Léb, Leib), ete. The form “Gur Aryeh” is quite rare, and is to be found only among the Italian Jews (compare, for instance, Finzj Gur Aryeh, seventeenth century; and Judah Gur Aryeh in Michael’s catalogue, “Ozerot Hayyim,” MS. 37). Judah and Aryeh often appear as the re. ligious names of persons whose secular name is Leon or the like. L. G. ARYEH JUDAH B. ZEBI HIRSCH. Sce JUDAI B. ZEBI HIRSCH. ARYEH LOEB: Dayyan of Lublin, Poland, in the seventeenth century. He was the author of “Likkute ha-Or” (Collection of Light), in two vol- umes, the second of which, “Ha-Maor ha-Gadol” (The Greater Light), is as yet unpublished. The first, published under the title of “Ha-Maor ha- Katan” (The Lesser Light) at Lublin in 1667, con- tains a commentary on the laws of “ Kiddush ha- Hodesh” (Consecration of the New Moon), by Maimonides. BIBLIOGRAPHY : Michael, Or ha-Hayyim, No. 528. BE. G, J. i. &. ARYEH LOEB B. ABRAHAM PORTSCHI- NER. See CorDovero, ARYEH Los. ARYEH LOEB BEN ASHER: A rabbi and one of the most eminent Talmudists of his age; born in Lithuania at the end of the seventeenth century ; died at Metz June 23, 1785. He was rabbi in Pinsk, and, later, president of the yeshibah in Minsk. In 1765 he was called as rabbi to Metz, then one of the most important congregations in Europe. His elec- tion was confirmed by royal decree October, 1766. While his confirmation was still pending, a serious trouble broke out in the synagogue, which nearly brought about his resignation. He opposed this prac- tise of the congregation: On Pentecost it was custom- ary in Metz to recite the hymn Axpamut, after the reading of the first verse of the Pentateuch-lesson. The rabbi objected to this interruption of Scripture. reading, and ordered the reader to proceed, but the trustees defied his authority and insisted on the tra- ditional usage. A violent scene followed, and the rabbi was compelled to leave the synagogue. He THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 159 ver afterward entered it except to deliver his ser- ns, four times a year; but at the request of mem- ee of the congregation who regretted their action acne oceasion of the discreditable disturbance in ae synagogue, he remained in the rabbinate til] his ston Loeb was considered one of the keenest castiists of his time (see Azulai, “Shem ha-Gedolim ” sv. “Shaigat Aryeh”). His yeshibah was well fre- uented; and he lectured even when, toward the end of his life, he became totally blind. His chief work, “Shaigat Arych” (The Roarin g of the Lion), is considered a classic in casuistic literature. It was pub- lished at Frank fort-on-the-Oder, 1755; Brinn, 1796; Slavita, 1838; with glosses by Moses Aryeh Loeb ben Joshua of Wilna, Josefow, 1855; and Wilna, 1874, with additions from the author's manuscripts and glosses by his son Asher Loew, In 1781 Aryeh Loeb published a work containing glosses to the Talmudic treatises Rosh ha-Shanah, Hagigah, and Megillah, together with miscellaneous casuistic novell, under the title “Ture Eben” (Rows of Stones). A supple- ment, containing glosses to Ta‘anit, was published at Wilna in 1862 under the title “Geburat Ari” (The Strength of the Lion). Responsa of his are also found in the collection on the divorce-suit of CLEVE. He was an advocate of the strictest orthodoxy ard a type of the casuist that never can accept any exposition of a passage but the literal sense. When the Talmud, for example, calls Nebuchadnezzar (Hag. 18a) “the wicked, the son of the wicked, the grandson of Nimrod the wicked,” Aryeh Loeb would not accept . the explanation that Nebuchadnezzar is called Nim- rod’s descendant on account of his being of similar character, but insists that Nebuchadnezzar was, on the maternal side, a descendant of Nimrod (see “ Ture Eben,” 190). Aryeh Loeb is officially called Lion Asser, which means Lion (French for Loeb), son of Asher. His sop, Who was rabbi of Carlsruhe and died in 18387, called himself Asher Loew. Of Aryeh Loeb’s disci- ples the most notable were: Raphael Cohen, rabbi of Altona, and Hayyim, the founder of the rabbinical college of Volozhin. BIBLIOGRAPHY ;: Ha-Measse/, ii. 61; Jost, Israelitische Anna- len, ti. 186; Michael, Or ha-Hayyim, p. 253; A. Kahn, Les Rabbins de Metz, in Rev. Et. Jtives, xti. 295 et seq. D—D. ARYEH LOEB B. BARUCH BENDET. Sce Lorn zg. Barucn Brexper. ARYEH LOEB B. HAYYIM BRESLAU. See Bresiatu’ LoeB BEN Hayym. ARYEH LOEB BEN JACOB JOSHUA: German Talmudist and author; born 1715; died at Hanover March 6, 1789. He was a son of the author of “Pene Yehoshua‘,” who died as rabbi of Frankfort-on-the-Main 1755. In his youth he was his father’s assistant, and taught as such in the yeshibah (academy) about 1745-1750 (see his let- ters in Israel Lipschtitz’ responsa “Or Yisrael,” No. 57, Cleve, 1770). Subsequently he was called as rabbi to Skala in Galicia, and in 1761 to Hanover, Where he officiated until his death. Aryeh edited the fourth part of his father’s work (Firth, 1780), and added to it his own novell on treatise Baba Kamma under the title “Pene Aryeh” (The Face of pe Arumah Aryeh Loeb the Lion). His own works are of the usual scholastic type. Aryeh was succeeded by his son, Issachar Berisch (1747-1807). A eulogy on him is found in Eleazar Fleckeles’ sermons, “‘Olat Hodesh,” Prague, 1793. Bin OGRAPHX : Buber, Anshe Shem, pp. 43 et seq., Cracow, D ARYEH LOEB BEN JOSHUA HESHEL. See LOEB B. JosHUA HESHEL. ARYEH LOEB HA-KOHEN OF STYRYJI. See Lores Ha-Kouen oF Sryryst. ARYEH LOEB HA-LEVI. See Loes wa- LEvI oF Bropy. ARYEH LOEB HA-LEVI HORWITZ. See Horwitz, ARYEH LOEB. ARYEH LOEB LIPSCHITZ. See Lipscnitz, ARYEH LOEB. ARYEH LOEB BEN MEYER. See Los ARYEH BEN MEiR. ARYEH LOEB MOKIAH. See Lors MOokIAH. ARYEH LOEB BEN MORDECAI HA- LEVI. See Epstein LoEB BEN MORDECAI. ARYEH LOEB B. MOSES. Sce Loes BEN Moses HA-KoueEn. ARYEH LOEB OF POLNOI. See Loes or POLNOL. ARYEH LOEB B. SAMUEL ZEBI HIRZ. See LOEB BEN SAMUEL ZEBI Hirz. ARYEH LOEB BEN SAUL (called also LEVI SAUL LOEWENSTAM): Polish rabbi; born in Cracow about 1690; died at Amsterdam April 2, 1755. He came of a famous family of rab- bis. His father Saul had been rabbi of Cracow : his grandfather was Rabbi Hoeschi of Cracow. In t707 he married Miriam, the oldest daughter of Zebi Ash- kenazi, then rabbi in Altona; and continued his stud- ies under his father-in-law, with whom he went to Amsterdam, and thence to Poland. In the latter country he was elected rabbi of Dukla. Through the influence of his relatives he then obtained the rabbinical position in Tarnopol, the former incum- bent having been ousted by the officials of the government to make room for him. This interfer- ence on the part of the civic authorities naturally aroused great opposition to him in the congregation, and in a short time Aryeh Loeb was deposed. Sub- sequently he was elected rabbi of Rzeszow, and later on of Glogau. In 1740he was called to Amsterdam, where he remained until his death. —————-—-3-—__ ee = ens eet nora t — as an a Se ii eT ETE sham - nu, ba - - gad - nu, ga - zal - nu, dib - bar - nu do - fi. tres - passed, have been faith - less, have rob - bed, huve spo - ken base - ly. agrees with tradition and etymology. The Targum legal phrase, pron Miwa pr rn a5 my (° What renders the word “urna,” a Hexaplar addition to the | right has the ox of the damagcer in the premises Septuagint zirvc; Jerome translates it pinus; while | of the one damaged! ”). Maimonides and Tanhum explain it to be a kind of | BrpitioGRapny: J. D. Eisenstein, Russ.-Am. Jew. Cong. Am. cedar. This, together with the evidence that comes ee from the Assyrian and Syriac equivalents, makes it = J. D. E. evident that the term denotes some kind of fir. ASHAMNT (opw x, “ we have trespassed ”): The The most acceptable suggestion is that of Tristram, | old shorter form of the confession of sin (“ Widdui ”), who sees in it the Aleppo pine (Pinus Halepensis). | mentioned in the Talmud and in the “ Didache” The word jis not to be confounded with “aron,” | (first century Cc. E.), in which each letter of the He- which occurs in the Talmud as the name of the { brew alphabet is successively utilized as the initial laure}-tree. of an acknowledgment of wrong-doing, the round J. IR. C. L. number of twenty-four expressions being reached, after the usual fashion, by the threefold employment ASH (also Asch [y’~]): A family name which is | of the last letter, m7. Originally chanted by cantor an abbreviation of “A.tTscHuL” or “Eisenstadt” {| and congregation together in a monotone or a sim- (ONOY j1"N). Such abbreviations are especially | ple intonation of breadth and majesty, its rendering frequent in names of which the second part begins | among many Polish congregations in the repetition with the sound “s,” for which the Hebrew puts w. | of the “‘Amidot” on the Day of Atonement typically So “ Lasch” (ws) is put for “Lichtenstadt,” and | illustrates degeneration of the traditional congre- “Nasch” (w”3) for “Nikolsburg.” The name “ Ash” | gational setting of a solemn passage into florid elab- for “ Eisenstadt” is found in the case of Meir Ash, | oration by a soloist. Originally leading the people rabbi of that place, died June 7, 1744. His descend- | by dictating to them word by word, the precentor ant, Abraham Zebi Hirsch, rabbi of Ottynia, who died | came to be satisfied to start them in each of the sec- Aug. 21, 1868, signs his name “ Eisenstadt.” “Ash” | tions into which the occasional use of an accusative is also found as an abbreviation in the name of an- | noun marked off the succession of otherwise intran- 177 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Ash Ashdod ST ee ay ee eg ee Re ake ee ee —_— erbs. and, when the congregation had sub- silence, to complete the section himself in melismatic saic after the manner shown on page 176. q 7 < . P. i. © ASHAN: Yown in the domain of Judah (Josh. this, no doubt, there was added the idea that man was made of dust (Gen. ii. 7), and was to return to the dust of the grave and of Sheol (Gen. iii. 19; Joy, vii. 21; Ps. xxii. 16 [15]). Compare the Babylonian representation of dust as the food of the inhabitant, of the underworld (“ Descent of Ishtar”). The ordinary Semitic term for ** dust’ is ** ‘afar,’’ a form Which is found in Assyrian, Aramaic, Hebrew, and Arabic (it does not occur in this sense in the current Ethiopic texts) ; its primar meaning is, perhaps, *‘a minute thing, a bit.” Probably the primary signification of * efer”’ is the same ; outside of Hebrew jt is found only in African Semitic dialects (Ethiopic or Albharic), where (in the form “afrat”’) it signifies “dust” (Dillmann “Lexicon Athiopicum”). Each of the terms might thus be used for any finely divided thing, as “dust,” or ‘tash,” op “refuse.” The Septuagint employs a number of words jn rendering “ efer’’ and “ ‘afar,”’ varying the word according tothe connection. In ‘‘ ‘afar’ there is a trace of the sense “* fat’: Etbj- opic ‘**efrat.” “unguent” (Dillmann); Arabic “‘ta‘affara,” ** become fat”? (Lane); compare also Assyrian “‘ipru,”’ ‘* fooa (Friedrich Delitzsch, ‘* Assyrisches Worterbuch ”). Whether there is any connection between this sense and the Hebrew use of **deshen ”’ for “‘ ashes ”’ is not clear. BIBLIOGRAPHY : Schwally, Leben nach dem Tode, 1892; W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, 1894; Benzinger, Hebriiische Architologie, 1894; Nowack, Lehrbuch der Hebriiischen Archdolugie, 1891; Frey, Tod, Seelenglaube und Seelen- kult im Alten Israel, 1898; Griineisen, Ahnenkult und die Urretigion Israels, 1900; Talmud, Ta‘anit. For Greek usage: {Pseudo-] Lucian. De Luctu, 12. Jastrow, Earth, Dust, and Ashes as Symbols of Mourning Among the Ancient He- ie in Journal of American Oriental Society, xx, 133- J. JR. dia ——_In Rabbinical Literature: The Midrash re- marks (Gen. R. xlix. 11; Hul. 88%), in reference to the only nse of Ashesin the Biblical ritual—namely, the Ashes of the Red Heifer (Num. xix. 9 e¢ seg.)— God said to Abraham: “Thou spakest in thy life- time, ‘I am but dust and ashes’ [Gen. xviii. 27]; but just these things shall serve as means of atonement for thy children; for it is written, ‘And a man that is clean shall gather up the ashes [Num. J.c¢.].’” Ashes were also used to cover the blood of slaugh- tered fowl, for the Rabbis maintained that in the Biblical passage referring to the ordinance (Lev. xvii. 18) the word “Sy signified earth and Ashes (Hul. 7.¢., an interpretation ascribed to Hillel’s school; compare also Bezah i. 2). Authentic records testify to the use of Ashes as a sign of grief in Talmudic times. In the Mishnah (Ta‘an. ii. 1) it is recorded that during the fast-days proclaimed in consequence of drought the Ark of the Covenant, as well as the people participating in the procession, were sprinkled with Ashes—a cus- tom still prevalent.in the fourth century in Pales- tine, where earth could be used as a substitute for Ashes (Ta‘an. 16a; Yer. Ta‘an. ii., beginning; Gen. R. U.c.). On such occasions as public fasts, Ashes were strewn upon the holy Ark set up in the public place and upon the heads of the nasi and the ab bet din, while the rest strewed them upon their heads themselves. That part of the forehead where the phylacteries were placed was selected (Ta‘an. 16a). The reason given for covering oneself with Ashes is either that it should serve as an expression of self- 187 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Ashes Ashi ee Se ea a ee a ay ee ee ee pumiliation, as if to say, “We are before thee as ashes” (Gen. xviil. 27; Job xlii. 6), or it is to bring pefore God the memory of Abraham, who said, “I am but dust and ashes” (Gen. xviii. 27), or the mem- ory of the offering of Isaac, whose Ashes, according to the rabbinical opinion, lay piled up before God upon the altar as if he had actually been sacrificed as a holocaust (Ta‘an. 16a; Yer. Ta‘an. ii., begin- ping; Gen. R. Z.c.). It is difficult to say whether the remark of Tos. Ta‘an. 15d, 16a, that the Ashes to be used in such cases should be of incinerated puman beings, rests on tradition or on imagination, Ashes, as a symbol of mourning, were also sprin- kled upon the bridegroom during the wedding cere- mony, in order to remind him, at the height of his felicity, of the destruction of Jerusalem (B. B. 600). This custom is even to-day observed among some of the orthodox. In memory of the same national disaster the Jews also ate bread sprinkled with Ashes at the last meal before the fast-day of the Ninth of Ab (Yer. Ta‘an. iv. 69c; Lam. R. to iii. 16; Shulban ‘Aruk, Orah Hayyim, 552, 6 gloss). Raba says that if sifted Ashes are strewn round the bed, the footprints of night-demons can be ob- served in them in the morning (Ber. 6a). Unworthy ' disciples are called “white pitchers full of ashes” (ib. 28a). J. SR. L. G.—K. ASHI: A celebrated Babylonian amora; born 352; died 427; reestablished the academy at Sura, and was the first editor of the Babylonian Talmud. According to a tradition preserved in the academies (Kid. 72b), Ashi was born in the same year that Raga, the great teacher of Manuza, died, and he was the first teacher of any importance in the Babylonian colleges after Rasa’s death. Simai, Ashi’s father, was a rich and learned man, a student of the college at Naresh, near Sura, which was directed by Papa, Raba’s disciple. Ashi’s teacher was Kahana, a member of the same college, who afterward became president of the academy at Pumbedita. While still young Ashi became the head of the Sura Academy, his great learning being acknowl- edged by the older teachers. It had been closed since Hisda’s death (809), but under Ashi it regained all its old importance. His commanding personal- ity, his scholarly standing and wealth are sufficiently indicated by the saying then current, that since the daysof Judah I., the Patriarch, “learning and social distinction were never so united in one person as in Ashi” (Sanh. 86a). Indeed, Ashi was the man des- tined to undertake a task similar to that which fell to the lot of Judah [. The latter compiled and edited the MiswwAH; Ashi made it the labor of his life to collect after critical scrutiny, under the name of “GEMARA,” those explanations of the Mishnah that had been handed down in the Babylonian academies since the days of Rab, together with all the discus- sions connected with them, and all the halakic and haggadic material treated in the schools. Conjointly with his disciples and the scholars who gathered in Sura for the “Kallah” or semi-annual college-conference, he completed this task. The kindly attitude of King Yezdegerd I., as well as the devoted and respectful recognition of his— authority by the academies of Nehardea and Pum.- bedita, greatly favored the undertaking. A partic- ularly important element in Ashi’s success was the length of his tenure of office as head of the Sura Academy, which must have lasted fifty-two years, but which tradition, probably for the sake of round numbers, has exaggerated into sixty. According to the same tradition, these sixty years are said to have been so symmetrically apportioned that each treatise required six months for the study of its Mishnah and the redaction of the traditional expo- sitions of the same (Gemara), thus aggregating thirty years for the sixty treatises. The same process was then repeated for thirty years more,.at the end of which period the work was considered complete. The artificiality and unreality of this legendary account are made clear by the facts that the treatises are of different degrees of length and Compiles the Gemara. Varying difficulty, and that a large number of Accounts them possess no Gemara whatever. . of His Probably all that is historical in this Work. = statement is that Ashi actually revised the work twice—-a fact that is men- tioned in the Talmud (B. B. 1575). Beyond this, the Talmud itself contains not the slightest intimation of the activity which Ashi and his school exercised in this field for more than half acentury. Even the question as to whether this editorial work was writ- ten down, and thus, whether the putting of the Baby- lonian Talmud into writing took place under Ashi or not, can not be answered from any statement in the Talmud. It is nevertheless probable that the fixation of the text of so comprehensive a literary work could not have been accomplished without the aid of writing. The work begun by Ashi was con- tinued by the two succeeding generations, and com- pleted by Rabina, another president of the college in Sura, who died in 499. To the work as the last- named jeft it, only slight additions were made by the Saboraim. To one of these additions—that to an ancient utterance concerning the “ Book of Adam, the first man”—the statement is appended (B. M. 86a), “ Ashi and Rabina are the last representatives of independent decision [horaah],” an evident refer- ence to the work of these two in editing the Baby- Jonian Talmud, which as an object of study and a fountainhead of practical “decision” was to have the same importance for the coming generations as the Mishnah had had for the Amoraim. Ashi not only elevated Sura till it became the in- tellectual center of the Babylonian Jews, but con- tributed to its material grandeur also. Restored He rebuilt Rab’s academy and the Sura’s Im- synagogue connected with it; sparing portance. no expense, and personally superin- tending their reconstruction (Shab. lia). Asa direct result of Ashi’s renown, the exil- arch came annually to Sura in the month after the New- Year to receive the respects of the assembled representatives of the Babylonian academies and congregations. To such a degree of splendor did these festivities and other conventions in Sura at- tain, that Ashi expressed his surprise that some of the Gentile residents of Sura were not tempted to accept Judaism (Ber. 170). Ashima Ashirah oo Sura retained the prominence conferred on it by Ashi for several centuries; and only during the last two centuries of the Gaonic period did Pumbedita again become its rival. Ashi’s son Tabyomi—al- ways spoken of as “ Mar (Master), the son of Rab Con Spirito, ad lib. A - - shi - - 5 will sing..... un - to THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA —— 188 $$$ ous confusion has been made by some of the later commentators—even by Abraham ibn Ezra—y},,, mistake the idol Ashima for the Samaritan appel,. tion for God, Ashima meaning “the Name”; jug as the Jews are accustomed to speak of the Deity ag ASHIRAH (A) —. SSE , EER, EE Bale = LTS ae (ee o_o ee = ~ noi ki ga - oh...... fa the Lord, for He hath been high - ly ey. 3 oe “eee” —— Se el eS oe ae on a a poy MAME ees or =z See ee ee a —. eee ~~ ye 3 C1 | ee ce ee sus Horse and ri - Ashi,” was a recognized scholar; but it was not until 455, twenty-eight years after his father’s death, that he was invested with the position which his father had so successfully filled for more than half a century. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Letter of Sherira Gaon; Heilprin, Seder ha-Doret; Zacuto, Yuhasin; Weiss, Dor, iii. 208 et seq.; Bacher, Agada der Bahyl. Amortier, p. 144. J. SR. W. B. ASHIMA.—Biblical Data: One of the gods of the Hamathites, an image of which was set up in Samaria by the men of Hamath, whom Sargon set- tled there after 722 n.c. (II Kings xvii. 30). Jew- ish tradition explains the name as signifying a short- haired goat. Hence, some suppose that he was a sort of Oriental Pan, a god of woods and shepherds. This explanation is highly improbable. Others have considered the name to be a form of ASHMUN (or Eshmun), the Phenician god; while still others have connected it with the name of the Babylonian god- dess, Tashmitu, consort of Nabu, the god of Jearn- ing. Kittel (“Die Biicher der Kénige,” 1900), fol- lowing Baudissin, holds that Ashima was an Aramaic deity, probably connected in name with the river wé- ro - “ j-— fo ad -—~ ae - ké-bo.... ra - mah ba - vam, . - der hath Ile thrown inthe — sea. “ha-Shem” (Reifmann, in Gurland’s ° Ginze ¥}.. rael,” 74), J. SR. Ih. G, ASHIRAH (sex = “Twill sing”): The first word of the Song of Moses (Ex. xv.), Known as “Shirat ha-Yam” (The Song at the Sea), read in the synagogues in the lesson of the seventh day of the Passover (the anniversary of the crossing of the Red Sea), in the lesson of Sabbath “ Beshallah” (Ex. xiii, 17-xvii. 16) in the yearly cycle of Pentateuchal read- ings, and at the conclusion of the Psalms in the daily morning service. Traditionally associated with the song isa very ancient intonation, which has indeed been popularly claimed to be the actual chant sung by Miriam and her sisters, and which probably en- kernels a true relic of Temple music. It would al- most suggest itself to the earliest reciters of the song to chant. it inan echo of the martial notes of a trum- pet-call. Trumpet-calls remain the same throughout the centuries, inasmuch as such musical phrases con- sist only of notes dependent on certain natural prop- erties of every column of air enclosed in a tube. Thus the ancient reciter would, on commencing the ASHIRAH (B) Sostenuto. a a 9 et - 4: a - = ee Se == ee Az.... ya-shir Mo-sheh u - bé - Then.. did Mo - ses sing and the - do- nai....... the Lord...... Ashmaya, near Tyre. This conjecture seems much more probable, although nothing further is positively known than what is stated in the Biblical passage above cited. J. IR. G. A. B. ——In Rabbinical Literature: According to the Rabbis (Yer. ‘Ab. Zarah iil. 42d; Sanh. 68%), this idol of the Hamathites had the form of a buck. Views cte eo Yis - ra - el et ha - shi - chil - dren of Is - ra - el OS ses ached es ~ o--_@-—_@_=— @ —_g@— —_ 1 a cae SEI eS ie J a ae a way -yo - mé- ru...... Je - mor. bale Sakata and..... spake, say - - ing: Song of Moses, have modulated his bardic specch- song into some imitation of a trumpet-note, even as is still traditionally done when from the scroll of the Law it is read out that “ Pharaoh drew nigh ” (Exod. xiv. 10) with “his chariots and his horsemen” (7. 18), or that “the standard of the camp of the chil- dren of Judah set forward . . . and over his host A curi- | was Nahshon” (Num. x. 14), or that “they removed 189 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA reer from Elim and encamped by the Red Sea” (Num. | ishes are still, to a certain extent, fluid, not having xxxiii, 10}. or similar details of a military move- | strictly crystallized into any definite set of notes. ment. Such modulations are known as “nedarim.” | . Sam- uel, Isaac of Chinon, ete. The study of the “Shittah,” is particularly valuable for understanding the Tosa- fists, because the work contains some of the older and inedited Tosafot; besides, glosses of R. Asher b. Jehiel and of the disciples of R. Perez are partly contained in it. Ashkenazi designed the “Shittah” to cover the whole Talmud; but only the following tracts were interpreted: Bezah, the three Babot, Ketubot, Nedarim, Nazir, Sotah, and the order of Kodashim (excepting Hullin)—the last-mentioned in the Romm edition of the Talmud. Ashkenazi is also the author of a collection of responsa, which appeared after his death (Venice, 1595). His “ Meth- odology of the Talmud,” and his marginal notes to the Yerushalni, which were still extant at the time of Azulai, are preserved in manuscript at Jerusalem. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Azulai, Shem ha-Gedolim, ed. Benjacob, 1. 36; Conforte, Kore ha-Dorot (see index in Cassel ed.) : Frumkin, Eben Shemuel, pp. 67 et seq., 125 et seq., Wiina, 1874; Michael, Or ha-Hayyim, No. 612; Lunez, in Jerusa- lem, ii. 23-27. D. L. G. ASHKENAZI, DAVID TEVLE B. JACOB: Moravian rabbi and author; born at the beginning of the eighteenth century ; died July 16, 1734. Ash- kenazi was rabbi of the communities at Aussee and Gewitsch, and lived at Aussee, the home of his father-in-law, Israel Aussee, one of the wealthiest and most influential Jews in Moravia. But this very wealth of his father-in-law gave rise to active hostility toward Ashkenazi in his congregation. The following episode is characteristic of the state of affairs at that time in many small Jewish com- munities in Moravia. Ashkenazi was so little re- spected by his people that he had to apply to the authorities to enforce his rights. He secured an order threatening the congregation with a large fine if they did not show their rabbi the honors due to his station. Next day, when Ashkenazi went to the early morning service, he found his seat framed with the handles (called “ears” in German) of broken pottery. In Judso-German “ Ehre” (honor) sounds- the same as “Oehre” (ears), and these were the “honors” shown him. It is not known whether Ashkenazi gave up his position after this. He died at Boskowitz, where his son-in-law was ecclesias- tical assessor. Ashkenazi wrote a curious little book entitled “Bet David” (House of David), Wilhelmsdorf, 1734. The first part contains casuistic expositions of the Talmud, and illustrates better than almost any other work the degeneration of casuistry. The second half is a collection of popular cures and incantations, which is of great value for the study of Jewish folk-lore. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Broda Abraham b. Mordekai, Megillat Se- tarim, 1895, pp. 28, 29. L ? G. one on ee eee THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 196 Ashkenazi, Joseph ASHKENAZI, ELIEZER (LAZER) B. ELI- JAH: Talmudist, rabbi, physician, and many-sided scholar: born in 1512; died at Cracow Dec. 13, 1585. Though of a German family (according to some, the relative of Joseph Colon; see Mortara, “ Indice Alfa- betico,” s.7.), he was probably born in the Levant, and received his Talmudic education under Joseph Taitazak in Salonica. Ashkenazi first became rabbi in Egypt 1538-60, probably at Fostat, where, by his learning and wealth, he became widely known. Compelled by circumstances—doubtless of a polit- ical nature—to leave Egypt, he went to Cyprus, re- wining there for two years as rabbi at Famagusta. A desire to visit foreign lands and to observe for- eign peoples impelled him to give up this position and to travel. He went first to Venice; but a dis- agreement with the rabbis, Meir Padua and his son Judah Katzenellenbogen, caused him to leave the city and in the same year to take up his residence at Prague (1561). Here—either because he was a rabbi, or, at all events, because he was a leading authority —his was the first signature appended to the consti- tution of the burial society of the congregation. After leaving Bohemia and proceeding eastward as far as the Crimea, Ashkenazi returned to Italy, not before 1570. While rabbi of Cremona he published there (1576) his work, “ Yosef Lekah” (Increases Learning ; compare Prov. i. 5), dedicated to Joseph Nasi, duke of Naxos, which was several times re- printed. Four years later he was again in eastern Europe, as rabbiof Posen. In 1584 he left that city to take up his abode in Cracow. Ashkenazi’s printed works, besides the “ Yosef Lekah,” are the following: (1) A commentary on the Book of Esther; (2) “ Ma‘ase ha-Shem” His (The Works of God; Venice, 1583; Works. — several other editions), a commentary on the historical portions of the Penta- teuch, written for the instruction of his son Elijah, and containing also a complete commentary on the Passover Haggadah, which has frequently been pub- lished separately; (8) eight “selihot” (penitential prayers), included in the Bohemian liturgy; (4) a “tokahah” (homily), published by his son. His supercommentary to Nahmanides, and his critical marginal notes—said to number one thousand—on Joseph Caro’s “ Bet Yosef,” have not been preserved. Though Ashkenazi can scarcely be said to have exercised an influence either on his own or on later times, his personality was an extraordinary one for that age. He may be called the last survivor of a most brilliant epoch in the history of the Sephardim. During a period when, in Germany and Poland, the hair-splitting dialectics of Jacob Polak could achieve a triumph, and, in Egypt and Palestine, the mysti- cism of Isaac Luria could confuse the clearest intel- lects, Ashkenazi preserved an impressive independ- ence of thought. Although educated by a fanciful cabalist, and a fellow-pupil of Moses His Indi- Alshech, yet he was a student—if not viduality. a deep onec—of philosophy and phys- ics. As a Talmudist, such men as Joseph Caro, Moses Isserles, and Solomon Luria considered him of equal authority with themselves: but when the rabbinical decisions of the old rabbis ‘ran counter to sound judgment, he never sought a sophistical justification for them, as was they th custom, especially in Poland. : Valuable material for a correct estimate of Ash kenazi may be found in several of his decisions pre. served in the responsa literature of the time.” 7. Venice he decided that a man could be forced to ‘ divorce, if, by immoral conduct, he had incurreg his wife’s aversion (Isserles, Responsa, No. 96), It wags probably this decision which brought upon him the opposition of the above-mentioned Venetian rabbis, though he was connected with them; for Ashkenazi’s son was Katzenellenbogen’s son-in-lay From the standpoint of strict Talmudic interpretg. tion, Ashkenazi’s opponents were in the right; singe his sentence contravened that of the Tosafists, wh, for the German-Italian Jews constituted, as it Werte a court of last resort. The Jews of Poland were still less capable of com. prehending such a personality than were those of Italy. The following occurrence affords a strikip instance of this fact: The “roshe yeshibot ” (heads of academies) had forbidden their pupils to estab. lish a rival academy in close proximity to their owy, Ashkenazi declined to assent to this resolution, when requested. At the same time, he complained in a letter to Joseph b. Gershon ha. Misunder- Kohen, the “rosh yeshibah” at Cracow, stood by that, although the decision of the Pp». Polish lish rabbis was based upon the author. Rabbis. ity of Maimonides, yet he considered it irreconcilable with freedom of jp. struction among Jewish rabbis. How little he was understood by his Polish colleagues is fully dis. played in the reply of the rabbi of Cracow, who at great length vindicates Maimonides’ standpoint by erudite and astute references to the Talmud (Joseph b. Mordecai Gershon, “She‘erit Yosef,” No. 19), Consequently, J. S. del Medigo is justified in his remark that Ashkenazi remained unknown to the Poles, and he applies to him wittily, if somewhat audaciously, the verses: “Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt: thou hast cast out the heathen, and planted it,” etc. (Ps. Ixxx. 9 [A. V. 8] to 13 [14)). Ashkenazi had come from Egypt and had to live among the uncultivated Poles. Ashkenazi’s wife, Rachel, died at Cracow April 3, 1593. Her epitaph, still extant, bears witness to her piety and benevolence (“ Monatsschrift,” xliv. 360). His son Elijah published the liturgic collec- tion, “ Zibhe Shelamim,” and wrote a short elegy on his father, which was used as the latter’s epitaph. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Carmoly, in Literaturblatt des Orients, il. 444; idem, in Revue Orientale, ii. 144, 192, 198; idem, in Aa-Karmet, vi. 94, 95; B. Friedberg, Luhot Zikkaron, D. §2; Landshuth, “Ammude ha-"_Abodah, i. 19; Michael, Or hd- Hayyim, No. 418; Perles, in Monatsschrift, xiii. 361, 371, 3725 Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 954; J. M. Zunz, ‘Ir ha Zcdek, pp. 20-23, 175, and supplement, pp. 28, 29. L. G. ASHKENAZI, ELIEZER B. SOLOMON: Rabbinical scholar; bornin Poland about the begin- ning of the nineteenth century, and resided after- ward in Tunis. He published at Metz in 1849, under the title “Dibre Hakamim” (The Words of the Wise), a selection of eleven ancient manuscripts: (1) “Midrash Wayosha‘,” on the Pentateuch; () Joseph Caro’s Commentary on Lamentations; (3) 197 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Ashkenazi, Eliezer Ashkenazi, Joseph —_— & ; : yfaimonides’ “ Hokmat ha-‘Ibbur,” a treatise on the computation of the intercalary month; (4) Abraham r fs computation of the intercalary month, with a yesponsum ky Hai Gaon on the calculation of the years since the Creation; (5) Moses Narboni’s “ Maa- “nal pa-Behirah,” a treatise on free-will; (6) “ Nussah Ketad,” a letter from Joshua Lorki on religion; (7) [saac Ardotiel’s “ Melizah ‘al ha-‘Et,” a prose poem on the pen; (8) David b. Yom-Tob’s * Yesodot ha- {uskil,” thirteen articles of belief of an enlightened man; (9) “RaMBaM,” a letter from Maimonides ad- dressed 10 Rabbi Japhet the Dayyan; (19) a letter by Elijah of Italy, written from Palestine to his family at Ferrara, in 1488; (11) Jacob Provencal’s “ Be- Debar Limmud ba-Hokmah,” on the study of science. § Munk has written an introduction to this col- jection, Which contains also, as an appendix, a French translation of “Yesodot ba-Maskil” by “HH. B.” A ceil published also “Ta‘am Zekenim ” (The Taste of Old Men), edited by R. Kirchheim, a colec- tion of old manuscripts and prints dealing with Jew- ish literature and history in the Middle Ages(Frank- fort-on-the-Main, 1854). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zedner, Cat. Hebr. Books Brit. Mus. pp. 56, 57; Zeitlin, Bibliotheca Hebraica, p. 7. a. I. Br. ASHKENAZI, ELIJAH. See Levira, Etr- JAIL. ASHKENAZI, GERSHON: Polish Talmud- ist; born in the second decade of the seventeenth century; died at Metz March 20, 1693. His family name was really 5 bie, “Ulif,” “Olive ”(?), the sur- name “ Ashkenazi” being usually bestowed in Poland upon families of German extraction. Gershon Ash- kenazi was also named “ Poss ”—not “ Fass ”—after his rich father-in-law, Loeb Poss, of Cracow. He was dayyan in Cracow, possibly his birthplace, at all events the place where he obtained his Talmud- ic education from Joel Siirkes and Joshua Harif. From 1649 to 1659 he was rabbi at Prossnitz, from 1659 to 1660 at Hanau, and from 1661 to 1664 at Nikolsburg, where he succeeded his father-in-law, Menahem Mendel Krochmal. For the next five years he was rabbi at Vienna, but was forced to leave owing to the banishment of the Jews. Thence he went to Metz in 1670, where he remained until his death. Although rabbi of large communities and head of a yeshibah, Ashkenazi found time for literary activ- ity. Of his numerous works, the following have been printed: (1) “ ‘Abodat ha-Gershuni ” (Gershon’s Service), containing his responsa to the principal Talmudists of his day. The number of these re- sponsa is 124; and they contain much information upon the condition of the Jews in Poland, after the persecutions by the Cossacks; (2) “Tiferet ha-Ger- shuni” (Gershon’s Ornament), midrashic and cabalis- tic expositions of the Pentateuch. Both books were published at Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1699. (8) “Hiddushe ha-Gershuni” (Gershon’s Novelle), Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1716, containing remarks and explanations concerning the third and fourth books of the Shulhan ‘Aruk, in which the author severely criticizes the AHARONIM. Even in his lifetime Ashkenazi was recognized as an authority in Talmudic lore, and especially as a Hiyyah’s seventh “ gate” of the third treatise on | most eminent dialectician. His works scarcely jus- tify this opinion; for they are not much above the general average of the rabbinical literature of his time. His influence was, nevertheless, considerable, and was due to his personality. The many ritual inquiries directed to him while rabbi of Metz from western Germany and Alsace-Lorraine show that after his advent in that city he was really the spiri- tual and intellectual authority for the Jews of those countries. It was mainly in Metz that he exer- cised a many-sided influenceas teacher. Ashkenazi was deeply revered and loved by a large number of pupils whom he had the power toattract to himself. Chief among these was David Oppenheimer). Ashkenazi was the father of four learned sons, Moses, Nathan, Nahum, and Joel, of whom the first-named gained prominence asa Talmudist and cabalist. He died March 22, 1691, at Nikolsburg. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Cahen, in Rev. Et. Juives. viii. 255-2575 Dembitzer, Kelilat Yoh, ti. 92a-107h, 11la-1l2a; Kaufmann, Letzte Vertreibung der Juden aus Wien, pp. 224-228; Mi- chael, Or ha-Hayyim, No. 674. L. G. ASHKENAZI, ISAAC BEN JACOB: Rabbi at Byeltzy, Bessarabia; lived in the middle of the eighteenth century. He is the reputed author of a cabalistic work, “Berit “Olam” (Everlasting Cove- nant), containing cabalistic explanations of the let- ters, With some concluding chapters onethics. This work, found among Ashkenazi’s papers, was pub- lished under his name by Isaac Hayyim of Byelostok, Wilna, 1820. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Walden, Shem ha-Gedolim he-Hadash, i. 35, ii. 15; Zedner, Cat. Hebr. Books Brit. Mus. p. d%. K. I. Br. ASHKENAZI, ISAAC BEN ZEBI: Rabbi and author; born in Russia about the middle of the eighteenth century, and officiated as rabbi in Chodo- row and Lemberg, in which latter place he died May 5, 1807. He was the author of the Hebrew works, “Or ha-Ner” (Light of the Lamp), a commentary on the Haggadah, Lemberg, 1788, and “Torat ha- Kodesh” (Law of Holiness), a cominentary on Zeba- him, zbid., 1792. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Walden, Shem ha-Gedolim he-Hadash, No. 224, who erroneously gives the date of Ashkenazi’s death as 1811; Buber, Anshe Shem, p. 122, Cracow, 1895; Stein- schneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 1094. wR ASHKENAZI, ISRAEL BEN SAMUEL. See IsRAEL BEN SAMUEL ASKENAZI OF SKLOV. ASHKENAZI, JACOB ISRAEL BEN ZEBI HIRSCH. See Empven, Jacos Israke. ASHKENAZI, JOSEPH: Critic of the Mish- nah; resided at Safed, Palestine, and died there be- tween 1575 and 1582. Though Ashkenazi came to Palestine from Verona—for which reason he was also called Joseph of Verona—it is by no means im- possible that he was born and bred in Germany. This is attested, not by his surname, “ Ashkenazi” (this being a family name adopted by many families of German origin), but by the fact that he was the son-in-law of Rabbi Aaron of Posen. Kaufmann surmises that he is referred to in the following coup- let of the Judeo-German song, in which as the most Ashkenazi, Joseph Ashkenazi, Meir learned Jew he is mentioned with Mordecai Meisl, a Jew of Prague of princely wealth: ““Ieh mucht so wol lernen als Rabbi Josef Ashkenas, Oder mucht also reich sein als Meislein was.” The epithet “ Divine Tanna,” conferred upon Ash- kenazi by his contemporaries and by men of later times, clearly indicates the main point in which his strength lay. Next to Elijah b. Solomon of Wilna, Ashkenazi is probably the most careful student of the Mishnah, itself the spiritual product of the * Di- vine Tannaim.” Even Isaac Luria, the creator of the new Cabala, did not disdain to receive instruc- tion from him upon the Mishnah. When Teblin of Jerusalem, a pupil of Ashkenazi, went to Europe he imparted to the well-known Mishnah commenta- tor Yom-Tob Lipman Heller many of his teacher’s explanations of the Mishnah. Some insight into Ashkenazi’s mental activity is gained from his brief and fragmentary glosses to the Mishnah, as published in Solomon Adeni’s work, “Meleket Shelomoh,” in which Ashkenazi’s emenda- tions are considered. In these glosses Ashkenazi displays great critical ability. He treats the text in a wholly unprejudiced and purely scientific man- ner, and, disregarding tradition, deletes unsparingly whenever, in his opinion, such elision is justified by the import of the text, and in similar manner sep- arates compound words into their component parts. In his opinion the vocalization and the accentuation of words are not side issues, but worthy of the spe- cial attention that he bestowed upon them. Ash- kenazi’s observations are of especial value, being based upon a manuscript Mishnah in his possession, dating from about 700. He is said to have written critical comments also on the Babylonian and Jeru- salem Talmuds. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Azulai. Shem ha-Gedolim, ed. Benjacob, i. 39; Kaufmann, in Monatssehrift, xlii. 38-46; Sambari, in Neubauer’s Medieval Jewish Chronicles, i. 151; Shibhe ha- Ari, ed. Leghorn, 44b, from which it appears that Ashkenazi lived and taught in Egypt too. L. G. ASHKENAZI, JOSEPH BEN, OF PADUA. See JosErH SHALLIT. ASHKENAZI, JOSEPH EDELS: Palestin- ian commentator and cabalist; lived at the beginning of the nineteenth century at Jerusalem and Padua; died at Safed. He was sent as European agent (“ me- shullah ”) from Palestine to collect money for the Pal- estinian poor. On his travels he remained at Padua, Italy, fora certain time, where he became the teacher of Mordecai Samuel Ghirondi. According to this source, Ashkenazi was a prolific commentator of Bib- lical and Talmudical subjects, but published nothing beyond a small commentary on the “Sefer Yezirah,” to which he appended many of his observations on Bible and Talmud. BIBLIOGRAPHY : Nepi-Ghirondi, Toledot Gedole Yisrael, p. 212. L. G. M. B ASHKENAZI, JOSEPH B. ISAAC HA- LEVI: Talmudist and rabbi; born in Germany about 1550; died at Frankfort-on-the-Main 1628. His first teacher was the Frankfort rabbi Eliezer Treves, after whose death (about 1567) he completed his Talmudic studies under Hayyim b. Bezalel, THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA UIE EEE 198 Jacob b. Hayyim of Worms, Joshua Moses b, ojo, mon Luria, and David Blum of Sulzberg. From Bonn, where Ashkenazi held his first Posi. tion as rabbi, he went to Metz (about 1593). Her, the prohibition against the residence of Jews, Which had been in force for two hundred years, had been removed, and a community of 120 persons had ye, cently been formed. The subsequent growth of this community was in no slight degree due to the activity and devotion of Ashkenazi, its first rabp; By 1618 it had increased threefold; and in that year through the efforts of Ashkenazi, a synagogue was erected. He also bent his energies toward obtainin a Jewish cemetery, in connection with which he founded a “hebra kaddisha ” which was also a study. circle. Ashkenazi is specially known through his dispute with one of the first rabbinical authorities of the time, Meir b. Gedaliah of Lublin. Ashke. His Dis- naziwas atype of the rigorism charac. pute with teristic of the German rabbis. Ong Meir b. certain occasion Ashkenazi gave the Gedaliah. decision that geese whose entrails haq not been examined after slaughter must be accounted “trefah” (forbidden), because such an examination, though unknown to the Ta}. mud, was customary in Germany and Poland. This decision was disputed by the rabbi of Worms, Moseg b. Gad Reuben, and was finally submitted to Meir of Lublin. The Polish rabbis, holding themselveg the superiors of their German colleagues, considered Ashkenazi's opinion extreme; and Meir of Lublin insistet that he should avow his error openly, Though Ashkenazi was by nature mild and yield. ing, he could not prevail upon himself to act con- trary to the custom of his teachers. The dispute now became general; and the scholars of Posen, Cracow, Brest-Litovsk—in short, all the Talmudists of Poland, Lithuania, and Russia—were drawn into the conflict. Since Ashkenazi abided by his opinion, in spite of the decision of so many prominent rabbis, and thus unintentionally created the wide-spread impression that the latter had yielded, Meir sent a very abusive letter concerning Ashkenazi to the community at Worms. He denounced Ashkenazi as impertinent, presumptuous, and ignorant, and requested the Jews of Worms to remove him from his position, adding that he himself could have had him removed through the CouncrL oF Four Lanps were it not beneath him to have dealings with such a man. Ashke- Ashkenazi’s answer(onlyrecently pub- nazi’s Rare lished) shows his true magnanimity. Mag- JHedoesnot indulge in one word of per- nanimity. sonal reproach against the man who had so grievously insulted him, but contents himself with merely defending his own stand point. The dispute lasted from about 1610 to 1618, and ended with Meir’s death. A source of satisfac- tion to Ashkenazi was the decision of Isaiah Horo- witz, author of the “Shelah” and a pupil of Meir. who declared himself against his own teacher, and ordered the omission from the collection of Meir’s responsa of the passages insulting Ashkenazi. The Venice edition (1618), in which these passages are 199 pbliterated, affords a rare instance of Jewish censor- ay chkenazi also had a dispute with his congrega- tion, Which ended seriously for him. He was as severe and uncompromising in his decisions of civil affairs as he was rigorous in the decision of ritual questions ; and, since the community of Metz con- gjsted of a few large families, he demanded that, to avoid partiality, outside judges should be called 44 in civil suits, The community resisted; and the preach finally brought about his dismissal (1627), Moses ha-Kohen of Prague becoming his successor. Ashkenazi considered the procedure against him illegal; and ina letter dated Dec. 14, Is 1627, and addressed to the governor of Banished. Metz, Prince de la Vallette, he asked the latter to sanction his plan regard- ing the judges. The prince did not act with impar- tiality, but referred the matter to the dayyanim Alexander Leviand Mordecai (Maharam) Zey, whose nostile attitude toward Ashkenazi wasknown. They decided that if Ashkenazi and his followers contin- ued in their opposition, they should be banished from the city. OnJan. 24, 1628, the governor carried this decision into effect, and Ashkenazi went to Frank- fort-on-the-Main, where he died the same year. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Cahen, in Rev. Et. Juivea, vii. 108-116, 204- 216; Carmoly, in Jost’s Annaten, 1840, p. 62; Kaufmann, in Rev. Et. Juives, xxii. 93-108. D. L. G. ASHKENAZI, JOSHUA HESHEL B. ME- SHULLAM: Russian Talmudist and rabbi of the nineteenth century; died Feb. 10, 1867, at Lublin. From 1852 till his death he was rabbi of Lublin, his predecessors being first his father, and afterward his cousin Baerush Ashkenazi. The community owed much to Joshua Ashkenazi, who was indefatigable in promoting its spiritual as well as its material well- being. His house was open to every needy person. Because of his philanthropy he was also highly es- teemed by his Christian fellow-citizens and distin- guished by the government with the title of an hon- orary citizen, a rank which carried with it certain privileges. Ashkenazi left ten posthumous works on both haggadic and halakic subjects, which, however, were destroyed in a conflagration some years ago at Grodno. Several of his responsa are contained in Baerush Ashkenazi’s ‘‘ Noda‘ ba-She‘arim.” BIBLIOGRAPHY: Nissenbaum, Le-Korot ha-Yehudim be- Lublin, 1899, pp. 127, 128. L. G. ASHKENAZI, JUDAH B. JOSEPH: Turk- ish Talmudist; born at Smyrna, where he became chief rabbi; died there about 1812. He wrote: (1) “Mahneh Yehudah ” (Judah’s Camp), Salonica, 1798 —discussions on the “Tur” and on “Bet Joseph, Hoshen Mishpat”; (2) “Yad Yehudah” (Judah’s Hand), Salonica, 1816—notes on the Talmudic trea- tises Shebuot and partially on Megillah, Yoma, Pesahim, and Baba Batra; (3) “Gebul Yehudah ” (Judah’s Boundary), Salonica, 182i—on the trea- tises Gittin, Ketubot, Baba Kamma; (4) “Kehal Yehudah” (Judah’s Congregation), Salonica, 1825— novelle on the Shulhan ‘Aruk, Yoreh De‘ah, and THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Ashkenazi, Joseph Ashkenazi, Meir several Talmudic treatises. See also ASHKENAZI, RaPHAEL BEN JUDAH. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zedner, Cat. Hebr. Books Brit. Aus. p. 583 Walden, Shem ha-Gedolim he-Hadash. L. G. M. B. ASHKENAZI, JUDAH SAMUEL B. JA- COB: A commentator, ritualist, and liturgical edi- tor; born in the second half of the eighteenth cen- tury; lived at Tabareeyeh (Tiberias), Palestine, whence he was sent as communal traveling agent to Europe. He afterward settled at Leghorn, where the following of his works were published: “ Yissa Berakah” (He Shall Receive a Blessing), a commen- tary on Jeruham b. Meshullam’s “Sefer Mesharim ” (1822); “Geza‘ Yishay ” (The Stem of Jesse), a col- lection of rites and laws, alphabetically arranged, of which the first volume alone, containing the Jetters & to %, was published (1842). He further edited and annotated a prayer-book according to the Spanish rite, “Tefillot lekol ha-Shanah” (Prayers for the Whole Year), divided into five parts: (1) “Bet ‘Obed ” (The House of the Serving), containing the prayers for the weck-days; (2) “Bet Menuhah” (The House of Rest), for Sabbaths; (3) “Bet Mo‘ed ” (The House for the Feasts), for the three festivals Passover, Pentecost, and Tabernacles; (4) “Bet Din” (The House of Judgment), for New-Year; and (5) “Bet ha-Kapporet” (The House of Forgiveness), for the Day of Atonement (Leghorn, 1843-1855). I. Costa edited and arranged Ashkenazi’s work. He is the author, also, of “Gebul Yehudah” (Judah’s Territory), containing novelle on the Talmud. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zedner, Cat. Hebr. Books Brit. Mus., p. 583 Nepi-Ghirondi, Toledut Gedole Yisrael, p. 214. M. B. L. G, ASHKENAZI (TIKTIN), JUDAH B. SIMON SOFER FRANKFURT: Polish commentator on the Shulhan ‘Aruk; officiated as “dayyan ” (assistant rabbi) at Tikotzin, Poland, in the first half of the eighteenth century. He wrote 319°7 363 (“ Explain- ing Well”), which comments briefly on the first three parts of the Shulhan ‘Aruk. ) “Ashre ha-"Am, Happy ae people to whom 1885; “La Chasse aux Juifs”; and “Les Victimes.” | Mists alloted: (ae Vay 7 Uy 181 uc ers ‘], He is a frequent contributor to the Russian period- | b@ppy the people whose God is the Lord,” recited icals “ Nedyelya,” “Novosti,” and others, and since three times a day, twice in the morning and hes 1889 has been a regular contributor to “Paris,” under | the afternoon prayer before Ps. cxlv., concerning the pen-name “Michel Reader.” which it is said: “W hosoever recites Psalm exly, BIBLIOGRAPHY: Vengerov, Kritico-Biograficheski Slovar Russ- three rimles a day may feel certain of having a portion kikh Pisatelei, s.v.: &. G., Literaturnaya Spravka, in | in the life to come” (Ber. 4%). The three Ashre or Voskhod, 1800, xi.-xtl. 31-88. IL R beatitudes in the two introductory vcrses—some See added also the Ashre of Ps. cxix. 1, and more verses beginning with Ashre (see Tosafot Ber. 32d, and Beer, | prayer-book “Abodath Yisrael,” p. 68, note; Zunz, “Ritus,” 59)—were selected to express the idea of being thrice blessed by the recitation of a Psalm containing so fervent a praise of God before offering prayer as does the one hundred and forty-fifth Psalm. See Tanya ii. in the name of Rashi. K. i | ASHMODATI. See AsMopevs. ASHMUN or ESHMUN (jpwy): The name of a Phenician god worshiped at Sidon and Carthage, in Cyprus and in Sardinia. » treatise on the “Planets,” a treatise on hye. the “Lu- “4S minaries,” one on the “Causes” (‘ Ha-Te‘amim ’), and finally a horoscope, see Steinschnei- der, “Berlin Cat. Hebr. MSS.” pp. 136- 150; “Hebr. Uebers.” pp. 600 e¢ seg.; Rosin, in “ Monatsschrift,” 1898, p. 250). He often refers to Astrology in his Bible commentaries. T'o him heaven with its constellations is “the book of life,” in which man’s destiny is written, and against which there is recourse to God as “the Almighty,” who overrules all these influences (commentary to Ps. Ixix. 29; Gen. xvii. 9; Ex. vi. 3, xxxili. 21; Rosin, @.e. p. 251; Zunz, “G. 8.” iii, 98). Abraham ben David of Pos- quiéres, in his critical notes to Maimonides’ “ Yad.” Teshubah, v. 5, also asserts the influence of the stars upon destiny, while contending that by faith in God man may overcome this influence. Judah ha-Levi (“ Cuzari,” iv. 9), Abraham ibn Daud (“ Emu- nah Ramah,” p. 8&6; see Kaufmann, “ Geschichte der Attributenlelire in der Jiidischen Religionsphilo- sophie des Mittelalters,” p. 247),and Albo (“ Ikkarim,” ay reassess 245 iv. 4) could not free themselves altogether from the belief in the “decrees of the stars”; nor could Nah- manides (commentary to Gen. i. 16; Lev. xxiii. 24, and elsewhere), Isaac Arama (“Akedat Yizhak,” xxxiv., Introduction to Ex.), Solomon b. Adret (Responsa, No. 652), and others. As- The trology was made the basis of Mes- Basis of sianic calculations in almost every Messianic century (see Ibn Ezra to Dan. xi. 29; Cal- Abravanel, “Mashmia‘ Yeshu‘ah”; culations. Azariah dei Rossi, “Meor Enayim,” ch. xlili.; Zunz, @.c.; Steinschneider, “ Jiidische Literatur,” in Ersch and Gruber’s “ En- cyc.” p. 441, notes 80, 81). Maimonides was the only authority that opposed Astrology energetically. He found it forbidden by the Law in the verse, “ Ye shall not observe times” (“lo te‘onenu ”) Lev. xix. 26, in accordance with R. Akiba, Sanh. 68 (“ Yad,” ‘Akkum, xi. 8), and de- clared it, Talmudical utterances notwithstanding, to be bordering on idolatry, “a disease, not ascience, a tree under the shadow of which all sorts of supersti- tions thrive, and which must be upreoted in order to give way to the tree of knowledge Opposed and the tree of life” (“Letter to the by Mai- Men of Marseilles”; Steinschneider, monides. “Cat. Bodl.” col. 1908; ¢dem, “ Hebr. Uebers.” p. 931). However, the belief was too deeply rooted to be abandoned by the great majority of thinkers (see Léw, in “Ben Chananja,” 1863, pp. 480-434). Asthe last important prominent follower of Astrology may be mentioned David Gans, the astronomer and historian, and friend of Tycho de Brahe, the contemporary of Wallenstein, whose historical work, “Zemah David” (see intro- duction to vol. i1.), lays great stress upon the influ- ence of the constellations upon history. Modern science has abolished Astrology. Only the formula of congratulations, “Mazzal tob ” (Good luck), is a survival of the old belief, as is the rejec- tion of certain days in the week or the month for weddings or new ventures (see Shulhan ‘Aruk, Yoreh De‘ah, 179, 2). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider, Jiidische Literatur, in Ersch und Gruber’s Eneyc. pp. 441-442; idem, Die Hebriiischen Uebersetzungen des Mittelalters, pp. 186, 501-649, 666, 846, 856~858, 931; idem, in Jew. Quart. Rer. xiii. 107-109 3 Zunz, G. S. ili. 93-95; Sehmied!, Studien ther Jtidische Reli- gionsphilosophie, pp. 299-816, Vienna, 1869; L. Low, Die As- trologie in der Biblischen, Talmudischen und Nachtal- mudischen Zeit, in Ben Chananja, 1563, pp. 401, 481 et seq.; idem, Gesammelte Schriften, ii; Rosin, Die Ethik des Mai- monides, 1876, pp. 65 et seg.; idem, in Monatsschrift, 1898, pp. 447 et seg.3 Senicr Sachs, Ha-Yonah, i. 59-93, Berlin, 1851. K. ASTRONOMY.—Biblical Data: Biblical As- tronomy, in the broad sense, includes the views taken in the books of the Bible of the position of the earth in the universe, the designation of the stars, planets, fixed stars, and the views held regarding them. The material for the subject, except so far as the earth is concerned, is very meager, dependence for the most part having to be placed on ambiguous teferences chiefly in the poetical sections. In the present article the stars, planets, and fixed stars in general are dealt with. (For the earth,sun, and moon, see CosmoGony, SuN, Moon.) Thesky,the abode of the stars, is described as a “rakia‘” (ps, a plate); thatis, arigid, broad, solid plate possessing a certain THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Astrology Astronomy thickness. According to Gen. i. 6, this rakia‘ was set in the midst of the waters, and it divided the waters above from those beneath. God “made” it of matter already existing at the time of Crea- tion; that is, He did not “create” it at that time. The rakia‘ representing the sky in Ezek. i. 22 re- sembled ice; therefore it is quite possible that the author of Genesis, like Ezekiel, regarded the sky as being composed of solidified water or ice. Sucha sky, being transparent, would permit the stars, which are located above its vault, to be seen through it. The heavenly bodies, according to Gen. i. 16, were also made (not created) from existing material, after light had come into existence. They The Four were certainly made of the material of Elements light, just as the vault of the sky in Genesis. was made out of water-material, and the human soul from air (Gen. ii. 7), and all things living upon earth from earth (Gen. i. 24). Berliner, Aus dem Inner Leben; Zunz, Zur Geschichte: R. K. Fox, Sporting An- nual; Young Israel, London, 1897: Jewish Chronicle, Lon- don, 1900; Jewish World, London, 1901; Jiidische Turn- zcitung, Nos. 1-3, Berlin, 1901. A. F. H. Y. ATHRIBIS: A city, during the Ptolemaic pe- riod, in Lower Egypt on the Damietta arm of the Nile near the present Benha (Benha al-Asi), south- west of Zagazeeg. On the hill near Benha there are vestiges of the old city of Athribis. A Jewish col- ony must have dwelt here, asis proven by two Greek inscriptions which were discovered on the hill in 1876. The first reads, “In honor of King Ptolemy and of Queen Cleopatra, Ptolemy, son of Epicydus, chief of the guards, together with the Jews resident in Athribis [consecrate] this place of prayer to God the Most High.” The second inscription reads, * In honor of King Ptolemy and of Queen Cleopatra and of their children, Hermias and his wife Philotera and their children [consecrate] this exedra and this place of prayer.” It seems probable that all the persons mentioned here were Jews. The expression “God the Most High” is the equivaleut of the Hebrew “ El ‘Elyon ” (compare Eusebius,“ Prep. Evan.” i.10,’E72- ovv 6vyn070¢). The word used for “a place of prayer” (zpooevxy) occurs in this same sense in other Jewish inscriptions, in the New Testament, Josephus, Philo, ete. The exedra mentioned in the second inscription was probably a hall or an arcade used for religious or philosophical discussions (=7¥n, UXX. to Ezek. xlii. 4; “the hall of the schoolhouse,” mows, B. B. 116; see Jastrow,’’ Dict.” 8.2. SYIDIN). It is impos- sible to tell the exact date of these inscriptions, as Ptolemy V., VI., and VIII. had each a wife whose name was Cleopatra. 8S. Reinach thinks it probable that Ptolemy V. is intended, who died in 181 B.c. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique, 1889, xiii. 178 ef seq.; S. Reinach, Rev. Ht. Juives, xvii. 235 et. seq. K. G. ATHRONGES: Leader of the Jews during the insurrection under Archelaus (48.c.-6C.E.). A shep- herd and bold adventurer, without any other claim to power but that of gigantic strength and stature, he managed, in common with his four brothers of equal size and vigor, to rally large bodies of men around him, and, after assuming the royal title, to wage war both on the Romans and on the forces of Archelaus. After a protracted and brave struggle, he and his brothers were defeated. Rapoport has explained the name “ Athrouges” by the Hebraized Persian word 39N&, NININN. “orange,” or “ melon ” (see Fleischer in Levy, “ Neuhebr. Worterb.” i. 77), and identified it with Ben Batiah, “Son of the Cu- cumber ” (that is, like a cucumber), the popular hero, the size of whose fist [|3N] has become proverbial in ancient rabbinical literature (Kelim xvii. 12; Tosef., Kelim, B. M. vii. 2); the form of his hand hav- ing, as Rapoport thinks, given rise to both terms. Ata later time. legend identified him with the leader IL.—1s8 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Athletes Atlas of the insurrection, ABBA SAKKARA, the nephew of Johanan ben Zakkai. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Josephus, Ant. xvii. 10, 87; B. J. ii. 4, 83; Schirer, Gesch i. 348; Rapoport, “Arek Afillin, s.v. G. K. ATLANTA: Since 1868 capital of the State of Georgia in the United States. The city was cap- tured and burned by the United States troops in 1864, and all of the civic and congregational records were destroyed. From the best tradition obtainable, it appears that the first Jewish resident of Atlanta was Jacob Haas, who, with his family, settled there about 1846, to | be followed soon after by Moses Sternberg. The daughter of Jacob Haas was the first Jewish child born in the place. She married her cousin, also named Jacob Haas. The Hebrew Benevolent Congregation was formed during the war, and held services on holidays in the Masonic Temple, located on Decatur street. It is now the leading Jewish congregation in the place. Other religious organizations are the Ahawat Achim and Gemilath Chesed. In 1867 a social organization, the Concordia, was founded, in 1870 the Hebrew Ladies’ Benevolent Association, and later the Hebrew Relief Association. In 1889 there was established here, by District Grand Lodge No. 5 of the Independent Order of B‘nai B'rith, the Hebrew Orphans’ Home, of which the Hon. Simon Wolf of Washington is president. Tn 1900 it cared for sixty-cight inmates. The rabbis of the community have been the Revs. Borcheim, Henry Gersoni, E. B. M. Brown, J. S. Jecobson, Leo Reich, and David Marx. Atlanta has furnished two Jewish members to the Georgia legislature; namely, Col. Samuel Weil and Adolph Brandt. David Mayer, one of the earlier settlers, was instrumental in the organization of the public-schoo! system of Atlanta, and was commonly known as “the father of the public schools.” In a total population of 100,000 there is an esti- mated Jewish population of 1,500 to 2,000. Jews are engaged on a large scale in the manufacture of paper boxes and other goods made from paper, also furniture, machinery, and cotton goods. (Lev. xvi. 80). If he be guilty of crimes such as entail thy death penalty and the like, repentance and the Day of Atone ment can not expiate them unless suffering works as a purify. ing factor: to this the Psalmist refers when he says, ‘I will visit their transgressions with the rod and their iniquities with stripes’ (Ps. Ixxxix. 33 [A. V.32]). Andif the crime amount to a desecration of the name of God and the doing of great harm to the people at large, nothing but death can be the penalty ; as Isaiah (xxii. 14) says, ‘Surely this iniquity shall not be atoned for you [A. V. “purged from you*’] till ye die, saith the Lord God of Hosts*’’ (eompare Mishnah Shebu. i. 1-6), Whether the Day of Atonement atoned only for sins committed in error and ignorance or involunta- rily (Heb. ix.%), or also for those committed wilfully with a high hand (Num, xv. 26, 80), whether only after due repentance or without it, is discussed by the Rabbis (Shebu. 13a; Yoma 852); and the result- ing opinion is that just as the scapegoat atoned forall] the sins of the nation, whether committed involun- tarily or wilfully (Shebu. i. 6), so also does the Day of Atonement, true repentance having the power of turning all sins into mere errors, such asare forgiven to the whole congregation according to Num. xv. 26. All the greater emphasis is laid on sincere re- pentance, without which the Day of Atonement is inefficient (Maimonides,* Yad,” Teshubah, i. 38). All the various elements effecting Atonement are in a marked degree combined in the Day of Atone- ment, to make it the occasion of the great annual re- dintegration of man. It is called “Shabbat Shab- baton,” the holiest of rest-days as the Shabbath of the Sabbatical month (Lev. xxii. 32), Annual because it was to prepare the people Redinte- for the festival of harvest joy, the gration of Succoth feast at the close of the agri- Man. cultural season (Ex. xxiti. 16, xxxiv. 22; Lev. xxiii. 34, xxv. 9,10; Ezek. x}. 1). Whereas Ezekiel (xlv. 18-20) intended to have the first and the seventh day of the first month ren- dered days of Atonement for the year, the Mosaic law ordained that the new moon of the seventh month should be a Sabbath (Lev. xxiii. 24), heralding forth with the trumpet in more solemn sounds than on other new-moon days (Num. x.10) the holy month; and this was to be followed by the day which was to consecrate both the nation and the sanctuary by imposing atoning rites. These rites were of a two- fold character. Atonement forthe people was made in a form without any parallel in the entire sacrificial system, Lev, xvi. 7-22, or Deut. xxi, 4, perhaps ex- cepted. A scapegoat, upon which the Day high priest laid the sins of the people, of Atone- was sent forth into the wilderness to ment. Azazel (a demon,according to Ibn Ezra on Lev. xvi. 10, related to the goat- like demons, or satyrs, referred to in Lev. xvii. 7; com- pare Yoma 672); and its arrival at the rock of Hadudo, 281 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Atonement I where it was cast down the precipice, was signalized as the moment of the granting of pardon to the peo- ple by the waving of a wisp of snow-white wool in place of one of scarlet, over the Temple gate, crowds of young people waiting on the hillsof Jerusalem to celebrate the event by dancing (Yona iv. 1-8; Ta‘a- nit iv. 8). Obviously this primitive rite was not of late origin, as is alleged by modern critics, but was a concession rather to ancient Semitic practise, and its great pop- ularity is shown by the men of rank accompanying it, by the cries with which the crowd followed it, and by tales of a miraculous character related in the Mishnah and the Gemara (Yoma 66a, 67a, 680). On the other hand, the sprinkling by the high priest of the blood of the bullock, the ram, and the second goat, consecrated to the Lord, was in full keeping with the usual Temple ritual, and distinguished itself from the sacrificial worship of other days only by the ministrations of the high priest, who, clad in his fine linen garb, offered the incense and sprinkled blood of each sin-offering upon the Holy of Holies and the veil of the Holy Place for the purification of the whole sanctuary as well as of his own household and the nation. The impressiveness of these func- tions, minutely described in Mishnah (Yoma ii.-vii.), has been vividly pictured by Ben Sira, whose words in Ecclus. (Sirach) 1. were embodied in the syna- gogue liturgy at the close of the ‘Abodah. But while, according to Scripture, the high priest made Atonement (Lev. xvi. 30), tradition transferred the atoning power to God, as was expressed in the high priest’s prayer commencing, “Kapper na” (O Lord, atone Thou for the iniquities, the sins, and the trans- gressions,” Yoma iii. 8, iv. 2, vi. 2); interpreting the verse (Lev. xvi. 80): “Through that day He, the Lord, shall atone for you” (Yoma ili. 8; Sifra, Ahare Mot, viii.). Great stress was laid on the cloud of incense in which the high priest was enveloped when entering the Holy of Holies; and many mystic or divinatory powers were ascribed to him as he stood there alone in the darkness, as also to the prayer he offered, to the Foundation Stone (“ Eben Shetiyah ”), on which he placed the censer, and to the smoke of the sacri- fice (Yoma, 53a, } e¢ seq. ; Tan., Abare 3; Lev. R. xx., xxi. ; compare Book of Jubilees xii. 16). The prayer offered by the high priest (according to Yer. Yoma v. 2; Tan., ‘Ahare 4; Lev. R. xx.) was that the year might be blessed with rain, heat, and dew, and might yield plenty, prosperity, independence, and comfort to the inhabitants of the land. 7 In the course of time the whole Temple ritual was taken symbolically, and more stress was laid on the fasting, the prayers, and the supplications, to which the people devoted the whole day, entreating pardon for their sins, and imploring God’s mercy. This at least is the view expressed by Philo (“ De Septenario,” 23), even if it was not yet shared by the people in general, when the Epistle to the Hebrews (ix.) and that of Barnabas (vii.) were written. It was after the destruction of the Temple, and through the syn- agogue, that the Day of Atonement assumed its high spiritual character as the great annual regen- erator of Jewish life in connection with New-Year’s Day. Down tothe first century, in Apocalyptical as well asin New Testament writings, the idea of the divine judgment was mainly eschatological Day in character, as deciding the destiny of of Sealing the soul after death rather than of men God’s on earth. But under the influence of Decree. Babylonian mythology, which spoke of the beginning of the year—“zag- muk ”—on the first day of Nisan, as the time when the gods decided the destiny of life (Jensen, “ Kos- mologie,” pp. 84-86, 238), the idea developed also in Jewish circles that on the first of Tishri, the sacred New-Year’s Duy and the anniversary of Creation, man’s doings were judged and his destiny was de- cided; and that on the tenth of Tishri the decree of heaven was sealed (Tosef., R. H. i. 18; R. H. 11a, 16), a view still unknown to Philo (“ De Septenario, ” 22) and disputed by some rabbis (R. H.16a). Thus, the first ten days of Tishri grew to be the TEN PENITENTIAL Days of the year, intended to bring about a perfect change of heart, and to make Israel like new-born creatures (Pesik. xxiii., xxiv.: Lev. R, xxix.), the culmination being reached on the Day of Atonement, When religion’s greatest gift, God’s condoning mercy. was to be offered to man. It was on this day that Moses came down from Mount Sinai with the Tables of the Law received in token of God's pardon of the sin of the golden calf, while the whole congregation fasted and praved. The Day of Atonement was thenceforth made the annual day of divine forgiveness of sin, when Satan, the accuser, failed to find blame in the people of Israel, who on that day appeared pure from sin like the angels (see Seder ‘Olam R. vi.; Tan., Ki Tissa, 4; Pirke R. El. xlvi.). According to Pirke R. El. xxix., the circumcision of Abraham took place on the Day of Atonement, and the blood which dropped down on the very spot where the altar afterward stood in the temple on Moriah is still before the eyes of God to serve as means of Atonement. Far from being the means of “ pacifying an angry God,” assuggested by Cheyne (“ Encyc. Bibl.” 3.v.), or from leaving a feeling of uncertainty and dread of suspense concerning God’s pardoning love in the heart, as Weber (“‘ Altsynagogale Theologie,” p. 321) maintains, these ten days are the days of special grace when the Shekinah is nigh, and God longs to grant pardon to His people (Pesik. xxiv.). The Day of Atonement is the “one day” prepared from the be- ginning to unite the world divided between the light of goodness and the darkness of sin A Day of (Gen. R. ii, iti), “aday of great joy to Confiding God” (Tanna debe Eliyahu R.i.). “Not Joy. depressed and in somber garmentsasthe suppliant appears before the earthly judge and ruler should Israel on New-Year’s Day and on the Day of Atonement stand before the Ruler and the Judge on high, but with joy and in white garments betokening a cheerful and confiding spirit ” (Yer. R. H.i. 574). Only later generations regarded these white garments, the SARGENES—in which also the dead were dressed in order to appear be- fore the Judge of all flesh full of gladsome hope —as shrouds, and considered them as reminders of death (Yer. R. H. fe.; Eccl. R. ix. 7; Gen. R. Le.; Brueck,”* Pharisiiische Volkssitten,” 1368), “ The first. Atonement THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 280 day of Succoth is called the first day [Lev. xxiii. 35] because on it a new record begins, the sins of the year having been wiped off on Atonement Day” (Tan., Emor., 22). The sins of the preceding year therefore, unless they have been repeated, should not be confessed anew (Tosef., Yoma, v.15; Yoma 866; Ex, JR. ]ii.). **He who says, ‘I wil) sin, and the Day of Atonement shall make atonement for me,’ for him the Day of Atonement is of no avail. Only such sins as concern man’s relation to God will be pardoned. Sins committed by man against his fellow man are pardoned only after his fellow man’s pardon has been ob- tained ; for it is said: ‘From all your sins before the Lord ye shall be cleansed’ (Lev. xvi. 30),thus excluding sins before man” (Yoma viii. 9). The Day of Atonement has thus a double charac- ter; itis both a fast-day and a festal day. It com- prises the elements of the great fast-day of the year, on which are prohibited all those things from which the people abstained on any other public fast-day, such as eating and drinking, bathing and anointing, the wearing of sandals or shoes, etc. Both Fast- (Yoma 760and 77a). Any other mode Day and of affliction or penitence, however, Festal Day. is prohibited (Yoma 740; Sifra, Ahare, vii.). There were likewise embodied in the liturgy of the Day of Atonement all those forms of supplications and portions of the liturgy used on public fast-days (Ta‘anit iv. 1), including the most characteristic portion recited at sunset, Ne‘inan (“the closing of the gates of the sun”). Of these the confession of sins forms the oldest and most prominent part of each portion of the day’s liturgy, the alphabetical order in the catalogue of sins having originated in Hasidic circles (Rom. i. 29 et seg. ; Didache v.; Shab. 54a) rather than in the Temple liturgy (Sifrai.; Yomaiii. 8). This is to be followed by the “Selihot,” the appeals to God’s forgiveness as expressed in the thirteen Attributes of God as He appeared to Moses on Sinai, promising “Salahti,” “T have forgiven” (Num. xiv. 18-20). The reading from the Law of the chapter on the Atonement sacrifice in Lev. xvi., in the morning portion, is followed by the reading from the prophet Isaiah (Ivii. 15-lvili. 14) as Haftarah, which has becn signifi- cantly chosen to impress the worshipers with the lesson that the external rite of fasting is valueless without the works of righteousness and beneficence. Differing in this respect from any other fast-day, and resembling all Sabbath and festival days, the celebration of the Day of Atonement begins in the synagogue on the preceding evening, in conformity with Lev. xxiii. 832 (Yoma 814). It probably did so during the time of the Temple (Yoma 192), but not in the Temple itself (Yomai. 2). This evening serv- ice—called Kou-NiDRE from its opening formula, which canceled rash vows—with its strongly marked melodies and songs, assumed in the course of time a very impressive character. On the Day of Atone- ment itself, the noon or “musaf” (additional) service —~presenting as its chief feature the ‘ABOoDAH, a graphic description of the whole Atonement service of the Temple—is followed by the afternoon or “Minhah ” service, which begins with the reading from the Law of the chapter on incestuous marriages, with a side-reference, as it were, to Azazel, the $$$ seducer to lewdness (Meg. 31a; Tos. ad loe.; Yoma 67), and as Haftarah, the Book of Jonah, containip the great lesson of God’s forgiving love extended to Gentiles as well as to Jews. This is followed by the NE‘ILAH service, in which the main ideas of the day are especially emphasized—repentance conditionin forgiveness, and God’s sealing the decree of man for the ensuing year. The service ends with a solemy invocation of God’s name, the Shema’, and the seven. fold exclamation, “ The Lord, He is God” (compare ] Kings xviii. 39), forming the climax of the continy. ous devotions of the day. Asa signal of the cloge of the sacred day, so that the people may know that they can work or eat (Tos. to Shab. 1140), or for other reasons (see IXol Bo, Ixx.; Shulhan ‘Aruk, Orah Hay- yim, 628, 6; Tur Orah Hayyim, 624), the trumpet is blown once, or, aS in Palestine, four times— “Teki‘ah, Shebarim, Tern‘ah, Teki‘ah” (see Mahzor Vitry, pp. 345, 356; Abudrahim, “Seder Tef. Yom Kippurim ”). Ejther in the Kol-Nidre service, as in Jerusalem, before the main prayers (Schwartz, “Das Heilige Land,” p. 386), or after the morning service (Mahzor Vitry, p. 8038; Shulhan “Aruk, Orah Hay- yim, 621, 6), the dead are commemorated, and gifts are offered for their salvation (see Tan., Haazinu, i, ed. Vienna, 1858, p. 28; Pesik. xxvii. 174, and Ro- keah, quoted in Beth Joseph to Tur Orah Hayyim, i.c.)—a custom which in the Reform liturgy has been made a more prominent part of the service. In preparation for the Day of Atonement it is usual to offer gifts of charity, according to Prov. x. 2, “Righteousness [charity] dclivereth from death,” and to go to the cemetery to visit the graves of the dead, a practise taken over from the fast-days (Ta- ‘anit 16a; Yer. Ta‘anit li, 65a). The custom of bringing candles to burn in the synagogue the whole day, in memory of the dead, may have originated in the desire to light up the otherwise dark synagogue for the recital of prayers and psalms by the pious during the entire night. This is the one view expressed In Kol Bo Ixviii.; but other reasons of a mystic nature are given for it there as well as in Mahzor Vitry, p. 840; Abudrahim, d.c.; and Shulhan ‘Aruk, Orah Hayyim, 610. Very significant, as showing a deep-rooted desire for some form of atoning sacrifice, is the custom— known already in the time of the Geonim, and found in Asia and Africa (see Benjamin JJ., “ Acht Yahre in Asien und Africa,” 1858, p. 273), as well as in Europe (Asheri Yoma viii. 28; Mahzor Vitry, p. 3389; {Kol Bo Ixvii.; Shulhan ‘Aruk, Orah Hayyim, 609), though disapproved by Nahmanides, Solomon ben Adret, and Joseph Caro (Tur Orah Hayyim, l.¢c.)— of swinging over one’s head, on or before the eve of Atonement Day, a fowl, usually a rooster or hen; solemnly pronouncing the same to be a vicarious sac- rifice to be killed in place of the Jew or Jewess who night be guilty of death by his or her sin. Fishes and plants, also (see Rashi, Shab. 81%), perhaps orig- inally only these, were used in the gaonictime. The slaughtered animal or its equivalent was then given to the poor (see Kapparot), Another custom of similar character is the receiving on the eve of Atone- ment Day, either in the synagogue or at home—the latter is usually the place in Jerusalem (see Schwartz, l.c.)}—of thirty-nine stripes at the hand of a neighbor 283 . THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Atonement ie ag penalty for one’s sins, according to Deut. xxv. 3, | man may appear pure in both body and soul before while reciting the Confession of Sins. (See Mahzor | God on “the great day.” yitry, p. 844; Kol Bo, Ixviii. ; Shulhan ‘Aruk, Orah The Karaite Day of Atonement with its liturgy Treeer* os (el a ae a NH R . Si aN \" \ i) AY WAY TTT eel a a Ae A ar Te Ne a Pl a P| ae as - an DAY OF ATONEMENT IN THE SYNAGOGUE (Center). RITES ON PRECEDING Day (Surrounding). 1. “Malkut.” 2. ‘*Teshubah.” 3. Visiting the graves. 4. ‘‘Zedakah”’ in graveyard. 5, ‘* Kapparah.” (From Bodenschatz, ‘‘ Kirchliche Verfassung.) Hayyim, 607.) According to Benjamin IJI.,/.c., peo- | is toa great extent similar to that of the Rabbinite ple in Persia strip themselves to the loins in order to | Jews. It also begins half an hour before sunset of Teceive these stripes on the naked body (see MaLkcr | the preceding day, and lasts until half an hour after ScuLacEn). This is followed by bathing, so that | sunset of the day itself (see KaRAarTEs). Atonement, Day of THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 284 _ a a gs A ae eg On i ee aad 6 tye ee The Samaritans, also, adopted the custom of pre- paring for the day by a purificative bath and of spending the night and the day in the synagogue with prayerand fasting, singing hymns, and reading from the Law (see SAMARITANS). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hamburger, R. B. T. i., under VersGhnwig und Verséhnungstag; Zunz, S. P. pp. 76-80; Sachs, Die Religibse Poesie der Juden in Spanien, 1845, pp. 172 et seq. ; Brueck, Pharisdische Volkssitten, 1855, pp. 133-146. K, ATONEMENT, DAY OF (Oo 53" ox, Yom ha-Kippurim).—In Bible, Talmud, and Liturgy : The term %4)95 pov, “ Yom Kippur,” is late rabbinic. The Biblical laws relating to it are found in Lev. xvi. (ceremonies); 2, xxiii. 26-32 (list of holidays); 73. xxv. 9 (ushering in the jubilee); Num, xxix. 7-11 (sacrifices). The Day of Atonement, according to Biblical tra- dition, is one in the cycle of holidays instituted by Moses. It occurs on the tenth day of the seventh month, and is distinguished by abstaining thereon from food (“afllicting one’s soul”; compare Isa. lviil. 8, 5) and by an elaborate ceremonial. The details of the ritual, in accordance with rabbinical interpre- tation (Sifra and Rashi on Lev. xvi.; Mishnah and Gemara Yoma; “ Yad ” Hil. ‘Abodat Yom ha-Kippu- rim; Asheri), proceed about as follows: In the early morning the high priest, in his robes Ceremonies of oftice(described Ex. xxviii., XXXxix.), According offered the daily morning sacrifice to Bibleand (Num. xxix. 11; Ex. xxix. 38 ef seq.) Mishnah. and performed the ordinary morning rite of dressing the lamps, which was accompanied by an offering of incense (EX. xxx. 7), Next in order was the festival sacrifice of a bullock and seven jambs (Num, xxix. 7 et seq.). Then began the peculiar ceremonies of atonement, for which the high priest put on special vestments of linen (Lev. xvi.4). With his hands placed on the head of a bullock (contributed from his own means), he made confession of his own sins and of those of his nearer household (verse 6, see Rashi). The two goats contributed by the people (verse 5) were placed be- fore him, being designated by lot, the one fora sin- offering “for the Lord,” and the other to be sent away into the wilderness “ for Azazel” (verses 7-10). Once more the high priest made confession over his own bullock, for himself and his wider household—his brother priests (verse tl). After killing the animal (verse 116) and receiving its blood into a vessel, he took a censer full of live coals from the altar of burnt offering (Ex. xxvii, 1-8) and two handfuls of fine incense into the sacred recess behind the cur- tain, the Holy of Holies; there he placed the incense on the coals, the cloud of incense enveloping the so- called “mercy-seat” (verse 12 e¢ seq.), and offered a short prayer (Yoma v. 1). He returned for the ves- sel containing the blood of the bullock and reentered, sprinkling some of it with his finger cight times be- tween the staves of the Ark (verse 14; Ex. xxv. 18- 15). He then left the sacred compartment to kil] the people’s goat (marked “for the Lord”); with its blood he reentered the Holy of Holies, there to per- form the same number of sprinklings in the same place (verse 15). Biblical Data. | | | | By these rites the most holy place was rendere free from all impurities attaching to it through th intentional or unintentional entrance Process of unclean persons into the sanctuary of Purifica- (verse 16, see Rashi; Num. xiy. 18 tion. see Rashi). By sprinkling the pg lock’s blood and siinilarly that of the goat eight times against the curtain, the entrance to the Holy of Holies was puritied (verse 164, see Rashi) No one was permitted to remain in the sanctuay r mainder was poured out at the base of the altar out. side (Lev. iv. 7). The live goat was now brought forward. The high priest laid his hand upon its head and confessed “ all the iniquities of the Israelites and all their transgressions, even all their sins,” which were thus placed upon the goat’s head. Laden with the people's sins, the animal was sent away into the wilderness (verses 20-22). The high priest then took those portions that belonged on the altar out of the bodies of the bullock and the goat, and placed them temporarily ina vessel; the carcasses of the ani- mals were sent away “to the place where the ashes are thrown out” (Lev. iv, 12) and burned there (verse 24; Yoma vi, 7), Clothed in his ordinary robes, the high priest offered another goat for a sin-offering (Num. xxix. 11), and two rams for a burnt offering, one of which was contributed by himself (verse 24). The altar portions of the bullock and goat were now hurned on the altar (verse 25; Yoma /.c.; see Berti- noro), and the daily evening sacrifice was offered (Num, xxix. 11; Ex, xxix. 41). Once more the linen garments were put on, for the high priest again re- paired to the Holy of Holies in order to remove thence the censer; the sacred vestments were then deposited in the sanctuary. In his ordinary robes, the high priest closed the service with the evening rite of lighting the lamps, which was accompanied by an offering of incense (Ex, xxx. 8; Yoma vil, 4). In the Mishuah the ceremonial is further enriched by clements having no Scriptural basis. Thus, be- fore removing his linen garments for the first time, the high priest rcad to the people portions from the Pentateuch relating tothe Day of Atonement (Yoma vii. 1). The Mishnah reproduces the exact wording of the three confessions (ili. 8, iv. 2, vi. 2); it states also that as often as the high priest Talmudical uttered the divine name (TETRAGRAM- Amplifi- that were originally peculiar to New-Year were transferred to the Day of Atonement. '- lief that on the first day of the year the des. all human beings was fixed was also that of .- syrians, Marduk is said to come at the beg. of the year (“rish shatti”) and decide the : one’s life (Schrader, “K. B.” iii., second div seq.). The Day of Atonement survived tlie cessé: the sacrificial cult (in the year 70). “Though - rifices be offered, the day in it. Rabbinic fects atonement” (Sifra, Emot Aspects of Yet both Sifra and the Mishna . Atone- that the day avails nothing — ment. repentance be coupled with it. viii. 8). Repentance was the’ pensable condition for all the various means 01, ment. Repentance must ting uestionabey acca. a guilt- or sin-offcring (Lev.v. 5; Maimonides, * . Teshubah, i. 1). Penitent conteseioil Was a Te., 186 ‘d *ARKUY N¥RKURH AHL NI SYRIGIOS HSLMAL AHL AG CHANASAO SV ‘YY “ZIG AHOdTY LNANANOLY dO AVG ae SE We SEE e, " whe tm ¢ Atonement, Day of THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 288 Attar, Ibn Se gt a ag Ee Oe ee ey ee, Mae Seats ny a phe reas for expiation through capital or corporal punishment | hatred, ill-fecling, and all ignoble thoughts, seeks " (Sanh, vi. 2; Maimonides, 7.) * The Day of Atone- | be occupied exclusively with things spiritual. Hoy, ment absolves from sins against God, but not from ; ever rigorously the rabbinical law may insist on the sins against a fellow-man unless the pardon of the © outward manifestation of contrition, the corrective offended person be secured” (Yoma viii. 9). Hence | is provided for in the lessons from the Prophets (Isa the custom of terminating on the eve of the fast- — Iviii.; Jonah; sce Ta‘anit ii. 1), which teach that the dav all feuds and disputes (Yoma 87; Maimonides, | true fast-day in which God delights is a spirit of de. wii. 9etveg.). Even the souls of the dead are included | votion, kindliness, and penitence. The serious Char. in the community of those pardoned on the Day of | acter impressed upon the day from the time of its Atonenient. It is customary for children to have | institution has been preserved to the present day public mention made in the synagogue of their de- ; No matter how much else has fallen into desuetude parted parents, aud to make charitable gifts on be- | sostrong is its hold upon the Jewish conscience thet half of their souls Shulhan ‘Aruk, Orah Hayyim, | no Jew, unless he have cut himself entirely loose 621. 6). But no amount of charity will avail the = from the synagogue, will fail to observe the Day of soul of a wicked man (Ture Zahab to Shulhan ‘Aruk, » Atonement by resting from his daily pursuits and Yoreh De‘ah, 249, note 5). ‘attending service in the synagogue. With a few JEWS CONFESSING THEIR SINS IN THE PRAYER “ ASHAMNE ” IN A NEW YORK (EaST SIDE) SYNAGOGUE. (From a photograph by Mandelkern.) The service in the synagogue opens in thecvening { exceptions, the service even of the Reformed syna- with the Kot Nipre. The devotions during the | gogue is continuous through the day. day are continuous from morning until | ——Critical View: The Pentateuchal references to The evening. Much prominence is given | the Day of Atonement cited in the preceding belong Liturgy. to the liturgical pieces in which the | to the Priestly Code, but by no means to oneand the Temple ceremonial is recounted (ABo- | same stratum. Lev. xvi., which is entirely devoted DAH service; Zunz, “ Literaturgesch.” pp. 27 e¢ seg., | tothe subject of the fast-day, isapparently composite 64 e¢ seg.). Tbn Gabirol’s miapy an3 (“Crown of | in origin, as is shown by the incongruity at the be- Royalty ”) skilfully deals with the problem of sin: it | ginning: “ Aaron shall not enter the Holy of Holies is appended to the Sephardic liturgy for the evening at all times” (verse 2); he may, how- service, and is also read by the more devout in the | Analysis of ever, it may beinferred, goin at stated Ashkenazic Synagogues. In the center of the older Sources. intervals. But the immediate sequel iiturgy 1s the confession of sins. “For we are not so (verses 8 e¢ seg.) rather says: Withsuch bold of face and stiff-necked as to say to Thee, We | and such ceremonies Aaron may go in; only toward are righteous and have not sinned; but, of a truth, | the end (verses 29-84) reference is made to the annual we are sinners. . . . May it be Thy will that I sin | celebration of a Day of Atonement. The rabbinical no more; be pleased to purge away my past sins, ac- | interpretation is obviously harmonistic (see Rashi ou cording to Thy great mercy, only not through severe | verses 2 ef seq.); yet there are dissenting voices (see chastisements.” The traditional melodies with their | Lev. R., § 21; Ex. R., § 38) which maintain that, plaintive tones endeavor to give expression alike to | while entering the Holy of Holies is obligatory on the individual’s awe before the uncertainties of fate | the Day of Atonement, the high priest may go in at and to a people’s moan for itsdeparted glories. On | all times provided he carry out the ceremonies pre- the Day of Atonement the pious Jew becomes for- | scribed. Observe also the repetitions in verses 6and getfu) of the flesh and its wants, and, banishing | 11a; hence the duplicated confession in the Mishnah, ‘ "TS ‘end At 989 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA mttae Ten Day of 6 a eg ee ag a eg ee yerses 29a aud 84a. According to the analysis of _ it assumed in the times subsequent to Ezra, Scealso penzinger (in Stade’s “ Zeitschrift,” 1889, pp. 65-89), | Lirtrey, Sry. the chapter is made up of three dis- BIRLIOGRaPY: :_Yoma: Mishnah, Talmud, and Asheri; Mai- lysis of tinct strata: (1) verses 1-4, 6, 12, 18, 84d mionides, 29°) OMNIS, Ney Nae, and Wawes; Pur and Shul- Anaty ‘ ee : , 6, 12, 18, 34 han‘ Aruk.Orah Hayyim, §3 602-624; Nowack, Hebr. Archi- Lev. xvi. (omitting several glosses), dealing with | — ologie, 804, ii. 183-194 : Driver, Leviticus, English transla- the manner (no matter what the occa- tion and notes, in S. B. O. T.; Jastrow, in American Journai ; peer ate ( : : ee ao | Of Theology, 1898, i. 312 et seq.; B. Wechsler, Zur Geschichte sion) Of Aaron’s entering the Holy of Holies; (2) | der Versthnungsfeier, in Geiger’s Jiid. Zeit, 1863, pp. Ls- 125; S. Adler, in Stade’s Zeitschrift, ii. 178 et seq., 202. yerses 29b-34a, a law very much like that of Lev. xxiii. 26 e¢ seg., prescribing the annual observance | °° 7%: M. TL. M. of a day of fasting and rest, on which the sanctuary | ATTAH HORE’TA (nnn ANN) (Deut. iv. 35): and the people are to be purified, presumably by such | The first of a series of versicles, seventeen in num- simple rites of atonement as those carried out on the _ ber, chanted on the Rejoicing of the Law in the occasion of the dedication of the tabernacle (Lev. ix.; | Northern ritual, before the scrolls are taken from the the Day of Atonement is thus an annual occasion of | Ark for the “hakkafot” or processional circuits. rededication); (8) verses 5, 7-10, 14-28, of later date | The chant resemblesa Gregorian psalm-tone in struc- than (2), ordaining a more elaborate ceremonial. | ture, and falls in the first ecclesiastical mode (D to With (8) goes Ex. xxx. 10. Lev. xxv. 9bis probably | Don the natural notes), But the intonation, media- a gloss (the surrounding text mainly belongs to H). | tion, and ending of the Hebrew chant diverge from No mention is made of the Day of Atonement in the | the rales of the plain-song, and show that it is sim- older codes, J, E, and D (Ex, xxiii. 14-17; xxiv. 18, ply another utilization of that antique and peculiarly 99 et seg.; Deut, xvi. 1-17). Oriental cadence around the fifth degree of the minor ATTAH HORE’TA At - tah hore’tala - da - ‘at Ki Adonai hu ha-elo-him, en ‘od mil -]’ba ~ do. scale which is closely associated with the Feast of Tabernacles; and it appears also in the melody sung by the cantor while waving the palm-branch (LVLaB) during the Haren on the first days (see Music, SynaGoGAL), and in the melody for the Rain-Praycr (GEsHEM) introducing the Musar of the eighth day (SHEMINI ‘AZERET). By some Polish cantors this characteristic cadence is further frecly employed in the services of the Days of Penitencce. A. | ae PaO The beginuings of the institution may in the crit- wcal view be sought forin Ezekicl. In addition to the festivals of Passover and Tabernacles, History of the prophet ordains two days in the the In- year on which the sanctuary may be stitution. cleansed, by the sprinkling of a bul- lock’s blood, from all impurities occa- sioned through inadvertence: the first day of the first month, and the first day of the seventh (so read with LXX: Ezek. xlv. 18-20); that is, with the be- ginning of both the civil (in the spring) and the ec- clesiastical year (inautumn), Itappears (from Lev. xxv, 9; Ezek. xl. 1) that the new-year was then made to begin with the tenth day of the month. In the Pentateuchal legislation the second alone of Eze- kiel’s Days of Atonement is kept; it is at tle same time transferred to the tenth day of the month, while the first day is made into New-Year’s Day, the two days changing places. From the simple rites pre- scribed by the prophet of the Exile to the elaborate ceremonial of the latest strata in P, there is, how- ever, a lengthy process. Stated days of fasting, mentioned for the first time by Zechariah (vii. 1-5), clearly refer to the anniversaries of national calami- ties (the murder of Gedaliah took place in the seventh month; Jer. xli.1). Noother regular day of fasting was known tothe prophet; otherwise he would have mentioned it when he reiterated the indifference of the old prophets to outward ceremonial. Even when Ezra comes to Palestine in the year 444, a day of fasting is observed, not on the tenth but on the twenty-fourth of the seventh month, and by no means according to the ceremonial of Lev. xvi. (Neh. ix, 1), The law of Ezra may have contained the simpler prescription of Lev. xxiii. 26 e¢ seq., and the corresponding stratum in chapter xvi.; the day was certainly not considered then of the importance that II.— 19 t | | ATTAI: 1. Sonof the Egyptian Jarha, towhom Sheshan the Jerahmeelite gave his daughter to wife (I Chron. ii. 35, 36). 2. A Gadite chieftain who joined the forces of David at Ziklag (I Chron. xii. 11). 8. A son of Rehoboam, and Maachah, the daugh- ter of Absalom (IT Chron. xi. 20). J. SR. G. B. hh. ATTAR, IBN: A family name among the Seph- ardic Jews. In Arabic the word “attar” means “apothecary” or “spice-dealer”; but it is found Hebraized, and applied in its original sense as an epithet, as carly as 1150 (Harkavy, “ Meassef Nidda- him,” p. 83; compare also Zunz, “Z. G.” p. 521: pryynerdn spy occurs in Neubauer, “Cat. Bodl. Hebr. MSS.” No. 2142, 32, “Raba Attare”). From thie fourteenth century (see No, 11, below) the prefix “ibn” is employed with “ Attar,” although “ Attar” alone coexists as the name of a possibly different family The Attars were especially numerous in northern Africa; and among the Sephardim in Amsterdam, Italy, and Palestine to-day the name is represented by such forms as “ Abenatar,” “ Abea- tar,” and “Benattar.” In Hebrew the name usually takes the form “by jax. also ANON'IN (Halber- stamm, “Cat. Hebr. Handschriften,” p. 80, line 2), Attar, Ibn Attestation ~ which latter is not a clerical crror, as Steinschneider thinks, but a form of the name borne by many indi- viduals, as is evident from the spelling “ Abeatar ” in De Castro’s epitaphs (see his “Keur van Graf- stcenen,” pp. 25, 26). The Amsterdam branch of the family has frequently intermarried with that of Melo, although the exact relationship of these fam- iiies is by no means clear. The connection of the various individual bearers of this name is also at times obscure, although the majority of them prob- ably belong to the same family. The following list enumerates twenty-two Attars distinguished in literature from the fourteenth to the eighteenth century: 1. Abraham Abenatar Melo: Student at the rabbinical academy Keter Shem-Tob, in Amsterdam, toward the end of the seventeenth century; proba- bly a nephew or a son of Emanuel Abenatar (Kay- serling, “Sephardim,” p. 175). 2. Abraham b. Jacob ibn Attar: Cabalist and Talmudist; flourished in Morocco in the begin- ning of the seventeenth century. He was the grand- father of Judah b. Jacob ibn Attar J. (Nacht, “ Mekor Hayyim,” p. 84). 38. Amram Meshullam b. Jacob Attar: Al- gerian payyetan. Luzzato (“Ozar Tob,” 1880, p. 64) calls him “Amar,” for which Steinschneider reads “ Attar,” in “Jew. Quart, Rev.” xi. 342. 4. David Abenatar: Lived in Amsterdam at the beginning of the seventeenth century (De Castro, ic. p. 24). (A David Benattar was rabbi in Tunis about the middle of the nineteenth century.—Cazes, “ Notes Bibliographiques,” p. 195.) 5. David Abenatar Melo. Sce MELO, Davip ABENATAR. 6. Hayyim ibn Artar: Moroccan rabbi, fa- mous for his learning, philanthropy, and piety. He flourished in Salé toward the end of the seventeenth century, but left that town, on the occasion of a rising against the Jews, and scttled in Miguenez, where a college was established for him by the learned and wealthy Moses b. Isaac de Avila, from which institution many learned rabbis were gradu- ated. One of his grandsons was Hayyim b. Moses ibn Attar (No. 7); compare Nacht, “Mekor Hay- yim,” pp. 2, 8. (A payyetan, Hayyim Abeatar, is mentioned in Halberstamm, J.c. p. 88, line 2.) G. L. G. 7. Hayyim ben Moses ibn Attar: Talmudist and cabalist; born at Mequenez, Morocco, in 1696; died at Jerusalem July 31, 1743. He was one of the most prominent rabbis in Morocco. In 1733, he de- termined to leave his native country and settle in Pal- estine. But he was detained in Leghorn by the rich members of the Jewish congregation there who estab- lished a Yeshibah for him, which was frequented by many pupils who later became prominent, and fur- nished him with funds to print his “ Or ha-Hay yim.” Iie was everywhere received with great honor, due to his wide learning, keen intellect, and unusual piety. In the middle of 1742 he arrived at Jerusa- lem, where he presided at the bet ha-midrash Kene- set Yisrael. One of his disciples there was Hayyim Joseph David AzuLat, who seems to have been com- pletely overwhelmed by the excellencies of his mas- ter. In a truly Oriental strain he wrote of him: THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 290} e $$ “ Attar’s heart pulsated with Talmud; he uprootea, mountains like a resistless torrent; his holiness et that of an angel of the Lord, . . . having severeg al connection with the affairs of this world,” nt He published: (1) “ Hefez Adonai” (God’s Desire’ j Amsterdam, 1782—dissertations on the four Tay’ mudic treatises Berakot, Shabbat, Horayot, and Hullin. (2) “Or ha-Hayyim” (The Light of Life) 4 Venice, 1742—a commentary on the Pentateuch after’ the four methods known collectively as Parpgs. seit was reprinted several times. His renown is baseq! chiefly on this work, which became popular algo’ with the Hasidim. (3) “ Peri Toar ” (Beautiful Fruit),® novell on the Shulhan ‘Arnk, Yoreh De‘ah, dealing® especially with Tiskiah de Silva’s commenta;yi! “Peri Hadash,” Amsterdam, 1742; Vienna and Ley! berg, 1810. (4) “Rishon le-Zion,” Constantinople 2 1750—consisting of novelle to several Talmudig- treatises, on certain portions of the Shulhan ‘Aruk % on the terminology of Maimonides, on the five Me. gillot, on the Prophets and on Proverbs. (5) Under the same title were published at Polna, 1804, hig! notes on Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Isaiah, etc. Seg KUTrowER, ABRAHAM GERSHON. yn BIBLIOGRAPHY : Michael, Or _ha-Hayyim, No. 894; Benjacob,¢ Ozar ha-Sefarim, p. 541; Luncz, in Jerusalem, i. 122 (epi, J taphs); Nacht, Mekor Hayyim, Hebrew biography of ‘Attar Drohobycz, 1898; Azulai, Shem ha-Gedolim; Franco, His.) toire des Israélites @ Orient. ie L. G. M. B. | 8. Isaac Attar: Talmudist of the eighteenty] century, mentioned by Abraham Ankava in hi¢ “Kerem Hemed,” Nos. 155, 167. 1 9. Jacob Abenatar: Member of the governing body of the Spanish-Portuguese congregation inc Amsterdam in the year 1749 (De Castro, le. p. 89)itl 10. Jacob b. Abraham ibn Attar: Earliesn known member of this family. He wrote a super 1 commentary upon Rashi to the Pentateuch, come pleting it in 1486. The manuscript is preserved ie the Leuwarden Library, Holland (see Neubauer, ism Roest’s “ Letterbode,” ii. 83). 1 11. Jacob ibn Attar: Died March 24, 1583el Saadia Longo composed a poetical epitaph on Jacobn which was published by Edelman in his “Dibmnti Hefez,” p. 14, and which described Jacob asa greaht scholar and influential man. He is perhaps identi2 cal with Jacob, the father of Abraham b. Jacob ibon Attar (Nacht, /.c. p. 34). it] 12. Joseph ibn Attar: Leader in the Jewism community of Lisbon shortly before the expulsiosil of the Jews from Portugal (Samuel b. Moses d ] Medina, Responsa, No. 371). L. G. ay 18. Judah ben Jacob [. ibn Attar: Rabbi ama author; lived at Fez in Morocco toward the em’ of the seventeenth and the beginning of the eightr eenth century. His name is found attesting aot pamphiet in the year 1700. He was chief rabbi ®e: Fez and enjoyed the reputation of a profound Tab mudist and saintly man. Popularly he was sum posed to have wielded miraculous powers; his biog. rapher, Azulai, narrates that, being thrown onC,, into a cage of lions, he remained there for twent)y, four hours and then left it unharmed. He er 1715 a work entitled “Minhat Yehudah” (J udah, Offering), containing Midrashic explanations to “4, rious passages in the Pentateuch, portions only 4,, 91 | THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Attar, Ibn Attestation Ae ee hich have been published by Judah Koriyvat iu 3 “Ma’or we-Shemesh,” 1888. BLIOGRAPHY: AzZulai, Shem ha-Gedolim, i. s.v., ii. s.v. Mv NNID; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. No. 5685: the same, febr. Bibl. xvi. 60; Nacht, Mekor Hayyim, pp. 34-40. M. K.—G., 14. Judah b. Jacob II: Equally renowned asa Jmudist and secular scholar; flourished, probably the end of the fourteenth century, in Spain. The eek Joseph Kilti (or Kelti) dedicated to him a jlosophical work, “ Minhat Yehudalh” (Zotenberg, ‘at. des Manuscrits Hebr. de la Bibliothéque Im- riale,” No. 707, 2). Carmoly (In Jost’s “ Annalen,” 39, p. 163) designates him as a Spanish exile, but thout reason, for Kilti, in his dedication, speaks him simply as “the Sephardi” (compare “ Litera- ‘blatt des Orients,” x. 708). 15. Mordecai b. Reuben ibn Attar: Ar- iged with the printer Proops of Amsterdam to nt the “ Azharot” of Solomon ibn Gabirol and of ac b. Reuben; they were accordingly published 1721 (Steinschneider, “Jiidische Typographie,” 72). He is probably distinct from the Mordecai | Attar mentioned in the Responsa, “Mishpatim sharim,” of Raphael Birdugu, p. 102. \6. Moses b. Hayyim: Talmudist of Miguenez, mt 1700. Son of Hayvim (No. 6) and father of celebrated Talmudist and cabalist Hayyim (No. His daughter marricd Samuel b. Moses de Avila, 7. Moses b. Shem-Tob ibn Attar: Ta)mud- and philanthropist; died in Fez 1725. Moses. an of great wealth and learning, distinguished self by his philanthropy in founding schools for mw children, which he maintained. He was the 1er-in-law of Hayyim b. Moses ibn Attar and the of Shem-Tob, who was the brother of Hayyim. 8. Obed b. Judah ibn Attar: Flourished in seventeenth century; son of Judah (No. 18), wrote a preface to his father’s work, “Shir Mik- ,” and narrates many details of the latter's life. 9. Samuel ibn Attar: Published in 1605 the |-known little book, “ Hibbar Ma‘asiyot ” (Collec- | of Stories), He is erroneously considered the ior of the work “Zarzir Matnayyim” (Stein- 1eider, “Cat. Bodl.” col. 2408), QO. Shem-Tob ibn Attar: Talmudist, men- ed by Ankava, l.c. No. 2385. Perhaps identical 1 Shem-Tob ibn Attar, the brother of Hay- ibn Attar, equally renowned as Talmudist and anthropist. When he died (1700) the community vez sent a letter of condolence to his brother ‘yim, which is still existing in the Berlin Library cht, Zc. p. 8). 1. Solomon ibn Attar: Distinguished and aed Tunisian; lived at the end of the eighteenth ury. He is mentioned in Jacob Fetussi’s work, rit Ya‘akob,” Leghorn, 1800 (Cazes, i.c. p. 188). (OGRAPRY: Nacht, Mekor Hayyim, pp. 2, 34; Stein- neider, Introduction to the Arabic Literature of the es, in Jew. Quart. Rev. xi. 341-348, L. G. TIESTATION OF DOCUMENTS (Hati- i): The general rule of evidence is that a fact ye established only by the testimony of two wit- +. With the introduction of writing and the om of making written records of the transac- , the strictness of the rule requiring the actual - nesses. presence of the witnesses to deliver their testimony orally was relaxed, and a written instrument setting forth the fact and subscribed by two witnesses was considered evidence of equal validity. In Jewish law a written instrument by which a person bound himself to do or pay something was usually pre- pared by the witnesses or under their direction, and not by the person charged thereby; nor did the debtor or obligor, as a rule, sign the instrument. The distinction, therefore, between the attestation of witnesses in Jewish law and in modern Iaw lies in the fact that in the latter the subscribing witnesses attest the genuineness of the signature of the debtor, whereas in Jewish law they attest the fact that the transaction purported in the instrument to have oc- curred actually did occur. It is the substance of the instrument, and not the signature of the obligor, that is proved by the attestation of the subscribing wit- The formula of attestation varies. An ap- proved formula is the following: “We [the witnesses] have taken symbolic possession [‘* Kin- yan sudar ’’] from........... . the son of............ , according to all which is written and expressed above, with an article that may be used for taking symbolic possession, this...... day Ol esiias ; and all is fixed and established. OF oar te agit , the son of............ » & Witness. rhefinatenee att aid » the son of............ , a Witness.” An older formula reads simply: “* We have written and signed our names here on this [date] ° and all is fixed and established.” [Names of witnesses. ] Inasmuch as the testimony of the subscribing wit- nesses goes to the substance of the instrument, the formalities required are numerous; and great strict- ness is observed in enforcing them, although such strictness is relaxed in the cases of bills of divorce and bills of manumission of slaves. The witnesses must read the document word for word before they sign it. It is not sutticient if some one else reads it to them, though some authorities are of the opinion that it may be read to them by éco other persons. If the document is prepared ina lan- guage unknown to one of the witnesses, and has been translated for him, the document is valid (Shul- han ‘Aruk, Hoshen Mishpat, 45, 2). Mode of The witnesses must know both parties At- and their names, or have them properly testation. identified by others, for the obvious reason that in the absence of the sig- nature of the party bound, fraud in the preparation of the instrument would be more possible. In the case of a bill of sale or an instrument of indebted- ness, the later law somewhat relaxed the rule, and provided that the witnesses need know only the seller or the debtor, these being the persons to be bound respectively by these instruments (¢b. 49, 2). According to Maimonides, however, the strict rule requiring the witnesses to know both parties can not be relaxed (“ Yad,” Malweh, xxiv. 3). The wit- nesses must sign theirown names; and illiterate wit- nesses, unable to write, are incompetent; thus, even if some one have traced the signature for the wit- ness and the latter have written the letters over the tracing, it is invalid; although some authorities are of the opinion that in such cases the witness is con- sidered competent, especially so in cases of bills of divorce. | Attestation Attorney An attestation in the form “A. B. has authorized me to sign for him” is invalid, because of the gen- eral reason that the subscription of the witness is equivalent to testimony delivered in open court. and hence must be direct, and not hearsay. In some communities it became customary for public scribes to prepare all documents; in such eases the wit- nesses appeared before the scribe and, if illiterate, directed and authorized the scribe to sign for them. The formula in such cases was: “A. B. has author- ized me to sign this document for him”; and where such custom prevailed, such attestation was consid- ered valid (Shulhan ‘Aruk, Hoshen Mishpat, 45, 5). A peculiar rule of the Jewish law was that the signatures of the witnesses must be affixed at a dis- tance of less than two lines from the body of the in- strument. The history of this rule is interesting. The older Talmudic law, which had no special for- mula for documents whereby the end of the body of the document could be fixed beyond Connection the danger of any addition thereto with Body after the witnesses had subscribed, at- of Deed. tempted to prevent the addition of such matter by the rule quoted by Rab Amram, “The last line proves nothing” (B. B. 162a); meaning that if any matter of importance was brought into the last line of the document, it signi- fied nothing, because it was presumed that this last line had been interpolated, as the witnesses rarely signed their names so closely to the body of the doc- ument as not to leave a space wide enough for an interpolation. Another rule is cited in the name of Rabbi Jo- hanan: “Some of the substance of the document is repeated in the last line” (B. B. 1614). Thus, by summing up what had already appeared in the body of the Gocument, the last line becomes of no impor- tance whatever except as an indication of the end of the instrument. If, therefore, the signature of the witness is at a distance of a line or a little more than a line from the body of the instrument, no interpola- tion could take place. Butif the signatures are two lines distant, then interpolation could take place, be- cause in the first of these two lines some matter of importance could be added, and in the second the formula of repetition could be written. Hence the necessity for the rWe that, in order to prevent any interpolation of this sort, the witnesses must sign within the distance of two lines from the body of the instrument, or the instrument is absolutely void (Hoshen Mishpat, J.c. 6). The formula “ Everything is fixed and established ” (299) 7" S57) is univer- sally recognized as the end of the instrument, and, as anything appearing thereafter would be imme- diately recognized as an interpolation, the strictness of the above rule seems to be unnecessary; yet the rule was nevertheless not relaxed, upon the ground that that which is not done according to the ordi- nance of the sages is not valid (“ Be’er ha-Golah” on Hoshen Mishpat, é.c.). An instrument of indebtedness duly attested by two witnesses is in some respects equivalent in its effect to an instrument which has been made a mat- ter of public record at modern law. The debt thus secured becomes a lien on the property of the debtor; and the creditor may follow such property for the THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 292 Se gee ge a a eR far purpose of collecting his claim, even though the property has been transferred to third persons bona fide, because all persons are Presumeg Deeds of to take such property subject to the Indebted- lien of the debt, since the instrument ness. of indebtedness attested by two wit. nesses is deemed to be such pub}. cation of the debt as to be legal notice to a}} the world (B. B. x. 8). The rule of law providing that at least two wi. nesses must subscribe does not imply that the docy- ment has greater validity if more than two subscribe It is simply arule providing fora proper form of attestation; and two witnesses are sufficient. An jp_ strument attested by only one witness is equivalent to the oral testimony of one witness; and if the ob]j. gation is repudiated by the person bound by the ip- strument, he is obliged to take the oath of purgation (B. B. x. 1; Hoshen Mishpat, 51, 2). For although the instrument does not create a perfect obligation by reason of the fact that there is but one witness, jt nevertheless raises the presumption of indebtedness which the debtor is obliged to meet by taking the oath that he does not owe anything. If a duly signed instrument is delivered in the presence of two witnesses, even though they are not the signers of the document, the creditor may follow the property of the debtor (7d. 7%); al- though some authorities do not concede the same validity to the document that is delivered in the presence of two as to the one that is subscribed by two ("Beer Heteb” on Hoshen Mishpat, é.c.). If 4 document is signed by a number of witnesses, some of whom are incompetent, some authorities require evidence that the witnesses last subscribing are com- petent (2d, 45, 12, gloss); but the general rule seems to be that if there are among the signers two witnesses who are competent, the instrument is valid, no mat- ter in what order they have signed, unless it can be proved that all the signers have been simultaneously called to sign the document (2. text). If there are only two witnesses, and one of them is incompetent, the instrument is invalid, even if it has been deliv- ered in the presence of two qualified witnesses (Mai- monides, “ Yad,” ‘Edut, xiv. 6; see Shulhan ‘Aruk, Eben ha-‘Ezer, 130, 17). According to the Talmudic principle, where Jew- ish and non-Jewish laws differ, and the Jew is sub- rogated to the rights of the non-Jew, the case is de- cided according to the non-Jewish law; hence, if a non-Jew has sold an instrument of indebtedness toa Jew, it is the prevailing opinion of the jurists that the rights of the Jew are determined according to the non-Jewish law (Hoshen Mishpat, 66, 25). If such instrument of indebtedness is signed by the witnesses at a distance of more than two lines from the body of the instrument, this does not invalidate such instrument, if the same is valid according te non-Jewish law (2. 45, 17). As stated above, the strictness of the rules con- cerning attestation of instruments is somewhat re- laxed in the cases of bills of divorce and bills of man- umission of slaves, since these instruments were always construed liberally in favor of the slave to be freed from bondage or the woman to be freed from matrimony. Thesubscription of the witnesses 293 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Attestation Attorney ie Es ett oe Sait tee ac to the GET was ordained by Rabban Gamaliel as a | matter of public policy, in order to facilitate the proof of legal documents (Git. iv. 3); Bills but after this ordinance it was still for a of Divorce long time maintained by the authorities and Manu- that where there were no subscribing mission. witnesses, but the get had been prop- erly delivered to the wife in the presence of witnesses, it was valid, and could be proved by the witnesses of the delivery (7d. ix. 4). Although the general rule required that the witnesses should be personally acquainted with the parties, yet in cases where the exigencies of the situation made it impossible to follow the usual formalities, a pill of divorce was permitted to be delivered to the wife, even though the witnesses did not personally know the parties (Git. 66a). If the witnesses did not sign their full names, or omitted the words “a witness,” following their names, it was nevertheless presumed that they wrote their names with the in- tention of being witnesses to the document, and hence the attestation was deemed valid (2d. ix. 8). There was one exception to the general rule that two witnesses are sufficient toattest any instrument: this was a curious form of a bill of divorce known as “the folded get.” It was prepared in the fol- lowing manner: A line was written, the parchment was then folded and fastened, and a witness signed ov the back of the fold; then another line was writ- ten, and the parchment again folded and fastened, and this fold likewise attested by another witness; and as there were not less than three folds, there could not be less than three witnesses (B. B. x. 1, 2), because of the rule that the folded get must have as many Witnesses as it has folds; and if one fold was blank, the get was called “a bald get,” and was void (Git. viii. 9,10), This form, however, was no longer used in Talmudic times. Such instruments are declared absolutely void by the later law (Hoshen Mishpat, 42, 1, gloss). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Frankel, Der Gerichtliche Beweis, pp. 399 et seq.: Bloch, Die Civil-Process-Ordnung, pp. 58 et seq.; Klein, Das Gesetz ttber das Gerichtliche Beweisverfahren, pp. 17 et seg.; Amram, Jewish Law of Divorce, pp. 171 et seq. See also the articles DIVORCE, DEEDS, DOCUMENTS, EVIDENCE. J. SR. D. W. A. ATTIA, ISAAC B. ISAIAH: Talmudic schol- ar; lived in Aleppo in the nineteenth century. He was the author of the following works, published in Leghorn, 1821-31: (1) “Eshet Hayil” (A Virtuous Woinan), explaining Prov. xxxi.; (2) “ Wayikra Yizhak” (And Isaac Called), annotations on the Pentateuch, divided into three parts, the last two of which are entitled “ Doresh Tob” (He Who Preaches Well) and “‘Ekeb ‘Anawah” (For Modesty’s Sake): (3) “ Mesharet Mosheh ” (The Servant of Moses), con- taining novelle on Maimonides’ Yad ha-Hazakah and its commentaries; (4) “ Rob Dagan ” (Abundance of Corn), with an appendix, “ Ot leTobah” (A Sign of Good), on different halakic subjects, divided into two parts and arranged in alphabetical order ; (5) “ Tannia we-Shayar” (He Taught and Left Unexplained), and (6) * Pene ha-Mayim” (The Surface of the Water) ; two volumes of annotations on the Pentateuch. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zedner, Cat. Hebr. Books Brit. Mus. p. 62; Bibliotheca Hrieuinndiand, p. 126. L. G. T. Br. etiieas= Sg, Stes ATTORNEY: A icgal representative, empow- cred to plead on behalf of the person represented. Attorneys at law are unknown in Jewish law. The cxXamination and cross-examination of the witnesses were conducted by the judges; and in criminal cases the law imposed upon the judges the duty of care- fully guarding the prisoner’s rights. Attorneys in fact were permitted to appear for their principals and conduct litigation, subject to certain restrictions. Attorney for Plaintiff: The Talmudic law on the subject is found in the treatise Baba Kamma (70a). According to this passage, an Attorney was author- ized to represent his principal only for the purpose of receiving property from a bailee or trustee, when there was no dispute concerning its ownership. If there was a contest as to the title to the property, the Talmudic law did not authorize an Attorney to appear. At the law academy in Nehardea it was taught that an Attorney could appear only for the purpose of taking possession of real estate, but not to re- cover movable property. The Geonim, however, nodified this Talmudic principle, and permitted at- torneys to appear in contested cases also. Rabbi Hananeel of Kairwan, who lived during the elev- enth century, reports that in his time it was lawful to appoint attorneys in all cases, whether the con- troversy Was concerning movable or immovable property, and whether there was a contest or not (Tosafot, B. K. 70a, rondo); and this opinion was generally accepted in the later law (Shulhan ‘Aruk, Hoshen Mishpat, 128, 1). The power of Attorney had to be in writing, and to contain the words “ proceed, litigate, acquire, and possess for thyself and compel the adversary to give up what is due,” or words to that effect; and if such words were not used, the defendant was not obliged to answer the Attorney, and could plead in bar of the Attorney's right (B. K. ¢.¢.; Maimonides, “ Yad,” Sheluhin, iii. 1; Hoshen Mishpat, 122, 4). It was at first thought that the relation of Attorney and client was like that of partners, and that the At- torney could retain one-half of what he collected; but the final decision was that their Relation of relation is like that of principal and Attorney Agent, and that the Attorney was and obliged to account to his principal for Client. all that he had done or received (B. K. U.e.). The principal was obliged to pay all the expenses of the Attorney and to in- demnify him for all outlays; and all powers of At- torney were customarily drawn with a provision to that effect (Hoshen Mishpat, 122, 6). Any person could act as Attorney for another. Even women and slaves could be empowered. The principal’s own slaves, however, were Persons not permitted to represent him (2d. Qualified to 123, 18); and, subject to certain regu- Act. lations, even non-Jews were author- ized to act as attorneys for Jewish claimants (¢. 14). Unless specially authorized to do so, the Attorney could not appoint another Attorney in his place; and the principal could revoke the power of Attorney at his will (¢@. 123, 4; 128, 8). In case the principal appointed another Attorney, Attorney Attributes THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 294 ————— SS Pp ne ee gS FO Ge nee gee this was an implied revocation of the power granted to the first one, unless the second appointment was simply intended as a precautionary measure whereby the second Attorney was substituted only in case the first could not act (2d.). If the subject of contention was a debt, the death of the principal revoked the power of Attorney ; but if it was real estate, or if the Attorney had been given authority through the ceremony of symbolica) seizure (KinyaAn), the death of the principal was not a revocation of the power (vd. 1). A husband could act as Attorney for his wife with- out any special power given to him, in controversies concerning those portions of his wife’s property in which he had usufructuary rights; but he had no such implied power in matters concerning those por- tions of her estate the fruits of which she enjoyed (Git. 485; Hoshen Mishpat, Z.¢. 8). Members of a partnership or heirs of an estate of which no partition had been made could appear as attorneys for their copartners or coheirs without any special power given to them, because, their interest being joint, each is authorized to act for the oth- ers. If, however, one of the coheirs or copartners was absent in another city, and unable therefore to intervene personally in the case, if he so chose to do, he was not bound by the action of his coheir or copartner; and it was a rule, therefore, that in cases where a coheir or copartner appeared to represent the estate, the defendant might demand a produc- tion of the power of Attorney from absent parties interested (Ket. 94a; Maimonides, “ Yad,” Shelu- hin, iii. 3; Hoshen Mishpat, /.c. 9). Attorney for Defendant: The defendant was not entitled to be represented at court by an Attor- _ ney (Hoshen Mishpat, 124, 1). The only case, it appears, known to the Talmudists, in which it was assumed that an Attorney (abe, évrodevtc) might eventually be permitted to appear for the defendant, was one in which the high priest was sued (Yer. Sanh. ii, beginning 19d), The principal reason for compelling the defendant to appear in person seems to have been the feeling that if he were obliged to face the plaintiff in open court, there would be a slighter probability of false plea or concealment of the truth on his part (Hoshen Mishpat, U.c.; Beer ha-Golah, 2d.). Women of standing and scholars were respected to this extent, that they were permitted to make their statements in their own homes in the presence of the plaintiff; and the record of their statements was taken by the official recorder and presented to the court (Asheri Sheb. iv. 2; Hoshen Mishpat, Z.c.). See AGENCY, and ATTORNEY, POWER OF, J. SR. D. W. A. ATTORNEY, POWER OF (Harshaah): .\n instrument empowering an agent to act on behalf of a principal. The following formula of a Power of Attorney is taken from “Nahalat Shib‘ah,” chap. xliv.: ** A memorial of testimony taken before us witnesses whose names are subscribed below. On the...... day of the month Ofesiccs , in the year......of the creation, there came before us A, the son of B, and he said unto us, “Be ye witnesses and ac- quire from me by symbolic seizure [** kinyan ’’} and sign this and give it into the hands of C, the son of D, that it may be unto him for a testimony and as proof that I do this voluntarily ang of my own free will. I have given to the said C, the son of D, four ells of ground, and through them and through the aforesaiq symbolic seizure, I empower and authorize the said C, the son of D, to be my attorney and representative [** murshah ”—empow ered, and “entelar’’=évroAevs, mandatory], that he may have power and authority to demand and collect the amount whieh E the son of F, owes me on a certain instrument of indebtedness which I have transferred to him [my attorney]; “and now ac. quire it for thyself and all rights under it; and thy hand shal] be as my hand; and thy mouth as my mouth; and thy act as my act; and thy release as my release; and everything that thou shalt do concerning the aforesaid debt shall be done ag though I had done it myself *’’; and thus the aforesaid A, son of B, said to the aforesaid C, son of D, *Go litigate and acquire and lay out whatever is necessary for thy expense, and what. ever shall be decided for thee in court I shall accept whether ip my favor or against me, nor shall J have the right to say to thee I have sent thee to benefit me, and not to harm my cause’. and he shall also have power and authority to summon the debtor to court or to compromise with him or toextend the time of pay. ment and to give acquittance. To all the above, the said A, son of B, bound himself by symbolic seizure and by the four eljs of ground as aforesaid, and by a hand-clasp, and by an audible statement, and by a lawful oath, and under the sanction of the heavy ban to approve and ratify everything that the attorney may do. This letter of attorney shall not be invalidated nor shall its power be minimized by anything wrongful or detri- mental forever; but it shall have permanent force and effect according to the effect of all letters of attorney that are custom- arily made among Israelites, according to the regulation of our sages of blessed memory, not as a mere ‘asmakta’ nor as a mere form. And we have taken symbolic possession from A, son of B, on behalf of C, son of D, according to everything that is written and expressed above by an object through which symbolic pos. session may lawfully be taken; and all is firmly fixed and estab- lished.’ (Signed by two witnesses.) The Power of Attorney is, like most documents in Jewish law, prepared and signed by the witnesses and not by the parties. By the ceremony of sym- bolic seizure and by the conveyance of four ells of ground to the attorney, the latter became invested with all the powers specifically defined in the instru- ment. The foregoing formula contains all the necessary and formal words required by the law. It enables the attorney to expend money on belialf of his prin- cipal in the prosecution of his claim, and whether well or ill spent, he is entitled to be repaid; and it furthermore authorizes the attorney to bring suit, to compromise, to grant an extension of time of pay- ment, and to give a receipt or acquittance to the debtor. For further explanation of the terms and phrases used In this rormula, see articles SHETAR, ASMAKTA, ATTORNEY, DEED. I, SR, D. W. A. ATTRIBUTES: The fundamental and perma- nent properties of substance, so-called by logicians in contradistinetion to accidents, which are modi- fications representing circumstantial properties only. Aristotle makes the distinction between “ fundamen- tal being” (7a év 77 ovoia év7a) and its fundamental properties (74 ovpzBeByxdra; “Metaphysics,” iv. 30, 1025a, 30; and “De Animalium Partibus,” i. 3, 6484. 27). Similarly the Arabian-Jewish philosophers dis- criminate between “Nin, “attribute,” and mM 1pP, “accident”; and the typical defenders of the Attri- butes, the Sifatiya, are called by these philosophers DANN by, “accepters of attributes.” The theory of Attributes was always an important problem of scholasticism, because of its intimate connection with the Christian doctrine of the Trinity. It came te th Pimms i ‘ } d 4 ENR eo tanta ihn mab DenS anata ORaern aneemeRb ee edy Romi, 82. Lota 295 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Attorney Attributes aa a a aD jntoO prominence with Saadia’s work, “ Emunot we- Peot” (ii. 5, 53), in which the doctrine of Attributes isemployed directly against the dogina of the Trinity. Saadia, who denies the positive attributes of God, with the exception of existence, unity, power, and wisdom, places the following alternative before Chris- tian Trinitarianism: “God is either corporeal or in- corporeal. If He be considered corporeal, positive attributes would indeed be possible, but then the jdea of God would be open to the grossest anthropo- morphism of the ignorant masses. If, on the other hand, God be considered incorporeal, He can possess no attributes (positive properties), for with the pos- session of attributes differences in God must be ad- mitted, and differences can be predicated of that alone which is corporeal, not of that which is incor- oreal.” From this comparatively clear statement of the problem of Attributes it is apparent that it touches the very core of scholasticism. It is inter- esting, therefore, to inquire what attitude is assumed toward it by Judaism, with its fundamental and con- stant insistence on the unity of God, who possesses manifold spheres of work; with its many-sided forms of revelation; with its all-wise, all-good, all- powerful, all-animating God. Antithetically ex- pressed, what is the relation of unity to multiplicity ? Logically formulated, what is the relation of the jndividual to its species, of the species to its genus? Sociologically stated, what is the relation of human personality to the community, and of the commu- nity, on its part, to the state? It is evident from the preceding that the question of the Attributes of substance—be this substance God, Nature, Atom, Monad (év xat wav), Idea, Will, the Unknowable—concerns the very highest prob- lems of human intellect; the question being inti- mately entwined with the fundamental problems, not only of scholastic, but of all philosophy, with the problem, indeed, of universals. It is therefore not surprising that in the Arabian-Jewish philoso- phy there should be a division between the defend- ers and the opponents of the doctrine of Attributes; or that within the field of attribute-conception the most minutiose attempts at adjustment are evolved, as was so ably shown in the pioneer literary produc- tion of David Kaufmann, “ Attributenlehre in der Jiidischen Religionsphilosophie,” Gotha, 1877. Though the problem of Attributes merited the most earnest consideration of the loftiest minds, the treatment it actually received was barren and unsatisfactory in the extrenie. How great was the need for a scholarly consideration of the problem of Attributes is shown by the fact that as late as the seventeenth century much of the thought of a Des- cartes, a Locke, and a Spinoza was devoted to if, and that even in the nineteenth century there could occur such a vigorous discussion concerning the proper interpretation of Attributes as that which took place between J. E. Erdmann and Kuno Fischer. Descartes (in his “ Principia Philosophie.” i. 58, 1644) had drawn the distinction between “ attri- butum ” and “modus”; but Spinoza was the first to set the doctrine of Attributes in the very center of a system. “By attribute [ understand whatever the mind conceives as constituting the essence of substance” (“Ethics,” i., def. 4). God therefore is conceived as containing infinite Attributes, cach one of which expresses His eternal essence (26. prop. xi.). Of all of the divine Attributes, however, the human mind conceives but two, thought and exten- sion (“ Ethics,” ii., prop. 1 and 2), While Erdmann explained these Attributes of Spinoza as being merely the modes of cognition in the mind consider- ing them, Fischer maintained that they were real and separate forms of the substance’s existence. This modern example will serve to show that spec- ulative metaphysics still has its attribute-problem. Indeed, even the natural sciences of to-day have, on their metaphysical side, attributive implications. Witness, for example, Hackel’s naturalistic monism (see Ludwig Stein, in “Archiv fiir Geschichte der Philosophie,” ii, 319, 1898; ¢dem, “Sociale Fragen im Lichte der Philosophie,” p. 516, 1897; idem, “ An der Wende des Jahrhunderts,” p. 894, 1899). The historical continuity of philosophy is evidenced by the fact that old problems are continually being re- vived and modified through the influence of new ideas. Each succeeding age presents for its own con- sideration the problem of Attributes—though clad in its own scientific phraseology. With scholasticism the problem of Attributes was a theological one; with Spinoza it was a mathematical one (the relation of the One to the Many); with Hiickel it is a biolog- ical problem (the relation of the Organic to the Inor- ganic). Hiickel’s monistic conception of the uni- verse (calling it “the conception of coming ages”) is in substance that the forms of organic, as well as those of inorganic, matter are the necessary products of natural forces, It is readily seen, however, that his “natural forces” of the underlying substance are in truth just as attributive as any of the fundamental qualities of a Spinoza or of any section of scholas- ticism. Certain basic problems of metaphysics recur at, intervals throughout the ages, clothed always in the scientific dress of the period, and receive more or less adequate formulation according to some one or the other of the dominant scientific tendencies of the day. K, L. S. It is difficult to determine whether it was thie in- fluence of the Motazilites or the desire to convince his Karaite adversaries of the danger of always ta- king Biblical words literally, that actuated Saadia in raising the question of the divine Attributes. He was, however, the first among Jewish writers to do so; and the question having been propounded, it was thereafter considered by all the philosophers, each making an effort at its solution according to his respective school. Saadia, like the Motazilites, denies all Attributes save those of existence, unity, power, and wisdom, inasmuch as these four, expressing as they do the very essence of God, involve neither multiplicity nor variety in Him; and furthermore because each of these four essential Attributes being necessitated by, or imply- ing, the other, they can be reduced to one attribute. No other divine attribute found in the Bible can be taken literally without surrender to coarse anthro- pomorphism (“ Kitab al-Imanat Wal-I‘tikadat,” ed. Saadia. Attributes Auer, Leopold THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 296 SO -__ OoaowVmnanmnawnv'1”10_0.—._'_'.' m _ __-CL_L__ [| Landauer, pp. 80-90). But Saadia, in admitting these four Attributes, did not foresee the objection of Maimonides, that these Attributes either add to the essence of God—and in that case they ascribe to Him accidents, which ascription is inadmissible—or are useless repetitions. Indeed these Attributes are in such predicament that if the question be asked, “Whatis God?” it should be answered, * God is God ” (compare “Moreh,” i. 52). This objection did not escape Bahya, whose theory of Attributes is accord- ingly more precise. The author of “ Duties of the Heart” divides Attributes into two classes, those that indicate God’s es- sence (“ dhatiyat ”) and those that ex- press His actions (“fa’iliyat”). The essential Attri- butes are those of existence, unity, and eternity, which, being every one of them necessitated by the others, are in fact but one. However, in describing God by these Attributes, it must be borne in mind that they do not present Him as an existing, eternal, and unique being, inasmuch as the sense generally attached to these expressions can not be applied to God, who is beyond our conception; they simply negative the possibility of His having the opposite Attributes (“ Duties of the Heart,” x.). With Judah ha-Levi the question changes. While Saadia admits without reserve four essential Attri- butes, and while Bahya does not object to three, provided they be taken negatively, and while both refuse to admit any other Attributes than these, Judah ha-Levi sees no harm in Attributes other than essential, provided they be used negatively. Ac- cordingly he divides all Attributes found in the Bible into three classes, namely: into active (“taziri- yah”), such as rich-making (wy) = he maketh rich), poor-making (wn) = he maketh poor), etc. ; into relative (“idafiyat”), such as blessed (4193), merciful (O14), etc. ; and into negative (“ salbiyah ”), which comprise all essential Attributes, inasmuch as all essential Attributes must be taken negatively. The names of God found in the Bible are all, except the Tetragrammaton, Attributes belonging to one or another of the three classes mentioned (“Cuzari,” pp. 73 et seg., ed. Hirschfeld). Abraham ibn Daud, like Judah ha-Levi, admits all relative Attributes. As for the essential ones, there are eight by which God can be described, for the simple investigation of their mutual relations shows that they have not the same significations as are gen- erally attached to them. These eight are unity, ex- istence, immutability, truth, life, knowledge, power, and will (“Emunah Ramah,” pp. 54 ef seq.). Maimonides, on this question, adopts the theory of Aristotle. He divides the positive Attributes into four classes: (1) Those that include all the essential properties of an object. Such Attri- butes, however, can not be applied to God, because,as all philosophers agree, God can not be defined—definition being established only by giving the genus and the specific differentia. (2) Those that include only a part of the essential properties. Neither can these Attributes be applied to God, who, being incorporeal, has no parts. (8) Those that indicate a quality. These latter also are inapplicable to God, who, hav- Bahya. Judah ha-Levi. Maimon- ides. ing no soul, is not subjected to psychical affections that indicate the relation of one object to another (4) Those that express actions or effects. At firgs sight the two Jast-mentioned Attributes can be ap- plied to God, because, having no connection with Hig essence, they do not imply any multiplicity or varj. ety in Him; but on closer examination it will be seen that even these present many difficulties. There jg only one kind of Attributes by which God can pe described, and those are negative Attributes, Spinoza follows Maimonides to a certain degree, Like him he says that the essential Attributes o¢ powcr and will do not exist in reference to God; for He can not have power or will as regards Himself (compare “Cogitata Metaphysica,” part it., ch. viii. § 2). He agrees with him likewise in declaring that God’s essence is not complex but simple (7. v., vi.), But while Maimonides concludes from this concep- tion that all positive Attributes must be banished from God, Spinoza makes a distinction between proprieties and Attributes, and maintains that God is conceived by an infinite variety of Attributes, every one of which expresses His eternal essence (“ Ethics,” part i., prop. X.). BIBLIOGRAPHY: D. Kaufmann, Attributenlehre in der Ju- dischen Religionsphilosophie. K. I. Br. AUB, HIRSCH: Rabbi and Talmudist; born, 1796, in Baiersdorf, a small town near Erlangen, the birthplace of a number of prominent Jews: died at Munich, 1876. He studied in Prague and became known as a Talmudist. In 1827 he was elected chief rabbi of Munich, which position he filled for forty-nine years. His congregation was composed both of Orthodox and of Reform Jews, but he held its various elements together by his love of peace, gaining through this strongly marked trait the name of “ba’al sholom” (peacemaker). In 1848 he was one of the principal workers for the emancipa- tion of the Jews and the abolition of the law under which only a limited number of married Jews were allowed to live in each town. Aub was held in high esteem and favor by three kings of Bavaria, Ludwig I., Maximilian, and Ludwig II. The last- named decorated him, on his seventieth birthday, with the Cross of St. Michael. AUB, JOSEPH: Oculist; born in 1846; died May 138, 1888, at Cincinnati, O. He attended the Talmud Yelodim Institute and the public schools, and later entered the Ohio Medical College, from which institution he was graduated in 1866. He then went to Erlangen, Bavaria, where he received the degree of M.D. After serving for a short time in the Austro-Prussian war, he studied at Paris and Berlin under the eminent oculists Liebreich and Albrecht von Grife, and then became assistant to Dr. Knapp in Vienna. On the latter’s removal to New York, Aub settled permanently in Cincinnati, where his remarkable success as an operator soon insured him a large practise. Aub was one of the first to use the electromagnet for removing foreign bodies from the eye. He was oculist to the Cincin- nati Hospital, and for five years professor of opb- thalmology at the Cincinnati College of Medicine 297 and Surgery. He was a frequent contributor on this subject to medical periodicals. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jewish Chronicle, June 1, 1888, p. 7. oe B. B. AUB, JOSEPH: German rabbi; cousin of Hirsch Aub; born at Beiersdorf, in Bavaria, 1805 ; died May 22, 1880. He held various rabbinical posts for fifty years, first in Baireuth (1880-50), then in Ma- yence (1850-65), and, finally, in Berlin from 1865 until his death. Joseph Aub was distinguished as one of the first Bavarian rabbis who delivered their sermons in German and published them later in pamphlet form. He was a partizan of the Reform movement, but without losing the historic ground of Judaism. He founded a weekly entitled “Sinai” in 1846, but this independent organ met with mediocre success only. Among his writings on theological questions may be mentioned: “Betrachtungen und Widerle- evungen,” in two parts, 1839; “ Biblisches Sprachbuch fiir den Vorbereitenden Unterricht in der Mosaischen Religion,” 1868; “Grundlage zu einem Wissen- schaftlichen Unterrichte iv der Mosaischen Religion.” Bia Denar Allgemeine Zeitung des Judenthums, 1880, p. 399. Ss A. S. C. AUB, LUDWIG: Author and poet; born Aug. 4, 1862, in Munich, Germany. He is a grandson of the rabbi Hirsch Aub, of Munich. When his father, Max Aub, a lawyer, was recalled to Munich from the little town of Uffenheim, Franconia, where he held an oftice under the government, Ludwig en- tered the gymnasiumn of his native city. From early boyhood he gave evidence of that all- absorbing love for books which afterward led him to seek employment with different firms of book- sellers in Vienna and Leipsic, until he himself be- cane a dealer in rare books. This occupation gave hitn a comprehensive knowledge of modern German literature and, at the same time, put him in touch with men calculated to stimulate his literary tastes. Unfortunately a serious affection of his eyes not only forced him to give up his business, but has seriously interfered with his literary career. Aub has occa- sionally championed Jewish interests against anti- Semitic attacks. His first attempt as author was with “ Abriss der Deutschen Literaturgeschichte,” Leipsic, 1888. The “ Miinchner G’stanz!'n,” a book of poems in the North-Bavarian clialect, which appeared in 1889, met with pronounced success. In the same year Aub, in collaboration with Thom, published a col- lection of aphorisms and epigrams under the title of *“Gnomen und Kobolde.” Aub is president of the Orion Literary Association tn Munich, which he founded, and is a regular con- tributor to German periodicals and newspapers. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Eckardt, Die Didaktische Literatur; Hin- richsen, Das Literariseche Deutschland (index); Briinner, Schriftstellerlexikon, s.v. g. A. 8. C. AUBRIOT, HUGUES: A provost of Paris, France; born at Dijon; died in Burgundy in 1382. He was in office at the accession of Charles VI. (1380), when the populace, irritated beyond endur- ance by the taxes levied upon them, demanded of the king that “Jews and usurers be expelled from THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Attributes Auer, Leopold Paris” (J. des Ursins, “Histoire de Charles VI.”). Without waiting for the king’s action, “some of the lower classes . . . ran about the city, . . . entered about forty of the Jewish houses, robbing them of plate, jewels, clothes, and bonds” (béd.). For four days the dwellings of the Jews were attacked and thus pillaged. The mob rushed upon the terrified Hebrews, cut their throats and tore from the arms of mothers infants whom they hurried to the churches so that they might be baptized (Halphen, “ Legislation Concernant les Israélites,” Introduction). Aubriot earnestly pleaded the cause of the Jews before the king, and through his influence succeeded in obtain- ing a royal decree, ordering the restoration of the children to their mothers and the restitution of all property taken from the Jews. , For thus championing the cause of the Jews, Au- briot incurred the hostility of the Church, which de- nounced him as being secretly a Jew, aud accused him of various crimes, including that of immorality with Jewesses (J. des Ursins, f.¢.; compare Sauval, “ Antiquités de Paris,” ii., book x.). Aubriot was finally compelled to do penance and was condenined to perpetual imprisonment on bread and water. He was confined in the Bastile, but about a year later (1882) was released by the mob, during the riots of the “ Mailotins.” Unfortunately for the Jews, the rioters, unrestrained in their fury (Félibien, “ His- toire de la Ville de Paris”), fell upon them, massa- cring great numbers, and pillaging their homes (“ Or- donnances des Rois de France,” vi.). Of the survivors of this massacre some fled, while others were baptized; the moneys and other valuable property being given to the Chapel of Vincennes (Léon Kahn, “Les Juifs 4 Paris,” p. 31). BIBLIOGRAPHY : Gratz, Geseh. der Juden, viii. 39; Bédarrides, Les Juifs en France, p. 248; Depping, Les Juifs dans le- Moyen Age, p. 184. a. S. K. AUVER, LEOPOLD: Hungarian violinist; son of a poor house-painter; born in Veszprim, Hun- gary, June 7, 1845. His musical talent manifested itself early. When only four years old he marched in front of the revolutionary troops, beating the drum, and exciting patriotic enthusiasm among the spectators. He received his first musical education from Ridley Kolene at the Conservatory at Buda- pest; then went to the Vienna Conservatory, where he studied under Dont (1857-58); and completed his studies with Joachim at Berlin. He was musical con- ductor at Diisseldorf from 1863 to 1865, and at Ham- burg from 1866 to 1868. On the invitation of the St. Petersburg Musical Society he succeeded Wieniaw- ski as professor of the violin at the conservatory there. Appointed soloist of the imperial theaters (1873), with the title “court-soloist to the Czar,” he conducted the concerts of the imperial court-singers (1880-81), and later Jed the concerts of the Russian Imperial Musical Society (1887-92). Auer still oc- cupies this last position (1902). From 1881 to 1888 he made a number of tours through Europe as a solo: violinist, and participated in the musical festivals at Carlsruhe (1885) and Diisseldorf (1888). His eminence as a talented musical instructor is attested by the many renowned violin-players that ‘have been among his more than forty pupils; of Auerbach Brae Auerbach, Benjamin THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 298 $e them Kolakovski, soloist of the Imperial Theater at Moscow ; Krasnokutski, Pusternakov, Galxin, Mly- narski, Korguyev, and Kriiger. tle last four soloists of the Imperial Musical Society of St. Petersburg, and many more celebrated artists of the imperial theaters of St. Petersburg. Some of his composi- tions, among them “Tarantelle de Concert” and “Rhapsodie Hongroise” for violin and piano, and transpositions for the violin, have been published by Bote and Back in Berlin, and by Fr. Kistner in Leipsic. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Entziklopedicheski Slovar, ii. St. Peters- burg, 1898; Ehrlich-Legge, Celebrated Violinists, 1897, s.v.; Riemann, Musiklexikon, 1900, s.v.; Baker, Biographical Dict. of Musicians, New York, 1900. s H. R. AUERBACH: A family of scholars, the progen- itor of which was Moses Auerbach, court Jew to the bishop of Regensburg, about 1497. One of his daughters, who went after her marriage to Cracow, is the reputed ancestress of the celebrated R. Moses Isserles (x17). Another branch of the family settled at Vienna. A near relative, Meshullam Solomon Fischhof- Auerbach, occupied such an eminent position in the community of Vienna that he married Miriam, the daughter of a well-known rabbi and physician Leo Lucerna (Judah Léb Ma’or-katon). She died July 29, 1654 (Frankl, “Inschriften,” No. 202). In his old age it was his misfortune to be driven from Vienna and exiled (1670) with his coreligionists. Be- fore his death (1677) he had the satisfaction of seeing his sons occupy honorable positions. Nearly twenty years before, his son Menahem Mendel Auerbach was called as rabbi to Reussnitz, Moravia, after hav- ing officiated as assessor to the rabbinate at Cracow. The pupil of such men as Lipmann Heller, Joel Sarkes, Joshua b. Joseph, at the Talmud school in Cracow, Menahem Mendel attained sucha reputation as a Talmudic authority that the rabbis of large for- eign communities submitted difficult questions to him for decision. (For detailed account of his career see separate article.) The best known among Mendel’s brothers is Si- mon, who at the age of 23 wrote a penitential poem, on the occasion of an epidemic that broke out among children in Vieuna, in 1634. This poem passed through several editions, under the title “Mish‘on {stc) la-Yeladim ” (Support to Children), Frankfort- on-the-Main, 1711. The author died March 11, 1688, at Eibenschiitz. The poem was printed by the grandson of the author, Meshuliam Solomon Fisch- hof, who added a commentary, “Rab Shalom ” (Much Peace). He also published several prayers and hymns of Israel Nagara, with additions of his own (Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1712). Hayyim, a second brother of Menahem Mendel, settled at Cracow, but later returned to Vienna as assessor of the rabbinate, dying there Oct. 7, 1665. A third brother, Benjamin Wolf, settled at Nikols- burg, and was heid in high esteem as elder of the com- munity, even officiating temporarily as chairman of the college of the rabbinate. His testament, printed together with the work “ Mekor Hokmah” (Source of Wisdom), which contains an abundance of worldly wisdom and pious reflection, was published by his son, Meshullam Solomon, assessor of the rabbinate at Nikolsburg, who published an ethica) work at the same time. Menahem Mendel’s succes. sor as rabbi of Krotoschin was his grandson Who bore the same name (the son of Moses Auerbach— dicd May 9, 1789), and was president of the congre- gation of Krotoschin and of the Synod of the Four Lands. He was the son-in-law of Rabbi Saul og Cracow. Asonof theSimon Wolf mentioned above was David Tebele, surnamed “ Ha-Kadosh” (the Holy), who died as rabbi of Prague. His name wag commemorated by his son SAMUEL, the author of “ Hesed Shemuel” (Samuel's Charity), Amsterdam. A member of the same family was Phineas AurgpR. BACH, president of the Jewish court at Cracow (1695), and author of “Halakah Berurah” (Lucid Law), a commentary on Orah Hayyvim. Hirsch Auerbach belongs to another branch of the family. He was first assessor of the rabbinate at Brody, fleeing thence to Germany with a part of the community to escape exorbitant taxation and the machinations of informers. After wandering from one place to another he settled at Worms, whither he had been called in 1738 to R. Lob Sinzheim’s col- lege, and was appointed rabbi in the same commun- nity in 1763. He died at Worms May 3, 1778, in the 88th year of his life, his pious wife Dobresch (daugh- ter of the president Isaac at Brody) dying a few weeks before him. His son, bornat Brody, Abiezri Selig, was at first rabbi at Edenkoben, then at Bux- weiler, where he died 1767; lis wife was the daughter of Isaac Sinzheim, rabbiat Trier and Niederehnheim, D. L. L. AUERBACH, ABRAHAM BEN ABIEZRI SELIG: German rabbi; bornat Buxweiler, Alsace, in the middJe of the eighteenth century; died at Bonn Nov. 3, 1846. Being a descendant of an old rabbinical family, he was destined from his child- hood for the rabbinate, and was educated first by his grandfather at Worms, and later by his uncle, David Sinzheim, subsequently president of the central con- sistory at Paris. Under the latter’s direction, Auer- bach acquired not only extensive Talmudic knowl- edge, but asecular education as well. When, owing to the efforts of Cerfberr of Medelsheim, a Jewish community had been formed at Strasburg, Auerbach was charged with its administration. At the out- break of the Reign of Terror in France, Auerbach, on account of his connection with Cerfberr (who as former contractor to the royal army was suspected by the revolutionists), was thrown into prison where he remained a whole year. On leaving Stras- burg he was appointed rabbi at Forbach, then at Neuwied, andin 1809 at Bonn. In 18387 he resigned the latter position, ostensibly on account of his great age, but really to have his son succeed him in his place. Auerbach was the author of several liturgical poems and prayers, and of a poem on the abolition of the poll-tax, entitled “ Dibre ha-Mekes we-Betuloh ” (History of the Tax and its Abolition), still extant in manuscript. The poem was dedicated to Cerf- berr, who by his intervention brought about the abolition. A specimen of the poem was given by Fuenn, who was the possessor of the manuscript. Auerbach left seven sons, among whom the best Let. Camron wetng wren os SANT awa tee EE is ee ee Ot weet ne te, MAREE aD e mn edi Diae ide Be AER OR AO BU hl RIND (eV Tues ae wane Be Ra tee 299 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Auerbach Auerbach, Benjamin ene Le SS SS rr known was Benjamin Hirsch Auerbach, rabbi at Darmstadt and Halberstadt, who died in the latter city Sept. 30, 1872. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, p. 277; Allgemeine Zeitung des Judenthums, 1839, No. 98, p. 598. I. Br. lL. G. AUERBACH, BARUCH: Educator and phi- lanthropist; born in Inowrazlaw, in the province of Posen, Prussia, Aug. 14, 1798; died at Berlin, Jan. 92, 1864. He was the founder and life-long director of the Jewish Orphan Asylum, Berlin. Being the son of a poor rabbi, the days of his boyhood were j 1 } y ag ie vA y j i | be | DAS Sta , : BE SEER RS | Aad bs . tay i f 3 ee SL ¢ ; a SSS SSS : = — = ~~ . ~~ MY y PA y Gs Oc [on Voom T on thy "} Lut i 49D aft Uy af CUTAN HJ jibe = ee oS Sa = = WO. Rate + Barach Auerbach Orphan Asylum, Bertin. (After a photograph.) spent in the study of the Talmud and other Jewish literature. In 1817 he went to Berlin, following his elder brother, Dr. I. L. Auerbach, who at that time enjoyed some reputation in the Jewish community as a minister and preacher. After pursuing his studies at the university, where he paid special at- tention to the classical languages, he became, in 1829, principal of aschool for Jewish boys in Berlin. In 1833 he took under his care, into his own house, four orphan children, for whom no special provision had been made; and from this small beginning grew the noble institution now connected with his name. In 1848, when 15 boys were under Auerbach’s care, he took also some Jewish girls left without par- ents into his house, and teu years later the institu- tion had grown so much that 50 boys and 26 girls were housed in a special building in the Oranien- burgerstrasse, Berlin. The institution has since been moved to the Schénhiuserallee, Berlin. Nearly 300 children were cared for during his lifetime; and on the day of his death there were 70 orphans in theasylum, while the total amount of funds collected by Auerbach’s indefatigable efforts reached the sum of 600,000 thalers (about $450,000), in addition to the beautiful and valuable grounds of the asylum. Nothing gives a clearer insight into both the spirit of the institution and the character of its founder than his own oft-repeated words: “ Orphans are not merely poor children, but children without parents; to raise and bring them up, an orphan asylum should give those children not mere] y bread and a shelter, but parental love also, and practical training.” S. OE. Ba. AUERBACH, BENJAMIN HIRSCH: One of the most prominent leaders of modern German orthodoxy; born at Neuwied in 1808; died at Hal- berstadt Sept. 30, 1872. His father, Abraham Auerbach—a descendant of an old rabbinical family which traced its origin back to Menahem Auerbach, one of the exiles of Vienna—was on the maternal side a nephew of Joseph David Sinzheim, the first president of the French Sanhedrin, and after having held various rabbinical positions became rabbi of the consistory of Bonn, Benjamin received his first in- struction from his father, subsequently studying at the yeshibot of Krefeld and Worms. Wellequipped with Talmudic learning he entered the University ot Marburg, where he studied from 1881 to 1834, Immediately afterward he was called to the rabbinate of Hanau, but declined, preferring the call to Darm- stadt, as chief rabbi (Landesrabbiner) of the grand- duchy of Hesse, for which office no less a personage than Zunz was his competitor. His position was, however, very difficult, as he was strictly Orthodox, while the majority of the congregation were Liberal. He remained for twenty-three years, but was forced to resign in 1807. He went to Frankfort-on-the- Main, where he busied himself with literary work until, in 1863, he was called as rabbi to Halberstadt, in which post he served until his death. As a scholar and author, Auerbach ranks among the first in his party. He was among the first Or- thodox rabbis that preached in pure German; and his text-book for religious instruction enjoys de- served popularity. In the controversy aroused by the publication of Zacharias Frankel’s “ Darke ha- Mishnah,” he naturally sided with Frankel’s oppo- nents, defending the view of the divine origin of the rabbinicallaw. Besides numerous sermons, he pub- lished: (1) “Lehrbuch der Israelitischen Religion,” 1889, 8d ed., by his son Selig Auerbach, Giessen, 1898; (2) “Berit Abraham, oder die Beschneidungs- feier und die Dabei Stattfindenden Gebete und Ge- singe. In’s Deutsche Uebersetzt und mit einer Aus- fiihrlichen Literarhistorischen Einleitung Versehen,” Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1869, 2d ed., 1880; (8) “ Ha- Zofeh ‘al Darke ha-Mishnah,” a criticism of Fran- kel’s “ Introduction to the Mishnah,” Frankfort-on- the-Main, 1861; (4) “Mishnat R. Nathan,” notes on the Mishnah, written by Nathan Adler of Frank- fort, who had been Abraham Auerbach’s teacher, Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1862; (5) “Sefer ha-Eshkol,” Auerbach, Berthold THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 300 an edition of the ritual code of Abraham of Nar- bonne, Halberstadt, 1863: and (6) “Geschichte der Israelitischen Gemeinde Halberstadt,” Halberstadt, 1866. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Geiger’s Jiid. Zeit. i. WT, 195, 2538; Ally. Zeit. d. Jud. 1857, pp. 269, 28; Dr. B. H. Auerbach, ein Lebensbild, in Meyer's Kalender for 5645, Halberstadt, 1884 ; various reports in the newspapers of his time; also private communications from his grandson, Dr. Isaac Auerbach, at Leipzig. First, Bibl. Jud. i. 72: Jost, tnnalen, 1889, Nos. 33, 37, 43; Jost, Newere Geschichte der Israeliten von 1815 his 1845, 1. 17, iii. 160; Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, p. 2793 Zeitlin, Kiryat Sefer, 8. D AUERBACH, BERTHOLD (BARUCH): German author; born in the Black Forest village of Nordstetten, Germany, Feb. 28, 1812; died at Cannes, France, Feb. 8, 1882. He was one of eleven Berthold Auerbach. children, and received his earliest training from a well-equipped German teacher named Frankfurter and from the local Protestant minister. Intended by his father for the rabbinical profession, Auerbach was early initiated into Jewish studies, and in his twelfth year was sent to the Talmud school at Hech- ingen, and afterward to Carlsruhe, to complete his rabbinical training. In the latter town, however, he soon gave up his Talmudical studies entirely, and devoted himself to secular branches. He attended the Stuttgart Obergymnasium to prepare for the university, and at Tiibingeu (1882) studied Jaw. Coming, however, under the influence of David Friedrich Strauss, author of “Das Leben Jesu” (whom he ever held in reverence), he exchanged the study of law for that of history and philosophy, to which subjects he continued to devote himself (1882-35) at Munich under Schelling, and at Heidel- a berg under Daub and Schlosser. Spinoza now he. came Auerbach’s ideal philosopher and guide, ang remained so throughout the whole period of his literary activity. Like others among the studept. corps, Auerbach manifested something of the demo. cratic spirit; and, as the result of a governmentg] investigation. he was imprisoned for three months gt Hohenasperg (1837). The period was one of petty despotism in Ger. many, and Auerbach suffered the rigors of university discipline to such an extent as tocompel him to aban- don his university carecr and to turn to literature for a livelihood. In 1886, in reply to Wolfgang Menzel’s attack on the “Junge Deutschland,” foy all of whose literary and political sins he held the Jews responsible, Auerbach had published his first pamphlet, “Das Judenthum und die Neueste Lite- ratur” (Stuttgart), wherein he pleaded for a fuller recognition of Jewish ideals; but the age was hardly ripe for such progress: the days of ’48 had not yet dawned. He also wrote, under the pseudonym of “Theobald Chauber” (an anagram of His his name), a biography of Frederick Early the Great, Stuttgart, 1884-36, and nu- Writings. merous articles for periodicals. His early works were romances illustrating various ty pes of Jewish thought and activity. Thus, in 1838, together with N. Frankfurter, he continued the “Galerie der Ausgezeichneten Israeliten Aller Jahrhunderte; Ihre Portraits und Biographien” (3d and 4th instalments), begun by Spazier. Along this same line was his other book, “Spinoza, ein Histo- rischer Roman in Zwei Theilen ” (Stuttgart, 1837, newest edition, with supplement, “Ein Denkerle- ben,” 1880); half story, half philosophical disserta- tion, in which his admiration for the Jewish thinker attained the point of glorification. It was followed by “Dichter und Kaufmann” (Stuttgart, 1889; 4th revised ed., 1860; 7th ed., 1871), based on episodes in the life of Moses Ephraim Kuh, a luckless Breslau poet, and wherein he drew a lively picture of the Jews in the time of Moses Mendelssohn. Auerbach’'s idealisni, however, was not to limit it- self to heroes of the Ghetto: he was to enter a broader field and do his share in arousing the German people to a sense of national unity long before the battle of Sedan. To familiarize the German of the North with the character and temperament of the German of the South (after having published, in 1841, a German translation of Spinoza’s works, with biography, in five volumes, and, in 1842, a popular treatise, “ Der Gebildete Birger, ein Buch fiir den Denkenden Menschenverstand ”), he published his incompara- ble “Schwarzwiilder Dorfgeschichten,” Mannheim, 1848, which at once gave their author international fame. It was an epoch-making work in the history of German literature, and was translated into almost all European languages. What is particularly note- worthy therein is the success of Auerbach, a Jew, in describing all the depth of the religious life of the Christian peasant. That an atmosphere of “Spino- zism ” breathed through these most artless tales did not materially detract from their charm. In his sec- ond collection of “Dorfgeschichten” (Mannheim, 1848, 1858), stronger characters and more complex plots were substituted for the idyllic backgrounds Ne aes arenes vate ee hal 4 301 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Auerbach, Berthol4’ of his former literary attempts. In the interval be- tween these two works, Auerbach published a trea- tise descriptive of his literary methods, “ Schrift und Volk, Grundztige der Volksthitmlichen Literatur,” and from 1845 to 1848 issued a very popular calen- dar, called’ Gevattersmarn.” In Breslau, in 1847, he married Augusta Schrei- ber, Who died the following year inchildbirth. This bereavement prevented him from taking any very active part in the Revolution of 1848. He never- theless went to Vienna, where he witnessed the Oc- tober days, and described his impressions of those stormy scenes in his “Tagebuch aus Wien; von Latour bis Windischgriitz,” Breslau, 1849. He mar- ricd again in Vienna soon after, espousing Nina Landesmann, a sister of the poet Hieronymus Lorm, and in 1849 settled in Dresden, whence, ten years later, he removed to Berlin, which then became his permanent abode, There le came into contact with the foremost writers and artists of the Prussian capi- tal, and was received at court; but spent every summerin his native village in the Black Forest, seeking there recupcration and new inspiration for his literary labors. A couple of plays produced by him, a tragedy, “ Andreas Hofer,” and adrama, “ Der Wahrspruch,” Leipsic, 1860, were not at all successful; nor did he have better fortune with his next novel, a tale of modern life, entitled “Neues Leben,” Mannheim, 1851. He therefore reverted to his village tales; publishing “ Barfiissele” in 1856 (80th ed., 1896; il- lustrated by Vautier, 1872), “Joseph im Schnee” in 1861 (illustrated by Kindler, 1867), and “ Edelweiss ” in the same year. From 1858 to 1869 he edited a * Volkskalender,” which numbered among its collab- orators the most famous writers. He then again essayed a romance of modern life, this time most successfully ; and to-day his “ Auf der Hohe,” Stutt- gart, 1875, and “Das Landhaus am Rhein,” Stutt- gart, 1868, are numbered among the best works of German prose fiction. Auerbach was a fervent German patriot, and took the deepest interest in the unification of Germany. During the Franco-Prussian war (1870-71) he was attached to the headquarters of the As __— grand duke of Baden (a great admi- Patriot. rer of the poet), and gave vent to his patriotic enthusiasm first in his “ Wie- der Unser! Gedenkbliitter,” Stuttgart, 1871, and again in his novel, “Waldfried; eine Familien- geschichte ” (1874). He again resumed his “ Dorf- geschichten ” in “ Nach Dreissig Jahren ” (1876). The productions of the last four yéars of Auer- bach’s life show some traces of increasing age. To this period belong “Landolin von Reutershofen,” Berlin, 1878; “Der Forstmeister,” 1879; “ Brigitta,” Stuttgart, 1880. To complete the list of his wri- tings, the following may be added: “Deutsche Abende,” a number of speeches and lectures, Stutt- gart, 1866; “Zur Guten Stunde,” illustrated by Men- zel, Kaulbach, L. Richter, and Meyerheim, Berlin, 1872; and “ Tausend Gedanken eines Collaborators,” 1876. Auerbach’s attitude toward Judaism receives am- ple illustration from many a character and passage in his stories. He strove to diffuse the kindliest sentinients among those of all creeds. His world- philosophy was a species of exalted patriotism, con- joined with a pure idealism; but it was destined to suffer a severe shock when anti-Semitism arose in Germany, and, despite the triumph of the German national idea, a wave of pessimism fol- Attitude lowed closely on the nation’s victories. Toward Private troubles may have contributed Judaism. their share to his uprest: his second marriage had not brought him happi- ness. He found philosophy and life in ominous opposition, which, to one of his gentle mold, was a deep disappointment. For many years Auerbach, at least publicly, held somewhat aloof from Judaism, though always a Jew in heart and soul. But aroused in his last years, by Theodor Billroth’s anti- Semitic work, “ Warum Studiren Unsere Juden Medi- zin?” he openly took up the defense of his core- ligionists. When the blood-accusation was revived in Russia, Auerbach issued an appeal, “An Alle Miinner der Wahrheit und Sittlichkeit ” (“To All Men of Truth and Morality ”), and he also addressed an open letter of thanks to Dr. von D@6llinger, president of the Academy of Sciences in Munich, for his courageous speech in bebalf of the Jews. In 1880 (July 14) he had the satisfaction of attending the unveiling of the Spinoza monument at The Hague. Auerbach, who had devoted his entire life to the glorification and realization of German ideals, lived to hear him- self stigmatized by the Judszeophobes as a foreigner, without share or interest In anything German. The anti-Semitic agitation, then centered in Berlin, and family cares broke down the health of the poet. In the fall of 1881 he went for his health to Cann- stadt, but, becoming worse there, he removed to the nilder climate of Cannes. There he died, just as extensive preparations were being made to celebrate his seventieth birthday. The inner life of Berthold Auerbach is abundantly illustrated by his works; but it receives its fullest light and interpretation in his “ Briefe an Seinen Vet- ter, Jacob Auerbach,” issued by the latter (in accordance with the author’s request) in 1884, with a preface by Spielhagen. These letters extend over a period of 52 years (1830-82), and contain in Auerbach’s own words “all that was most important in the development of his general and individual life.” They forma mirror, in which his every mood is reflected, and wherein his genuine nature is de- picted with an artlessness and naturalness typical of the man. They form the best commentary upon his philosophy, politics, and religion; and throughout them all, two points are constantly expressed; viz., love for the Black Forest and enthusiasm for Israel. Auerbach always possessed a love for dramatic art, and at his death there was found among his pa- pers a series of studies relating to the stage. These were published under the title “Dramatische Ein- driicke,” Stuttgart, 1892. A complete edition of Auerbach’s works in 22 vol- umes was published at Stuttgart in 1863-64; the most recent edition is that of 1892-95 in 18 volumes. His posthumous works were acquired in 1897 by the Schwibische Schillerverein, and deposited in the His Letters. Auerbach, Eleazar Auerbach, Leopold THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 302 s Pe ey pe eg ay ee Pn ee ee ag ge Og hr gf Ome Sn eR eo ee ee es archives of Marbach. A biography of Berthold Auerbach is now (1902) being prepared by Arnold Bettelheim, of Vienna. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Allg. Zeit. des Jud. xlvi. 126, 157; Friedrich Theodor Vischer, Berthold Auerbach, ein Nachruf, 1882 ; Wilhelm Goldbaum, in Westermann’s Monatsheften, No. 305, pp. 606 ef seq.; Zabel, Berthold Auerbach, 1882; Lud- wig Solomon, Berthold Auerbach, eine Biographie, 1882 ; Ludwig Stein, Berthold Auerbach und das Judenthum, 1882; Ed. Lasker, Berthold Auerbach, eine Gedenkrede, Berlin, 1882; D. Frisehmann, Berthold Auerbach, in Ha- Yahudi, He-Asif, 1889, i. 159-171; Rudolf Krauss, Schwd- bische Literaturgeschichte, 1899, ii. 288, 299, and passim. 8. A. 8. I. AUERBACH, ELIEZER BEN HAYYIM. See AUERBACH, ISAac BEN Hayyrm. AUERBACH, FELIX: German physicist; born Nov. 12, 1856, in Berlin. He was only twenty years old when he graduated from the university of his native city, and received the degree of Ph.D. upon the presentation of an excellent thesis, “ Unter- suchungen tiber die Naturdes Vokalklanges,” which appeared in Poggendorff’s “ Annalen der Physik und Chemie” for 1876. Continuing his studies at the University of Berlin until 1879, he was in that year appointed assistant in the Physical Institute of the University of Breslau. In 1890 Auerbach was ap- pointed assistant professor of physics in Jena Uni- versity, which position he continues to occupy. Among Auerbach’s scientific contributions is a treatise on hydrodynamics, “ Die Theoretische Hy- drodynamik, Nach dem Gange der Envtwickelun- gen in der Neuesten Zeit in Kirze Dargestellt,” Brunswick, 1881, which received the prize of the Reale Istituto Veneto di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti, and was subsequently translated into Italian (Milan, 1882). Auerbach is also the author of numerous pa- pers of a more technical nature in the “ Archiv fiir Physiologie,” in Poggendorft’s “ Annalen der Physik und Chemie,” in the “ Nachrichten der Kéniglichen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften und der Georg- August Universitit zu Gottingen,” etc. Short no- tices of his scientific contributions may be found in the annual “Die Fortschritte der Physik,” G. Rei- mer, Berlin. BIBLIOGRAPHY : Handwoérterbuch, Leipsic, 1898: Deutscher Universitiits- Kalender, ed. Ascherson, Berlin. s. A. §. C. AUERBACH, HAYYIM B. ISAAC: Rabbi at Lencziza, Russia, and author; of the first half of the nineteenth century. He was the contemporary and friend of R. Akiba Eger of Posen and of R. Solomon Posner of Warsaw. He wrote “Dibre Mishpat” (Words of Judgment), published at Krotoschin, 1835 —a halakic work, with additions by his sons Mena- hem and Isaac. Compare AUERBACH, ISAAC B. Hayy. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Shem ha-Gedolim he-Hadash, i. letter 7. L. G. r,. B. AUERBACH, ISAAC B. HAYYIM: Polish rabbi; lived in the first half of the nineteenth cen- tury; was first rabbi at Dobria, near Kalisz, then at Plock; later he succeeded his father, Hayyim Auer- bach, as rabbi of Lencziza, government of Warsaw, Poland. He wrote “Dibre Hayyim” (Words of Life), Breslau, 1852, a pilpulistic disquisition on the Shulhan ‘Aruk, and on other rabbinical codes (“ pos- kim”). His work includes a pilpulistic treatise, Poggendorff, Biographisch - Literarisches “Mayim Hayyim” (Living Waters), by his fathey Hayyim Auerbach, and additions and notes by the author’s brother Eliezer. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zedner, Cat. Hebr. Books Brit. Mus, sy. preface to the author’s Dibre Hayyiim. ag A. R. L. G. AUERBACH, ISAAC (px) B. ISATAH (aig, known as Reis): Grammarian, and exponent of Rashi; flourished toward the beginning of the eight. eenth century at Firth, Amsterdam, and Frankfort. on-the-Main. The works of Auerbach, which are enumerated below, are particularly interesting be. cause of the history of their origin, which curious] illuminates the educational condition of the German Jews of the period. Auerbach, who, like all Jewish scholars of his time, devoted himself exclusively to the study of the Talmud, relates that, as regards certain passages, Rashi’s commentary on the Bible was to him a closed book, because even the simplest elements of Hebrew grammar were unknown to him, The scholars of Firth, however, were not only incapable of expounding the difficult passages in Rashi, but ridiculed Anerbach’s peculiar taste for Hebrew philology. He thereupon left Firth and went to Amsterdam, where for ten years he studied Hebrew grammar with Samuel Posen. As the fruit of his labors he published (Wilmersdorf, 1718) “ Girsa de-Yanuka” (The Boy’s Study), an elementary grammar with paradigms in Hebrew and Judeo- German. This—one of the first elementary Hebrew grammars written by a Jew—met with such success, particularly in Frankfort, where Auerbach had meanwhile settled, that the author soon afterward published his second Judso-German grammar (Firth, 1728), entitled “Shuta de-Yanuka” (The Boy’s Talk). The Hebrew and German elementary book of Baruch (Bendet) b. Michael Moses Meseritz (Altona, 1808; Breslau, 1814), entitled “Girsa de- Yanukta” (The Study of Childhood), is based on excerpts from these two works. Auerbach had not forgotten that he had been first stimulated to the study of grammar by the works of Rashi; and he now published his comments and ex- planations on Rashi’s commentary on the Penta- teuch (Sulzbach, 1730; Fiirth, 1762), under the title “Beer Rehobot” (Well of Enlargement); also re- issued, after the death of the author, by his son Aaron and extended by him to the Five Rolls. This book may be ranked among the best supercommen- taries that have been written on Rashi’s Bible com- mentary, and has proved of great benefit both to teachers and to pupils. Auerbach also translated into Judxo-German the “Behinat ‘Olam” of Jedi- diah b. Abraham Bedersi, which, under the title “ Zaphnath-paaneah” (Gen. x!i. 45, “revealer of se- crets”; LXX, “savior of the world”), was first pub- lished at Sulzbach in 1748, and has since been fre- quently reprinted. Appended to this work is Auer- bach’s Judseo-German translation of Bedersi’s “Bakkashat ha-Memin.” Auerbach’s father was a martyr; but the occasion on which he met death ts not known. BIBLIOGRAPHY: First, Bibliotheca Judaica, i. 72, 73; Fuenn. Keneset Yisrael, p. 589; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 908; idem, Bibliographisches Handbuch, No. 148. L. G. Ve tee a ne mR 303 AUERBACH, ISAAC LEVIN: A German preacher, educator, and author; born at JInowra- claw, Prussia, March 21, 1791; died at Dessau July 5, 1858. He was the son of Levin Isaac Auerbach, yabbi of Inowraclaw, and brother of Baruch Auer- pach, the well-known founder of the Jewish Orphan Asylum in Berlin. Isaac belonged to that small pand of Jewish young men in Berlin who, in the first quarter of the nineteenth century, paved the way for reforms in Judaism. After receiving an education in Bible and Talmud from his father and at Lissa, he went to Berlin, where he devoted him- self to the study of languages and science. His at- tainments and abilities must have been considerable, for he was appointed preacher at the Jacobsen tem- ple, in which also Kley, Giinsburg, and Zunz deliv- ered their German sermons. His next position was on the teaching staff of the Jewish girls’ school of Berlin, and finally he was called to the temple of Leipsic, where he officiated for more than twenty- five years. Auerbach’s activities were chiefly directed toward a reform of the divine service. He considered it first an exigency of changed conditions; secondly, the most potent factor in the improvement of the whole religious and ethical life. Likewise he pointed out the necessity of establishing schools, and pleaded for a spirit of toleration in all religious and political matters. These ideas pervade his works and ser- mons, of which the following were published: (1) “Sind die Israeliten Verptlichtet Ihre Gebete Durch- aus in Hebritischer Sprache zu Verrichten?” Ber- lin, 1818—arguing on rabbinical grounds for the introduction of the German language into the serv- ice; (2) “ Die Wichtigsten Angelegenheiten Israels,” Leipsic, 1828—containing nine sermons; (8) “Die Aufnahme Israels in die Grosse Gemeinschaft der Nationen,” Leipsic, 1883; (4) “Israels Jiingste Heim- suchung,” Leipsic, 1840—on the Damascus affair; (5) “Das Verstiindniss der Zeit,” Leipsic, 1845—on the reform tendencies in Judaism. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Kayserling, Bibliothek Jtidischer Kanzel- redner, i. 19-20. s M. B. AUERBACH, JACOB: Educator and author; born at Emmendingen, Baden, Nov. 14, 1810; died Oct. 31, 1887. He received his early education in Carlsruhe, where, in the autumn of 1827, he met his cousin and, later, brother-in-law, Berthold Auer- bach, the famous novelist, with whom he formed ties ef close and lasting friendship. When, on account of straitened circumstances, Jacob was compelled to abandon his studies at the University of Heidelberg, Berthold came to his assistance. In Wiesbaden, where the young scholar was called to occupy the position of a religious teacher after his graduation from the university, he became one of the most inti- mate friends and enthusiastic followers of Abraham Geiger. Called to Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1842, his time was occupied for nearly forty years with his duties as religious teacher in the Jewish commu- nity and (after 1848) at the gymnasium, and with occasional sermons at the “ Andachtssaal.” He was pensioned by the government in 1879; and, in recog- nition of his services at the Frankfort Gymnasium, he was decorated with the Order of the Red Eagle. THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Auerbach, Eleazar Auerbach, Leopold Among Auerbach’s contributions to Jewish his- tory and literature are his essay on “ Lessing and Mendelssohn,” 1867, and a “History of the Jewish Community of Vienna from 1784.” His most valu- able work, however, was the publication of the letters received by him from Berthold Auerbach, covering the period from the time of the separation of the two friends at Carlsrulie in April, 1830, to the death of the novelist, Feb. 8, 1883. These let- ters, which appeared in two volumes under the title “Berthold Auerbach: Briefe an Seinen Freund Jacob Auerbach,” Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1884, and in which the whole character and individuality of Ber- thold Auerbach were unconsciously revealed, form an excellent autobiography of the writer. Jacob was also the author of several educational works and of the “Schul- und Hausbibel,” 1858, which had a wide circwation in Jewish communities in Germany. 8. A. 8. C. AUERBACH, JOSEPH DANZIGER: Au- thor of “ Darke Yesharim ” (Paths of the Righteous), a treatise on ethics and morals in the Yiddish dia- lect, published in Amsterdam in 1758, BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zedner, Cat. Hebr. Books British Museum, p. 68; Benjacob, Ozar ha-Sefarim, p. 120. D A. R. AUERBACH, LEOPOLD: German physician and biologist; born at Breslau April 27, 1828; died there Sept. 30, 1897. He studied in Breslau, Leip- sic, and Berlin, receiving his doctorate in 1849. The following year he began the practise of medicine in Breslau, and at the same time devoted himself, un- der the direction of Purkinje, to the study of histol- ogy and neuropathology. In 1863 he became docent at Breslau University, and remained in that position nine years, when he was promoted to the rank of assistant professor of general biology and histology, which he held for a quarter of a century. His chief contribution to science is in the domain of cellular biology and histology, in which he at- tained considerable eminence. The results of his weighty studies on the cell are embodied in the “ Or- ganologische Studien” (parts i. and ii., Breslau, 1874), which treats of the structure, chemical consti- tution, and life-history of the cell-nucleus,and of the early stages of development of the fertilized ovum. Auerbach belongs to the class of modern biologists whose investigations not only paved the way to- ward the elucidation of important problems in biol- ogy, but raised wholly new questions regarding the mechanism of the development and roéle of the cell in hereditary transmission. His researches have materially advanced the knowledge of cell-life and cell-structure. According to Oscar Hertwig, Auer- bach established satisfactorily that during cell-divi- sion the nucleus does not become dissolved, but be- comes metamorphosed. Auerbach also made the im- portant discovery that during conjugation the nuclei of oval eggs rotate so that the axis of the spin- dle coincides with the longest diameter of the egg. To his cytological researches must be added his investigations on the lymphatics of the intestines as well as his discovery of the cellular structure of the capillaries and his work on the physiology of muscle, Besides his “Organologische Studien,” Auerbach, Loeb ‘Auerbach, Simon THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 304 SS SS99aSSa eT Pe a oa ee A Ge rr which he published separately, Auerbach contribu- ted a number of papers to medical and biological! journals and to the transactions of several scientific societies. During half a century of active scientific work he published: “De Irritamentis Nervorum, Studia Critica,” Berolini, 1849; “Ueber Psychische Thitigkeiten des Riickenmarks,” in Gimsberg’s ~ Zeitschrift fiir Medicin,” 1853, iv.; “Ueber die Erscheinung bei Oertlicher Muskelreizung,” in “ Ab- handlungen der Schlesischen Gesellschaft fiir Vater- landische Cultur,” 1861, pp. 291, 326; “Ueber Per- kussion des Muskels,” in “ Zeitschrift fiir Rationelle Medicin,” 1862; “Bau der Blut- und Lymph-Capil- laren,” in “Centralblatt fiir die Medicinische Wis- senschaft,” 1865; “Lymphgefisse des Darmes,” in Virchow’s “Archiv,” 1865, xxxiii.; “Ueber einen Plexus Mesentericus,” Breslau, 1862; “De Ventri- culo Carnoso Avium,” 31 pp., Breslau, 1863; “Wabre Muskelhypertrophie,” in Virchow’s “ Ar- chiv,” 1871; “Ueber den Einfluss Erhéhter Tempe- ratur auf die Nervésen Central Organe,” 28 pp., Heidelberg, 1880. Auerbach is the author also of several scientific monographs which appeared in the “ Zeitschrift ftir Wissenschaftliche Zoologie,” in Reichert-Du Bois’ “Archiv”; in the “Verhandlungen der Berliner Medicinischen Gesellschaft” ; in the “ Verhandlungen der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin”; and in Ferdinand Cohn’s “ Beitrage zur Biologie der Pflanzen.” BIBLIOGRAPHY: Anton Bettelheim, Biographisches Jahrbuch und Deutscher Nekrolog, 1898, ii. 35; J. Pagel, Biogra- phisches Lexicon der Hervorragenden Aerate des 19ten Jahrhunderts, p._59; A. Wernich and A. Hirsch, Biogra- phisches Le:vicon Herver ragender Aerzate Aller Zeitenund Volker, i, 226; Jos. Tyson, The Cell Doctrine, 2d ed., Phil- adelphia, 1876; Ed. B. Wilson, The Cell in Development and Inheritance, 2a ed., pp. 5, 106, 127, 182, New York, 1900; Quarterly Journal Microscopical Science, 1876, xvi. 131; Hertwig-Campbell, The Cell, pp. 199, 218, 219. 8. W. S. AUVERBACH (JUDAH), LOEB B. ISRAEL: Galician Talmudist of the second half of the eight. eenth century. He is the author of “ Mehokek Ye- hudah” (The Lawgiver of Judah), Lemberg, 1792, a commentary on those sections of the Orah Hayyim of Joseph Caro’s Shulhan ‘Aruk which treat of the regulations for Passover. The work consists of two distinct parts, entitled respectively (1) “ Hukke ‘Olam ” (Eternal Laws), which gives the halakic de- cisions briefly, and (2) “Hukke Da‘at” (Laws of Knowledge), which gives discussions of the prece- ding. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Farst, Bibl. Jud. i. Books Brit. Mus. p. 887. %3; Zedner, Cat. Hebr, L. G. AUERBACH, MEIR B. ISAAC: Talmudist and chief rabbi of the Ashkenazim in Jerusalem; born Feb. 10, 1815, at Dobria near Kalish, Russian Poland; died May 8, 1878, at Jerusalem. He was rabbi at Kalish when, in 1860, actuated by his love for the Holy Land, he removed to Jerusalem, where he organized the congregation and yeshibah QOhel Jacob, and subsequently became chief rabbi of the Ashkenazim. He also organized an independent board of Shehitah for the Ashkenazim. This action was opposed by the “hakam bashi,” David Hazan, and his Sephardic congregation, who controlled the Shehitah. They were upheld by the Mussulmans, who favored the Jewish mode of killing animals, which corresponded with their religious belief and custom, and who would not eat meat slaughtered }; Christians or by Ashkenazic Jews, the latter not being recognized by them assonsof Abraham. This greatly hampered the undertaking of the Ashke- nazim, as none but Christians would buy the surplus of the Shehitah, and, being excluded from the Mus. sulmans’ trade, the Ashkenazim found the Shehitah quite expensive. Auerbach appealed to the hakam bashi to intercede on behalf of the Ashkenazim, and requested him to obtain from the Turkish govern- ment the recognition of the Ashkenazic Jewsas sons of Abraham. The hakam bashi hesitated, and Auer- bach threatened him with excommunication for re- fusing to perform his plain duty and to do justice to the Ashkenazim. At last in 1864 the hakam bashi was not only obliged to remove his objection, but actually compelled to establish the fact before the Ottoman authorities that as regards their religion there was no difference between the Sephardim and Ashkenazim. Auerbach and Rabbi Samuc!l Salant in 1866 organ- ized the Central Committee known as the “ Wa'‘ad ha-Kelali” in Jerusalem, as an agency for the dis- tribution of funds from the charity-boxes all over the world for the Ashkenazic poor in Palestine, the income from which from the United States alone amounts to about $20,000 perannum. In 1875, on the occasion of the visit of Sir Moses Montefiore to the Holy Land, Auerbach protested in an open let- ter addressed to Montefiore (in Hebrew and English, London, 1875) against the charges of unfair manip- ulation of the gifts sent to the poor in Palestine. Auerbach is the author of “Imre Binah” (Words of Understanding), novella on Orah Hayyim and Yoreh De‘ah, and responsa on Hoshen Mishpat, Jeru- salem, 1871-76; of annotations to his father’s “ Dibre Hayyim,” and to Loeb Guenzburg’s “Ture Eben.” He left many manuscripts on Talmudical subjects, which are still unpublished. Auerbach was known as a great pilpulist. A “bet ha-midrash” has been founded in Jerusa- lem to perpetuate Auerbach’s memory. BIBLIOGRAPHY : J. Schwartz, Tebuot ha-Arez, ed. Luncz, pp. 500, 501; A. Amshewitz, Woshe we-Yerushalayim, pp. 81-96, Warsaw, 1879; M. N. Auerbach, Zekut Abot, Jerusalem, 1898, Introduction ; Allgemeine Zeitung des Judenthumes, 1878, p. 363. L. G. J. D. E. AUERBACH, MENAHEM MENDEL BEN MESHULLAM SOLOMON: Austrian rabbi, banker, and commentator; born in Vienna at the be- ginning of the seventeenth century; died at Kroto- schin, Posen, July 8, 1689. He was descended from the well-known Auerbach-Fischhof family, both his father, Meshullam Solomon, and his maternal grand- father, Rabbi Judah Loeb Rofe, being members of the Vienna Ghetto. Auerbach received a Talmudic education, and was a pupil of Joel Sarkes (ma), of Joshua ben Joseph of Cracow, and of Menahem Mendel Krochmal of Nikolsburg. He married the daughter of Judah Loeb Cohn of Cracow (died 1645), and then settled in Cracow with his brother Hayyim. For many years Auerbach held the position of dayyan of the Cracow community, being at the same time engaged in the i i panking business with his brother. Later, both re- qurned to Vienna, where Menahem remained after pis brother’s death in 1666, up to the expulsion of the Jews from Vienna by the emperor Leopold I. in 1670. Benjamin Leb (Wolf) Fischhof, probably the youngest of the brothers, was also expelled at the ' game time, and became rabbi in Nikolsburg. ' ’ { After the expulsion Auerbach became rabbi at Rausnitz, Moravia, and in 1673 of Krotoschin, where for sixteen years and until his death he occupied the : double position of rabbi and parnass of the district of Posen. In Krotoschin he established a yeshibah, which soon became known throughout Poland, and to which he devoted much of his time and energy (Eliakim ben Meir, “Responsa,” § 61). His son Moses was parnas of the district of Posen, one of the leaders of the Synod of Great Poland, and presi- dent of the Assembly of Kobylin in 1733. The fol- lowing pedigree exhibits the relationship of this branch of the Auerbach family: Judah Loeb Rofe, Rabbi of Cracow | Judah Loeb Cohen m. Lissa Danghter m. Meshullam Solomon Auerbach | | Daughter m. Menahem Mendel Benjamin Leb Hayyim, Dayyan (Wolf) at Vienna Saul ben (d. 1606) Ezekiel | Miriam m. Moses Isaac ha-Levi, Daughter m. Moses rabbi of Zlotow Menahem Mendel, rabbi of Krotoschin (1732). Auerbach was the author of “‘Ateret Zekenim ” (The Crown of Old Men; compare Prov. xvii. 6), a commentary on Orah Hayyim, a division of the Shul- han ‘Aruk, printed at Dyhernfurth, 1720, and repub- lished in most editions of that work. Healso left in manuscript “‘Akeret ha-Bayit ” (The Barren One of the House; compare Ps. cxiii. 9), a commentary on another division of the Shulhan ‘Aruk; namely, Hoshen Mishpat. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Kaufmann, Die Letzte Vertreibung der Juden aus Wien, pp. 172 et seg., Vienna, 1889; H. N. Dembitzer, Kelilat Yofi, passim, Cracow, 1888; I. Eisenstadt-S. Wiener, Da‘at Kedoshim, passim, St. Petersburg, 1897-98. G. H. R. AUERBACH, MESHULLAM SOLOMON. See AUERBACH, MENAHEM MENDEL, and AUERBACH - PAMILy. ' to Maimonides’ Yad ha-Hazakah. AUERBACH, PEREZ B. MENAHEM NA- HUM: Polish Talmudist; flourished in the first half of the eighteenth century. He was the author of the work, “ Peér Halakah ” (Ornament of the Hala- kah), Zolkiev, 1788, which contains novells to the Talmud, to the commentaries on the Talmud, and The section in the treatise Pesahim (14a, 21a), known as the “ section of R. Hanina, the chief priest,” is treated in a par- ticularly exhaustive manner. BIBLIOGRAPHY : Benjacob, Ozar ha-Sefarim, p. 455; Zedner, Cat. Hebr. Books Brit. Mus. p. 64. D. L. G. AUERBACH, PHINEAS BEN SIMON 7 WOLF: Rabbi and Talmudist; lived at the end of IT.—20 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Auerbach, Loeb Auerbach, Simon the seventeenth and beginning of the eighteenth cen- tury. He waschief of the court of justice at Cracow (“bet din”), but on account of the persecutions of the Jews in Poland he was forced to leave his native country (1714), settling later at Frankfort-on-the- Main, where he married the daughter of the rabbi, JosephSamuel. Heistheauthorof “ Halakah Beru- rah” (The Clear Law), a commentary on the Shulhan ‘Aruk, Orah Hayyim (Wilmersdorf, 1717). This work contains, mainly, solutions of questions on which the AnaRonrm™ had widely divergent opinions. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. Nos. 6750, 7196; Wolf, Bibliotheca Hebreea, iii. 18485; Azulai, Shem ha- Gedolim, s.v. Pinhas; Auerbach, Gesch. der Israelitischen A. R. Geineinde Hatherstadt, p. 53. L. G. AUERBACH, SAMUEL B. DAVID TEBELE: A cabalistic commentator on the Bible; flourished in the seventeenth century. His father, David, died asa martyr during the persecution of the Jewsin Poland, and he himself narrowly escaped a similar fate, first at Lublin, Oct. 16, 1655, and then at Reisen, near Lissa. Auerbach was the author of a work entitled “ Hesed Shemo El” (Mercy, Its Name Is God, the letters of “Shemo El” corresponding with those of “Samuel,” the author’s name). This work, published at Amsterdam in 1699, contains Midrashic and cabalistic explanations of Genesis, of no value whatever. However, of considerable value to the historian, as records of an eye-witness, are the numerous scattered references to the persecution of the Jews of Poland during the years 1648 and 1655. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gurland, Le-Korot ha-Gezerot, v. 75; Stein- schneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 2409; Zunz, Literaturyeseh, 439, K, L. G. AUERBACH, SIMEON. FaMILy. AUERBACH, SIMON (ZE’EB) WOLF B. DAVID TEBELE: Talmudist and rabbi of sev- eral large communities; born at Posen about 1550; died Nov. 12, 1631, at Prague. His father was either rabbi or, at least, an eminent Talmudic authority in Posen; and his father-in-law was Solomon b. Jehiel Luria, whom he succeeded, after the latter’s death, in the rabbinate of Lublin (1578-84). Before this, however, he had officiated as rabbi of the communi- ties of Turbin and Lubomil, Poland. At Lublin he had a bitter quarrel with the celebrated Talmudist of that town, Meir b. Gedaliah (Maharam). The latter apparently had at this time no official appoint- ment at Lublin, but was the leader of one of the largest yeshibot; and by virtue of his great Tal- mudic authority, he had it in his power to make it very unpleasant for the rabbi of his community. Although the two men had been friends before Auerbach entered upon his office (compare MaHa- Ram, Responsum No. 27), this relation was dis- turbed when Auerbach, as rabbi of the community, became the superior of MaHaRam. In addition there was an ancient feud between Luria and Maha- ram’s father, which passed over to their sons. Auerbach left Lublin, in order to accept the rab- binate of Przemys}, retiring after a few years to Posen, as he had private means. In 1621 he was appointed chief rabbi of his native place. Auerbach’s great reputation is evident from the See AUERBACH Auerbach Augury ee : fact that the community of Posen set aside in his favor the statutory law under which no native of the city could be appointed chief rabbi. In Posen, also, Auerbach’s position was not entirely pleasant; for, while he was chief rabbi, Benjamin of Morawczyk was the “rosh yeshibah” (head of the college), and difficulties frequently arose between thetwo. Hence Auerbach, who had refused a call to Viennaas rabbi in 1628, accepted that position in the following year. He did not stay there long, however, being appointed chief rabbi of Prague, and district rabbi of Bohemia. While in oftice at Prague he had a quarrel with his predecessor, Lippmann Heller, who had been re- mo+ed from office by the government. Auerbach wrote several works, none of which has been preserved, nor are any of the names of his many pupils known. According to the testimony of his contemporaries, Auerbach was not only a renowned Talmudist, as is evidenced by the posi- tions he held in the largest connnunity of Poland and of Austria, but a man of inflexible and fearless character, as his controversies with many of his col- Jeagues have demonstrated. BIBLIOGRAPHY : Bloch, Simon Wolf Auerbach, Oberrahbiner von Grosspolen, in Gedenkbuch zur Erinnerung an Darid Kaufmann. Breslau, 1900; Lewinstein, in Ha-Goren, i. 41-43 (many of whose statements are inaccurate; ¢.9., there was in Amsterdam no Solomon Aboab, who is alleged to have been the umpire in acontroversy between Auerbach and Maharam); Lieben, Gal-Ed, pp. 75,76 (epitaph), German part, p. 62; Nis- senbaum, Le-Korot ha-Yehudim be-Lublin, pp. 28, 24, Lub- lin, 1899 (see also the remarks therein_of Harkavy, Buber, and Lewinstein ; it isdoubtful whether the period given by Nissen- baum for Auerbach’s activity at Lublin is correct). K L. G. AUERBACH, SOLOMON HEYMANN: He- brew scholar; born at Posen at the end of the cight- centh century; died there in 18386. He translated Habakkuk into German with explanatory notes (Breslau, 1821). He also collaborated in the trans- lation of the Bible undertaken by Zunz, for which he furnished the translation of Ecclesiastes, on which book he wrote also a Hebrew commentary (Breslau, 18377). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinscbneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 763; Winter and Wiinsche, Jiidische Literatur, tii. 745. I. Br. L. G. AUGSBURG: Capital of the districts of Swabia and Neuburg, Bavaria. According to tradition, it is one of the oldest Jewish communities in Germany. The first doc- umentary mention of the city is in 1259; but indi- vidual Jews of Augsburg are spoken of earlier. Of the six houses belong- ing to the church-chap- ter, and mortgaged in 1259 by Bishop Hart- mann of Augsburg, one is described as “a Jew- ish house.” In 1276 the congregation possessed a synagogue and a cemetery. The chief occupation of the Jews of Augsburg was money-lending; trade in meat and wine was also permitted with certain limitations. In 1316 the Jews of Augsburg must have been affiu- ent, for the city of Munich mortgaged its revenues Seal of the Jews of Augsburg, 1298. (From “ Literaturblatt des Orients.”’) THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA a SS SS Se ee es 306 to them for six years. Thirteen years later the Jews (that is, the revenues from them) were pledged by the emperor to the counts of Oget. tingen, and by the latter to the family of Hoheneck. In 1364 the council of Augsburg acquired possession of them, The city owed large sums to the Jews, and to liqui- date them instituted, in 1341, forced loans from the citizens. The bishop’s debts to the Jews were can. celed in part by CharlesIV. When the Black Death raged in 1848, and the Jews in Augsburg were mag. sacred, the emperor pardoned the burghers for the crime. In 1349 the bishop again reccived Jews into the city, but six years later transferred to the city council both the duty of protecting them and the priy. ilege of taxing them. The emperor demanded 10,000 gulden (1 gulden = 414 cents) from the Jews of Augs. burg in 1378; and the council vainly sought to pro. tect them from this amercement. In 1884 they had to pay to the council 22.000 gulden; and in 1385 Kine Wenzel canceled all debts owing tothe Jews. King Sigismund, in 1429, pledged them to Count von Pap- penheim, to whom they had to pay 200 gulden yearly, The council bought back this right from Pappen- heim in 1439. A year later 3800 Jews were expelled from the city, and the gravestones in their cemetery were used in the construction of acity halt. In 1456 Frederick IT. demanded that the city deliver to him “all his privileges”; he was appeased by the pay- ment of 18,000 gulden, for which the city retained the right toadmit orto expel Jews. From that time no Jews were permitted to dwell in Augsburg. In 1540 the council decided that Jews might stay no longer than a day anda night in the town; and they had to pay the officer who accompanied them during their stay one “sechser” for the service. In 1601 it was forbidden to borrow money of Jews. During the Thirty Years’ war some Jews came to Augsburg. These were officially plundered from time to time under threat of being expelled; in 1649 they were again driven out; and in 1680 the former edicts of expulsion were revived and intensified. While the War of the Spanish Succession raged, a few Jewsagain ventured into the city; The Jews and in 1704 there were 62 families res- Persecuted. ident there. In 1718 even their tem- porary sojourn was again forbidden. From 1741 to 1745, Jews were again permitted to dwell in Augsburg on account of the War of the Austrian Succession. In 1742 they were 36 fam- ilies; but they were driven out again in 1745. The council made an agreement with the Jews of the surrounding villages in 1751 to the effect that for the yearly payment of 1,100 gulden they might have free admission to the city for trading-purposes. In the years following, the council endeavored to Te strict their commercial undertakings; but in 1791 edicts were issued, protecting the Jews against ill- treatment and pillage. They were again in the city during the French war of 1796. Of interest is the medieval seal of the congregation, with its inscription, partly in Latin and partly i Hebrew, surrounding a two-headed eagle, and with a conical hat above all (“Literaturblatt des Ori ents,” 1842, col. 73). In “Monatsschrift,” 1861, (P. 280) mention is made of a “Jewish congregational Affluence of Jews. 307 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA dance-house” in Augsburg (1290). Numerous He- prew books, distinguished for their beautiful typography, were printed there be- Ancient tween the years 1514 and 1543. Congrega- Of the various rabbis of the congre- tional gation of Augsburg mention must be Dance- made of the venerable Senior, who in House. 1348, aneighty-four-vear-old sage. was assassinated while poring over his. books. Elijah of Augsburg wrote @ commentary upon Moses of Coucy’s “Sefer Mizwot Gadol” (Semag), which exists in manuscript in the Vatican library ; Jacob Weil, son of Judah, one of the most distinguished rabbis in Germany in the fifteenth cen- tury, was alsoof Augsburg. The cemetery adjacent to the town served as the burial-place for five com- munities of Swabia. The new congregation has been in existence since 1861. In 1862 Dr. Hirschfeld was appointed rabbi; and he was succeeded by Hein- rich Gross. The congregation now (1900) numbers 1,156 members. Hebrew typography is coeval with the study of the Hebrew language in Germany. In 1514 Erhard Oeglin printed the Decalogue and several parts of the New Testament in Boeschenstein’s Early “Elementale Jntroductorium in He- Hebrew braas Literas,” which is embellished Printing. with an elaborate border, falsely as- cribed to Hans Holbein. Actual print- ing in Hebrew was practised by the traveling printer Hayyim Schwarz, who in 1583 completed the Me- gillot and Rashi’s Commentary on the Pentateuch as the first printed production in Augsburg. On Jan. 19, 15384, the Passover Haggadah was completed; and in the same year there was published at Augs- burg by ananonymous author a guide to correspond- ence which became very popular during the seven- teenth century. Previous to 1536 there successively appeared a daily prayer-book (“tefillah”), a festival prayer-book (“mahzor”), and a penitential prayer. book (“selihot ”), all according to the German ritual. With his son Isaac and his son-in-law Josef b. Yakar, Schwarz in 1540 published the “Turim” of Jacob b. Asher, and “ Abkat Rokel” (The Merchant’s Spicebox), a work ascribed to one Makir. These were followed by the Book of Kings (1543), and the Book of Samuel (1544), both in Judseo-German rime. All of these ty pographical productions are exceed- ingly beautiful, and may be classed among the rarest specimens of the printer’sart. In 1544 Paulus #mil- ius, later professor at Ingolstadt, edited at Augsburg a Judzo-German Pentateuch. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Stobbe, Die Juden in Deutschland Wtihrend des Mittelalters, Brunswick, 1866; idem, Geseh. der Juden in der Reichsstadt Augsburg, Augsburg, 1803; Salfeld, Martyrologium des Ntirnberger Memorbuches, p. 244; Die Augsburger Juden in Mittelalter, in Israclit, 1878, Nos. 8-12; and the literature collected by Burkhardt and Stern, in Zeit. fiir Gesch. der Juden in Deutsehland, iii. 109, 110; Steipschneider, Zeitschrift fiir die Gesch. der Ju- den in Deutschland, pp. 282-287; idem. Cat. Boal. col. 1395; Ersch and Gruber, Enceyklopdidie, § 2, xxviii. 49. A. F. G.-—J. AUGURY : Originally, prophesying by the flight of birds; but later the term was applied to all forms of foretelling (augur = avt-gur, olwvdc, otwrieraé, etc. ). Augury was first systematized by the Chaldeans. The Greeks were addicted to it; and among the | | | Auerbach Augury Romans no important action of state was under- taken without the advice of theaugurs. In fact, the belief in augury has existed at all times, among the uncivilized as well as the most civilized nations, to the present day, the wish to know the future con- tinually giving rise to some art of peering into it. The various species of Augury, however, depend on the conditions of external nature, race peculiari- ties, and historical influences. The future was fore- told by the aspect of the heavens (ASTROLOGY); by dreams, lots, oracles, and such things; Kinds of orspirits were invoked (NECROMANCY), Augury. and the TerapHiw and UriM AnD THUMMIM were questioned. As these forms of prognostication, as well as the pagan method, DIVINATION, are treated under their several. headings, this article will be devoted to Augury in the strict sense of the word, including, however, all predictions dependent on chance happenings. All signs and intimations coming under the concepts “nihush ” (whisper) and “siman” (omen) belong to Jewish Augury, the history of which may be divided into Biblical, Talmudic, and medieval periods. _——In Bible Times: Theobservation of the flight of birds for the purpose of prophesying, or as a prognostication, is not expressly mentioned in the Bible. That it was not unknown, however, is shown in Eccl. x. 20, “fora bird of the air shall carry the voice, and that which hath wings shall tell the matter.” This knowledge may also be assumed in view of the fact that among the Arabs the raven was a bird of omen. The Greek version several times trans- lates “nahash” by otwvd¢; but this word, like the Latin “augurium,” means any kind of prognostica- tion, aud not merely that by the flight or the cry of birds. It isneverthelessa curious fact that tradition also originally applied the prognostication designated by nahash to the omens derived from animals. Jo- seph practised hydromancy. He divined (nahash) the future by pouring water into a cup, throwing little pieces of gold or jewels into the fluid, observing the tigures that were formed, and predicting accordingly (Gen. xliv. 5, according to Dillman’s commentary). Laban found out in a similar way (nahash) that God blessed him on account of Jacob (Gen. xxx. 27). King Manasseh also practised this species of divina- tion (II Kings xxi. 6; II Chron. xxxiii. 6), Another method consisted in observing the signs from staves planted upright or flung on the ground (“Cyril of Alex.” in Winer, “B. R.” ii. 678), a Flight of Birds. Hydro- method that is not identical with the mancy, arrow oracle (Hosea iv. 12; perhaps Rhabdo- Ezek. viii. 17; compare Num. xvii. mancy, 16 ef seg.). Ezekiel (xxi. 26 [A. V. and Bel- 21]) speaks of the arrow oracle of the omancy. king of Babylon; but the prophet Elisha also directs the Israelite king Joash to shoot two arrows through the window in order to find out whether Joash will vanquish the Aramaic king (IT Kings xiii. 14-19). Accidental occurrences (4yvya)are of great impor- _fance in divination, and may be taken as omens (07- ucia = “siman”). Kliezer, Abraham’s servant, said : “T stand at the well. . . and the damsel to whom I shall say, Let down thy pitcher, I vray thee, that I Augury may dink; and she shall say, Drink, and I will give thy camels drink also, let the same be the wife ap- pointed by God for Isaac” (Gen. xxiv. Omens, 12-19). Jonathan, when he is about to Accidental attack the Philistines, says: * Behold, and Others. we will pass over unto these men, and we will discover ourselves unto them. If they say thus unto us, Tarry until we come to you; then we will stand still in our place, and will not goup unto them. But if they say thus, Come up unto us; then we will go up: for the Lord hath delivered them into our hand; and this shall bea sign unto us” (1 Sam. xiv. 8-11). The prophet Isaiaheven gives to the pious king Hezekiah a sign, as an indication that he will get well (I Kings xx. 9). The Lord commands Gideon to choose those warriass who lap the water with their tongues like a dog, but to reject those who get down on their knees to drink (Judges vii. 5). The diviners advised the Piilistines to send back the Ark of the Lord in order that the deaths among them might cease: *“*Nov therefore make a new cart, and take two milch kine, on whith there hath come no yoke, and tie the kine to the cart, and bring their calves home from them. And take the ark of the Low, and lay it upon the cart; and put the jewels of gold, which ze return him for a trespass offering, in a coffer by the side thereof; and send it away, that it may go. And see, if it goeth up by the way of his own coast to Beth-shemesh, then he hath done us this great evil: but if not, then we shall know that it s not his hand that smote us; it was a chance that hap- pened ous. ... And the kine took the straight way to the way of Betl-shemesh, and went along the highway, lowing as they went, nd turned not aside to the right hand or to the left” (f Sam, vi. 7-12). King David listens to a sound in the tops of the trees vhen heasks God whether he shall goagainst the Philistines (II Sam. v. 24), a fact that reminds us of gvzourwreia and “sihat dekalin ” (compare below; also “elor me‘onenim,” Judges ix. 37; and Baudissin, “Stulien zur Vergicichenden Semitischen Religions- gescl.” ii. 194, note 4). The incident of Balaam, who attempted prognostication on a hill, refers perhaps to scme divination of this kind, since he too uses the characteristic word “nahash” (Num. xxiii. 23). It is highly improbable that the Hebrews prognos- ticated from the drifting of the clouds, as has been assuned from j)y (derived from jay, cloud); nor was iny attention paid to the lightning flash, which belonged to Augury among the Romans. Tle Law strictly and repeatedly forbade all Au- gury (Lev. xix. 26; Deut. xviii. 10, ete.). The inter- pretation of signs, however, as in the case of Eliezer and Jonathan, where nothing was done in the way of conjuration, was not considered to be Augury. ——The Talmudic Period: Augury is more fre- queitly referred to in post-Biblical times, but it would be rash to assume therefore that it was more widely practised. As among the classical peoples of aatiquity and among the Germans to-day, the arts of Augury proved effective only with the person whc believed in them, and only such a person was injured by them (Yer. Shab. 8d; Bab. Ned. 82; L. Blau, “ Das Altjiidische Zauberwesen,” p. 77, note 4). The prohibition in Lev. xix. 26 GQwnman x5, “neither shall ye use enchantment”) is referred by Sifra on thai passage (ed. Weiss, p. 90) to divination by means of veasels, fowls, and stars, meaning the omens found in tie flight and cries of birds and in similar signs; THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 308 while Sifre, Deut. 171 takes it in a still more genera] sense, saying: “ Who is a menahesh [enchanter]? He, for instance, who says: ‘My bread fell out of my mouth’; or ‘ My staff out of my hand’; or ‘A snake crept to my right’; ‘A fox ran to my left and his tail crossed my path’; furthermore, he who says: ‘Do not begin anything to-day, because it is the new moon’; or ‘ It is Friday’; or ‘ It is the Sabbath eve- ning.’” Inthe parallel passage, Sanh. 65d, other evil omens are added; namely, if a man’s son calls after him; if a raven croaks at him, or a deer gets in his way; and more explicitly, if one avoids being the first to pay the tax. The belief in animal omens was widely spread among the Babylonians, who also divined by the behavior of fish, as was well Known (Lenormant, “Die Magie und Wahrsagerei der Chaldier,” p. 473. Biau, Z.c. pp. 45 et seg.; Pauly-Wissowa, “ Real-En- cy klopidie der Classischen Alterthumswissenschaft,” iv. 1397, iy@vouavréia). Snake and cloud omens were also known (Levy, “Chal. Worterb.” ii. 1020). Augury proper was known among the Jews, but was considered as a foreign Roman or Arabic art. Josephus narrates (“ Ant.” xviii. 6, 8 7; xix. 8, § 2) that a bird (an ow}) alighted on the tree against which Agrippa was leaning while a prisoner Flightand at Rome; whereupon a fellow pris- Cries oner, a German, prophesied that he of Birds. would become king, but that if the bird appeared a second time, it would mean he woulddie. The third of the SibyHine Books (line 224) says about the Jews: “They do not con- sider the omens of flight as observed by the augur- ers.” In the account of the martyrdom of Isaiah (“ Ascensio Jesaise,” li. 5) it is stated that in the time of King Manasseh not only magic and other crimes increased, but also Augury by the flight of birds, which is denoted by “we-nihesh” (II Kings xxi. 6). According to the Aristeas Letter (S$ 165 et seq.), the weasel is the symbol of the informer. This appar- ently has some connection with the ausprcvum. Augury and astrology are “the wisdom of the Fast,” mentioned in J Kings v. 10 (Pesik. 338, pyyty sys oworyy moma). By the “bird of the air” (Eccl. x. 20) is meant the raven, in Augury, says a Palestinian teacher of the Talmud of the third cen- tury (Lev. R. xxxii. 2; compare ‘Aruk, 8.0. ny WY pana npsn2anyn; Blau, Zc. p. 48, note 2). The Arabic expression itself, as well as the mention of the raven, the bird of omen of the Arabs, proves that Arabic Augury is here referred to. When Rab ‘lish was in prison a man who understood the lan- guage of the birds interpreted to him the cry of a raven as meaning “‘Ilish” (flee!), “‘Ilish” (flee!). Rab paying no attention—the raven being prover- bially a liar—a dove addressed him, and when her cry was interpreted in the same way, he obeyed the warning and escaped, since the dove means Israel; that is, the dove is Israel’s bird of omen (Git. 494, bottom). The place where the flight of birds was observed is also mentioned (NII; Targ. Yer. to Num. xxxi. 10; compare Sifre on the passage, and Levy, /.c. ii. 157a). With one exception the doves of Herod cried Kipie, Kipee (lord. lord!); and when this one was taken to task by the others, she cried veto; that is, “Herod was a slave ”—whereupon she Fe OUEa LOE a CaO CRIED UES Deer wn tte Ya wy ee etetae Niemen kee de eo sree 16h pn ly te am 309 was killed by the followers of Herod. R. Kahana understood this conversation (Hul. 189); ‘Aruk, s.v. “Pp; Levy, é.c. ii. 824), The Romans also understood the language of the birds (Pauly-Wissowa, @.c.i., xxvii. 51; Ixxxvi. 29). Judah does not dare, even in a whisper, to advise the emperor Antoninus to proceed against the nobles of Rome; for the birds carry the voice onward (‘Ab. Zarah 102; compare Lenormant, é.c. p. 451). God is angry each day for one minute (Ps. xxx. 6) during the first three hours; thatis the time wheu the comb of the cock turns white, or when not a single red stripe is to be found in his comb, and he stands on one leg. R. Joshua ben Levi, who wanted to seize this moment to curse a heretic who had offended him, tied a cock and watched him intently, and in doing so he involuntarily fell asleep (Ber. 7a; ‘Ab. Zarah 46; Sanh. 105d). The Babylonians divined also by flies (Lenormant, l.c. p. 472). In this connection arose perhaps the saying that no fly alighted on the table of the prophet Elisha (see BEELZEBUB). The language of trees, which the ancient peoples, especially the Babylo- nians, are sail to have understood, was probably known to the Babylonian Jews as early as the eighth century (Blau, J.c. p. 47; “Knistern des Lorbeers Glickbringend,” in Pauly-Wissowa, J.c. i. 66, note 24). Thus Abraham Jearned from the sighing of the tamarisk-tree that his end was nigh (see ABRAHAM, TESTAMENT OF). Lev. xix. 26, 3239yN ab is trans- lated by the Septuagint KAndovifecGac ; ¢.e., to divine by soundsand noises (compare Griinbaum, in “Z. D. M. G.” xxxi, 253 et seq.). | To interrogate Chaldeans (Pes.1133, etc.) or to practise divination in general is not permitted. He who abstains from so doing is admitted into a section of the heavens which even the ministering angels may notenter (Ned. 82a). But since desire often out- balances precept,a fundamental difference was made by setting up the rule: “There is no such thing as divination, but there are prognostications” ( Kw ‘DYN, pO. Ww wry, Yer. Shab. 8c; Bacher, “Ag. Pal. Amor.” ii. 25, note 5). The Romans also distin- guished between greater and lesser divinations, call- ing the latter signs (oyueta, “signa,” 19°D; see Deren- bourg-Saglio, “ Dictionnaire des Antiquités Grecques et Romaines,” ji. 2935, bottom). Such, for instance, are the signs of Eliezer (Gen. xxiv.), of Jonathan (I Sam. xiv.), and also Gen. xxxviii. 11, and xlii. 36; the last-named also leading to the conclusion that every sign had to be repeated three Prognosti- times. In consequence of this distinc- cations. tion even the most eminent amoraimn made use of certain signs. Rab looked upon it as a favorable omen if the ship that ferried him came to meet him, but as a bad omen if it was not ready. Samuel opened his Bible for a chance intimation. Johanan madea boy recite a Bible verse with the same purpose. When in passing a school he heard a boy say “Samuel has died” (I Sam. xxv. 1), he took it as anomen and did not visit the amora of that name as he had intended todo. The expres- sion “a house, a wife, and a child give signs” must mean that signs may be taken from them, Rashi to the contrary notwithstanding (Yer. Shab. 8¢, bottom ; Hul. 953; Gen. R. Ixxxv. 5, commentaries). « THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Augury Boys were often used by diviners to peer into the future, being for that purpose bewitched by magic formulas (Pauly-Wissowa, J.¢c. iv. 1899). The Tal- mud says, curiously enough (B. B. 124, where two cases are cited): “Since the destruction of the Tem- ple, prophecy has been given into the hands of the insane and of children.” The Jewish view is not far removed from the Greco-Roman one; namely, that the insane were possessed by demons. Bewitch- ment was strictly forbidden, as was generally the interrogation of demons, except by means of oil or eggs, to find a lost article; but “the princes of oil and of eggs lie” (Sanh. 101a; compare DEMONOLOGY and Divination). This view of R. Johanan (died 279) explains that he often sought advice from boys with the formula, “ Tell me thy verse!” meaning the verse which the boy had just learned, or which came into his mind at that moment (Hag. 15a; Meg. 280; Git. Sia, 68a, etc.; Horowitz, “Sammlung Kleiner Mid- rashim,” p. 69, “mah pasukekem”), The same teacher of the Talmud says that if any one happens to remember a verse of the Bible early in the morn- ing, itisa prophecy in miniature (Ber. 57),’the pro- phetic element being in such cases the accidental. He looked upon a voice which he heard accidentally behind him as being a divination, and followed it; for it is written. (Isa. xxx, 21), “Thine ears shall hear a word behind thee, saying, This is the way, walk ye in it.” But, says the Talmud, the voice must be an unusual one, such as a man’s voice in a city, or awoman’s voice in a desert (Yer. Shab. 8c; Bab. Meg. 82a). Other teachers of the Talmud also paid attention to this kind of voice, which was called Bat Kou. Two persons intending to visit a sick teacher said, “We will be guided by the Bat Kol,” whereupon they heard one woman say to an- other, “The light has gone out.” Then they said, “Tt shall not go out, and may the light of Israel never be extinguished” (2d.). As among other peo- ples, the Jews also considered the last words of the dying as divinations. Thus Eliezer ben Hyrkanus and Samuel ha-Katan prophesied the martyrdom of several scholars (Sanh. 68@ and ila; Pauly-Wis- sowa, l.c. i. 92, note 11). Some other omens must be mentioned, called “siman,” although not all strictly belonging to the subject in hand. It isa bad sign for any person to make a mistake in his prayers, but a good sign to know them fluently (Mishnah Ber. v., end; compare Talmud 346, bottom, and 246, top). It isa bad sign for the remainder of the year if it rains after Nisan or at the Sukkot festival; or if the wine does. not turn out well; orif the Feast of Weeks fall on the fifth of the month. If there is fine weather on the day of that feast it is a good omen for the world (Mishnah Ta‘anit 12a, 24; Ab. R. N. i. 4; Tosef., ‘Ar. i. 9: see Ab. R. N. ii. 838 and Sifre i. 112, and in general Levy, “Neuhebr. Worterb.” and Krauss, “Griechische und Lateinische Lehnwéorter,” under the word {p°D). It is a good sign for sick people to. sneeze (Blau, Le. p. 168; Tylor, Zc. i. 98-100, Ger- man ed.). Generally much attention was paid to omens (8°77 sntp N3D'D, an omen is a thing to be considered). In order to find out if one will live the year through, one must take a candle during the ten Other Omens. Augury. Augusti THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 319 ES SS OS ee ee ne days between New-year and the Day of Atonement, and light it ina house where there is no draft; if the candle burn to the socket, that one will live the year through. In order to know if some matter of bust- ness will succeed, one must feed a hen; if she grow fat and plump, the matter in hand will succeed. In order to know if one will return home from a jour- ney, one must go into a dark room, and if one see there the “shadow of the shadow,” one will return. The Talmud discourages, however, recourse to these oracles given by R. Ami, as a person becomes low- spirited if they are unfavorable (Ker. 5%, bottom, Hor. 12a). The first form of Augury reminds of pyromancy; the second, of the feeding of chickens {the “tripudium ” of the Romans). —In the Middle Ages: It may be said in general that the philosophers were averse to Augury, as well as to any other form of superstition. This is true especially of Maimonides, who, although bound by the Talmudic tradition, was not inclined to make any concessions on this point (Hilk. ‘Ab. Zarah xi. 4,5). The Talmudists, again, for whom the Tal- mud was the decisive authority, could not accept all the utterances and stories found therein. Hence @ curious discrepancy between theory and practise arose, asindeed is found in the Talmuditself. While, on the one hand, everything that at all suggests idol- atry is strictly forbidden, much, on the other hand, js permitted, or practised in spite of the interdiction, probably in consequence of overwhelming popular opinion (see Tur and Shulhan ‘Aruk, Yoreh De‘ah. 178-179, together with the commentaries). Expressly heathenish practises, however, were mercilessly con- demned. The mystics readily accepted all such be- liefs, since all superstitious practises coincided with their views of the world. Moreover, a part of the people could never wean itself from these views. As Giidemann has shown in his “Gesch. der Cul- tur der Juden in Frankreich und Deutschland,” the Jewsof Europe were greatly influenced by the super- ‘stitions of the peoples in the midst of whom they were living. A few examples only may here be given. Judah the Pious (died 1216 at Regensburg), who was highly venerated by his contemporaries, and especially during the thirteenth century, gives jn his “Book of the Pious” a mass of superstitions. He condemns on the whole the “interpretation of signs, which to-day is so much practised in Israel,” and declares that the choosing of a day Germany (forinstance, starting children in their and France. schooling only on the new moon) is idolatry. He admits; however, that there are certain reliable signs, of which he would rather not speak in order not to lead others into superstition. Thus the itching of the foot indicates that one will go to an unknown place; of the ears, that one will hear something new; of the eye, that one will see or read something new; of the hand, that one will receive money (Gtidemann, J.c. i. 200 et seg., S$ 59 and 162). This superstition is so firmly rooted as to be given credence to-day. Any one who, during the night or the day, sces his own shadow or form with closed mouth and eyes will die soon (/.c. & 547). R. Moses of Coucy (about 1250) explains ppp iNwpp (Deut. xviii. 10) to be a form of divination still practised in Slavonia at his time. Slivers of wood, from which the bark had been removed on one side, were thrown into the air, and according ag they fell on the peeled or on the barked side, the omen was favorable or unfavorable. Flames leaping up on the hearth indicated that a guest was coming, Cup and nail divination was practised. Children were made to look into glasses filled with water, into crystals, etc., while invoking a demon, the pictures they saw being then interpreted. For nail divina- tion the children looked upon the finger-nail (Giide- mann, J.c. $$ 82 and 208, note 1). Asher ben Jehie] thought it permissible to find out a thief by means of divination (Yoreh De‘ah, 179), a proceeding that elsewhere is described in detail (Giidemann, 1.¢. § 208, note 1). In France and Germany in the thir- teenth century the future was foretold by means of the “name of interpretation ” ( “shem ha-meforash ”), a species of the name of God, to the astonishment of the Spaniard Nahmanides (/.c. § 222). The book “Nishmat Hayyim,” by Manasseh ben Israel, a celebrated Dutch rabbi, is a mine of infor- mation respecting all kinds of superstition. Al- though a highly educated man, well versed in the knowledge of his time, one who could even enter into negotiations with Cromwell regarding ‘‘Nishmat the returnof the Jews to England, the Hayyim.” author believed in every superstition. In the nineteenth chapter of the third treatise of his book he rejects the opinion of Maimon- ides, who declared all the black arts to be lies and deceptions, and refers for the veracity of rhabdo- mancy even to the Chinese and the wild Africans. He knows the kinds of divination mentioned above, and speaks also of chiromancy and others. The cabalistic works, to which Manasseh’s book be- longs, include of course also other directions for fore- telling the future, a practise that obtains even to-day among the uneducated and among persons given to mysticism. In Baden, Germany, coins and beansare used, the diviner prognosticating according to their position and thestamp on thecoins. Anearlier form of divination, for finding a drowned person, was to let a wooden bow] float on the water. Wherever it stopped, the corpse lay on the bottom (Grtnwald, “Mitteilungen,” i. 111). On pagan methods of prog- nostication (xar’ éfoxqv), see DIVINATION. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Winer, B. R. ii. 672; Hamburger, R. B. T. iii., supplement 3; A. Dillmann, Handbuch der _Alttesta- mentlichen Theologie, Leipsic, 1895; R. Smend, Lehrbuch der Alttestamentlichen Religionsgesch. 1st ed., 1898, 2d ed., 1899; T. W. Davies, Magic, Divination, and Demonology, London and Leipsic, 1899; D. Joel, Der Aberglaube und die Stellung des Judenthums zu Demselben, Breslau, 1881; L. Blau, Das -Altjiidische Zauberwesen, Strasburg, 1898 ; Giide- mann, Geach. der Cultur der Juden tr Frankreich und Deutschland, Vienna, 1880; Lenormant, Die Magie und Wahrsageret der Chalddéer; Daremberg-Saglio, Diction- naire des Antiquités Grecques et Romaines, 1. 550; Pauly- Wissowa, Real-Encyklopddie der Classischen Alterthums- wissenschaft, ii. 2313; Ennemoser, Gesch. der Magie, p. 1; E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture, s.v. Augury. K. L. B. AUGUSTA: The capital of Richmond county, Georgia, received its first Jewish settlers about 1829, when a Mr. Florence arrived with his wife. About a year later, Isaac and Jacob Moise and Isaac Hen- dricks and his wife came there from Charleston; their number was added to by others from the same place, and subsequent to 1844 Jews from Germany begaD Al ee 9 find their way to Augusta (Markens, “The He- yews in America,” p. 118). It has a congregation, pildren of Israel, organized in 1850. The relig- pus services were originally held in a hall, where pe Sunday-school children also received their In- yruction. The first rabbi was Rev. H. 8. Jacobs, sho held that position from 1860 to 1865. During pe Civil war many Israclites from Charleston came o Augusta, thus considerably increasing the mem- yrs of the congregation. During that time a ceme- ery Was acquired and a benevolent society formed. denry S. Jacobs was called to New Orleans, and sas succeeded by Rev. Fisher-Fux, 1869. Rev. A. glum was called to the pulpit, and he succeeded in Synagogue at Augusta, Ga. (From a photograph.) getting a permanent building. Until then the serv- ices were strictly orthodox, a mixture of the Por- tuguese and Ashkenazic rites. In the fall of 1870 the synagogue was completed and dedicated by its min- ister. Family pews were introduced, an organ and mixed choir took the place of the old chanting, the Jastrow prayer-book was adopted, and the Sun- day-school placed on a modern footing. Rev. Lev- inson was minister, 1871-76; E. 8. Levy, 1876-86; Leo Reich, 1886-87. In 1887 A. Blum was recalled, but remained only one year. J. H. M. Chumaceiro was minister from 1888-94; the present rabbi is J. Feuerlicht. The congregation has, besides the benevolent so- ciety, a ladies’ aid society, and a Sunday-school with five teachers, attended (1900) by fifty pupils. There is also a Russian Polish congregation in Augusta, THE JEWISIE ENCYCLOPEDIA Augury Augusti called Adas Jesechurun;: this synagogue is on Tenth and Greene streets. Prominent Israelites of Augusta have been: Sam- uel Levy, who was judge of the probate court from 1866 to 1877; Isaac Levy, who held the position of sheriff for many years; Hon. Adolph Brand, who was a member of the Georgia legislature. The Jewish population of Augusta numbers about 600 in a total of 47,000. The Israelites are mostly merchants, but there are some cotton brokers and lawyers. A. A. Bo. AUGUSTI, FRIEDRICH ALBRECHT (orig- inally Joshua ben Abraham Herschel): German author; born at Frankfort-on-the-Oder in 1691; died at Eschberge May 13, 1782. He reccived the usual Jewish education of that time. According to a biography, printed anonymously during his life- time and probably inspired by him, he left home very young in the company of a meshullah, or col- lector of alms for the poor of Palestine of the name of Yekutiel, intending to accompany him to the Holy Land. While on the way Augusti was taken captive by Tatar robbers and sold asa slave in Tur- key. He was ransomed and set free at Smyrna by a wealthy Jew from Podolia, and went to Poland, spending several years in Pintzov, which is now in the government of Kielce, in Russian Poland. Here the Jews and Socinians lived on terms of in- timate friendship, and through them young . 5). The authentication is simply a judicial affirmation of the correctness of the signature of the subscribing wit- ness, and the truth of the facts set forth in the docu- ment is not directly in issue (Ket. 109%, top; Hoshen Mishpat, @.c. 20). In order that there might be no danger of the authentication being used for some other instrument, the rule was adopted that no space must be left between the document and the authentication, but that the latter must be written immediately under the signature of the witnesses, or on the back of the instrument immediately behind the writing (B. B. 163a; Hoshen Mishpat, 46, 31). If, however, the 337 space between the signatures of the witnesses and the authentication is filled up by lines and dots, it is sufficient (db. 32 et seg.). Maimonides (“ Yad,” Mal- weh, xxvii. 6) and Caro (Hoshen Mishpat, /.c.) seem to have been of the opinion that the authentica- tion could be written alongside of the document. Although an authenticated document was in the nature of a public record, and had all the faith and credit given to it as such, nevertheless the question of its genuineness could be raised. If any such question arose, it was sufficient for two of the sub- scribing judges to acknowledge their signatures to the authentication. Other rules concerning the proof of authenticated instruments, when the same are attested, are stated by the Shulhan ‘Aruk, Hoshen Mishpat, 46, 14-16, 37, 38. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Ket. 18b-22a; B. B. 159a, 1680 et seq.; Mai- monides, Yad, ‘Edut, vi.-viii, Shuthan ‘Aruk, Hoshen Mishpat, 46; Zacharias Frankel, Der Geriehtliche Beweis, pp. 414 et seq.; Talmudic Lexica, s.v. Asharta, Henpek, kiyyum; Moses Bloch, Die Civil Processordnung, pp. 59 et seq. J. SR. D. W. A. AUTHORITY, RABBINICAL: The power or right of deciding the Law, in dubious cases, or of interpreting, modifying, or amplifying, and oc- casionally of abrogating it, as vested in the Rabbis as its teachers and expounders, In Biblical times the Law was chiefly in charge of the priests and the Levites; and the high court of justice at Jerusalem, which formed the highest tri- bunal to decide grave and difficult questions, was also composed of priests and Levites (Deut. xvii. 9, 18; xxxi. 9; xxxiil. 10; Jer. xviii. 18; Mal. ii. 7; II Chron. xix. 8, 11; xxxi. 4). Inthe last two pre- Christian centuries and throughout the Talmudical times the Scribes (“Soferim”), also called “The Wise” (“Hakamim ”), who claimed to have received the true interpretation of the Law as “the tradition of the Elders or Fathers” in direct line from Moses, the Prophets, and the men of the Great Synagogue {Abot i. 1; Josephus, “Ant.” xiii. 10, $6; 16, § 2; x. 4,8 1; “Contra Ap.” i. 8; Matt. xv. 2), included people from all classes. They formed the courts of justice in every town as well as the high court of . justice, the Sanhedrin, in Jerusalem, and to them was applied the law, Deut. xvii. 8-11, “ Thou shalt come... unto the judge that shall be in those dlays, . . . and thou shalt do according to the sen- tence which they . . . shall show thee; ... thou shalt not decline from the sentence which they shall show thee, to the right hand, nor to the left.” This is explained thus: Whosoever the judge of those dlays may be, if he be recognized as competent and blameless, whether he be a Jephthah, a Jerubbaal, ora Samuel, he is, by virtue of his position as chief of the court of justice, invested with the same author- ity as Moses (Sifre, Deut. 153; R. H. 25ad). Even when they decide that left should be right, or right left, when they are mistaken or misled in their judg- ment, they must be obeyed (R. H. 25a). Heaven itself yields to the authority of the earthly court of justice as to the fixing of the calendar and the fes- tival days (Yer. R. H. i. 57; compare also Mak. 22). The power of the Rabbis is a threefold one: (1) II—22 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Authentication Authority toamplify the Law either by prohibitory statutes for the prevention of transgressions (“ gezerot”) or by mandatory statutes for the improve- Powers of ment of the moral or religions life of the Rabbis. the people (“takkanot”), and by the introduction of new rites and customs (“minhagim ”); (2) to expound the Law according to certain rules of hermeneutics, and thereby evolve new statutes as impHed in the letter of the Law; and, finally, (8) to impart additional instruction based upon tradition. But the Rabbis were also empowered on critical occasions to abrogate or mod- ify the Law (see ABROGATION OF Laws and Accom- MODATION OF THE Law). In many instances where greater transgressions were to be prevented, or for the sake of the glory of God, or the honor of man, certain Mosaic laws were abrogated or temporarily dispensed with by the Rabbis (Mishnah Ber. ix. 5, 54a, 684; Yoma 69a; compare also Yeb. 900). In matrimonial matters the principle adopted is that, since marriages are, as a rule, contracted in accordance with the rabbinical statutes, the Rabbis have the right toannul any marriage which is not in conformity with their ruling (Yeb. 905). In money matters the Rabbis claimed the same right of confis- cation in cases when their ruling was disregarded as was exercised by Ezra (see Ezra x. 8; Git. 360). As to the validity of the decisions of the Rabbis, the following rules are to be considered : “ No rabbinical court [bet din] can impose laws or institute forms of practise which the majority of people can not without great hardship accept and observe” (‘Ab, Zarah 36a, B. B. 600). “No rabbinical court can abrogate laws and insti- tutions made by any other court, unless it is superior in both wisdom and number” (‘Eduyyot i. 5). If, however, such a prohibitory law has Dissenting been accepted by the entire Jewish Rabbis. people, no rabbinical court, even though superior to the one that intro- duced it, has the power of abrogating it (‘Ab. Zarah 365; Maimonides, “Yad,” Mamrim, ii. 4). In case two rabbis, or two rabbinical courts, differ in their opinions, the rule is that in questions con- cerning Mosaic laws the more rigid decision should prevail; in questions concerning rabbinical laws the more lenient decision should be followed (‘Ab. Za- rah 7a). “After one of rabbinical authority has declared a thing to be unclean, no one else has the power to declare it clean; after one rabbinical author- ity has forbidden a thing, no other can permit it” (Baraita in Nid. 203; Ber. 634). Ifa teacher dissents from the decision of the highest court, he may state his dissent and teach accordingly; but he is not al- lowed to oppose the authority of the court in prac- tise, in which case he falls under the category of a “zaken mamre” (a rebellious elder) (Deut. xvii. 12; ‘Eduyyot v. 6; B. M. 59d; Yer. ‘Ab. Zarah ii. 42d; Ber. 638¢). Asa matter of course, the Rabbinical Authority and legislative power rested with the entire body of the court of justice or rabbinical academy, and not with the president or patriarch only. Still, the more eminent the latter in knowledge and wisdom, the better he succeeded in making his opinion or prop- ositions prevail in the deliberation; and so the new Authorit Auto da Fe THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 338 measure or institution was ascribed to him, or to him and his bet din (R. H. ii. 5-9, iv. 1-4; Yeb. Te. and elsewhere). At any rate, the Nasi. Authority or patriarch, announced the decision, of Presi- proclaimed the New Moon, and rep- dent or resented on all official occasions the Patriarch. whole rabbinical body as its highest authority. The power of investing others with Rabbinical Authority was therefore pre- sumably his exclusive privilege. It is known that from the beginning of the third century before the common era, rabbinical authorization by the patri- arch consisted in the bestowal of authority and power (“reshut ”) to teach, to judge, and to grant permission regarding “the forbidden first-born among animals” (“yore yore, yadin yadin, yattir bekorot,” Sanh. 5a). But it is obvious that this is no longer the original form of rabbinical authoriza- tion. Far more significant and expressive of the idea of Rabbinical Authority are the words used by Jesus when ordaining Peter as chief apostle, or his disciples as his successors, and undoubtedly taken from pharisaic usage: “I will give unto thee the keys of the kingdom of heaven: and whatsocver thou shalt bind on earth shall be bound in heaven; and whatsoever thou shalt loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven” (Matt. xvi. 19, xviii. 18). This corresponds exactly with what Josephus, or rather his source, tellsof the Pharisees in the time of Queen Alexandra: “They were the real administrators of the public affairs; they removed and readmitted whom they pleased; they bound and loosed [things] at their pleasure” (“B. J.” i. 5, § 2). The terms “bind ” and “loose” (“asar we-hittir”), employed by the Rabbis in their legal terminology, point indeed to asort of supernatural power claimed by the Phari- sees for their prohibitory or permissory decrees, probably because they could place both men and things under the ban, or “herem.” See BINDING AND LoosINne. But there are other expressions which were pre- sumably used in the old formula of rabbinical ordi- nation. “Elijah,” says Johanan ben Zakkai (‘Eduy. viii, 7), “does not come to declare as clean or un- clean and to separate or bring nigh.” This was indeed a very important function at the time when the Levitical laws of purity and the questions of family or purity of blood ruled the entire social life of the Jews. Here the authority of the Pharisees made and unmade men and homes; and it is to this that Josephus (/.c.) possibly refers in saying, “ They removed and readmitted whom they pleased.” When with the Bar Kokba war the solemn act of ordination ceased, Rabbinical Authority changed its character also, inasmuch as the continuity of tradi- tion was no longer its basis and safeguard. Hence the greater learning became the chief source of authority. Thus, for instance, Rab’s authority was decisive in ritualistic questions and Samuel’s in legal matters. From Abaye and Raba onward the latter- day authorities were regarded as of greater weight than the earlier ones, because they could weigh all sides better. In the Middle Ages this attitude changed, from lack of self-confidence, and the respect for the former generation, which amounted to blind adoration, grew greatly (see AHARONIM). In fact, the great lack of a central body representing Rab- binical Authority was felt more and more, and the attempts of Jacob Berab to reintroduce the ordina- tion, or Semikah, failed. See SemMiIKaun. Thus Rabbinical Authority was transferred from the personality of the teachers to the codes of law, until finally the Shulhan ‘Aruk became its embodi- ment, while Jewish synods in various countries provided for temporary emergencies. Singularly enough, the abolition of the power of excommunica- tion, under the infiuence of modern times and through the interference of the worldly govern- ment, marks the beginning of the decline of Rab- binical Authority in occidental Judaism; while the derogation of the Shulhan ‘Aruk in the modern life of the Jew practically hastened the process, and led to the convocation of rabbinical conferences, synods and like measures. See SyNoD; CONFERENCES, RABBINICAL; REFORM JUDAISM; HaLaKaH; Or- DINATION; CODIFICATION OF LAW; KARAITES. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hamburger, R. B. T. ii., s.v. Ordination, Rabbinismus, Synedrion, and Binden und Losen. K., AUTO DA FE: Portuguese form of the Spanish “auto de fé” (in French, “acte de foi,” from the Latin “actus fidei”), the solemn proclamation aud subsequent execution of a judgment rendered by the Court of the Inquisition on “reos, ” or persons con- demned by it; though in the ordinary acceptance of the term it is applied to the carrying out of the sen- tence only. The expression is also erroneously, or per- haps metaphorically, applied to the burning of books (the Talmud, etc.) in the early Midd'e Ages. The solemn proclamation was ordinarily made ina church and on the first Sunday in Advent; because on that day the lection from the Gospel (Luke xxi.) deals with the last judgment. Someauthorities held that such sentences should not be publicly read in a church because of the death-penalty connected with many of them. Where this view was held, as in Spain, some public place in the city was chosen where a large estrade was erected so that a great concourse of people could gather and witness the ceremony; “for,” says Nicolas Eymeric (“ Manuel des Inquisiteurs,” p. 148), “it is a sight which fills the spectators with terror and is an awful picture of the last judgment. Such fear and such sentiments ought to be inspired, and are fraught with the greatest advantages,” Some time previous to the auto a formal proclama- tion was made before the public buildings and in the public squares of the city, which proclamation, in the case of the auto held at Madrid in 1680, was worded as follows: “The inhabitants of the town of Madrid are hereby informed that the Holy Office of the Inquisition of the city and kingdom of Toledo will celebrate a general Auto da Fé on Sunday, the 30th of June of the present year, and that all those who shall in any way contribute to the promotion of or be present at the said auto will be made par- takers of all the spiritual graces granted by the Roman Pontiff.” There were various kinds of autos: the “ Auto Publico General,” which was surrounded with much pomp and was held in the presence of all the magis- trates of the city, often in celebration of the birth ioe ie [ re he 43 al be a er tm. © ceca OLEH ma ~ Rates or ENE: SEE Sires ene Pepe Coranasncas ace wach seca é, y . res pe ae nae AN ATTO DA FE. ional Gallery, Madrid.) in The Nat ing : (From a paiat Auto da Fé — or marriage of a prince; the “ Auto Particular,” at which the inquisitors and the criminal] judges alone were present; the “ Autillo ” (little auto), which was held in the precincts of the palace of the Inquisition in the presence of the ministers of the tribunal and some invited guests; and lastly the “ Auto Singular,” held in the case of a single individual. After having been immured for months or even years in the dungeons of the Inquisition, and after the trial, the condemned persons whose sentences were to be read were taken out of prison on the night preceding the auto and led to a place where they were prepared for the ceremony. A special dress was given them, consisting of a Costume of vest, the sleeves of which came down the Con- to the wrists, and a pair of trousers demned. reaching to the heels, both made of black stuff striped with white. Over this was thrown a scapular, called “sanbenito ”— usually made, for those accused of some crime against the church, of yellow cotton marked both on breast and back with the St. Andrew cross painted in red. For those, however, who had been convicted and who persisted in their denial, or who had relapsed, the scapular was gray and was called “samarra,” and there was figured on it both in front and bebind the likeness of the prisoner resting upon burning torches and surrounded by devils, Often the name of the prisoner and the crime for which he was convicted were written beneath the picture. For those who had accused themselves the flames were inverted; and for such as had been convicted of sorcery a bonnet of paper in the form of a sugar- loaf was also prescribed, upon which were figured devils and flames of fire. These bonnets were called “carochas.” The culprit’s feet were bare, and in his hand he carried a taper of yellow wax. In the solemn procession which was formed, the banner of the Inquisition with its inscription “Justi- tia et Misericordia ” was carried foremost; then came the officers of the Inquisition and other digniteries. One or two citizens were assigned to each culprit to act as godfathers, whose duty it was to see that those given in their charge were returned safely to the prison. In the procession were also carried the bones of those who had died before sentence could be pro- nounced upon them: for, says Bernardus Comensis (“Lucerna Inquisitor,” p. 52), “ Mortui heretici pos- sunt excommunicari et possunt heeritici accusari post mortem .. . et hoc usque ad quadraginta annos.” The procession also included effigies of those who had been condemned t7 absentia. The reason for this course was because the Inquisition, when it con- demned a person, was able to sequester his property. As Bernard Gui expressly states in his “ Practica Inquisitionis,” “The crime of heresy must be pro- ceeded against not only among the living, but even among the dead, especially when it is necessary to prevent their heirs from inheriting, because of the beliefs of those from whom they inherit” (Molinier, “TL” Inquisition dans Je Midi de la France,” p. 358). In the church elaborate preparations had been made for the ceremony. The great altar was draped with black cloth, and upon it were placed two thrones, one for the Inquisitor-General, the other for the king or for some high dignitary. A large THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 340 crucifix was also erected: those to whom its face was turned were to be spared; while those to whom its back was shown were to die. Before Procession the actual ceremony took place the and secular authorities had solemnly to Ceremony. swear to lend all their aid to the In- quisition and to carryout its behests, A long sermon was then preached for the purpose of exhorting those who still remained obdurate to con- fess, and of inciting the onlookers to the profession of faith which was made at various intervals. On this account the auto was sometimes called “sermo publicus,” or “sermo general de fide ” (Molinier, 23, p, 8). A good example of this preaching may be seen in the sermon of Don Diego Annunciazaro Justini- ans, at one time archbishop of Craganor (trans- lated by Moses Mocatta, and published in Phila- delphia, 1860). A bibliography of such sermons preached at the autos in Portugal is given by I. F. da Silva (“Diccionario Bibliographico Portuguez,” Lisbon, 1858 e¢ seg., s.v. “ Autos da fé”). A chance was also given to those so inclined to make abjuration of their heresies, this being done at a table on which lay several open missals. Two clerks then read the report of the trial and the pun- ishment meted out, the reading of which often occu- pied a whole day. As each report was read, the cul- prit was led out by one of the familiares of the Inquisition into the middle of the gallery, where he remained until the sentence had been pronounced. The same ceremony was gone through when the service was held in a public square. Here a large amphitheater was erected with all the necessary appurtenances for the service, and with temporary dungeons beneath the platforms for the condemned. The punishments meted out by the Inquisition were of four kinds according to the official enumer- ation: (1) Citation before the Inquisition: (2) the performance of pious deeds; (3) pub- lic pilgrimages, flagehations, and the wearing of large crosses; and (4) con- tiscation of goods, perpetual imprison- ment, anddeath. All those found guilty at the trial were led back again in the same solemn procession; the heretic penitent and relapsed, the heretic impeni- tent and not relapsed, the heretic “impenitent and relapsed,” the heretic negative (who denied his crime), and the heretic contumacious, were all deliv- ered over to the secular arm, as the Inquisition itself technically refused to carry out the death-sen- tence on the principle “ ecclesia non sitit sanguinem ” {the Church thirsts not for blood), The various sen- tences of death always ended with some such for- mula as “For these reasons we declare you relapsed, we cast you out of the forum of the church, we deliver you over to the secular justices; praying thein, however, energetically, to moderate the sen- tence in such wise that there be in your case no shedding of blood nor danger of death.” Bellarmin says expressly, “That heretics deserve the sentence is clearly seen, or at least is referred to in Deut. xiii. 6 ef seg.” The doctors of the Church were merely divided on the question whether those convicted should be put to death by the sword or by fire (compare Julien Havet, “L’ Heresie et. le Bras Sé- culier au Moyen Age,” Paris, 1881). Death by fire Punish- ments. Hosted by Google Pee A yee! om a -# Ec," ee ee hy ,, MGIB ALN =a) BWA) Te The Tewish. En eye lope dia Voll, FE OF MADRID - DA. AUTO PLAZA MAYO I6 80 IN THE .) (AFTER APAMING BY Ric} Hosted by Google 341 — THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Auto da Fé was preferred as more in keeping with John xv. 6, “If a man abide not in me, he is cast forth as a branch, and is withered; and men gather them and cast them into the fire, and they are burned.” Sim- anoas and Rojas were even of opinion that the cul- | prits ought to be burned alive; the only precaution necessary being that their tongues be bound, or their mouths stuffed, in order that they do not scandalize the audience. The custom seems to have been that the penitent were first strangled and then burned, while the impenitent were cast into the flames alive. It was also held that the seculararm should not delay too long in carrying out sentences of the Inquisition. Tnnocent IV., in his bull “ad extirpanda,” fixes five days as the longest period of delay. In Spain it was customary to carry out the sentence immediately after its proclamation, which was so timed as to oc- cur upon some feast-day, when the populace would be at liberty to witness the burning. The same pomp which marked the public reading of the sentence was observed at its execution; the imposing procession wending its way from the Inquisition dungeons to the “quema- Execution dero,” the place where the scaffolds of were erected. The dignitaries of both Sentence. Church and state were present; and at the auto of June 30, 1680, in Ma- drid, which Charles IL. heid in honor of his newly married bride, the king himself lighted the first brand which set fire to the piles. During the night preceding the carrying out of the sentence a commission sat continuously to hear the recantations of the prisoners, whenever they were minded to make them. The victims were carried on asses with escorts of soldiers, and accompanied by priests who exhorted them to take the last chance of becoming reconciled to the Church. A full report—called in Spain “ Relacion,” in Por- tugal “Relacao”—of the auto was drawn up and often printed for the double purpose of inciting the faithful to greater zeal and of bringing order into the process of the ecclesiastical court (EK. N. Adler, in “Jewish Quarterly Review,” xili. 395). These reports were sent not only to the central organ- ization of the Inquisition, but to other tribunals as well. The earliest record of the execution of Jews at an Auto da fé relates to that held in Troyes (L’ Aube) on Saturday, April 24, 1288, Jewish accounts of this event are given in the Hebrew selihot (peniten- tial poems) of Jacob ben Judah, Meier ben Eliab, and Solomon Simha, as well as in an old Provencal account in verse by the aforementioned Jacob. This execution called forth strenuous protests from Philip le Bel (May 17, 1288), who saw in the actions of the Holy Office an infringement of his own rights (com- pare A. Darmesteter, in “Romania,” iii. 443 e¢ seq. ; idem, in “Revue Etudes Juives,” ii. 199: Salfeld, “Martyrologium des Niirnberger Memorbuches,” p. 162). We have, however, little documentary evi- dence about the Jewsof the Inquisition in countries outside of the Spanish Peninsula. Most of the infor- mation relating to the Inquisition in its relation to the Jews refers to Spain and Portugal and their colonies (see below). That Jews suffered, however, from the tribunal in Italy may be seen from the fact Spain and Portugal. that in Venice during the sixteenth century there were 43 persons before the Holy Office for the crime of “ Judaismo,” and in the seventeenth, 34. Many Jews may even be comprised under those who were charged with “Maomedanismo.” The Inquisition worked its greatest havoc in Spain Spain and and Portugal, in the Balearic Islands, Portugal. in Spanish America (Mexico, Brazil, Peru), in Guadelupe, and in Goa (India). In Spain autos were held from the time that Sixtus TV. (1480) issued a bull empowering Catholic kings to appoint inquisitors over all here- tics, and in Portugal since 1531, when Clement VII. issued the bull “cum ad nihil magis,” which form- ally established the Inquisition in Portugal] (Hercu- lano, “Estab. da Inquisicao,” i. 255). The Holy Office was established in America by letters patent of Philip II. on Feb. 7, 1569. The Inquisition in Venice was abolished in 1794; at Goa, in 1812. The last auto held in Portugal was at Lisbon, Oct. 19, 1739; but as late as Aug. 1, 1826, in a short period of reaction, an auto was celebrated at Valencia, in which one Jew was burned alive (“Revue Etudes Juives,” v. 155). The Inquisition was finally abol- ished in Spain July 15, 1884. In Peru the Holy Office had already been abolished on March 9, 1820, at the earliest moment after the cessation of the con- nection with Spain. It is impossible to tell the exact number of Jews who met their death at the many autos da fé in They were usually charged with Judaizing—a charge which might have been made against Moriscos, or even against Christians who were suspected of heresy. This was especially the case with the Maranos or Neo-Christians; and yet, from the documents already published, and from the lists which are now accessible (see below), it is known that many thousands must have met their death in this way. Albert Cansino, ambassador of Ferrara, writes on July 19, 1501: “I passed several days at Seville, and I saw fifty-four persons burned ” (“Revue Etudes Juives,” xxxvii. 269). According to Llorente, the Inquisition in Spain dealt with 341, - 021 cases and over 30,000 people were burned (see also Kohut, in “ Proceedings Am. Jew. Hist. Soc.” iv. 109). According to another authority, during the two hundred and fifty years that the Inquisition existed in America, 129 autos da fé were held. From the details given by Adler the following numbers can be given of the Jews condemned, not always to death, so far as known. But in many instances, especially during the sixteenth century, no details are given: Fifteenth century, 1481-1000. oo kc ee es cvedcne eyes 3,98) Sixteenth (number of **reos’*)............ 868 Seventeenth sega Sa nkceacd deco e sade ckbebecds 821 Wighteenthe "hice kosher seatnae reves awed cndvens 878 Or in all 6,448 of whom the names and fates can be ascertained from the “relaciones” of 115 out of 464 autos da fé which are known to have taken place from 1481 to 1826. The following list of autos da fé in which it is posi- tively known that Jews were concerned has been selected from those held by the Inquisition; the thousands of volumes of Inquisition reports in the archives at Madrid, Seville, Simancas, Lisbon, etc., Auto da Fé Avenel THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 342 | 1725, Novy. 30, Seville. 1725, Dec. 16, Granada. 1726, March 31, Valladolid, 1726, March 3], Murcia. 1726, May 12, Cordova. 1726, Aug. 18, Granada. 1726, Sept. 1, Barcelona. 1726, Sept. 17, Valencia. 1726, Oet. 18, Lishon. 1727, Jan. 26, Valladolid. 1728, May 9, Granada. when published, will doubtless add largely to the | 1123, Oct. “4, Granada. 1723, July 26, Lierena. number. Asa basis the list drawn up by E.N Adler | p35 + Feb. 20, Madrid. (“Jewish Quarterly Review,” xiii, 892), with the ad- | 1724. Mareb 12, Valladolid. ditions made by the writer of this article (¢b. xiv. 80) | 1724, April 2, Valencia. and 8. N. Kayserling (¢. 136), has been made use He na - ee of wherever definite details are give,, showing that | 1-21 June 25. Granada. Jews or Judaism were concerned inthe Auto da fe. 124, July 2, Cordova. The authorities are given in the articles mentioned. | 14. July 2, Palma. 1724, July 23, Cuenca. 1288, April 24, Troyes. 1459, July &. 1481, Jan. 6, Seville. 1484, Aug. &, Ciudad Real. 1485, March 16, Ciudad Real. 1485 and 1486 (7 different au- tos), Guadalupe. 1487, Mareh 14. 1487, Aug. 18. 1488, May 24, Toledo. 1488, July 30, Toledo. 1490, Feb. 11, Huesca. 1490, Valencia. 1491, July 8. 1506, Palma (Majorca). 1507, Las Palmas. 1509, Palma. 1510, Palma. 1511, Palma. 1526, Feb. 24, Las Palmas. 1541, Oct. 23, Lisbon. 1541, Evora. 1543, Porto. 1559, May 21, Valladolid. 1560, Dec. 22, Seville. 1562, March 15, Murcia. 1562, Mareh 20, Murcia. 1574 (first auto in America), Mexico. 1576, Toledo. 1578, Toledo. 1580, Lima. 1582, Lima. 1592, Mexico. 1598, ‘Toledo. 1603, Aug. 3, Lisbon. 1605, March 27, Evora. 1606, March 24, Evora. 1610, Nov. 7, 8, Logrono. 1624, May 5, Lisbon. 1624, Nov. 30, Seville. 1625, Dec. 2, Cordova. 1625, Dec. 14, Seville. 1627, Feb. 28, Seville. 1627, Dec. 21, Cordova. 1627, Dec. 21. Seville. 1628, July 22, Seville. 1629, April 1, Evora, 1629, Sept. 2, Lisbon. 1634, June 29, Cuenca. 1636, June 22, Valladolid. 1639, Rio de la Plata. 1639, Jan. 28, Lima. 1642, April 2, Lisbon. 1644, April 17, Seville. 1644, Aug. 2, Valladolid. 1645, Mexico. 1647, Mexico. 1647, Dec. 22, Lisbon. 1648, March 13, Mexico. 1648, March 29, Seville. 1651, Jan. —, Toledo, 1652, Lisbon. 1654, June 29, Cuenga. ‘1654, Dec. 6, Granada. 1655, March, 8. Iago de Com- postella. 1655, May 3, Cordova. 1658, Dec. 15, Porto. 1660, Apri! 11, Seville. 1660, April 13, Seville. 1660, Oct. 17, Lisbon. 1661, Nov. 30, Toledo. 1662, Feb. 2-. Cordova. 1668, May 6, Cordova. 1664, Oct, 26, Coimbra. 1665, June 2, Cordova. 1666, Toled«a 1666, June 4, Cordova. 1666, July 6. Cordova. 1667, July 9. Cordova. 1669, Cordova. 1669, Toledc ? 1670, July 2), Cordova. 1643, Coimlra. 1675, Jan, LB, Palma. 1679, April 4, Palma. 1679, Apri? %. Palma. 1679, April 30, Palma. 1679, May 3 Palma. 1679, May 28 Palma. 1680, June #0, Madrid. 1680, Oct. 23, Madrid. 1682, May 1), Lisbon. 1683, Lisbon. 1684, Granada. 1689, Granda. 1691, Majoma. 169], Maret 7. Palma. 1691, Marcl 1], Seville. 1691, May 1 Palma. 1691, May © Palma. 1691, June 2, Palma. 1699, Nov. °9, Valladolid. 1700, Sevilb. 1701, Aug. (two), Lisbon. 1703, Oct. 3B, Seville. 1704, March 2, Coimbra. 1705, Sent. 3, Lisbon. 1705, Dec. 6, Lisbon. 1706, July %5, Evora. 1706. Dec. 31, VaNadolid. 1707, June30, Lisbon. 1713. July §, Lisbon. 1i18, April4, Cordova. 1718, Junel’, Coimbra. 1718, June29, Seville. 1721, May (8, Madrid. 721, Mav |8, Seville. 1721, Sept.15, Palina. 1721, Nov.30, Granada, 1721. Dec. [4, Seville. 1/22, Feb. 22, Madrid. 1722, Feb. 24, Seville. 1722, Marea 15, Toledo. 1722, Apri] 12, Cordova. 1722, May !7, Murcia. 1722, May 31, Palma. 1722, June29, Cuenca. 1722, July5, Seville. 1722, Nov.22, Cuenca. 1/22, Nov.30, Seville. 1722, Nov.30, Llerena, 1723, Jan.31, Seville. 1723, Feb. 24, Valencia. 1723, Marc 14, Coimbra. 1723, Mard 31, Granada. 1723. March 31, Barcelona. 1723, May 9, Cuenca. 1723, May 13, Murcia. 17238, June 6, Seville. 1723, June 6, Vailadolida. 1723, June 6. Saragossa. 1728, June 13. Cordova. 1723, June 20, Granada. 1723, Oct.10, Lisbon. 1728, May 15, Cordova. 1730, May 3, Cordova. 1731, March 4, Cordova. 1736, Dee. 23, Lima. 1738, Mareh 21, Toledo. 1739, Sept. 1, Lisbon. 1739, Oct. 18, Lisbon. 1745, June 15, Valladolid. 1745, Dec. 5, Cordova. 1781, Seville. 1799, Aug. 26, Seville. 1826, Aug. 1, Valencia. 724, Nov. 30, Murcia. 1724, Dec. 21, Seville. 1725, Jan. 14, Cuenca. 1725, Feb. 4, Llerena. 1725, March 4, Cuenga. 725, May 13, Granada. 1725, July 1, Toledo. 725, Julv 1, Valencia. 1725, July & Valladolid. 1725, Aug. 24, Granada. 1725, Aug. 26, Llerena. 1725, Sept. 9, Barcelona. 725, Oct. 21, Murcia. Several paintings of autos da fé are in existence. Two of these are in the National Gallery at Madrid. The older, attributed to Berruguete (fifteenth cen- tury), depicts one over which San Domingo de Guz. man presided, and represents the actual burning at the stake. The other pictures the celebrated auto held at Madrid in 1680 before Charles II., his wife, and hismother. Of this a“ relacion ” was published by Joseph del Olmo (Madrid, 1680, 1820). An ab. stract in German was published by Kayserling, “ Ein Feiertag in Madrid,” and another in English by J. ‘Rivas Puigcerner, in “Menorah Monthly,” xxx. 72. A painting of an Auto da fé by Robert Fleury was exhibited in the Paris Salon in 1845. See also Inattr- SITION. BIBLIOGRAPHY: AS yegards the authority and procedure, see Bernard Guidonis, Practica Inquisitionis, ed. Donais, Paris, 1886; Nicolas Eymeric, Directorium Inquisitorum, composed in 1358, of which an abstract was published with the title Le Manuel des Inquisiteurs ...@Hspagne et de Portugal, Lisbon, 1762; Henner, Beitrdige z. Organismus und z. Kom- petenz der Pdpstl. Ketzergerichte, Leipsic, 1890; Molinier, LInguisition dans te Midi de ta France, au Treiziéme et au Quatorziéme Siécle, Paris, 1880; Sachsse, Ein Ketzer- gericht, Berlin, 1891; and the general histories of the Inqui- sition by Llorente Paramo, Limborch, and Lea (Philadelphia, 1890; French transl. by S. Reinach, Paris. 1900); Pierre Zac- cone, Histoire de VInqgutsition (ill.), Paris, 1552. The vari- ous proclamations used in connection with the auto will be found in full in Pablo Garcia, Orden que Comunmente se Guarda en el Santo Oficio, Madrid, 1622; Cordova, 1843; compare, also, Gritz, Gesch. der Juden, passim; Kayser- ling, Sephardim, pp. 94 et seq.; idem, Gesch. der Juden in Spanien und Portugal, 1.178 et seq.: Herculano, Historia da Origem e Estabelecimento da Inquisigto em Portugal, Lisbon, 18987; Carlos José de Menezes. A Inquisi¢do em Portugal Gul.), Porto, 1893; J. T. Betts, A. Glance at the Ttatian Ingiisition Gi.), London, 1885; Van der Aa, Be- schryving van Spanienen Portugal (ill.), Leyden, 1707; and especially the authorities cited by E. N. Adler, Auto da Fe and Jew,in Jewish Quarterly Review, xiii. 302-457; R. Gottheil, Gleanings from Spanish and Portuguese Archives, ib, xiv. 80; Kayserling, Autos da Fé and Jews, ib. 186. De- scriptions of autos da fé will also be found in Kayserling, Ein Feiertay in Madrid, Berlin, 1859; [Claude Dellon] Relation de UInquisition de Goa, Paris, 1688 (English transl., The History of the Inquisition... at Goa, London, 1688); Kohut, Martyrs of the Inquisition in South America, Publications American Jewish Historical Society, iv. 101 et. seq.; Fergusson, Trial of Gabriel de Granada, ib. Vils Léonard Gallois, Hist. Abrégée de VInquisition d’ hspagne i. 108, Brussels, 1823. Compare, also, the literature at the head of the article Jngttisition. in Herzog-Plitt, Real-Eneyel. fiir Protest. Theologie, ix. 152. G. AUXERRE: Chief city of the department of Yonne, France. Since the eleventh century an im- portant community of Jews existed here and was pre- sided over by eminent rabbis. These rabbis, knowD 343 as “the sages of Auxerre,” were in correspondence with Rashi (Geiger, “Melo Hofnayim,” quoted by Gross, “Gallia Judaica,” p. 61). Several of the sages of Auxerre took part in the proceedings of the synod convened by Rabbenu Tam and Rashbam in Troyes about the middle of the twelfth century; and one of them, Samuel ben Jacob, was a signatory to the decisions. At this time Auxerre had a Talmudic school, over which Hezekiah presided, arabbi whom Gross identifies as the savant of that name mentioned in one of R. Tam’s letters (op, ezt. p. 61). The Jews were always treated kindly at Auxerre. From a letter written by Pope Innocent III. to the bishop of Auxerre, it is shown that they enjoyed the right to own farms, fields, and vineyards, for which they paid tithes to the clergy. But in 1208, emboldened no doubt by the protection granted them by the lord of the manor, the Jews refused to continue to pay the tithes. The bishop, having no other alternative, brought his grievance before the pope, who in turn could do no more than command ali Christians, under penalty of excommunication, to avoid intercourse with the Jews until the demands of the clergy were satisfied (“Innocentis Epistole,” vol. ii., book x., ep. Ixii., Paris, 1682). There is preserved in the municipal archives of Dijon a document, dated 1828, which relates to the confiscation of a house which belonged to a certain Jew of Auxerre, named Heliot (Gerson, “Essai sur les Juifs de la Bourgogne,” p. 35). In 1379 a certain number of privileges were granted to the citizens of Auxerre by the Countess Mahand and Count John of Chalons. Of these privileges, many of which rela- ted especially to the Jews, the eighteenth runs as follows: **The Jews of the countess are permitted to lend money to the citizens at the rate of threepence in the pound per week upon indentures passed under her seal or executed in the pres- ence of two citizens, said interest not to continue for more than one year.’ (‘* Ordonnances des Rois de France,”’ vi. 417.) By the royal edict of Sept. 17, 1894, all Jews were expelled from France; and since that date there has been no Jewish community in Auxerre. BIBLIOGRAPHY : Innocent IIL, Epistole, vol. ii. book x., ep. Ixii., Paris, 1682; Geiger, Sepher Melo Hofnayim, Hebrew part, p. 33, Berlin, 1840; Gratz, Gesch. der Juden, Vi. 215; compare Gross, Gallia Judaica, pp. 61, 282-233; Carmoly, ltinéraires de la Terre-Sainte des XTIIe-XVIIe Siécles, p. 187, Brussels, 1847 ; Gerson, Essai sur les Juifs de la Bowr- gogne, p. 35, Dijon, 1893; Ordunnances des Rvis de France, vi. 417, Paris, 1723-1849, D. S. K. AVE-LALLEMENT, FREDERICK CHRIS- TIAN BENEDICT: Noted criminologist; born in Liibeck May 28, 1809; died there July 20, 1892. In his standard work, “Das Deutsche Gaunertum,” Leipsic, 1858-62, he devotes a chapter to the Jews, in which he expresses views unfavorable to their morality. In the protracted struggle of the Jews of Liibeck for emancipation, Avé-Lallement ranged himself with their opponents. He claimed that the Jew had been a dangerous element in the economic development of the world, ever since the time of the Patriarchs. His nomadic nature and his commer- cialism prevented him from achieving anything tan- gible, even in those branches of science for which he showed decided talent. His articles appeared in THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Auto da Fe Avenel the “ Neue Liibeckische Bitter ” for 1841 and in the ~Volksbote” for 1850. They were answered by Gabriel RIrEesser. BIBLIOGRAPHY: S. Carlebach, Gesch. der Juden in Liibeck und Moisling, n. d., passim ; Hebr. Bibl. S. D. AVEN: 1. One of several Egyptian cities threat- ened with God’s vengeance (Ezek. xxx. 17). The name is evidently a corruption or an intentional vowel-change of “On” (Gen. xli. 45), which is thus made to signify “vanity.” The Septuagint renders it “Heliopolis.” 2. In Hosea x. 8 (“the high places also of Aven”), “Aven” probably stands for Beth-aven (Hosea x. 5), by which name Beth-el is intended. Some scholars, however (G. A. Smith, “The Twelve Prophets,” for example), are inclined to regard Aven as a term for “false worship,” and render the phrase “high places of idolatry.” $3. The “plain of Aven” (R. V. “valley of Aven”), mentioned in Amos i. 5, applies te the valley of Coele-Syria, between Leba- non and Anti-Libanus, noted for the idolatrous wor- ship of the sun at the temple of Baalbek. The valley is now called “Beka‘a” (Baedeker-Socin, “ Palestine,” p. 447). J. JR, G. B. L. AVENEL, GEORGES: French author; born at Chaumont-en-Vexin, department of the Oise, France, Dec. 31, 1828; died at Bougival July 1, 1876. He was a brother of Paul Avenel. Avenel devoted the greater part of his life to a study of the French Revolution. In 1865 he published his first book, “ Anacharsis Clootz, ’Orateur du Genre Hu- main,” after which he plunged with renewed energy into historical research. The outcome of several years of continuous study was the publication of “Lundis Révolutionnaires,” Paris, 1875, a collection of essays representing only a portion of his extensive researches. He died before he could finish the sec- ond series of his “ Lundis,” which was in process of preparation, and in which the biography of Pache was to occupy an important place. Of the first series, one chapter has been published separately under the title, “La Vraie Marie Antoinette, d’aprés la Correspondence Secréte,” Paris, 1876. Avenel also edited an improved and popular edition of the com- plete works of Voltaire, generally known as the “édition du siécle,” 9 vols., in 1867~70. BIBLIOGRAPHY: La Grande Encyclopédie, s.v.; Vaperean, Dictionnaire Universel des Contemporains, Paris, 1893. S. A. 8. C. AVENEL, HENRI MAYER: French author; born in Paris, March 7, 1858. He is an adopted son of Paul Avenel. He began his career by editing “L’ Evénement,” the daily political Parisian paper, and several departmental newspapers. In 1888 he took charge of the “ Annuaire de la Presse Francaise,” founded by Emile Mermet in 1880, and improved it in many ways, especially by the addition of a polit- ical department. Avenel is the author of “ Chansons et Chansonniers” (Paris, 1889), a history of song in all ages; “La Loterie: Historique Critique de ]’Organisation Ac- tuelle; Projet de Réorganisation”; “TL’ Amérique Latine ” (Paris, 1890), with an interesting introduc- Avenel Avenger tion “on the present state and future prospects of French commerce in America.” BIBLIOGRAPHY: Dictionnaires Départementaue (Départe- ment de UQise); Vapereau, Dictionnaire Universel des Contemporains, Paris, 15938, 8.v. S. A. S. C. AVENEL, PAUL: French author; born at Chaumont-en-Vexin, department of the Oise, France, Oct. 9, 1823. Aftera brief coursein medicine at the University of Paris, he, in 1850, abandoned his stud- ies to devote himself exclusively to literature. Be- ginning as journalist, he became successively poet, novelist, and dramatic author. Among Avenel’s dramatic works, which number more than fifty, are: “Les Chasseurs de Pigeons,” farce-comedy in three acts, produced at the Folies Dramatiques in 1860; “La Paysanne des Abruzzes,” drama in five acts, written in collaboration with H. de Charlieu and produced at the Théatre Beaumar- chais in 1861; “Sayez donc Concierge,” farce-com- edy, produced at the Folies Dramatiques in 1861; “Un Homme sur le Gril,” farce-comedy, produced at the Théatre des Variétés; “L’ Homme & Ja Four- chette,” one-act comedy, 1874; “Les Plaisirs du Di- manche,” comedy in five acts; “Le Saint Pierre,” drama in five acts; “Mimi-Chiffon,” comedy in four acts; “Le Beau Maréchal” ; “Le Pavé d’Or,” and the lyric comedy, “L’Antichambre en Amour.” Of Avenel’s novels and short stories the following are noteworthy: “Le Coin de Feu,” 1849; “Les Ta- blettes d’un Fou, cu le Voyage Entre Deux Mondes,” 1852, and “Les Etudiants de Paris,” reminiscences of the Latin Quarter; “Le Roi de Paris,” 1860; “Le Due des Moines,” 1864, and “ Les Lipans, ou les Bri- gands Normands,” 1868, three historical novels of the time of the League; “Les Prussiens 4 Bougival,” a collection of stories of the Franco-Prussian war; “Une Amie Dévouée, Mceurs Parisiennes,” 1884, a Parisian novel; “Le Docteur Hatt,” a novel of a philosophical character, 1887; and “Les Calicots,” scenes of real life, first published as a novel in 1866, and afterward dramatized. As an author of poems and verse, Paul Avenel has published “Chansons de Paul Avenel,” 1875; “Chants et Chansons Politiques,” 1869-72—in the 8th edition, 1889, figure the most prominent polit- ical occurrences from 1848 to 1860; “ Alcéve et Bou- doir,” a collection of verses, 1855, which was at once suppressed by the Frenchcourts. Thirty years later Quantin published an édition de luxe of the condemned verses. Avenel is a member of the following societies: Société des Gens de Lettres; Société des Auteurs Dramatiques; Société des Auteurs, Compositeurs, et Editeurs de Musique, of which he was president from 1878 to 1881; and Lice Chansonniére, over which he presided from 1892 to 1894. He is also an honorary member of the Caveau Séphanois, at Saint Etienne. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Dictionnaires Départementaux (Départe- ment de VOise); La Grande Encyclopédie, s.v.; Vapereau, Dictionnaire Universel des Contemporains,, Paris, 1893; Gubernatis. Dictionnaire International des Ecrivains da Jour, Florence, 1888-91. S. A. S. CG. AVENGER OF BLOOD.—Biblical Data: (Hebrew “ go’el”): The Hebrew name for the clans- man, “next of kin,” upon whom devolved the THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 344 duties: (1) of avenging, on the person of the mur- derer, the blood of a murdered kinsman—in this capacity the more specific term “go’el ha-dam” (blood-avenger) was generally used—and (2) of re- deeming the property or the person of a relative that had fallen into debt. (1) Among primitive peoples of low political devel- opment—such as the ancient Greeks, Germans, and Slavs, some North American tribes, the modern Sicilians, Corsicans, and Arabs—the clan or family had to assume the right to protect Among itself. One of the most important Primitive clan duties then was plainly for the Peoples. nearest of kin to hunt down and carry out the death-penalty on a person that had slain a member of the sept or family. That this idea of family retribution—which even to-day is by no means extinct in some comparatively civilized communities—was also current among the ancient Hebrews may be seen from Gen. xxvii. 45, where the existence of the custom is clearly taken for granted. It appears, furthermore, from Josh. vii. 24, and IE Kings ix. 26, that, in the most primitive period, such a vendetta was extended to the entire family of the murderer, as is still the custom among the desert Bedouins. The Hebrew religious justification for the system of family blood-revenge was undoubtedly the firm belief that God, in order to insure the sacred- ness of human life, had Himself fixed the death- penalty for murder (Gen. ix. 5 et seg.; Lev. xxiv. 17). In the earliest times blood-money was not accepted either for murder or for excusable homi- cide. Such a payment would have made the land “polluted by blood” (Num, xxxv. 31 e¢ seg.). Una venged blood “ cried out ” for vengeance to God (Gen. iv. 10; Isa. xxvi. 21; Ezek. xxiv. 7 e¢ seg.; Job xvi. 18). The Avenger of Blood, then, was regarded as the representative, not only of the murdered man’s family, but of YHwu Himself, who was the highest avenger (Ps. ix. 138 [A. V. 12)]). Such a stern system, however, could not, of course, survive unmodified after the community had begun to advance from the purely savage state. Abuses of the privilege of blood-revenge must have soon become evident to the tribal chiefs, as one finds in Ex. xxi. 12 (compare Gen. ix. 6) that the com- monly accepted formula that a life must be given for a life is modified by a careful legal distinction between wilful murder and accidental manslaughter. In order to establish a case of wilful murder, it must be shown that weapons or imple- . ments commonly devoted to slaughter were used, and that a personal hatred existed between the slayer and his victim (Ex, xxi. 12; compare Num. xxxv. 16; and Deut. xix. 4). The law enumerates three exceptions to this general principle: (a4) The slaying of a thief caught at night in flagrante delicto is not punishable at all; butif he is captured by day there is blood-guilt which, however, is not liable to the blood-revenge (Ex. xxii. e¢ seg.). (0) If a bull gored a human being to death, the punishment was visited upon the animal, which was killed by stoning. Its flesh in such a. case might not be eaten. If gross contributory uegligence could be proved on the part of the animal’s owner, he was liable only for blood- Modifica-~ tion of the System. 345 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Avenel Avenger money (Ex. xxi. 28). (¢) Where the master kills his slave, the offense is punishable only when the latter dies at once,,and then probably not by the death- penalty, as some of the rabbinical writers thought (Ex. xxi. 23). The later codes develop at some length the very just distinction between wilful murder and acciden- tal homicide (see MURDER). Six CITIES oF REFUGE were appointed for the purpose of Six Cities affording an asylum to the hoinicide, of Refuge. where he might ke secure from the hand of the avenger (Deut. xix. 12) until the elders of the cemmunity of which the accused was a member should decide whether the murder was intentional or accidental (Num. xXxxv. 9-34; Deut. xix. 1-18; Josh. xx.). According to the later procedure, at least two witnesses were nec- essary to establish a case of wilful murder (Num. xxxv. 80; Deut. xix. 15). In case, however, it was not possible to apprehend the murderer or manslayer, the adjudication might take place and a verdict be rendered in his absence. It appears from Josh. xx. 4 that the elders of the city of refuge chosen by the slayer had the right to decide as to whether he shculd be permitted to have a temporary asylum or not. If the case were sim- ply one of unintentional manslaughter the slayer was immediately accorded the right of asylum in the city of refuge, where he had to remain until the death of the reigning high priest (Num. xxxv. 29), whose death, in ancient Hebrew law, marked the end of a legal period of limitation (Num. xxxv.; Deut. xix,; Josh. xx.). If the “ go’el ha-dam ” were to find the slayer of his kinsman outside the limits of the city of refuge, he had the right to kill him at sight. In a case in which the verdict against the slayer was one of wilful murder, the murderer incurred the blood-revenge without any restrictions. If he were already in a city of refuge, the elders The Family of his own city were obliged to fetch Exe- him thence by force if necessary, cutioner. and to dcliver him formally to the Avenger of Blood, who thus became little more than a family executioner (Deut. xix. 11 et seq.). Two very important restrictions should here be noticed: (2) Although the entire family or gens to which the murdered man belonged were theoretically entitled to demand the blood-revenge (II Sam. xiv. 7), still, in the practise of later times, only one mem- ber—for example, the next of kin, who was also le- gal heir—might assume the duty of carrying it out. According to the later Jewish tradition, when there was no heir, the court had the right to assume the position of the “go’el.” () The law expressly states that the blood-revenge was applicable only to the person of the guilty man and not to the members of his family as well (Deut. xxiv. 16; compare IT Kings xiv. 6). This isa most significant advance on the primitive savage custom that involved two gentes ina ceaseless feud. Anent this advance, it is interesting to note that, in the time of the kings, the king himself, as the highest judicial authority, was entitled to control the course of the blood-revenge (II Sam. xiv. 8 ef seq.). It is difficult to decide exactly how long the custom of blood-revenge by the “ go’el” remained in vogueamong the Hebrews. According to II Chron. xix. 10; Deut. xvii. 8, the law of Jehoshaphat demanded that all intricate legal cases should come before the new court of justice at Jerusalem. It is not probable, however, that this regulation curtailed the rights of the “ go’el ha-dam,” which must have continued in force as long as there was an inde- pendent Israelitish state. Of course, under the Ro- mans, the right of blood revenge had ceased (John X Vill. 81). (2) As indicated above, the term “ go’el” had also a secondary meaning. From the idea of one carry- ing out the sentence of justice in the case of blood- shed, the word came to denote the The kinsman whose duty it was to redeem Redeemer the property and person of a relative of His who, having fallen into debt, was Kinsmen. compelled to sell either his land or him- self as a slave to satisfy his creditors. (compare Lev. xxv. 25, 47-49). It would appear from Jer, xxxii. 8-12 that the “go’el” had the right to the refusal of such property before it was put up for public sale, and also the right to redeem it after it had been sold (see RutH). From the Book of Ruth (iv. 5) it would appear that the duty of the nearest of kin to marry the widow of his relative in case of the latter’s dying without issue was included in the obligations resting upon the “go’el”; but inasmuch as the term is not used in the passage in Deut. (xxv. 8-10) in which this institution is referred to—the obligation resting upon the brother to marry his deceased brother’s widow—the testimony of so Jate a production as Ruth can not be pressed. The usage in the book may not be legally accurate. From this idea of the human “ go’el” as a redeemer of his kinsmen in their troubles, there are to be found many allusions to Yawn as the Divine Go'el, redeeming His people from their woes (compare Ex. vi. 6, xv. 18; Ps. Ixxiv. 2), and of the people them- selves becoming the “redeemed ” ones of YHwn (Ps. evil. 2; Isa. lxii, 12). The reference to God as the “go’el” and as the one who would “redeem” His people was applicable to the relationship between Yuwu and Israel 72 the exilic period, when the peo- ple actually looked to their God to restore their land for them, as the impoverished individual looked to his kinsman to secure a restoration of his patrimony. Hence, of thirty-three passages in which “ go’el” (as a noun or verb) is applied to God, nineteen occur in the exilic (and post-exilic) sections of Isaiah—the preacher par excellence of “restoration”—for exam- ple, in xviii. 20, xlix. 26, lii. 9, Ix. 12, ete. See Asy~tuM; Cities OF REFUGE; JOB; MURDER. BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. H. Post, Studien zur Entwicklungs- qeschichte des Familienrechts, 1890, pp. 118-187; W. R. Smith, Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia, pp. 22 et seq., 38, 47, 52 et seq.; idem, Religion of the Semites, 2d ed.. pp. 82 et seq., 272 et seq., 420; Nowack, Lehrbuch der Hebr. Archiiologie, i. ch. ii., 1894; Kohler, Zur Lehre von der Blutrache, 1885; Bissell, The Law of Asylum in Israel, 1884; Jastrow, Avenger, Kinsman, and Redeemer in the O. T., in The Independent, Aug. 27, 1896; Benzinger, He- britisehe Archdologte, p. 335. J. IR. J. D. P. ——In Rabbinical Literature: Several primitive social regulations touching the rights of the blood- relation, the “ go’el ha-dam ” (Avenger of Blood), are Avenger Averroism THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 346 acknowledged by the Biblical law (Num. xxxv. 19 ét seq.; Deut. xix. 12); although, according to the higher conception of the Bible, a murder is not so much a crime against the individual as against the community. This conception is carried still further by the rabbinical law, under which the avenging relative has no rights left. The hunting down of a murderer is no longer the business of the avenger, but of the state; accordingly, whether there is any relative or not, whether the relative lodges com- plaint or not, the state must prosecute the murderer (Sifre, Num. 160 on xxv. 19; Deut. 181), Every murderer, or one who had committed manslaughter, fled to one of the cities of refuge before his case was investigated; and there he was secure from any attack on the part of the avenger, who was forbid- den, under penalty of death, to assail such a fugi- tive in his asylum (Mishnah Mak. ii. 6; Sifre, Num. 160 on xxv. 25). It was obligatory upon the court of justice to arrest the fugitive there, bring him to court, try him, and, if found guilty, to execute him. If it was proved that the death was a case of care- lessness and not of intentional murder, he was sent back to the city of refuge in care of armed officers of the court, so as to protect him from the avenger (Mishnah Mak. ii. 5, 6). Should he leave his place of refuge, the avenger had, according to R. ‘Akiba, the right—and, according to R. Jose the Galilean, the duty—to slay him, but only when the fugitive had voluntarily left his retreat (2d. 7). But even here it is evident that the avenger enjoyed no peculiar prerogative; for, should the fugitive be slain by a disinterested party, the latter was not held account- able (¢b.; for the correct reading of this passage compare Rabbinowicz, “ Varise Lectiones,” on the passage). One teacher, however, goes so far as to maintain that neither the avenger nor, still less, a third party can be permitted to take the man’s life, should he have left his asylum (Tosef., Mak, ii. 7; Gemara 7b. 12a). All these details, however, are hardly to be con- sidered as ever having been matters of actual enforcement; for, although it is highly probable that rabbinical tradition contained much concerning the cities of refuge which existed during the second Temple (see ASYLUM IN RABBINICAL LITERATURE), the regulations concerning the Avenger of Blood are rather of an academic nature and are scarcely drawn from actual life. K. L. G. AVERROES, or ABUL WALID MUHAM- MED IBN AHMAD IBN ROSHD: Arabian philosopher of the twelfth century ; born at Cordova in 1126; died in 1198, Although himself a prolific writer on philosophy and medicine, his chief impor- tance is as a commentator upon the works of Aris- totle, and for this reason he is often styled “the commentator par excellence.” Like Avicenna, who also commented Aristotle, Averroes wrote an origi- nal compendium of philosophy of his author, and, in addition to this, wrote the so-called “Middle Com- mentaries,” which latter follow the text, with, how- ever, the omission of passages here and there; and finally he made a full and copious ex position of every Aristotelian statement, incorporating the sentence indistinguishably with his text. His reputation was so great that his books found their way during his lifetime even into Egypt, where, in 1190, Maimon- ides made their acquaintance. As a matter of course, Averroes’ views fre- quently contlicted with those of his Mo- 1ammedan coreligionists,and his works were therefore extensively condemned and prohibited. It is owing to his Jew- ish admirers that his writings are preserved to-day, for only in the shape of Hebrew translations or by a transliteration of the Arabic text in Hebrew charac- ters did they escape the fanaticism of the Moors. As to the relation between Averroes and Maimon- ides, which has frequently been misconceived, it is quite certain that Maimonides can not be called a disciple of Averroes, nor Averroes a pupil of Mai- monides. The latter read Averroes’ writings far too late to permit of his having used them in his own works. Both, it is true, coincide on many points. Both are strong Aristotelians and energetically op- posed to the teachings of the Motakallemin concern- ing atoms and the non-existence of natural laws. Both deny to the Deity the possession of “ attributes.” Their theories of the intellect are identical, and both take the same position as regards the relation of faith and knowledge. Ithas yet to be determined whether these striking resemblances are not founded upon some third or common source not yet discovered. In a letter to his favorite pupil, Joseph b. Judah Aknin, dated Cairo, 1190, Maimonides writes: “I have recently received Ibn Roshd’s Jewish Preserva- tion of His Writings. Relation work upon Aristotle, besides the book, to Mai- ‘ De SensuetSensito’; and I have read monides. enough to perceive that he has hit the truth with great precision; but I lack the leisure now to make a study of it.” A passage in a letter to Samuel Tibbon, 1199, in which he rec- ommends Averroes’ commentaries, is not quite clear. Less known than his commentaries upon Aristotle are Averroes’ own original writings, although they have left indubitable traces upon Jewish thought. His essay on “ The Relation of Faith to Knowledge” (published by Joseph Miller with German transla- tion, Munich, 1875) seems to have inspired Shem-Tob Falaquera to write his “Iggeret Havikkuah.” Itis extant in an anonymous Hebrew translation dated 1340, as is also another work of Averroes of similar tendency, “ The Book of the Revclation,of the Method of Proof Touching the Principles of Religion”; both works were familiar to Kalonymus ben Kalonymus and Simon Duran in 1423. Better known than these is his reply to Gazzali’s book, “A Confutation of Philosophers,” Averroes calling his “ A Confutation of the Confutation.” Kalonymus, son of David b. Todros, translated this book into He- brew in 1828; and there is also another translation by an unknown author. Kalonymus gives a curious reason for his undertaking. Knowing that Averroes is justly condemned as a denier of God, he protests that he translates it only because it contains in its text the whole work of Gazzali, who defended religion; had he been able to procure Gazzali’s book, he would not have undertaken the ungrateful task or translated a single word of Averroes’ specious argumentation. Kalonymus’ translation was rendered into Latin by Original Works. 347 a Neapolitan physician, also named Kalonymus ben David, and published in Venice, 1527. This “Confutation” contains a few contradictions of statements made elsewhere by him, but such in- cousistencies are by no means infrequent in other writings of Averroes. The change of views thus evidenced gave rise to the legend that Averroes had embraced Judaism, Christianity, and Mohammedan- ism in succession, and that he wrote the notorious work, “De Tribus hnpostoribus.” In similar strain is the assertion by a writer of the seventeenth cen- tury, that the “ Confutation of the Confutation ” was actually written by Gazzali himself, who thus se- cretly furnished a defense against his own attacks upon philosophy, these attacks having been pre- pared at the command of a fanatical king. Be all this as it may, Averroes’ importance as a philosopher was universally acknowledged by Jewish thinkers. Noteven his opinions antagonistic to Judaism could prevent their admiration of his genius. Admired When, however, Averroes fiercely as- in Jewish sailed Avicenna, Jewish authors are Circles. sometimes found to side with the latter as being nearer to Judaism; and Has- dai Crescas, who mournfuily notes the havoc wrought in Jewish circles by philosophy through laxity of observance, vehemently denounces both Aristotle and his commentator Averroes. Crescas must, how- ever, have been blinded by his zeal when he terms Averroes a mere chatterer. Levi ben Gerson and Moses Narboni may with all propriety be called fol- lowers of Averroes; for with them, too, the claims of the peripatetic philosophy as formulated by him seem to be rated higher than the claims of revelation. But Averroes’ absolute sovereignty in the fourteenth century was soon followed by his decline. Plato- nism displaced Aristotelianism, and with the latter vanished all traces of Averroism. K. A. LG. AVERROISM: Averroes, like his contemporary Maimonides, was a strict Peripatetic; yet they dif- fered greatly in matters of faith. While Maimon- ides, with all his admiration for Aristotle, dared to contradict his theories, or at least sought to attenu- ate them when they were in direct opposition to re- ligion, Averroes indorsed them to their utmost ex- tent, and seemed even to take pleasure in emphasizing them. “God,” says Averroes, “has declared a truth for all men that requires for understanding no in- tellectual superiority; in a language that can be interpreted by every human soul according to its capability and temper. The expositors of religious metaphysicsare therefore the enemies of true religion, because they made it a matter of syllogism ” (J. Mtil- ler, “ Philosophie und Theologie,” including the Ara- bic text, pp. 104 e seg.), In expounding what he thought to be the doctrines of Aristotle, it made no difference to Averroes whether they were or were not in harmony with those taught by the Koran. Thus Averroes asserts again and again the eternity of the universe; although, as Maimonides demonstrated in his “Guide” (ii. 28, 121-127), Aristotle himself is not very decisive on this point. Averroes goes still further and declares that not only is matter eternal, but that form even is potentially existent, other- wise there would be creation ex nthilo (“ De Ceelo et THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Avenger Averroism Mundo,” p. 197). Maimonides advocates man’s ab- solute free-will, but Averroes restricted that free- dom. “QOursoul,” says the latter, “can have prefer- ences indeed, but its acts are limited by the fatality of exterior circumstances; for if its deeds were the production of its will alone, they would be a crea- _ tion independent of the first cause, or God ” (Joseph Miller, 7d. Arabic text, p. 110). Maimonides, like Avicenna, places the existence of all creatures in the category of the possible; that of God, in that of the necessary (“ Moreh,” ii., Introduction, propositions 19 and 20), Averroes combats Avicenna’s classification for the simple reason that, every being having a cause, its existence is necessary (“Destructio De- structionis ” at the end of the “ Disputatio,” x.). However, it was due to Maimonides that the phi- losophy of Averroes found admirers during four cen- turies among the Jews, who by their translations and commentaries preserved his writings from destruction and transmitted them to the Christian world. But if Averroes owed the preservation of his wri- tings to the Jews, Jewish literature, in its turn, is indebted to him, directly and indirectly, for many valuable contributions. In addition to the transla- tions of Averroes’ works and commentaries on them —which in themselves form a fairly large library— the thirteenth, fourteenth, and sixteenth centuries witnessed the production of numerous essays and treatises inspired by Averroism. The first to intro- duce his philosophy to Jewish literature was Samuel ibn Tibbon, the same who translated Maimonides’ “Moreh.” Tibbon published, at the beginning of the thirteenth century, an “ Encyclopedia of Philos- ophy,” which frequently is nothing but literal ex- tracts. from Averroes, whom the author declares to be the most reliable interpreter of Aris- First totle. A little later, 1232, appeared Transla-_ the first real translation, by Jacob ben tors. Abba Mari Anatoli, a son-in-law of Ibn Tibbon. He wasa Provencal, liv- ing in Naples, and engaged by Frederick IT. to pop- ularize Arabian science. In 1260, Moses ibn Tibbon translated nearly the whole of the Short Commen- tary. About the same time, Solomon ben Joseph ben Job, originally from Granada, but living in Beziers, translated of the Short Commentary that on Aristotle’s treatise, “ De Ceelo et Mundo,” under the title of pyym pwn. In 1284, Zerabia ben Isaac of Barcelona translated of the Middle Com- mentaries that on Aristotle’s “Physics,” as well as Averroes’ treatises, “ De Coelo et Mundo” and “ Meta- physics.” The same Anatoli translated in 1298 Aver- roes’ “ Abridgment of Logic,” under the title of “IY qVI0; and in 1300, under the title of pn ‘Sy 'p, the commentaries upon books xi.-xix. of the “ His- tory of Animals.” Other writers of this century that expounded Averroes were Judah ben Solomon Cohen of Toledo, author of “Peripatetic Encyclopedia,” 1247; and Shem-Tob ben Joseph b. Falaquera (1224-95), who inserts lengthy extracts from Averroes in his books, the “Moreh ha-Moreh,” “Hanhagat ha-Guf weha- Nefesh,” and the “Sefer Hama‘alot.” The study of Averroism was so wide-spread that, not content with the foregoing translations, the first Averroism Avesta THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 348 half of the fourteenth century produced a new seric¢s. Kalonymusb. Kalonymus, son of Meir of Arles (1277- 13380), translated, in 1814, under the following titles, the Grand Commentaries on the “Organon” (})937), the “ Physics” (yay), the “ Metaphys- New Series ics” (ya0n AINNY Mm), and the trea- of Trans- tises “De Colo ect Mundo,” “Genera- lations. tionand Corruption,” “ Meteors,” “The Soul,” and “The Letter on Union,” etc. R. Samuel b. Judah b. Meshullam of Marseilles translated the Short Commentary on the “ Nikoma- chean Ethics,” under the title MyWpN ‘p, and the para- phrase of Plato’s “ Republic,” under the title of AAW movpn. Todros Todrosi of Arles translated in 1337, under the following titles, the commentaries on the “Topics” (MIIDND), the “Sophisms” (RyyAN), the “ Rhetoric ” (aybpn), and “ Poetics” (wn). In ad- dition to these a crowd of other translators of uncer- tain date likewise devoted themselves to the study of the works of Averroes. Shem-Tob Isaac of Tortosa translated the commentary on the “Physics,” and the treatise on the “Soul”; Jacob b. Shem-Tob, the “First Analytics”; Judah ben Tahin Maimon, the “ Physics,” the treatises on “ Heaven” and on “ Gen- eration ”; Moses ben Tahora b. Samuel b. Shudai the treatise on “Heaven”; Moses b. Solomon of Salon, the “ Metaphysics”; Judah b. Jacob, books xi.-xix. on “Animals”; Solomon b. Moses Alguari, the trea- tise “ De Somno et Vigilia.” The second half of the fourteenth century is the golden age of Averroism among the Jews. There were no more translations, but scholars innumerable vied with one another in commenting on the com- mentaries and applying the teachings of those com- mentaries to theology. Levi ben Gerson of Bag- nols (Gersonides) wrote such commentaries, as well as some upon the original works of Averroes, as, for instance, on the “Substantia Orbis,” the trea- tise on the “Possibility of Union,” etc.; Joseph Caspi, in the middle of the century, wrote a com- mentary upon Aristotle’s “ Ethics ” and Plato’s * Pol- itics,” after Averroes’ method. In 1844, Moses of Narbonne (Messer Vidal) wrote a commentary on the “Possibility of Union,” etc.; and in 1349 on the “Substantia Orbis,” and on other physical treatises. The “ Physics,” the “ Ethics,” the com- The Golden mentary upon “ Alexander of Aphro- Age of dlisias on the Intellect,” underwent a Averroism. complete remodeling at his hands. As directly due to Averroism must be mentioned: The ethical and rhetorical work by Jeda- yah Penini (1261-1821), entitled “Behinat Olam” (Examination of the World), and his “Iggeret ha- Hitnazelut ” (Letter on Self-Exculpation), defending philosophy against the vehement attack of Solomon b. Adret; also Joseph Caspi’s double commentaries on Maimonides’ “ Guide”; Levi ben Gerson’s philo- sophical commentary upon the Pentateuch—wherein the author admits the eternity of the universe, the nat- ural gift of prophecy, original matter without form, and the impossibility of “Creation”; and finally, Moses Narboni’s commentary upon the “Guide.” The fifteenth century, though still rich in produc- tions of Averroism, gave signs of decadence. Bold- ness had vanished from the world of letters, and every author felt himself constrained to break a lance for religion. In 1455 Joseph ben Shem-Tob of Se- govia commented on the “ Ethics,” according to his own statement, to supply Averroes’ omissions; he likewise commented on the “Possibility of Union,” and on the analysis of Alexander’s Displaced book on the Intellect. His son Shem- by Tob, as well as Moses Falaquera and Theology. Michael ha-Kohen, wrote Averroistic treatises toward the end of the century. Elia del Medigo, of Rome, the last representative of Averroisin among Jews, wrote in 1485 a commentary on the “Substantia Orbis”; in 1492 a treatise on the “Tntellect,” on “ Prophecy,” and on various other works. Of other Averroistic writings there were the same Shem-Tob’s commentary on the “ Guide”; Elia del Medigo’s “ Behinat ha-Dat”; Abraham Shalom ben Isaac’s theological and philosophical disserta- tions; and the “ Miklal Yofi,” by Menahem b. Abra- ham Bonfous of Perpignan. In the sixteenth century Averroism gave place to theology. People read and studied Averroes, but very evidently only to hunt out his weak points and disprove him. Isaac Abravanel, largely indebted as he was in his commentary on the “Guide” to A ver- roes, does not scruple toattack him frequently in his “Shamayim Hadashim ” and other works. Abraham Bibago, who commented on Aristotle’s “ Analytica Posteriora,” abuses Averroism in his “Derek Emu- na.” Moses Almosnino, about 15388, comments on Al-Gazzali’s “ Happalat-ha-Filosofim ” (Destruction of the Philosophers), and uses it asa weapon against the Peripatetic philosophy. Many other, but more insignificant, writers essayed to drag the colossus to the ground, but the traces stamped by Averroes on Jewish literature are irremovable. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Munk, in Dictionnaire des Sciences Philosoph. 1844-47, iii. 157 et seq.; idem, Mélanges, Paris, 1859; Renan, Averroes et VAverroisme, Paris, 1866; Steinschneider, Jew- ish Literature, London, 1854; idem, Hebrétische Uehberset- zungen, Berlin, 1895; J. Miller, Averroes Philosophus, Leipsic, 1874 ; idem, Philosophie und Religion; wan ans, viii. 63 el 8€Q.3 WM TW, ii. 4 et seq. K. I. Br. AVESTA: The canonical book of the religious sect known as the Parsees, more frequently though less precisely called Zend-Avesta—an inversion of the Pahlavi phrase “ Avistak va Zand,” the Scriptures and the Commentary or the Law and Its Interpreta- tion. The Avesta is the Zoroastrian Bible supple- mented by the Pahlavi, or Middle Persian, writings, as the Hebrew Scriptures are by the Talmud. The Avesta has special! claims upon the interest of Jewish scholars, there being certain points of simi- larity between the Avesta and the Old as well as the New Testament, points that are striking or close enough to call forth frequent comment. In the next place, the Avesta, as the sacred book of early Persia, must command attention because of the historical points of contact between the Jews and the Persians. Note especially such passages as the following: Isa. xlv. 1, 18, 28; IL Chron. xxxvi. 22, 23; Ezra i. 1-11; v. 138-17; vi. 1-15; and perhaps Ezek. viii. 16. See PERSIAN RELIGION. The Avesta represents the ancient priestly code of the Magi; for Zoroaster, or Zarathushtra, as his name is called in the originai texts, has stood in history as the typical Magian, as the sage, priest, prophet, and Jewish Interest. 349 lawgiver of ancient Iran. According to the more recent views on the subject, which agree with the traditional date for his era, he flour- The ished about 660-583 B.c.; though the Typical common tendency is to believe that he Magian. lived and taught at a much earlier period. Itis certain that King Artax- erxes and the Jater Achemenian rulers professed his faith; less certain is it according to some scholars whether Darius and Xerxes, and still less whether Cyrus, were really followers of the Avesta and genuine Zoroastrians, although much may be said in the affirmative. Itis beyond doubt that they were all worshipers of Ahuramazda, or Ormuzd, the supreme God of the Avesta; and this makes the passages in Isaiah (xliv. 28; xlv. 1, 18) relating to Cyrus doubly interesting. In the Old Persian in- scriptions the Mazda worship of Darius is most pro- nounced. For these reasons still more importance is to be attached to the Avesta in the history of relig- fous thought, especially when the power and the wide-spread influence of the Persian empire in early dimes are taken into account. According to the book itself the Avesta represents a direct revelation from Ahuramazdato Zarathushtra. The sacred text(Vend. xxii. 19) mentions “ the Forest and the Mountain of the Two Holy Communing Ones ”"—Ormuzd and Zoroaster—where special inter- course through inspired vision was held between the Godhead and his prophetic representative on earth, as between YHWH and Moses on Sinai. Later tra- dition repeats the view that the sacred book was the result of inspiration, for the Pahlavi texts (Dk. vii. 3, 51-62; viii. 51; Zsp. xxiv. 51) recount not only how Zoroaster communed with Ormuzd, but like the Zoroastrian Gadthas they tell also of ecstatic visions of the six archangels and of other revelations which were vouchsafed to him. According to a tradition preserved in the Pahlavi writings (Dk. Bk. 3, end, quoted by West, “Sacred Books of the East,” xxxvii., Introd. 30-32), the Avesta itself was committed to writing at the instance of King Vishtispa, whom Zoroaster converted to the faith and who became Zoroaster’s patron. The king’sown prime minister, Jamaspa, had a hand in the redaction as scribe, and Zoroaster’s mantle descended upon him, so that he succeeded the great priest in the pontifical office on the latter’s death (Dk. iv. 21; v. 84; vil. 5, 11). It issaid by Tabart,and by Bundari after him, that Vishtaéspa caused two copies of the holy texts to be inscribed in letters of gold upon 12,000 ox-hides (see Jackson, “Zoroaster,” p. 97)—a tradition which is confirmed by Pliny’s statement that Zoroaster com- posed no less than 2,000,000 verses (N. H. xxx. 2). These two archety pe copies, mentioned Traditions in the Dinkard, the Arta-Viraf, and About the Shatroiha-i-Airan, were to serve Origin. as the standard priestly codes of : Vishtaspa’s realm. The faith was to be promulgated throughout the world in accord- ance With the teaching of these. There is likewise a tradition (see Dk., references above) to the effect that one of these original copies came into the hands of the Greeks and was translated into their tongue. Support for this tradition may perhaps be found in the Arabic lexicon of Bar-Bahltil (963), according .to THE JEWISIL ENCYCLOPEDIA Averroism Avesta which the Avesta of Zoroaster was composed in seven tongues, Syriac, Persian, Aramean, Segestanian, Mervian, Greek, and Hebrew. A still earlier Syriac manuscript commentary on the New Testament by ‘Ishd‘dad, bishop of Hadatha, near Mosul (852), simi- larly speaks of the Avesta as having been written by Zoroaster in twelve different languages. As for the other archetype copy, which seems to have been the principal one, the direct statement, again of the Pahlavi treatise Dinkard, says that it was burned by Alexander the Great when he invaded Iran. Whatever may be the value of these traditions re- garding the Avesta, the fate of the sacred book was connected with the history of the people, and with the rise and fall of the fortunes of Ivan. The five centuries that followed the invasion of Alexander with the government of the Seleucide and the sway of the Parthians were dark ones for Zoroastrianism. Nevertheless, there is no reason for The making the strong claim that Darme- Fate of the steter does to the effect that the tradi- Avesta. tion was lost. It is known that the last of the Parthian monarchs were filled with the true Zoroastrian spirit; and it can be proved from Greek, Latin, and other writings, that the tradition of the wisdom of Zoroaster lived on during the Jong period between Alexander and the rise of the House of Sassan in the third and fourth centuries. The entire Sassanian period was a most flourishing time for the creed which was now re- stored to its pristine glory. But in the seventh cen- tury, with the rise of Islam, the Avesta gave place in Persia to the Koran; Ormuzd sank before Allah: and Zoroaster yielded to Mohammed. A number of the faithful cherishers of the sacred fire, however, sought safety in flight from Ivan and found refuge in India, where they are still known by their ancient name Parsi; it is they that are the conservators of the remnants of the old Avestan texts that have passed through so many vicissitudes. Much had been lost through Alexander, it was claimed; but the number of texts that were still ex- tant was nevertheless considerable, and they repre- sented the ancient Avesta fairly weil. The canon was divided into twenty-one nasks, or books. These again were subdivided into three classes, each com- prising seven books. The first group (“ Gatha” or “Gasan ”) was theological; the second (“ Dat”) was legal; the third (“ Hadha-mithra ”) was of a some- what miscellancous character. In this threefold classification of the nasks, Darmesteter sought to prove Jewish influences at work upon the Avesta, and he compared the classification of the Biblical texts into “Torah” (Law), “Nebiim” (Prophets), and “Ketubim.” But of this Sassanian Avesta there is much less extant now because of the havoc wrought, directly or indirectly, upon Zoroastrianism and the Avesta by the Mohammedan conquest and the Koran. To-day only two of the twenty-one nasks are in any degree complete. ‘These are the Vendidad, or law against demons, and the Stot Yasht, which answers to Yasna (xiv.-lix.), yet these show signs of being very imperfect. There exists also, in addition to these two remnants, an impor- tant part of another nask—this is the Bakan Yasht; and portions or fragments of others. There thus Avesta Avigdor exist specimens of about fifteen of the original nasks. This material, moreover, is supplemented by various passages that have been transiated from the original Avesta into Pahlavi and are thus pre- served; or by quotations of the Avesta text itself incorporated into the Pahlavi treatises. All this bears but a small proportion to the Avesta of Zo- roaster’s time, and the remnant is but smal! in ex- tent when compared with the Hebrew Scriptures. What is still extant is commonly divided into the following six classes: (1) Yasna, including the Gathas, or Zoroastrian Psalms; (2) Vispered; (8) Yashts; (4) minor texts; (5) Vendidid; (6) frag- ments. The Yasna—a liturgical work, comprising seventy - two chapters—contains texts used by the “ dastiir.” or priest, in connection chiefly with The Extant the sacrifice of “haoma.” Avesta. midst of the Yasna the Gathias are inserted. These are the Zoroastrian psalms, and they represent the verses of Zoroaster’s own preaching and teaching, embodying especially his belief in a new and better life; the coming of a Messiah, or Saoshyant; the annihilation of Satan and the evil principle, Angro-Mainyush, and the Druj, “ Falsehood ” (see AHRIMAN); and the general restoration of the world for ever and ever. For theologians the Giathas are the most interesting and important part of the Avesta; but at the same time they are by far the most difficult. Less characteristic is the short book known as the Vispered. It consists of brief invocations and offerings of homage to “all the lords” (“vispe ra- tavé ”), asthe nameimplies. The Yashts, or Praises, twenty-one in number, contain praises of the angels or glorification of the spirits, and personified abstrac- tions of the faith. They are generally written in meter, with some claim to poetic merit. One of the most interesting is the thirteenth, or Farvadin Yasht, on the worship of the spirits (“fravashis”). The Goctrine of the ancient Persian faith, which this Yasht contains, has been brought by Paul de La- garde into connection with the Purim festival. An- other Yasht (Yt. 19) is in praise of the kingly glory (“hvarenah”), the halo, sheen, or majesty which surrounds and protects the king as a mark of divine favor (compare Moses’ shining face, Ex. xxxiv. 29), The Vendidad, in twenty-two chapters, is an Ira- nian Pentateuch, and it contains numerous parallels of interest to the Biblical student, The real pioneer exegete at the end of the eight- eenth century was Anquetil du Perron; then fol- lowed Burnoufand Rask; later came Haug, Wester- gaard, Spiege], Roth, Hiibschmann, De Harlez; or more recently, West, Mills (a stanch advocate of the Pahlavi), and especially Geldner and James Darme- steter. The latter’s theory of the late origin of the Avesta (in“ Le Zend-Avesta,” iii., Introduction, and “Sacred Books of the East,” 2d ed., iv., Introduction) can not be said to have found much favor among specialists or support among those best qualified to judge; but he has brought out numerous likenesses between the Avesta and the Old Testament. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Darmesteter and Mills in the Sacred Books of the Fast, 3 vols., 1880-94; or Darmesteter’s French version, Le Zend-Avesta, Paris, 1892-98; Windisehmann, Zoroas- trische Studien, Berlin, 1868; Spiegel, Hranische Alter. THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA In the | 350 thumskunde, 1871-79, i.-iii.; idem, Avesta, 3 vols., Leipsic, 1852-63; W. Geiger, Ostiranische Kidtur, 1882 ; O. H. Schorr, in He-Haluz, 1869, viii. 1-120: Geldner, Awesta-Litteratur, and Jackson, Iranische Religion, in the Grundriss der Iran. Philologie, Strasburg, 1896-99 ; Alex. Kohut, The Zendavesta and the First Eleven Chapters of Genesis in J. Q. R.., ii. 233. K. A. V. W. J. AVIANUS, HIERONYMUS: Christian Orien- tal scholar; lived at Leipsic at the end of the six- teenth and at the beginning of the seventeenth cen- tury. He devoted himself to Hebrew versification, and published a work in two volumes, entitled, “Clavis Poeseos Sacre, Trium Principalium Lingua- rum Orientalium, etc., ita Disposita ut Simul Lexici Vulgaris Usum Admittat, Exhibens; qua Aperitur ' via, etc., Omnis Generis Carmina, ete., Scribendi ” | (Leipsic, 1627). BIBLIOGRAPHY ;: Steinschneider, Bibliograph. Handbuch, p.16, T J. Br. AVICEBRON, SOLOMON IBN GABIROL. See IBN GABIROL. AVICENNA (ABU ALI IBN ABDAL- LAH IBN SINA): Physician and philosopher of note; born at Bokhara in 980; died in 1037. His works, which were brought to Spain about one hun- dred years after their publication, exerted a great influence upon Jewish thought in the Middle Ages. His philosophical investigations are embodied in a great encyclopedic work entitled “ Al-Shafa’ ” (Heal- ing), a term which in the Latin translation has been corrupted into “Sufficentia.” This Latin transla- tion, prepared by the aid of Jewish interpreters, has been frequently used by Jewish authors, notably Samuel ibn Tibbon in his “ Yikkawu ha-Mayyim.” It is divided into four parts; namely, logic, physics, mathematics, and metaphysics. In addition to the “Shafa’,” there is a smaller encyclopedia, “ Al-Na- jah,” which, under the title “ Healing of the Soul,” was, In 1830, translated by Todros Todrosi in Rome. In regard to Avicenna’s importance as a philos- opher, Maimonides and Shem-TobFalaquera have both expressed their views. Maimonides says: “The works of Avicenna, although distinguished by toler- able accuracy as well as by subtlety of speculation, are nevertheless inferior to those of Abu-Nasr al- Farabi; they are useful, however, and deserve to be studied.” This opinion is shared His by Shem-Tob Falaquera, who declares Importance that Avicenna’s works are “exact, but asa Phi- incomprchensible to those unfamiliar losopher. with logic.” Of greater importance are the medical works of Avicenna, and as an author he has been distinguished in this domain by the honorary title of “Prince of Physi- cians.” His chief medical publication is the “ Canon,” a complete system of medicine, which, in 1279, was translated into Hebrew by Nathan ha-Meati (“of Cento”). Partsof the work were translated also by two other Jewish scholars, and numerous commen- tarics have from time to time been written upon it. In addition to this work, Avicenna has Ieft a smaller medical compendium in ten volumes, and has even given expression to his medical knowledge in rime. The last-mentioned publications were likewise per: petuated in Hebrew translations. The “Canon” (" Al-Kanun fial-Tibb ”) the great- est literary production of Avicenna, is a colossal work, 351 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Avesta Avigdor which for five centuries was accepted as a guide in European universities, and which was used as a text- book in the universities of Louvain and The Montpellier until about 1650. It con- ‘¢Canon.” sists of five books, subdivided into fu- niin or fen (sections), tractatus, summa, and caput. Of these volumes the first and second treat of physiology, pathology, and hygiene; the third and fourth, of the methods of treating disease ; and the fifth, of materia medica, The many points of excellence possessed by the voluminous work and its admirable literary style make it possible to un- derstand readily the reason for its great popularity both in the Oriental schools and among the Occiden- tal Arabists of a later date. It was among the lat- ter, rather than in Arabian Spain—where the influ- ence of Averroes was predominant—that Avicenna’s works attained their greatest popularity. In some respects the “Canon” of Avicenna is not unlike the works of his predecessors Rhazes and Ali, although excelling the “El-Hawi” (Continens), or “Summary,” of the former by greater exactness of method. This power of systematization was due perhaps to his mastery of logic—a domain in which his ac- quirements entitled him to be ranked as one of the principal forerunners of Albertus Magnus and his immediate successors, ali of whom were com- pelled to draw their formulas largely from Avicenna’s works. The logic of Avicenna is distinguished by great comprehensiveness of scope, and by a scrupulously conscientious endeavor on the part of the author—who here evidently follows the example of Al-Farabi—to present the subject clearly, comprehensively, and circumstantially. As regards the fundamental tenets of his philoso- phy, Avicenna taught that matter, the principle of individuation, does not directly emanate from the Godhead, although it is in its primal origin eternal, aud includes within itself all possibilities of devel- opment. In other words, he held that while all things are primarily traceable to the agency of an immutable Deity, they can not owe their existence to the immediate influence of sucha Deity, inasmuch as the immutable can not itself create substances subject totheelementof change. The first and only immediate product of God, therefore, is the world- soul or world-intelligence, which unwinds an endless chain of creation throughout all the celestial spheres down to the earth. The cause that produces, how- ever, must also conserve, for cause and effect are identical; from which it follows that the world itself, like God, must be eternal. Avicenna’s psychological views, expressed in the sixth volume of his work on physics (the second part of the “Shefa’,” in the so-called “ Liber Sextus Natu- ralium ”), exerted great influence upon Jewish schol- Logic and Meta- physics. ars. In his preface to this book the Psy- Latin translator, Johannes Hispalen- chology. sis, declares that it contains “ Quid- quid Aristoteles dixit in libro suo de anima et de sensu et sensato et de intellectu et intel- lecto.” In addition to this, Avicenna’s principal work on psychology, he wrote a number of disserta- tions on the soul, nearly all ot ~which have been translated into Hebrew; and although in general based upon the psychological theories of Aristotle, Avicenna’s views are in many respects original. As. an example mention may be made of his division of - the soul’s attributes into four classes; namely, the external powers, or five senses; the internal powers; the motive powers, and the intellectual powers. Avicenna was also the first philosopher after Galen to indicate the three cavities of the brain as the seat of the soul’s functions; his opinions on this as on other subjects being later adopted by Jewish authors, and more particularly by Shem-Tob Falaquera, who in his work on psychology shows himself a true adher- entof Avicenna. Like the latter, Falaquera proceeds upon the principle, “Have cognizance of yourself, and you will have cognizance of your Maker,” here- by establishing psychology as an introduction to metaphysics. The works of Avicenna not infrequently contain conflicting theories—a fact explained by Averroes (the keenest opponent of the great philosopher) upon the ground that Avicenna was afraid to avow his. opinions, as he desired to preserve the favor of all parties and to offend none. Indeed, it was early asserted that A.vicenna’s true views were not con- tained in the “Shefa’” at all, but were to be found in the mystical work entitled “Oriental Wisdom or Philosophy ”—a work which now exists neither in Arabic nor in Latin, only a fragment having been preserved in a Hebrew manuscript (Steinschneider, “ Jidische Literatur,” p. 301). Thus it appears that Avicenna’s Neoplatonic the- ory of evolution gradually led him to mysticism, and as adherent of the new Platonic system the soul of the rationalist and that of the mystic were strangely blended in him, which caused him to become the originator of the ultimately fatal doctrine of the twofold truth—a doctrine focused in the sentence “Secundum fidem verum; secundum rationem falsaum” (True according to faith; false according to reason), and later employed in defense of his own bold opinions by Isaac Albalag (compare Joel, “ Hasdai Crescas,” p. 7). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider, Hebr. Vebers. pp. 17-20, 677- 70L; Munk, Mélanges de Philosophie, pp. 352-366; Kauf- mann, Theologie des Bahya thn Pakuda, pp. 196-201; Carra. de Vaux-Avicenne (Paris, 1900). K. A. L6., AVIGDOR, ELIM D’: Engineer and communal worker (died in London Feb, 9, 1895); was the eldest son of Count Salamon Henri d’Avigdor and of Rachel, second daughter of Sir Isaac Lyon Gold- smid. He was educated at University College, Lon- don, and the University of London. Having been articled to the engineer Hawkshaw, D’Avigdor in 1862 went first to Hull, then to Rangoon (Burma). in connection with his professional work. Hesuper- vised the construction of railways in Syria and in Transylvania, and of water-works in Vienna. It was D’Avigdor’s railway experience added to his: interest in Palestine as chief of the Chovevi Zion Association which led him to contract in railway work in Syria and to form the Tyrian Construc- tion Company. Gaining some experience in literary work in connection with “Vanity Fair,” he bought the “Examiner.” He subsequently brought out a paper called the “Yachting Gazette.” Under the Avigdor, Jacob Avignon THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 352 pseudonym of “Wanderer,” D’Avigdor published many hunting stories of merit for which he was well qualified, being himself an intrepid rider to hounds. D’ Avigdor was a warden of the Spanish and Portu- guese synagogue, and served on several commnittees. He was chief of the Chovevi Zion Association, in which movement he took the keenest interest; join- ing this in 1891 he helped to consolidate it, and was instrumental in bringing it into connection with sim- ilar associations on the Continent. He was a mem- ber of the council of the Anglo-Jewish Association from 1871 until his death. He married a daughter of Bethel Jacobs of Hull, by whom he had one son and five daughters. The son, Osmond d’Avigdor Goldsmid, inherited the Gold- smid estates on the death of Sir Julian Goldsmid. aoe Jewish Chronicle; Jewish World, Feb. 15, 895, J. G. L. AVIGDOR, JACOB: Chief rabbi (“hakam bashi”) at Constantinople from 1860 to 1863; born 1794; died 1874. He was a capable Talmudist and conversant with several foreign languages. Avigdor was instrumental in organizing several institutions in the Turkish dominions, among them the Assembly of Jewish Notables, which latter has introduced many beneficial regulations. In 1863 a fanatical rabbi, Isaac Akrisch, who had excommunicated Count Abraham de Camondo, succeeded in so inciting the people against Avigdor that in July of that year he was compelled to resign his office. He was subsequently elected “Rab ha-kolel,” or spiritual leader of the community, and retained the office till his death. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Franco, Histuire des Israélites de UV Empire Ottoman, pp. 161 et seq. S. M. K. AVIGDOR, JULES D’: Banker, and member of the Piedinont Parliament; born in Nice; died at Paris February, 1856. He was a grandson of Isaac Samuel d’Avigdor, secretary of the Paris Sanhe- drin; See SANHEDRIN. He was the first Jew elected by his Catholic fellow-citizens to the lower house of Parliament, February, 1854. He was, however, at the same time also Prussian consul at Nice, and as such ineligible to Parliament; his election, therefore, was annulled by the house, but he was returned again by an overwhelming majority, and, having resigned the consulship. was admitted. Avigdor, equally devoted to his religion and his country, died in the prime of his hfe, and by his own last request was interred at Nice. 8. M. K. AVIGDOR, RACHEL, COUNTESS D?’: Communal worker at London, England; born Sept. 19, 1816; died Nov. 5, 1896. She was the second daughter of Sir Isaac Lyon and Isabel Goldsmid, and was privately educated by some of the most eminent teachers of the time, including Thomas Campbell, the poet. In June, (840, she was married to Count Salamon Henri d’Avigdor, son of the d’Avigdor who was a member of the Great Sanhedrin assem- bled by Napoleon. Shortly after their marriage, the count and countess d’Avigdor went to London, where were born their three sons and one daughter. Her husband, from whom she eventually separated, returned to Paris, and became a personal friend of Napoleon LII., who conferred upon him the title of duke. The countess took a deep interest in the communal institutions of the English metropolis. She was at one time president of the Ladies’ Committee of the Jews’ Deaf and Dumb Home, and honorary secre- tary of the West End Charity ; alsoa member of the committees of the Jewish Convalescent Home, of the workhouse committee of the Jewish Board of Guardians, and of the West End Sabbath School. Both the Bayswater schools and the Jews’ Deaf and Dumb Home owed their inception principally to her advocacy. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jewish Chronicle, Nov. 6 and 138, 1896. J G. L. AVIGNON: Capital of the department of Vau- cluse, France; formerly seat of the papal court. The first settlement of Jews in Avignon goes back ee The Synagogue at Avignon. (From a photograph.) probably to the second century of the common era, a few years after the destruction of Bethar by Ha- drian. In 890 they were already sufficiently numer- ous to take a leading part in a revolt against Bishop Stephen, As usual almost everywhere, they con- gregated in certain portions of the town, known later as the Jewry, or “Carriére des Juifs.” It lay at first ou the banks of the Rhéne, along the slope of the Rocher, and exactly opposite the papal palace; its narrow lanes are still called the “Reille Juiverie” and the “Petite Reille.” There are still shown the re- mains of an ancient building declared, with or with- out reason, to have been the first synagogue. But in the course of the thirteenth century, this quarter, having become too crowded, was demolished by Louis VIIL., and the Jews were allotted a new and nore spacious location in the heart of the city, corre- sponding with the present Place de Jerusalem and the Rues Abraham and Jacob. This location was cov- ered with buildings, four, and sometimes five, stories high, and was intersected by narrow lanes, for the most part unclean, and lacking air and light. Two Early History. = Loci tim) ene wine Renee eee 353 gates, opened only in the daytime, communicated with the outer world. The synagogue, or “escole,” was toward the southeast. It was burned clown in 1844, and the present building, of modern construc- tion, arose in its place. With regard to its internal administration, the Cairiére formed a sort of semi-independent republic, although placed under the control of the provost representing the Holy Chair. It convened its own assemblies or parliaments, appointed its own magis- , trates and officials, made its laws, its statutes or “ascamot,” and regulated its taxes. Its population was divided into three classes, according to their property qualifications; each class being represented in the parliament by five delegates or “baylons,” who were invested with both executive and legisla- tive powers. The taxes were pro rata; and every one liable was required to declare each year upon oath the actualamount of his property. The collec- tion of the taxes was entrusted to both Jews and Christians; the school was supported at the common expense; and instruction was obligatory and free. Like every other government, that of the Carriére had its critical periods; the assessment and collection of taxes especially gave rise to great difficulties and humerous scandals; but, compared with other con- stitutions, that of the Carriére, taken all in all, was relatively just and liberal. The history, properly so-called, of the Avignon Jewry may be divided into two parts: the period preceding the fifteenth century, and that following it. During the former period, the Jews of Avignon occupied themselves peaceably in many trades, The city authorities never disturbed them; their ncigh- bors looked upon them with no jealous eye; and as farmers, laborers, pedlers, brokers, money-lenders, small merchants, matrimonial agents, sellers of books and manuscripts, surgeons, barbers, and physicians, the Jews were to be found in every branch of hu- man activity. The popes relied on them as treas- urers, commissaries, and stewards; the magistrates entrusted them with the assessments of furniture and books and utilized their knowledge in making in- ventories of the estates of deceased per- Inthe sons. The university employed them Fifteenth in the purchase of rare and precious Century. manuscripts; in short, every branch of the state testified to its good opinion of the Jews of the city by the use it made of them. Unfortunately, toward the second half of the fif- teenth century, their position underwent a complete change. From that epoch dates an era of violence, disorder, and persecution, which lasted until the French Revolution. The causes of this transforma- tion were manifold. First there was the state of general trouble and misery caused throughout the country by the departure of the popes from Avi- gnon; then the ravages caused by pestilence and inundations; the ruin left behind them by the mer- cenary troops of Francis I.; the egotism and the jeal- ousy of the freshly emancipated bourgeoisie; finally and especially, the ever-growing intolerance of the Church. Avignon had lost a great portien of its population; its commerce, always flourishing under the popes, had come to a standstill; business had almost completely ceased; and discontent was IT.—23 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Avigdor, Jacob Avignon = + --———— —i wide-spread. At this ceconomnic crisis, the population of the Carriére was considerably increased by the ar- rival of Jews who had been persecuted in surround- ing districts and sought refuge in Avignon and the county. These unfortunate refugees came from Dauphiné, Arles, Marseilles, and the principality of Orange, and naturally brought with them all the energy and activity of their race. This was thought sufficient ground to hold them responsible for the deplorable situation in the city. In the eyes of the populace, it was the Jews who had destroyed the commerce of the country and, by their dubious intrigues, had monopolized all its wealth. A wide- spread outcry arose against them on every side; which, being taken up by the representatives of the city and the Three Estates, soon took the shape of precise accusations against them, against their un- scrupulous doings, their robberies, their usuries, and soon; and also of denunciations of the liberty ac- corded to these formidable rivals. From that mo- ment, the delegates of the city and the country in- cessantly clamored for harsh measures of repression against the inhabitants of the Carriére. The Jews had in no way deserved these attacks. They certainly formed the most miserable portion of the population. They were for tlhe most part poor people who lived from hand to mouth; if some of them practised usury, it was generally as brokers for rich Lombard or Italian financiers. Moreover, all the usurers of that time were not Jews. Thereg- isters of court indictments in the fifteenth century are full of proceedings relative to loans on pledges. Men and women, clerics and laymen, all dabbled in usury; and papal bulls were of no avail against it. The accusation of monopolizing wealth had no better foundation in fact. The “ manifestes,” declared each year by the Jews at the assessment for taxes, furnish complete evidence of the absurdity of this charge. More than once, the Carriére was upon the verge of being foreclosed and sold by its creditors, so difficult was it for the Jews to pay their debts and numerous fines. If there were any monopolists of wealth at this time, they were the convents and churches. In 1474 Sixtus LV. himself was com- pelled to issue a bull to restrain the constantly grow- ing wealth of the Carthusian and Celestine monks; nevertheless, in the seventeenth century they owned houses in nearly every street in Avignon, and even the synagogue and a large portion of the Ghetto. However this may be, against the popular indigna- tion the Jews had no protectors other than the sov- ereigns of the country; that is to say, Under’ the popes. But the papal policy to- the Popes. ward the Jews was of a very capri- cious kind. It knew no constant principle, but varied according to circumstances. The Church defended the Jews when her interests recommended such course; and, with a right-about- face, she sacrificed them when there was profit in their ruin. The Jews of Avignon furnished to the popes both a source of income and a means of ex- piating political mistakes; and thus it came about that the same pope proclaimed himself at one time their defender, and at another their adversary. _ In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the popes generally welcomed the grievances of the populace. Avignon Avila On the demand of the Three Estates, PiusIT. in 1457 issued an edict forbidding Jews to sell grain or other articles of food; to make contracts with Cliristians, or to take mortgages upon their property. Sixtus IV. renewed these restrictions; Leo X. in 1513 prohibited them from acquiring stores of grain be- fore the harvest, and from going into the fields. Alexander VI., Clement VII, Paul IV., and Pius V. renewed and intensified these prohibitions, can- celed all debts of ten years’ standing owed to Jews, and compelled them to wear, under extreme penal- ties for disobedience, the infamous Jew-badge. In 1567 the Council of Avignon gravely proposed noth- ing less than the absolute cessation of all relations between Jews and the rest of the population. It forbade Christians, as the canon laws regularly did, to accept unleavened bread from the Jews, to em- ploy their physicians, to enter their bathing-houses, to associate or to play with them, to be present at their marriages or their festivities, to enter their serv- ice as nurses or servants. It also forbade masons to speak to them during their work, barbers to dress their beards, etc. Further, it forbade Jews to deal in horses or mules; to pass the night outside the Ghetto, or to go out at all on Thursday, Friday, and Saturday in Holy Week; to show themselves on the street during the hours of church service; or to buy any articles pertaining to religions uses. Finally, Pius V. issued a decree banishing Jews from his dominions. It is true, indeed, that a rigorous application of the foregoing regulations would have rendered the bull of Pope Pius V. quite superfluous. For the Jews, completely paralyzed in all their commercial activities, would have of necessity quitted the comté to beg from more hospitable countries the right to live. Butinactual practise, the excessive harshness of these laws was considerably modified; and al- though the situation of the Jews was always suffi- ciently precarious and wretched, there Levies were nevertheless moments when they upon the were treated with a certain degree of Jews. toleration—interested toleration, no doubt, but the best obtainable. For the right of sojourn in Avignon, Jews had to pay a heavy tax to the representatives of the popes and the city. From the papal legates down to their cooks, from the consuls down to their coachmen, every official, and even the wives of certain officials, had the right to exact from them gifts and presents upon certain occasions, which, added to the regular taxes, must have amounted to very considerable sums. Being poor, the Carriére, to pay these, was obliged to have recourse to loans from individual Christians, convents, and churches, and sometimes even from the city. But the shacklesimposed upon its commerce, as well as the poor state of trade in the country generally, prevented the Jews not only from paying their debts, but also the interest thereon. Their obligations therefore increased from year to year, and attained at time huge proportions. In addition to the regular taxes, both papal legates and the estates had no scruples in levying extraordinary contributions when they needed them. Thus in the seventeenth century, after the sojourn of the troops THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 354 demanded of the Jews no less than 90,000 francs as their share of the expenses of supporting the army ; although, with the rest of the people of Avignon, they had already contributed inadvance. Naturally they were compelled to borrow this large sum. But these very debts which, as has been stated, they contracted only under force and constraint, turned out to be for their benefit and made their banishment impossible. Their creditors, despairing of ever getting back their money, protested against the severity of these bullsand pontifical regulations, which hurt themselves indirectly, Inasmuch as they prevented their Jewish debtors from honoring their obligations. They, therefore, insisted upon a less rigorous application of them, and opposed vehe- mently any idea of expelling the Jews. The history of the Jews of Avignon in the seven- teenth and eighteenth centuries is one long struggle between the city, the estates, and the Holy See. These three powers could never agree upon measures for or against the Jews. When the papacy needed funds, infractions by the Jews of the bulls and reg- ulations of the councils were tolerated so long as the papacy profited by them. Thereupon, loud com- plaints from the populace would arise to remind the legates of their duty, and toinsist upon the stringent application of the old prohibitory laws or even upon the expulsion of the inhabitants of the Carri¢re. On the contrary, when the Holy Church laid too many fet- ters upon the commerce of the Jews, and threatened their expulsion, the consuls flew to their aid, as is proved by certain inedited extracts from the instruc- tions which they gave to their agent at the papal court. In 1616, upon the demand of the estates, the pope seems to have decided to order the expulsion of the Jews. The tidings produced great dis- quiet at Avignon, and the consuls, representing their constituents, wrote to their delegates at Rome as follows: ‘** We are determined to oppose this new movement, and the petition which they are making, or will make, in this regard, as prejudicial to certain individuals and contrary to the public weal. Wedesire that you oppose it in the name of our city, demanding that we be heard.”’ In another letter addressed to the same, they said: “In continuation of what our predecessors wrote to you, concerning the Jews of the county, to insist that they shall not be expelled from the said county, we say to you that this city has right on its side to maintain that the Jews shall not leave this county, as well as to demonstrate that their residence in the country is necessary; seeing that the said Jews are in- debted, both severally and as a community, in certain very con- siderable sums, as well to monasteries as to convents, noblemen, citizens, and merchantsof thistown; . . . another reason being, that the said Jews comport themselves decently and obey the rules of duty.”’ Thanks to this mutual antagonism of the three powers, the Jews were able to pass through the sev- enteenth and eighteenth centuries with expulsion only hanging asa menace over their heads. If deal- ing in Jand and grain was forbidden, if Jews were excluded from the positions of tax-collector and from other public offices, they continued to devote them- selves, nevertheless, to small trading, pedling, and dealing in horses and mules. But if their material existence, so uncertain and so wretched, was on the whole endurable, their moral condition was appalling. The Church, which of Marshal de Belle-Isle in the county, the estates | permitted them to live, thought it necessary to 355 degrade them in its own interests. The measures devised against them by the councils of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries have already been mentioned ; but it was especially in the second half of the seven- teenth century that the intolerance of the Holy Office smote them most harshly. From that epoch, up to the French Revolution, the ordinances of legates and cardinals followed each other with ever-increasing rigor; andall former regulations were appiied to the letter. The fanaticism of the Inquisition did not stop even there; it aimed at the voluntary, orinvoluntary, con- version of the Jews, and the disappearance of Juda- ism. To this end Jews were forbidden to read the Talmud and other rabbinical books; Jesuits and Dominican monks were appointed to hold discus- sions, or to deliver sermons, every Saturday in the synagogue, where the presence of the Jews was abso- lutely compulsory. But these sermons did not pro- duce the desired effect. Then the Church had re- course to force. During part of the eighteenth century the plague ravaged Avignon. The Carriére had many victims, who were carried to the hospital and nursed by Dominicans, who, by persuasion, by promises, and by threats, caused to be baptized a full third of the poor patients entrusted to their care. These were for the most part children and old men incapable of resistance. Stimulated by this sem- blance of success, the monks continued their exer- tions long after the epidemic had disappeared. Al- though the Church forbade it officially, they secretly encouraged the carrying off of young Jewish chil- dren, whom they then forced into the pale of the Church. There is nothing more moving than the protestations—as indignant as futile—of the Jew- ish fathers against such proceedings: a child once touched by the waters of baptism had to remain a Christian, and was lost to its parents and to its faith. Avignon to-day contains about forty Jewish fami- lies. It belongsto the Circonseription Consistorial of Marseilles. Services are only occasionally held in the synagogue, a modern edifice erected by the mu- nicipality to replace the older one, which was de- stroyed by fire. The Jews of Avignon formed with those of Car- pentras, L’Isle, and Cavaillon the four communities called “ Arba‘ Kehillot” by Jewish authors of the Middle Ages. These communities had a special lit- urgy of their own, called “ Comtadin,” from the name formerly borne by the province in which these towns were included. This liturgy, while resembling the Portuguese greatly, is distinguished from it by nu- merous differences; a few only can be cited: the omission of the prayer “‘Alenu,” the Liturgy. substitution of “Shalom rab” for “Sim Shalom”; the insertion of certain spe- cial liturgical compositions and poems on Friday evenings, which are not to be found elsewhere. There are also reminiscences of the local history ; as, for instance, 19D5 DY Npws (the Nishmat for the Day of the Shutting In), recited on the Sabbath of the Christian Easter week in commemoration of the prohibition laid upon the Jews against leaving their quarters at that period, and the prayer D°D37 by. BIBLIOGRAPHY: For the rabbis and physicians born at Avignon : Gross, Gallia Judaica, Index, s.v. Avignon; Leon Bardinet, THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Avignon Avila Antiquité et Organisation des Juiveries du Comtat-Venais- sin, in Revue Etudes Juives, i. 165 et seq., ii. 199; idem, in Revue Historique, i. For the origin and organization of the Jewry of Avignon: René de Maulde, Les Juifs dans les Etats Francais du Pape au Moyen-Age, in Revue Etudes Juives, vii. 227 et seq. For the policy of the Popes: Israel Lévi, Clement VIT. et les Juifs du Comtat-Venaissin, ib. xxxii. 68 et seq.; Lettres des Consuls d\Avignon, in the Archives Departmentales de Vatcluse (inedited). For conversions in the eighteenth century: Jules Bauer, La Peste chez les Juifs d’ Avignon, in Revue Etudes Juives, Xxxiv. 251 et seg. For the yellow hat: Idem, Le Chapeau Jaune chez les Juifs Contadins, in Rerue Etudes Juives, Xxxvi. 53 et seq. For the commercial life of the Jews: Rou- bin, La Vie Commerciale des Juifs Contadins en Langue- doc, ib. xxxv. 91 et seq. G J. Ba. AVILA (abyy, t5°2¢): Town in Old Castile, fif- teen miles from Madrid. In the Middle Ages it was one of the wealthiest and most flourishing cities of Spain. Jews have resided there since 1085, when they dwelt in the street called “Calle de Lomo” (now “Calle de Esteban Domingo”), In 1291 the congregation was of such large proportions that it paid more than 74,000 maravedis in taxes. It pos- sessed several synagogues. One of them was on the same spot in the Calle de Lomo on which the Church of All Saints was afterward built; a second, not far from the former, was “presented” by the government in 1495 to the monastery of Santa Maria de la Encarnacion. The Jewish cemetery, which had a frontage of about 200 meters, lay in the val- ley; it is now called “Cerca de los Osos.” After the expulsion of the Jews their Catholic majesties “ pre- sented” it to the monastery of St. Thomas, which purchased additional land with the proviso that converts to Christianity or descendants of converts should not be interred therein. It was before the inquisitional tribunal of Avila in 1491 that the celebrated trial took place for the al- leged ritual murder of the afterward canonized “child from La Guardia,” a place that never existed. A. shoemaker named Jucé Franco, his old father, and his brothers were accused of this murder, and wereall put to death atthe stake Nov. 16,1491. As a sequel to the trial and execution a popular up- rising took place, and the Jews in Avila were mas- sacred and plundered. To such excesses did the popular fury give rise that a special edict had to be issued by the crown (Dec. 16, 1491) taking the Jews under royal protection. Avila with its many churches and monasteries was extremely ecclesiastical; the Jews dwelling there were therefore inclined to religious mysticism, It was in Avila that a man named Abraham appeared in 1295 as Messiah and miracle-worker. Here, too, much attention was paid to the study of cabala; and many cabalists and scholars from Avila (or whose ancestors had belonged to the town) took the sur- name “de Avila.” BIBLIOGRAPHY: Boletin de la Real Academia de la Historia, xi. V7, 421, et seq. ; xxviii. 358 et seg.; see also LA GUARDIA and ABRAHAM OF AVILA. G. M. K. AVILA, ELIEZER B. SAMUEL DE: Au- thor of rabbinical works, and rabbi at Rabat, Mo- rocco; born 1714; died at Rabat Feb. 7, 1761. Avila was ascion of an illustrious family of scholars. His father Samuel, his grandfather Moses,and Hayyim b. Moses ibn Attar, his maternal uncle, were all promi- nent Talmudists and well-known authors. Like Avila Awani THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 356 his uncle Hayyim, Avila desired to see the Holy Land and intended to settle in Jerusalem; but, owing to an epidemic and a famine in Morocco, which lasted a long time 2ud compelled him to leave Rabat for a while, he lacked the necessary means to do so. Avila was a. prolific writer, and among his manu- scripts were found notes dating from his sixteenth year. After his death the following of his works appeared: (1) “Magen Gibborim ” (The Shield of the Mighty), Leghorn, 1781-85, in two volumes; the first containing novella to the treatises, Baba Mezi‘a and Horayot; the second, novell to the treatises Ketu- bot and Kiddushin. (2) “ Milhemet Mizwah” (The War for the Law), 2d., 1806, containing the princi- ples of the Talmudic and post-Talmudic Halakah. Some funeral sermons are appended under the title “ Hesed we-Emet ” (Kindness and Truth). (8) “ Beér Mayyim Hayyim” (A Well of Living Waters), 2d., 1806, consisting of thirty-six responsa, treating of questions relating to jurisprudence and cases of ‘AcunaH, (4) “Ma‘yan Gannim” (A Fountain of Gardens), explanations and elucidations of Jacob ben Yehiel’s “ Turim,” especially of the second and third parts (7b., 1806). As these works show, Avila confined his work in rabbinical literature to the Halakah. In this prov- {nce at all events he was an undisputed master; and his epithet, “ Ner ha-Ma‘arabi” (Light of the West) was not undeserved. His greatness as a Talmudist was recognized even by the most eminent Palestin- ian scholars, who, in the capacity of “ Meshullahim,” had the opportunity of becoming personally ac- quainted with him. Jt was to them that he owed this title. Among the scholars of Morocco, Avila, with his avowed inclination toward the casuistic treatment of the Halakah (PILPUL), was a rare per- sonality. This tendency explains his independent attitude toward his colleagues, on whom his keen and brilliant intellect made a deep impression, as shown in his responsa. These responsa contain many interesting items concerning the condition of the Jews in Morocco (“ Beér Mayyim Hayyim,” p. 71). Avila left one child, a daughter, who married her cousin Solomon de Avila, a man of wealth and a dis- tinguished Talmudist. The sons by this marriage, Moses and Samuel, were, in a way, the successors of their grandfather, both being rabbis and Talmudic teachersin Rabat. Joseph de Avila, son of Moses, was the publisher of the works of his great-grand- father Eliezer. BIBLIOGRAPHY: For information concerning Avila and his family, see the approbations and prefaces to Beér Mayyim Hayyim; Azulai, Shem ha-Gedolim, i. 23,59; ii. 77; Eleazar ha-Kohen, Kinat Soferim, p. 70, Lemberg, 1892; Nepi-Ghir- ondi, Toledot Gedole Yisrael, p. 46 (where Avila is errone- ously designated as the grandson of Hayyim ibn Attar); Zed- ner, Cat. Hebr. Books Brit. Mus. p. 64; Benjacob, Ozar ha- Sefarim, pp. 296, 383, 849. Lg AVILA, SAMUEL BEN MOSES BEN ISAAC DE: Rabbi and preacher at Mequenez, Morocco, and later at Salé, Morocco, born in the first-named place in 1687 or 1688. He published, under the title of “Ozen Shemuel,” a collection of ‘sermons: Five on “Repentance,” preached on the Sabbath preceding the Day of Atonement; ten on “The Sabbaths of the Lord,” preached on the Sab- bath preceding Passover and the other festivals; and sixteen funeral orations on some of his contempo- raries, Joseph b. Bahatit (1705), Ephraim ibn Laba, (1705), Samuel Zarfati (1718), Isaac b. Amara (1718), and others. The book was approved by Judah ibn ‘Attar, Abraham ibn Danon, and Jacob ibn Zur, and prefaced and published at Amsterdam, 1715, by Hananiah ibn Sikri. Samucl also published a work entitled “Keter Torah” (The Crown of the Law), pleading for the relief of scholars from taxation, and containing older regulations on the same subject as well as ethical rules. Appended to it are notes on Rashi, and Tosafot on the treatise Nazir, Amster- dain, 1729. BIBLIOGRAPHY: First, Bibliotheca Judaica, i. 73; Benjacob, Ozar ha-Sefarim, pp. 34, 252; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. No. 7011; Nacht, Mekor Hayyim, 3, 4, 5. K. M. B. AVILA, SAMUEL BEN SOLOMON DE: Talmudist; lived at Morocco in the eighteenth cen- tury. He was the author of “‘Oz we-Hadar ” (Might and Splendor), Leghorn, 1855, containing novelle on the Talmudic treatises Shebu‘ot, ‘Abodah Zarah, and Horayot. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Benjacob, Ozar ha-Sefarim, p. 433. L. G. M. B. AVIMS, AVITES. See AvvireEs. AVITUS OF AUVERGNE: Bishop of Cler- mont-Ferrand, France, in the sixth century. While the Roman bishops at that time generally treated the Jews with great liberality, while Pope Gregory I. exhorted the clergy and the princes against the use of force in converting the Jews to Christianity, and while his predecessor Cautinus of Clermont was so favorably disposed toward the Jews that he paid them high prices for rare goods and jewelry, Avitus was one of those insolent bishops who, with the in- creasing power of the clergy under the feudal sys- tem, were overzealous in making proselytes among the Jews by force or by any other means. He re- peatedly exhorted the Jews of Clermont to embrace Christianity, but met with noresponse. The people of Frankish Gaulat that time were entirely free from intolerance, and associated with the Jews without prejudice, intermarriages being frequent among them. Jews were among the shipowners on the rivers of Gaul and at sea, and distinguished them- selves as physicians, judges, and warriors. Thisdid not please the bigoted bishop, who at last had suc- ceeded in converting one Jew, who was baptized on Easter Day, April 5, 576. When the new convert went in a procession through the streets in his white baptismal robe, he was sprinkled with rancid oil by aJew. This act so aroused the mob that they at- tempted to stone the Jew, but were prevented from doing so by the bishop. On Ascension Day, May 14, however, the mob demolished the synagogue. On the following day the bishop gave the Jewsa choice between baptism and banishment. After hesitating and delaying for three days, during which time many were attacked in their houses and some killed, over five hundred asked to be baptized (May 18, 576). Those who remained true to their religion emigrated to Marseilles. Venantius Fortunatus, who at the request of the historian Gregory of Auvergne, bishop of Tours (544-595), wrote a poem on this occasion, hints at 357 the fact that the Jews only concluded to be baptized when they found out that resistance by arms was impossible (“Carm.” v. 5). From Gregory’s letters to Virgilius of Arles and to Theodore of Marseilles, it appears that the Jews who escaped to Marseilles were later also forced to adopt Christianity. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gregory of Tours, Histoire Ecclésiastique ce. Franee, v. 11 (Tarannes edition, ii. 199, Paris, 1837); Dahn, Urgeschiehte, iii. 177-179; Aronius, Regesten, p. 143 Gritz, Gesch. der Juden, 3d ed. v. 46. T. H. R. AVLONA, AULONA, or VALONA (ANd NN, xnday): Varying names of a town and seaport of Albania, on the Gulf of Aviona, on the Adriatic. From early times there seems to have been a flour- ishing Jewish community in the place. Messer David Lron, born about 1470, son of the philoso- pher Judah Leon, was in Salonica about 1010, when he received an invitation to go to Avlona and assume charge of the three Jewish congregations there, with anannual salary of 70florins. Heaccepted the offer because he wished to go to Corfu, and Avlona was on his way. David preached in the synagogues in rotation. A quarrel breaking out among the vari- ous Jewish nationalities of the town, the Sephardim (comprising under that name the Jews of Portugal and Castile) separated from the Catalans and organ- ized a prayer-meeting in the house of Abraham Zar- fati. Toward the end of the second year of David's stay dissensions broke out also among the Sephar- dim. David sided with the Portuguese, who, he said, were “hot-tempered but obedient; they are open and generous, and not hypocritical and proud hike the Castilians.” The Portuguese established a synagogue for themselves; the Castilians demanded that David should compel the Portuguese, under penalty of excommunication, to continue to attend the former common synagogue. But David de- clined on the ground that the Portuguese were in the majority, and therefore had the right to separate from the minority. At this juncture there arrived at Aviona a Jewish physician of Lisbon, Don Solomon Cressente. Slowly recovering from @ serious illness, he offered, in testi- mony of gratitude to God, a gift of paraphernalia to the Portuguese synagogue. He intended by this to bring about the reconciliation of the Castilians with the Portuguese; and upon the sacred evening of Kol Nidre (the eve of Atonement Day) he sent messen- gers to the Castilians in their synagogue to implore them to pardon the Portuguese for any wrong which the latter might have done them. But his exertions were of no avail. The next day, the Day of Atone- ment, he requested David to intervene as conciliator ; but the Castilians refused to obey David’s summons to come to him for a mutual explanation, and so the strife grew warmer. The Portuguese, with David at their head, launched anathemas against the Cas- tilians, who responded similarly. At the head of the Castilians at that time were Abraham de Collier and Abraham Harbon, judge, the former an enemy of David. In the question of the conflicting synagogues, however, Abraham Harbon, who was a friend of David, pronounced against him, though among other arguments David had instanced his title of qopd THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Avila Awani (“ordained teacher”) to influence the obedience of the Castilians. The Sephardim, on the other hand, laughed at the custom of ordaining rabbis (R3°D) as practised in France, Germany, and Italy. They claimed that the ceremony could only be legally per- formed in Palestine, and that rabbis who performed it in other countries did so only in imitation of the Gentiles. Moses ben Jacob Albelda, author of com- mentaries on various parts of the Bible, also lived in Avlona toward the end of the sixteenth century (Conforte, “Kore ha-Dorot,” p. 394). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Schechter, Notes sur Messer David Léon, in Revue Etudes Juives, xxiv. 128 et seq.; Kebod Hakamim, ed. 8. Bernfeld, in the Mekize Nirdamim collection, Berlin, 1899; Ha-Zefirah, xxvii., No. 71, p. 291. ; A. D. G. AVVITES, AVVA, AVVIM (in A. V. AV- ITES): 1. A people mentioned in Deut, ii. 23 as being dispossessed by the Caphtorim. This, however, could not have taken place before the days of Joshua, for it is stated in Josh. xiii. 3 that the Js- raelites upon entering Canaan failed to conquer them ; and their place of settlement is identical with the one mentioned in Deut. ii. 23. Although settled in the Philistine district, they do not appear to have had any- thing in common with the Philistines; they resemble rather the class of Bedouins who had made some progress toward the stage of permanent settlements. 2. A city in the domain of Benjamin, which may once have been a city of the Avvites (Josh. xviii. 23). 3. The place from which the king of Assyria brought people, worshipers of Nibhaz and Tartak, whom he settled in Samaria (II Kings xvii. 31). Called “Ivvah” in II Kings xviii. 34, xix. 18; Isa. XXxVii. 13. J. IR, G. B. L. AWANI, ISHAK IBN AL-: Head of the Academy of Bagdad until displaced by a rival; lived in the thirteenth century. He wasacontemporary of Al-Harizi, who seems to have made much fun of him. Referring to his displacement from his academical position, Al-Harizi accuses him of having paid for the chair then occupied by another. Awani’s poetry finds no mercy at the hands of this rigorous critic, who exhausts his supply of stings upon him. But Al-Harizi’s judgment upon Awani has proved to be a most unjust one, being simply the expression of discontent aud revenge for insufficient payment of his own poetic efforts, or possibly of merely wounded vanity. Of all Awani’s poems only one has been preserved, which has recently been published. It shows, however, sufficiently that the poct deserves a place among the foremost masters of “ muwashshah ” (popular poetry). With regard to form, Awani faithfully observes all the rules of the art. His so- called “ girdle-poem,” which isa poem on friendship, is strictly metrical and fully rimed, and it shows the author’s name in acrostic. In contents the poem is likewise of considerable merit. Babylonian though he was, he knew and had a skilful mastery of all the figurative expressions derived by the old Spanish classical writers from the Arabs and adopted into Hebrew poetry. Thelanguageis pureand free from all harshness; the connection is well preserved; and the whole is permeated by a genuine poetical spirit. Hazardous as it may be to pronounce a final judg- Awia Ayllon THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 358 ment concerning a poet based on a single poem, it is nevertheless true that the perusal of this one pro- duction is sufficient to show that he was no bungler in the art. BIBLIOGRAPHY : H. Brody, in Zeit. f. Hebr. Bibl. ii. 157; D. Kaufmann, ibid. p. 188. G. HT. 5B. AWIA or IWIA, RAB: Babylonian amora of the fourth generation (fourth century), contemporary of Abaye and Raba (Ber. 28); Shab. 46),and brother- in-law of Rammi b. Pappa (B. B. 1000; Ixet. 560; compare “ Aruch Completum,” Vii. 277, 6.2. DD). He was a disciple of R. Joseph, and very strict in ritual observances. An example of his extreme scrupulousness is given in Ber. 28); and an instance of Awia’s readiness in halakic argumentation is quoted in Shab. 46a. He once visited Raba’s school with dust on his shoes. The master intended to punish him for his breach of etiquette by propound- ing puzzling questions to him that he hoped Awia would be unable to answer. Awia, however, stood the test and came forth victorious. The audience sympathized with Awia, and Nahman b. Isaac ex- claimed: “Thanked be the Lord, that Raba did not succeed in putting Awia to shame” (Shab. 22a, 28a, 46), 63a; Bezah 180; Sanh. 14a; Men. 78a; ‘Ar. 112; Ex. R. i. 11). J. 8R. S. M. AWIA SABA (THE ELDER), RAB: Baby- lonian halakist of the third amoraic generation (third and fourth centuries), acontemporary of Rab Pappa (the Elder) and of Rabbah b. Hanan (ML K. 240; Kid. 39a). He was a Pumbeditan by birth, but often sat at the feet of Rab Huna 1.. who considered him a great scholar. The Talmud (Bezah 21a; Hul. 124d) records two instances in which Awia, by his pro- fundity of reasoning, became troublesome to his teacher, who, being exhausted by lecturing, broke up all further discussion by the evasive remark, “A raven has flown past.” Awia was probably the fa- ther of AHA B. AWYA. J. SR, S. M. ‘AWIRA, RAB: Babylonian amora of the third and fourth generations (fourth century); contem- porary of Abaye and Safra—the latter speaking of him as of “a scholar coming from the West” (Pales- tine). ‘Awira had emigrated to Palestine, where he officiated as usher at a college of “the great teacher ” (probably Ammi); but hercturned to his native land (Hul. 51a), bringing with him many Halakot and Haggadot of R. Ammiand of R. Assi, in transmit- ting which he frequently interchanged the names of the authors (Ber. 200; Pes. 1196 [correct version in MSS.]; Sotah 46; Git. 7a; Hul. 840; see Ax). Besides those which he reported in the names of others, there are some original homilies by Rab ‘Awira, “Come and sce,” he said once, “how un- like human nature is the nature of the Holy One. The man of high standing looks up with respect to aman higher placed than himself, but does not re- spect his inferior; not so the Holy One: He is su- preme and yet respects the lowly, as Scripture says (Ps. exxxviii. 6), ‘Though the Lord is high, yet hath He respect unto the lowly ’” (Sotah 5). [Others ascribe this to R. Eleazar. ] According to ‘Awira [some ascribe the remark to R. Joshua b. Levi], “The tempter [evil inclination] is called by seven different names. The Holy One— blessed be He!—calls him simply ‘ Evil,’ as it is said (Gen, viii. 21), ‘The inclination of man’s heart is evil’; Moses calls him ‘ The uncircumcised,’ for so he says (Deut. x. 16), ‘ Ye shall circumcise the foreskin (“‘orlat”) of your heart’; David calls him ‘ Un- clean,’ for he prays (Ps. li. 12), ‘Create in me a clean heart,’ whence it appears that there is an unclean one; Solomon calls him ‘ Enemy,’ for he says (Prov. xxv. 21, 22), ‘If thine enemy be hungry, give him bread [religious nourishment] to eat; and if he be thirsty, give hin water [spiritual refreshment] to drink,’ ete. (compare Isa. lv. 1, 2); Isaiah calls him ‘Stumbling-block,’ for he cries (Isa. lvii. 14), ‘ Ne- move the stumbling-block out of the way of my people’; Ezekiel calls him ‘Stone,’ for he says (Ezek. xxxvi. 26), ‘I will remove the heart of stone out of your flesh, and will give youa heart of flesh’; Joel calls him ‘ Lurker,’ for he says (Joel ii, 2u, Hebr.), ‘ I will remove far off from you the “ zefoni,” ’ which, in the Haggadah, is taken as a symbolical name of the tempter who lies hidden (‘ zafun ’) in the heart of man” (Suk. 52). Pes. 1105; Ket, 112u; B. B. 1816; Men. 48a; Hul. 426, 55a. J. SR. S. M. AXENFELD, AUGUSTE: French physician ; born at Odessa Oct, 25, 1825; died at Paris Aug. 23, 1876. He was a son of Israel AKSENFELD. After completing his school education at his native town, he went to Paris to study medicine, and in due course received his diploma as doctor of medicine from the Sorbonne. For his services during the cholera epi- demic in Paris in 1849 and 1854 he was awarded two medals, and after having become a French citizen he was presented with the great gold medal of the “ Assistance Publique.” In 1858 Axenfeld became lecturer at the Sorbonne, and in 1857 was elected a fellow. Shortly afterward he was appointed physician-in-chief at the hospital Beaujin, substituting as such professors Andral in the Ecole de Médecine and Rostan in the Hdtel-Dieu. These positions he retained until 1871, when he was attacked with the severe cerebral disease which finally caused his death. Axenfeld contributed many essays to the publica- tion of the Société Anatomique, and was the author of: “Des Influences Nosocomiales,” Paris, 1857; “Des Lésions Atrophiques de la Moélle Epini¢re,” in “Archives Générales,” 1863; “Traité des Né- vroses,” in Requin’s “ Traité de Pathologie Interne,” published later (1883) by Henri Huchard; “Jean de Wier et les Sorciers,” Paris, 1865; and jointly with Jules Beclard, “Rapport sur les Progrés de la Mé- decine en France,” Paris, 1867. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Nouveau Diet. Larousse Itlustré, s.v.; Pagel, Bivgraphisches Lexikon, s.v., Vienna, 1901. H. R. F, T, H. AYAS, LEON: Interpreter of the French army in the Algerian campaign against Abd-el-Kader; died 1846. He received several wounds in the expe- ditions in the Oran, during which he captured one of Abd-el-Kader’s lieutenants. At the battle against the Bou-Maza he showed 359 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Awia Ayllon special bravery; killing five Arabs at a critical mo- ment of the battle, and receiving wounds of which he died the following year. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Feraud, Les literpretes Algériens; Revue Rtudes Juives, xxxiv. d1; Jost, Neuere Geschichte der fsraectite rn, ii. 212, Berlin, i846. Ss. J. ‘AYIN: The sixteenth letter of the Hebrew al- phabet. Its numerical value is seventy. In its earlier form it was a circle, a rude picture of the eye, hence its name (“‘Ayin”=“eye”), This form is still to be seen on the Moabite Stone, and also on the old Hebrew inscription found in the Siloam Pool. Its pronunciation in modern time ranges from no sound at all, asin the Judeo-German pronunciation, to the nasal ny of the Spanish and Portuguese Jews. One reason for this wide range in pronunciation is that there were originally two distinct sounds in He- brew, asin other Semitic languages, both represented by an ‘Ayin: the one a rough breathing (still retained in Morocco and Syria), the other a soft palatal. The distinction between the two, still indicated in the transliteration of proper names in the Greek version of the Old Testament, was gradually Jost; in certain districts the Jews retained in their pronunciation traces of the palatal (whicn accounts for the Sephardic pronunciation), in others all traces of the letter dis- appeared, and the rough breathing became purely vocalic (see Zimmern, “ Vergleichende Grammatik der Semitischen Sprachen,” § 7). The letter ‘Ayin, along with the Aleph, Waw, and Yod, has been used quite extensively in the Yiddish orthography as a vowel letter, indicating short e. J. IR. G. B. L. AYLLON (incorrectly also Aylion, Aelion, Hillion), SOLOMON BEN JACOB: Haham of the Sephardic congregations in London and Am- sterdam and follower of Shabbethai Zebi; born in the Orient 1664 (1660 ?); died in Amsterdam April 10, 1728. His name is derived from a town in the Spanish province Segovia of the name of Ayllon. Ayllon was neither a general scholar nor a Talmud- ist of standing, as his responsa (found in Ezekiel Katzenellenbogen’s “ Keneset Yehezkel,” Nos. 8, 5; in Samuel Aboab’s “ Debar Shemuel,” Nos. 320, 324; in Zebt Ashkenazi’s “ Hakam Zebi,” No. 1; in Jacob Sasportas’ “Ohel Ya‘akob,” No. 64) amply show. See also the anonymous letter quoted by Griitz, “ Ge- schichte,” x. 482 (8d ed.). But his history is closely interwoven With that of Shabbethaism in both the East and the West. | Aylion’s youth was passed in Salonica, which was probably his birthplace, although some persons as- sert that Safed was the place, because many Shab- bethaians claimed to be of Palestinian birth. He associated with the Shabbethaian circles of Joseph Philosoph, Solomon Florentin, and other leading spirits of antinomian and communistic tendencies. There he is said to have married as his divinely ap- pomted spouse a woman from whom another man had separated without the formality of a divorce, only to experience that she soon left him for a third spouse, whose “affinity ” seemed holier to this strange sect than the bonds of lawful matrimony (M. Hagis, “Shebet Posh‘im,” 84; the passage is, however, somewhat obscure). A few years later he visited Europe as a “meshullah” (messenger) from the Pal- estinian congregations to collect funds for the poor of the Holy Land, leaving his wife and children domiciled in Safed, and having apparently publicly broken with Shabbethaism. From Leghorn, where he was in 1688 (Aboab, f.c. 829), he repaired to Am- sterdain and thence to London, where, after a few months’ stay, he was appointed haham June 6, 1689. The very next year, however, he was vigor- ously attacked by a member of the congregation, named Ruby Fidanque, who had heard something of Ayllon’s antecedents. The Mahamad, caring more for its dignity than forthe truth, endeavored to sup- press the scandal, but Ayllon’s position was so hope- lessly undermined by the exposure, thatall the really iS i ing net f 4 yi, th ete as ae aE Solomon ben Jacob Ayllon. (Fron an engraving by J. Houbraken.) learned members of the congregation would not sub- mit to the new hahbam, which caused considerable friction, in spite of a pronunciamento (“ haskamah ”) issued by the Mahamad that under penalty of excom- munication it was forbidden “to any one except the appointed haham to lay down the law or to render any legal decision.” Ayllon, in a letter to Sasportas (*Ohel Ya‘akob,” No. 69) six years later (1696), still complained bitterly of the unbearable relations be- tween him and his congregation, and inasmuch as his olden Shabbethaian proclivities began to reassert themselves, and the congregation just then began to consider the propriety of asking for his resignation (M. Hagis, f.c.), he resolved to leave London, and was glad to accept an appointment as associate rabbi of the Sephardic congregation of Amsterdam, 1701. Ayllon’s first blunders in his new home took place when ip 1700 he pronounced as harmless a heretical work by M. Cardozo (probably the work “Boker Abraham,” still extant in manuscript), which he had been requested to examine by the Mahamad. This latter body, however, was somewhat distrustful of its hakam, and sought additional opinions from other, learned authorities. They gave as their opinion that Ayllon Azankot THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 360 Cardozo’s work merited public burning, and this sentence was actually carried out. About this time. too, Zebi Ashkenazi came to Amsterdam as rabbi of the Ashkenazic community; his advent was a serious matter to Ayllon, as the former completely eclipsed his Sephardic colleague by his superior learn- ing and dignity of character; he was also a noted heresy-hunter in the matter of the Shabbethaian movement. The clash could hardly have been averted, and Nehemiah Hayyun, a notorious Shab- bethaian, precipitated it. At the request of M. Hagis, Ashkenazi examined the works of Hayyun (1711) and rightly denounced them as heretical; in addition, he notified the Mahamad of the fact. This august body, however, did not exactly welcome advice vol- unteered by a Polish-German rabbi, and replied that, before taking action, Ashkenazi’s opinion would have to be fortified by the assent of Ayllon and other members of their own body. Ashkenazi perempto- rily declined this express invitation to sit in council with Ayllon, for he was well aware both of his igno- rance of the Cabala and of his suspected affinity with Shabbethaism. Ayllon saw in this crisis an oppor- tunity to make political capital. He persuaded an influential member of the Mahamad, a certain Aaron de Pinto, to take up the matter as an attempt on the part of the German rabbi to interfere with the auton- omy of the Sephardic community. It is difficult to discover whether Ayllon was actuated herein by secret loyalty to Shabbethaism, or whether, for per- sonal reasons, he merely sought to clear Hayyun from the imputation cast upon him. The adventurer was well acquainted with Ayllon’s antecedents, and it would have been dangerous to make an enemy of him. Be this as it may, De Pinto succeeded in hav- ing a resolution passed by the Mahamad, declining to permit any such interference in their affairs by the German rabbi, and requesting Ayllon to appoint a committee to give an official opinion upon Hayyun’s work. The finding of this commission was publicly announced Aug.7,1713,in the Portuguese synagogue, and it ran that Hayyun was innocent of the heresy charged against him, and that he had been unright- eously persecuted. The committee consisted of seven members, but its conclusions represented simply Ayllon’s opinion, for the other six understood noth- ing of the matter. The affair, however, could not be considered closed herewith, for Ashkenazi and Hagis had already, on July 28, pronounced the ban of excommunication upon Hay yun and his heret- ical book. In the protracted discussion which en- sued between Ayllon and Ashkenazi, a discussion into which the rabbis of Germany, Austria, and Italy were drawn, Ayllon made but a sorry figure, al- though, as far as Amsterdam was concerned, it might be said to have ended triumphantly for him, seeing that Ashkenazi was compelled to leave the city. Not alone did Ayllon permit his protégé, Hayyun, to assail the foremost men in Israel with foulest in- sults, but he supplied him with personal papers containing attacks upon his opponent Hagis, the un- founded nature of which he himself had formerly admitted and testified to. Ayllon was also no doubt the rabbi who laid charges against Ashkenazi before the Amsterdam magistrates, and thus made an in- ternal dissension of the Jewish community a matter | Hayyim, and Yoreh De‘ah. of public discussion. It is claimed that upon hear- ing of the death of Ashkenazi in 1718, Ayllon con. fessed that he had wronged the man. It is certain that when, a few years later, Hayyun visited Am- sterdam again, he found matters changed so much that even Ayllon refused to see him. Ayllon left a cabalistic work, a manuscript of which is preserved in the library of the Jews’ Col- lege in London (Neubauer, Cat. Bodl. Hebr. MSS.. No, 125). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gaster, Hist, of Bevis Marks, pp. 22-31, 107-111; Gritz, Gesch. der Juden, x. 305, 309-825, 482-487, 3d ed.: D. Kohn, SJ72, Eben-ha-Toin, pp. 64-74 (reprint from Ha-Shahar, iii; Emden, Megillat Sefer (see Index); Wolf, Bibl. Hebr. iii. 1026, iv. 974; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. No. 3112. See also ASHKENAZI, ZEBI; HAYYUN, N.; NIETO, DAVID. L. G. AYYAS, JACOB MOSES: Son of Judah Ay- yas; lived at Jerusalem, whence he was sent abroad to collect money for the Palestine poor. In 1783 he visited Algiers, where he was received with great honor. Following a call to Ferrara, he settled there as rabbi and teacher. One of his pupils was Nepi, the associate author of “Toledot Gedole Yisrael.” Ayyas wrote “Derek Hayyim” (The Way of Life), treating of annulment of vows, of the ceremony known as TASHLtk, ete., Leghorn, 1810. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Benjacob, Ozar ha-Sefarim, p. 116. L. G. AYYAS, JUDAH: A commentator and casuist; born in North Africa about 1690; died at Jerusalem Sept. 11, 1760. He pursued his Talmudic studies at Algiers under the supervision of Solomon Zeror, rabbi of that city. From 1728 to 1756 Ayyas offici- ated as dayyan of Algiers, in which capacity he was very popular and much consulted on ritual ques- tions. In 1756 he went by way of Leghorn to Jeru- salem, where he spent the closing years of his life. The chief motive for his departure seems to have been the progressive spirit that began to make itself felt in the Algerian community. Ayyas was astrict Talmudist, a keen casuist, but narrow-minded and without any sympathy for questions outside the do- main of Halakah. He wrote: (1) “Lehem Yehudah” (The Bread of Judah), acommentary on Maimonides’ “Yad ha-Hazakah” (Leghorn, 1745). (2) “Bet Ye- hudah” (Judah’s House), responsa on the four “Turim ” (Leghorn, 1746). This latter work throws some light on the social and economic conditions of the Jewry of North Africa in Ayyas’ days. From the fifth responsum in Eben ha-‘Ezer, for instance, it appears that cases of bigamy were not rare among Oriental Jews of the eighteenth century. Appended to it are the communal regulations of Algiers as laid down by R. Joseph ben Sheshet (w’a") and R. Simon ben Zemah Duran (p"aw). (8) “ Wezotli-Yehudah ” (And This Too Is Judah’s), commentaries on various subjects (Leghorn, 1776). (4) “Bene Yehudah ” (Ju- dah’s Sons), on the terminology and style of Mai- monides, Tosafot and Mizrahi; this work contains also some responsa; appended to it isa treatise, “Ot Berit” (The Sign of the Covenant), on circumcision (Leghorn, 1758). (5) “ Matteh Yehudah ” (The Tribe of Judah) and (6) “Shebet Yehudah ” (Leghorn, 1783, 1788), containing novellz on Shulhan ‘Aruk, Orah (7) “‘Afra de Ar‘a” 361 (The Dust of the Earth), a commentary on Jacob Algazi’s “ Ar‘a de Rabbanan ” (Leghorn, 1788). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Literaturblatt des Orients, ix. 585; Bloch, Insertptions Tumulaires, pp. 85 et seq. D, M. B. AZ SHESH MEOT (many wey tx): A poem of three stanzas by R. Elias Priscus, introduced in the northern liturgy at the conclusion of the piyyutim in the Additional Service on the Feast of Weeks. A paraphrase is given below of the two melodies asso- ciated with the poem: both are equally quotations from the music of the Days of Penitence, and afford (the more usually followed intonation especially) an excellent illustration of the hermeneutical feeling by | THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Ayllon Azankot and the persistence of the practise shows that his intention was widely understood and appreciated. The melody transferred already contained within itself a quotation, in the phrase between the points marked here “ A” and “ B,” which had been excerpted from the melody of Ko. Nipre. It had been intro- duced because at that point in the original text men- tion was made of the Day of Atonement, on which alone “Kol Nidre” is sung. For this employment of a snatch of tune associated with a particular serv- ice as a representative theme of some idea suggested by that service or enshrined in the object of the oc- casion, see the general article Music, SyNaGoGan. A. ¥. L. C. AZ SHESH ME’OT Andante maestoso. er ee 1, Six hun- dred and thir- teen re-vealed the Lord To Is - ra - el, His wise... com - 2. Be - lov - ed ones, give them your con-~- stant heed; Ye cho - sen, seek their mean - ing 3. On high was glee, the low-ly sang for joy, Whenwe re- ceived the Law... of #_—-_&_________"____ eee: mands: Who break His laws are cha- stened at is hands, Who keep them deep ; With wis- dom stud - y, with af - fec - tion keep. God of our Life. As she is decked with grace, the new - wed wife, Whom to her —_|_--—_£-s—,,_o— — ~————}—-—| — oe ae rell shall find..... their full re - ward. How pure His words re - fin - ed strength, in th ane re - guard our meed, Re - ceive our sup- pli - ca - tion home with glad - ness all con - voy, So in that won-drous scene His = 7. RCRA Na sev - en - fold, As - sayed as... sil - ver test - ed... as fine gold! in Thy grace, And grant the... prayer of them that.. seek Thy facel Bride was named, When He this.. day the Ten great Words pro - claimed. which so much of the traditional melody of the hazan has been guided in its shaping. The noble version here transcribed as sung in the “musaf” of the Feast of Weeks is quoted bodily from the same service of the Days of Memoria] and of Atone- ment, where it is associated with that second part of the piyyut “U-netanneh Tokef,” legendarily associ- ated with R. AMNON oF MAyYENCE, in which the Taimudical theory (R. H. 164) of the writing and sealing of man’s fate at the commencement and end of the Days of Penitence is rhapsodically developed. Reflecting that the destiny of man is in the end de- pendent upon his own obedience or disobedience to the Law, some old-time hazan considered that he might melodiously emphasize this Jewish doctrine of persona} responsibility when singing of the giv- ing of that Law. With this object he chanted “Az Shesh Meot” tothe melody of “ U-netanneh Tokef” ; AZAL (R. V. AZEL): A place near Jerusalem, but the exact position can not be determined (Zech. xiv. 5). It is supposed by some to be the same as Beth-ezel (Micah i. 11), Clermont-Ganneau identifies it with the Wadi Yasul. J. JR. G. B. L. AZANKOT (p1p371N), SAADIA B. LEVI: Orientalist of Morocco; lived in Holland in the first half of the seventeenth century. He was teacher of Jewish literature to Hottinger. There exists a versified paraphrase of Esther by him, which was printed under the title “Iggeret ha-Purim,” Amster- dam, 1647. The Bodleian Library has two manu- scripts bearing his name: one containing a tran- scription of Maimonides’ “Dalalat al-Hairin” in Arabic characters, which Azankot made for Golius; the other manuscript containing the Hebrew transla- Azareel Azariah THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 362 tion of the “ Lamiat al-Ayam” of Husain b. Ali, ap- pended to a printed copy of the same. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Neubauer, Cat. Bodl. Hebr. MSS. Nos. 1240 and 1438; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 2227. G. H. Hir. AZAREEL (R. V. AZAREL, “God is help”): 1. One of those who came to David at Ziklag (I ‘Chron. xii. 7. 2. Son of Jeroham, chief of the tribe of Dan when David made the enumeration of the people (I Chron. Xxvii, 22). 3. A Levite, son of Heman, to whom fell the eleventh lot in the apportionment made by David for the choral service of the Temple (I Chron. xxv. 18). 4. One of the sons of Bani, who had taken a foreign wife (Ezra x. 41). 5. A priest (Neh. xi. 13, xii. 86) who played a musical instrument at the dedication of the wall. Here the name is spelled “ Azarael.” J. IR. G. B. L. AZARIA BEN JOSEPH IBN ABBA MARI (also called Bonafoux or Bonfos Bonfil Astruc): One of the last Jewish writers coming from Per- pignan, France. He flourished in the first half of the fifteenth century. a?) pp ora vg 1 RD KEY TO AUTOGRAPHS OF JEWISH CELEBRITIES. CAN aA RW ND a eo | wns = © b bo bh bo bo ODD bs DS ON OH OB re Oe et ee SGCNIDOFWNH COMO WN DAN Lf . Uriel Acosta . Grace Aguilar . Berthold Auerbach . Ludwig Bamberger . Theodor Benfey . Judah P. Benjamin . Karl Ludwig Borne . Antonio Fernandez Carvajal . I, Adolphe Crémieux . Bogumil Dawison . Joseph Derenbourg . Emanuel Deutsch . Benjamin Disraeli, Earl of Beaconsfield . Isaac D’ Israeli — . Dr. David Einhorn . Dr. Zacharias Frankel . Dr. Julius First . Dr, Abraham Geiger . Sir Isaac L. Goldsmid . Judah Loeb Gordon . Dr. Heinrich Graetz . F. Halévy . Heinrich Heine . Sir William Herschel . Baron Maurice de Hirsch . Hushiel bar Elhanan . Moses Isserles . Dr. A. Jellinek . Dr. David Kaufmann . Dr. Edward Lasker . Ferdinand Lassalle . Dr. Isaac Leeser . Emma Lazarus . Isidore Loeb . Dr. Leopold Low . Moses ben Maimon (Maimonides) . Karl Marx . Menasseh ben Israel . Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy . Moses Mendelssohn . Giacomo Meyerbeer 42, . Sir Moses Montefiore . Salomon Munk . Mordecai M. Noah . Rachel . Baron Lionel de Rothschild . Mayer A. Rothschild . Anton Rubinstein . Kalman Schulman . Perez Smolenskin . Benedict de Spinoza . William Steinitz . Dr. Henri Weil . Dr. Isaac M. Wise . Abraham Zacuto . Dr. Leopold Zunz Solomon Molko 377 6. Isaac Leonini Azulay: Under the name “Joseph Leonini” (Leonini was the family name of his mother) he published in Berlin in 1794 a Span- ish comedy, “ El Delinquente Honrado,” on the title- page of which he describes himself as “Teacher of Princess Augusta and in the gymnasium of Berlin.” He is said to have traveled to Prague in order to study at the university there, but was robbed of his money and found himself stranded in Berlin, where he resorted to the teaching of languages to gain a livelihood. Azulay subsequently settled in London, where he married Bella Friedlaender, a cousin of Chief Rabbi Herschell. He died in that city July 17, 1840. 7. Isaac Zerahiah Azulai: Father of Hayyim Joseph David (No. 4). Died in Jerusalem Jan. 16, 1765. 8. Isaiah Azulai: Father of Isaac Zerahiah (No. 7) and grandfather of Hayyim Joseph David (No. 4). Died in Jerusalem March 3, 1782. 9. Mordecai Azulai: Father of Abraham (No. 2). Lived in Fez toward the end of the six- teenth century. 10. Moses Azulai: Son of Raphael Isaiah (No. 12). He edited some of his father’s responsa in the collection “Zikron Mosheh” (Remembrance of Moses), Leghorn, 1880, and made an epitome of some of the works of his grandfather, Hayyim Jo- seph David (No. 4). 11. Nissim Zerahiah Azulai: Editor and an- notator of Shabbethai Cohen’s “Shulhan ha-Tahor ” (The Pure Table), a treatise on the 613 command- ments, Safed, 1886. He perished in the earthquake at Safed Jan. 1, 1837. 12. Raphael Isaiah Azulai: Rabbi in Ancona, where he died about 1830. One of his daughters married Abraham, son of the renowned rabbi David Pardo; and her grandson Moses Pardo was rabbi of Alexandria from 1871 to 1888. He was the author of a number of responsa and decisions, which ap- peared partly under the title “ Tiferet Mosheh ” (The Splendor of Moses), and partly in the “Zikron Mo- sheh” of his son Moses (No. 10). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Azulai, Shem ha-Gedolim, s.v.; Zedner, Cat. Hebr. Books British Museum; Hazan, Ha-Ma‘alot l- Shelomoh, 1894; The Leisure Hour, London, Aug., 1886; Alig. Zeit. des Judenthums, 1839, p. 60; private sources. D, D.—A. P. AZZUR or AZUR: 1. Father of Hananiah, a false prophet, contemporary with Jeremiah (Jer. xxviii, 1). 2. A leader who sealed the covenant with Nehe- miah (Neh. x. 17). 2 i, eon Azulai THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Aout Pann 3. Father of Jaazaniah, a prince of the people de- nounced by Ezekiel (Ezek. xi. 1 et seq.). J. JR. G. B. L. ‘AZZUT PANIM (0°35 nyy, “brazen-faced- ness”): A term applied to an impudent person. The phrase “ ‘az panim” occurs in Deut. xxviii. 50 (“a na- tion of fierce countenance ”), and in Dan. viii. 28 (“a king of fierce countenance”). “The brazen-faced one goes to Gehenna, the shame-faced, or bashful, to Gan ‘Eden,” says R. Judah (Mas. Kallab, ii., and thence transferred to Abot v. 20; see Taylor, “Sayings of the Fathers,” p. 96). “He who has not ‘ boshet. panim’ [bashfulness or shamefacedness], of a surety his ancestors stood not on Mount Sinai”; that is, he has not the pure blood of the Jewish race in him (Ned. 20u; compare Mek., Yitro, 9 on “His fear be upon your face that ye sin not,” Ex. xx. 20). One of the characteristics of the Jewish people, next to their being compassionate and benevolent, is their bashfulness (Yeb. 79a). No greater insult can there- fore be inflicted upon a Jew than to call him “‘Az- zut Panim,” in dialect also “ Azzes Ponim.” “Every priest that shows ‘Azzut Panim is surely a descend- ant of the slaves of Pashhur, the son of Immer, the priest who smote the prophet Jeremiah and put him in stocks [Jer. xx. 1]; these slaves having intermar- ried with priestly houses” (Kid. 703.) According to: R. Eliezer, R. Joshua, and R. Akiba, an “‘az panim ” (shameless person) exposes himself to the suspicion of being the offspring of an incestuous marriage or of some forbidden connection (“mamzer,” or “ben ha-niddah”; Mas. Kallah, ii.). An “‘az panim” may be called “rasha‘ ” (wicked), in accordance with Prov, xxi. 29 (* A wicked man hardeneth his face ”), or be hated, in accordance with Eccl. viii. 1 (which, with the reading “ yesunne,” means “ the boldness of his face causeth him to be hated”). An “ ‘az panim” is sure of falling a victim to sin, and it is on account of “‘azze fanim” (the shameless) in the land that rain is withheld, according to Jer. iii. 3: “Therefore the showers have been withhoiden, ... thou re- fusedst to be ashamed” (Ta‘an. 70). ' At the close of his daily prayers Rabbi Judah ha- Nasi used to say: “May it be Thy will, O Lord our God and God of our fathers, to save us from ‘‘azze fanim’ [the shameless ones] and from ‘ ‘azzut panim’ [shamelessness], from an evil man, an evil plague,” etc. (Ber. 166)—a prayer which found a place in the daily morning prayer of the common liturgy. J. SR. K. Ba‘al Ba‘al-Worship BA‘AL (sy; plural construct, Ba‘ale, by): Hebrew word for possessor or owner of an object. In connection with many nouns, it expresses some relation between the person and an object. Many of these combinations are found in Bible phraseology, and are still used, especially among the Poiish-Ger- man Jews; e.7., “Ba‘al ha-Bavit” (master of the house), corruptly pronounced “Baalboos.” In the idiom of the Talmud the words compounded with Bu'ai that are especially used to desiguate the differ- ent classes among scholars are: “ Ba‘ale Gemara,” or “ Ba‘ale Talmud,” those versed in the Talmud; “ Ba‘ale Mikra,” those versed in the Bible; and *Ba‘ale Mishnah,” those versed in the Mishnahb., Other compounds with Ba‘al adopted from the Tal- mud, and still frequently used, are: “Ba‘ale Hav- yim,” animals; “Ba‘al Din,” opponent, the plural being “ Ba‘ale Din Jin],” those engaged in a lawsuit; “Ba‘al Teshubah,” the repentant sirner; “ Bacal Yesurin,” one afHicted with pain; “ Ba‘al Mum,” one having a bodily defect; * Ba‘al *Ezah,” counselor, A curious use of Ba‘al is found in the rabbinic, espe- cially the halakic, writings of the Middle Ages. It consists in citing an author by the title of his best- known work, with which Ba‘alis combined; e.¢., “Ba‘al Halakot,” meaning Isnae Alfasi; “ Ba‘al Hassagot,” meaning Abraham b. David. Jacob b. Asher is commonly cited as “ Ba‘al ha-Turim ”; an- other codifier, Mordeeai b. Abraham Yafe, as “ Ba‘al ha-Lebushim.” being the authors of those works respectively. The critic Zerachiah ben Isaac is called after his work “ Ba‘al ha-Maor”: and Moses Isserles is huownus “Ba‘al ha-Mappah.” The great preacher Jsuane Arama is very seldom citcd under his own uame, but as “Bia‘al *Akedah”’: and the lexicographer Nathan b. Jechiel is cited Ba‘al he-‘Aruk.” The Tosatists are called “Ba‘ale hha- Tosafot,” an expression that designates the school, just as “Ba‘ale ha-Mchkar” is the term for phi- losophers (compare Mitr Batat, Nes; Batat Siren). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Kohut, ctrvch Completa. ti. Ti-t5e. Levy. Vetihebr. Wirterb. 1. 248-249; dastvow, Dictioncry. po Us. J. 8K, hie Es ~ fb as The following ennmeration of the most popular compounds of Batal that have crept inte commen use may be found useful: Ba‘al “Askan (a busybody). Beal ha-Bayit Gnaster of the house); dialect form, Brtai- hoos, Whence Bal Boiste (mistress of the house), Beval-berit (the master of the covenant), name given to the father upou Whose child the covenant rite of circumcision is performed, Beal Dahar (compare Ex. xxiy. 14, ‘* Ba‘al Debarim,”? the man who has a case before the court). Ba‘al Darshan, or Batal Derwsh (the preacher), Ba‘al Din (the man who has a jitigation at court), Ba‘al Emah (a man of fear; a timid man). Ba‘al *Erek (one who is assessed ; one well-to-do). Ba'al Ezah (a man of counsel; an able adviser). Ba’‘al Geburah (a man of strength ; a robust man). Ba‘al Halom (a dreamer). Ba‘al Heit (a man of pleasing manners), THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 378 B Ba‘al Hesron: dialect, Bal hissaron (a man having some phys- ical defect). Ba‘al Hob (debtor: though in the Talmud the creditor, Ket. ix. 2; Ned. 47), and elsewhere). Ba‘al Kabod: dialect, Bal Kuorod (a man who Jays stress on forms ef respeet). Betal Koah Quan of strength). Batal Horch (the reader from the seroll of the Law). Baal (Mahaloket] Mahaloles (a quarrelsome man}, Baval Mahashaboh | Mahashabot] (a dreamer ; literally, a man of thouchts). Belal Massa u-Mattan (a business man). Baal Mazzeal (nian of good luek; a fortunate man). Baral Mefurniutik Ca lover of comfort and ease). Baral Melakah (Bal Meloko] (a working man: a eraftsman),. Baral Mithamah [Bal Mithomo} (a man of war; a soldier). Ba‘el Mum (a man of some physical blemish). Ba‘al Nes (a man who had some miraculous experience in life), Baal Nthush (a man of superstitious notions; a believer in omens), Ba'at Nissayon (a man who has been tried and has stood the test). Ba‘al Serarah (an aristocrat), Bea'at Shalom (a man of peace). Ba‘al Shen (master in the use of the Holy Name). Ba‘al Tefiilah (the reader of the prayers on special occasions), Ba‘al Teshubah Ghe man of repentance; one who has turned from an irreligious to a religious node of life). Betal Tobah (a tian who loves to shaw kindness to others), Ba'al Toran ( man of learning). Barat Uman [Taimudieal, Batal Cmanut] (a craftsman). Beal Yesurin (a man afflicted with pain). Baral Zedakah Ca man of benevolence), Barat ZAikivearon (the possessor of a good memory). a. K. BA‘AL AND BA‘AL-WORSHIP.—Biblical Data: The wide-spread and primitive Seniitic root ("ba‘al") may be most nearly rendercd in English ere: Se eae’ i Og er eee een PF LORE FOOTE TALES SETS Ty et ee ee ‘ Altar of Ba‘al at Petre. Idtanica. (After a poctograjdid hy “possess.” The term “ Ba‘al,” therefore, which is usually explained as meaning “lord,” is prop- erly “possessor” or “owner,” and is so used in a great variety of applications in common Ifebrew speech. Thus we read of the “ha‘al” of a house, of land, of goods, of a woman (that is, as a hus- band). It is also generalized so far as to be a4 mere noun of relation. Thus a “ba‘al of dreams” 379 WIS Woy Ba'al THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Ba‘al-Worship is a dreamer; a “ba‘al of anger” is an angry man: a “ba‘alof wings” is a bird; a “ba‘alof edges” is two- edged; “ba‘alim of a covenant” are allics; “ba‘als of an oath” are conspirators. Further, a “ ba‘al” may be the owner of animals (Isa, 1, 3; Ex. xxi. 28 et seg.), but not of men as slaves or subjects, for the phrase in Isa. xvi, 8, the “ ba‘alim ” of the nations, implies clonuinion over regions rather than over peo- ple. “Ba‘al” in He- brew is therefore essen- tialiy different from “adon.” which implies personal sway and con- trol. When any divin- ity.is called “ba‘al” or “a ba‘al,” the designa- tion must be under- stood to imply not a ruler of men, but a possessor or controller of certain things, On the other hand, the Assyrian (Babylonian) —"bél,” originally the & same word, implics es- pecially lordship over men, though itis also, as in all north-Semitic Janguages, used as a mere noun of relation. In Arabic “ ba‘al,” as applied to persons, is confined to the meaning of * husband.” The question as to the origin of the Worship of Ba‘al among the Hebrews can only be settled by tra- cing it among the Semites in general and especially among the Babylonians. Were the name (Bel) is that of one of the earliest and mest honored of national PSs eae 2 sie el = tan uh Ba‘al as a Sun-God. (From a Phenician stele in the Louvre.) dcities. Bel was the special god of Nippur, perhaps the oldest of Babylonian cities. Nip- Bel in pur was iu the earlicst known times a Babylonia. religions center, and the prestige of Belwas so great that when the city of Babylon became supreme his name was imposed upon that of Merodach, the patron deity of the cap- ital, who was thenceforth Known as Bel-Merodach or simply Bel (compare Isa. xlvi. 1). There is, how- ever, nothing to show that Bel was a universal ob- ject of Semitic worship before he became the god of Nippur. Moreover, Nippur, like other Babylonian cities, had its own local deity under whose auspices the city itself and its temple were founded, and who seems to have received the name Bel, “lordly, domi- nant,” by reason of the renown and influence of this central shrine. This, however, will hardly account for the place held by Belin the Babylonian pantheon, where he appears as the god of the earth, distinguished from Annu, the god of the heavens, and Ea, the god of the lower world. Bel seems to have been honored on sinilar grounds in Lagash in southern Babylonia, and it is reasonable to suppose that it was a combi- nation of the several leading cults of such Bels that led to the unification indicated in the position of the great Babylonian Bel) It appears probable that it was the gradual assimilation of cities and petty states that raised the leading local deities to national prominence. Thereafter other influences, sacerdotal, theological, and administrative, cooperated to make a favorite cult predominant. Bel, accordingly, be- came a distinct national god, with a proper name, at an carly date, though at a comparatively late stage of religious development. In Palestine such a degree of syneretisin in Baal- Worship was never attained. There were several reasons for this, the chief of which was that political combination of any sort was difficult in that singularly diver- sified region, so that each city-state among the Canaanites retained its own special divinity with its separate and independent shrine. Yet when any community came to exert a wide influence, as did the city of Tyre, the worship of its deity extended among the dependent cities and might even be adopted elsewhere by virtue of alliances, political or matrimonial, on the part of the rulers of the re- spective states. Such, for example, was the occa- sion of the degradation of worship in Israel in the time of Solomon (I Kings xi. 1 et seg.) and of Ahab (C Kings xvi. 3 e¢ seq.).. The passage last cited is suggestive. There it is stated that Ahab “ took asa wife Jezebel, daughter of Ethbaal, king of the Sidonians, and he went and served the Baal and worshiped him; and he set up an altar to the Baal in the house of Baal which he had built in Samaria.” It is hardly likely that the passage embodics a reference to a god Ba‘al whose worship was common throughout Palestine, for “the 3aal,” according to the context. does not necessarily mean anything more than Melkart, the deity spe- cially honored by the Phenicians (Sidoni- ans), and in fact it ap- pears that there were many Ba‘als in Pales- tine, each of whom stood onan independ- ent footing (compare BAAL-BERITH, BA AL- im, ete.). But Ahab had no occasion to ag- grandize any one of these minor Ba‘alim, since he did not re- gard them as at all serviceable, To account for the worship of these Ba‘alim we may refer to the usave of the word as a common noun, The supernat- ural powers most ob- vious to the imagina- tion of primitive Semites were those which were supposed to supply their most pressing wants, such as the need of food and drink. Gatherings and settlements were made where the soil was most in- viting; that is, where it was perennially productive. Such districts were regarded as being fertilized by Jews Advanced Develop- ment in Palestine. Ba’al Hamon. (From a Phevician terra-cotta in the Louvre.) Ba‘al-Worship Baal-Hanan divine agency, and as each of them had its own divinity or demon as the “owner” of the soil, such a being was called its “Ba‘al.” The Stagesin usage, having thus begun in agricul- Ba‘al- tural settlements, was naturally trans- Worship. ferred to the sites of cities, all of which were in any case founded under religious auspices. Hence the multiplicity of Ba‘als; and hence the proper names of places which have “Baal” as the first element, such as BAAL-HAZOR, BAAL-HERMON, BAAL-MEON, BAAL-PERAZIM, BAAL- SHALISHA, BAAL-TAMAR, and BAAL-ZEPHON. A sec- ond stage of development was reached when to the Ba‘al of a place was assigned a more abstract character as a divinity of wider functions as BAAL- BERITH, BAALZEBUB. A. further step was taken when the name was used absolutely of a god Ba‘al without qualifications, used, for example, in anti- thesis to YHWH and as the second element in names of persons, in such forms as Ish-baal (“Man of Ba‘al”) or Hannibal (“ Favor of Ba‘al”). It is not correct, therefore, to speak of Ba‘al as be- ing a universal Semitic deity, nor even as being the object of acommon Canaanitish worship. On the other hand, it can not be said that there was no god Ba‘al,as a distinct divinity among inland or mari- time Canaanites, for later usage points clearly to the use of the word as a proper name without any definition whatever. It would appear that the Hebrews first learned Ba‘al-Worship from the agricultural Canaanites. Their life before the conquest of Canaan, whether lived in or outside of Palestine, was nomadic, and therefore kept them beyond the circle of religious associations promoted by the cultivation of the soil. After their settlement the Israelites How the began to live as did the people of Hebrews the land, and with the new mode of Adopted industrial and domestic life came the the Cult. example and the incitement of the re- ligious use and wont that were in- separable from the soil. The stated festivals, in which the Ba‘als of the land had drawn to them- selves all the enthusiasm and devotion of an intensely religious people, were a part of the fixed order of things in Palestine, and were necessarily appropri- ated by the religion of YuwuH. With them came the danger of mixing the rites of the false gods and the true God; and, asa matter of fact, the syncre- tism did take place and contributed more than anything else to the religious and moral decline of Israel. The noxious elements in such Ba‘al- Worship were not simply the degradation of YHwuH and the en- thronement in his place of a baseless superstition. The chief evil arose from the fact that the Ba‘als were more than mere religious fan- Dangers tasies. They were made the symbols and Evils of the reproductive powers of nature, of the and thus their worship ministered to Worship. sexual indulgences, which it at the same time legalized and encouraged. Further, there was placed side by side with the Ba‘al a corresponding female symbol, the ASHTORETH (Babyl. “ Ashtar ”) and the relation between the two deities was set forth as the example and the motive THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 380 of unbridled sensuality. The evil became all the worse when in the popular view YuwuH himself was regarded as one of the Ba‘als and the chief of them (Hosea ii. 16). It was in northern Israel, where agriculture was more followed than in the southern kingdom,that Ba‘al- Worship was most insidious and virulent. The Book of Hosea speaks Popular cloquently and pathetically of the and Official moral and religious ruin which it Forms of wrought in the days just before the fall the Cult. ofthe monarchy. It was tothe Ba‘als that the popular worship of the high places was paid; or, more frequently, to Yuwe Himself with Baalish rites. In the kingdom of Judah the inveterate evil was abated, if not at once quelled, by the ccncentration of all religious acts in Jerusa- lem and its Temple. More pernicious while it lasted than this popular inland Canaanitic cult was the elaborate official Ba‘al-Worship of Ahab and Jezebel, above alluded to, which was finally rooted out by revolution and proscription (II Kings ix., x.). It had prophets by the hundred, as well as priests, and had the effect of virtually though not avowedly put- ting the religion of YHwuH under the ban. It was introduced into Judah by Athaliah, daughter of Jezebel; and its suppression there was also accom- panied by a civil outbreak (II Kings xi. 4 et seq.). Ba‘al-Worship did not play so great a part in the later religion of Judalias did the adoration of the heavenly bodies and related usages borrowed from Assyria and Babylonia. Yet the customs native to the soil lin- gered on till they were obliterated by the Exile. Apart from the offerings of fruits from the earth and the firstlings of cattle, much is pot known with regard to the rites of the popular Ba‘al- Rites and Worship. Self-torture and mutilation Accom- characteristic of the Phenician type paniments. (I Kings xviii.28) were probably absent from the simpler and freer usages of the primitive local observances. It is also doubtful whether the sacrifice of children, proper to the serv- ice of Molech, was ever a feature of inland Canaan- itic Ba‘al-Worship (Jer. xix. 5 is to be corrected by the LXX.). The shrines were little more than altars with the symbol of the Ashtoreth planted beside it— the sacred tree-stem or pole named from an old Canaanite goddess, Ashera, with whom Ashtoreth was identified. Near by sacred pillars were also often reared. It has been already indicated that the Ba‘al plays a great réle in Canaanitic proper names. A curious phase in the history of the cultin Israel Baalin is shown in the substitution by later Personal editors of (nw), “ boshet,” “ the shame- Names. ful thing,” for Ba‘al in such names as Ishbosheth and Mephibosheth; com- pare “Eshbaal,” I Chron. viii. 38, and “ Meribbaal,” I Chron. ix. 40 (viii. 34). A name which could not be thus treated was “ Bealiah” (I Chron. xii. 6 [A. V. 5]), which means “ Jehovah is Ba‘al.” BIBLIOGRAPHY : Selden, De Dis Syris; Movers, Phénizier, i. 169 et seq.; Minter, Religion der Karthager ; Gesenius, The- saurus, 8.v.; Comm. ad Jes. ii. 385 et seq.; Oort, Worship of Baalim in Israel (transl. by Colenso, 1865); Biathgen, Bettriige zur Semit. Religionsgeschichte; Baudissin, art. Baal in Herzog’s Real-Kncycl. 3d ed.; Nowack, Hebr. Archdologie, ii. 301 et seq.; Benzinger, Hebr. Arch. pp. 371 et seq.: Smend, Alttest. Religionsgeschichte, pp. 51 et seq., 381 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Ba‘al-Worshi Baal-Hanan of 131 et seq.; Dillmann, Alttest. Theologie, pp. 135 ct seq., 140; W.R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, 2d ed., pp. 98-113. Fi -3R: J. F. Mec. ——In Mohammedan Literature: It is more than doubtful whether “ Baal” appears in the Koran asa proper name. Five times it is used in the sense “husband ”; once in the singular (sura xi. 75), and four times in the plural (suras ii. 228, xxiv. 31). Once it is used of a god (sura xxxvil. 125). In that passage, according to the interpretation of Ibn ‘Ab- bas (“Lisan al-Arab,” xiii. 62), a cousin of the prophet and the founder of Koranic exegesis (died 687), it is to be rendered “Lord.” Sura xxxvii, 123- 127 may be translated: “And verily Elijah was one of the divine messengers when he said to his people, ‘Will ye not fear? Will ye invoke a Lord [* Ba‘l”] and abandon the best of creators, God your Lord and the Lord of your forefathers?’ But they gave him the lie; and they, verily, will be brought to judgment.” There seems little doubt that Ibn ‘Ab- bas’ interpretation of “Ba‘l,” as equivalent to “rabb” (lord) or “malik” (possessor), represents the conception of Mohammed. It agrees with Arabic usage (see “Lisan al-Arab,” /.c., and Lane, “ Lexi- con,” p. 228b.c.). But later Islam, with few excep- tions, has united to interpret “Ba‘l” as a proper name, One excgete has said that it meant any idol (“sanam ”)in general; another, that it was any deity except God. But for the great mass of Moslems, Ba‘1] was an idol of gold worshiped by the people of Bakk, a town in Syria, afterward called from it “Ba‘Tbakk” (Baalbek). It was twenty cubits high, and had four faces; and “devils ” entered it and spoke to the people from it, according to the usual Moslem idea. This was in the time of Ahab and Jezebel; and Bakk was their capital. Others have held that it was in the time of Jonauw; still others, that it was a woman whom the people of Bakk wor- shiped. For the later legend see Al-Tha‘labi (ied 1036), “ Kisas al-Anbiya,” ed. Cairo, p. 142, and ref- erences above. See also ELIJAH IN MOHAMMEDAN LITERATURE. J. JR. D. B. M. BA‘AL HA-BAYIT (n ‘37 Sy3, literally “mas- ter of the house” ; see Ex. xxii.7 [R. V.8}; Judges xix. 22. In Talmudic usage “ owner,” “ Jandlord,” “ host” ; see Jastrow, “Dictionary,” s.7. n'a. In Yiddish, Balboos; plural, Ba‘ale Battim): In more modern usage, the constituent members of a congregation as contrasted with the “toshabim ” (transient members or strangers). The Ba‘ale Battim consist of those members who pay over a certain amount for their seats in the synagogue. In return for this they had special privileges, such as being elected bride- groom of the Law, voting at elections, and certain other advantages, on which account they are known in England as ‘‘privileged members,” as contrasted with “seat-renters.” They are also eligible for the honorary offices of the synagogue, and can not evade service except on payment of a fine. BIBLIOGRAPHY : Jewish Chronicle, Jan. 11, 1901, p. 14. A. BAAL-BERITH.—Biblical Data (“the Ba‘al of the Covenant”): A form of Ba‘al-worship prevail- ing in Israel (Judges viii. 33), and particularly in Shechem (Judges ix. 4). The term” Ba‘al” is shown by the equivalent “ El-berith ” (Judges ix. 46, R. V.) to mean “the God of the Covenant.” Inconsidering what the covenant (or covenants) was over which this Ba‘al presided, it must not necessarily be con- cluded that certain definite treaties of the time were alone referred to, such as the Canaanitice league of which Shechem was the head, or the covenant be- tween Israel and the people of Shechem (Gen. xxxiv.). The term is too abstract to have been oc- casioned by a single set of conditions. Moreover, the temple of the god (Judges ix. 4, 46) in Shechem implies a permanent establishment. Probably the name and the cult were wide-spread and ancient (see BAALiM), though it happens to have been mentioned only in connection with the affairs of Shechem. J. Ih. J. F. McC. ——In Rabbinical Literature: The idol Baal- berith, which the Jews worshiped after the death of Gideon, was identical, according to the Rabbis, with Baal-zebub, “the ba‘al of flies,” the god of Ekron (II Kings i. 2). He was worshiped in the shape of a fly; and so addicted were the Jews to his cult (thus runs the tradition) that they would carry an image of him in their pockets, producing it, and kissing it from time to time. Baal-zebub is called Baal-berith because such Jews might be said to make a covenant (Hebr. “ Berit ”) of devotion with the idol, being un- willing to part with it for a single moment (Shab. 836; comp. also Sanh. 63). According to another conception, Baal-berith was an obscene article of idolatrous worship, possibly a simulacrum priapt (Yer. Shab. ix. 11d; ‘Ab. Zarah iii. 48a). This is evidently based on the later significance of the word “berit,” meaning circumcision. J. SR. L. G. BAAL-GAD: A place situated at the northern limit of Palestine, in the valley of Lebanon, near Mount Hermon (Josh. xi. 17, xii. 7, xiii. 5). Since I Chron. v. 23 mentions Baal-hermon as the northern limit of the tribe of Manasseh, it has been supposed that Baal-gad and Baal-hermon are identical. This conjecture is quite possible, and more plausible than that of Gesenius, Raumer, Robinson, and others, according to whom Baal-gad (Hermon) is identical with the later celebrated Paneas (Banias) ; for Paneas can hardly be said to lie in the valley of Lebanon. Others have connected Baal-gad with Hasbéja in the Bika‘. J. IR. F. Bu. BAAL-HAMON: A place mentioned in Cant. viii. 11, in which passage Solomon is said to have had a vineyard there; its identity is unknown. Graetz proposes to read “ Baal-hermon” for “ Baal- hamon”; but this is mere conjecture. Balamon (Judith viii. 3), with which Delitzsch and others have sought to identify it, is apparently the Old Testament Ibleam, or Bileam, and the modern Bel‘ame, a moderately fruitful valley south of the great plain of Jezreel. Bickel] and Cheyne eliminate the word, to preserve the meter. J. IR. F. Bu. BAAL-HANAN: 1. An Edomite king (Gen. Xxxvi. 38). He is called the son of Achbor; but the name of his native city is not given. For this and Baal-Hazor Ba‘al Shem other reasons, Marquart (“ Fundamente Israelitischer und Jiidischer Gesch.” 1896, pp. 10 et sey.) supposes that “son of Achbor” isa duplicate of “son of Beor ” (Gen. xxxvi. 82), and that “Baal-hanan” in the original text is given as the name of the father of the next king, Hadad. 2. A Gederite who had charge of David's olive- and sycamore-trees in the low plains of Judah (I Chron. xxvii. 28), J. IR. F. Bu. BAAL-HAZOR: A place situated near Ephraim, where Absalom possessed an estate (IL Sam. xiii. 23). It was there that during a sheep-shearing fes- tival Amnon was killed at the instigation of his stepbrother Absalom. Baal-hazor has, with some degree of plausibility, been identified as the modern Tell ‘Azur, cast of Beth-el (see Ernrar). It is perhaps the same as Hazor, mentioned in Neh. xi. 38. J. IR, F. Bu. BAAL-HERMON (Judges ili. 3; I Chron. v. 28): See BAAL-GAD. J. IR, I. Be. BAAL KORE (NUP by9, literally “the master reading ”): Term applicd to the person who reads the weekly portion from the Pentateuch—usually the hazan, though not necessarily so (see CANTIL- LATION: Hazzan; Music, SYNAGOGAL; compare Dembitz, “Jewish Services in Synagogue and Home,” pp. 70, 71, 262). A. F. L. C. BAAL-MEON, BETH-BAAL-MEON, BETH-MEON, or BEON: A city in the eastern part of the Jordan district, which is designated in Numbers (xxxii, 3, 38), Joshua (xiii. 17), and Chron- icles (v. 8) as Israelitish (Reubenitish), and in Jere- Miah (xlviii. 28) and Ezekiel (xxv. 9) as Moabitish. According to the inscription on the Moaprre STONE (lines 9 380), this city was reconquered by King Mesha after it had become, under Omri, one of the cities of the Israelites. The site of Baal-meon, which is declared by Eusebius to be at a distance of nine Roman miles from Heshbon, is marked by the ruins of Ma‘in. The remains of buildings show the Roman style of architecture. In a number of slouses the lower part is hewn out of the rock. As Eusebins uses the name “Baian” (“ Onomastica Sacra,” ed. Lagarde, eexxxii. 40) for “Beon ” (Num. XXXil. 8), the word has been connected with the sons of Bean (I Macc. v. 4 ef seg.), who were punished by Judas Maccabens for their hostility toward the Jews. The name of this same Bedouin tribe occurs also in Arabic authors (Wellhausen, “I. J. G.,” 3d ed., p. 277). J. Jl. F. Be. BAAL-PEOR: Name of a Canaanitish god. Peor was a mountain in Moab (Num. xxiii. 28), whence the special locality Beth-peor (Deut. iii. 29, etc.) was designated. It gave its name to the Ba‘al who was there worshiped, and to whose service Israel, before the entrance into Canaan, was, for a brief time, attracted (Num. xxv. 3,5; Ps. evi. 28). The god is himscif also called “ Peor” by abbrevia- tion (Num. xxxi. 16; Josh. xxii. 17). It is commonly THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 382 for sensual indulgence. The context seems to favor his view, ou account of the shameful licentiousness into which many of the Israelites were there en- ticed. But all Ba‘al-worship encouraged this sin; and Peor may not have been worse than many other shrines in this respect, though the evil there was certainly flagrant. In Hosea ix. 10 “ Baal-peor” is the same as “ Beth-peor,” and is contracted from “ Beth-baal-peor.” J. IR. J. F. McC. In Rabbinical Literature: The worship of this idol consisted in exposing that part of the body which all persons usually take the utmost care to conceal. It is related that on one occasion a strange ruler came to the place where Peor was worshiped, to sacrifice to him; but when he heard of this silly practise, he caused his soldiers to attack and kill the worshipers of the god (Sifre, Num. 181; Sanh. 106). The same sourees mention various other facts concerning the cult, all of which give the impression that it still existed at the time of the Tannaim. That the statements of the Rabbis are not wholly imaginative and do not take their coloring from the rites of some heathen or antinomian-Gnostie sects is shown by the fact that the worship of Peor is ridi- culed, but nowhere stigmatized as moral depravity, by the Rabbis, which latter might have been ex- pected, had the assertions of the Rabbis been based on the Gnostic cults mentioned. J. Sk. L. G. BAAL-PERAZIM: A place mentioned in the report of the battle between David and the Philis- tines in II Sam. v. 20 (compare I Chron. xiv. 11). The Philistines encamped in the valley of RepHarm, while David withdrew to the hill-fortress of Adul- Jam and thence proceeded to Baal-perazim, where he defeated the Philistines. Consequently the place must have been situated in the valley of Rephaim: but more definite information concerning it can not be found. One is tempted to connect it with Mount Perazim (Isa. xxviii. 21). oF i: F, Bu. BAAL-SHALISHA: A place mentioned in IT Kings iv. 42, and in the Talmud (Sanh. 12a). Euse- bius identities it with Baithsarisa, 15 Roman miles to the north of Lydda. This, however, is uncertain, and there is much in favor of connecting Baal-sha- lisha with the ruins of Serisiyyah, lying on the west- ern side of the mountains of Ephraim, or with the ruins of the cities Kefr Thilth, lying somewhat to the northeast. According to the Talmud (éoe. e7¢.), fruits ripened earlier at Baal-shalisha than elsewhere in Palestine. BIBLIOGRAPHY: G. A. Smith, Historical’Geography of Patles- tine, p. 851; Buhl, Geographie des Alten Paliistina, p. 214. J. JR. F. Be. BA‘AL SHEM (py Oy). plural, “ Ba‘alei She- mot,” more correctly “ Ba‘alei Shem,” z.¢., Master of the Name): Designation cf certain people who were supposed to work miracles through the name of God. This belief in the miraculous power of the Sacred Name is very old, having a history that cov- ers more than two thousand years (compare SHEM HA-MiFORASH aud Gop, NAMES OF); but the des- held that this form of Ba‘al-worship especially called | ignation “Ba'tal Shem” seems to have originated 383 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Baal-Hazor Ba‘al Shem only with the German-Polish Jews when they be- came acquainted with the practical Cabala of the school] of Luria. The payyetan Benjamin b. Zerah is indeed called “ Ba‘al Shem,” which, however, only indicates that in his piyyutim be frequently alludes to the various nystical names of God. ‘The first one who is known to have borne this hame, Elijah of Chelm, flourished about 1500, at the period when the study of the Cabala was wide-spread in Poland. The Ba‘al Shem, which tirst was undoubtedly applicd only as a special distinction to particular men who were considered great saints and in whose miracu- lous powers the people believed, had two centuries later developed into a profession. These “ Ba‘ale Shem” represented a mixture of quack doctor, phy- sician, and cabalist. They wrote amulets, prescribed empiric medicines, with which they were well ac- quainicd. and engaged also in casting out or snm- moning spirits. Their profession was such that they incurred the hostility of physicians, with whom they often centered into serious competition. The follow- Ing prayer, composed by a Ba‘al Shem for himself and his compeers, is indicative of the attitude toward the physicians: “ Preserve me from enmity and quar- rels; and may envy between me and others disap- pear. Let, on the contrary, friendship, peace, and harmony prevail between me and the physicians, ... that [may be respected in their opinion, . . that they may not speak evil of me or of my ac- tions” (“ Toledot: Adam,” Zolkiev, 1720). Solomon Maimon speaks, in his autobiography (i. 219), of a Ba‘al Shem who possessed medical knowledge and sufficient astuteness to make him a formidable com- petitor of the physicians. Following is an approximately complete alpha- betical list of persons Known to have been Ba‘ale Shem: (1) Elhanan, rabbi in Vienna, seventeenth century (Dembit- zer, “ Kelilat Yofi,” ¢8h); (2) Elijah, rabbi at Chelm (govern- ment of Lublin), a progenitor of Zebi Ashkenazi, flourished about 1500 (Responsa of Zebi Ashkenazi, No. 93 ; Emden, ** Megil- lat Sefer.’ 4); (8) Elijah b. Moses Loans (1555-1636); (4) Falk, Hayyim Samuel, 1708-1825 (5) Gedaliah of Worms, an eminent Taimudist, died between 1622 and 1624 (Kaufmann, * Yair Hay- yim,” Bacharach, p. 20, note 2); (6) Israel b. Eliezer (i7Q0- 1760), commonly known as Ba‘aL SHEM-TORB (see articles ; (7) Joel b. Isaac Heilprin. middle of the seventeenth century ; (8) Joel b. Uri Heilprin, beginning of the eighteenth century: (9) Selig of Lublin. beginning of the eighteenth century (Kahana in the passage cited below. p. 63); (10) Wolf, who, like most of the Ba‘ale Shem, lived in Poland in the beginning of the eigh- teenth century (Kahana 0.¢.) 2 G1) Sekt Loeb Wormser (176s8— 18460, the Michaelstadter Baval Shem, still known in Germany under thet nance. See Hasrpia; Fos Mepicrve. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Kahane, R. Yisrael Ba‘al Shem-Tob, 1900, pp. ost; Deubitzer, Le. Kk. L. G. BAAL SHEM, ELIJAH. Sve Loans, Etwan. BAAL SHEM, JOEL. Sce HEILPrin, Joe vu. Tsaac, and Hereerin, Jorn bp. Ure. BA‘AL SHEM-TOB, ISRAEL B. ELIE- ZER (commonly known by the initial letters of his name, py vya. BEShT): Founder of the sect of Hasi- dim: born about 1700: died at Miedzyboz (Medzhi- bozh), May 22, 1760. The litle biographical infor- mation concerning him that exists is so interwoven with legends and Miracles that in many cases it is { hard to arrive at the historical facts. He is said to have been born at Akuf (1p), a border-city between Poland and Wallachia; but uo such place is known, From the numerous legends connected with his birth it appears that his parents were poor, upright, and pious, and that when left an orphan he was taken care of by the community in which he lived. At the “heder” he distinguished himself only by his fre- quent disappearances, being always found in the lonely woods surrounding the place, rapturously enjoying the beauties of nature. Hlis benefactors gave up the hope of his ever be- coming a rabbi, and made him a “ helper,” who took the children to and from school and rehearsed short benedictions and prayers with them. Early Life. Llis tender, sentimental nature, te Which his later success was in great measure due, now stood him in good stead; for he could win children and attach them to him by expla- nations suited to their understanding. Later he be- came “shanmash” in the same community, and at about cighteen he married. When his young wife died he Jeft the place, and after serving for a long time as helper in various small communities of Gali- cla, he settled as a teacher at Flust near Brody. On account of his recognized honesty and his knowleage of human nature he was chosen to act as arbitrator and mediator for people conducting suits against cach other; and his services were brought into frequent requisition owing to the fact that the Jews had their own civil courtsin Poland. In this avocation Besht succeeded in making so deep an impression upon the rich and learned Ephraim of Kkuty that the latter promised Besht his daughter Anna in marriage. The man died, however, without telling his daughter of her betrothal; but when she heard of his wish, she did not hesitate to comply. Besht’s wooing was characteristic. In the shabby clothes of a peasant he presented himself at Brody before Abraham Gerson Kutower, brother of the girl, and a recognized authority in the Cabala and the Talmud. Kutower was about to give him alms, when Besht produced a letter from his pocket, showing that he was the designated bridegroom. Kutower tried in vain to dissuade his sister Anna from shaming the family by marrying this “ ‘am ha- arez >: but she regarded her father’s will alone as authoritative. After his marriage Besht did not Jong remain with this aristocratic brother-in-law, who was ashamed of him (for he kept up the pretense of being an igno- rant fellow); and he went to a village in the Carpa- thians between Kuty and Kassowa. Ilis worldly property consisted of a horse given him by his brother-in-law. Every week his wife took a wagon- load of lime to the surrounding villages; and from this they derived their entire support. But the magnificent scenery in this, the finest region of the Carpathians, and the possibility of enjoying it witb- out the interruptions of city life, compensated him for his great privations. Besht’s condition was bet- tered when he took a position as shohet in Kshilo- wice, nezr Iaslowice. This position he soon gave up in order to conduct a village tavern which his brother-in-law bought for him, . During the many years that he lived in the woods and came into Ba‘al Shem-Tob THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 384 contact with the peasants, Besht learned how to use plants for healing purposes and to effect wonderful cures. In fact, his first appearance in public was that of an ordinary BA‘aAL SuEM. He wrote amu- lets and prescribed cures. To his credit be it said that he was far from practising the quackery of his fellows in the craft. In treating, for instance, those who suffered from melancholy, or the insane, he sought to influence their minds. After many trips in Podolia and Volhynia as a Ba‘al Shem, Besht, considering his following large enough and his authority established, decided (about 1740) to expound his teachings. He Appear- chose for the place of his activity the ance little city of Miedzyboz; and the peo- as Zaddik. ple, mostly from the lower classes, came to listen to him, His following gradually increased, and with it the dislike, not to say hostility, of the Talmudists. Nevertheless, Besht was supported at the beginning of his career by two prominent Talmudists, the brothers Meir and Isaac Dob Margaliot. Later he won to his side Baer of Meseritz, to whose great authority as a Talmudist it was chiefly due that Besht’s doctrines (though in an essentially altered form) were intro- duced into learned circles. The antagonism between Talmudism and Hasidism was apparent to the repre- sentatives of each at Besht’s first appearance; but the open breach did not come about until later. In fact, Besht took sides with the Talmudists in the Frankist disputes, and was even one of the three delegates of the Talmudists to a disputation between the two parties held at Lemberg in 1759. It was only in keeping with Besht’s character that he felt keenly upon the acceptance of baptism by the Frankists, for it is related that he said: “ As long as a diseased limb is connected with the body, there is hope that it may be saved; but, once amputated, it is gone, and there is no hope.” The excitement con- sequent upon the Frankist movement undermined his health, and he died shortly after the conversion of many Frankists to Christianity. Besht left no books; for the cabalistic commen- tary on Ps. cvii., ascribed to him (Jitomir, 1804), “Sefer mi-Rabbi Yisrael Ba‘al Shem-Tob,” is hardly genuine. In order to get at his teachings, it is therefore necessary to turn to his utterances as given in the works of the old Hasidim. But since Hasidism, immediately after the death of its founder, was divided into various parties, each claiming for itself the authority of Besht, the utmost of caution is necessary in judging as to the authenticity of utterances ascribed to Besht. The foundation-stone of Hasidism as laid by Besh is a strongly marked pantheistic conception of God. He declared the whole universe, mind and matter, to be a manifestation of the Divine Being; that this manifestation is not an emanation from God, as is the conception of the Cabala, for nothing can be sep- arated from God: all things are rather forms in which He reveals Himself. When man speaks, said Besht, he should remember that his specch is an element of life, and that life itself is a manifestation of God. Even evil exists in God. This seeming contradic- tion is explained on the ground that evil is not bad in itself, but only in its relation toman. It is wrong to look with desire upon a woman; but it is divine to admire her beauty: it is wrong only in so far as man does not regard beauty asa manifestation of God, but misconceives it, and thinks of it in refer- ence to himself. Nevertheless, sin is nothing posi- tive, but is identical with the imper- Elements fections of human deeds and thought. of Besht’s Whoever does not believe that God Doctrines. residesin all things, but separates Him and them in his thoughts, has not the right conception of God. It is equally fallacious to think of a creation in time: creation, that is, God’s activity, has no end. God is ever active in the changes of nature: in fact, it is in these changes that God’s continuous creativeness consists. This pantheism of Besht, of the consequences of which he was not at all conscious, would have shared the fate of many other speculative systems which have passed over the masses without affecting them, had it not been for the fact that Besht was a man of the people, who knew how to give his meta- physical conception of God an eminently practical significance. The first result of his principles was a remarkable optimism. Since God is immanent in all things, all things must possess something good in which God manifests Himself as the source of good. For this reason, Besht taught, every man must be considered good, and his sins must be explained, not con- demned. One of his favorite sayings was that no man has sunk too low to be able to raise himself to God. Naturally, then, it was his chief endeavor to convince sinners that God stood as near to them as to the righteous, and that their misdeeds were chiefly the consequences of their folly. Another important result of his doctrines, which was of great practical importance, was his denial that asceticism is pleasing to God. “ Whoever main- tains that this life (AmMr poy) is worthless is in error: it is worth a great deal; only one must know how to use it properly.” From the very beginning Besht fought against that contempt for the world which, through the influence of Luria’s Cabala, had almost become a dogma among the Jews. He considered care of the body as necessary as care of the soul; since matter is alsoa manifestation of God, and must not be considered as hostile or opposed to Him. In connection with his struggle against asceticism, it is natural that he should have fought also against the strictness and the sanctimoniousness that had gradually developed from the strict Talmudic stand. point. Not that Besht required the abrogation of any religious ceremonies or of a single observance. His target was the great importance which the Tal. mudic view attached to the fulfilment of a law, while almost entirely disregarding sentiment or the growth of man’s inner life. While the rabbis of his day considered the study of the Talmud as the most im- portant religious activity, Besht laid all the stress on prayer. “AlIl that I have achieved,” he once re- marked, “I have achieved not through study, but through prayer.” Prayer, however, is not petition- ing God to grant a request, though that is one end of prayer, but mip’ (“cleaving ”)—the feeling of oneness with God, the state of the soul when man gives up the consciousness of his separate existence, 385 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Ba‘al Shem-Tob and joins himself tothe eternal being of God. Such a state produces a species of indescribable joy (mnDw), which ts a necessary ingredient of the true worship of God. It is remarkable that Besht, whose starting-point was the same as that of Luria’s Cabala, arrived at exactly opposite results. His conception of God was pantheistic; while the school of Luria laid the greatest stress upon the principle of Opposition emanation. Besht’s fight against as- to Luria’s ceticism was directed more against Cabala. the school from which it sprang than against pure Talmudism. His teach- ings concerning ANDY (“joy”) were especially op- posed to asceticism. The followers of Luria consid- ered weeping an indispensable accompaniment to prayer; while Besht considered weeping and feelings of sorrow to be wholly objectionable. The sinner who repents of his sin should not sorrow over the past, but should rejoice over the Heavenly Voice, over the Divine Power, working within him and enabling him to recognize the truc in admitting his sin. The function of joy in prayer is paralleled by glowing enthusiasm and ecstasy (ManpAR =“ to be- come inflamed”) in every act of worship. Fear of God is only an initiatory step to real worship, which must spring from a love of God and a surrender of self to Him, In his enthusiasm man will not think cither of this life (AIF obi) or of the next: the feel- ing of union with God is in itself a means and an end. Enthusiasm, however, demands progress, not the mere fulfilment of the Law’s precepts in a daily routine which becomes deadening: true religion con- sists in an ever-growing recognition of God. The later developments of Hasidism are unintelli- gible without consideration of Besht’s opinion con- cerning man’s proper relation with the universe. True worship of God. as above explained, consists in Mpa, the cleaving to, and the unification with, God. To use hisown words, “the ideal of man is to be a revelation himself, clearly to recognize himself as a manifestation of God.” Mysticism, he said, is not the Cabala, which every one may learn; but that sense of true oneness, which is usually as strange, unintelligible, and incomprehensible to mankind as dancing is to a dove. The man, however, who is capable of this feeling is endowed with a genuine intuition; and it is the perception of such a man which is called prophecy, or “ bat kol,” according to the degree of his insight. From this Idea of the it results, in the first place, that the Zaddik. “zaddik,” the ideal man, may lay claim to authority equal, in a certain sense, to the authority of the Prophets. A second and more important result of the doctrine is that the zaddik, through his oneness with God, forms a con- necting-link between the Creator and creation. Thus, slightly modifying the Bible verse, Hab. ti. 4. Besht said: “The righteous can vivify by his faith.” Besht’s followers enlarged upon this idea, and con- sistently deduced from it that the zaddik is the source of divine mercy, of blessings, of life; and that therefore, if one love him, one may partake of God’s mercy. Though Besht may not be held responsible for the later conception of the zaddik, there is no doubt Il. —25 that his self-reliance was an important factor in win- ning adherents. It may, in fact, be said of Hasi- dism that, with the exception of Jesus and the Judeeo- Christians, there is no other Jewish sect in which the founder is as important as his doctrines. Besht himself is still the real center for the Hasidim: his teachings have almost sunk in oblivion. As Schech- ter (“Studies in Judaism,” p.4) finely observes: “To the Hasidim, Ba‘al-Shem [Besht] . . . was the incarnation of a theory, and his whole life the reve- lation of a system.” Besht did not combat the practise of rabbinical Judaism; this seemed harmless to him: it was the spirit of the practise which he opposed. His teach- ing being the result not of speculation, Char- but of a deep, religious temperament, acteristics. he laid stress upon a religious spirit, and not upon the forms of religion. Though he considered the Law to be holy and in- violable, he held that one’s entire life should be a service of God, and that this would constitute true worship of Him. Since every act in life is a mani- festation of God, and must perforce be divine, it is man’s duty so to live that the things called “earthly ” may also become noble and pure, that is, divine. Besht tried to realize his ideal in his own career. His life provided the best example for his disciples; and his intercourse with the innkeepers, a class of people who nearly corresponded to the publicans of the time of Jesus (a number of whom he raised to a higher leve}), furnished a silent but effective protest against the practise of the rabbis, who, in their in- exorable sense of strict righteousness, would have no dealings with people fallen morally. The Hasidim tell of a woman whom her relatives sought to kill on account of her shameful life. but who was saved in body and soul by Besht. The story may be a myth; but it is characteristic of Besht’s activity in healing those in greatest need of relief. More important to him than prayer was friendly intercourse with sin- ners; though the former constituted an essential factor in the religious life. The story of Besht’s career affords many examples of unselfishness and high-minded benevolence. And while these quali- ties equally characterize a number of the rabbis of his day, his distinguishing traits were a merciful judgment of others, fearlessness combined with dis- like of strife, and a boundless joy in life, Moreover, Besht’s methods of teaching differed essentially from those of his opponents, and contrib- uted nota little to his success. He was certainly not a scholar; that is, his knowledge of rabbinical literature, especially of the Talmud and the Mid- rashim, was only that of an average “lamdan.” He was still less gifted as a speaker. But the lack of scholarship and oratory was supplied by fine satire and inventiveness in telling parables. There are many satirical remarks directed against his oppo- nents, an especially characteristic one being his des- ignation of the typical Talmudist of his day as “a man who through sheer study of the Law has no time to think about God.” Besht illustrated his views of asceticism by the following parable: ‘“*A thief once tried to break into a house, the owner of which, crying out, frightened the thief away. The same thief soon afterward broke into the house of avery strong man, who, on Ba‘al Shem-Tob Baalbek seeing him enter, kept quite still. When the thief had come near enough, the man caught him and put him in prison, thus depriving him of all opportunity to do further harm.” Not by fleeing from earthly enjoyments through fear is the soul’s power assured, but by holding the passions under control. Much of Besht’s success was also due to his firm conviction that God had entrusted him with a spe- ciai mission to spread his doctrines. In his enthusi- asm and ecstasy he believed that he often had heav- enly visions revealing his mission to him. In fact, for him every intuition was a divine revelation; and divine messages were daily occurrences. Accus- tomed, through the influence of the Cabala, to use mystic language, Besht frequently said with empha- sis that his teacher was Ahijah of Shiloh, the prophet who at God’s bidding undertook to bring about the breach between Judah and Israel. Besht was fully aware of the opposition between himself and rabbinical Judaism. And just as Ahijah’s struggle with Judah ended in the victory of the golden calves, so Besht’s endeavors for reform ended in the later Hasidism, a degeneration far worse than the Talmudic-rabbinic Judaism against which he had contended. Besht is quite naturally one of the most interesting figures in modern Jewish legend. As aman of the people and for the people, it is not strange that he should have been honored and glorified in story and in tradition. Of the many narratives that cluster about him, the following are given as the most characteristic: About his parentage, legend tells that his father, Eliezer, whose wife was still living, was seized dur- ing an attack (by the Tatars’), carried In from his home in Wallachia, and sold Legend. asaslave toa prince. On account of his wisdom he found favor with the prince, who gave him to the king to be his minister. During an expedition undertaken by the king, when other counsel failed, and all were disheartened, Eliezer’s advice was accepted; and the result was a successful battle of decisive importance. Eliezer was made a general and afterward prime minister, and the king gave him the daughter of the vice-king (qb105 9¥%) in marriage. But, being mindful of his duty asa Jew and as the husband of a Jewess in Wallachia, he married the princess only in name. After being questioned for a long time as to his strange conduct, he confessed his race to the princess, who loaded him with costly presents and aided him to escape to his own country. On the way, the prophet Elijah appeared to Eliezer and said: “On account of thy piety and steadfastness, thou wilt have a son who will lighten the eyes of all Israel; and Israel shall be his name, because in him shall be fulfilled the verse (Isa. xlix. 3): ‘Thou art my serv- ant, O Israel, in whom I will be glorified.’” Eliezer and his wife, however, reached old age childless and had given up all hope of ever having a child. But when they were nearly a hundred years old, the promised son (Besht) was born. Besht’s parents died soon after his birth; bequeath- ing to him only the death-bed exhortation of Eliezer, “Always believe that God is with thee, and fear nothing.” Besht ever remained true to this injunc- THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 386 tion. Thus, on one occasion, when he was escorting school-children to synagogue, a wolf was seen, to the terror of old and young, so that the children were kept at home. But Besht, faithful to the be- quest of his father, Knew no fear; and, on the second appearance of the wolf, he assailed it so vigorously as to cause it to turn and flee. Now, says the legend, this wolf was Satan. Satan had been very much perturbed when he saw that the prayers of the chil- dren reached God, who took more delight in the childish songs from their pure hearts than in the hymns of the Levites in the Temple; and it was for this reason that Satan tried to put a stop to Besht’s training the children in prayers and taking them to synagogue. From this time on, successful struggles with Satan, demons, and all manner of evil spirits were daily occurrences with Besht. At this time, too, he learned how to work miracles with thenameof God. The following isan instance: In Constantinople, where Besht stopped on his in- tended journey to Palestine, he was received with un- usual hospitality by a worthy couple who were childless. In return for their kindness Besht, when departing, promised them that they should be blessed with a son, and rendered this possible by the utterance of the Sacred Name. Now, to do this was a great sin; and scarcely had the words of the incan- tation passed Besht’s lips when he heard a voice in heaven declaring that he had forfeited thereby his share in the future life. Instead of feeling unhappy over such a fate, Besht called out joyfully: “ Blessed art Thou, O Lord, for Thy mercy! Now indeed can I serve Thee out of pure iove, since I may not ex- pect reward in the future world!” This proof of his true love for God won pardon for his sin, though at the expense of severe punishment. Besht’s miraculous power wasso great that he did not fear even the brigands who lived in the moun- tains, but dwelt care-free in their vicinity. Once, when wandering about, deeply immersed in thought, he climbed a steep mountain and, without noticing where he was going, reached a very dangerous spot. Besht thought that his end had come, for he felt himself slipping toward a deep precipice; but sud- denly the opposite cliff approached and closed up the gap. The robbers, who were looking on at a distance, doubted no longer that he was a man en- dowed with divine power. BIBLIOGRAPHY: The chief source for Besht’s biography is Baer (Dob) b. Samuel’s Shibhe ha-Besht. Kopys, 1814, and frequently republished. For Besht’s methods of teaching, the following works are especially valuable: Jacob Joseph ha- Kohen, Toledot Ya‘akob Yosef; Likkutim (Likkute] Ye- karim, a collection of Hasidic doctrines; the works of BAER OF MESERITZ. Critical works on the subject are: Dubnow, Yevreiskaya Istoria, ii. 426431; idem, in Voskhod, viii. Nos. 5-10; Gratz, Gesch. der Juden, 20 ed., xi. 94-98, 546- 554; Jost, Gesch. des Judenthums und Seiner Sekten, iii. 185 et seq.; A. Kahana, Rabbi Fisrael Ba‘al Shem, Jitomir, 1900; D. Kohan, in Ha-Shahar, v. 500-504, 553-554; Rodkin- son, Toledot Ba‘ale Shem-Tob, Kénigsberg, 1876; Schechter, Studies in Judaism, 1896, pp. 1-45: Zweifel, Shalom ‘al- Yisrael, i~iii; Zederbaum, Keter Kehunah, pp. 80-103; Frumkin, ‘Adat Zaddikim, Lemberg, 1860, 1865 (7); Zang- will, Dreamers of the Ghetto, pp. 221-288 (fiction). K. L. G. BAAL-TAMAR: A place near Gibeah, men- tioned in the account of the battle between the Ben- jamites and the other Israelites (Judges xx. 38). Eusebius (“ Onomastica Sacra,” 238, § 75) knew Baal- His Miracles. 387 tamar under the name of “ Beth-thamar”; but at the present day it can not be located. J. IR. F. Br. BA‘AL TOKEA‘ (ypin Sys, literally “the mas- ter of blowing”): Term applied to the person who blows the SHOFAR. A. F. 1. C. BAAL-ZEBUB.—Biblical Data: Name of a god of the Philistine city of Ekron, mentioned only in connection with the illness of Ahaziah, king of Israel, in 842 p.c. (IT Kings i. 2, 3, 6, 16), when the sick monarch sent messengers to Ekron to consult him on the prospects of his recovery. There has been much speculation as to the character of the god. As the word stands, it means “ Baal of flies.” This is usually explained as the god who expels or des- troys flies; though it may also mean the patron or controller of flies. The two explanations may be combined in one, or rather the second may include the first; for the god who has power to drive away any plague has also power to send it. A Zei¢ ’Ar6- peviog Was worshiped at Elis in Greece as a disperser of flies, and further analogies drawn from the occur- rence of “fly gods” among other nations (see Frazer’s note to his ed. of Pausaaias, v. 14) warrant us in re- taining the common explanation until decisive proof to the contrary is forthcoming. It has been sug- gested that the second element of the name has been modified from an original “Zebul,” or rather “beth Zebul,” so that the name would mean “lord of the high-house ” (compare I Kings viii. 13). The drop- ping of “Beth” is not without example (see BaaL- PEOR); but the warrant for assuming textual corrup- tion is not sufficient. It was not unusual to calla god by the name of things that were particularly troublesome, and which he was asked to destroy (Nowack, “Hebr. Arch.” p. 804; compare Apollo Smintheus as the destroyer of mice among the Greeks). The New Testament form “Beelzebub ” (Matt. x. 25, etc.) is probably not based upon any Old Testament reading, but is due to phonetic dis- similation. See BEELZEBUB. J. JR. J. F. McC. BAAL-ZEBUBIN RABBINICAL LITERA- TURE. Sce BAAL-BERITH IN RABBINICAL LITERA- TURE. | BAAL-ZEPHON.—Biblical Data: An Egyp- tian locality in the neighborhood of the Red Sea. In spite of ail attempted combinations (Dillmann- Ryssell on Ex. xiv. 2) its situation is still unknown. An Egyptian god, B‘irati Dapuna—that is, Ba‘alat Zaphon—is mentioned by the Egyptians themselves (W. Max Miller, “ Asien und Europa,” p. 315). The name calls to mind the Phenician psy by, which designates both a god anda place. It particularly signifies a city on Mount Lebanon, which, in the opinion of H. Winckler, occurs also in the Old Testa- ment; for he interprets Jer.xv.12 (“ Alttestamentliche Untersuchungen,” p. 179), as “iron of Baalzephon.” However, it is not certain whether the Egyptian city and the Egyptian god Ba‘alat Zaphon are directly connected with the Phenician name of a god. J. IR. F. Bu. ——In Rabbinical Literature: The idol at Baal- zephon was the only one that remained unharmed THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Ba‘al Shem-Tob Baalbek ° ——_—_ when God sent the tenth plague upon Egypt, which not only brought death to men and animals, but also destroyed the idols. When Pharaoh overtook Israel at the sea, near Baal-zephon (Ex. xiv. 9), he said, “This idol is indeed mighty, and the God of Israel is powerless over him.” But God intentionally spared Baal-zephon in order to strengthen the infat- uation of the wicked Pharaoh (Mek., Beshallah, 2; Bo, 18). J. SR, L. G. BAALAH: 1. A border town of Judah (Josh. xv. 9,10; I Chron. xiii, 6) called elsewhere Kins atu- JEARIM, 2. Amount on the border of Judah (Josh. xv. 11). 3. Acity in the south of Judah (Josh. xv, 29), held by the Simeonites (Josh. xix. 8, where it is called Balah, while in the corresponding list of J Chron. iv. 29, it is called Bilhah). J. JR. G. B. L. BAALATH: 1. A Danite city (Josh. xix. 44). 2. A city built by Solomon mentioned in connec- tion with Tadmor (I Kings ix. 18; II Chron. viii. 6). Its site has not been determined. J. JR. G. B. L. BAALATH BEER: A city in the possession of Simeon (Josh. xix. 8); but in the corresponding list of I Chron. iv. 33 calied “ Baal.” J. JR. G. B. L. BAALBEEK: A city situated at the base of the western slope of the Anti-Lebanon, in a fertile region. It is the Heliopolis of the Greek and Roman writers, and is famous for the magnificent ruins of several tem- ples—a large one with a vast courtyard; a smaller one (the Temple of the Sun); and a still smaller one, elegantly built in rococo style. The last two build- ings, distinguished not only for their large propor- tions, but also for fine detail work, were probably constructed in the second century; and information from the seventh century indicates that the large tem- ple was erected by Antoninus Pius. In classic litera- ture the first mention of Heliopolis is in the third cen- tury ; but coins found in the city show that it existed in the first century, when it was a Roman colony. Its origin, however, belongs to a still earlier period, for it was the principal center of the Syrian sun- worship. This is corroborated by the fact that the name “Baalbek” is found among the Syrians and the Arabians. The meaning of the second part of the name is inexplicable; but the first part suggests the old Semitic “Baal.” It is doubtful whether this city is mentioned in the Old Testament. Some iden- tify it with Baal-gad; but Baal-gad could not have lain so far north. Others think that it is Aven (Amos i. 5), because the Greek translation renders “Aven” by “On ”—the usual designation of “ Heliop- olis.” The word “On,” however, borrowed from the Egyptians, can not with justification be applied to a Syrian city; and the place mentioned by Amos is undoubtedly in the neighborhood of Damascus. Baalbek is mentioned several times in Talmud and Midrash ; compare Neubauer, “G. T.” p. 286; com- pare also SOLOMON IN RABBINICAL LITERATURE. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Robinson, Biblical Researches, iii. 505-527; Wood and Dawson, Ruins of Baalbec, 1757; Volney, Voyage en Syrie; Baedeker-Socin, Palestine, s.v. J. dR. F. Bu. BAALE, JUDAH. Sce KirJats-JEAR™. BAALIM: Plural of “Baal”: occurs in the Bible fifteen times, always used with the article; not found in the Pentateuch nor in the poetical books. For a full discussion of the cult, see BA‘aL-WorR- sHip, The true signification has been a matter of dispute. One of the leading explanations is that the expression is a “plural of majesty,” equivalent to “the creat god Ba‘al,” after the analogy of “ Elohim ” and “Adonim.” Apart from other objections, it may be urged against this view that such phrases always become proper names, and, unlike * Baalim,” are often used without the article. Hence other ex- planations are more plausibie; forexample, that Baa- lim are images of the god Baal, or that they are the various forms in which Baal is worshiped. Since, * however, there is no evidence of the formal worship in Israel of any Ba‘al ata common center, and as the local Canaanitic deities were known as the “ baals” of their respective districts, and as Israel notoriously addicted itself to the cult of such deities, it is alto- gether probable that the expression designates the local deities to which such worship was paid in vari- ous places by the Hebrews in Palestine. Among other passages, Judges viii. 33 is specially instruct- ive on this point. In connection with the lapse of the people of Israel into the worship of the Baalim, it is there said that “they made Baal-berith their god ” (see BAAL-BERITH). J. IR. J. F. McC. BAALIS: King of the Ammonites, who was the Jeading spirit in the murder of Gedaliah (Jer. xl. 14). While the first clement in the name is clearly “ Baal,” the second is puzzling; and no satisfactory explana- tion has as yet been suggested. J. IR. BAALTIS. See ASTARTE. BAANA (x33): 1. Son of Ahilud, one of the twelve commissariat officers of Solomon. He had charge of the districts Taanach and Megiddo (I Kings iv. 12). 2. Son of Hushai, another of the commissariat ofticers of Solomon; placed over Asher and Aloth or Bealoth (I Kings iv. 16), 3. The father of Zadok, one of the builders of the will af Jerusalem (Neh. iii. 4). 4. See BAANAH (38). J. dR. G. B. L. BAANAH (73y2): 1. Son of Rimmon the Beer- othite, of Benjamin, who, with his brother Rechab, was an officer under Ishbosheth. He killed Ishbo- sheth and brought his head to David in the hope of obtaining a reward; but instead of this, he and his brother were put to death by David (II Sam. iv. 2, 5, 6. 9). 2. Father of Heleb, one of the thirty men in the body-guard of David (I Sam. xxiii. 29). 3. One of the “children of the province” that re- turned with Zerubbabel (Ezra ii. 2, and in the paral- lel account of Neh. vii. 7). He was among those that sealed the covenant with Nehemiah (Neh. x. 27, 28; seealso I Esd. v. 8, where the name is spelled “Baana ”). J. JR. J. D. P. G. B. L. THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA TS yt 388 BAAR, HERMAN: ony, pap ea 3 er ots Ly fg vonidus became Indepeltiiice ct > 72, aw SIS 55-089 wc) with the power of Baby- S57 e'P3 The first volume of this work was published in Gritz’s ** Monatsschrift ” from 1882 to 1884, and also appeared in 1884 in a separate edition in honor of the ninetieth birthday of L. Zunz; the second volume was pub- lished in 1890. A second, enlarged edition of Vol. I. will appear in 1902. (16) The three volumes of the ‘‘Agada der Paldstinischen Amorier ”? appeared respectively in 1892, 1896, and 1899, (17) ‘‘ Kitab al-Luma’‘,’’ ‘* Le Lion des Parterres Flenris,” in publications of the Ecole des Hautes Etudes, Paris, 1886. Bacher’s revised edition of this work was published under Derenbourg’s name. (18) An edition of the Book of Job as translated by Saadia in Derenbourg’s edition of Saadia’s works (*uvres Completes de R. Saadia, Volume Cinquiéme,”’ Paris, 1900). (19) An edition of the “Sefer Zikkaron,” or “* Hebrew Gram- mar” of Joseph Kimhi, published in writings of the society Mekize Nirdamim, 1888. (20) ‘* Sefer ha-Shorashim, Wurzelwoérterbuch der Hebriischen Sprache, von Abulwalid Merwan ibn Ganah, aus dem Ara- bischen ins Hebriische Uebersetzt von Jehudah ibn Tibbon, mit einer Einleitung tiber das Leben und die Schriften Abulwalid’s und mit Registern und einem Anhange, Nebst Textberichti- gungen zum Sefer Versehen.’’ This is an edition of the He- brew translation of Abulwalid’s great lexicon, the principal grammatical work of that author. In this work, also published by the society Mekize Nirdamim, Bacher corrected the Hebrew text in accordance with the Arabie original, and mentioned the Voluminous Author. sources of all the Biblical and other citations contained in it, which sources are not given in Neubauer’s edition. (21) A compilation of the various readings of Ibn Ezra’s Commentary on the Pentateuch in Berliner’s ‘* Magazin,” and separately, 1894—a work prepared with the aid of a valuable - codex belonging to the university library at Cambridge. (22) ‘*Sefer Nahalat Yehoshua‘,”’ 2 vols., a redaction of the posthumous works of the Talmudist Kosman Wodianer (d. 1830), with a biographical introduction in Hebrew, in connection with which he prepared a list of the correspondents of Moses Sofer, ‘* Aus der Ersten Halfte Unseres Jahrhunderts,” 1893. (23) ‘*Sha‘ar Shim‘on,” an edition of the Hebrew poems of his father, Simon Bacher (d. Nov. 9, 1891), with a biographical introduction in Hebrew. (24) An edition of Gyritz's ‘““Emendationes in Plerosque Sacre Scripture V. T. Libros,”’ 1892-94. (25) A treatment of the chapters of philology and exegesis in Winter and Wiinsche’s collection of Hebrew literature, ‘* Die Jiidische Literatur.’’ These contributions of Bacher have also been published separately under the respective titles: ‘* Die Jiidische Bibelexegese vom Anfange des Zehnten bis zum Ende des Fiinfzebnten Jahrhunderts.” (26) ‘Die Hebraische Sprachwissenschaft vom Zehnten bis zum Sechzehnten Jahrhundert, mit einem Eialeitenden Ab- schnitt tiber die Masora,”’ 1882. (27) ** Die Anfinge der Hebriiischen Grammatik,”’ in ** Z. D. M. ¢i.,” also published by Brockhaus, Leipsic, 1895. (28) ** Die Aelteste Terminologie der Jiidischen Schriftausle- gung—ein Worterbuch der Bibelexegetischen Kunstsprache der Tannaitten,” LC. Hinrich, Leipsie, 1899. Bacher has also been the author of numerous Criticisms and reviews in periodicals devoted, like his books, to Hebrew phi- lolugy, history of Biblical exegesis, and of the Haggadah. The magazines, etc., in which his contributions have appeared are the following : M. E. Stern, ““Kokbe Yizhak,” 1865-68; °* Monatsschrift,” 1869-92; **Izraelit KOzlény,”’ 1869-70; Rahmer’s “ Israelitische Wochenschrift und Jiidische Literaturblatter,” 1870-76; I. Kobak’s ** Jeschurun,” 1871; I. Reich, ** Beth-Lechem,”’ His Jahrbuch, 1873; ‘‘ Ha-Habazelet,”’ 1873; **Z. Criticisms D. M. G.’’ 1874-1902; Berliner’s ‘ Maga- and zin fiir aie Geschichte und Literatur des Reviews. Judenthums,’? 1880-94; ‘Rev. Et. Juives,” 1882-1902 ;. ** Magyar Zsid6 Szemle,”’ 1884~1901 ; W. R. Harper, ‘* Hebraica,”’ 1884-93; Stade, ** Zeitschrift” 1885- 1901; “Jew. Quart. Rev.”’ 1890-1901 ; Kénigsberger, ** Monats- blatter,’? 1891; Evkényv, “Jahrbuch des Ungarisch-Israeli- tischen Literaturvereins,”’ published in Hungarian, 1895-1901 ; “Ozar ha-Sefarim”; “Gradber’s Magazin ftir Hebraische Li- teratur,’’? 1896; ‘‘ Zeit. f. Hebr. Bibl.”’ 1896-1900; °* Deutsche Literaturzeitung,”’ 1898-1901 ; S. H. Horodeezky’s ** Ha-Goren ”’; ‘*Abhandlung iiber die Wissenschaft des Judenthums,”’ 1898- 1900; ‘*Ha-Eshkol,’? “* Hebriiiseches Jahrbuch,” 1898; “ Jahr- bueh fiir Jiidische Gesch. und Literatur,” 1899-1900: ‘* Theolo- gische Literaturzeitung,’ 1900-1: ‘‘Keleti Szemle’’ (** Revue Orientale,”’ 1902); ** The Expository Times,” 1900. Further con- tributions of Bacher appeared in the festival publications to the seventieth birthday of Graetz, 1887, and the eightieth birthday of Steinschneider, 1896: in the festival publication in honor of Daniel Chwolsohn, 1899; and in the memorial book published on the anniversary of Samuel David Luzzatto’s birthday, Berlin, 1900, and in that published in memory of Prof. David Kauf- mann, 1900. Bacher has also contributed the article ‘* Levita’’ to the *‘Allgemeine Encyklopadie” of Ersch and Gruber, and the ar- ticles ‘* Sanhedrin” and * Synagoge ”’ to the last volume—not vet published—of Hastings and Selbie’s ‘* Dictionary of the Bible.” s. F. pe 8. M. BACHI, RAPHAEL: Italian miniature-painter ; lived at Paris in the middle of the eighteenth cen- tury. His name appears in the list of the Jews that resided in Paris during the reign of Louis XYV., which was recently published by Paul d’Es- trées. This list, drawn up by the police, mentions Bachi as a miniature painter of great talent (“ pein- tre en miniature, de beaucoup de talent”). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Paul d’Estrées, in Revue dat Monde Latin, 1891, Sept. 1, Oct. 1; Léon Kahn, Les Juifs de Paris sous Lowis XV. p. 44. L. G I. Br. BACHRACH, JACOB BEN MOSES: A noted apologist of rabbinical Judaism; born at Sciny, in 423 the government of Suwalki, Russia, May 9, 1824; died in Bielostok Dec. 29, 1896. He received his earliest instruction from his grandfather, Judah Bachrach. For years he was superintendent of a Hebrew printing-establishment in Kénigsberg, where he edited, among other works, the “ Turim” of Jacob ben Asher, and added valuable notes to the same. Later on he became manager of a distillery at Sebas- topol, where he had the opportunity to develop into an assiduous student of Karaitic literature, and where he engaged in controversies with the repre- sentatives of the local Karaitic community. His works are chiefly devoted to a defense of rabbinical tradition against Karaism. In 1882 he went to Pal- estine in the interest of colonization. Of his printed works “Ha-yahas Liketab Ashuri” (History of the Assyrian Script), Warsaw, 1854, is a polemical treatise against Elias Levita’s theory that vowel- points and accents originated in post-Talmudic times. To the same purpose is devoted his “ Ishta- dalut ‘im Shadal” (An Engagement with ShaDaL) (Samuel David Luzzatto), 2 vols., Warsaw, 1896— in which he again attempts to refute Luzzatto’s view, based on that of Levita, that the vowel- points are the invention of the Masorites. His “Maiimare Jacob ha-Bakri” (Essays of Jacob Bach- rach). Warsaw, 1893, 2 vols., is a work devoted to proving that the Jewish calendar is of ancient ori- gin, and he opposes the arguments of the Karaites, of Slonimsky, and of others, who asserted that the ancient Israelites reckoned by the solar year. A very interesting and well-written booklet is his descrip- tion of his journey to Palestine, “ Ha-Massa‘ la-Arez ha-Kedoshah,” 2d ed., Kief, 1884. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Achiasaf Almanac, v. 326; and private sources. L. G. D. BACHRACH, JUDAH B. JOSHUA HES- KIEL: Rabbi and Talmudist; born in Lithuania about 1775; died at Seiny, government of Suwalki, April 25, 1846, He was a lineal descendant in the seventh generation of Tobias Bachrach, who, to- gether with Israel ben Shalom, was beheaded ona charge of ritual murder in Rushony Sept. 19, 1659. Bachrach’s life was a model of piety. He distrib- uted among the poor all the income derived from his position of rabbi at Seiny, and lived on the interest from a small fund that his friends had invested for him in their business. His notes on the Talmud, under the title “ Nimmuke Hagrib 3°37 = ha-Gaon R. Jehudah Bachrach ” (Critical Comments of Hag- rib, the Gaon R. Jehudah Bachrach), appear in the: edition of the Talmud which was published by Rom at Wilna. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Walden, Shem ha-Gedolim he-Hadash, p. 53, Warsaw, 1879; Eisenstadt-Wiener, Da‘at Kedoshim, pp. 38 et seg.. St. Petersburg, 1897-98. | eS D. BACHRICH, SIGISMUND: Hungarian vio- linist and operatic composer; born at Zsambokrét, Hungary, Jan. 23, 1841. He began the study of the violin with Bohm at the Vienna Conservatory in 1851, from which institution he was graduated in 1857. He then accepted a conductorship at a Vien- na theater, and four years later went to Paris. Here he was compelled to fight his way, first as THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Bacher, Wilhelm Bacon, Roger leader of a small orchestra, then as journalist, and finally as apothecary. Upon his return to Vienna he played the viola in the Helmesberger Quartet, with which organization he remained associated for twelve years. He then became a teacher at the Conservatory and still occupies this position. Bach- rich is also a member of the Rosé Quartet and of the philharmonic and opera orchestras. His princi- pal compositions are: “Muzzedin,” a comic opera, Vienna, 1883; “Heini von Steier,” 2. 1884; “Der Fuchsmajor,” an operetta, Prague, 1889; “Sakun- tala,” a ballet; and two other operettas. Of these works, the operetta, “Der Fuchsmajor,” has prob- ably been the most successful. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Riemann, Musik Lexikon, 1900; Baker, Biog. Diet. of Musicians, 1900; Kohut, Bertihmte Israeli- tische Manner und Frauen, 1900. s. J. So, BACKOFEN, JACOB. See REIscHEr. BACON, ROGER: English philosopher and scholar of the thirteenth century; born at Ilchester, England, about 1214; died about 1294. He studied at Oxford and spent some years in Paris, where he obtained the degree of doctor of theology. In 1250 he was again at Oxford, and about this time became a Franciscan friar. He devoted himself to a mas- tery of all human knowledge—theological, philo- sophical, philological, and physical. His fame spread very rapidly, and he acquired the title of “doctor mirabilis” among those of his contempo- raries who recognized his wide and profound crudi- tion; while his physical and chemical apparatus and experiments secured for him the reputation of deal- ing in magic and the black arts, and aroused suspi- cions as to his orthodoxy. Bonaventura, general of the order, about 1257, interdicted his lectures at Oxford, and commanded him to place himself under the supervision of the body in Paris; and there he remained for ten years under strict surveillance. In the year 1265 Cardinal Guy de Foulques became pope under the name of Clement IV. Shortly be- fore, he had been sent by Pope Urban IV. to Eng- land to intervene in the disputes between Henry III. and his barons, and had then made the acquaintance of Bacon. The new pope, in 1266, directed Bacon to send him in manuscript the results of his re- searches, despite the interdictions of Bacon’s supe- riors. This papal authorization gave an impetus to Bacon’s pen; and in about eighteen months he com- pleted the three great treatises, “Opus Majus,” “Opus Minus,” and “Opus Tertium.” The result of the receipt of these works by the pope was that in 1268 Bacon was permitted to return to Oxford, where he continued his studies and the composition of learned treatises. In 1278, however, the general of the order condemned Bacon’s writings; and he was thrown into prison, there to remain for fourteen years. One of the most remarkable of Bacon’s many great achievements in the sphere of learning is his demon- stration of the need for prosecuting the study of the Hebrew language—a study which was as unknown iu England as on the Continent till the fifteenth cen- tury, when Reuchlin aroused the mind of Europe on the subject. Hirsch, in his “ Early English Hebra- ists,” has shown how Bacon anticipated by 200 years Badchen Badge THE JEWISIT ENCYCLOPEDIA 424 almost all of the reasons advanced by Reuchilin for spreading a knowledge of the Hebrew tongue; viz., religious motives, Hebrew being the language in which God first revealed His will to mankind; the dificulty of translating accurately from one lan- guage to another, and the danger of perpetuating errors once committed in translation. Furthermore, he was animated by the true philological spirit, and sought to develop the comparative study of lan- guages generally. It is remarkable, considering the time in which he flourished, that though Christianity and the spread of it throughout the world were, of course, all in all to Bacon, yet he has not in all his writings a single dis- paraging word about the Jews. BHeeven deprecates the attempt to convert them; being content that that event should await the conversion of the rest of mankind. Moreover, he eagerly sought the aid of Jews in studying the Biblical language; and he had even a good word to say for the Jews who lived at the time of the birth of Christianity. When it is remembered that before him there were probably not three Christian theologians who could read the He- brew Bible in the original, a large measure of com- mendation must be accorded Bacon for his acquisi- tions of Hebrew learning. BIBLIOGRAPHY : S. A. Hirsch, Karly English Hebraists; Roger Bacon and His Predecessors, in Jewish Quarterly Review, xii. 834-88; E. Charles, Roger Bacon, Sa Vie, Ses Ouvrages, .) Se3 Doctrines, Vapres des Texter Inédits, 1861; Sehneider, Roger Bacon, eine Monographie, Augsburg, 1873; J. K. Ingram, On the Opus Majus of Bacon, Dublin, 1858. K, M. Co. BADCHEN. Sec BADHAN. BADEN: City in Lower Austria. After the ex- pulsion of the Jews from Lower Austria in 1670, none lived in Baden until 1805, when the Jew Isaac Schischa, who had formerly lived in Mattersdorf, Hungary, succeeded in obtaining permission for him- self, his family, and servants to reside there perma- nently. Schischa obtained permission to start a res- taurant; and he also improvised a place of worship for Jews visiting this health-resort in summer. A similar permission was granted in 1820 to Heinrich Herz from Szerdahely, who likewise erected a restau- rant and a house of worship. There was, however, no permanent settlement until 1861, when the right of residence in any part of the country and freedom of trade were granted to all Austrian Jews. The first association for the support of the sick was formed in 1868, and grew so rapidly that it de- termined to erect a synagogue, buying a house for the purpose. The authorities sanctioned the main- tenance of asynagogue only under the condition that ap incorporated congregation (Kultus-Vercin) be es- tablished for its management. The synagogue which was erected in 1871 proved too small for the growing numbers of the congrega- tion, and Jacob L. Pollak, together with Max Man- del, and through the financial aid of Jews elsewhere, erected on the same site a larger synagogue with a gallery and five hundred and seventeen seats. In 1873 the synagogue was dedicated. Pollak and Man- del were joined by Anton Schneider, a younger man, and together they founded the Hebrah Kaddishah. The first interment took place August, 18738. SE = = Sey fe be * .” Rerkord os] 2 pT". Pah Kast Bate aes 5 "ES = oe a one ba .G | =}. a aaeiany = = ha Re ee se = SEE eeer! ge SSO Aer SE Ra ets Oe BE : Sperry sss Ui 12 Se a ES 9B: ‘" Saas Cee eae Sees y ia! Be es = fabeisee! \ ZN Se eee Ej [= Ror ne tee het WZZh : Scans AA) i= = '2 RPS A ey |) - =a." ALS PESTS Ly Bate Yi # = RAR. . ) E/ = nes poe: ty tens 4 = = “3 poe ; = BSE Res: = tam Badges on Garments of Jewish Priests : According to the “ Bible Historiale de Pierre Comestor,” 14th Century. (From ‘Revue des Etndes Juives.’’) came as the last stage in a series of enactments in the twelfth century, intended to prevent social rela- tions between Jewsand Christians, the chief of these being the prohibition of Christians becoming serv- ants of the Jews. The Badge had a most delete- rious effect upon their social relations; and the A A A ER nts mn en ty — increasing degradation of the position of Jews in Christendom was due in a large measure to this outward sign of separation, which gave the official stamp of both Church and state to the discrimination oe} we a (ar cect Hd id Badges and Hats Worn by Jews. From the * Bible Historiale de Pierre Comestor,” Mth Century. (From “ Revue des Etudes Juives.’’) of social status against the Jew. The idea of such a discrimination scems to have been derived from Islan, in which the dress of the Jews was distin- guished by a different color from that of the true believer as early as the Pact of Omar (640), by which Jews were ordered to wear a yellow seam on their upper garments (D’Ohsson, “ Histoire des Mogols,” 1854, iii. 274). This was a distinct anticipation of the Badge. In1005 the Jews of Egy pt were ordered to wear bells on their garments and a wooden calf to remind them of the golden one (8S. Lane-Poole, “ His- tory of Egypt,” 1901, vi. 126). Later on, in 1801, they were obliged to wear yellow turbans (2). pp. a0, 801). It may have been some sort of retaliation for a similar restriction placed upon the Christians in Islam, since the order of the Council applied to Saracens as well as to Jews. The most usual form in which the Badge appeared was that of a ring sewn on the upper garment and of a different color to it. This was called In France. “the wheel” (Latin, “rota”; French, “roue, rouelle”), and was the distin- guishing mark used in the Romance countries, France, Italy, and Spain. This form seems to have existed in the diocese of Paris even before the Lat- eran Council; for it is mentioned among the synodal statutes of Bishop Eudes de Sully, who died July 13, 1208. After the Lateran Council it was ordered in the whole of ecclesiastical France at the Council of Narbonne in 1227 (“deferant signum rotz,” Mansi, “ Concilia,” xiii., 1186). This was repeated by local councils at Arles 1234 and 1260, Béziers 1246, Albi 1254, Nimes 1284 and 1865, Avignon 1326 and 1337. Rodez 1386, and Vanves 1868. The state followed the Church in imposing the Badge upon the Jews in France. Saint Louis pub- lished an ordinance to that effect (June 19, 1269); and his example was followed by the kings of France Badge Badis down to Charles VI. It was generally made imper- ative on both sexes; but at times Jewesses had to wear a veil called “ orales” or “cornalia.” The age at which it was worn varied from seven years at Marseilles to thirteen at Arles and fourteen at Avi- gnon. It was mainly worn upon the breast; but dur- ing the reign of Philippe le Hardi a second Badge was worn on the back. The color at first ordered ye ‘ cat s. ~~; s Ay wt Cae MUL MED LE OE PO OO 3) fads, — “ aparece Miter illite i ; “ yy i MW y ee e-. yy a , > f 4, i US, y , WE Mase MD OLUEL LOL oe é SST eR MERRIE. OTS NESE. eee fore er gave 1 ee PA ARREER A eR English Jew wearing Tablet-shaped Badge. (From a Cottcnian MS. in the British Museum.) was saffron yellow, but under King John it was parti- colored red and white, The size varied; it was gen- erally about three or four fingerbreadths from one side to the other, the circle of the Badge one finger- breadth in thickness. Under King John it was of the size of the great seal, about 35 mm. in diameter, and in the time of Charles V. as large as 50 mm. When a Jew was found without the Badge he was fined various sums, ranging from five sous at Mar. seilles to ten Tours livres under Saint Louis. Charles V. reduced this to twenty Parisian sous. For special reasons and doubtless for payment the Jew was al- lowed to go without the Badge; but the instances of this permission in France are rare, and generally only THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 426 for travel. Adding injury to insult, the authorities forced the Jews to pay an annual sum for the use of the badges, and, curiously enough, one finds them left as pledges (“ Revue Etudes Juives,” v. 367, 308). When the Jews left the rest of France the wear- ing of the Badge wasstill kept up at Avignon, which was under the rule of the popes; and evidence of the Badge is found there as late as 1592, In Spain the use of the Badge varied in the differ- ent kingdoms. Pope Honorius ITI. gavea dispensa- tion (1219) to the Jews of Castile; whereas James I. in 1228 ordered those of Aragon to Spain, wear it. His example was followed Italy, and bythe king of Navarre,and even by the England. emir of Granada, Ismael Abu-]-Walid (1815-26). The practise of wearing the Badge does not appear to have continued long in Spain. The Council of Zamora, 1313, complains of its not having been put into force; and many instances are given of permission to Jews to discontinue it. In 1871 the ordinances were revived, and a bull of Benedict XITI. (May 11, 1415) insisted upon the Jews carrying a yellow and red Badge, the men on their breast, the women on their forehead. Italy appears to have been troubled less with in- junctions about the Badge than the other parts of Christendom. Throughout the thirteenth century the Badge is only known in Sicily (Zunz, “Z. G.” p. 488); but in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries local injunctions are found in Venice, Verona, Parma, Rome, Asola, and Genoa. It was knownas the “0,” from its shape, and appears to have resembled the form used in. France rather than that customary in Spain. In several instances it was accompanied by the pointed hat (see JUDENHUT); whilein Venice the hat entirely replaced the Badge. The age at which it was worn, and the place upon which it was fixed, varied as muchas in France; but, asarule, the former was thirteen years. In England the form of the Badge varied from that worn in the rest of Europe, at least in later years. It was first imposed upon the Jews in Eng- Jand by Stephen Langton, archbishop of Canterbury, in 1222, and was in the form of a band, two fingers broad and four long. It wasat first white, and after- ward changed to yellow. In 1274, under Edward I., its shape became that of the Tables of the Law. In Germany the earliest mention of the Badge is in a dispensation accorded to the Jews of Erfurt, Oct. 16, 1294; but it would appear that throughout the fourteenth century the hat was the chief mark of identification used, though the Badge was reintro- duced by Emperor Sigismund in 1434 at Augsburg. Similar restrictions are given at Nuremberg, Bam- berg, and Frankfort in the middle of the fifteenth century. Here, in almost every case, the Badge was a yellow sign (compare G. Wolf, “Geschichte der Israelitischen Cultusgemeinde in Wicn,” p. 68, Vienna, 1861). Schudt, in his “Jtidische Merkwir- digkeiten,” gives facsimiles of those used at Frank- fort in the years 1618-16, which vary from 92 to 48 mm. In Austria it would appear that the hat was the only sign of distinction according to the Council of Vienna, 1267, whereas in Hungary, 1279, the Badge was placed on the left Other Countries. Hosted by Google Hosted by Google Hosted by Google 427 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Badge Badis SSS 00S eee SS breast. In Poland there is no trace of the Badge, but only of the hat, while in Crete up to the present day some of the houses of Jews were marked with the “QO.” BIBLIOGRAPHY : Ulysse Robert, Les Signes d’Infamie, Paris, i891, in which he reproduces the substance of his article in Revue des tudes Juives, vi. 81-95, vii. 94-102, with insig- nificant additions. Robert gives full and elaborate references for all the above statements, which summarize his main con- clusions. A. J. BADGER, ROCK. See Coney. BADGER SKINS. Sce Tawmasn. BADHAN (from the Talmudic word m9, “to cheer up,make laugh”): A merrymaker., professional jester, whose business it is to entertain the guests at a marriage-feast with drollery, riddles, and anec- dotes, Whether they existed in Talmudic times is not certain. Two men are reported to have repre- sented themselves as such: “We are merrymakers (“ badduhi ”) and cheer up the sad. Wheresoever we see two men at enmity, we try to make peace be- tween them” (B. Ta‘an. 22a). See Marriace, WEDDING FESTIVITIES. In the Middle Ages we find among the Jews trav- eling merrymakers, who probably patterned them. selves after the troubadours, and took the place of former voluntary entertainers at weddings. Their task was by jest, 1..usic, and humorous song to pro- voke joviality. The name given them originally in Jewish writings is “lezin,” a term which occurs in “ Asufot,” by R. Elijah b. Isaac of Carcassonne, who lived in the early part of the thirteenth century. The jesters were obliged to possess not only comic ability, but also a certain deal of learning, since those jokes were appreciated most which were con- nected with Scriptural verses or Talmudic passages. Such scholarly comedians were in vogue largely in the Middle Ages. As the clouds of persecution, however, continued to gather round the Jews, mer- riment was discouraged. R. David Levy in his “Ture Zahab ” (Golden Rows), which appeared about the year 1680, inveighs against wedding festivities, and against the fashion of engaging lezin in partic- war. “At some marriage banquets,” he complains, “there is a custom of intoning the ‘ Kaddish,’ which is asin, for naughtis permissible on such occasions save the recital of the grace of God. A sin more griev- ous, however, is to engage lezin who try to amuse the guests with jests on Scriptural verses and holy words. Happy the man who abstains from such!” (Orah Hayyim, § 560.) | Similar advocates of sober- ness at wedding-feasts based their opposition to merriment at such gatherings on the Mishnaic re- port that with the siege of Jerusalem bridal proces- sions were shorn of their festive nature, and that with the fall of the Holy City they assumed even the hue of mourning (Sotah ix. 13). Meantime, the wed- ding-jester was styled “ marshallik,” a word which is not a corruption of “mashallik,” derived from the Hebrew “mashal” (= proverb, anecdote), but rep- resents, no doubt, the old German “ Marschalk,” or **Marshall” (compare Grimm,“ Woérterbuch,” p. 1674, also s.¢v.“ Schalk, Schalknarr”). In the seventeenth century, marshalliks prevailed in Poland and were not held in high esteem, as is clear from a query addressed to R. Jair Hayyim Bacharach,as to whether it befitted a scholar who was musical to forego his dignity and play ata wedding. Bacharach stigma- tized the professional jester as “a man playing the fool in order to provoke laughter; sucha wedding is called a seat of scoffers, for it is not real rejoicing, but hilarity and folly ” (Responsa, § 205). In the early days the services of the Badhan were mainly called in at weddings, where the Badhan amused the guests by jests of a somewhat broad character, while the more serious discourse was given by the rabbi. In Russia he tended to combine both functions, delivering the address to the bridegroom and bride as well as amusing the whole company at table. The jests were often put in the form of riming lines, and with the advance of the new Hebrew poetry in the nineteenth century a change came over the work of the Badhan which caused him to pass from a folk-poet to a regular, however humble, member of the literary gild. The chief person concerned in this change was Eliakim Zun- SER, Who applied to the verses of the Badhan the new forms of poetry introduced by Ehrenkranz and Broder. Zuuser had a good voice and introduced the custom of singing his own or other people’s compositions, so that nowadays the Badban is re- quired to be as much a singer as a wit. Zunser has been the founder of quite a school of badhanim. Thus in America, where the conditions of life are easier, they are called in on all occasions of rejoi- cing, and often receive comparatively high fees. BIBLIOGRAPHY; Kohut, Aruch Completum, and Jastrow, Dictionary of the Talmud, s.v.73 ; Guedemann, Geschichte des Erziehungswesens, iii. 189; Berliner, Aus dem Tninern Lehen, p. 34; 2d_ed. (1900), pp. 57, 58; Abrahams, Jewish Life in the fiddle Ages, p. 198; Wiener, Yiddish Litera- ture; Roemer-Buchner, Die Lustigmacher hei den Hoch- zeiten der Juden; 8. A. Hirsch, in Jew. Quart,' Rev. xiii. 601 et seq. For a modern portrayal of the Badhan, compare the character of Breckeloff in Zangwill’s Children of the Ghetto. A. H. G. E.—2J. BADIS (Muzaffar Nasir): Oldest son of King Habus of Granada, whom he succeeded in 1088. In a struggle with the Berbers, who wished to make his younger brother, Bologguin, king, he was supported by the Arabs and by his vizier, Samuel ibn Nagdela. After his accession to the throne, however, Badis feared a conspiracy on the part of the Arabs and de- termined to exterminate them. He planned to have the Arabs in his capital slain when they assembled in the mosque on a Friday. The vizier, Joseph ibn Nagdela—who had succeeded his father, Samuel, as Badis’ vizier and counselor—tried in vain to dis- suade him from the act. Joseph had to promise to keep the design a secret; but in order to avert the danger from the Arabs, he advised several nobJe Ara- bian families not to visit the mosque on that Friday. The warning was taken, and few Arabs appeared in the mosque. Though Badis accused Joseph of hav- ing broken his promise, he was finally convinced that this had been the best course of action. The king was a drunkard, and Joseph managed all state affairs, thus arousing the hatred of the Ber- bers, who spread the report that he had conspired against Badis with the king of Almeria. In conse- quence of the accusation, Joseph was murdered, whether by the Berbers or by Badis himself is Baeck, Samuel Baer, Herman unknown. Four thousand Jews shared his fate. Badis himself was soon afterward poisoned. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gratz, Gesch. der Juden, vi. 21-88 et seq., 415 et seq.; Dozy, Gesch, der Mauren in Spanien (Leipsic, 1874), ti. 254, 291 ct xeq.. gives a somewhat different version, G. M, Kk. BAECK, SAMUEL: German rabbi; born at Kromau, Moravia, April 1, 1884. His father, Nathan, was rabbi in Kromau; bis grandfather, Abraham, rabbi in Holitsch, Hungary. Baeck married the daughter of Abraham Platschek, chief rabbi of Moravia, and the son of this union, Leon, is also a rabbi. After being educated in the public schools of Kromau and at the Talmudical schools of Nikols- burg (Moravia) and Presburg (Hungary), Baeck studied at the University of Vienna, continuing his Talmudic studies under R. Horwitz. After receiving his diploma as rabbi from the chief rabbi Placzek of Boskowitz, he was appointed rabbi at Bohmisch Leipa, and was afterward called as rabbi to the cele- brated community of Lissa, province of Posen, which position he holds at present (1902). He isa member of the municipal school committee and of the “Waisenrat,” instructor in the Jewish religion at the gymnasium, and is a delegate to the Deutsch-Israc- litischen Gemeindebund. He was the first to advocate with success the introduction of the teaching of the Jewish religion in the colleges of Prussia. The published works of Saniuel Baeck are: “ Inder und Hebrier”; “Erzihlungen und Religionssiitze der Heiligen Schrift,” Lissa, 1875, 2d ed. 1886; “Sys- tematische Religionssitze der Heiligen Schrift,” 7b. 1875; “Geschichte des Jiidischen Volkes und Seiner Literatur vom Babylonischen Exile bis auf die Gegenwart,” 7. 1878, 2d ed., 1894; “ Die Hala- chistische und Responsen Literatur, dic Literatur der Darshanim, Sittenlehrer, und Apologeten,” in Winter and Witnsche, “ Jiidische Literatur,” vols. i. and iil. s. BAENA, FRANCISCO DE: Spanish poct of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, brother of Juan Alfonso de Barna, and secretary to the goy- ernor Diego de Ribera. One of his poems appears in his brother’s “Cancionero.” Recent investigation points to the conclusion that De Baena’s given names, instead of Francisco, were Fernando Alfonso, and that he was the father of the Spanish trouha- dour Anton de Montoro, BIBLIOGRAPHY: Rafael Ramirez de Arellano, 4 nton de Won- toro, p. 6, Madrid, 1900. dD, M. Ky. BAENA, JUAN ALFONSO DE: Spanish troubadour in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries ; born at Baena, Cordova. He was “escribano es- cribiente ” (notarial secretary) at the court of John IT. Under the title “ Cancionero del Judino Juan Alfonso de Baena,” he collected the productions of the poet- ical coterie of the courts of John J., Henry IL, and more particularly of John IT. of Castile: “those of the friars and monks, the masters of thcology, the knights and the squires, and various others.” These different poems—which, in their entirety, give a perfectly rounded picture of the “ gaya scieucia,” as the art of pocsy was called—recorded the social life and doings of this circle, for the amusement of the THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA ee a aa 428 7 king and his court. This ~Cancionero,” or sone- book, is the oldest Castilian and the only court song- book of the country, and it contains the poems (writ- ten mostly for special occasions) of fifty-five authors. all belonging to the Sevillan school of poetry, as distinguished from the Valencian school. Among these poets are a number of Maranos—Pero Ferrus, one of the oldest but also the most decadeut of them all: Garci Fernandez de Jerena, and others—who wrote malicious satirical songs about their former corcligionists. De Baena, “this Judino” as he was called, was well versed in the poetry of his country, particularly so in satire and poetical letters. ITis “Cancionero” contains “requestas” and “decires ” (apothegms) by hin. The “Cancioncro de Baena ” was first published at Madrid in 1851 by Gayangos and Pidal, with an ex- cellent introduction by the same; and then by Fran- cisque Michel, Leipsic, 1852. As a Marano De Baena met with much hostility. BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. Wolf, Studien zur Span. und Portug. Literatur, p. 205; Ticknor, Hist. of Spanish Literature, i. 542; J. Amador de los Rios, Los Judios de Espaiia, pp. 45 et scG., Madrid, 1848; Kayserling, Sephardim, pp. 69 et xey. dD. M. Kk. BAER, BEER, BEHR: Jewish prenomen and tamily name, derived from the German “ Bir” (bear), The Jews of Germany, like those of other countrics, borrowed their names from their non-Jewish fellow - citizens; chicfly when equivalents of these naines could be found in the Bible. Because the patriarch Jacob (Gen. xlix. passim) compared the qualities of some of his children to those of certain animals, the Jews cagerly adopted as proper names the German designations for these animals, such as “ Baer.” “Wolf,” “Liwe.” The older forms “ Bera,” “ Bero” occur in the Menorbuchs (compare the old High German “ Bero ”). Among the Polish and Russian Jews, the name “Baer” assumed various diminutive forms, such as “ Baeril,” “Baerush,” and “ Baerke.” AJ] these are rendered in Hebrew by “ Dob” or “ Issachar” ; and as such the name is used fer synagogal and literary purposes. Later “Baer” became a family name, which, however, did not always retain its original spelling, the German “i” being variously rendered in non-German countries. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zunz, Wamen der Juden. p.26; Salfeld, Mitr- tyrologiion des Nttrnberger Memorhuches, p. 388. G. I. Br. BAER, ABRAHAM: German cantor, musi- cian, and composer; born in Russia Dec. 26, 1834; died at Gothenburg, Sweden, March 7, 1894. Tis father destined him for the rabbinate; but his love for music and the song of the synagogue caused him to elect the cantorate. At anearly age he emigrated to Germany, and there under the tutelage of eminent hazanim prepared himself for his sacred calling. He ofticiated for a time at Pakosh and Schwetz in West Prussia, and at twenty-three (1857) was called to Gothenburg, Sweden. Well equipped with He- brew and Talmudic learning. he applied himself with remarkable success to the acquisition of secu- lar knowledge and the science and art of music. His researches were especially directed lo the field of Jewish traditional melodies. then but little explored. 429 These he collected with great patience and industry ; and in 1871, after fifteen vears of incessant labor, published his work, “ Ba‘al Tefillah, oder der Prac- tische Vorbeter ”—an almost complete collection of Jewish traditional melodies, of which a second re- vised and enlarged edition (858 pp. folio) appeared in 1883. The work contains fifteen undred and five melodies, in German, Polish, and Portuguese (Seph- ardic) versions, and is divided into four parts: (1) for the services on week-days; (2) for Sabbath: - (8) for the three festivals Pesah, Shabu‘ot, and Sukkot; (4) for the two great holidays, Rosh ha-Shanah and Yom ha-Kippurim; together with an appendix con- taining notes on the liturgy, the reading of the Torah. and directions and formulas for writing betrothal and marriage contracts. The collection is more com- plete in German ancl Polish melodies than in Portu- guese. Occasionally a fourth version is appended, called by the compiler “ Neue Weise,” but this seems to be his own composition or that of other modern cantors. Thecollection is of great value both to the student and the practical cantor. The latter can find therein all traditional tunes of the synagogue—most of which were theretofore to be acquired orally from older hazanim alcne. Many of the more familiar melodies had been collected and published before Baer by Sulzerand Weintraub; and melody No. 714, p. 160, is found even in a work published in the eighteenth century by Benedetto Marcello, called “stro Poetico Armenico,” in which it appears under the head of “Intonazione degli Ebrei Spagnuoli.” s. A. Kat. BAER (ABRAHAM), ADOLF: German phy- sician and medico-forensic author; born in the prov- ince of Posen, Prussia, Dec. 26, 1834; educated at the universities of Vienna, Prague, and Berlin. From the last-named institution he received his degree of doctor of medicine in 1861. Baer engaged in prac. tise as a physician in Naugard, province of Pome- rania, Prussia, in the following year, and in 1866 became physician of the prison there. In 1872 he was appointed chief physician of the prison at Plot- zensee, near Berlin, and in 1879 was elected physi- cian to the board of health, with the title “Ge- heimer Sanititsrath.” In the course of his prison duties Baer noticed the alarming connection between alcohol and crime, and in consequence turned his attention to the prevention of the use of intoxicants, contributing many articles on this subject to the medical and other journals. Among Baer’s many essays and books may be mentioned the following: “Die Gefiingnisse, Straf- anstalten, und Strafsysteme, [hre Einrichtung und Wirkung in Hygienischer Beziehung,” Berlin, 1871; “Der Alkoholismus, Seine Verbreitung und Wir- kung auf den Individuellen und Sozialen Organis- mus, Sowie die Mittel Ihn zu Bekiimpfen,” Ber- lin, 1878; “Gefiingniss-Hvygiene,” in Pettenkofer and Ziemssen’s “ Handbuch der Hygiene,” Munich, 1882; “Der Alkoholmissbrauch.” in “ Vierteljahres schrift fir Oeffentliche Gesundheits-Pflege,” 1882, vol. xiv.; “Weber das Yorkommen von Phthisis m den Gefangnissen,” in “ Zeitschrift fitr Klinische Medizin,” 1888, vi.; “Gesetzliche Maassregeln zur Bekimpfung der Trunksucht,” in “ Preussische THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Baeck, Samuel Baer, Herman ———- Jahrbiicher,” 1884, lvi.: “Morbiditiit und Mortalitit in den Gefiingnissen,” in Holtzendorf and Von Jage- mann’s “Handbuch des Gefingnisswesens,” Ham- burg, 1888; “Die Trunksucht und Ihre Abwehr,” Vienna, 1890; * Die Verbrecher in Anthropologischer Beziehung,” June, 189%. Baer is also a contributor to Kulenburg’s “ Real- encyclopiidie der Gesammten Heilkunde.” qe Ce have : Hirsch, Biographisches Lexikon, s.v.; Pagel, ldém, SV. s. F.T,”. HB, BAER, ASHER: Russian mathematician and engraver; born at Seiny, government of Suwalk, in the first quarter of the nineteenth century; died at Jerusalem in 1897. He made many important dis- coveries in mathematics and especially in mechanics, the detailed accounts of which are given in the “ Kénigsberger Zeitung,” supplement to No. 211, Sept. 11, 1859. Among others he discovered a method by which the same force causes two differ- ent movements of two equal cog-wheels to dovetail with cach other (2. No. 8, Jan. 11, 1856). His en- gravings were awarded a prize at the Koénigsberg Exhibition of 1858 (“Journal of the Politechnische Gesellschaft zu Kénigsberg,” Oct. 9, 1838, p. 41). The German press of that time devoted many articles to Baer’s valuable inventions, and Ossip Rabbinovich and O. Wohl in the Russo-Jewish periodicals “ Raz- svyet” and “Ha-Karmel” (Russian supplement to “ Wa-Karmel,” 1860, No. 37, “Wileuski Vyestnik,” 1861, No. 19) spoke highly of his talent. In the later part of the sixties Baer went to Jerusalem, whence he wrote correspondence for many years for the “ Ha- Maggid” and other Hebrew periodicals. H.R. BAER, DOB B. SAMUEL: Polish Hasidic writer of the end of the eighteenth century. He is the author of “Shibhei ha-Besht” (Praises of Israel Ba‘al Shem-Tob), which his son Judah Léb pub- lished after his death, in 1815. The book, which is a collection of the legends current in Hasidic circles anent the founder of Hasidism, is also of great his- torical value. Baer, being a son-in-law of the Alex- ander who was for several years a secretary of BEsuHT, received from his father-in-law valuable information on the origin of Hasidism, and on the founder of the sect; hence his bcok is almost the only source of authentic information on those sub- jects. The book exists in two different versions, one being the Kopys edition (1815), and the other being that of Berditschew of the same year; in the latter many legends are omitted which are found in the former, especially those that might give offense on account of their extraordinary nature. Later edi- tions, of which there are perhaps twelve, follow either of these editions, and some are combinations of the two. BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. Kahana, R. Yisrael Ba‘al Shem-Tob, 1900, p. 67. K. L. G. BAER, HERMAN: American author; born of Jewish parents at Herxheim, Germany, Jan. 29, 1830; died at Charleston, S. C., Jan. 2, 1901. He emigrated to America when a lad of seventeen, and settled in Charleston, where he obtained employ- ment as compositor and proof-reader in the office of Baer, Israel Baer of Meseritz the “Southern Christian Advocate ” in 1848, in which year, too, he joined the Methodist Church. Baer taught German, French, and general topics in pri- vate families, and in 1852 became a teacher in the preparatory department of Woffard College (Meth- odist), at Spartanburg, 8. C., from which institution he himself graduated in 1858. In 1861 he took the degree of M.D. from the Charleston Medical College, and served as surgeon through the Civil war, on the close of which he engaged in business as a wholesale druggist in Charleston. : Throughout his life Baer never lost his taste for literature, and he was a frequent contributor to church papers. Although a foreigner, he early ac- quired such a mastery of English as to be considered in his neighborhood an authority on English style. He was thrice married. In 1888 the Methodist Church Publishing House produced a book by Baer, entitled “ Jewish Ceremonials.” A. F. vE S. M. BAER, ISRAEL. Sce ASHKENAZI, BAERMAXNN. BAER, ISSACHAR B. ELHANAN: Rabbi at Eibenschiitz; born at Frankfort-on-the-Oder in the second half of the seventeenth century. He was the author of a collection of cabalistic homilies and commentaries, entitled “Arba‘ Harashim” (Four Skilful Artificers), divided into four parts: (1) “ Kisse Dawid ”(The Throne of David), concerning the things of Judah (89 chapters); (2) “Kin’at Efrayim” (The Jealousy of Ephraim), regarding the kings of Israel (42 chapters); (3) “Ruah Hen” (The Spirit of Grace), commentaries upon the prophets mentioned in the First Prophets; (4) “ Rab Berakot ” (Abundance of Blessings), concerning the priests. Only the first two volumes were published (Frank fort-on-the-Oder, 1710). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, p. 1783; Benjacob, Ozar ha-Sefarim, p. 48. K. I. Br. BAER, ISSACHAR BEN PETHAHIAH BEN MOSES: Cabalist; lived at Kremnitz, Hun- gary, at the beginning of the seventeenth century. He seems to have traveled in the East and sojourned some time at Safed; and he frequently refers in his writings to the cabalistic school established in that place. Baer is the author of the following works: (1) “Pithe Yah” (The Gates of God)—divided into ten chapters, containing an introduction to the Cabala, on the basis of Cordovero’s “ Pardes Rimo- nim,” Prague, 1609; (2) “ Yesh Sakar ” (There Is Re- ward), containing all the ritual laws found in the Zohar, Prague, 1609; (8) “ Mekor Hokmah” (Source of Wisdom)—explanations of the difficult words and expressions of the Zohar, with an appendix contain- ing all the legends found in the Zohar, Prague, 1610; (4) “ Yod‘e Binah ” (They Who Have Understanding), a large work on the Zohar that does not seem to have been printed. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Wolf, Bibliotheca Hebreea, iii. 688; Jellinek, in Literaturblatt des Orients, vii. 254; Steinschneider, Cat. Boal. cols. 1064-65. K. IT. Br. BAER, ISSACHAR BEN SOLOMON: Bib- lical and rabbinical commentator; died at Wilna in 1807. IIe was the brother of Elijah b. Solomon, the THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 430 Wilna gaon, and like him was distinguished for sim- plicity and lucidity in commenting on Biblical and rabbinical topics. Besides Bible and Talmud, Baer studicd mathematics and geography. His commen- tary on the Pentateuch, the manuscript of which was burned a few years ago, followed a double method: explaining first the simple, literal meaning of the text, like Rashi, Jbn Ezra, and Nahmanides: sec- ondly, giving to it a philosophical and sometimes a mystical interpretation. He left also a commentary on the Taimud and Shulhan ‘ Aruk. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Fuenn, Jciryah Neémanah, p. 201; 1. H. Lewin, “Aliyot Eliyahu, ed. 1889. p. 40; compare also Keneset Yisrael, i. 46, part Orot Me-Ofel, where a work, Mine Tar- gima (on foreign terms in Talmud), is ascribed to him, the manuscript of which is in possession of Dr. Berliner. L, G. M. B. BAER, ISSACHAR B. LEYSER. Sec EIMEenN- BURG. BAER, JOSEPH: Founder of a firm of book- sellers of Frankfort-on-the Main; born in the last half of the eighteenth century ; died in 1851. A small sec- ond-hand bookseller’s stall was established by Baer at Bockenheim in 1785. After encountering many ob- stacies. he succeeded in obtaining citizenship at Frank- fort, and settled thereupon in that city, carrying on a trade in second-hand books. The business subse- quently developed, and became one of the greatest in Germany. Many of the great European libraries, among them the Imperial Public Library of St. Peters- burg, are largely dependent on it for their supply of rare works. On the occasion of its centenary (1885) the firm published a jubilee catalogue of 10,000 works in its second-hand department. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jewish Chroricle, p. 15, Oct. 30, 1885. S. BAER (DOB) OF MESERITZ (known also as the “ Maggid [Preacher] of Meseritz”): First apostle of Hasidism and its most important propagator; born in Volbynia in 1710; died in Meseritz, Dee. 15, 1772. Little is known of Baer’s youth, and scarcely more of the interval preceding his conversion to Has- idism. In all probability he was educated, according to the custom then prevalent in Poland, in Talmud- ical and rabbinical lore. He preached in Rownoand Mescritz. Though neverarabbi, Baer was an accom- plished Talmudist so far as is known, despite the contrary assertions of his opponents. A dreamy and speculative nature such as his was sure, however, to realize that it could find no satisfaction in Talmudic- rabbinical dialectics. Accordingly he became a convert to Luria’s system of Cabala, then popular. At the same time he was an enthusiastic admirer of Moses Hayyim Luzzatto (see Walden, “Shem ha-Gedolim,” s.7. “M. H. Luzzatto”), whose wri- tings, then onJy in manuscript, had considerable re- nownamong the Polish mystics of that day. Baer fol- lowed the precepts of the Lurian school with intense earnestness, and in consequence lived the life of an ascetic. He fasted a great deal, denied himself both the necessaries and comforts of life, His Early and prayed with copious tears and Asceticism. self-abasement. He sought to impart his ideals to others, and, as a preacher, dilated in glowing periods to the people upon the horrors of a material hell, certain to be the reward of B. 431 him who indulged in the comforts of cartliy life. As Baer had neither a fortune, nor any salary as preacher in Rowno or jn Meseritz, he lived in abject poverty despite his few needs. This lack of nourish- ment, together with his ascetic mode of life, gradu- ally made him a cripple. It was the broken state of his health that caused Baer to seek Besht, though he found in him a phy- sician for the soul rather than for the body. The date of their mecting, and the manner in which Besht brought about the conversion of the seemingly confirmed ascetic, are not accurately Known. The Hasidic legend concerning this episode has it that Baer, who had heard much of Besht, visited him to satisfy himself of the truth or falsity of the current reports of Besht’s remarkable powers. Arrived at the latter’s house, and admitted to his His Visit presence, Baer expected to hear pro- to Besht. found mysteries expounded; instead, Besht merely related to him numerous stories of every-day hfe. Hearing only similar stories at each subsequent visit, Baer decided to return home. But just as he was about to set out, at a late hour of the night, he was summoned to Besht’s house. Besht opened the “Ez Hayyim” of Hayyim Vital, and asked Baer to elucidate a certain passage. The latter did so to the best of his ability; but Besht declared that Baer knew nothing of the real meaning of the passage, and procecded to give his explana- tion. As he did so—so runs the legend—the dark- ness suddenly gave way to light, and angels ap- peared eagerly listening to Besht’s words. “Your explanations,” said he to Baer, “were correct, but your deductions were thoughts without any soul in them.” This experience induced Baer to remain in Besht’s vicinage. The legend is correct in so far as it intimates that Baer learned through his connection with Besht to value every-day things and events, and to empha- size the proper spirit through which alone the study of the Torah is made a source of knowledge and en- lightenment. Under the guidance of Besht, Baer abandoned his ascetic mode of life, and in conse- quence recovered from the disease which had led him to seek out the Hasid leader.. Although their inter- course covered not more than the last two years of Besht’s life, yet the association was intimate enough to cause Baer to be considered as Besht’s heir pre- sumptive, even during the lifetime of the founder of Hasidism. Baer’s reputation as a preacher and an ascetic on the one side, and his au- Leader of thority as a Talmudist on the other, the made him an ideal leader for the Hasi- Hasidim. dic movement. Directed, as it was, against the learned men of the cus- tomary type, the propaganda needed an expert Tal- mudist to prolong its life beyond the demise of its founder. Baer was the only man capable of leading the masses, and at the same time of impressing the learned world. Immediately after the death of Besht (1760), Baer’ assumed the leadership of the sect, there being no Opposition to him from any quarter. As its ac- knowledged leader, he sought to free Hasidism from the authority of the rabbis by the introduction of a THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Without preliminary explanation, © Baer, Israel Baer of Meseritz ee new ritual and other innovations. Incidentally, he endeavored to make himself the spiritual and material focus of the cult. The introduction of the Lurian prayer-book, from which all the medieval piyyutim are excised, was the first manifesto of Hasidism, giving notice that it was henceforth not merely the possession of the few chosen ones, but the property of the masses. But in order better to reach the multi- tude, Baer had to appoint apostles to spread his teachings. Jacob Joseph ha-Kohen, Spread of Elimelcch of Lyzensk, his brother Me- Hasidism. shullam Suse, and Nahum of Tscher- noby], some of the more important. of Baer’s emissaries, traveled from place to place spread- ing the new dispensation, While they appealed to the imagination and sympathies of the people at large through their discourses, Baer endeavored to attract to himself the most intelligent portion of the younger element. His powers must have been considerable, for he converted such Talmudists as the brothers Horwitz, both Phineas and Samuel, and such phil- osophical natures as Shneor Zolman of. Ladie, and Mendel of Vitebsk. In contrast to Besht, the man of the people, who walked about, pipe in mouth, chat- ting to and entertaining whom he met, Baer never relinquished the student habits of a Polish Talmud- ist. Concerning his mode of life and home, Solomon Maimon states that Baer passed the entire week in his room, permitting only a few confidants to enter. He appeared in public only on the Sabbath, arrayed in white satin, white being the symbolic color of mercy in the Cabala. On such occasions he prayed with people, and kept open house for those desirous of eating at his table. After the meal he would begin to chant a soul-stirring melody, and, His Public placing his hand upon his forehead, Audiences. weuld call upon all new adherents present to quote any verse in the Bible they desired, These served as texts for Baer’s subse- quent sermon. “ He was such a master in his craft that he combined these disjointed verses into an har- monions whole,” declares Maimon; and what seems to impress this chronicler as still more remarkable, each new proselyte was made to believe that that part of the sermon based upon his verse contained a direct reference to such matters as lay closest to his heart (Maimon, “Selbstbiographie,” i. 231 et seq.). Although it is not probable that Baer sought to play the miracle-worker, there is no doubt that the com- mon people considered it miraculous when some chance remark of his happened to come true. Thanks to the powerful personality of its leader, Hasidism spread with remarkable rapidity. It gained a secure foothold simultaneously in Volhynia, Lithuania, and Little Russia. The dissolution of the “Four-Lands” synod in 1764 proved favorable to its spread. The Rabbis, though annoyed by the growth of the movement, could not easily take com- bined action, at least not such as would receive the approval of the governmental authorities. The op- position of the local rabbis against the well-organ- ized movement proved futile; men among them whose authority reached beyond their narrow sphere of influence were few. Elijah b. Solomon, called the “Gaon of Wilna,” was the only one whose repu- tation extended beyond the borders of Lithuania. Baer of Meseritz Baer, Seligman When Hasidism made its appearance in Wilna and adjacent towns, Elijah, usually far removed from earthly things, was forced to take cog- Opposition nizance of its existence, and the first ofthe anathemaagainst Hasidism was issued Rabbis. at Wilna April 11, 1772, when Elijah had become convinced that the innova- tion was antagonistic, practically and theoretically, to Talmudic rabbinism. Baer’s envoys, his pupils Mendel of Witebsk and Zolman of Ladie, were not received by Elijah, who declined even to mect the dissenters. The ban issued at Wilna drew the eyes of the world toward Hasidism, and it needed ul the strong will and moral courage of a Baer to take up the gage of battle. Tlis policy for the time was to ignore his opponents. The proposition of his pupils to reply to the ban by a counterban lie opposed. But the exertions and excitement conse- quent upon the intense opposition to Hasidism over- whelmed Baer, and he dicd just as the battle against the Hasidim began in earnest, in 1772. While Baer’s practical activity in the Hasidic cause is well known, it is difficult to determine ex- actly his services in the domain of theoretical Hasid- ism. He left no writings of his own; the two works (1) “MaggiD DebarO le-Ya‘akoB” (the last letters of which title spell “ Dob ”), known also under the title of “Likkute Amarim” (Collected Sayings), published at Koretz, 1780, and frequently reprinted ; and (2) “Likkute Yekarim ” (Collected Gems), pub- lished at Lemberg (1790?) are the only authentic ones inexistence. They consist of excerpts Baers from his sermons, mechanically writ- Published ten down and collected by his relative, Utterances. Solomon b. Abraham of Lutzk, who, as he himself confesses, was often ig- norant of their meaning. The separation of the kernel from the shell is so difficult a task in Baer’s writings, that modern historians are puzzled to dis- cover any system at all in Hasidism, Aud yet it is of the utmost importance In the study of this sect to become acquainted with its doctrinal side, the un- derlying and basic principles. The foundation of Baer’s system is Besht’s assertion of the omnipresence of God. Before the Creation the world existed in potentia De? ; the act of creation con- sisted in God’s Will—or Word—caus- Funda- ing the materialization of the world. mentals of Creation consequently implies not a Hasidism. separation from the Creator, but merely amanifestation of His power; and just as the world was already in God before the Creation, so God is in the world now, He being not only the original cause of material things, but constituting also their inward essence; wherefore God is termed “the Preserver of all things” (Neh. ix. 6) (Heb. 7°", “the Animater”). While every existing thing isa manifestation of God, the degrees of such manifes- tations differ according to the higher or lower organ- ism Of things. The essence of thingsis for Baer the spark of divinity which is revealed in each, both as regards mind and matter. Baer remarks somewhat drastically that even heathen deities have the divine spark (pry) in the:’-for had they not, even an im- aginary conceptio: + “*eir being would have been impossible. Inder - °° ‘ of the particles of divinity THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 432 in things, God remains an undivided substance, for the powers manifested in various things are all one—merely the outward appearances differ. The relation of the one substance to the many outward manifestations of the same, Baer explains by the ca- balistic theory of DYyDYN (zimzum), “ concentration,” a theory that holds an important place in Hasidism, as it did with Moses Cordovero. According to Baer creation is in reality a species of divine seif-limita- tion. God in His endless and innumerable attributes manifests Himself in creation, which is only ove as- pect of His activity, and which is therefore in reality a self-limitation. And just as God in His goodness limited Himself, and thus descended to the level of the world and man, so it is the duty of the latter to strive to unite with God. The removal of the outer shell of mundane things, or, as the cabalist The Divine terms it, “the ascension of the [divine] in All spark,” being a recognition of the pres- Things. ence of God in all terrestrial things, it is the duty of man, if he experience pleasure, to receive such emotion in all purity and sanctity as a divine manifestation, for He is the source of all pleasure. As the degrees of divine manifestation differ ac- cording to the nature of the various objects, it is the purpose of the world-life to advance toward an ever higher degree, until the perfect union with God is attained. Thus the vegetable kingdom serves as food for the animal kingdom, in order that the lower manifestation of divinity, existing in the former, may bedeveloped intoa higher one. Man being the highest manifestation, and the crown of creation, it is his duty to attain the highest pinnacle of develop- ment in order to be ultimately united with God. The only means through which man can attain commu- nion with God is prayer, not a mechanical recital, but that condition of ecstasy in which man forgets self and all surroundings, and concen- The trates all his thought and feeling upon Ecstasy of union with God. Like the Neo-Pla- Prayer. tonists, Baer says that when a man becomes so absorbed in the contem- plation of an object that his whole power of thought is concentrated upon the one point, then his self be- comes blended and unified with that point. So prayer in such a state of real ecstasy, effecting a complete union between God and man, becomes of extraordinary importance. It is even capable of breaking through and overruling the accustomed laws of the universe. While, in the natural order of things, objects slowly ascend through a series of de- velopments froma low plane toa higher one, prayer, by this union with God in the moment of ecstasy, effects a sudden ascension of the object. This of course is conditioned by the use made of it by the truly pious man, who alone is capable, in the mo- ment of his ecstasy, of ennobling and edifying both objects and actions. This is the danger point of Hasidism. It is obvi- ous that the ecstatic state is for the select few only. Besht, the founder of Hasidism, maintained that real service to God must consist in prayer, rather than in the study of the Torah, for the very reason that the former is possible for all men, while the latter is not. Besht’s first apostle completely over- Pores aoe en Baer of Meseri 433 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Bact Selle con: turned his democratic ideal. He recognizes only the | century had so intimate an acquaintance with all the supplication of the perfectly pious, the Zaddik, who | details of the Masorah as had Baer; and it was largely is capable of absolutely withdrawing | due to him that the study of this branch of Hebrew The Zaddik all his thought from earthly things. | philology was brought to the notice of Biblical as the and coucentrating it upon God. The | critics. His fricudsbip Exception. Zaddik, as the favorite of heaven,isthe | with Franz Delitzsch, instrument by means of which God | who stood sponsor for bestows His mercies upon the world. Because of | much of his work, his union with God he is the connecting link between | aided him in making (zod and creation, and thus the channel of blessing | known to the world the and mercy. The love men bear the Zaddik is there- | results of his studies. fore the means to win the grace of God. The duty | He never occupied an of the ordinary mortal ts thus to love the Zaddik, | academic position, but | | ; | | | | | and to be entirely subservient to him. In this con- | Was contented with the ception of Hasidism lies Baer’s significance; he des- | office of Hebrew troys the idealism which lay at the foundation of | teacher to the Jewish the Hasidic movement, originating thus a tendency | community of Bicb- which could not but result in crass superstition and | rich. = In recognition addled doctrines. Baer indeed sought hereby to es- | of his services to the tablish the authority of the best, as he conceived the | Commission for the Zaddik to be, in opposition to the Rabbis, who relied | History of the Jews in upon their learning for their authority. However, | Germany, the honorary Seligman Baer. he insisted upon the precepts promulgated by | degree of doctor of Besht, such as unselfishness, industry in doing good, {| philosophy was conferred upon him by the Univer- peaceableness, charity in judgment of others, tem- | sity of Leipsic. In conjunction with Delitzsch he perance without total abstmence, courage without | published in 1861 an edition of the Psalms (Leipsic. prideand insolence. Thesuccessof Hasidism under | Doerfling und Franke), A second edition was pub- Baer was due in great part to the ideal conceptions | lished a few years later (Leipsic, Brockhaus). and sacrifices of its carly converts, who resembled In the mean time, in connection with Delitzsch, in their actions the enthusiasts among the first | Baer had conceived the plan of editing anew the Judeo-Christians. But all of this did not prevent | books of the Old Testament in Hebrew, following the appearance, soon after the inculcation by Baer of | strictly the Masoretic tradition. The volumes, with such lofty conceptions, of less noble | a Latin preface by Delitzsch, appeared (Leipsic. The characters who impressed upon Zad- | Tauchnitz) in the following order: Genesis, 1869; Degenerate dikism some most pernicious features. Isaiah, 1872; Job, 1875; Minor Proph- Zaddik. Not all of Baer’s disciples accepted Collabo- ets, 1878; Psalms (together with a Zaddikism, at least not in its entirety. rates with treatise “Elementa Accentuationis There came to be two distinct tendencies among Franz Metrice”), 1880; Proverbs (together Baer’s followers; the philosopho-mystie, prevalent Delitzsch. with “De Primorum Vocabulorum in Lithuania, and the practical Zaddikist, at home in Dagessatione”), 1880; Daniel, Ezra, Poland and Galicia (see CABALA and ELASIpIsM), aud Nehemiah (together with “Chaldaismi Biblici BIBLIOGRAPHY: Dubnow, Voskhod, ix. Nos. 911; Gritz, Adumbratio” and a treatise by Friedrich Delitzsch esch. der Juden, xi. 98 et seg. and note 22; Kohan, in Hu. | on the Babylonian proper names in these books). Staiar Laas een: et Wt eee were published in 1882; Ezekiel (with “Specimen HaBad, 1876, pp. 7-23. | Glossarii Ezechielico-Babylonici” by Friedrich De- Kk. L. G. litzsch), appeared in 1884; followed by the five BAER B. NAPHTALI HA-KOHEN. Sec | Megillot, 1886; the book of Chronicles, 1888; Jere- ASHKENAZI, BARRMANN. miah, 1890; Joshua and Judges, 1891; and finally BAER (DOB) BEN NATHAN NATA OF Kings, 1895. The last two were edited by Baer PINSK: Russian rabbi of the first half of the eight- alone, Dente nave oan a. 90. Death pre- ceuth century. He was a descendant of Rabbi | Vented Baer from finishing the series. Attached to Nathan Naga Sieplinee Cnciw Cv liana liealitlior cach volume were a number of Masoretic notes of “Megallch “Amnkim”). Baer is the author of taken from the best editions and manuscripts, vari- “* Neta‘ Sha‘ashuim,” a commentary on some parts of ant readings between the codgonays ane snes fie Patna. Zolkiews 174s: between Ben Asher and Ben Naphtali, and various ; ks . . other Masorctic lists and enunierations. BIBLIOGRAPHY : Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, p. 186, Warsaw, 1886. . ’ H. RB. In general, Baer’s text has been accepted as repre- senting the Masoretic tradition; even though excep- BAER, SELIGMAN (SEKEL): Writer on | tion may be taken to his view on individual points or the Masorah, and editor of the Hebrew Bible; born | to his too extensive generalization from insufficient at Mosbach (Baden), Sept. 18, 1825; died at Biebrich- | manuscript evidence. Christian Ginsburg, in on-the-Rhine, March, 1897. introduction to his Masoretic Bible (Londo” As early as 1844, Baer commenced his Masoretic | has criticized a number of these fav’ some studies. He belonged to the school of Wolf Het- | severity. He points ont, amo .2s, that DENHEIM, some of whose original manuscripts were | Baer has indicated the open _cions in the in his possession. Few scholars in the nineteenth ; Prophets and the Hagioe ung not usually TT. —28 Baer, Seligman Bagdad done in Masoretic manuscripts (pp. 10 e¢ seg.); that he has introduced a number of anti-Masoretic pauses (p. 29); that his division of the Sedarim is fanlty (p. 41); that he has introduced the dagesh into the first letter of words when the preceding word euds with the same letter (p. 117), as well as the dagesh which follows upon a guttural with silent shewa and a hatef-patah under the first of two simi- lar letters (pp. 466, 662), all of which are not war- ranted by the best manuscripts. The Criticisms Masoretic notes at the end of Baer’s of the edition are also criticized (p. 92), espe- Work. cially the lists of various readings. Further, the Aramaic paradigms at- tached to the edition of Danicl, Ezra, and Nehemiah have also been the subject of criticism on the part of Kautzsch (“Grammatik des Biblisch-Aramit- ischen,” p. 23). Many of these faults were due to Baer’s inability to consult manuscripts in the large European collections; yet, in spite of this, his edi- tions will remain for some time to come the standard Masoretic text. Of his separate treatises dealing with the same subject may be mentioned “Torat Emet ” (The True Law), 1852, Rédelheim, on the accentuation of the poetic books of the Old Testament, of which an en- larged edition in German, together with “Masore- tische Uebersichten,” was added as an appendix to the first edition of Delitzsch’s Commentary on the Psalter (vol. ii., Leipsic, 1860); “Die Methegsetzung,” in Merx’s “Archiv fiir Wissensch. Erforschung des Alten Testaments” (Halle, 1867, i. 55 et seg.; but compare Gritz, “ Monatsschrift,” 1887, p. 488): his edition (in conjunction with H. L. Strack) of the “Dikduke ha-Te‘amim” of Aaron ben Moses ben Asher (Leipsic, 1879); and his lengthy criticism of Ginsburg’s Masora in “Z. D. M. G.” 743 et seg. To the Rabbinic Bible, which was to have been published by the Romms in Wilna (1894), Baer contributed the Masora, a work upon which he spent many years. What Baer did for the Old Testament, he tried also to do for the: Prayer-book. His “Seder ‘Abodat Yisrael ” (Ritual of Israel’s Service), R6delheim, 1868, is accompanied by a literary and philological com- mentary, “ Yakin Lashon” (Preparatory Study of Language), which has made the work a standard au- thority. Attached to it is the text of the Psalms, accurately vocalized and accented (see Kobak’s “Jeschurun,” vi. 217; Berliner, in “Israelit,” 1868, Nos. 24 and 26). Among Baer’s other works may be mentioned: “Leket Zebi” [Collation of Zebil, Sammlung von Gebeten (Rédelheim, 1855, 1861); “Tikkun ha-Sofer weha-Kore ” (Correct Text for the Scribe and Reader), the Masoretic text His Other of the Pentateuch, together with the Works. laws governing the writing of syna- gogue scrolls (Rédelheim, 1856); * Di- bre ha-Berit” (The Words of the Covenant), on the prayers and observances connected with circumcision (Rédelheim, 1871); “ Tozeot Hayyim” (Issue of Life), prayers for the dead (2). 1871), and “ Zibhe Zedek ” (Sacrifices of Righteousness) on Shehitah (2b. 1876). During the latter part of his life, Baer ventured into the field of history, and translated for the Com- mission for the History of the Jews in Germany the Hebrew accounts of the persecutions at the time of THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 434 the Crusades (“Quellen zur Geschichte der Juden in Deutschland,” ii., Berlin, 1892). The venture was not successful, as Brann has shown in “Monats- schrift,” xxxvii, 196 et seg., 286 et seq. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jewish Chronicle, March 12, 1897, p. 12; com- pare Allgemeine Zeit. des Judenthums, 1895, p. 467. g. ; BAER (DOB) BEN SHRAGA: Author; lived in Berlin at the beginning of the nineteenth century. He wrote “Nahale Debash” (Streams of Honey), Berlin, 18382, which contains many extracts from various Hebrew books dealing mainly with philo- sophical and ethical subjects. L. G. J. CH. BAER (DOB) BEN URI PHGBUS: Author, of the eighteenth century. He resided at Altona, Germany, where in 1737 he wrote “Be’er-Tob” (A Good Explanation), containing casuistic and homi- letical explanations to the Talmud. L. G. J. Cn. BAERMANN, ISSACHAR I. Sce ASHKE- NAZI, BAERMANN. BAERMANN OF LIMBURG: German wri- ter; lived at Frankfort-on-the-Main at the end of the seventeenth century and at the beginning of the eighteenth. He published (Frankfort-on-the- Main, 1712) a Judeo-German play, with the Hebrew title “Mekirat Yosef” (The Sale of Joseph), destined for the Feast of Purim, which excited great interest. ‘It was performed in Frankfort on the Feast of Purim, 1718, with much success, many Christians being present. The actors were Jewish students from Prague and Hamburg. Thesamecomedy was acted at Metz, and became a favorite Purim play among the Polish Jews generally. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Schudt, Jiidische Merkwtirdigkeiten, ii. 314 5 Abrahams, Jewish Life inthe Middle Ages, pp. 263, 264; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl, col. 769. G. I. Br. BAERWALD, HERMANN: German educa- tor; born at Nakel, in the province of Posen, Nov. 7, 1828. His academic education began at the gym- nasium of Konitz, continued at the Elisabeth-Gym- nasium of Breslau, supplemented by a couple of years spent under the inspiring influence of Gustav A. Stenzel, then the head of a school devoted to the study of philology and history, and wound up at the University of Berlin, where he became an object of Leopold von Ranke’s interest, who greatly influenced Baerwald’s future career. With his academic titles gained at the Prussian capital. Baerwald proceeded in 1856 to Vienna, only to be called three years later to Berlin to fill an important place at the Jewish Teachers’ Seminary of that city. Here he remained till 1868, when a call was extended to him from the Jewish community of Frankfort-ou-the-Main to act thereafter asthe director of their realschule for boys and girls known under the name of the “ Philan- thropin.” A more favorable field for the realization of Baerwald’s great qualities could not be found. Baerwald was possessed of a deep longing to spread light and relieve human misery, and a noble. pres- ence, rendered magnetic by a charm of manner and a soft, melodious voice, opened to him every heart and even many a capacious purse for the benefit of 435 the needy. Baerwald was a member of the central committee of the Alliance Israélite Universelle in Paris. There is hardly a benevolent institution in Frankfort that has not felt his benigninfluence. The name of the young men who are indebted to Baer- wald for their making is legion. Atter an activity of thirty-one years at the Philanthropin, Baerwald retired from the office he had filled with considerable honor under general manifestations of admiration and gratitude. Baerwald was the author of: “ Formelbuch,” “ His- torische Miscellen: Lebensrettung Kaiser Otto IL. durch den Juden Kalonymus,” in Wertheimer’s “ Jahrbuch,” 1857; and “ Zur Geschichte dez Israeli- tischen Real- und Volksschule in Frankfurt am Main von 1804-1822,” 1875. He died Feb. 8, 1907. Ss. YW. I. BAEZA: City in the province of Jaen, Spain, which, as early as the Moorish rule, had a consider- able Jewish community that suffered greatly dur- ing the war between Castile and Mohammed al- Nasir jn 1212, In 1891 there was great slaughter among the Jews of Baeza; the survivors being spared only on condition of submitting to baptism. Five years later, only Maranos were left in the citv; and many of these, in 1478, fell victims to the fury of the pop- ulace, as in Cordova and in other cities, while others were saved through the protection of the count de Cabra, governor of the city. BIBLICGRAPHY: J. Amador de los Rios, Historia de los Judins en Espatia, ii. 401, iii. 159. G. M. K. BAG: A comprehensive term in the A. V. for various Hebrew words. The most adequate He- brew expression for a large bag is “ harit ” (compare Arabic), which can contain a talent of silver, as in II Kings v. 23. The same word occurs in the list of woman’s apparel and ornaments, given in Isa. iii. 22, and is usually understood as a satchel (thus R. V.; “erisping pins,” A. V.). In Gen. xi. 25 the gen- eral term for a vessel (“Keli”) to carry grain is freely translated “bag,” being used interchangeably with “sack.” In I Sam. ix. 7, xxi. 6, the same word— A. V. “vessels ”—-denotes the receptacles for carry- ing food, which need not necessarily have been bags. InI Sam. xvii. 40, 49, it stands for the same word (“ vessel,” A. V., margin) in “the shepherd’s bag.” The Hebrew text seems to mean rather “a shep- herd’s outtit” ina much more general sense (com- pare Zech. xi. 15, “the instruments of a foolish shep- herd ”). There is, furthermore, the small bag (“kis”), con- taining the weights of the merchant (Deut. xxv. 13; Prov. xvi. 11; Micah vi. 11) carried in the girdle; and perhaps another containing his money (Isa. xlvi. 6; rendered “purse,” Prov. i. 14). Another word for the small money-bag is “zeror” (Prov. vii. 20; Hag. i. 6; “bundle,” Gen. xlii. 35; I Sam. 25, 29: compare the denominative verb “to put up or to bind in bags,” II Kings xii. 10 [Hebr. 11], see mar- gin). The word is used in a more general sense, perhaps, in Job xiv. 17. In Cant. i.13 the “bundle of myrrh” seems to mean a little perfume-bag hung around the neck of a woman. J. JR, W. M. M. THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Baer, Seligman Bagdad BAGDAD: Capitalof the Turkish vilayet of the same name, which is situated in lower Mesopotamia on both sides of the Tigris. The vilayet formerly extended from Diabekr to Yemen, with the Persian frontier as its eastern border; but in 1878 the vilayct of Mosul was separated from it,and in 1884 also that of Bassora. According to Arabic tradition, the town ‘of Bagdad was founded in the middle of the eighth century by the Abbassid calif Abu Ja‘far Mansur. But the fact that a Babylonian city named Bagdad is already mentioned in the Talmud (Ket. 7, Zeb. 9) proves that the calif Mansur only rebuilt and enlarged the old Persian City of Bagdad. That Bag- dad was originally a Persian city is also proved by the name, which is Persian. Being situated on the left bank of the Tigris, the town was in close proxim- ity to the two centers of Jewish spiritual life, Sura and Pumbedita. As the calif was anxious to sce the population of his new residence increase, he offered no resistance to Jews settling there and forming a community. They became so numerous that one of the bridges over the Karkhay4 canal in the western suburb was cailed “ Kantarah-al-Yahtd” or Jews’ Bridge, also Bridge of the Jews’ Fief (G. Le Strange, “Baghdad under Abbaside Caliphate,” p. 150), and Yakut mentions that the Jewish quarter, called “Dar al-Yahtd,” was in the neighborhood (iv.1045). The Jews were, of course, occasionally troubled by revivals of the restrictions to which non-Moslems were subject. These regulations were first renewed by Harun-al-Rashid (786-809), who ordered that Jews and Christians should wear distinguishing marks on their clothing, refrain from riding on horseback, and suffer other similar humiliations. Aft- crward these restrictions were relaxed, but were again imposed by Al-Muta- wakkil (880), who went so far as to convert the synagogues into mosques, Notwithstanding this, Jews are found holding state offices under Al-Mutaclid (892-902). As the seat of the califate, Bagdad soon rose to a conspicuous height. It was a home for Jewish learning; and a number of men prominent in the history of that time had their home there. Aaron BEN SAMUEL HA-Nast, of Babylon, the mystic of the ninth century, came to Italy from this city (Graetz,“ History of the Jews,” Hebrew transl., v., Appendix, p 46). Its importance at the time of the Geonim must not be underrated, as it is often men- tioned at this time under the name of “ Babylon” (553) (see BABYLONIA). (On the name Ay, see Steinschneider, “Polem. und Apolog. Lit.” p. 298; idem, “ Hebr. Bibl.” xii. 90; “Jewish Quarterly Re- view,” xii, 115). Bagdad belonged rather to Pum- bedita than to Sura; but the heads of the Jewish community in both places came to the caJif’s city in order to swear allegiance to the “resh galuta” or ex- larch (Geiger, “ Wissenschaftliche Zeitschrift,” v. 398; Gritz, “Gesch. der Juden,” v. 479). The Jews of Bagdad must have been affected by the Karaite schism. Ishmael of ‘Akbara (c¢. 840) came from a place only seven miles from the city; and Abu al-SariSalh ben Mazliah (eleventh century) preached publicly in the streets against the Rabbin- ites. He was answered in the same way by Jacob ben Samuel (Graetz, “ History of the Jews,” Hebrew Under the Abbassid Califs. Bagdad transl., i13.311). Abu Imran al-Za‘farani, the founder of a new sect, was born in Bagdad in the ninth cen- tury (Gractz, 76. iii. 508). At the time of the calif Al-Mutadid the Jews of Bagdad fared well on account of the kind treatment accorded to them by the vizier ‘Ubaid Allah ibn Sulaiman. The heads of the community were Joseph ben Phineas and Natira (Gractz, 2b. til. 274). The gaon Aaron ibn Sargada (943-960) came from Bag- dad, and it was here that his relative, Kasher ibn Abraham, was called upon to settle a dispute in which he had become involved (Graetz, 70. iii, 306, 308). About the year 950 the grammarian Dunash ben Labrat was in Bagdad; and in this city the gaons Hai, Kimui bar Rab Ahai, and Yehudai bar Sanuel were officials (99322 8339 °3°%) before go- ine to Pumbedita. According to Hai (died 1088) the Bagdad Jews of his day were accustomed to say the ‘Abodah of the Day of Atonement both at the morning and musaf service (Graetz, 7b. iii. 166). It is also probable that the exegete and traveler Abra- ham ibn Ezra visited Bagdad between the years 1158 and 1140 (see his commentary to Ex. xxv. 18). Ibn Ezra’s son Isaac, who probably came with hin, and was baptized, wrote in Bagdad (1148) a poem in honor of another convert, Nathaniel Hibat Allah (“Kokbe Yizhak,” 1858, p. 23; Graetz, “ History of the Jews,” Hebr. transi., iv., Appendix, p. 47). During the twelfth century the Jews of Bagdad attained again some measure of self-government. The calif Al-Muktafi appointed a wealthy man, Sam- vel ben Hisdai, exilarch in Bagdad. He gathered the taxes, paying a certain portion over into the state treasury; and all important ap- Inthe pointments had to receive his sanc- Twelfth tion. Both Benjamin of Tudela and Century. Pethaliah of Regensburg visited Bag- dad, and have left interesting infor- mation regarding the Jews there. According to Benjamin, there were at. his time in the city 23 syn- agogues, 1,000 Jewish families, and 10 yeshibot (rab- binical schools). According to Pethahiah, however, “At Bagdad there are three synagogues, besides that built by Daniel on the spot on which the angel stood on the brink of the river, . . . as is written in the Book of Daniel.” Pethahiah adds: “The head of the academy has many servants. They flog any one not immediately executing his orders; there- fore people fear him. . . . He isclothed in gold and colored garments like the king; his palace also is hung with costly tapestries like that of the king.” The most prominent heads of the yeshibot were at that time Aliand his son Samuel. David Alroy studied under Ali at the time Hisdai was exilarch (Wiener, “‘Emek ha-Baka.” pp. 27, 167; “Shebet Yehudah,” ed. Wiener, p. 50: Sambari, in Neubauer, “Medieval Jewish Chronicles,” i. 123: Graetz, “His- tory of the Jews,” Hebrew transl., iv. 317). The reputation of Samuel seems to have spread far and wide, for we learn that Rabbi Moses of Kiev (ayp) came from Russia especially to receive information from him (Epstein, in “ Monatsschrift,” xxxix. 511, 512; Gractz, tb. iv. 44). It was this same Samuel who, in later years, was a determined opponent of Maimonides, and who made Bagdad for the time a very hotbed of anti-Maimonist intrigue (Graetz, 7d. THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 436 Appendix, p. 84). Maimonides* favorite pupil, Ibn Aknin, had formed a plan of opening a school at Bagdad for the purpose of propagating his mas- ter’s teachings. Maimonides, however, advised him against such an action, as he wished to spare him the opposition which he knew Ibn Aknin would en- counter (Griitz, “Gesch. der Juden,” vi. 862). Dan- iel, the son of Hisdai, followed his father in office: but he left no son; and though two of his cousius in Mosul pretended to hold office, the short-lived recrudescence of the resh galuta was at an end (Griitz, “ Gesch. der Juden,” vi. 460; Hebrew transl., iv. 409, Appendix, p. 59). The anonymous author of the Hebrew-Arabic Diwan published in “ He- Haluz,” iii. 150 (MS. Bodleian 2424 and MS. in col- lection of E. N. Adler), who lived before the middle of the thirteenth century, traveled as far as Bagdad, where he met the head of the yeshibah (“Jewish Quarterly Review,” xii. 115, 202). The Jews of Bagdad diminished largely in num- bers and influence, not only because of the general movement of the Jews toward Europe and because of the Crusades, but also through the storming of the town by the Mongols. Arghun (1284-91), how- ever, had a Jewish physician in Bagdad, Sa‘ad al- Daulah, who was consulted in all financial mat- ters by the sultan; but upon the death of Arghun the position which the Jews had gained through Saad al-Daulah was quickly lost, and the streets of the city flowed with Jewish blood (see “Revue Etudes Juives,” xNXvi, 254). With the fall of the Abbassid power the eastern califate went to ruin. Very little is known concern- ing the Jewsof Bagdad during the following period, and we can only find a few notes here and there in the works of travelers who have passed through the place. In 1400 the city was besieged by Tamcr- lane. and many Jews who had taken refuge here from other villages perished (Jost, “ Annalen,” 1839, p. 197). Pedro Teixeira, at the beginning of the seventeenth century, found In Bagdad 20.000 to 30,000 houses, of Which 200 to 800 were inhabited by Jews. He savs that they lived in a certain part of the town in which their “kanis” (svnagogue) was situated. At the beginning of the nineteenth cen- tury Ezekiel Bagdagh was the richest banker in the city. He became involved in polities and went to Constantineple, where he exercised great influence as a court banker (“saraf bashi”). Armenian in- trigues, however, occasioned his fall, and he was put to death between the years 1820 and 1826 at Adalia in Asia Minor (Franco, “L’ Histoire des Israélites de VEmpire Ottoman.” p. 182). The traveler Benjamin IT. was in Bagdad in 1847, and tells us that the Jews at that time numbered 3,000 families and were living in happy circumstances. They were under a “hakam bashi” appointed by the Sublime Porte. Their dayyanim or rabbin- ical chiefs were Jacob ben Joseph. Elijah Obadiah, and Rabhi Abdola (Abdallah). Every male Hebrew of the community paid a tax which In Modern varied between 15 and 120 piasters per Times. year. Raphael Kassin was hakam bashi, and next to him in rank was the nasi voseph Moses Reuben. The yeshibah had then sixty pupils, who were in the charge of Abdullah ben 437 Abraham Seumech. Though the Jews inhabited THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA a certain quarter of the city, to live in that quarter _ was not compulsory upon them. Of the nine syna- gogues which Benjamin the Second mentions, eight were situated In one court; while the ninth wasa large building, resting on sixteen columns, called “Bet ha-Keneset Sheik Isaac Gaon,” in a side room of which building the body of that saint was interred. The trade of Bagdad with India was then largely i Bagdad d’ Asie,” ii. 66, 97, 104) there were in the year 1890 53,800 Jews in the vilayet of Bagdad, of whom 52,- 500 lived in Bagdad, 500 in Hilla, and 800 in Ker- bela. He gives the number of primary schools as 52, of synagogues as 26, and of cemeteries 2. The women and young children were at that time en- gaged in manufacturing what is called the “aga- bani,” a garment made of European stuffs embroid- ered with India silk. The trade in Babylonian and Assyrian antiquitics is largely in the hands of the GIRLS’ SCHOOL OF THE ALLIANCE ISRAELITE UNIVERSELLE, AT Batiban. (Mroin a photograph by D. Gazala, Bagdad.) iv the hands of the Jews, who had manufactories In Calcutta, Bombay, Singapore, and Canton, This is corroborated by the evidence of the Rev. Henry A. Stern (“Dawnings of Light,” p. 46, London, 1854), who says: “Jews are the governing element of the place. They have their stored booths in every ba- zaar, occupy all the principal caravansaries, and en- tirely control the business of banking and monopo- lies.” Stern estimated the Jewish population in his day at 16,000, as against 1,500 Christians and 40,000 Moslems. The Jews were at that time divided into Persianand Arabian. On March 27, 1845, a “heren.” (ban) was launched against aJl who had any connec- tion with the missionaries (compare “ Narrative of a Mission of Inquiry to the Jews from the Church of Scotland,” 1848, ii. 873). In 1860 H. Petermann of Berlin found 1,300 Jewish families in Bagdad, of whom 2,800 persons paid the poll-tax. The oldest Jewish families, he says, came there from Ana on the Euphrates. According to Cuinet (“La Turquie a rrr mmr mnt mt ae a gp ne Jews of Bagdad (Delitzsch, “Babylon,” 2d edition, 1901, p. 8). Of the history of the Jews during the second half of the nineteenth century very little is known. In 1876 and 1877 the city was attacked by a plague, and the Jews suffered terrible hardships in consequence. For atime they were compelled to leave the city and to camp in the wilderness (“ Ha-Zefirah,” iii., No. 26, p. 202; iv., No. 20, p. 157; No. 24, p. 188; No. 28, p. 221). The relation of the Jews to their non-Jew- ish brethren seems, for the most part, to have been amicable. In 1860, however, an attempt was made to deprive the Jews of the Tomb of Ezekiel, situ- ated a short distance outside of the city, and visited by Jews in the month of Ab. The Anglo-Jewish Association interposed in the matter; and the tomb was given back to its proper owners. A similar dif- ficulty arose in the year 1889 with regard toa shrine called “Nabi Yusha” or “Kohen Yusha,” situated about an hour’s walk from the city in a small building Bagdad Baginsky, Benno THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 438 shaded by eight gigantic trees. The high priest Joshua (Zech. iii. 1) is said to have been buried here; and, according to Teixeraand Benjamin the Second, the Jews are accustomed to make pilgrimages thither every month, The shrine is maintained by the con- tributions of the Jews in Bagdad and in India, and is used not only as a synagogue, but as a burying- place for the rabbis. One of the latter had been buried there in the year 1889, and because of a dis- pute as to whether the property really belonged to the Jews or to the Mohammedans, a persecution of the former was set on foot, and the principal Jews of the city, including the chief rabbi, were impris- oned by direction of the governor. A memorial on the subject was addressed to the marquis of Salis- bury Oct. 25, 1889, on behalf of the Jewish Board of Deputies and the Anglo-Jewish Association, as a re- sult of which the governor was removed. Other tombs similarly visited by the Jews of Bagdad are that of Ezra, near Gurna (Kurna), betwecn Bagdad and Bassorah, and that of Daniel, near Hillah. In 1899 the Jews numbered 35,000 souls, with about 30 to 385 synagogues known by the name of “Torah.” Each Torah had a hakam, a “mu‘allim kabir” (senior teacher), and a “mu‘allim saghir” (junior teacher), The Alliance Israélite Universelle founded a school for boys there in 1865, which in 1899 had 204 pupils; in 1895 the same body founded a school for girls which in 1899 had 122 pupils. There is also a Jewish apprentices’ school for the education of Bagdad boys along industrial lines. The study of English has been encouraged by a foundation made by Silas Sassoon, a member of the Sassoon family which has its origin in Bagdad, David Sassoon, the founder of the family, having been born there, 1793. During the last years of the nineteenth century a few Hebrew books have been printed in Bagdad, especially by Solomon Behor Husain; e.7., PAN IAD moidn (the second part of Solomon Almoli’s work), 1892; ovys xpip of Isaac Farhi; the story of Esther (ANDX Np), told in Arabic by Joseph al-Shamsani; sy5 abnn of Sasshon Mordecai Moses; and nwyy D'D) on the wonders which happened in Palestine, taken from the ober sy. Of earlier works may be mentioned psy nysnp 7HbD of David Salih Ya‘kob, published by Rahamim Reuben Mordecai & Co., 1867, and o»Syyw *Se app, printed by Judah Moses Joshua, 1874, BIBLIOGRAPHY: In addition to the authorities quoted above— Benjamin of Tudela, Itinerary, ed. Asher, Index, s8.v.; Travels of Rabbi Petachia, ed. A. Benisch, pp. 15, 25, 31, 81; G. Le Strange, Baghdad under the Abbaside Caliphate, p. 150, Oxford, 1900; M. Streck, Die Alte Landschaft Baby- lonien nach den Arabischen Geographen, Leyden, 1900, p. 85; J. J. Benjamin II., Hight Years in Asia and Africa, pp. 109 et seq., Hanover, 1859; W. Schur, OVNG MIA, p. 7, Vienna, 1882; Morris Cohen, Jewish Home Life in Bagdad, in the Reports of the Anglo-Jewish Association, 1880, p. 74, 1881, p. 71, 1882, p. 29, 1886, p. 38; compare also thid. 1889, p. 18 (Cohen’s articles have been reprinted in Allg. Zeit. des Judenthums, xliv. 538 et seq.). G. {Bagdad and its vicinity possess a certain number of antiquities of Jewish interest. A large mosque, containing a tomb, is consecrated to the memory of a holy marabout, Abd el-Kader, called the Great. According to local Jewish tradition this is none other than R. Jose ha-Galili. One hour’s journey from the city, there is a mausoleum surrounded by eight almond-trees. Popular belief declares this to be the tomb of the high priest Joshua mentioned in Zecha- riah iii.; Haggaii.1, etc. The Jews of Bagdad make pilgrimages to it oncea month. Distant a journey of two days and a half southward of Bagdad is Hil- leh, where the ruins of ancient Babylon are shown, and near by is a well, called by the natives “ Daniel’s Well,” into which, according to local tradition, Dan- iel was thrown. Near the bank of the Euphrates is Kabur Kepil, a village having a tomb which it is said is that of the prophet Ezekiel. At the side of the tomb are two ancient synagogues, one of which con- tains a sacred scroli, which some persons claim was the property of the prophet, and others that of Anan, the founder of Karaism. Thissynagogue also contains a genizah. The village is said to contain tombs of Zedekiah and other kings of Judah, and of the prophet Zephaniah, Three hours’ journey from Bagdad, again toward the south, and not far from the Tigris, the tomb of Ezra the Scribe is shown, venerated equally by Jewsand Arabs. It is covered — with inscriptions now illegible. ] G. M. Fr. BAGE-LA VILLE: Village in the canton Bagé- le-Chalet, department of Ain, France. It was inhab- ited by Jews in the thirteenth and fourteenth cen- turies; and in 1331 they were divided into elder and younger. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Inventaire Sommaire des Archives Departé- mentales, Cote d’Or, iii. 6740, 6748, 6749, 6750, 6753, 6755. G i oa Os BAGI: A prominent Karaite family ; lived in Con- stantinople in the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seven- teenth centuries. The family name, which is vari- ously written Badschi (First, “Geschichte des Karierthums,” iii. 14), Pegi, Poki (Neubauer, “ Aus der Petersburger Bibliothek,” p. 55), is, according to Steinschneider (“ Hebriische Bibliographic,” xx. 94), derived from the Turkish “Bak” (pronounced “Bag ”). The following members of the family are those best known: Elijah Bagi: Scholar; lived at Constantinople in the first half of the seventeenth century. He is also called Aphida or Aphda (83x). He was the author of the following works: (1) “ Hilkot Shehi- tah,” ritual laws concerning slaughtering of animals; (2) “ Biur ‘Aseret ‘Ikkarim,” a commentary on the ten articles of belief of the Karaites; (8) “ Miktab Eli- yahu,” selections of literary essays, letters, and poems. ‘These three works are mentioned by Simha Luzki in his catalogue “ Orah Zaddikim.” Isaac Bagi: Crimean scholar; lived at the be- ginning of the seventeenth century. He is men- tioned by Luzki (/.c. 210). Joseph ben Moses ha-Kohen Bagi: Turkish scholar; lived at Constantinople at the end of the fif- teenth century and at the beginning of the sixteenth. He was the author of the following works men- tioned by Luzki: (1) “Kiryah Ne‘emanah” (Faith- ful City), an apology for Karaism, in refutation of the assertion of many Rabbinites that the Karaites are a remainder of the Sadducees; (2) “Iggeret ” (Let- ter), a decision on a marriage question; (8) “ Keter Kehuna” (Crown of Priesthood), six dissertations on various subjects; (4) “Shulhan Haberim ” (Table of 439 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Bagdad Baginsky, Benno Comrades), on the precepts; (5) “Safah Berurah ” (A Clear Language), a treatise on religious philosophy ; (6) “Iggeret Sukkah, ” on the question whether it is permitted to light fire in the booth. This question, which gave birth to many polemics, is decided by Joseph in the negative. Moses Bagi: Turkish scholar; lived at Constan- tinople in the beginning of the fifteenth century. The degree of relationship between Moses and Joseph is difficult to establish. First believes that he was the father of Joseph, and was consequently called Moses ben Judah; while Gottlober identifies him with Moses ben Benjamin, the author of many litur- gical poems, two of which are inserted in the Karaite prayer-book (ili. 267, 101 ed. Vienna). Moses was the author of two works: (1) “Ohel Mosheh” (The Tent of Moses), on the calendar; (2) “Mizwot Mosheh” (The Precepts of Moses), on the precepts contained in the Pentateuch. Samuel Bagi: Turkish scholar; lived at Con- stantinople in the first half of the seventeenth cen- tury. Steinschneider identifies him witha person of the sanie name mentioned in the “Iggeret Kelulah ” (MSS. “Leyden Cat.” p. 127). Samuel is also men- tioned by Samuel ben David in his relation of the voyage to Palestine which he made in 164~42 (com- pare Gurland, “Ginze Yisrael,” i. 29). BIBLIOGRAPHY: First, Geschichte des Karderthums, iii. 14; Gottlober, Bikoret le-Toledot ha-Karaim, p. 208; Jost, Geschichte des Judenthums und Seiner Secten, ii. 369; Gurland, Ginze Yisrael, i. 29; Neubauer, Aus der Peters- oe Bibliothek, p. 55; Steinschneider, Hebr. Bibl. xx. 94 G. I. Br. BAGINSKY, ADOLF ARON: German phy- sician, and professor of diseases of children in the Berlin University; born May 22, 1843, at Ratibor (Prussian Silesia). At the completion of his high- school education at the gymnasium of his native town (1861), he studied medicine in Berlin and Vienna. He was graduated from Berlin University in 1866, and in the same year accepted the position of private assistant to Doctor Traube at the cholera hospital in Berlin; and in 1868 moved to See- hausen, near Magdeburg, where he began his career as a practising physician. Two years later, how- ever, he accepted the post of chicf physician ina military hospital in Nordhausen, and at the close of the Franco-Prussian war returned to Berlin, where he practised medicine, at the same time pursuing anew the studies which had been interrupted under the pressure of practical work in different hospitals. In 1881 Baginsky was appointed privat-docent at the University of Berlin; and in 1892 promoted to an associate professorship at that institution. Baginsky has devoted himself to the treatment of children’s diseases. He is director of the Kaiser und Kaiserin Friedrich Kinderkrankenhaus, which he founded in Berlin with the assistance of Virchow in 1890. The Berlin Poliklinik fiir Kinderkrank- heiten was also established in the metropolis through his efforts. He is, moreover, the founder and editor- in-chief of the “ Archiv fiir Kinderheilkunde,” which he has published since 1880, in collaboration with Monti and Herz at Stuttgart. Besides being an active member of the majority of medical associa- tions in Berlin, he has taken a leading part in every movement toward promoting the welfare of children in the Prussian capital, and belongs to a number of medical societies, bothin Germany and abroad. His services have been repeatedly recognized alike by the Prussian and foreign governments, and he is the recipient of many orders and decorations. His nu- merous contributions to the science of medicine in- clude treatises on school-hygiene, “Handbuch der Schulhygiene, "Stuttgart, 1888; and on the cure of children’s diseases, “Lehrbuch der Kinderkrank- heiten,” Berlin, 1892 (these latter have been trans- lated into several languages); “Practische Beitriige zur Kinderheilkunde,” Tiibingen, 1880-84. All of these works have gone through several editions. Among his other writings, besides a great number of papers scattered through several medical jour- nails, may be mentioned: “ Pflege des Gesunden und Kranken Kindes,” Stuttgart, 1885; “Das Leben des Weibes,” 2b. 1885: “Kost- und Haltekinderpflege in Berlin,” Brunswick, 1886, etc. It may be added that Adolf Baginsky is a member of the several associations and committees formed in Berlin for the purpose of checking the anti-Semitic movement in Germany. He is also the author of an interesting essay entitled, “Die Hygienische Bedeu- tung der Moséischen Gesetzgebung, ” in which he comes forward as astanch defender and enthusiastic admirer of the hygienic laws of Moses. Notwith- standing his multifarious labors as author, editor, teacher, and practitioner, Baginsky takes active part in the social and religious life of the Jewish com- munity in Berlin. He was one of the opponents of the movement recently set on foot to hold Sunday services in the synagogues of that city. Baginsky is a member of the Imperial Leopoldina-Carolina Academy ; commander of the Spanish Order Isabella the Catholic; and was decorated with the Prussian Order of the Red Eagle, fourth class. BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Pagel, Biographisches Lexikon Hervorra- gender Aerzte des XTX. Jahrhunderts, s.v.; Richard Wrede, Das Geistige Bertin, vol. tit. s.c.; Werniech and Hirseh, Bibliographisehes Lexicon Hervorragender Aerzte aller Zeiten und Volker, s.v.; Archives of Palestine, x., New York, 1893; Brockhaus, Konversations-Lerikon, lith ed.; Meyer, Konversations-Levikon, 5th ed.; and private sources. s. A. 5. C. BAGINSKY, BENNO: German physician; born at Ratibor, Prussia, May 24, 1848; privat-docent of the diseases of the ear, nose, and larynx, at the University of Berlin; and honorary professor, He was graduated from the gymnasium in his native town and studied medicine in Berlin University, where he received his doctorate in 1870. The same year he entered the army medical service during the Franco-Prussian war, accompanying his regiment to France. At the end of the war Baginsky began the practise of medicine; but he soon specialized in the diseases of the ear, nose, and larynx, to which branches, since 1880, he has devoted himself entirely. Four years later he became docent of otology, rhi- nology, and laryngology, at the University of Berlin. In 1897 he was made honorary professor. Both in Germany and abroad Professor Baginsky by his scientific writings and lectures attained enti- nence in the profession as a specialist. He has con- tributed toa number of scientific publications of the best class, such as “Archiv ftir Mikroskopische Anatomie,” “ Archiv fiir Physiologie,” “Archiv fur Bagnol Bahia THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 440 Anatomie und Physiologie,” “ Archiv fitr Pathologie und Anatomie,” “Deutsche Medicinische Wochen- schrift,” “Archiv fir Obrenheilkunde,” “° Revue Nevrologique,” etc. He is also a collaborator of Eulenberg’s “ Encyclopedia of the Medical Sciences. ” His writings include a great variety of subjects, anatomical, physiological, and clinical, of which the following are the most important: “Syvphilitische Affectioncn der Extremititen und Schiidelknochen.” Berlin, 1870 (inaugural dissertation): “Dic Rhino- skopischen Untersuchungs- und = Opcerations-Me- thoden,” Berlin, 1878, in Volkmann’s “Sammlung Klinischer Vortrige”; “Ueber die Folgen von Drucksteigerung in der Paukenhohe und die Funk- tionen der Bogengiinge,” in “ Archiv fiir Physiolo- gie,” 1881, pp. 201-285; “Die Funktion der Gehor- schnecke,” in “Archiv Anat. und Physiol.” 1888, xciv. 61-65; “ Ueber den Ursprung und den Centralen Verlanf des Nervus Acusticus des Kaninchens.” in “ Archiv fiir Pathologie und Anatomie,” Berlin, 1886, pp. 28-46: “Ueber Untersuchungen des Kleinge- hirns,” in “ Archiv fiir Physiologie,” 1881, pp. 560- 566; “T6rsphire und Ohrenbewegungen,” in “ Ar- chives fiir Physiologie, 1892, pp. 227-285; “Zur Entwicklung der Gehdrschnecke,” in “Archiv fiir Mikroskopische Anatomie, 1886-87, xxviii. 14-37: “Ueber das Cholesteatom des Ohres,” in “ Ber- linische Klinische Wochenschrift,” 1894, xxxi. 598, 629; “Des Phénoméncs du Vertige dans les Lésions de l’Oreille,” in “Revue Nevrologique,” Paris, 188i. BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Pagel, Biographisches Levikon Hervor- rayender Aerzte des XIX. Jahrhunderts; Wrede, Das Geistige Berlin, vol. iii.; Hirsch, Hervorragende Aerzte Aller Zeiten und Volker, s.v. s. W. 5S. BAGNOL. Sec Levi B. GERSIION. BAGOAS: 1. General of the Persian king Arta- xerxes Ochus (3859-338 B.c.); is called “ Bagoses ” by Josephus (“ Ant.” xf. 7, § 1). He interfered in the Jewish party struggles, and forced an entrance into the sanctuary. 2. Eunuch of Herod the Great. He was implicated in a conspiracy against the life of Herod, instigated by four women in the royal palace and supported by the Pharisees. The Phar- isees predicted that Bagoas would be king of the Jews and that he would beget children in some won- derful manner. The conspiracy was discovered by Salome; and Herod, old and near his end, finding that his fears of assassination were not without foundation, had Bagoas executed (Josephus, “ Ant.” xvii. 2, § 4). According to the Mishnah (Yeb. viii. 4), a person born a eunuch had the power of heal- ing; and through this the above-mentioned story tindsconfirmation. Asa special instance, the Mish- nah mentions a certain Ben Megusat. of Jerusalem, who was, however, made a cunuech. As classical authors (Ovid, “ Amores,” ii. 2, 1; Pliny. “Historia Naturalis,” xiii. 4) use the word “bagoas” as the equivalent of “eunuch,” it may perbaps be as- sumed that the “ Mecusat ” of the Mishnali is a form of the same word. BIBLIOGRAPHY: He-Haluz, Schorr, viii. 118, x. 7; A. Geiger, in Jtid. Zeit. viii. 171: Krauss, Griechische und Latetnisehe Lehnworter, i. 259; see also Kohut, Fl. Josephus Jiidischer Krieg, p. 572, Linz, 1901, who refers to Isa. xvi. 3; Ndldeke, Persische Studien in Sitzungsberichte der Wiener Aka- demie, cxxvi. 28; and Justi, Jranisches Namenbuch, p. 58. G. S. Kr. BAGRATUNTI (also called Bagarat): The an- cestors of the Armenian-Georgian family of Bagra- tion, the first family entered in the list of the Russian nobility (published by Count Aleksandr Bobrinsky, under the title “Dvorvanskic Rody.” St. Petersburg, 1890), The Bagratians or Bagratun) claim to be descendants of King David of Isracl. Mases of Chorene wrote his “History of Armenia ” at the request of Isaac Bagration (Sahak Bagratuni) in the middle of the fifth century. Thishistorian gatb- ered his information from the Syrian historian Mar Abbas Katina, who, according to Emin, Jived about 150 B.c., and, according to others, in the third cen- tury c.E. Moses states that King Ifracheye (fierce eyes) joined Nebuchadnezzar in his first campaign against the Jews, and took part in the siege of Jeru- salem. From among the captives he selected the distinguished Jewish chief Shambat or Smbat (Sab- bat) and brought him with his family to Armenia, From this Shambat the Bagratuni claim descent; and “Smbat” often occurs as & prenomen in the family. Vaharsaces I. (2d century bB.c.) granted Shamba Bag- arat, lis counselor, “the mighty and wise man from among the Jews,” the hereditary office of placing the crown on the king’s head at the coronation. It is said that Bagarat with his regiments took part in the campaign of Vaharsaces against the Macedo- nians. When Vaharsaces built a temple in Arma- vira, he in vain requested the Jew Shamba Bagarat to renounce the Jewish faith and to worship the idols. ypy wmisy). Not so apt is its derivation from the phrase 4°38 spon’, “May our enemies depart!” pertaining to days of persecution (Tur and Shulhan ‘Aruk, Orah Hayyim, 583, 1). In Italy, beets are to-day still roasted in ovens or upon hot ashes, con. stituting the “barba di biesola” (Lenz. 446), con- cerning which Raphael Meldola gave his opinion in Pisa (“Mayyim Rabbim,” ii. 15, 17), as to whether they might be eaten when roasted by non-Jews. Beets are recommended as a remedy (Git. 69a, d; ‘Ab. Zarah 28); Ber. 570). R. Hanina b. Hama taught that the Babylonians were free from leprosy because they ate beets and drank a liquor made from lupins, or, according to R. Johanan, because they ate beets and drank this liquor and bathed in the Euphrates (Ket. 77; Bacher, “ Ag. Pal. Amor.” i. 8. note). Both Greek and Latin authors ascribe medicinal virtue to the Beet (Schuchardt, @. ¢. p. 58). BIBLIOGRAPHY : Low, Ar. Pflanzennamen, p. 273. J. JR. I. Lo. BEETH, LOLA: Austrian operatic singer; born Nov. 28, 1862, at Cracow, Galicia. The daughter of a well-to-do merchant, she spent her youth in tranquil prosperity; but her father’s subsequent failure in business impelled her to earn her own livelihood. She had received a good musical edu- cation at home, but at first her work was con- fined to the piano. Her patroness, Princess Sapi- eha, discovered her talent for singing and acting; and her training in these branches was continued at the school for singing conducted by Marie Luise Diistmann at Vienna. One year’s instruction under Mme. Viardot Garcia at Paris brought her art to such a state of perfection that she was able to appear as Elsa in “Lohengrin” at the Berlin Royal Opera on March 25, 1882. Her great success secured her position at the German capital, where she re- mained for six years, appearing in not less than thirty-six réles. On May 1, 1888, she connected herself with the Imperial Opera at Vienna, then directed by Jahn, and has since lived in that city. Beeth’s favorite parts are the difficult réles of the Waenerian heroines— Elizabeth and Venus in “Tann- hiuser,” Husa in “Lohengrin,” Séeglinde in the “ Wal- kiire.” Though she herself testified to the keen appreciation of her Vienna audiences, she has not confined her performances to that city, but has ap- peared at Berlin, Leipsic, Paris, and New York: and everywhere her great gifts have made a brilliant impression. O. F IG AOCAS CO © 5 wre See SO ). Ben Hé-Hé and Ben Bag-Bag may, therefore, be considered disciples of Hillel; or, as is even more likely, both names represent one and the same person. The peculiarity of these names may be explained by the following anecdote (Shab. 31a): Hillel once convinced a proselyte of the truth of the oral law by proving to him, in a lesson on the Hebrew alphabet, that even a knowledge of the phonetic value and of the order of the letters of the alphabet is not possible without a belief in their oral transmission from age toage. If this proselyte is identical with the disci- ple of Hillel quoted under the above pseudonyms, then the one name, “Ben Hé-ilé,” may have been chosen to indicate that “He” is always pronounced “Hé,” asthe tradition shows; and the other name, “Ben BG-BG,” to show that in the alphabet the sequence bet gimel is fixed by tradition. That Ben Hé-Héand Ben Bag-Bag are identical is appar- ently an old tradition, mentioned by Abraham Za- cuto in “ Yuhasin.” In Tos. to Hag. 9) Ben Bag-Bag and Ben Té- Hé are also considered to be proselytes, although thesymbolic meaning of their names is differently accounted for. Several halakic interpretations of Scriptural passages by Ben Bag-Bag have been trans- mitted: of Ex. xiii. 138 (Bek. 12a); of Ley. xix. 11 (Sifra, WKedoshim, ii. 2; Tosef., B. K. x. 38; Bab. B. K. 276); of Num, xxviii. 2 (Pes. 96a; Men. 49); ‘Ar. 18); anonymously stated in Sifre, Num. 142, and in the name of ‘Akiba in Meg, Ta‘anit i.); of Deut. xiv. 26 (Sifre, Deut. 107; ‘Er. 276). There isanother rabbi distinct from this elder Ben Bag-Bag who was never cited with a given name, He is Johanan ben Bag-Bag, possibly the son of the former. Nothing is known about him except that he sent to Nisibis a halakic question to Judah b. Betera, a contemporary of Akiba, who in his re- ply referred to Ben Bag-Bag as one noted for being “familiar with the chambers of the Law” (Tosef., Ket. v. 1; Yer. Ket. v. 29¢; Bab. Kid. 106; Sifre, Num. 117). J. SR. W. B. BEN-BATIAH: 1. A man, at the time of the teachers of the Mishnah (“‘Aruk,” 8.0. ®}99N), whose fist, being about the size of an adult’s head, was used as a standard of measurement (Kelim xvii.; Bek. 375; compare hip-bone of the giant king Og, Tosef., Oh. ixv. 4). 2. The son of the sister of Johanan b. Zak- kai, who, as one of the ringleaders of the Zealots, burned the granaries at Jerusalem in order that the Jews should have to fight more desperately (Lam. R. i. 5; Eeel. R. vii, 11; Yalk., Eecl. 975). In Git. 56a the name “ Abba Sakkara” (or, as others read, “ Abba Sikra ” = leader of the Sicarii) occurs. Many think that the two persons are identical (see ABBA SAKKARA, ATITRONGES). J. SR. S. Kr. BEN CHANANJA: 1. A periodical published by Leopold Léw at Leipsic in 1844 with the sub- title “ Blatter fir Israelitisch-Ungarische Angelegen- heiten.” It was an octavo containing sixty-four pages, including four introductory ones. 2. A periodical devoted to Jewish theology, also edited and published by Leopoid Léw, rabbi of © Ben Dama Ben Judah Szegedin, Hungary. It appeared at Szegedin from 1858 to 1867, covering ten volumes. Its form and subtitle underwent various changes: the first thee volumes were in octavo; the last seven, in quarto. The subtitle was at first “ Monatsschrift fiir Jiidische Theologie”; in the third volume it reads “Zeit- schrift,” ete. ; from the fourth to the ninth, “ Wochen- blatt,” etc., and from the thirty-eighth number of the ninth volume to the end of the tenth, “ Zeitschrift fiir Jiidische Theologie und fiir Jid. Leben in Ge- meinde, Synagoge, und Schule,” The ten volumes of this journal contain important information concerning the history of the Jews in Hungary during the period of its existence, espe- cially in relation to the Reform movement, in which its editor was heartily interested. Two supple- ments containing valuable contributions by eminent scholars appeared occasionally from 1866 to 1867, The one, a hoiniletic review, was entitled “ Homile- tische und Didaktische Beilage”; the other, for spe- cial scientific research, bore the title “ Forschungen des Wissenschaftlich-Talmudischen Vereins.” A separate treatise, “Der Judenecid Betrachtet vom Mosaisch - Religidsem und Humanitiirem Stand- punkte,” by I. C. Soppron, was attached to vol. vii. An index to both supplements was prefixed to the tenth volume. Among notable coutributors were N. Brill, Carmoly, Criezenach, Dukes, Jost, Kohut, Munk, Neubauer, and other able scholars. The erudite articles contributed by the editor to the magazine throughout its course were reissued in his “Gesammelte Schriften,” edited by his son, Im- manuel Low, chief rabbi of Szegedin. , BIBLIOGRAPHY: M. Roest, Catalog der Hebraica und Judaica ie ae LL. Rosentha’schen Bibliothek, i. 141-742, Amster- am, io. G. G. A. K. BEN DAMA (or DAMAH; full name, ELEAZAR B. DAMA[H]): Tanna of the begin- ning of the second century; a nephew of ISHMAEL B. ELIsHA. His inclination toward Hellenism and the Judexo-Christians contrasted with the attitude of his uncle, whom he once asked if he should study “Greek Wisdom,” since he had finished the study of the Torah. The answer of Ishmael was: “Study the Torah day and night and ‘Greek Wisdom’ when it is neither day nor night.” Ben Dama died of a snake’s bite, and the following account is given of his last moments: Jacob of Kefar Sama (Sakonya), a Judseo-Chris- tian, wanted to charm away the deadly effects of the bite by formulas in the name of Jesus; but Ish- mael did not believe in such charms and would not allow him to come in. Just as Ben Dama es- sayed to prove to his uncle that there could be no objection to the cure from a Jewish standpoint, he died, and Ishmacl exclaimed, “God has shown thee mercy in that thou didst depart in peace and didst not transgress the law of the sages” (Tosef., Hul. ii. 22,23; ‘Ab. Zarah 27); Yer. ‘Ab. Zarah ii. 40d). It is not improbable that Ben Dama’s inclination toward the Judsxo-Christians was the reason that nothing written by him was transmitted either by the Halakah or by the Haggadah, and that neither the Babylonian nor the Palestinian Talmud gives him the title “ Rabbi.” His title and full name have THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 674 been preserved by the Tosefta (Hul. 7.c.), which contains a halakic controversy between Ben Dama and Ishmael (Sheb. iii, 4). BIBLIOGRAPHY : Heilprin, Seder ha-Dorot, ed. Warsaw, 1882, ii. 84; Gratz, Gesch. der Juden, 3d ed., iv. 81. L« K . G. BEN DAVID. Sce MEsstau. BEN-DAVID, ABRAHAM: Chief rabbi of Serres, European Turkey, for 16 years (1825-41); born 1788, died 1841; author of a volume of respon- sa, “ Tiferet Adam” (Man’s Beauty), Salonica, 1861. 8. M. Fr. BEN-DEKAR: Commissariat officer of Solomon, whose district in northern Dan iucluded Makaz, Shaalbim, Beth-shemesh, and Elon - Beth - hanan (I Kings iv. 9). J. JR. G. B. LL. BEN DURAND: Diplomat and intermediary between Abd-el-Kader and the French government; died at Algiers in September, 1839. Clauzel and Valée, French governors of Algeria, also availed themselves of his services. 8. M. K. BEN ELASAH: A rich and prominent Pales- tinian of about the middle of the second century, He was the son-in-law of R. Judah ha-Nasi I., and is chiefly known in the Talmud as having been made a butt of on various occasions by Bar Kap- para (Ned. 51a; Yer. M. K. iii. 81ce). It was also said that Ben Elasah paid a large sum of money to a barber to have his hair cut after the fashion of the high priests (Ned. é@¢.; Sanh. 223). From these stories it appears that Ben Elasah was merely a rich man; and it is highly improbable that he was identical, as Heilprin asserts, with the R. Elasah mentioned in Midr. Teh. ix., where the following conversation is reported as having taken place be- tween R. Elasah and a philosopher: “The philosopher asks the rabbi when the prediction of the prophet Malachi (i. 4), that the Edomites would build in vain, wonld be fulfilled: to which Ben Elasah replies that he inter- preted the passage to mean that the evil intents of Edom [Rome] against the Jews are frustrated by Providence. The philoso- pher thereupon admits that the Romans annually plan to destroy Israel, but that ‘an aged one’ [a wise counselor] always comes to defeat their counsels.’”? [Compare Pes. 78); ‘Ab. Zarah 10D]. The last words are very obscure and possibly con- tain an allusion to Antoninus, a contemporaneous emperor, whose friendship for the Jewsis a frequent topic in Talmudic legends (see ANTONINUS IN THE Tautmcup). Assuming this to be true, there would be some, but by no means conclusive, reason for the identification of R. Elasah with Ben Elasah. BIBLIOGRAPHY : Heilprin, Seder ha-Dorot, ed. Maskileison, ii. 40. J. SR. L. G. BEN ELIEZER. See BeEnruany, V. L. BEN-EZRA, SOLOMON: Chief rabbi of the Jewish community of Smyrna, Asia Minor, in the second half of the eighteenth century, having suc- ceeded his father, Abraham Ben-Ezra; died in 1782. He was the author of a series of Hebrew sermons, “Yad Shelomoh” (The Hand of Solomon), Salonica, 1826, and of two other works, “ Bet-Metabahia ” (The Slaughter-House) and “ Bet-Abtinas ” (The House of Abtinas). s. M. FR. 675 BEN-HADAD.— Biblical Data: A name that would seem to mean simply “the son of Hadad,” a well-known appellation of an Aramean and perhaps also of ar. Edomiie deity (see Hapap). As found in the Old Testament, the name is applied to at least two distinct kings of Damascus; some ex positors, however, say three. Of these, Ben-hadad I., son of Tabrimon, son of Hezion, was subsidized by Asa of Judah to aid him in his attack on Baasha of Israel while the latter was building the fortress of Ramah (I Kings xv. 18; If Chron. xvi. 2). The allies suc- ceeded in their campaign; and Asa, removing the building material of Ramah, constructed with it Geba and Mizpah. Ben-hadad engaged later in a war with Ahab and unsuccessfully besieged Samaria (I Kings xx. 12; see Anan). The campaign re- sulted happily for Israel, as the Syrian was over- whelmed at Aphek, in spite of his numerous allies. On his attacking Samaria again, his army fled with- out giving battle, owing to a rumor that the king of Israel had entered into an alliance with the Hit- tites and Egyptians (II Kings vii. 6, 7). The relations between Ben-hadad and the Assyr- ian king Shalmaneser HH. are very clear. The Syrian forces were utterly defeated at Karkar on the Orontes in 858 B.C., inspite of the enormous armament which the Damascene had brought to his aid. Ben-hadad The inscriptions of Shalmanescr in one and Shal- passage give the number of the slain maneser. as 20,500. With 120,000 men in 845 B.C. Shalmaneser again entered Syria and overthrew Ben-hadad and a large army of allies. According to II Kings viii. 7-15, Ben-hadad fell ill and sent Hazael to the prophet Elisha—who was then in Damascus—in order to inquire whether he would recover. Elisha prophesied that Hazael would be king in Ben-hadad’s stead and would do much evil to Israel. On Hazael’sreturn to his mas- ter he smothered Ben-hadad with a wet cloth and declared himself king (see HazarEL), When, in 841, the Assyrian king once more encountered the forees of Damascus, his chief foe was Hazael, who, it is known, was Ben-hadad’s successor, so that the lat- ter must have died between 845 and 841 B.c. Some expositors deny the necessity of assuming that the events just described should be divided be- tween two kings named Ben-hadad, on the ground that the period between Ben-hadad’s alliance with Asa and Ben-hadad’s death—which, as just shown, could not have been earlier than 845—is too long for the reign of one king. It is suggested, in answer to this, that Tabrimon, the father of Ben-hadad, may have been contemporaneous With Baasha and Asa for a long time, so that really not more than forty years need have passed between Ben-hadad’s al- liance with Asa and the death of the former. The son of Hazael also is called “ Ben-hadad ” in II Kings xiii, 24, 25, where he is mentioned as an oppressor of Israel and as a contem- Hazael porary of Jehoahaz ben Jehu (814-798 Ben-hadad. B.c.). Joash of Israel met and de- feated this king three times and recov- ered from him a number of cities. This Ben-hadad II. is probably the same as “Mari” alluded to in Rawlinson, “Cuneiform Inscriptions of Western Asia,” i. pl. 35, No. 1, 1. 15, as resisting Ramman- THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Ben Dama Ben Judah nirari IIT. between 826 and 808. The Assvrian form “Mari” may possibly be an attempt to reproduce the Aramaic title “Maré” (lord, possessor) which may have been applied as a subsidiary name or title of tonor to this king. This is Schrader’s view (“C. 1. O. T.” p. 212) and appears the most reason- able, but Cheyne suggests that “ Mari” was the cor- rect name of the king as against “ Ben-hadad.” The name “ Ben-hadad” in the late passage, Jer. xlix. 27, is not a general term for the kings of Da- mascus, but is simply an allusion to Ben-hadad L., son of Tabrimon, and not to Ben-hadad II., son of Hazael. The passage in Jeremiah is probably bor- rowed from Amos i. 4. J. IR. J. D. P. In Rabbinical Literature: When Ben -hadad demanded that Ahab should surrender, in addition to his gold, silver, wives, and children, also 379M bs. yxy (“whatsoever is pleasant in thine eyes”) (I Kings xx. 6), the haggadists affirm that he meant by this expression the sacred scroll of the Torah, which the Syrian king wanted to take away from Ahab. Although a sinful king, Ahab would not be responsible for such an act, but convoked the elders, who advised him to refuse compliance with the wish of Ben-hadad. Asa reward for thus honoring the Torah, it was granted to Ahab to reign for twenty- two years (as the Torah is written with an alphabet of twenty-two letters) and to conquer Ben-hadad (Tan., Shemot, 29; ed. Buber, 26; Ex. R. iii. 8; Sanh. 102d). J.SR. L. G. BEN HE HE. Sce Ben Bac-Baa. BEN-HESED: Commissariat officer of Solomon with residence in Aruboth in Judah (I Kings iv. 10, R. V.). Hisdistrict was Hepherand Sochoh. There being several places of the name “Sochoh,” it is not easy to decide which one is meant. The context speaks in favor of the one near Hebron (Josh. xv. 48). J. JR. BEN HINNOM. See GEHINNOM. BEN-HUR: Commissariat officer of Solomon “in the hill country of Ephraim” (I Kings iv. 8, R. V.). J. JR. G. B. L. BEN JUDAH, ELIEZER: Palestinian editor; born at Luzhky, government of Wilna, Jan. 7, 1858; son of Judah Perlman —hence his name “Ben Judah.” He received his early Talmudic education at the yeshibah of Rabbi Joseph Bliicker at Polotzk, afterward was graduated from the gymnasium of Dvinsk (Diinaburg), and later went to Paris to study medicine. He married in Vienna, and settled in Jerusalem, 1881, where he has resided ever since. After three years of hard study in the medical col- lege at Paris, Ben Judah developed symptoms of consumption, and his physician ordered him to the warmer climate of Algeria. The national idea of the Zionist movement then absorbed all his thoughts. He wrote a letter, dated Algiers, Dec. 21, 1880, to the “ Ha-Shahar,” expounding his political views on Zionism, and taking exception to those of the editor, P. Smolensky, on the Jewish problem; namely, that Jews can foster their national spirit and the Hebrew G. B. L. Ben Judah Ben Naphtali THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 676 language in other countries than Palestine. Ben Judah declares that it is only possible to revive the study of Hebrew as a living tongue in a country al- most entirely inhabited by Jews. In the same strain he wrote in the “ Habazelet,” a weekly paper edited in Jerusalem by Frumkin, with whom Ben Judah made arrangements to become assistant editor. In one article he bitterly com- plains of the Alliance Israélite Uni- verselle for encouraging and _assist- ing Russian-Jewish emigration to America, which he calls the final burial-place of Judaism (“ Habaze- let,” 1882, xiv., No. 2). After his arrival in Jerusa- lem Ben Judah met Michel Pinnes, an ardent Zion- ist and Hebrew scholar, in whom he found a fellow- enthusiast of his scheme to make the Hebrew a living language. He made it the language of his house- hold. The example he set was soon followed by the colonists in Palestine, and has been successfully in- troduced in many of the Alliance schools. In 1884 Ben Judah began to edit and publish the monthly supplement to the “Habazelet,” called ““Mebasseret Zion”; but it did not long survive, as his new doctrines were out of harmony with the views of the editor-in-chief of the journal. Ben Judah made futile attempts to obtain from the government a firman to publish a Hebrew paper of his own, and at last he succeeded in making use of Hirshenson’s firman, and commenced Is Assist- ant Editor of ‘‘Haba- zelet.’’ Es- to publish “Ha-Zebi.” His first ef- tablishes fort was to promote the circulation of ‘* Ha- the new paper among the poor, who Zebi.” could ill afford to purchase the high- priced “Habazelet.” The first issue (1885) was a four-page quarto and was sold for a quarter-piaster (one cent) in the streets of Jerusalem. The paper contained a summary of general news and particularly Jewish topics. The editor’s princi- pal object, however, was to propagate the settle- ment of the Holy Land by the persecuted Russian . Jews. He also endeavored to counteract the zeal of the English missionaries in promoting Christian- ity among the Jews in Palestine; and to this end he helped to organize the society called “‘* Ezrat Neda- him.” He combated the system of the HALUKKAH, which gave support to the idle poor in preference to the industrious colonists. These attacks naturally called forth strong oppo- sition from all sides; the Halukah faction nick- naming him “the leader of the Philistines.” At length his enemies succeeded in their machinations. The pasha suspended the paper for ‘¢Ha-Zebi” a time and ordered the arrest of its Suspended; editor. Even the colonists accused Ben Judah Ben Judah of being prejudiced against Arrested. them, owing to his connection with the Rothschild administration, which subsidized his paper. Ben Judah may be regarded as the originator of the modern type of New Hebrew, which he claims is a necessity for the regenerated nation. Most of his new vocabulary is coined either from the Talmudic literature or from the Arabic, such as: “ penknife” = aby, “buckle” = pfax, “sympathy” = AIAN, “re- flection” = 1393. His adoption of the era from the destruction of Jerusalem, by which he dates all his writings, is not altogether new. See Responsa, * Benjamin Ze’eb,” § 50, p. 104+, Venice, 1539. Ben Judah’s works are: (1) “ Erez Yisrael” (The Land of Israel), a physical and geographical descrip- tion, Jerusalem, 1883; (2) (jointly with Beer Lip- schtitz) * We- Yada‘ta ha- Yom “(And Know To-day), wu Hebrew calendar for the year 5644 (1884) with Jewish historical notes, Jerusalem, 1883; (8) (with D. Jellin) “ Ha-Mikra le-Yalde Yisrael,” a reader for Jewish children, with notes, 2 vols., Jerusalem, 1889; (4) “ Kizzur Dibre ha- Yamim, etc.,” an abridged history of the Jews during their national existence in the Holy Land, 2d ed., Jerusalem, 1894; (5) “Milon Kelali,” unabridged Hebrew dictionary, with French and German translation, including all New Hebrew words, pts. i. ii., published Jerusalem, 1896-1900. BIBLIOGRAPHY: N. Sokolow, Sefer Zikkaron, pp. 188-192, Warsaw, 1889; Ha-‘lbri, 1894, iv., Nos. 14-16, copied from Sokolow, with the addition of Ben.Judah’s portrait. D. J. D. E. BEN KAFRON or IBN CAPRON: Oncofthe three disciples of Menahem ben Saruk (last third of tenth century) who defended the honor of their teacher against his critic, Dunash ben Labrat. Ju- dah ben Sheshet, a disciple of Dunash, wrote a vio- lent polemic against this controversial treatise of the disciples of Menahem, in which he mentions the authors of the treatise by name, and among them mentions Ben Kafron. Moses ibn Ezra also speaks of an Isaac ibn Kafron (Geiger, “ Jiid. Zeitschrift,” i. 238), who doubtless is identical with the Ben Kaf- ron of Judah ben Sheshet’s polemic. The name is derived from the Latin caper, goat; and Judah b. Sheshet continually and tauntingly alludes to this name of his opponent. For the polemic of Mena- hein’s disciples, of which Ben Kafron was joint au- thor, and which was printed by 8. G. Stern at the same time as the refutation of Judah ben Sheshet (“Liber Responsionum,” Vienna, J870), see MEena- HEM. qu. G. W. B. BEN KALBA SABBUAS‘: A rich and promi- nent man of Jerusalem who flourished about the year 70. According to the Talmud (Git. 56a), he ob- tained his name from the fact that any one that came | to his house hungry as a dog (Kalba), went away satisfied (Sabbua‘). He was one of the three rich men of Jerusalem (the other two being Nakdimon ben Goryon and Ben Zizit ha-Keset), each of whom had in his storehouses enough to provide the be- sieged city with all the necessaries of life for ten years. Butas these three favored peace with Rome, the Zealots burned their hoards of grain, oil, and wood, thus causing a dreadful famine in Jerusalem (Git. ¢b.; Lam. R. i. 5; Eccl. R. vii. 11; Ab. R. N., ed. Schechter, vi. 31, 32, in which Ben Kalba Sab- bua‘’s wealth is described as still greater). Although the details of this account are hardly supported by historical evidence, there is no reason to doubt the existence of the three rich men. But the account in the Babylonian Talmud, according to which Akiba ben Joseph was the son-in-law of Ben Kalba Sabbu‘a, is probably without any histor- 677 ical foundation; nor is there any reference to it in the Palestinian sources. It tells of the secret mar- riage of Ben Kalba’s daughter; that she was turned away by her father; and that he finally became rec- onciled to her (Ned. 50a; Ket. 620 e¢ seqg.). Compare AKIBA IN LEGEND. A grave, alleged to be that of Ben Kalba Sabbua‘, to which the Jews pay great respect, is pointed out about half a mile north of Jerusalem. It is men- tioned by Benjamin b. Elijah, a Karaite who trav- eled in Palestine (compare T. Gurland, “Ginze Yis- rael,” i. 58). Recent excavations show that there actually are graves on this spot; but the statement that an inscription bearing Ben Kalba Sabbua'’s name was found there has not been proved (Gur- land, 7b. p. 68; “Ha-Maggid,” viii. 28). BIBLIOGRAPHY : Derenbourg, Essai sur Histoire de la Pales- tine, p. 281, note; Gritz, Gesch. der Juden, 3d ed., iii. 527, 528; Luncz, Jerusalem, pp. 92, 98. L. G. J. SR. BEN KOSIBA. Sce Bar KogBa. BEN LA‘ANAH: Author of an apocryphal book. The name occurs only once in Yer. (Sanh. x. 28a), where it is said that among the apocryphal books (“ sefarim ha-hizonim”) mentioned in the Mish- nah (Sanh. x. 1) as forbidden to be read, the works of Ben Sira and of Ben-La‘anah are included. “Ben Tagla,” in Eccl. R. xii. 12, is probably only a variant of Ben-La‘anah, since this Midrashic passage is taken from the Jerusalem Talmud. An author at the beginning of the sixteenth century writes the name “Ben Ya‘anah” (73°), remarking that he has the latter’s apocryphal works before him, and finds them full of riddles [fables] and stupidities (David ben Judah, Messer Leon’s manuscript commentary on “ Moreb,” in Steinschneider, “ Hebr. Bibl.” vii.65). It may be inferred from the above-mentioned pas- sage of the Talmud that Ben-La‘anah’s work was not reckoned among the profane books, but was, like the book of Ben Sira, included by some authorities in the Scripture, and that for this reason the Mishnah protested against reading it, or, more correctly, against including it in thecanon (compare AKIBA B. JOSEPH). M. Joel thinks that this apocryphal book was apocalyptic in nature, whence the name “ Ben- Tagla” (from “galah,” to reveal), and that Ben- La‘anah characterized it as a work in which the word “wormwood ” mpd (= “La‘anah ”) played an im- portant réle. Fiirst, on the other hand, who emends the text of the Jerusalem Talmud, takes “Ben- La‘anah” to be a corruption of “ Apollonius,” that is, of Tyana, the well-known pagan philosopher, and identifies Ben-Tagla with Empedocles. Perles takes “Ben-Ta‘ala” to be the original form, from which the corruptions “Ben-Tagla” and “Ben- La‘anah” arose. But “Ben-Ta‘ala” means “the fox”: hence the book of Ben-Ta‘ala would corre- spond to “ Mishle Shu‘alim ” (The Fables of the Fox), which are also mentioned in Jewish sources. These are only a few examples of the various etymological explanations to which the names “Ben-La‘anah” and “Ben-Tagla” have given rise. BIBLIOGRAPHY: First, Canon des Alten Testaments, pp. 9¢- 99; Joel, Blicke in die Religionsphilasophie, i. 75; Kaut- mend, in Revue Etudes Juives, iv. 161; Perles, ib. iii. 116- J. SR. L. G. THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Ben Judah Ben Naphtali BEN LEB B. ZADIK. See Hasiprm. BEN MEIR: Palestinian nasi in the first half of the tenth century. His name was brought to light some twenty years ago by several fragments discovered in various genizoth. The fragments contain an account of a controversy on the calendar between Ben Meir and the academies of Babylon. Introducing a new rule in the fixation of the “Molad” of Tishri, Ben Meir had decreed that, in the year 922, Passover and the other Jewish feasts should be celebrated two days before the date pre- scribed by the traditional calendar. Saadia, who was at that time staying at Bagdad, joined his pro- test to that of the Babylonian academies. Ben Meir, however, refused to yield to their injunctions, denying them any authority in astronomical matters ; and, owing to his own reputation and that of his family, won the confidence of Jews in many coun- tries. A letter was then addressed by the exilarch David ben Zakkai and the Babylonian notables to Ben Meir, imploring him not to cause a schism and showing him the fallacy of his calculations with regard to the calendar. Ben Meir answered in an arrogant fashion, and was then excommunicated by David ben Zakkai and the academies. Circular let- ters were also sent to various parts of the world, warning the Jews against Ben Meir’s teachings. In this manner an end was made of this agitation. Such are the facts of this affair, which remained unknown to the Jewish historians until the present time. The aim pursued by Ben Meir in this agita- tion is obvious. He conceived the project of trans- ferring the dignity of the exilarch from Babylonia back to Palestine, and he endeavored to deprive the exilarchate of one of its most important prerog- atives, which was the calculation of the calendar. The moment chosen by Ben Meir was very propi- tious. The exilarch David ben Zakkai had no authority, being neither a leammed man nora very scrupulous one; and of the two academies at Sura and Pumbedita, the former had no head, and the latter was directed by the ambitious Cohen Zedek. Ben Meir’s failure was chiefly due to the interven- tion of Saadia, whose opinion on the subject of dis- cussion, expounded in his “ Sefer ha-Mo‘adim ” writ- ten for that occasion at the request of the exilarch, became authority. The exilarch later rewarded for the services rendered to him by Saadia by appoint- ing the latter gaon at Sura, notwithstanding the disinterested advice to the contrary by Nissim Na- harwani, who, knowing Saadia’s impartiality and uprightness, foresaw the collisions that could not fail to occur between the gaon and the unscrupu- lous exilarch David ben Zakkai. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Harkavy, Zikaron b. Rishonim, v., part i., p. 212; Neubauer, in Jew. Quart. Rev. ix. 36: Poznanski, ib. x. 152; Israel Levi, in Revue Ktudes Juives, xl. 261; E. N. Adler, I. Broydé, and Israel Levi, tb. xli. 224; Epstein, ib. xlii. 173 et seq. I. Br. BEN MELAK. See SoLomon 18x MELEK. BEN NAPHTALI: Masorite; flourished about. 890-940 c.E., probably in Tiberias. Of his life little is known. His first name is in dispute. Some me- dieval authorities called him “Jacob”; two Tchufut- Kalé manuscripts have “Moses b. David”; a third Ben Naphtali Ben Sira contains his autoepigraph, which unfortunately is incomplete, only “Ben David ben Naphtali” re- maining. Ben Naphtali wrote a Bible with vowels, accents, and Masorah, wherein he differed in some respects from his contemporary and rival, AARON B. MosgEs BEN ASHER... This Bible codex has not been pre- served, but the differences between its author and Ben Asher are found in more or less complete Maso- retic lists and in quotations in David Kimhi, Noyzi, and other medieval writers. These lists are printed in the rabbinical Bibles, in the texts of Baer-De- litzsch and of Ginsburg, and in the latter’s Masorah, vol. iii. The differences between Ben Naphtali and Ben Asher number about 875, nine-tenths of which refer to the placing of the accents 477) and N'Ya. The remaining ones have reference to van and %57; to vowels, accents, and consonantal spelling. The vari- ations may be classified as follows, Ben Asher being referred to as B. A. and Ben Naphtali as B. N.: (1) The proper name 75wy" constitutes the first point of difference. B. A. vocalizes Differences it 73¥", B. N. has 72". For the Between reading of B. N. in this case, various the Two. sources give different accounts. (2) Certain forms of the verb S5b {“to eat”). According to B. A., wherever a form of this verb occurs with a suffix and the $ has “ segol,” the 5 has “hatef-patah,” except in one instance (Eccl. v. 10); whereas B. N. always points it with simple “sheva.” (3) Some forms of the verb wg (“to driveaway”). Wherever the forms of this verb occur with a suffix and the yw has segol, B. A. points the 5 with hatef-patah, with the exception of ww") (Ps. XXxiv. 1), where the yw has “sere”: while B. N. al- Ways points the 4 with simple sheva. (4) The “dagesh” in the f, in the forms of the word D°72, when it has two accents. According to B. A., this word has extra dagesh only in two instances (Deut. vi. 11; I Chron. xxviii. 11); accord- ing to B. N., there are more instances where it has two accents and has the extra dagesh in the 7; viz., Ex. ti. 7, vii. 7; Deut. vi. 11; I Chron. xxviii. 11; It Chron. xxxiv, 11. The term “extra dagesh” probably means “dagesh forte,” as both consider the dagesh in the word OS, whenever it has only one accent, as a “dagesh lene.” (5) The prefixes 3 and 5, with a° having the vowel 7. To B. A. this pre- fix takes sheva and the * retains its vowel. Thus he would vocalize Ste, DNA. B. N, asserts that the prefix takes the vowel of the * and the latter loses its consonantal force; ¢.9., Ss, Sens, a feature analogous to the usage of the Sy riac lan- guage. As this is also the method of the Easterns (compare Masorag), the statement of E. Levita is confirmed that the Westerns follow B. A. and the Easterns B. N. (6) The presence or absence of the dagesh in the letters MH5I359 under certain conditions. (7) Individual cases of orthography and textual readings; e.g., B. A. reads TI" (I Kings iii. 20), ‘B. N. spells TU ; B. A. reads Jy (Isa. xxx. 28), in words which begin THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 678 B. N. Tyas; B. A. ADow Ann (Ez. xiv. 16), B. N. MIT TNODe. The differences between the two Masorites do not represent solely personal opinions; the two rivals represent different schools. Like the Relation of Ben Ashers there seem to have been Both several Ben Naphtalis. The state- to Received mentof E. Levita (“ Mas. ha-Masoret,” Text. ed. Ginsburg, p. 144), that the West- erns follow Ben Asher, and the East- erns Ben Naphtali, is not without many exceptions. Thus, for instance, in the difference concerning I Kings iii. 20(see above, No. 7), the Westerns are said to agree with Ben Naphtali, while the Easterns fol- low Ben Asher. The rule of Ben Naphtali given under No. 5 is followed in all MSS. and printed edi- tions, in the words yap. (Ps. xlv. 10) and nap (Prov. xxx. 17), ete. The Masoretic lists often do not agree on the precise nature of the differences between the two rival authorities; it is, therefore, impossible to define with exactness their differences in every case; and it is probably due to this fact that the received text does not follow uniformly the system of either Ben Asher or Ben Naphtali. The attempt is likewise futile to describe the one codex as Western or Eastern. BIBLIOGRAPHY : Dikduke ha-Te‘amim, ed. Baer and Strack, p. 11; Harris, Jew. Quart.’ Rev. i. 250; Ginsburg, Intro- duction to the Masoretico-Critical Edition of the Hebrew Bible, pp. 241 et seq. C. L. L. G. BEN NAZAR. Sce ODENATHUS. BEN-ONTI (“child of my affliction ”): A play upon the name “Benjamin.” According to Gen. xxxv. 18, it was the name given by the dying Rachel to her son Benjamin. See BENJAMIN. J. dR. G. B. L. BEN PORATH. See MANASSEH BEN JOSEPH OF ILYE. BEN SIRA, ALPHABET OF (xaby ap NVD jat NXn‘2): A small book containing a double list of proverbs—twenty-two Aramaic and twenty- two Hebrew—alphabetically arranged, and a hag- gadic commentary on them, cnriched with fables and legends. Corresponding to their linguistic dif- ference, there are differences in their contents and origin; consequently the two collections must be treated separately. Following is a list of the Ara- maic proverbs, concerning only four of which defi- nite statements of origin can be made: 1. “Honor the physician before thou hast need of him ” (see Ecelus, [Sirach] xxxviii. 1: cited also in the rabbinical sources as a genuine saying of Ben Sira; compare Schechter, in ‘' Jew- ish Quarterly Review,” iif. 694, 703). 2. “If a son do not conduct himself like a son, let him float on the water.”” This means “‘deliver him up to bis own fate.” For another explanation, see Reifmann, in ‘* Ha-Karmel,”’ ii 126, 3. “*Gnaw the bone that falls to thy lot whether it be good or bad.” 4. “Gold must be hammered, and the child must be beaten.” 5. “ Be good and refuse not thy portion of good.”’ 6. “Wo to the wicked man and wo to his companions.” This proverb is frequently cited in rabbinical literature; com- pare Dukes. “*Rabbinische Blumenlese,” p. 91. +. “Cast thy bread upon the waters and upon the land, for thou shalt find it after many days” (Eccl. xi. 1, with the addi- tion of the word SOv'23°31, * and upon the land ’’). 679 8. “* Hast thou seen a black ass? [Then] it was neither black nor white.” (Addressed to a confirmed liar whose very state- ment is a proof against itself.) [Cowley and Neubauer, p. 29, read: *‘ Hast thou seeu white and black ?7"] 9. “* Bestow no good upon that which is evil, and no evil will befall thee.”” The rabbinical sources characterize this as a say- ing of Ben Sira, though it does not occur in Fcclesiasticus [it is a slight scribal variation of Ben Sira, vii. 1]: compare Schechter, ib. pp. 694, 708; Cowley and Neubauer, “The Original Hebrew of a Portion of Ecclesiasticus,” Introduction, p. xx. 10. “Restrain not thy hand from doing good.” According to the MS. reading in Cowley and Neubauer (ib. p. 29), the prov- erb runs, ** Never restrain thy hand from chastising a child.” 11. ** The bride enters the bridal chamber and, nevertheless, knows not what will befall her.” 12, “A nod to the wise is sufficient ; the fool requires a blow.” This is cited as a maxim in Prov. R. xxii. 15. 13. “* He who honors them that despise him is like an ass.” 14. “A fire, When it is kindled [Neubauer, ib., suggests sobn, “little”? instead of ps3 “kindled ’’], burns many sheaves” (compare James iii. 5). As. ** An old woman in the house isa good omen in the house” (Ar. 19a, according to which x39 in the present passage is the status absolutus of snap, and is to be translated by “old woman”; compare Rashi on Lev. xxvii. 7). 16. ** Even a good surety has to be applied to for a hundred morrows ; & bad one for a hundred thousand.”’ 17. “ Rise quickly from the table and thou wilt avoid dis- putes.”” 18. “In thy business deal only with the upright.” 19. “If the goods are near at hand, the owner consumes them ; but if they are at a distance, they consume him.” 20. “Do not disavow an old friend.” 21. “Thou mayest have sixty counselors, but do not give up thy own opinion ” (Eeclus. [Sirach] vi. 6; compare Cowley and Nenbauer, tb. p, 20). 22. “He that was first satisfied and then hungry will offer thee his hand; but not he that was first hungry and then satis- fied.’ For the proper reading and signification of this proverb see below. The parallel citations from rabbinical literature show that only five of these twenty-two proverbs are known to Talmudic-Midrashic literature; conse- quently they can not be regarded as being drawn from it. It is noteworthy that two of them, Nos. 17 and 22, agree almost literally with Origin of two of AHTKAR’s proverbs, Nos. 48 the and 71 (in the Syriac). A compari- Proverbs. son reveals the fact that No. 17 is to be read NMMSH YD sNN| AWB, in which the four 5’s make a paronomasia. Similarly No. 22 of the Alphabet shows that the manuscript reading of No. 71 of Ahikar is correct in omit- ting 5, “not.” The meaning of No. 22 is that one grown suddenly rich is accustomed to the niggardly ways of his poverty, and is not free in giving; but a rich man grown poor will remain true to habits of generosity. Since the book of Ahtkar is very probably de- rived from Jewish sources, its agreement with the proverbs of Ben Sira is not particularly remarkable ; for although Ben Sira is not the real author of the Alphabet, the proverbs are undoubtedly olden cur- rent Jewishadages. This isevident especially from the language in which they are written, which is far from being a learned imitation of a later style, but is of archaic Aramaic character. As Aramaic rendi- tions of the real Ben Sira (compare Zunz, “G. V.” 2d ed., p. 110) existed at the time of the Amoraim, and probably earlier, it is possible that the Alphabet may have sprung from an Aramaic collection; that is, a later author may have made an alphabetical list of proverbs from the many genuine and spurious sayings of Ben Sira. THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Ben Naphtali Ben Sira The accompanying Hebrew commentary, which explains every proverb, and illustrates its correct- ness with legends and tales, is much more recent. It is true that, with the exception of the mythical Uzziel and Joseph (p. 8 has R. Jose, probably the same as Joseph), the son and the grandson of Ben Sira (compare JOSEPH BEN U2ZZIEL), no authorities are cited by name; yet there is no doubt that the commentary availed itself of the Talmud and the Midrashim. Thus the commentary begins with a citation from Sanh. 444; and the whole section following is but an elaboration of this Talmudic pas- The Com- sage and of B. B. 1218. More than a mentary. dozen such citations can be pointed out. An especially interesting fact concerning the commentary is that it combines the fable told in Eccl. R. (v. 8) of the lion and the grass that revives the dead (on Nos. 7,9; ed. Venice, pp. 5b, 7), with a totally distinct one. The author in- deed betrays a general inclination to give stories from the Talmud and the Midrash in a modified form, which, no doubt, in many cases was that current among the people. Moreover, the author in all like- lihood drew upon Midrashic sources now unknown ; and this would account for many differences be- tween the Haggadah in its present form and the Hag- gadah of the Alphabet. It is impossible to determine the date at which the commentary was written, but it was probably about 1000, the end of the gaonic period. Concerning the locality of its composition there is nodoubt. In the first place, the stress laid upon never omitting the formula pwn a3 ON, “if God wills” (on No. 11; ed. Venice, pp. 90, 10@), shows that it originated in a Mohammedan country; for the use of formulas was introduced to the Jews by the Mohammedans. In the second place, the exact words of an Arabic prov- erb are cited (on No. 22; ed. Venice, p. 16a) with the phrase “There is a proverb among the ‘ goyim’ ” (Gentiles); and a writer living among Christians would not refer to the Mohammedans as “ goyim.” Moreover, the commentary alludes to the arbitrari- ness of the Mohammedan ruler (No. 8; ed. Venice, p. 6), and in another passage denounces the divorces frequently occurring among the Arabs and their Jewish countrymen. The author combats exaggerated piety, the in- dulgence of children, and yielding to enemies (on Nos. 5, 9, 18; ed. Venice, pp. 4, 6, 7, 10, 11). The virtues which he particularly recommends are pray- ing (on No. tf), almsgiving (on Nos. 7, 10; ed. Ven- ice, pp. 48-6, 7b-91), respect for the aged (on No. 15; ed. Venice, pp. 12, 18a), exclusive intercourse with the upright, and constancy in friendship. The manner in which the author imparts moral instruc- tion at. the end of the proverbs by a happy combina- tion of Haggadah and legend shows him to bea clever writer, and one who knows how to treat his subject. Some of the notions may seem strange to the modern mind; but this is the case with many Midrashim. The so-called second Alphabet of Ben Sira is quite different in character from the other, and belongs to a much later period. It consists, as stated, of twen- ty-two Hebrew proverbs with a commentary upon Ben Sira Ben-Ze’eb them. Half of the proverbs are borrowed from the Talmud; and it is clear that some of The Second them are divided into several proverbs Alphabet. in order to preserve the desired num- ber of twenty-two, the number of letters in the Hebrew alphabet. The other half con- sist of platitudes whose form and contents betray a lack of literary training. But the proverbs them- selves are of secondary interest for the author, whose main purpose is to use them as a basis for the legends which he not unskilfully groups about the person of Ben Sira. The account begins with the remarkable birth of Ben Sira. He is represented as the son of Jeremiah, and was born with the physical and meutal powers of an adult. In fact, the proverbs were made by him when asa one-year-old child he was sent toa teacher, and was taught the alphabet by him. As his teacher began to say the alphabet, Ben Sira interrupted him by giving a proverb which corresponded to the let- ter about to be taught him. His fame for wisdom reached Nebuchadnezzar, who sent for him, and at whose court Ben Sira gave many proofs of his wis- dom, which are described by the commentator. The alleged intercourse between Ben Sira and Nebuchadnezzar is the invention of the author, while the miraculous birth and early history of Ben Sira area Jewish echo ofa Christian legend, in which Jesus Ben Sirais made to play the part of Jesus of Naz- areth. According tothe “Evangel of the Childhood of Jesus,” a pseudepigraph written in Arabic (Thilo’s “Codex Apocryphus Novi Testam.” i. 122 e¢ seq.), Jesus spoke to his mother (chap. i.) while he was still in the cradle, and said: “I, whom thou hast brought forth, am Jesus, the son of God.” Ben Sira, likewise, had teeth when he was born and could talk, for he at once told his mother who he was, whence he came, his name, and what he would accomplish (ed. Venice, 17a, 6). Furthermore, just as the “Evangel” chap. xlviil.) mentioned above narrates that Jesus, while a schoolboy, astonished his teacher by explaining the names, form, and order of the Hebrew letters—in this book Ben Sirais said to have done the same. The story of the extraordi- nary conception of Ben Sira by his mother, p. 162, is evidently a parody of the familiar Christian dogma. The chicf interest attaches to the animal fables, which are of great value for comparative foll-lore. The following may serve asan instance: At the crea- tion of the world God consigned a male and a female of every kind of animal tothe sea. When the Angel of Death (“Malak ha-Mawet”), who was charged with the duty of sinking them in the water, was about to take the fox, that animai began to cry. The Angel of Death asked him why he did this. The fox answered that he wept because his friend had been condemned to live in the water; aud going to the shore, he pointed to his own image ip the water. The Angel of Death, believing that a fox had already been sunk, allowed him to go. Levia- than, the ruler of the sea, now tried to lure the fox into its depths, because he believed that if he could eat the heart of socunning an aniinal he would gain in wisdom. One day, while the fox was walking THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 680 told him that Leviathan was nearing his end and wanted the craftiest of animals to be his successor, They promised the fox to carry him to a rock in the sea where he could erect his throne without fear of the surrounding waters. When he reached the high seas the fox knew that for once he had been tricked; but he did not lose his self-possession. “ What!” said he. “It is my heart you want, is it? Well, why did vou not say so before? I would then have brought it here; for usually, you know, I do not carry it with me.” The fish quickly conveyed him back to the shore, and in exultation he leaped about. The fish called to him to fetch his heart and come with them; but the fox replied; “To be sure, I went with you when I had no heart ” (the ancients consid- ered the heart the seat of wisdom); “but now [have my heart, PU stay here. I got the better of the Angel of Death; how much easier, then, to fool stupid fish!” (Ed. Venice, pp. 27a-28); partly given, according to the MS. version by Schorr, in “ He- Haluz,” viti. 170, 171.) A comparison of this fable with the Indian fables as given in the “ Panchatantra” and “Kalila and Dimna,” shows that the author fused three into one. Evidently the story of the fox and the Angel of Death has no connection with the story of the fox and the fish. The latter is identical with the Indian fable of the ape and the crocodile (“ Panchatantra,” iv. 1; French translation by E. Lancereau, pp. 271-278, Paris, 1871), which corresponds to the fable of the ape and the turtle in “ Kalila and Dimna” (febrew version, ed. Derenbourg, pp. 128-138, Paris, 1881; Syriac version, ed. Bickell, pp. 49-52, Leipsic, 1876). The end of the fable, as told in the Alpha- bet, does not belong to this fable, but to the Indian one of the lion, the jackal, and the ass (“ Pancha- tantra,” iv. 8, 285-288; “Kalila and Dimna,” He- brew, pp. 1389-142; Syriac, pp. 52, 58). The author, however, did not draw upon the “ Panchatantra,” but upon some version of the “ Kalila and Dimna,” as is evident from the fact that in the latter the two fables are joined, while in the “ Panchatantra ” there is no direct connection. It is difficult to decide which version of Bidpai Ben Sira drew upon, since the date of the compo- sition of the Alphabet has not been determined. The earliest authority who cites the little book is the author of the ‘Aruk, s.c. wp, ed. Kohut, vi. 450; but it is doubtful in what form he knew it; and there is reason to suppose that it underwent changes—in- sertions and elaborations—in the course of time. Yet it is probable that Abraham ben Nathan in the second half of the twelfth century was acquainted with the legends and fables of the book as it now is (compare the citations from the manuscript of Abra- ham ben Nathan in “Jewish Quarterly Review,” iii. 685). Maimonides did not know of the book; for the remark in his Mishnah commentary on Sanh. x. 1 shows that he obtained his opinion of Ben Sira from the Talmud (/.c. 100). In spite of Maimonides’ disparaging opinion of the book, it has survived; and, to judge from the many manuscripts, both the Alphabets and the com- mentaries had a certain popularity, though mostly Date. by the sea, some fishes cameandspoketohim, They ; among the unlearned. Tle commentary on the sec- 681 ond Alphabet is really nothing more than a collec- tion of legends and fables common among the Jews of the Middle Ages. It is to be expected that such a book should be full of absurdities; and it is not just in Reifmann, Epstein, and Neubauer to stigma- tize 1t as an intentional “mockery of Jewish litera- ture.” Oriental popular books—and the second part of Ben Sira came from Arabia or Persia—contain much that is vapid together with good specimens of popular wit and charming fables. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Editions, Manuscripts, and Translations: First ed., Salonica, 1514, not known to the bibliographers, but of which one copy is in possession of Elkan N. Adler, and another of L. Schwager in Husiatyn; second ed., Constanti- nople, 1519; only one complete copy known, that in the Brit- ish Museum; the Bodleian copy is defective; third ed., Venice, 1544, very rare; most later editions are based on this one, but are. however, badly mutilated. Steinschneider published a reprint of this edition with a comparison of the MS. with a MS, at Leyden, under the title Alphaheticum Syracidis, Berlin, 1854, The Bodleian Library has several MSS. with some variations from the printed text. The proverbs have been translated into Latin, French, and German; in Cowley and Neubauer, The Original Hebrew of a Portion of Eccle- siasticus, Introduction, pp. 28, 29, the First Alphabet has been translated into English, and the whole book has been translated several times into Judzeo-German, and once into J udzo-Spanish. Compare Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. cols. “03, 206; Van Straalen. Catalogue, p. 24. Literature: Ep- stein, Mt-Kadmoniyot ha-Yehudim, pp. 119-124 ; Reifmann, in Ha-Karmel (monthly), ii. 124-138 (in this work there are many errors along with some good observations); idem, in Keneset Yisrael, ii. 185, 186; Dukes, Rabbinisehe Blumen- lese, pp. 31, 32, 67-84; Zunz, G. V., 2d_ed., p. 11; Schorr, in He-Haluz, viii. 169-173; Jellinek, in Monatsschrift, ii. 430; idem, in his Introduction to B. H. vi. 11-18. T L. G. BEN TEMALION: A demon mentioned in the Talmud. When the Jewish sages, with Simon b. Yohai at their head, went to Rome to obtain the revocation of certain edicts hostile to the Jews, the demon Ben Temalion appeared before them and of- ered his services. He proposed to enter into the body of a princess of the imperial house, and not to leave her until Simon b. Yohai was asked to cure her; for in her madness she would call for him. On Simon b. Yohai’s whispering the name “Ben Tema- lion ” into the ear of the princess,he would leave her, and as a sign of his departure all the glass in the palace would break. At first the sages did not wish to make use of his services; but as they could think of no other means of obtaining favor for their re- quest, they could not dispense with his help. Everything then took place as Ben Temalion had predicted. Asareward for the princess’ cure, Simon b. Yohai received permission to take whatever he wished from the imperial treasure-house. He found the anti-Jewish edicts there, and, taking them, tore them up (Me‘ilah 173). In the Talmud this legend occurs only in shortened form; but a more elaborate version is given in the “ Halakot Gedolot,” ed. Hil- desheimer, pp. 603, 604; in the apocalyptic Midrash, “Tefillat R. Simonb. Yohai”; in Jellinek, “B. H.” iv. 117, 118; and in a MS. printed in 2d. vi. 128, 129. Rashi also, in his commentary on the passage In Me‘ilah, cites a Haggadah which gives the legend in a form essentially varying from the one in the Tal- mud. R, Gershon, in his commentary on the pas- sage, and the so-called Rashi, in Habib’s “ ‘En Ya‘a- kob” onthe passage, give an Aramaic version, which is probably the older form of the legend. In more than one respect this legend is of great interest for comparative folk-lore, occurring, as it does, also in the Christian legends of the saints and THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA of secular subjects. Ben Sira Ben-Ze’eb in Buddhist tradition. It is related of the apostle Bartholomew that he went to India and there freed the daughter of the king from a devil which pos- sessed her. Instead of accepting a reward, he caused a devil to enter an idol and then bade it leave the statue. Thereupon this statue and all others in the temple were broken (Fabricius, “Codex Apocry- phus N. T.” i. 674 et seg.; Tischendorf, “ Acta Apos- tol. Apocrypha,” 246 e¢ seg.; Migne, “ Dictionnaire des Apocry phes,” ii. 1538-157). The kinship of this with the Jewish legend can not be denied. Yet it is highly improbable that the names of the demon Ben Temalion and Bar- tholomew are the same, the saint in the one story becoming the demon in the other. Such a metamor- phosis, indeed, is not impossible; but, in this event, the demon would be expected to be hostile and not. friendly to the Jews; and the fact that other ety- mologies suggested for the name “ Ben Temalion ” are hardly acceptable, provides no argument in favor of itsidentity with “ Bartholomew.” The Buddhist legend, which is probably the source of the Jewish and Christian legends, is as follows: A demon, de- siring to please a man, promises to enter into a prin- cess and not to leave her until bidden to do so by certain words spoken by the man. This happens; the man obtains the princess as his wife and receives one-half of the King’s realm (“Panchatantra,” ed. Benfey, i. 520; ed. Lancereau, p. 20). The French Jews considered Ben Temalion a kind of “lutin” (goblin or brownie), who in French folk-lore is friendly and helpful to man, but teases him. The Tosafists (on Me‘ilah Z.c.) remark that Ben Temalion has the appearance of a child and is wont to have his sport with women. Whether this was the original representation of Ben Temalion is very questionable. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Griinbaum, in Z. D. M. G. xxxi.332; Halévy, in Revue Etudes Juives, x. 60-65; Israel Lévi, ib. viti. 200- 202, x. 60-73; Lebrecht, in Geiger’s Jud. Zeit. xi. 273-278 (he holds that Ben Temalion was originally the name of a Senator friendly to the Jews); Schorr, in He-Halug, viii. 123. J. BR. L. G. BEN-TIGLA. See Ben-LA‘ANAH. BEN UZZIEL. See Hirscn, Samson Ra- PHAEL. BEN YASUS. See Isaac BN JASOS IBN SAKTAR. BEN ZAKKATI. See JOHANAN B. ZAKKAI. BEN -ZE’EB, JUDAH LOB: First Jewish grammarian and lexicographer of modern times; born near Cracow 1764; died at Vienna March 12, 1811. He received the religious education common to the Jews of Poland in thosedays. He married at a very early age and settled in Cracow in the home of his wife’s parents, where he spent his days in studying Talmud, and his nights in clandestinely acquiring the knowledge of Hebrew philology and The financial embarrassment of his family compelled him to seek Admitted his fortune in another land, and he to the naturally gravitated toward Berlin, Haskalah. which was then the center of the “ Has- kalah”; z.¢., the movement to spread enlightenment among the Jews by means of Neo-He- braic and German studies. Ben-Ze’eb was soon ad- Ben-Ze’eb Benaiah mitted to the galaxy of brilliant scholars and pioneers of Haskalah, who were to some extent considered as the disciples and successors of Moses Mendelssohn. Later, for about ten years, he lived in Breslau, where he wrote and published his Hebrew grammar, “Talmud Leshon ‘Ibri,” in 1796. Two years later he pub- lished his Hebrew trans- lation of Ecclesiasticus, or Ben Sirach, which is called by Delitzsch (“Zur Geschichte der Jiidischen Poesie,” p. 110) a masterpiece of imitation of Biblical gnomic style. Ben- Ze’eb returned from Breslau to Cracow, and later settled in Vienna as corrector in the Hebrew printing establishment of Anton Schmid, where he remained till his death. Ben-Ze’eb is the author of many valued works; his Hebrew poetry is marked by the purity of its diction and is not devoid of originality and profun- dity (Delitzsch, 2d.). He was the first to systematize, in the Hebrew language itself, Hebrew grammar, to arrange it methodically and to facilitate the mas- tery of a good style by introducing logic, syntax, and prosody as part of grammatical studies. This accounts for the great success of his “Talmud Leshon ‘Ibri,” which work is an immense improve- ment over former Hebrew grammars and a step toward the introduction of Western methods in He- brew literature. It has since been republished with additions, annotations, and commentaries more than fifteen times, and is still the most popular Hebrew grammar in use among the Jews of eastern Europe. The Wilna edition of 1874, with the commentary “Yitron le-Adam” by A. B. Lebensohn, is the most improved, and has been republished several times. His second great work, the “Ozar ha-Shorashim,” a Hebrew lexicon (based on a similar work by David Kimhi), in which the roots are translated into Ger- man, went through six editions up to 1880, and has helped tens of thousands to become Judah L6b Ben-Ze’eb. Gram- familiar with the German language matical and with secular knowledge. It is Works. true that Ben-Ze’eb was not strictly scientific in the modern sense, and that his works do not come up to the standard of Western Hebraists, even of his own time; but great numbers have been taught by him to understand the lan- guage of the Bible and to express their thoughts in it, in localities and under circumstances in which other and more scientific means were not available. Ben-Ze’eb is easily the foremost grammarian among the Galician Hebraists, the latter never attaining great prominence in the study of Hebrew (see Weiss- berg’s “Die Neuhebriische Aufklirungsliteratur in Galizien,” p. 30, Leipsic and Vienna, 1898). His clear and logical style, added to his exactness and thoroughness, renders him a favorite with lay read- ers and students alike. Ben-Ze’eb is the author also of “ Melizah le-Purim,” a collection of mock-prayers THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 682 and selihot for Purim, which contain many clever parodies on familiar texts. This work has been often published with Kalonymus ben Kalony- mus’ celebrated Talmudical parody, “ Maseket Purim.” Inhis “ Mebo ”—introduction to the Bible (which, since its first publication, has appeared in several editions of the Bible), Vienna, 1810—Ben- Ze’eb follows the theories mainly of Johann Gott- fried Eichorn. Ben-Ze’cb’s “ Mesillat ha-Limmud,” for elementary scholars in Hebrew, has been trans- lated into Italian by Leon Romani, Vienna, 1825; and into Russian by A. J. Papirno, Warsaw, 1871. “Torat Leshon ‘Ibri, Hebritische Sprachlehre” is a German revision of his Talmud by §. J. Cohen, of which the first part appeared in Berlin in 1802, and three parts in Dessau in 1807. Five more editionsap- peared up to 1856. Ben-Ze’eb also contributed to the “ Meassefim” over the signature “ J.L.C.” (Judah Léb Cracow). Thememory of Ben-Ze’eb is abhorredby the Hasidim, who attribute to him the same miserable death which orthodox Christians assigned to Arius. BIBLIOGRAPHY: First, Bibl. Jud. i. 104,106; Zeitlin, Biblio- theca Hebraica, pp. 22-26; Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, p. 3923 Gratz, Gesch. der Juden, 2d ed., xi. 122: Jost, Arnalen, 1840, ii. 62, 63. L. a P. W1. BEN ZITA. See ELEAZAR BEN ZiTA ABU AL- SARI. BEN ZOMA: Tanna of the first third of the sec- ond century. His full pame is Simon b. Zoma with- out the title “Rabbi”; for, like Ben ‘Azzai, he re- mained in the grade of “pupil,” and is often mentioned together with Ben ‘Azzai as a distin- guished representative of this class (see BEN ‘Azz.s1). Like Ben ‘Azzai, also, he seems to have belonged to the inner circle of Joshua b. Hananiah’s disciples; and a halakic controversy between them is reported in which Ben Zoma was the victor (Naz. viti. 1). His erudition in the Halakah became proverbial; for it was said, “ Whoever sees Ben Zoma in his dream is assured of scholarship” (Ber. 57d). He was, however, specially noted as an interpreter of the Scriptures, so that it was said (Sotah ix. 15), “With Ben Zoma died the last of the exegetes” (*“darshanim”), Yet only a few of his exegetic sayings have been preserved. The most widely known of these is his interpretation of the phrase, “that thou mayest remember the day when thou camest forth out of Egypt” (Deut. xvi. 8), to prove that the recitation of the Biblical passage referring to the Exodus (Num. xv. 37-41) is obligatory for the evening prayer as well as for the morning prayer. This interpretation, quoted with praise by Eleazar b. Azariah (Ber. i. 5), has found a place in the Hag- gadah for the Passover night. In a halakic inter- pretation Ben Zoma explains the word “ naki” (clean) in Ex. xxi. 28 by referring to the usage of the word in every-day life (B. K. 41a; Kid. 560; Pes. 220). The principal subject of Ben Zoma’s exegetic re- search was the first chapter of the Torah, the story of Creation. One of his questions on this chapter, in which he took exception to the phrase “God made” (Gen. i. 7), has been handed down by the Palestinian haggadists (though without the answer), with the remark, “This is one of the Biblical pas- sages by which Ben Zoma created a commotion all over the world” (Gen. R.iv.). An interpretation of 683 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Ben-Ze’eb Benaiah en the second verse of the same chapter has been handed down in a tannaitic tradition (Tosef., Hag. li. 0, 6; compare Hag. 15a), together with the fol- lowing anecdote: Joshua b. Hananiah was walking one day, when he met Ben Zoma, who was about to pass him without greeting. ‘Thereupon Joshua asked: “Whence and whither, Ben Zoma?” The latter replied: “I was lost in thoughts concerning the account of the Creation.” And then he told Joshua his interpretation of Gen. i. 2. When speak- ing to his disciples on the matter, Joshua said, “Ben Zoma is outside,” meaning thereby that Ben Zoma had passed beyond the limit of permitted research. Asa matter of fact, Ben Zoma was one of the four who entered into the “ garden ” of esoteric knowledge (see BEN ‘Azzat). It was said of him that he beheld the secrets of the garden and “ was struck ” with men- tal aberration (Hag. 140). The disciples of Akiba applied to the limitless theosophic speculations, for which Ben Zoma had to suffer, the words of Prov. xxv. 16, “Hast thou found honey? eat so much as is sufficient for thee, lest thou be filled therewith, and vomit it” (Tosef., Hag. l.c.; Bab. Hag. l.c.; compare Midr. Mishle on xxv. 16). Even the few sentences of Ben Zoma that have come down to us show the depth of his thoughts; as, for instance, his reflections on seeing large crowds of people (Tosef., Ber. vii. [vi.] 2; Ber. 58a): * Ben Zoma, seeing the crowds on the Temple mount, said, ‘Blessed be He who created all these to attend to my needs. How much had Adam to weary himself with! Nota mouthful could he taste before he plowed and sowed, and cut and bound sheaves, and threshed and winnowed and sifted the grain, and ground and sifted the flour, and kneaded and baked, and then he ate; but I get up in the morning and find all this ready be- fore me. How much had Adam to weary himself with! Not a shirt could he put on before he sheared and washed the wool, and hatcheled and dyed and spun and wove and sewed, and then he clothed himself; but I rise in the morning and find all this ready before me. How many trades are anxiously busy early in the morning; and I rise and find all these things be- fore me!’” Also his reflections on man as the guest of God in this world (¢d.): **A grateful guest says, * That host be remembered for good ! How many Wines he brought up before me; how many portions he placed before me; how many cakes he offered me! All that he did, he did for my sake.’ But the ill-willed guest says, “What did leat of his?