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About Google Book Search Google’s mission is to organize the world’s information and to make it universally accessible and useful. Google Book Search helps readers discover the world’s books while helping authors and publishers reach new audiences. You can search through the full text of this book on the web atthtto: //books.gqoogle.com/ THE Jewish Encyclopedia A DESCRIPTIVE RECORD OF THE HISTORY, RELIGION, LITERATURF, AND CUS- TOMS OF THE JEWISH PEOPLE FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESENT DAY Prepared by More than Four Hundred Scholars and Specialists UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE FOLLOWING EDITORIAL BOARD Cyrus ADLER, PH.D. (Departments of Post) KAUFMANN KOHLER, PH.D. (Departments of Biblical Antiquities ; the Jews of America). Theology and Philosophy). GOTTHARD DeutTscu, Pu.D. (Department of HERMAN ROSENTHAL (Department of the Jews of Listory from 1492 to 1903). Russia and Poland ). RICHARD GOTTHEIL, PH.D. (Departments of flistory from Ezra to 1492; flistory of Post- Talmudic Literature). Emit G. Hirscu, Pu.D., LL.D. (Department of ISIDORE SINGER, PH.D, (Department of Modern the Bible). Biography from 1750 to 1903). JOSEPH JacoBs, B.A. (Departments of the Jews CRAwFoRD H. Toy, D.D., LL.D. (Departments of England and Anthropology; Revising Editor). of Hebrew Philology and Hellenistic Literature). SOLOMON SCHECHTER, M.A., Litt.D. (Defart- ment of the Talmud), ISAAC K. FUNK, D.D., LL.D. FRANK H. VIZETELLY, F.S.A. Chairman of the Board Secretary of the Board WILLIAM PoppER, M.A., Pu.D. Associate Revising Editor ; Chief of the Bureau of Translation ISIDORE SINGER, Ph.D. Projector and Managing Editor ASSISTED BY AMERICAN AND FOREIGN BOARDS OF CONSULTING EDITORS VOLUME V DREYFUS-BRISAC—GOAT & FUNK AND WAGNALLS COMPANY NEW YORK AND LONDON COPYRIGHT, [gO4, IQ1O, 1912, BY FUNK & WAGNALLS COMPANY All rights of translation reserved Registered at Stationers’ Ifall, London, England | Printed in the United States of America} LITERARY DIRECTORATE EDITORIAL BOARD CYRUS ADLER, Ph.D. (Departments of Post-Biblical Antiquities ; the Jews of America.) President of the American Jewish Historical Society ; Libra- rian, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. GOTTHARD DEUTSCH, Ph.D. (Department of History from 1492 to 1904.) Professor of Jewish History, Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati, Ohio; Editor of ** Deborah.” RICHARD GOTTHEIL, Ph.D. (Departments of History from Ezra to 1492; History of Post-Talmudic Literature.) professor of Semitic Languages, Columbia University, New York; Chief of the Oriental Department, New York Public Library. EMIL G. HIRSCH, Ph.D., LL.D. (Departinent of the Bible.) Rabbi of Chicago Sinai Congregation, Chicago, Ill.; Professor of Rabbinieal Literature and Philosophy, University of Chicago; Editor of ** The Reform Advocate.” JOSEPH JACOBS, B.A. (Departments of the Jews of England and Anthropology: Revising Editor.) Formerly President of the Jewish Historical Society of England ; Author of ** Jews of Angevin England,” ete. KAUFMANN KOHLER, Ph.D. (Departments of Theology: Philosophy.) President of Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati, Ohio; Rabbi Emeritus of Temple Beth-El, New York. AMERICAN BOARD OF BERNARD DRACHMAN, Ph.D., Rabbi of the Congregation Zichron Ephraim; Instructor in the Bible and in Hebrew Grammar, Jewish Theological Seminary of America, New York. B. FELSENTHAL, Ph.D., Rabbi Emeritus of Zion Congregation, Chicago, Il.; Author of ‘A Practival Grammar of the Hebrew Language.” GUSTAV GOTTHEIL, Ph.D. (DEUEASED), Late Rabbi Emeritus of Temple Emanu-El, New York. HENRY HYVERNAT, D.D., Head of the Department of Semitic and Egyptian Literatures, Catholic University of America, Washington, D. C. HERMAN ROSENTHAL. (Department of the Jews of Russia and Potand.) Chief, Slavonic Department, New York Public Library. SOLOMON SCHECHTER, M.A., Litt.D. (Department of the Talmud.) President of the Faculty of the Jewish Theological Seminary of America, New York ; Author of *‘ Studies in Judaism.”’ ISIDORE SINGER, Ph.D. MANAGING EDITOR. (Department of Modern Biography from 1750 to 1904.) CRAWFORD HOWELL TOY, D.D., LL.D. (Departments of Hebrew Philotogy and Hellenistic Literature.) Professor of Hebrew in Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. Author of ‘“* The Religion of Israel,” etc. I. K. FUNK, D.D., LL.D. (Chairman of the Board.) Editor-in-Chief of the STANDARD DICTIONARY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE, ete. FRANK H. VIZETELLY, F.S.A. (Secretary of the Board.) Associate Editor of the SraNDARD Dictionary, “The Colum- bian Cyclopedia,” etc. WILLIAM POPPER, M.A., Ph.D. (Associate Revising Editor; Chief of the Bureau of Translation.) Gustav Gottheil Lecturer in Semitic Languages, Columbia University, New York (1903-5); Author of ** Censorship of Hebrew Books.”’ CONSULTING EDITORS MARCUS JASTROW, Ph.D. (DECEASED), Late Rabbi Emeritus of the Congregation Rodef Shaiom, Phila- delphia, Pa.; Author of ‘* Dictionary of the Talmud.” MORRIS JASTROW, Jr., Ph.D., Professor of Semitic Languages and Librarian in the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.; Author of * Re- gion of the Babylonians and Assyrians,” etc. J. FREDERIC McCURDY, Pb.D., LL.D., Professor of Oriental Languages, University College, Toronto, Canada; Author of ** History, Prophecy, and the Monuments.” H. PEREIRA MENDES, M.D., Rabbi of the Shearith Israel Congregation (Spanish and Portu- guese), New York ; President of the Board of Jewish Ministers, New York. vi LITERARY DIRECTORATE je an MOSES MIELZINER, Ph.D., D.D. (DECEASED), Late Presideut of the Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati, Ohio ; Author of ** Introduction to the Talmud.” GEORGE F. MOORE, M.A., D.D., Professor of Biblical Literature and the History of Religions in Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.; Author of **A Commentary on the Book of Judges,’ etc. DAVID PHILIPSON, D.D., Rabbi of the Congregation B'ne Israel ; Professor of Homiletics, Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati, Ohio; President of Hebrew Sabbath School Union of America. IRA MAURICE PRICE, B.D., Ph.D., Professor of Semitic Languages and Literatures, University of Chicago, Ill.; Author of *‘ The Monuments and the Old Testament,” ete. JOSEPH SILVERMAN, D.D., President of Central Conference of American Rabbis; Rabbi of. Temple Emanu-E], New York. JACOB VOORSANGER, D.D., Rabbi of the Congregation Emanu-El, San Francisco, Cal.; Pro- fessor of Semitic Languages and Literatures, Uni- versity of California, Berkeley, Cal. EDWARD J. WHEELER, M.A., Editor of ‘* The Literary Digest,”> New York; Author of ** Stories in Rhyme,” ete. FOREIGN BOARD OF CONSULTING EDITORS ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A., Coeditor of ** The Jewish Quarterly Review ”; Author of “ Jew- ish Life in the Middle Ages,” etc.; Reader in Talmudic, Cambridge University, England. W. BACHER, Ph.D., Professor in the Jewish Theological Seminary, Budapest, Hungary. M. BRANN, Ph.D., Professor in the Jewisb Theological Seminary, Breslau, Ger- many ; Editor of ** Monatsschrift fiir Geschichte und Wissenschaft des Judenthums.”’ H. BRODY, Ph.D., Rabbi, Nachod, Bohemia, Austria: Coeditor of ** Zeitschrift fir Hebriische Bibliographie.” ABRAHAM DANON, Principal of the Jewish Theological Seminary, Constantinople, Turkey. HARTWIG DERENBOURG, Ph.D., Professor of Literal Arabic at the Special School of Oriental Languages, Paris ; Member of the Institut de France. 8. M. DUBNOW, Author of ** Istoriya Yevreyev,” Odessa, Russia. MICHAEL FRIEDLANDER, Ph.D., Principal of Jews’ College, London, England; Author of ‘* The Jewish Religion,”’ ete. IGNAZ GOLDZIHER, Ph.D., Professor of Semitic Philology, University of Budapest, Hungary. M. GUDEMANN, Ph.D., Chief Rabbi of Vienna, Austria. BARON DAVID GUNZBURG, St. Petersburg, Russia. A. DE HARKAVY, Ph.D., Chief of the Hebrew Department of the Imperial Public Library, St. Petersburg, Russia, ZADOC KAHN, Chief Rabbi of France; Honorary President of the Alliance Israélite Dniverselle; Officer of the Legion of Honor, Paris, France. M. KAYSERLING, Ph.D., Rabbi, Bustapest, Hungary; Corresponding Member of the Royal Academy of History, Madrid, Spain. MORITZ LAZARUS, Ph.D. (DECEASED), Late Professor Emeritus of Psychology, University of Berlin; Meran, Austria. ANATOLE LEROY-BEAULIEU, Member of the French Institute; Professor at the Free School of Political Science, Paris, France ; Author of ** Israél chez les Nations.” ISRAEL LEVI, Professor in the Jewish Theological Seminary ; Editor of ** Revue des Etudes Juives,’’ Paris, France. EUDE LOLLI, D.D., Chief Rabbi of Padua; Professor of Hebrew at the University, Padua, Italy. IMMANUEL LOW, Ph.D., Chief Rabbi of Szegedin, Hungary ; Author of ** Die Aramaischen Pflanzennamen.”’ S. H. MARGULIES, Ph.D., Principal of the Jewish Theological Seminary; Chief Rabbi of Florence, Italy. H. OORT, D.D., Professor of Hebrew Language and Archeology at the State University, Leyden, Holland. ABBE PIETRO PERREAU, Formerly Librarian of the Reale Biblioteca Palatina, Parma, Italy. MARTIN PHILIPPSON, Ph.D., Formerly Professor of History at the Universities of Bonn and Brussels; President of the Deutsch-Israelitischer Gemeindebund, Berlin, Germany. SAMUEL POZNANSKI, Ph.D., Rabbi in Warsaw, Russia. E. SCHWARZFELD, LL.D., Secretary-General of the Jewish Colonization Association, Paris, France. LUDWIG STEIN, Ph.D., Professor of Philosophy, University of Bern, Switzerland ; Editor of ** Archiv fiir Geschichte der Philosophie,” ete. HERMANN L. STRACK, Ph.D., Professor of Old Testament Exegesis and Semitic Languages, University of Berlin, Germany. CHARLES TAYLOR, D.D., LL.D., Master of St. John’s College, Cambridge, England; Editor of ** Sayings of the Jewish Fathers,” etc. SYSTEMS OF TRANSLITERATION AND OF CITATION OF PROPER NAMES * A.—Rules for the Transliteration of Hebrew and Aramaic. i. AJl important names which occur in the Bible are cited as found in the authorized King James version ; @.g., Woses, not Mosheh; Isaac, not Yizhak; Sauzl, not Sha’ul or Shai; Solomon, not Shelomoh, etc. 2, The spellings of names that have gained currency in English books on Jewish subjects, or that have become familiar to English readers, are generally retained ; cross-references are given when topics are treated under forms transliterated according to the system tabulated below. 3. Hebrew subject-headings are transcribed according to the scheme of transliteration ; cross-refer- ences are made as in the case of personal names, A. The following system of transliteration has been used for Hebrew and Aramaic: ws Not noted at the beginning or the end of a word ; otherwise’ or by dieresis; e.g., peer or Meir. 5 6 } z b l B (with dagesh), p yw sh 1 9 mh ym 5b (without dagesh), f » § 1 a be 37 ¥ 2 nit mt A , Y Ds Dk 5 w 5 k ys IT NOTE: The presence of dagesh lene is not noted except in the case of £. Dagesh forte is indi- cated by doubling the letter. 5. The vowels have been transcribed as follows: = (kamez) a —U —a a i iG ~ (kamez hatuf) o aie =e 7 (O 1 —~ 1 6 —a a The so-called ‘‘ Continental” pronunciation of the English vowels is implied. 6. The Hebrew article is transcribed as ha, followed by a hyphen, without doubling the following letter. [Not hak-Kohen or hak-Cohen, nor Rosh ha-shshanah. ] B.—Rules for the Transliteration of Arabic. 1, All Arabic names and words, except such as have become familiar to English readers in other forms. as Mohammed, Koran, mosque, are transliterated according to the following system : 4 See Nabove ¢ kh L sh e gh wW ” Gb od ues wif sh Gi.) R) dh yeod J k 3 w woth yr L? wk a TJ d2 &: J? Th (Ms ae em 2. Only the three vowels —a, i, u—are represented: Basan 6} rea) —- u No account has been taken of the imalah; i has not been written ¢, nor u written o. *In all other matters of orthography the spelling preferred by the SranpaRD DicTionaRy has usually been followed. Typo graphical exigencies have rendered occasional deviations from these systems necessary. Vili SYSTEMS OF TRANSLITERATION AND OF CITATION OF PROPER NAMES 3. The Arabic article is invariably written al, no account being taken of the assimilation of the 7 to the following letter; e.g., Abu al-Salt, not Abu-l-Salt; Nafis al-Daulah, not Nafis ad-Daulah., The article is joined by a hyphen to the following word. 4, At the end of words the feminine termination is written ah ; but when followed by a genitive, at; e.g., Risalah dhat al-Kursiyy, but Hv at al-Afjiak. 5. No account is taken of the overhanging vowels which distinguish the cases; e.g., ‘Amr, not “Amru or ‘Amrun; Ya‘kub, not Ya‘kubun; or ina title, Kitab al-Amanat wal-I‘tikadat. C.—Rules for the Transliteration of Russian. All Russian names and words, except such as have become familiar to English readers in other forms, as Czar, Alexander, deciatine, Moscow, are transliterated according to the following system : Aa a Hu nN [ur sheh B6 b Oo O Ds mute Bs v Il u Ve BI w y I'r h,v,org Pp 7 bs halfmute Ax d Ce S BSB ye Ee e and ye ToT t 9 e beginning, JE 3 zh Yy U 10 » yu 3 8 z ® tS Al a ya Wuli é XX kh Ce F Rk ke If 1 tz Vy e Ia t Uy ch Ni it t Mu m IT om sh Rules for the Citation of Proper Names, Personal and Otherwise. A Whenever possible, an author is cited under his most specific name; e.g., Moses Nigrin under Nigrin; Moses Zacuto under Zacuto; Moses Rieti under Rieti; all the Kimhis (or Kambhis) under Kimht; Israel ben Joseph Drohobiczer under Drohobiczer. Cross-references are freely made from any other form to the most specific one; e.g., to Moses Vidal from Moses Narboni ; to Solomon Nathan Vidal from Menahem Meiri; to Samuel Kansi from Samuel Astruc Dascola ; to Jedaiah Peninit from both Bederst and En Bonet; to John of Avignon from Moses de Roquemaure, 2, When a person is not referred to as above, he is cited under his own personal name followed by his official or other title; or, where he has borne no such title, by ‘‘of” followed by the place of his birth or residence; e.g., Johanan ha-Sandlar ; Samuel ha-Nagid ; Judah he-Hasid ; Gershom of Metz; Isaac of Corbeil. 3. Names containing the words ad’, de, da, di, van, von, y, of, ben, ha-, tbn* are arranged under the letter of the name following this word; e.g., de Pomis under Pomis, de Barrios under Barrios, Jacob d@’Illescas under Jilescas. The order of topics is illustrated by the following examples : Abraham of Augsburg Abraham de Balmes Abraham ben Benjamin Aaron Abraham of Avila Abraham ben Baruch Abraham ben Benjamin Zeeb Abraham ben Azriel Abraham of Beja Abraham Benveniste * When Isn has come to be a specific part of a name, as Jpn Ezra, such name js treated in its alphabetical place under “I.” NoTE TO THE READER, Subjects on which further information is afforded elsewhere in this work are indicated by the use of capitals and small capitals in the text; as, ABBA ARIKA; PUMBEDITA; VOCALIZATION. LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS [Self-evident abbreviations, particularly those used in the bibliographies, are not included here. ] AD coc eeee eee eee eed Abot, Pirke — Ab. Re Niveeeveree Abot de-Rabbi Natan ‘4b, Zarah...-.-..:- ‘Abodab Zarah ee ([OGxg see Leopie.§ grata at the place ORT in the year of the Hegira rai Zeit. des Jud.. Allgemeine Zeitung des Judenthums Am, Jew. Hist. Se American Jewish Historical society Am. Jour. Senut. ! 4 merican Journal of Semitic Languages Lang. . Anglo-Jew. "ASSOC. .Anglo-Jewish Association Cp aw few we Seale Pee Apocalypse anece fad ature Wittaene ae Apocrypha Anest. Const........A postolical Constitutions oh eg teats craig Sateen .. Arakin (Talmud) ech TSiscnicedenan Archives Israélites «cy )Aronius, Regesten zur Geschichte der Juden Aronius, Regesten 5“ in Deutschland Ree TP ack ae Gh eee 8 Das Alte Testament An MR aed ie aoe cated Authorized Version cl aiaelee asta ..ben or bar or born Bacher 4 Ag PEP: - Bacher, Agada der Babylonischen Amorer Bacher, ‘Ag. "Pal. ptr Agada der Palastinensischen Amo- raer Bacher, Ag. Tan....Bacher, Agada der Tannaiten Dy: CR ery Baba Batra (Talmud) BC ists Seuegennane ticles before the Christian era BOK adaeiaciass .. Bekorot (Talmud) Benzinger, Arch. . . Benzinger, Hebriische Archiologie Bele ccacsinaeeeainss Berakot (Talmud) Berliner F Fest- f Festschrift zum 70ten Geburtstag Berliners Berliner’s ' Berliner’s Magazin fir die Wissenschaft des Magazin.......{ Judenthums Bik cesses .....-Bikkurim (latmud) Bes peateasnews -... Baba Kamina (‘lalmud) Bs oN cicaaueetacekas Baba Mezi‘a (‘Talmud) Bibl. Rab.......... Bibliotheca Rabbinica ‘ § Boletin de la Real Academia de la Historia Boletin Acad. Hist. c (Madrid) ene aay ie rall’s Jahrbiicher fiir Jitdische Geschichte Brill’s Jahrb... “t und Litteratur Bulletin All. Isr. is pubetn of the Alliance Israélite Universelle C pavaieuier wetted Hee about AU feesaudasiaoed as Canticles (Song of Solomon) Cat. Anglo-Jew. (Catalogue of Anglo-Jewish Historical Ex- Hist. Exh...... ( hibition } Cazes, Notes Bib- | Cazes, Notes Bibliographiques sur la Littera- liographiques..f ture Juive-unisienne CES sve dsavety estas common era. CUascicnee oheay wuateed chapter or chapters se ( Cheyne and Black, Encyclopedia Bibiica Recueil des Travaux Rédigés en Mémoire Chwolson Subitee | du Jubilé Scientifique de M. Daniel Chwol- Volume........ ( son, 1846-1846 Co Aaa iiowads wats Corpus Inscriptionum Atticarum CTs Giaee Pus Foa08% Corpus Inseriptionum Greecarum OE) Fad « Cre corer are Corpus Inseriptiopum Hebraicarum C.1.L..............Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum Uisle Seakies ies eaceus Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum COMP wo... 000s deebacw compare 2 a eee sooseeee GIER D. seeeeeess. Deuteronomist De Gubernatis, t De Gubernatis, Dizionario Biografico degli Diz. Biog..... ..§ Scrittori Contemporanei De Gubernatis, i De Gubernatis, Dictionnaire International EcrivainsduJour{ des Ecrivains du Jour De Je Roi, Juden-/ De Ile Roi, Geschichte der Evangelisehen Mission ........ , Juden-Mission DOV cae ceoatwancnes Heda tae et ee Derenbourg, Essai sur Histoire et la Géo- Derenbourg, Hist. graphie de la Palestine, etc. De Rossi, Dizio-! De Rossi, Dizionario Storico degli Autori Nario........... { Ebreie delle Loro Opere De Rossi - Ham- | De Rossi-Hamberger, Historisches Wérter- berger, Hist.> buch der Jiidischen Schriftsteller und Worterb. ...... a Ihrer Werke sense seat oi .. Elohist Eel... Ecclesiastes Ecclus. (Sirach).... Ecclesiasticus éd,. aeaeacate RAL bared edition "EQUY ........000005 *Eduvot (Talmud) Kise @. Ludwig Eisenberg’s Grosses Biographisches eee Biog. | Lexikon der Deutschen Biihne im XIX. iiaeeet Jahrhundert heye. Brit....... . Encyclopedia Britannica BGG oie ci a, ... English Epiphanius, Heres. Epiphanius, Adversus Heereses ere seeeeeeeeee Erubin (Talmud) Ersch and d Gruber, Eneye.. § ESC: pie casos ea CL BEG 6 ioe ee aces ‘ Eusebius. Hist. Eecl. Frankel, Mebo..... First, Bibl. Jud.. First, Gesch. des r Kariert.. Gaster, Hist. ‘of Bevis Marks.... § Geiger, enenritt 4 Geiger’s Jiid. Zeit. 1 Geiger’s Wiss. 1 Zeit. Jad. Theol. § Gem..... aneleceigoetee ae Gesch.. eearenerevears Gesenius, Cliwetes Gesenius, Th....... Gibbon, Decline ¢t and Fall........$ Ginsbure’s Bible.. Gib Giieots eeuaeade: Gide emann, Gesch ewe ee slant Han surely ] R. Bi Sn eat eee Hebr........ (ere Herzog-Phitt or j Herzog - Hauck, Real-Encye.,.. Hirsch, Biog. Lex. ( PU easesbiteauact vcs acerass WS cb entinnd ceare te pastels WON nein eens wae os Isr. Letterbode..... eeoeererseoraceever sees Jaarboeken...... } Jacobs, Sources... ; Jacobs and Wolf, | Bibl. Anglo-Jud. f Jahrb. Geseh, der ! DUG 4 cach w ete ba Jastrow, Dict..... : Jew, Eneye........ Jew. Hist. Soc. Eng. Jew. oe Rev. es @eenvee a ohne Ant...... Josephus, B. J.... Josephus,Contra Ap. J ie abate ea\lasere. Bioleaw evece Ersch and Gruber, Allgemeine Encyklopidie der Wissensehaft und Kiinste Esdras and following Eusebius, Historia Eeclesiastica Frankel, Mebo Yerushalini . First, Bibliotheea Judaica oF lrst, Geschichte des Kariierthums - ' Gaster, Bevis Marks Memorial Volume Geiger, Ursehrift und Uebersetzungen der Bibel in Lbrer Abnangigkeit von der In- neren Entwicklung des Judenthums Geiger’s Jiidische Zeitschrift fiir Wissen- schaft und Leben Geiger’s Wissenschaftliche Zeitsehrift fir Jidische Theologie Geniara Geschichte (sesenius, Grammar Gesenius, Thesaurus Gibbon, History of the Decline and Fall of the htoman Empire Ginsburg’s Masoretico-Critical Edition of the Hebrew Bible Gittin (Talmud) Graetz, History of the Jews Gratz, Geschichte der Juden Gtidemann, Geschichte des Erziehungs- wesens und der Cultur der Abendlindi- schen J uden ...Hallah (Talmud) Hamburger, Realencyclopidie fiir Bibel und Talmud | Hastings, Dictionary of the Bible .... Epistle to the Hebrews .Masoretic Text Real-Eneyklopadie fir Protestantische The- ologie und Kirche (2d and 3d editions re- spectively) Hirsch, Biographisches Lexikon der Hervor- ragender Aerzte Aller Zeiten und Volker ini ot (Talmud) Hullin (Talmud) same place same author Israelitische Letterbode Jahvist daaroeence voor de Israeliten in Neder an Jacobs, Inquiry into the Sources of Spanish- Jewish History Jacobs and Wolf, Bibliotheea Anglo-Judaica Jabrbuch ftir die Geschichte der Juden und des Judenthums Jastrow, Dictionary of the Targumim, Tal- mudim. and Midrashim Jellinek, Bet ha-Midrash Jewish Chronicle, London The Jewish Fneyclopedia Jewish Historical Society of England ( Jewish Quarterly Review Jewish World, London Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews . Josephus, De Bello Judaico Josephus, Contra Apionem Joshua Jost’s Israelitische Annalen cour. Bib. Lit. .... Journal of Biblical Literature Justin, Dial. cum Tryph. Kaufmann ‘Get denkbueh...... § Kayserling, Bibl. ¢ Esp.-Port.-Jud.. § KOS avs cacce ie ccay Pee Relea ceueewetwee Kin....... atten a aees Kohut Memorial Volume......... (J ustin, Dialogus cum Tryphone Judo Gedenkbuch zur Erinnerung an David Kauf- mann Kayserling, Biblioteca Espafiola-Portugueza- Judaica Keritot (Talmud) Ketubot (Talmud) } Kurzer Hand-Commentar zum Alten Testa- ment, ed. Marti ... Kiddushin (Talmud) Kilayitn (Talinud) Kinnim (Talmud) Semitic Studies in Memory of A. Kohut “4 x LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS Krauss, Lehn- ‘ Krauss. Griechische und Lateinische Lehn- worter .........' Wérter im Talmud, Midrasch und Targum \ Larousse. Grand Dictionnaire Universel du Larousse, Dict.. -1 XIXe Sidcle UC oe scanty .oeee.-in the place cited Levy, Chal. ( Levy, Chaldaéisches Worterbuch tber die Worterb........ , Targumim P es, ae Levy. Neuhebrdisches und Chaldiisches I ae eunebr. | SV rrerbuch aber die Targumim und Mid- OrterdD ....eeee ( yasehim Hix cneeteveteuastes literally aca : dea : 1 Low, Die Lebensalter in der Jidischen Li- Low, Lebensalter - PY teat DRONE oS sGigeus eee Septuagint AD: eases iaecalestotncks married Maas... occ cus wo... Ma‘aserot (Talmud) Ma‘as. Sh.......... Ma‘aser Sheni (Talmud) Mace. . Maceabees Maiti onid es, p Maimonides, Moreh Nebukim Maimonides, Yad . ‘ pionidee: Yad ha-Hazakah Mak................ Makkot (Talmud) Maksh ..........06. Makshirin (Tahnud) Mas................ Masorah Massek ..c.cceeecees Masseket , McClintock and Strong, Cyclopedia of Bib- MeClintock and lical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Liter- Strong, Cye.... ature MEBs ie 5 ew hed sees Megillah (Talmud) Mel scee Seen nna Me‘ilah (Talmud) MOR ccc kdcieseels ous Mekilta MOD 665 ess ¢aceaie-s ....Menahot (Tahnud) Nis caislererens wanna we Middot (Talmud) Midr..........+6.... Midrash Midr. Teh.... .....Midrash Tehillim (Psalms) MIR cs cxaceaatainss .. Mikwaot (‘Falmud) INGE * Kee cesty ions adnate’. Mo‘ed Katan (Talmud) a § Monatsschrift fiir Geschichte und Wissen- Monatsschrift.... 7” scnaft des Judenthums Mortara, Indice.... Mortara, Indice Alfabetico Miller, Frag.Hist. ( Miller, Fragmenta Historicorum Grxco- Gree... ceeeeeee |) TUT : : Munk, Mélanges . ane de Philosophie Juive Murray's Eng. ee H. Murray, A New English Dictionary NOZ sauwecernea wits Nazir (Talmud) Dida dienes crno date Ned........ veoseees N@Gariin (Talmud) NO@ 6 ies rey wee NEGA IM Neubauer, Cat. ( Neubaner, Catalogue of the Hebrew MSS. Bodl.Hebr. an ) in the Bodleian Library Neubauer, G. 'T.... Neubauer, Géovraphie du Talmud Neubauer, M. J. C. . Neubauer, Medieval Jewish Chronicles TDi cas see Viens no place of publication stated INE Measdeteca rads aielee New Testament Qest. Wochenschrift.Oesterreichische Wochenschrift Oisae cas atn nosed -Ohalot (Talmud) OIE yaivata este barat Onkelos Orient, Lit., .. Literaturblatt des Orients OP ieek cia bes ewes Old Testament P. ea dinous sia eraesuteca bc Priestly Code . . § Pagel, Biographisches Lexikon Heryorragen- Pagel, Biog. Lex. | der Aerzte des Neunzehnten Jahrhunderts Pal. Explor. Fund..Palestine Exploration Fund Pallas Lex...... ..». Pallas Nagy Lexicon Pauly-Wissowa, ¢ Pauly-Wissowa, Real-Encyclopadie der Clas- Real-Eneye.....! sischen Altertumswissenschaft POS ..ceaee (pA Pesahim (Talmud) Pesh..... ee eres Peshito, Peshitta POSE i.) sence caw ets Pesikta de-Rab Kahana Pesik. R..... .. Pesikta Rabbati Pirke R. Bae: Pirke Rabbi Eliezer Rea ars beeen eens ..Rab or Rabbi or Rabbah abmer’s Jiid. re Lit.-Blatt....... |. Rabimer’s Jiidisches Litteratur-Blatt Regesty ........ 000. Regesty t Nadpisi Rev. Bib... Sete ects pene Biblique ae ae : iS (Rev ue des Etudes Juives Rey. Sém.......... hee ue Sémitique Ree: A 2 o.cre eee eka Rosh ha-Shanah (Talmud) , ‘ $ Amador de los Rios, Estudios Histéricos Rios, Estudios. ... 4 “politicos y Literarios, etc. ' ; oe Ti sj Amador de los Rios, Historia... de los Rios, Hist. ....... ( Judios de Espafia y, Portugal \Ritter, Die Erdkunde iim Verhiltnis zur Ritter, Erdkunde. ; ““xatur und zur Geschichte des Menschen Robinson, Re-{ Robinson, Biblical Researches in Palestine, searches { Mt. Sinai, and Arabia Petrea .. . 1838 Robinson, Later! Robinson, Later Biblical Researches in Pal- Researches , estineandthe Adjacent Regions .. . 1852 Roest, Cat. ' Roest, Catalog der Hebraica und Judaica Rosenthal. Bibl. / aus der L. Rosenthal’schen Bibliothek Tus? “Neaigia eitsini sie Garon Revised Version Salfeid, Marty ro-/ Salfeld, Das Martyrologium des Niirnberger lozium ae wees |) Memorbuches SAN i saey wal earan eau ee Sanhedrin (Talmud) S. B. E............. eacred Books of the East. \ (Sacred Books of the Old Testament) Poly- S. BO. Teo... 1} chrome Bible, ed. Paul Haupt Tae ; Schaff-Herzog, A Religious Encyclopaedia Schrader, ‘Schrader, Cuneiform Inseriptions and the Co 1Os Vig aec dx \ Old Testament, Eng. transt. Schrader, K.A.T.° eee: Keilinschriften und das Alte Tes- : janie obra | ament Schrader, K. B..... Schrader, Keilinsehrifttiche Bibliothek KF. SsSchrader, Keilinschriften und Geschichts- Schrader, K. G. 7 forse hung Schiirer, Gesch..... Schiirer, Geschichte des Jiidischen Volkes SEliievewnetenceses . Semahot (Talmud) BHD ones traci Shabbat (Talmud) SG Osis wate ea ate Shebi‘it (Talmud) Shebu...... acd ales Shebu‘ot (Talmud) SHEK css sseebenaees Shekalim (Talmud) Sibyllines.......... Sibylline Books Sinith, Rel. of Sem..Smith, Lectures on Religion of the Semites : \Stade’s Zeitschrift fiir die Alttestament- Stade's Zeitschrift) “liche W issenschaft Steinschneider, } Steinsechneider, Catalogue of the Hebrew Cat. Bodl....... Books in the "Bodleian Library { Steinschneider, Die Hebraisehen Hand- toe ane, * ~*~ schriften der K. Hof- und Staats-Bibliv- cues ee thek in Miinechen Steinschneider, Hebr. Bibl...... 9 ! Steinschneider, Hebraische Bibliographie ! Steinsehneider, : er ean § oe Hebr. Uebers, . _ ¢ Steinsehneider, Hebraisehe U ebersetzungen 5 'Strack, Das Blut im Glauben und Aber- Strack, Das Blut. ( glauben der Menschhcit SUk isc aS Sukkah (Vahuud) Ct Dee te ay ne under the word TRCAN ica stace cas Tavanit (Tainiud) Va sianevaes veeeee Tanhuma TAPS ivcesaie es b dlettece Targunim Targ. Onk.......... Targum Onkelos TAT Qe VCR oie: arose Targuu Yerushalmi or Targum Jonathan TOM eet nce es Temurah (Lalmud) VOT 24 ee ence ee be Terumot CTalinud) Test. Patr..... ....Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs WON sesced tt Mieke ....Tohorot TOS ....0. Sil ects Tosafot TOSEE 044.5.2-44 eure Tosefta CLANS] 4 b5.65 Heceanaies translation Tr. Soc. Bibl. { Transactions of the Society of Biblical Ar- Arch........ ..§ = =eheology ELON aha eae oe Tebul Yom (Talmud) SUK Souptremsatwcoutie a alel (Talinud) Univ. Isr.......2005 Univers Israélite Virchow's Archiv fiir Pathologische Anato- Virchow’s Archiv) mie und Physiologie, und fiir Klinisehe Medizin Vile saueda tas .o.. Vulgate Weiss, Dor.......... Weiss, Dor Dor we-Dorshaw Mie ae { Wellhausen, Israelitische und Jiidische han ae 6 cree wee })=©6Geschichte Winer, B. R.. safe eats Winer, Biblisches Realworterbuch Wisdom Sue Wnadbceanatans Wisdom of Solomon Wolf, Bibl. Hebr... Wolf, Bibliotheca Hebraea W.Z.K.M 5 Wiener Zeitschrift flr die Kunde des veesees i Morgentlandes VOC irae es ....vadayim (Talmud) VAL “Awexan eames Yad ha-Hazakah MAL sitet dhinceces ase Yalkut Y CUsicauaiare ease’ Yebamot (Talmud) DV Ol kta eeess .- Yerushalmi (Jerusalem Talmud) YHWH.......... Re | Yahw eh, Jehovah LAD 25 isca54 Meas ... Zabin (Talmud) Z.D.M.G § Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenlaindi- Rae ae Og ‘" i sehen Gesellschaft Z. De PeV sais ... Leitschrift des Deutschen Paliastina-Vereins DOW pei aipad ets .Zebahim (Talmud) Zedner, Cat. Hebr. t Zedner, Catalogue of the Hebrew Books in Books Brit.Mus.$ the British Museum Zeit. fiir Assvr..... Zeitschrift fiir Assvriologie Zeit. ftir Hebr. Bibl. Zeitschrift fir Hebraische Bibliographie Zeitlin, Bib]. Post-? Zeitlin, Bibliotheca Hebraica Post-Mendels- Mendels . ..{ sohniana ZunZ, G8 ... £UNZ, Gesammelte Schriften Z2unz, G. ye. sucess ..Zunz, Gottesdienstliche Vortriigre Aunz, Literatur- " Zunz, Literaturyeschichte der Synagogalen PESCD vveeevecee ld ea z 4 Zunz, Die Ritus des Synagogalen Gottes- 4unzZ, Ritus...... + dienstes & PiiZy os Pekin ees Zunz, Synagogale Poesie des Mittelalters Zunz, Z. G.....-..+- ZUDZ, Zur Geschichte und Literatur NOTE To THE READER. Subjects on which further information is afforded elsewhere in this work are indicated by the use of capitals and small capitals in the text; as, ABBA ARIKA; PUMBEDITA; VOCALIZATION. CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME V . Creer rere Cyrus Adler, Ph.D., President of the American Jewish Historical Society : President of the Board of Directors of the Jewish Theological Seminary of America } Librarian of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. A. A. G......- Amélie André Gedalge, Paris, France. Be Bl cccuvins Armand Bioch, Chief Rabbi, Brussels, Belgium. A. Blum..... A. Blumgrund, Ph.D., Rabbi, Carisruhe, Baden, Germany. A. Bu........ Alexander Biichler, Ph.D., Rabbi, Keszthely, Comitat Zola, Hungary. A. Biuch..... Adolf Bichler, Ph.D., Professor, Jewish Theological Seminary, Vienna, Austria. A.B... eee: A. Eckstein, Ph.D., Rabbi, Bamberg, Germany. Pia Faseneets A. Freimann, Ph.D., Editor of the “Zeitschrift fiir Hebraische Bibliographie*; Librarian of the Hebrew Department, Stadtbibliothek, Frankfort-on- the-Main, Germany. Ai FO siciinsas Alfred Feilchenfeld, Ph.D., Piincipal of the Realschule, Firth, Bavaria, Germany. .. Adolf Guttmacher, Ph.D., Rabbi, Baltimore, Md. ..A. Geiger, Ph.D., Frankfort-on-the-Main, Germany. A. Ha........ Alexander Harkavy, New York City. Ra) A. Kaminka, Ph.D., Rabbi; Secretary of the Wiener Israelitische Allianz, Vienna, Austria. ¢ Mad. oa Alois Kaiser, Cantor, Temple Oheb Shalom, Baltimore, Md. nS eee Alexander Kisch, Ph.D., Rabbi, Pragne, Bohemia, Austria. A A A. Ko........ Adolf Kohut, Ph.D., Berlin, Germany. A A A oa) . ©) Perera A. Kurrein, Ph.D., Rabbi, Teplitz, Bobemia, Austria. . Lew...... Adolf Lewinsky, Ph.D., Chief Rabbi, Hildesheim, Germany. .M. F...... Albert M. Friedenberg, B.S., LL.B., Counselor at Law; Correspondent of ‘* The Jewish Comment,” Baltimore, Md.; New York City. ere A. Porter, Formerly Associate Editor of ‘* The Forum,”’ New York; Revising Editor ** Standard Cyclo- pedia,’’ New York City. Bi PO iocsoc, Bs Peiginsky, Ph.D., New York City. Bi Rie ee, A. Rhine, Rabbi, Hot Springs, Ark. A. S. Ww, R.. A, Ss. Ww, Rosenbach, Philadelphia, Pa. A. W......... Albert Wolf, Dresden, Saxony, Germany. pgs > eee Benuel H. Brumberg, Contributor to “ National Cyclopedia of Amer- ican Biography,’’ New York City. B. Fr, @eeoees L 2. B. F @eeeoveeeon i B. Friedberg, Frankfort-on-the-Main, Germany. Beds ese vci eles Benno Jacob, Ph.D., Rabbi, Gottingen, Germany. Bs Piscine so Bernhard Pick, Ph.D., D.D., Formerly Pastor of St. John’s Lutheran Church, Albany, N. Y¥.; New York City. B. R..........Baer Ratner, Wilna, Russia. C.deB....... C. de Bethencourt, Lisbon, Portugal. C.F. K...... Charles Foster Kent, Ph.D., Professor of Biblieal Literature and History, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. ...Charles J. Mendelsohn, Philadelphia, Pa. Cu Ls asivsex Caspar Levias, M.A.., Instructor in Exegesisand Talniidie Aramaic, Hebrew Union College, Cinciunati, Ohio. ©. Siceaus .... Carl Siegfried, Ph.D., LL.D. Weceased), Late Professor of Theology at the University of Jena, Germany. LD eee ree ere Gotthard Deutsch, Ph.D., Professor of Jewish Ilistory, Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati, Ohio. Dk ikeeneeas David Phillipson, D.D., Rabbi, B’ne Israel Congregation ; Professor of Homiletics, Hebrew Union College, Cincin- nati, Ohio. ...... David Samuel Margoliouth, Laudian Professor of Arabie in the University of Oxford, England. ..... David Sulzberger, Philadelphia, Pa. Oe sa cee Executive Com, Board. E. G.H...... Emil G. Hirsch, Ph.D., LL.D., Rabbi, Sinai Congregation ; Professor of Rab- binicaj Literature and Philosophy in the Uni- versity of Chicago; Chicago, H1. Be Nicivas E. I. Nathans, Philadelphia, Pa. Sy. iiekanas . Eduard Konig, Ph.D., LL.D., Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, Uni- versity of Bonn, Germany. E. Lev..... .. Ezekiel Leavitt, New York City. E. Li...... ...knno Littmann, Ph.D., Librarian of the Oriental Department and Lecturer in Semitic Philology, Princeton Uni- versity, Princeton, N. J. E. Ms......... Edgar Mels, New York City. E.N. A...,..Elkan N. Adler, London, England. E. Sechr....,..E. Schreiber, Ph.D., Rabbi, Emanu-F] Congregation, Chicago, Hl. cC.J.M.... of the Editorial Brooklyn, N. Y. G..... cache Richard Gottheil, Ph.D., Professor of Semitic Languages, Columbia University, New York; Chief of the Oriental Department, New York Public Library; Presi- dent of the Federation of American Zionists, New York City. G. A. B....... George A. Barton, Ph.D., Instructor at the Lehranstalt ftir die Wissen- schaft des Judenthums, Berlin, Germany. pa > Genera ee Isidore Harris, A.M., Rabbi of West London Synagogne, London, England. Dy Tata tecrneny Israel Lévi, Professor in the Jewish Theological Seminary, xil CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME V E. Sd......... E. Schwarzfeld, LL.D., | US ae | Seer age Herman Rosenthal, Secretary of Jewish Colonization Association, Chief of the Slavonic Department of the New Paris, France. York Public Library, New York City. Ba W, Bi sce es Edward William Bennett, Fhe, V sixties Hermann Vogelstein, Ph.D., New York City. Rabbi, KGnigsberg, East Prussia, Germany, Be Biligsad sx Frants Buhl, Ph.D., Es: Bvcsccncias Israel Abrahams, Professor of Semitic Philology, University of Canibridge, England. Copenhagen, Denmark. I. B...........Isaae Bloch, F.G. H EF. G. Hoffmann, Chief Rabbi, Naney, France. Paterson, N. J. I. Be.......... Immanuel Benzinger, Ph.D., F.H.V .. Frank H. Vizetelly, F.S.A., Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, Uni- Associate Editor of the ‘“*Columbian Cyclo- versity of Berlin, Germany. 4 bh . Ad 4 il Fn ° Re eon, He SPANDARD DICMONARS I. Ber........ Israel Berlin, oe =e aa Chemist, New York City. . L. . &, L. Cohen, Rabbi, Borough New: Synagogues London, ee alec we Ecole des Hautes Etudes; for ; erm . ee U7 Ae i. Fy % & wi G z ul rg bed ee ene Ob Ok onan cone merly Librarian of the Alliance Israélite Uni- oe = : ; en verselle, Paris, France; New York City. iE Gilad ss elix Perles, D., : hae keira ae e ‘ RD MM be5! I. D. Morrison, Rabbi, ROMIUSP ENE: Eust Prussia, Germany. New York City. Bir By EE eee Mrederick 2: Hanewen Ps Es Aoscrsiataes Ismar Elbogen, Ph.D., Associate Professor in Biblical Literature and Seinitice Languages, Bryn Mawr College, Bryn Mawr, Pa, .George Alexander Kohut, Ph.D., Formerly Rabbi in Dallas, Texas; New York City. G. B.L.......Gerson B. Levi, Philadelphia, Pa. G. A. K...... Ge Driciics George Drenford, Ph.D., Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. Ge Descudecs’ Goodman Lipkind, B.A., Rabbi, London, England. G. Mo........ Godfrey Morse, Lawyer, Boston, Mass, G. R. euvevave G. Rilf, Ph.D., Raobi, Brunswick, Germany. G.S... .. Gabriel Schwarz, Ph.D., Agram, Croatia, Austria. H.A.......... Herman Adler, Chief Rabbi of England, London, England. p> ee: eee H. Brody, Ph.D., Coeditor of the ‘Zeitschrift fiir Hebraische Bibliographie’’; Rabbi, Nachad, Bohemia, Austria. .. Heinrich Bloch, Ph.D., Professor of History, Jewish Theological Sem- inary, Budapest, Hungary. 5 I Ope ee Henry Cohen, Rabbi, Galveston, Texas. BY iecissv Harry Friedenwald, M.D., Baltimore, Md. H. Gut...... H. Guttenstein, New York City. Hiss cece Henry Hyvernat, D.D., Professor of Oriental Languages and Arche- ology, Catholic University of America, Wash- ington, D.C. Hir....... Hartwig Hirschfeld, Ph.D., Professor, Jews’ College, London, England. H. M... .. wenry Malter, Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati, Ohio. H. Ma. .. Hilel Malachovsky, New York City. Paris, France; Editor of *“‘ Revue des Etudes Juives.”” Te Ms Ck sx, I. M. Casanowicz, Ph.D., United States National Museum, Washington. D.C. I. M. P......Ivra Maurice Price, B.D., Ph.D., Professor of Semitic Languages and Litera- tures, University of Chicago, IJIl. I. P. M......I. P. Mendez, Rabbi, Savannah, Ga. Lariat oes I. Schwartz, Paris, France. ene tre Joseph Jacobs, B.A., Formerly President of the Jev.ish Historical Society of England; Corresponding Member of the Royal Academy of History, Madrid ; New York City. J. Ch.........J. Chotzner, Montefiore College, Ramsgate, England. J.D. E...... J. D. Eisenstein, New York City. A Sas © Fee grees John Dyneley Prince, Ph.D., Professor of Semitic Languages, Columbia University, New York City. J.D. Pe.....J. D. Perruchon, Paris, France. Di Moeioewaks Joseph Ezekiel, J.P., Bombay, India. . Frederic McCurdy, Ph.D., LL.D., Professor of Oriental Languages, University College, Toronto, Canada. ', Guttmann, Ph.D., Professor, Jewish Seminary, Breslau, Ger- many. J,.G.L...... J. G. Lipman, Ph.D., Assistant Agriculturist, New Jersey State Ex- periment Station, New Brunswick, N. J. Js He Giies4 Julius H. Greenstone, Rabbi, Philadelphia, Pa. J. Hy.......d. Hyams, Bombay, India, DS OT evvrcie ss Morris Jastrow, Jr., Ph.D., Professor of Semitic Languages, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa. Kla......J. Klausner, Ph.D., Odessa, Russia. CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME VY xiii nnn at J. M.......... Jacob Marcus, Elmira, N. Y. J. So.........Joseph Sohn, Contributor to ‘The New International En- cyclopedia *; formerly of ** The Forum,” New York City. _..... Marcus Jastrow, Ph.D., Rabbi Emeritus of Congregation Rodef Sha- lom, Philadelphia, Pa. J. Sto..... ., Joseph Stolz, Ph.D., Rabbi, Chicago, Ill. J.S.RB........0. S. Raisin, Rabbi, Gemiluth Chesed Congregation, Fort Gibson, Miss. J. T...........0. Theodor, Ph.D., Rabbi, Bojanowo, Posen, Germany. J.Sr.. J. V.ss..:0.,.0acob Voorsanger, D.D., Rabbi, Emanu-El Congregation, San Francisco, Cal.; Professor of Semitic Languages and Literature, University of California, Berkeley, Cal. J. W......... Julien Weill, Rabbi, Paris, France. .Kaufmann Kohler, Ph.D., Rabbi Emeritus of Temple Beth-El, New York; President of the Hebrew Union Col- lege, Cincinnati, Ohio, K. H. C......Karl Heinrich Cornill, Ph.D., Professor of Hebrew and Old Testament Exe- gesis, University of Breslau, Germany. K. MW. C..... Katherine M, Cohen, New York City. L. A. R......Ludwig A. Rosenthal, Rabbi, Rogasen, Posen, Germany. L. B.......... Ludwig Blau, Ph.D., Professor in the Jewish Theological Seminary, Budapest, Hungary; Editor of “Magyar Zsid6-Szemle.”’ L. G..........4ouis Ginzberg, Ph.D., Professor of Talmud, Jewish Theological Sein- inary of America, New York City. i . Cone enoeeveae L. Gr........ Louis Grossman, Rabbi, Cincinnati, Ohio. L. Grti....... Lazarus Griinhut, Director of Orphan Asylum, Jerusalem, Pales- tine. Bae Oey Laura Landau, New York City. L.N.D......Lewis N. Dembitz, Attorney at Law, Louisville, Ky. L. V.......... Ludwig Venetianer, Ph.D., Rabbi in Neupest, Hungary. MM. Biases: Moses Beer, Berlin, Germany, M. Ba........ Moritz Bauer, Ph.D., Rabbi, Gaya, Moravia, Austria. M. Bil...... .. Maurice Bloch, Principal of the Bischoffsheim School at Paris, France. ME BY ce cicias M. Brann, Ph.D., Professor, Jewish Theological Seminary, Bresiau, Germany. M. Co........ Max Cohen, Attorney at Law, New York City. M. Da........ Myer Davis, London, England. QO ee Michael Friedlander, Ph.D., Principal Jews’ College, London, England. M. Fi........ Maurice Fishberg, M.D., Surgeon to the Beth Israel Hospital Dispen- sary ; Medical Examiner to the United Hebrew Charities, New York City. M. Fr........M. Franco, Principal of the Alliance Israélite Universeile Schuol, Shuma, Bulgaria. Bo Gea sustaak, M. Gudemann, Ph.D., Chief Rabbi, Vienna, Austria. NGS Gwe. creer: M. Ginsberger, Rabbi, Gebweiler, Alsace, Germany. M. Gr........M. Grunwald, Ph.D., Rabbi, Vienna, Austria. M. K....,.... Meyer Kayserling, Ph.D., Rabbi, Budapest, Hungary. M. Lev......M. Level, Paris, France. M. R......... Max Rosenthal, M.D., Visiting Physician, German Dispensary, New York City. M. Sc........ Max Schloessinger, Ph.D., Rabbi, New York City. M. Sel....... M. Seligsohn, Diplomé de l’Ecole des Hautes Etudes, Paris, France; New York City. M. W......... Max Weisz, Ph.D., Budapest, Hungary. M. W. M....Mary W. Montgomery, Ph.D., New York City. M. W. R..... M. W. Rapoport, Lemberg, Galicia, Austria. N.D..........N. Dunbar, Newark, N. J. ..N. Ehrenfeld, Ph.D., Chief Rabbi, Prague, Bohemia, Austria. N. L..........N. Lucas, Ph.D., Rabbi, Glogau, Silesia, Germany. ING: Po Deets N. T. London, New York City. .-Philipp Bloch, Ph.D., Rabbi, Posen, Germany. Ps Bucs Pe Wis tates Peter Wiernik, New York City. R. Gru... Richard Griinfeld, Ph.D., Rabbi, Bingen, Hesse, Germany. R. W. R......Robert W. Rogers, D.D., Ph.D., Professor of Hebrew and Old Testament Exe- gesis, Drew Theol. Seminary, Madison, N. J. S.......-...... sidore Singer, Ph.D., MANAGING EDITOR, New York City. SB. Bice Samuel Baeck, Ph.D., Rabbi, Lissa, Posen, Germany, ' ee Ores Samuel Ehrenfeld, Ph.D., Prague, Bohemia, Austria. Sid sawea waves S. Janovsky, Lawyer, St. Petersburg, Russia. Poss acvav ad S. Kahn, Rabbi, Nimes, France. Se OO es seu. S. Kohn, Prague, Austria. 8. Boticcasaw S. Krauss, Ph.D., Professor, Normal College, Budapest, Hungary. S. M.......... S. Mendelsohn, Ph.D., labbi, Wilmington, N.C. S. Man....... S. Mannheimer, B.L., Instructor, Hebrew Union Coll, Cincinnati, 0. .S. M. Dubnow, Odessa, Russia. S. Mu........S. Muhsam, Chief Rabbi, Gratz, Styria, Austria. S. Miin...... Sigmund Miinz, Ph.D., Vienna, Austria, S.M.D...... CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME V S.R.D.......S. R. Driver, D.D., Regius Professor of Hebrew, Oxford Uni- versity, Oxford, England. Ss. Ro......2..5> Rothschild, Worms, Germany. S.S..........8o0lomon Schechter, M.A., Litt.D., Dean of the Jewish Theological Seminary of America, New York City. S. Sa.......... Sigismund Salfeld, Ph.D., Rabbi, Mayence, Hesse, Germany. S. Sam........Salomon Samuel, Ph.D., Rabbi, Essen, Rhine Province, Germany. S. Se......... Sigmund Seeligmann, Amsterdam, Holland. S. S. W....... Stephen S. Wise, Ph.D., Rabbi, Portland, Ore. T...scccceeeee Orawford Howell Toy, D.D., LL.D., Professor of Hebrew, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. Ti Besse Thomas Seltzer, Philadelphia, Pa. U. Cc. eeeeeoesd -Umberto Cassuto, Florence, Italy. V.&E........... Victor R. Emanuel, Laurel, Md. V5: Ee keees .Vasili Rosenthal, Kremeuchug, Russia. seesase.e.W. Bacher, Ph.D., Professor, Jewish Theological Seminary, Buda- pest, Hungary. W. M.-A.....W. Muss-Arnolt, Ph.D., Assistant Professor of Biblical Philology, Uni- versity of Chicago, Il. W. M. M.....W. Max Muller, Ph.D., Professor of Bible Exegesis, Reformed Epis- copal Theological Seminary, Philadelphia, Pa. W. N.... eeee .e William Nowack, Ph.D., Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, Uni- versity of Strasburg, Germany. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME V N. B.—In the following list subjects likely to be sought for under various headings are repeated under each heading. PAGE Aaron of Lincoln, Starr of, Acknowledging Receipt of Part Payment from Richard Malebys, 1181. Ti the: British. MuIseUl st occuss ccna schema tance amtoen ater eeNetaw ase Seneaeieet eee eroeelas 1638 Abraham, Son of Maimonides, Autograph Letter of. From the Cairo Genizah............ plate facing 612 Abyssinia, Palasha-V illiee- at balinkabs ene ur- =“ bulging,” in Nabateean Inscription No. 27). The bowl, which was called “sefel,” was used fo1 holding milk (Judges v. 25) and for drawing water (Judges vi. 38). Judges v. 25 shows that in addi- tion to the bowls of ordinary size there were larger ones, evidently designed for guests of honor, who were served with double portions (Gen. xliii. 34; I Sam. ix. 23 e¢ seg.), not only of meat, but also of drink; hence the use of the phrase “sefel addirim ” (lordly dish). The word “saf” mentioned in I Kings vii. 50; II Kings xii. 14; and Jer. lii. 19 probably refers to a bowl! also. In Ex. xii. 22 and Zech. xii. 2a saf is used at the sacrifice. The “aggan” mentioned in Cant. vii. 3is not a bowl for drinking, but rather for mixing wine with spices; hence xpartjp in Sep- tuagint. The “kad ”—mentioned in Gen. xxiv. 14 e¢ seg., which was carried on the shoulder, and from which Rebekah gave Eliezer water (Gen. xxiv. 18)— was used for drawing water (comp. Eccl. xii. 6) rather than as a drinking-vessel (comp. “deli,” Isa. xl. 15). Jugs were also used as drinking-vessels; in IT Sam, xxvi. 12, 16 a “zappahat” (cruse) is men- tioned, probably a bulging jug carried on journeys as a drinking-vessel. “ Nehel,” which has a similar meaning, may have originally designated a water- skin (I Sam. i. 24, x. 3, etc.), but later it undoubt- edly signified an earthen vessel (Isa. xxx. 14; Lam. iv. 2). “Bakbuk” (Jer. xix. 1, 10; I Kings xiv. 3), also meaning an earthen vessel, was perhaps used for drinking purposes. E. G. H. W.N. Drissa Drumont THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 2 DRISSA: Russian city in the government of Vitebsk. The population in 1897 was 4,237, of whom 2,856 were Jews. There were 657 artisans (including 229 masters) and 158 day-laborers. Among its charitable institutions may be noted the Bikkur Holim, and among its educational institutions a county school with 120 pupils (7 of whom are Jews) and a day-school with 70 pupils (12 of whom are Jews). Drissa existed as early as the fourteenth cen- tury, and Jews are mentioned there in connection with the lumber trade in 1547 (“ Regesty i Nadpisi,” No. 464). Situated on the Drissa, an affluent of the Diina, Drissa was a center for the export of lumber and grain to Riga and Danzig, a trade which was entirely in the hands of the Jews. H. R. S. J.—M. R. DRIVER, SAMUEL ROLLES: English Christian Hebraist; born at Southampton Oct. 2, 1846; regius professor of Hebrew (in succession to Pusey), and canon of Christ Church, Oxford, since 1883: member of the Old Testament Revision Com- pany, 1876-84, Together with T. K. Cheyne and Robertson Smith, Driver has been one of the foremost cham- pions of Biblical criticism in England. Driver ap- proached it from its linguistic side (“Jour. of Phil.” 1882, pp. 201-236). His first contribution, “A Treatise on the Use of the Tenses in Hebrew ” (Ox- ford, 1874; 3d ed., 1892), has remained the most com- plete presentation of the subject. Driver has de- fended his position before several Church congresses (e.g., in 1883); his attitude has frequently been crit- icized from a theological point of view (sce, for example, “The Guardian,” 1890, pp. 1419 e¢ seg. ; Robinson, “Early Religion,” p. xii.), while Cheyne complains that Driver is not a sufficiently represent- ative exponent of modern higher criticism (“ Intro- duction to the Book of Isaiah,” p. xi.). In matters of criticism Driver has always taken a conservative view, showing much moderation and sympathy with the orthodox position. For him “the Old Testa- ment is not asystematic treatise on theology, but the record of a historical revelation, which, just be- cause it was historical, passed through many suc- cessive phases, and was completed gradually”; and the conclusions at which he arrives “affect, not the fact of revelation, but only its form. They help to determine the stages through which it passed, the different phases which it assumed, and the proc- ess by which the record of it was built up. They do not touch either the authority or the inspiration of the scriptures of the Old Testament” (compare his “Isaiah,” Preface, and “Introduction,” p. vii., New York, 1891). He takes a similar position in regard to the results of archeological and anthro- pological research ; holding that though these results have taken the Hebrews out of the isolated position which they, as a nation, seem previously to have held, they “do not, in any degree, detract from that religious preeminence which has always been deemed the inalienable characteristic of the Hebrew race” (“Hebrew Authority,” p. 7). Driver’s critica) works dea! with the most impor- tant books of the Old Testament, and his “ Introduc- tion” is still the standard English work on the subject. Driver's chief productions are his contri- butions to “The Holy Bible with Various Render- ings and Readings” (together with Cheyne, 1876): known from the 8d ed. onward as “The Variorum Bible,” 1888; “Notes on the Hebrew Text of the Books of Samuel,” Oxford, 1890; “ An Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament,” 1891; 6th ed., 1897; “Sermons on Subjects Connected with the Old Testament,” 1892; “Isaiah: His Life and Times,” in the “Men of the Bible” series, 1893; “Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Deuteron- omy,” 1895, in the “International Critical Commen- tary ” series; “Joel and Amos,” 1897, and “ Daniel,” 1900, in the “Cambridge Bible for Schools”; “The Parallel Psalter,” 1898, and a critical edition of Leviticus, in the “Sacred Books of the Old Testa- ment,” ed, Haupt, 1894; “Hebrew Authority,” in “ Authority and Archeology, Sacred and Profane,” ed. D. G. Hogarth, 1899. To the “Studia Biblica” (vol. i., Oxford, 1885) Driver has contributed a paper on “Recent Theories on the Origin and Na- ture of the Tetragrammaton ”; to the “Jew. Quart. Rev.” (i. 258 e¢ seq.), an article ou “The Origin and Structure of the Book of Judges”; and to Neubauer and Cowley’s edition of Ben Sira he has added a glossary and some notes (“Original Hebrew of Ec- clesiasticus,” 1897, p. xv.; compare “Oxford Maga- zine,” viii., Nos. 11 and 12, 1890; and “ The Guard- ian,” 1896, p. 1029). Driver has edited two small rabbinical works: a commentary on Jeremiah and Ezekiel by Moses ben Sheshet, London, 1871, and one on Proverbs, attrib- uted to Abraham ibn Ezra, Oxford, 1880. He has also been a collaborator on the second edition of Smith’s “Bible Dictionary,” on Hasting’s “ Diction- ary of the Bible,” and on Cheyne and Black’s “ En- cyclopedia Biblica,” and is coeditor, with Professors Brown and Briggs, of the Clarendon press edition of Gesenius. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Who’s Who, s.v.; Prominent Men of the Nineteenth Century, s.v.; Cheyne, Founders of Old Testa- ment Criticism, pp. 248 et seq., New York, 1893. J. G. DROHOBICZER, ISRAEL NAHMAN BEN JOSEPH: Talmudic scholar and preacher of Stan- islaw (according to Ghirondi he came from Os- trog, Russia); died at Safed early in the nineteenth century. Hewasa pupil of Israel Ba‘al Shem-Tob, and after having been rabbi and rosh yeshibah in several towns of Germany, he undertook a long journey in order to publish his works. He stayed for several years at Leghorn, where his books were printed; and then went to Palestine, where he died. He wrote the following works: “ Emet le-Ya‘akob,” funeral dirges, 1704; “ Hemdat Yisrael,” a commen- tary on Ecclesiastes, on “ Elef Alfin,” and on “ Alef Bet” of Elijah ha-Levi, 1820; “ Pekuddat ha-Melek,” containing novellz on Maimonides, and funeral dirges, 2 vols. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider. Cat. Bodl. col. 1166; Nepi- Ghirondi, Toledot Gedole Yisrael, pp. 170, 180; Zedner, Cat. Hebr. Books Brit. Mus. p. 211. M. SEL. L. G. DROMEDARY: A variety or choice breed of the camel proper, or one-humped camel: much taller THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 3 —— ul longer in the leg than the ordinary camel, of a at o more slender shape, and generally of a very light olor. Itsspeed is considerable, reachin g eighty miles a y. Zoologists include all varieties of one-humped a oT under the name Camelus dromedartus, in con- S aisiaction to the Cumelus bactrianus, or two- ae camel. As the two species interbreed suc- ee tully and the offspring is able to procreate, some assume that they are only two varieties of one spe- cies; but as the Camelus dromedarius has not yet peen found in a wild state, the question can not be gee word “dromedary” occurs four times in the English versions; viz., twice in both the Authorized and the Revised Version as a rendering of the He- prew “beker” (Isa. 1x. 6) or “bikrah” (Jer. ii. 28), d twice in the Authorized Version alone, to render ie Hebrew “rekesh” (I Kings v. 8 [A. V. tv. 28] and Esth. viii. 10), But in neither case is the ren- dering correct. “Rekesh” means rather a swift steed, as the Revised Version has it; and “beker” designates the young of the camel up to nine years, and not any special variety or breed. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Tristram, Vatural History of the Bible, s.v.; Wood, Bible Animals, s.v. iu E. G. H. . i. DROPSIE, MOSES AARON: American law- yer, and president of Gratz College; born in Phila- delphia, Pa., March 9, 1821; died there July 8, 1905. He began life as a store-boy, later learned watchmaking, and afterward studied law under Benjamin Harris Brewster. | After his admission to the bar (in 1851) he took an active interest in public affairs, was the candidate of the Whig party for mayor of the Northern Liber- ties district of Philadelphia in 1852, and, like most members of the party, was strongly opposed to slavery. Dropsie has been instrumental in the development of railways in Philade!phia; and after acting as president of the Lombard and South Street Passen- ver Railroad (1862-82), he became (1888) president of the Green and Coates Street Passenger Railroad, which position he still holds (1903). In 1870 he became chairman of the commission appointed by the legislature for the construction of a bridge over the Schuylkill River. __Dropsie has always taken a deep interest in Jew- Ish charitable and educational work. He has been a director of the Hebrew Fuel Society ; a member of the board of “adjunta” (directors) of the Sephardic Congregation Mickvé Israel; and was one of the charter members, and for more than forty years an officer, of the Hebrew Education Society of Phila- del phia, having acted as secretary, vice-president, and (twice) president. He is now (1903) an honor- ary life-member of the board of officers. - ey ne president of Maimonides College ” 7 to 1873, and has been president of the 2 oe branch of the Alliance Israélite Uni- aha ae 1883 and of Gratz College since its id ation in 1893. From 1856 to 1861 he was pres- eat of the Mercantile Club. : Owing to failing eyesight, Dropsie in 1885 re- tired from the practise of the Jaw. He has trans- lated and edj Mac? «ET, and edited Mackeldey’s “Handbook of the Drissa Drumont Roman Law ” (1883), and in addition has published (1892) a separate work on “The Roman Law of Tes- taments, Codicils, and Gifts in the Event of Death (Mortis Causa Donationes).” Besides a “Panegyric on the Life of the Rev. Isaac Leeser,” Dropsie has written pamphlets on “The Life of Jesus from and Including the Accusa- tion Until the Alleged Resurrection, with an Account of the Cross-Crown of Thorns,” and “ Reform Juda- ism and the Study of Hebrew,” BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. S. Morais, The Jews of Philadelphia, pp. 200-208 and Index. A D. Sv. DROSHCHIN. See Gropno. DRUCKER, HAYYIM B. JACOB (also known as Arbich): Printer of Amsterdam at the end of the seventeenth and the beginning of the eighteenth century. His activity as a typesetter, publisher, author, and translator extends from 1680 to 1724. He worked successively in the printing establishments of David Tartas, of Moses Mendez, and of Asher Aushel & Co. He edited in 1690 a Judzo-German translation of Manasseh b. Israel’s “Mikweh Yisrael,” and of the “ Masse‘ot Binyamin ” (Itinerary of Benjamin of Tudela). He published the following works: in 1706, his own “ Leb Haka- mim ” containing a treatise on morals, together with the ethical work “Leb Tob,” by Isaac b. Eliakim of Posen, both in Judeeo-German; in 1711, a new edi- tion of the “Ze’enah u-Re’enah”; in 1718, a calen- dar for the year 5479 (=1719); and in 1722, Isaac Aboab’s “ Menorat ha-Ma’or,” with the Judxo-Ger- man translation of Moses Frankfurter, which Frank- furter himself revised. Drucker had two sons, Hen- del Ethanan and Jacob, both of whom were the printers and publishers of Jud#o-German transla- tions of various works. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider and Cassel, Jitidische Typo- graphie und Jtidischer Buchhandel, in Ersch and Gruber, Encyc. xxviii. 70; First, Bibl. Jud. 1. 49; Benjacob, Ozar ha-Sefarim, pp. 254, 338; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. Nos. 4691, 7919. di, P. Wi. DRUCKER, MICHAEL: Musician; born in Russian Poland Dec. 31, 1861. At the age of five he began the study of the violin under his father, and in 1875 attended the Kiev Conservatorium. He became concert-director in Kiev in 1877, and later leader of the orchestra at the operetta theater there. He then went to Warsaw to complete his studies. After making extended concert tours in Sweden, Norway, France, and Germany, he became concert- director at the Lemberg opera-house (1880), where he remained for thirteen years, Then he removed to Vienna, where he is (1903) active as a virtuoso and music-teacher. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Eisenberg, Das Geistige Wien, i. 91. H. R. N. D. DRUISK. See Kovno. DRUMONT, EDOUARD ADOLPHE: French anti-Semitic author and former deputy from Al- geria; born at Paris on May 3, 1844. Drumont’s ancestry is not Jewish, as has been sometimes as- serted. His ancestors came from Lille, where they were porcelain-painters. Drumont studied at the Lycée. When Drumont was but seventeen his father died, and left him to earn his own livelihood. Drunkenness Dublin THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 4 He entered the Préfecture de la Seine, but soon left this for the profession of letters. At first he worked on the staff of several daily, weekly, and monthly periodicals. He was one of the chief collaborators on the “ Liberté,” “Gaulois,” and “Petit Journal.” During the seventies he published several volumes dealing with historical and theatrical themes. In 1886 Drumont withdrew from the staff of the “ Liberte” (owned by Péreire, a Jew), claiming that the newspapers were unduly controlled by the Jews. He then issued his famous work in two vol- umes, “La France Juive,” a book which may be re- garded as the beginning of the anti-Semitic move- ment in France. It givesan account of the Jews of that country, and analyzes the Jewish element of the French nation. The work, of course, is written from an intensely prejudiced point of view. It has passed through more than one hundred editions, arousing wide-spread interest, and was soon trans- lated into several languages. Because of it, Dru- mont fought several duels, notably with Charles Laurent and Arthur Meyer. In addition, Drumont ‘ wrote the following books to explain his previous work: “La France Juive Devant l’Opinion” (1886), “La Fin d’un Monde” (1888), “ Derniére Bataille,” “Testament d’un Antisémite ” (1889), etc. Meantime the Panama affair, in which several Jewish financiers were prominently involved, gave to Drumont’s agitation great popularity, and in September, 1892, he founded the “Libre Parole,” a daily jourval of rabid anti-Semitic tendencies. For his anti-Panama articles, Drumont was con- demned to three months’ imprisonment. In 1893 he was an unsuccessful candidate for the representa- tion of Amiens; the following year he retired to Brussels. The Dreyfus affair helped him to regain popularity, and in 1898 he returned to France and was elected deputy for the first division of Algiers, but was defeated as a candidate for reelection in 1902, : BIBLIOGRAPHY: Dewamin, Collection Beucl pate des Notabilités du XTXe Siécle, i. 218 et seq., Paris, 1901; Curi- nier, Dictionnaire National des Contemporains, i. 93 et seq., Paris, n.d.; Nouveau Larousse Illustré, iii. 856; De Guber- natis, Dictionnaire International des Ecrivains du Jour, p. 860, Paris, n.d. D A, M. F. DRUNKENNESS IN LAW: The Talmud speaks only once of drunkenness in its relation to re- sponsibility for contracts or for crimes; namely, in the following baraita (‘Er. 65a): ‘** A drunken man’s purchase is a purchase; his sale isa sale; if he commits a capital offense, they put him to death; if he does an act punishable by stripes, they flog him; in a word, he is deemed of sound mind for all purposes, except that he is free from prayer [elsewhere the recital of the prayer is forbidden to the drunken man]. R. Hanina says: * All this is true only until the man has gone as far in his drunkenness as Lot went; but when he has gone as far as Lot, he is free from everything.’ ”’ These rules are followed by all the codes; ¢.g., Maimonides, “Yad,” Mekirah, xxix.; Shulhan ‘Aruk, Hoshen Mishpat, 222, 22. Speaking broadly, these principles agree with those of the English-American law. Compare, however, FRAUD AND MISTAKE, LAW OF. L. G. L. N. D. DRUSILLA: Daughter of Agrippa I. and Cy- pros (Josephus, “ Ant.” xviii. 5, $4; dem, “B. J.” ii. 11,86); born in38. She wasonly six years old at her father’s death (44), and was subjected to the insult of having the portraits of herself and two sis. ters, Berenice and Mariamne, carried into the houseg of ill-fame of Ceesarea by the Roman soldiers, who rejoiced over Agrippa’s death (“ Ant.” xix. 9, § 1), The sisters did not enjoy a good reputation, the beautiful Drusilla being even worse than her elder sisters. Her father had betrothed her to Epiphanes, son of Antiochus of Commagene; but as Epiphanes refused after Agrippa’s death to keep his promise to embrace Judaism, Drusilla was married by her brother Agrippa II. to Azizos, King of Emesa, who accepted the Abrahamic covenant (“ Ant.” xx. 7, $1). Drusilla dissolved her marriage with Azizos about the year 538, the newly appointed procurator of Judea, Felix, having fallen in love with her. With the help of a Cypriote magician, whose name is variously given as “Atomos” and “Simon,” he in- duced her to follow him, though a pagan, and to become his wife, contrary to the laws of her people (Acts xxiv. 24). Envy of her sister Berenice, who vied with her in beauty, aided in driving Drusilia to this step. Reference to Drusilla (3.) is made in a manner to suggest that she was present wheu Paul preached before Felix. By Felix, Drusilla had a son, Agrippa, who, to- gether with his wife, perished during the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 (* Ant.” xx. 7, $ 2). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Basnage, /Tistoire des Jiuife, 1. 1873 Griitz, Gesch. 4th ed., iii. 854, 428. 488; Gerlach, in Zeitschrift ftir Lutherische Theologie, 1869, pp. 68 et seg.: Schiirer, Gesch. 3d ed., i. 5738. It is said in the Prosopogruphia Imperii Romani, ii. 95, that Tacitus, in his History (v. 9), confounds two wives of Felix of the name of Drusilla. G. S. Kr. DUAL: Form of a noun or verb indicating its application to two persons or things. Arabic is the only Semitic language that has the dual form for the verb as well as for the noun; in Syriac only a few traces of the dual have been preserved. In Hebrew the dual has been preserved in the case of the noun only, its suffix being “ayim.” It is used chiefly to designate objects that are found naturally in pairs, es- pecially members of the human body or of the bodies ofanimals. Itis also used of the teeth, because they form a pair of rows (“shinnayim”), In addition, the dual is used for those products of human skill which are constructed in such a way that the sin- gular would not apply to them; e.g., “melkahayim” (tongs), “ misparayim ” (scissors). The numeral “she- nayim ” (two) is likewise a natural dual, as are also such expressions as “kiflayim” (twofold), “ kil’a- yim” (two kinds; corresponding to the Ethiopian numeral for “ two”). But the dual is occasionally used to indicate two objects not naturally connected; e.g., “yomayim” (two days), “shebu‘ayim” (two weeks), “shena- tayim ” (two years), “ammatayim ” (two ells), Neo- Hebrew “tefahayim” (two spans). The numbers 200 and 2,000 are also designated by the dual: “ ma- tayim,” “alpayim.” X with Edessa, as in Targum | Yer. (Budge, “The Bee,” p. 87; Bezold, “ Die Schatz- Edinburgh Edrehi hdhle,” p. 154). The house where Abraham was born and the furnace into which he was thrown by Nimrod are still to be seen, and the great mosque still bears the name “Khalil al-Rahman” (¢.e., “ Abra- ham”). The house of Job isalso to be seen, and, ac- cording to Julius Africanus, the tent of Jacob was preserved here. According to Benjamin II., the city had, in his day, 150 Jewish inhabitants; accord- ing to Cuinet, the whole sanjak, of which Urfa is the capital, has at present about 367 Jews in a total population of 148,483; the city itself 322 in a total of 55,000. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Rubens Duval, Histoire ... d'Edesse, pp. 16 et seq.; L. Hallier, Untersuchungen uber die Edess. Chronik, pp. 8, 106; Bonet Maury, in Rev. Hist. des Relig. xvi. 281; Cuinet, Turquie en ASie, S.v.). J. G. EDINBURGH: Capitalof Scotland. When the Jews began to settle in Scotland early in the nine- teenth century, they appear to have been attracted in the first instance to Edinburgh. The first regular synagogue was established in 1816 with twenty fam- ilies. This synagogue was situated in a lane off Nicholson street. After a year the congregation moved to a small hall in Richmond Court; and here it remained until it acquired a synagogue in Park Place, the old Ross House having been adapted for the purpose (1868), The congregation worshiped here until quite recent years. The present syna- gogue in Graham street was erected in 1897. Until 1880 there was only one synagogue in Edinburgh. By that time a number of foreign families, princi- pally engaged in the water-proof clothing industry, had settled in the Dalry quarter of the city, and they formed a congregation and erected a small place of worship in Caledonian Crescent. The original cemetery of the Edinburgh Jews was situated near the Causeway side. This ceased to be used about a quarter of a century ago, when a por- tion of the Echo Bank Cemetery was acquired and railed off for Jewish purposes. The first minister was the Rev. Moses Joel of London, who continued in office forty-six years, until his death in 1862. He was succeeded in the order named by Elkan, Rosebaum, Abraham Har- field (1864-66), B. Rittenberg (1867-73), Albu, and 8. Davidson. J. First, a native of Courland, educated at, the rabbinical college of Wilna, has been the min- ister since 1879. Edinburgh has three Jewish charities: a benevo- lent loan society, a board of guardians, and a lying- in society. A Hebrew school is attached to the Graham Street Synagogue; and there is a Jewish literary society as well as a Jewish amateur orches- tral society. The Jews number (1903) about 2,000 in a total population of 317,000. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Edinburgh Evening Express, March 29, 1883 ; Jewish Year Book 5683 (= 1902-3). J. I. H. EDINGER, MARKUS: German deputy; born at Worms Jan. 14, 1808; died at Mannheim Feb. 9, 1879. He was the first Jew summoned by the gov- ernment to act as juror, serving at Mayence in 1847. It was he who brought about at Mayence, in spite of the passionate opposition of the Orthodox, the holding of regular synagogue services in German. He took an active part in politics. In 1848 he was | THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 40 one of the leaders of the Democratic party, and his services were acknowledged in the following year when he was elected mayor, while in 1850 he was sent as deputy to the Upper House of Hesse—a dis- tinction rarely enjoyed by a Jew in thosedays. The success of the reactionary party in 1853 obliged him to retire from his office for a time. 8. S. Ro. EDOM, IDUMEA (a1, ‘Idevsaca): Edom is the name which was given to Esau, the first-born son of Isaac, on the day he sold his birthright to Jacob fora mess of pottage,the reddish color of which gives it its name—* Adom” (Gen. xxv. 39). The country which was subsequently inhabited by Esau and his descendants was called “the field of Edom” (Gen. xxxii. 8, R. V.) or “the land of Edom” (Gen. xxxvi. 16; Num. xxxiii. 37). “Edom” in the Bible is also used as an equivalent for “ Edomites,” though the expression “the children of Edom” occurs but once (Ps. exxxvii. 7). The country had before that been called “Mount Seir” (Gen. xxxii. 4 [Hebr.], xxXxvi. 8), from “Seir” the progenitor of the Horites, who lived there previously (Gen. xiv. 6; xxxvi. 20, 21). According to Josephus (“ Ant.” i. 18,$1), the name “Seir” is due to the fact that Esau was hairy (Gen. xxv. 25), but according to Gen. Biblical xiv. 6, the mountain was called “ Seir ” Data. iong before Esau’s birth. The bound- aries of Edom are very concisely de- fined: The country stretched along the route followed by the Israelites from the Sinaitic peninsula to Kadesh-barnea, that is, along the east side of the valley of Arabah. Southward it reached as far as Elath, which was the seaport of Edom (Deut. i. 2; ii. 1, 8). On the north of Edom was the territory of Moab (Judges xi. 17, 18; II Kings iii, 8, 9). The boundary between Moab and Edom was the brook Zered (Deut. 11. 18, 14, 18). The ancient capital of Edom was Bozrah (Gen. xxxvi. 38; Isa. xxxiv. 6, xiii. 1, e¢ al.). In the time of Amaziah (838 B.c.), Selah (Ilétpa) was its principal stronghold (II Kings xiv. 7); Elath and Ezion-gaber its seaports (I Kings ix. 26). Contrary to the promise of Isaac that Esau’s dwelling would be of the fatness of the earth and of the dew of heaven (Gen. xxvii. 39), Edom was a rocky and calcareous country. Esau is described as aman who subsisted by hunting (Gen. xxv. 27 et passim), as his descendants, the Edomites, did, living amid rocky fastnesses and mountain heights (Jer. xlix. 16; Obad. 3, 4). The name “ Mount Seir” or “ Mount of Esau” shows that Edom wasa mountain- ous country, and therefore it was called by later writers “ Gebalene” (the mountainous), According to the Bible, immediately after Isaac’s death Esau settled in Mount Seir (Gen. xxxvi. 6, 8), where he had lived before (Gen. xxxii. 3). The Edomites soon became powerful enough toextirpate the Horites, the former inhabitants of Rulers of the country (Deut. ii. 12), whose ways Edom. of life they adopted. As among the Horites, each tribe was ruled by a prince or chief (mide), whose position resembled probably that of an Arab sheik (Gen. xxxvi. 15-19, 29-30). Later the Edomites organized themselves THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 41 a kingdom, and had had eight kings when the first king in Israel began his reign (¢b. XXXVI. 31- 39), However, alist of chiefs given after that of rhe kings (?2. xxxvi, 40-48) shows that subordinate chiefs ruled under the sovereignty of the king. In the time of Moses both chiefs and king are mentioned ‘Ex, xv. 15; Num. xx. 14). When the King of dom refused to allow the children of Israel to pass through his Jand on their way to the land of Canaan the Israelites were expressly ordered not to wage war jnto upon the Edomites, but to go round their country (Num. XX. 14-21; Deut. ii. 4-6). Neither did the King of Edom attempt hostilities against the Israel- ites, though he prepared to resist aggression. Nothing further is heard of the Edomites until their defeat by Saul four hundred years later ([Sam. xiv. 47); forty years later David overthrew the Edomites in the “valley of salt,” and his general Joab slew all their males (II Sam. viii. 18, 14; I Kings xi. 15, 16). Hadad, one of the royal family, fled to Egypt, and after David’s death returned and endeavored to ex- cite his countrymen to rebellion; failing in which he went to Syria (7b. xi. 14-22; Josephus, “ Ant.” viii. 7,§6). From that time Edom remained subject to Israel. David placed over the Edoniites Israelite governors or prefects (D'2"S3: IT Sam. viii. 14), and this form of government seems to have continued under Solomon. When Israel divided into two kingdoms Edom becamea dependency of Judah. In the time of Jehoshaphat (914 8.c.) a king of Edom is mentioned (II Kings iii. 9, 10, 18, 26), who was probably a Judean appointed by the King of Judah. It is stated further (II Chron. xx. 10-28) that the inhabitants of Mount Seir invaded Judea in conjunc- tion with Ammon and Moab, and that the invaders turned against one another and were all destroyed. Edom revolted against Jehoram, elected a king of its own, and afterward retained its independence (II Kings viii. 20-22; II Chron. xxi. 8). Amaziah attacked the Edomites, and slew 10,000 in battle; 10,000 more being dashed to pieces from the cliffs. Their stronghold, Selah, was taken, but the Israelites were never able to subdue Edom completely (II Kings xiv. 7; II Chron. xxv. 11, 12). In the time of Nebuchadnezzar the Edomites took an active part in the plunder of Jerusalem and in the slaughter of the Jews (Ps. cxxxvii. 7; Obad. 11, 13,14). It is on account of these cruelties that Edom was so violently denounced by the Prophets (Isa. xxxiv. 5-8; Jer. xlix. 7-22; Obad. passim). Edom is mentioned in the cuneiform inscriptions in the form “Udumi” (u); three of its kings are known from the same source: Kaus-malaka at the time of Tiglath-pileser (c. 745), Malik-rammu at the time of Sennacherib (c. 705), and Kaus-gabri at the time of Esarhaddon (c. 680). According to the Egyptian lascriptions, the “aduma” at times extended their possessions down as far as the borders of Egypt (Miller, “Asien und Europa,” p. 185). After the Conquest of Judah by the Babylonians, the Edom- ‘es were allowed to settle in southern Palestine. At the same time they were driven by the Naba- ‘eans from Idumea. In southern Palestine they prospered for more than four centuries. Judas Maccabeus con quered their territory for a time (B.¢. 163; “ Ant.” xii. 8, $$ 1, 6). They were again sub- Edinburgh Edrehi dued by John Hyrcanus (c, 125 B.c.), by whom they were forced to observe Jewish rites and laws (20. xiii. 9, $1; xiv. 4,$4). They were then incorporated with the Jewish nation, and their coun- Post- try was called by the Greeks and Ro- Biblical mans “Idumea” (Mark iii. 8; Ptol- Times. emy, “Geography,” v. 16). With Antipater began the Jdumean dynasty that ruled over Judea till its conquest by the Ro- mans. lnmediately before the siege of Jerusalem 20,000 Idumeans, under the leadership of John, Sim- eon, Phinehas, and Jacob, appeared before Jerusalem to fight in behalf of the Zealots who were besieged in the Temple (Josephus, “B. J.” iv. 4, § 5). From this time the Idumeans ceased to be a sepa- rate people, though the name “Idumea” still existed the time of Jerome. According to the Law (Deut. xxiii. 8, 9), the con- gregation could not receive descendants of a mar- riage between an Israelite and an Edomite until the fourth generation. This law was a subject of con- troversy between R. Simeon and other Talmudists, who maintained that female descendants were also excluded until the fourth generation, contrary to R. Simeon, who regarded the limitation as applicable in only to male descendants (Yeb. 76b). The name “Edom” is used by the Talmudists for the Roman empire, and they applied to Rome every passage of the Bible referring to Edom or to Esau. In Leviticus Rabbah (xiii.) Rome, under the name of “Edom,” is compared to a boar, and the symbolic name “Seir” was used by the poets of the Middle Ages not only for Rome (comp. Ec- clus. 1. 26, Hebr.), but also for Chris- tianity (Zunz, “Literaturgesch.” p. 620). On this account the word “Edom” was often expunged by the censor and an- other name substituted (Popper, “Censorship of He- brew Books,” p. 58). In place of “Edom,” the word “Hazir” (swine) was occasionally used, perhaps as a mere term of reproach (but see Epstein, “ Beitraige zur Jiid. Alterthaumskunde,” p. 35). In Midrash Tanhuma Bereshit, Hadrian is called “the King of Edom.” The Talmudists, however, made an excep- tion in favor of Antoninus Pius, whom they assured would attain paradise, because he had not acted in the manner of Esau (‘Ab. Zarah 10b). ‘Abodah Zarah 10a, however, explaining Obadiah, verse 2, says that Edom had neither written nor spoken lan- guage. This is inconsistent with its application to Rome. See TEMAN. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Buhl, Die Edomiter, 1898; Nédldeke, in Cheyne and Black, Eneye. Bibl. ii. 1181; Trumbull, Kadesh Barnea ; BRaethgen, Beitriige zur Semit. Religionsgesch. p. 10: Hom- Nay Ancient Hebr. Trad., Index; Rapoport, Hrech Mitlin, p. G. M. SEt.. Use of Name. EDREHI, MOSES: Moroccan cabalist and teacher of modern and Oriental languages of the earlier part of the nineteenth century; born in Mo- rocco; resided in Amsterdam and in England. He was the author of: “Yad Mosheh,” sermons for the festivals, Amsterdam, 1809. “ Ma‘aseh Nissim,” an account of the River Sambatyon, London, 1884 (of thisa Hebrew and a German edition appeared at Am- sterdam, 1818); “An Historical Account of the Ten Edrei Education THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 42 Tribes, Settled Bevond the River Sambatyon in the East,” London, 1836. Edrehi was a firm believer in the existence some- where in western Asia of the Ten Tribes. Edrehi appears to have been in Edin- burgh in 1829, for in June of that year there appeared in “Blackwood’s Mag- azine” one of Chris- topher North’s “Noctes Ambrosi- ane, ”’devoted in large measure to Edrehi’s peculiarities. His long beard and Oriental costume, and the mixture of tongues he employed to convey his meaning, are all ad- verted to with kindly humor. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 1799; Zedner, Cat. Hebr. Books Brit. Mus. s.v. J G. L. EDREI: Ancient city in the Jordan valley, at present Der‘at, southeast of Muzerib. The city isap- parently mentioned as “Otara” in Egyptian inscrip- tions. In the Old Testament Ashtaroth and Edrei are referred to as the capital cities of King Og (Josh. xii. 4, xiii. 12). According to Num. xxi. 33 and Deut. i. 4, Og was defeated in a battle at this place. Edrei is mentioned as a boundary of the Israelitish conquests (Deut. iii. 10) and as situated in the terri- tory of Manasseh lying beyond the Jordan (Josh. xili 31). Then the city disappears from historical notice, and it is met again only in post-Biblical times. After Pompcy’sconquest of the land, the city belonged to the Roman province of Syria, later to the province of Arabia. Eusebius calls it “ Adraa.” Jt was the seat of a Christian bishop. Part of the Jews whom Mohammed drove from Medina came to “ Adra‘at,” as the Arabs called thecity. In the his- tory of the Crusades, ’’Adratum” isspokenof. The present comparatively populous city contains few ruins, as the old city was completely destroyed. A great Roman aqueduct ran from the city to Mukes. Extensive subterranean dwellings, forming an entire city, are one of the remarkable features of Der‘at. BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. Max Muller, Asien und Europa, p, 159; Wetzstein, Reisebericht, p. 47: Sehumacher, Across the Jor- dan, pp. 1-148; Z. D. P. V. xi. 40; Sebiirer, Geseh. ii. 38. E. G. H. F. Bu. EDRIS. See Enocn, MOHAMMEDAN LITERATURE, EDUCATION.—Biblical and Pre-Talmud- ical Data: The moral and religious training of the people from childhood up was regarded by the Jews from the very beginning of their history as one of the principal objects of life. Of Abraham the Lord says: “Thavesingled him out[A. and R. V. “known him ”] to the end that he may command his children and his household after him that they keep the way of the Lord to do justice and judgment” (Gen, xviii. 19, Hebr.). All the festivals and ceremonies have for their object the inculcation of religious and moral Jessons in the children (Ex. xii. 26 e¢ seg.; xiii. 8, 14; Deut. iv. 9 e¢ seg.; vi. 20 ef seq. ; xxxii. 7, 46). Espe- cially are the fundamentals of the faith coupled with Moses Edrehi. the admonition to teach the children and bring its truths by words and signs constantly and impress. ively to their consciousness (Deut. vi. 7, ix. 19). The whole Law was at an early stage utilized for public instruction. The Deuteronomic law, what- ever its contents were, was to be written “very clearly ” on large stones on the highways, that all the people might read (Deut. xxvii. 1-8); and while each king or leader was to keep a copy of the Law and read therein all the days of his life (Deut. xvii, 18;comp. Josh.i.8), all the people, “the men, women, and the little ones,” were to assemble every seventh year at the close of the Sukkot festival to hear and to learn the Law. Outof this Biblical ordinance was evolved the custom of completing one consecu- tive reading of the Pentateuch at the Sabbath serv- ices within every three years (probably seven orig- inally, later three and one-half, finally one year: Schiirer, “Gesch.” 3d ed., iit. 455; see PENTATEUCH and Lirurey). This custom, however, of reading the Law every Sabbath in public is so old that Jose- phus (“Contra Ap.” ii.17; “Ant.” xvi. 2, § 4), Philo (“De Septennario,” 6), and Eusebius (“ Preparatio Evangelica,” viii. 7, 12) assign its origin to Moses (comp. Acts xv. 21). At any rate “Torah,” denoting originally “Law ” (Ex. xxiv. 12; Lev. vi. 2, vii. 1, xxvi. 46), assumed in the course of time the meaning of “religious teaching ” (Deut. i. 5, iv. 44; Mal. ii. 7; Ps. xix 8: exix. 71, 174; Prov. iii. 1, iv. 2, vi. 28, vii. 2), and religion to the Jew became the synonyin of common instruction. For a long time the priests and Levites, as the keepers of the Law, were the main instructors of the people (Deut. xxxi. 9, xxxlii. 10; Jer. ii. 8, xviii. 8; Mal. ii. 6; IL Chron. xvii. 7; Book of Jubilees, xxxi. 15). According to ancient rabbinical tradition, the tribe of Issachar produced many teachers of the Law (Gen. R. xxii, xcix.; Sifre, Debarim, 354, based on I Chron. xi. 33); also the descendants of Jethro the Kenite are singled out.as teachers (Mek., Yitro, 2; Ab. R. N. xxxv., after I Chron ii. 55). The recital of the chapters Shema‘ and Wehayah Im Shamoa‘ (Deut. vi. 4-9, xi. 18-21) in the daily liturgy instituted by the founders of the Synagogue impressed each father with the obligation of teach- ing his children. Josephus (“Contra Ap.” i. 12, ii. 18-25; “Ant.” iv, 8, § 12), and Philo (“ Legatio ad Caium,” 16, 31) point with pride to the fact that Jewish children were from earliest childhood in- structed and trained in the Law and the traditions of their fathers. The Books of Wisdom contain many pedagogic rules. Father and mother are re- garded as the child’s natural instructors (Prov. i. 8, iv. 1, vi. 20, xiii. 1, xxxi. 7; Ecclus. [Sirach] xxx. 1-18); “fear of the Lord,” as the chief part or begin- ning of knowledge (Prov. 1.7%; comp. ix. 10). The application of “the rod of correction” is often rec- ommended (Prov, xiii. 24; xix. 18; xxii. 15; xxiii. 13; xxix. 15, 17), though to the intelligent re- proof is better than a hundred stripes (xvii. 10). The chief admonition is to train the child at the right age (xxii. 6), and the child’s life itself is to be a con- tinual training (Prov. i. 2, 7,8). The daughters probably remained under the supervision of the mother until their marriage (Cant. viii. 5). 43 From the hands of the parents, whose place in royal houses was taken by tutors (D°1IN: II Kings x. 1, 5; comp. II Sam. xii. 25), the child passed into the hands of professional teachers (2°) or ospdn: prov. v. 13; Ps. cxix. 99), called also “the wise” (Prov. xili. 21). The public teachers were also termed 0°39 (Neh. viii. 7; Ezra viii. 16; I Chron. xxv. 8) and sown (Dan. xi. 38, 35; xii. 3). The pupils (om), Isa. viii. 16, liv. 18; or o-pdn, I Chron. xxv. 8) were addressed as “children” (Ps. xxxiv. 12; Prov. i. 8; Hcclus. [Sirach] ii. 1; iii. 1, 17, and frequently; see also DIDACHE). It is interesting to note that the commandment “teach them diligently to thy children” (Deut. vi. 8) was referred to the instruction of pupils (iby sp325 +"p5n) at a time when the propagation of the Law was made the chief aim of life (Sifre, Debarim, 34; comp. Abot i. 1-2; Peah i. 1), and the synagogues were called “places for instruction” (Philo, “De Vita Moysis,” iii. 27). It is quite characteristic of Judaism that the prophetic ideal of the future is of the time when “the earth sha!l be full of the knowledge of the Lord as the waters cover the sea” (Isa. xi. 9), when all will know the Lord, “from the least of them unto the greatest of them” (Jer. xxxi. 34). The time of King Hezekiah was believed to be of this kind, when men, women, and children alike studied and knew the Torah (Sanh. 94b). How old the institution of the yon ‘3. or schoolhouse, is, first mentioned in Ecclus, (Sirach) li, 23, it is difficult to say (see BET HA-MIDRasnH). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hastings. Dict. Bible, s.v.; Cheyne and Black, Encye. Bibl. s.v.; Hamburger, R. B. T. s.v. Erziehuny and Unterricht ; Schiirer, Gesch. ti. 3, 419-426. E. G. H. K. ——In Talmudical Times: The period of book- learning or of the scribes (“soferim”) has received its name from the practise of transcribing and com- menting on the Book of the Law, In the latter years of the kingdom of Judah, and more especially under the discipline of the Exile, the religious teachings and the moral principles of the Law and the Prophets had assumed definite shape as the be- lief and religion of the people. After the end of the Exile it became necessary to preserve these teach- ings and the documents containing them. The education of the people passed from the hand of the prophet into those of the scribe or “sofer” (Mal. iv. 4). This period is introduced by Ezra the Scribe, who is extolled as the “restorer of the Torah” (Suk. 20a); and just as a band of disciples gathered around Samuel, so men gathered around Ezra, who, following Samuel’s example, read the Law to the peo- ple distinctly and explained its meaning (Neh. viii. 5 etseq.). Ezra belonged to the priestly caste, to whom the task of education fell from this time forward, “for the priest’s lips should keep knowledge, and they should seek the law at his mouth: for he is the messenger of the Lord of hosts” (Mal. ii.'7). Indeed, the body of scribes came from among the Levites (Neh. 2.c.; If Chron. xxxv. 3, where the educational activity of the Levites is by an anachronism trans- ferred to an earlier period). The men thus engaged are designated as D°9"3% or o Soy, Z.e., expound. ers of the Torah. Here for the first time in Jewish history is an organized body of teachers. The Proph- | THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Edrei Education ets had been replaced by the priests; these in turn were succeeded by the scribes, “the wise” (comp. B. B. 12a, 89359 AS Osan). The latter are described in Dan. xii. 3.as theteachers, oSswnn; “they that be wise shall shine as the brightness of the firma- ment; and they that turn many to righteousness, as the stars for ever and ever.” The Talmud refers the second clause to the teachers. The study of Scrip- ture grew to be the central point of the life of the people, and divided them into two classes, the erudite scribe (“ hakam ” or “ haber ”) and the unlettered class (“ ‘am ha-arez”; compare Josephus, “ Ant.” i., end). The scribes at first restricted their educational activities to adults, delivering free lectures in syna- gogues and schools (see BET HA-MIDRASH), while the education of children remained, as in olden times, in the hands of their fathers. But as boys often lacked this advantage, the state employed teach- ers in Jerusalem (B. B. 21a), to whose The care the children from the provinces Reform of were entrusted; and as these did not Simon suffice, schools were also established ben Shetah. in the country towns. This arrange- ment must probably be referred to an ordinance of R. Simon b. Shetah (Yer. Ket. viii., end), who was one of the presidents of the Sanhedrin during the last century of the Jewish state. These district schools were intended only for youths of sixteen and seventeen years of age who could pro- vide for themselves away from home. The high priest Joshua b. Gamla instituted public schools for boys six and seven years of age in all the cities of Palestine, and on this account he was praised as the man who prevented teaching in Israel from being altogether neglected. It wassaid that no man who pretended to the title “Talmid hakam” ought to live in a place where there were no teachers for children (Sanh. 17b). One teacher was employed for every twenty-five boys. If the number reached forty, he was given an assistant (“resh dukna”, B. B. U.c.). Many rabbinical sayings indicate the extraordinary value placed by the Rabbis on educa- tion, on the school, and on the teacher. R. Eleazar b. Shamua‘ said: ‘“* Let the honor of thy pupil be as much to thee as thine own. and the honor of thy companion [** haber”’] as much as the rev- erence for thy teacher, and the reverence for thy teacher as much as the reverence for God” (Ab. iv. 12). “‘'The study of the Torah outweighs all other religious commands” (Peah i. 1). * Touch not my anointed [Ps. ev. 15]: this refers to the school children: and do not offend my prophets: this refers to the teachers.” ‘* By the breath from the mouth of school children the world is sustained’ (Shab. 119b). “ Teaching must not be interrupted even for the reestablishment of the sanctuary in Jerusalem” (ib.). ‘*Instruct thy son with the assistance of a good text” (Pes. 112a). ‘“*The advantage of reviewing is un- limited: to review 101 times is better than to review 100 times” (Hag. ix. 6). ‘* As Ihave taught you without pay, says God, su must you do likewise ” (Ned. 36a). The duty to give free instruction refers, however, only to teaching in the academies, not to elementary instruction. Women were excluded from this in- struction. While, on the one hand, Education they were required to be taught the of Women. Torah, on the other hand it was said by R. Eleazar that he who instructs his daughter in the Law is like one who teaches her indecorous things (Sotah iii. 4). Yet there were Education THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 44 always educated, even learned, women. These prin- ciples obtained throughout the Middle Ages. Since religion entered into the whole sphere of life, as in determining the calendar, in agriculture, etc., astron- omy and mathematics formed an integral part of in- struction. Indeed, it issaid that knowledge of these sciences reflected honor upon Israel in the eyes of the nations (Shab. 75a, with reference to Deut. iv. 6). Furthermore, it was the duty of a father to let his son learn a trade, not only that he might be able to support himself, but also because a one-sided intellectual occupation with the Torah was not con- sidered to be conducive to success, but rather a drawback from a moral point of view (Ab. ii. 2; Kid. 29a). Accord- ing to one opinion, a father was in duty bound to have his son taught even swimming (Kid. =A Zz l.c.). B With the dissolu- tion of the Jewish state, the Jewish system of educa- tion, while preserv- ing intact its main characteristics, be- gan to be differen- tiated according to the varying sur- roundings and out- ward circumstances of the Diaspora. In Egypt and in other countries along the Mediterranean, Ju- daism succumbed to Hellenism; but in Palestine the former conquered the latter so completely that after the destruc- tion of the Temple the scribes formal- ly banished Greek learning from the Jewish schools (Yer. Peah i.; B. K. 82b, 88a; Sotah 41a; Men. 64b, 99b). But this uncompromising attitude toward “alien sciences” has never been adhered to either in principle or in practise. The Middle Ages furnish abundant proofs that the Jews took a large part in the culture and learning of the nations among which they dwelt. Even after the dissolution of the Jewish state, Palestine remained for some time the seat of the patriarchy, and in consequence the center of Juda- ism. The most momentous achievement of that period was the final compilation of the Post- Mishnah; and this became the founda- Talmudic tion forall the lecturesand discussions Education. in the schools. Toward the end of the fifth century this compilation was edited under the name “Gemara” or “Talmud,” and became the principal subject for study in the schools fa SZ ZL, SS ZZ Lp reQkice ‘, WN MSS Al er Y, | ba, ABP) aS Ha if ih AS re SN = ‘ ~ We GN: ' yp " Y German Jewish School of the Sixteenth Century. (After a contemporary woodeut.) of the Diaspora. Babylon contributed largely to the work through its flourishing academies in Nehardea, Sura, and Pumbedita. The schoolhouse (“sidra,” from which the presiding officer was called “resh sidra ”) was visited by hundreds of pupils, who lis- tened ail day long to the lecturer or to his interpreter (“meturgeman”), Gatherings, also (“ kallah”), which attracted men from far and near, were held in the spring and the fall of the year. At these gath- erings lectures were delivered, important decisions, or rules of conduct, were laid down, and rabbis were appointed with certain formalitics and ceremonies, which served later as patterns for European universi- ties (compare Jacob Alting, “ Hebraorum Republica Scholastica,” p. 122, Amsterdam, 1652). Discourses, also, called “ rigle.” were delivered on feast- days. Every com- munity had, in ad- dition to the higher schools (“metid- tas”), preparatory or elementary schools (m2; SDN m2 spp; xdyzox=cyo- 74) under direction of elementary teach- ers (PINT MPN; NHIIWH=Tadaywyde), where the children were taught the He- brew alphabet and the Bible. The influence of Arabian civiliza- tion in developing the scope of Jewish education is quite noticeable. From the middle of the seventh century the rector of the acad- emy at Sura bore the title “Gaon.” The Geonim, in- stead of condemn- ing secular knowl- edge, considered it a means for advancing and completing Jewish religious thought (Gritz, “Ge- schichte,” v. 268). It is fair to assume that at that time, and in the homes of the great scholars of those days, in both the Orient aud the Occident, special attention was paid to the system of education. A proof of this is to be found in such works as the “Testament” of Judah ibn Tibbon of Granada (1120- 1190), as wellasin the twenty-seventh chapter of the “Cure of Souls,” by Joseph b. Judah ibn Aknin of Barcelona (end of twelfth century). Both writings give in detail a number of rules for pedagogy and for the course of instruction to be followed in the schools. Joseph ibn Aknin lays down the following desiderata for the successful teacher. He must have complete command of the subject he wishes to teach; he must carry out in his own life the prin- eivone oerete syne mnspissnees 2 0 ea a = fr ee pap pirhaoonopiy daaprom ope —_papnph papnon savinanpinpo hows a ie apa sph hyp sieektal ne siacgins i) | essiee ban} : ower spo me Sapp prep compesn, py ee bin nasi phat ee. ponphs po . ‘bp pants rate ap rabn dh 37 PPD aN AMID © ee : td 2) srpreh pppoe PAGE FROM ELIJAH MIZRAHI’S “ MISPAR,”’ THE FIRST HEBREW ARITHMETIC, PRIXTED BY SONCINO, 1582, (In the Colambin University Library, New York.) Education THE JEWISIE ENCYCLOPEDIA 46 ciples he wishes to inculcate in his pupils; he must exact no pay for his teaching; he must look upon his pupilsasif they were his own sons, Qualifica- and treat them accordingly; he must tions of train his pupils to lead an ethical life; a Teacher. he must not be impatient, but come to his pupils with ahappy countenance ; and he must teach his pupils according to the range of their intellectual abilities. The following order of studies to be pursued is recommended: reading, wri- ting, Torah, Mishnah, Hebrew grammar, poetry, Talmud, philosophy of religion, logic, arithmetic, geometry, optics, astronomy, music, mechanics, medicine, and, lastly, metaphysics. Joseph also lays down rules which the pupils are to follow. They are to keep their bodies and souls pure; not to be ashamed to ask instruction in that in which they are ignorant; not to think of future gain or that their study has an ulterior object; to commence their studies by learning the elementsand principles upon which science is built; to let no moment of the day orof the night pass in idleness; to make the acquisi- tion of wisdom an end in itself; to leave their place of residence for some other place famous for its learning; and, lastly, to show their teachers even greater honor than their parents. From the thirteenth century onward the “seven sciences” (MIN Aya’), enumerated differently by various writers, comprised the prescribed curricu- lumamong Jewsas wellasamong Christians. Other authors who insist upon having education and teaching placed on a scientific basis are: Judah b. Samuel b. Abbas in his “ Ya’ir Netib” (¢, 1250); Shem-Tob b. Joseph Falaquera (died after 1290), especially in his didactic novel “ ifa-Mebakkesh ”; Joseph Ezobi (c. 1250) in his didactic poem “ Ka‘arat Kesef”; and Profiat Duran of Catalonia (c. 1350) in the introduction to his grammatical work “ Ma‘ase Efod.” Systematic Jewish education in Italy re- ceived like care and encouragement, due in part to the influence of scholars from Spain and Provence. Deserving of mention in this connection are: Jacob -b. Abba Mari Anatolio of Provence; Zerahiah b. Isaac of Barcelona, who lectured at Rome; Kalony- mus b. Kalonymus of Provence; and the native Italian Jews Judah b. Moses of Rome and the poet Immanuel. Ali these men, belonging to the thir- teenth century, stimulated interest in the “alien sciences ” and in the scientific treatment of Jewish literature. Numerous hints on pedagogy are scat- tered throughout their works. The “Book on Ethics,” by Jehiel b. Jekuticl of Rome (1278), in which are found together with the moral teachings of the Rabbis maxims from Aristotle, Porphyry, Theophrastus, and the emperor Frederick IL, gives the best view of the intellectual status of the Italian Jews of the period. Side by side with this scientific trend went the endeavor to guard Jewish education against the in- fluences of the current culture in so In far as it was a menace to religion. Northern This was the special work of the Jews Europe. of northern France and of Germany, where their Christian neighbors also were backward in learning. This one-sidedness and concentration shaped the system of education and teaching for the Jews of northern France and of Germany. The so-called “Mahzor Vitry” of Sim- hah b. Samuel, a pupil of Rashi, describes (§ 508) how a child received its first instruction—a descrip- tion that is supplemented by the contemporaneous “Sefer Asufot”: On the Feast of Weeks, the day when the Law was proclaimed, the child was handed over to the school with especial ceremony, Having been bathed and dressed, the boy was taken to the syna- gogue at daybreak, and placed before the Torah, from which was read the passage for the day (the Decalogue, Ex. xix. 16 et seq.). Then he was led to his teachers. While on the way he was wrapped in a shawl or a cloak to guard him from the evi] eye. The teacher took the child in his arms, and then set him down. After this he took a slab upon which were written the first four and the last four letters of the Hebrew alphabet and the sentences: ‘* Moses commanded a law, even the inheritance of the congregation of Jacob” (Deut. xxxiii. 4); ** Let in- struction be my vocation’; and the first verse of Leviticus. This slab was placed at the head of the infant in his cradle when he was named; even in ancient times it was used for the first in- struction with the idea that the slab which treated of the pure (the sacrifices) should first occupy the attention of the pure (the children). The teacher then pronounced slowly all the letters of the alphabet, the pupil repeating them. The last four letters were pronounced in their proper order as one word (mvp), and also backward as one word (pwn). The slab was smeared with honey, which the child might lick off and taste as it were the sweetness of instruction. There was also a honey-cake made of three kinds of fine flour, upon whicb were marked the Biblical verses Ezek. iii. 8; Isa. i. 4, 5; Ps. exix. 9, 11, 12, 18, 34, 97, 130, 140. There was also an egg inscribed with Biblical verses—a supposed preventive of forgetfulness, While reading the pupils were required to sway their bodies and to recite to a certain tune, which varied with the different parts of the Bible. The text was translated into the vernacular. The chil- dren soon advanced to the Mishnah and Talmud, so that at thirteen years of age a boy had attained a certain independence and was in a position to enter the yeshibah or academy. Here he listened to lec. tures on the Talmud cemarkable for their depth and acuteness, and then took up the wan- The dering life of the “bahur,” which re- Wandering sembles much that of the Christian Scholar. bacchantor traveling scholar (see Ba- HOUR). The constant influx of new ele- ments stimulated the teaching at the academies, and this again influenced the life of the Jewish congre- gation. A picture of this life is to be found in the “Book of the Pious,” by Judah of Ratisbon. Com. pared with the surrounding Christians, the Jews are seen to have been in no wise inferior to them, but, on the contrary, somewhat superior because their intel- lects were sharpened by Talmudic studies. A Chris- tian Jay preacher, Sebastian Lotzer, refers to the ad- vantage enjoyed by the Jews in being instructed iu the Law from their youth. The medieval period ends in France with the expulsion of the Jews from that country in 1895; in Germany with the persecution of the Jews there in 1848; and in Spain and Sicily with the expulsion of the Jews therefrom in 1492. The ideas on education which the Spanish Jews carried with them were developed more freely in their new surroundings. In Italy especially, under the influence of the revival of learning, this was most apparent, as may be seen in the curriculum : published by David Provenzale, in Mantua in 1564, for the educational institution which he had intended to found. This curriculum includes the Bible and 47 sae ne a ee ee ee ee ae the Talmud with the best commentaries, Hebrew rammar, Jewish philosophy, composition and cal- ligraphy, Latin and Italian philosophy, medicine, mathematics, cosmography, and astrology. This shows the intellectual status of the Italian Jews and now they became the teachers of nearly all the He- praists of the age of humanism. The Spanish and Portuguese Jews carried their educational ideas also into Holland. The school at Amsterdam, which Spinoza attended, was admired by Shabbethai Shef- tel) Hurwitz (“ Wawe ha-‘Amuddim,” 9b) on account of its systematic arrangement, and was held up as a attern to the congregations of Germany, Austria, . and Poland. According to Shabbethai Bass, it com- rised six classes, the curriculum being: (1) Hebrew reading, until the prayers were mastered. (2) The Pentateuch with the tonic accents. (8) Reading and translation from the Bible, with Rashi’s commentary upon the weekly section. (4) The Prophets and the Hagiographa with the tonic accents. (5) Lectures on Hebrew grammar and discussions of halakic passages from the Talmud, the class being conductedin Hebrew. (6) Theschool proper, called “Hz Hayyim,” and presided over by the grand rabbi. The subjects taught in the school proper were the Talmud with Rashi and Tosafot, responsa and discussions on the code of Maimonides. The hours of instruction were from 8 to 11 a.m. and from 2 to 5 P.u., or until the afternoon service. The educational systems of the Jews in Germany, Austria, and Poland were defective in so far as the grading of classes was so arranged that pupils were instructed in the most difficult passages of the Tal- mud even before they had mastered the Bible, and were thus trained to excel in sophistic dialectics. Many rabbis declaimed against these conditions, which were not improved until the beginning of the nineteenth century, and then only gradually. Even before Moses Mendelssohn, individual Jews had attained to the general culture of their time; for instance, the physician Tobiah Eighteenth Nerol, who was born in Metz, 1652, Century. and who, by permission of the Elector 7 of Brandenburg, had studied in Frank- fort-on-the-Oder ; the ichthyologist Bloch of Berlin; and others. Yet to Mendelssohn is due the general improvement of the Jewish educational system. He had many followers, who, as contributors to the Hebrew periodical “Ha-Meassef,” were called “Meassefim,” and were instrumental in raising their coreligionists to higher intellectual planes. In Aus- tria especially, Hartwig Wessely’s Hebrew circular letter, “Words of Peace and of Truth” (1782), in Which he advocated general culture, justifying it from the standpoint of the Jewish religion, stirred up the Jews to carry out the suggestions of Em- peror Joseph II. for improving their school system. _ The actual systematic reorganization of the Jew- Ish system of education and teaching dates from the founding of the following schools: (1) The Jewish Free School of Berlin, founded in 1778 under the Jeadership of David Friedlander and Isaac Daniel Itzig. The following subjects were taught: German, French, Hebrew, business technol- ogy, arithmetic, bookkeeping, writing, and drawing. In Am- sterdam. THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Education (2) The Wilhelm School of Breslau, founded in 1791, but discontinued soon afterward. (3) The Jiidische Haupt- und Freischule (Herzog- liche Franzschule) of Dessau, founded in 1799 by an association of Jewish young men. (4) The Jacobsonschule (day- and boarding-school) of Seesen in the Harz, founded in 1801 by Israel Jacobson (born in Halberstadt 1768, Modern died in Berlin Sept. 18, 1828). The Schools in school is, in accordance with the in- Germany. tentions of its humane founder, a non- sectarian educational institution for boys. It is still flourishing, and was attended between the years 1838 and 1867 by 1,444 pupils, of whom 719 were Christians. (5) The Real- und Volksschule der Isractitischen Gemeinde in Frankfort-on-the-Main (Philanthropin), founded in 1804 by Sigmund Geisenheimer, It was at first non-sectarian, but when the city came under Prussian rule the school was restricted to Jewish youth. (6) The Samson’sche Freischule of Wolfenbittel, including a boarding-school, founded in 1807 by Isaac Herz Samson, L. Zunzand M. Jost were pre- pared there for the university. (7) The High School at Tarnopol in Galicia, founded in 1813 by Joseph Perl; its normal courses served as models for other normal schools of Austria. Since the beginning of the nineteenth century the following governments have interested themselves in Jewish schools: Prussia, which introduced com- pulsory education (comp. L. Geiger, “Zeit. fiir die Geschichte der Juden in Deutschland,” iii. 29 et seq.); Wiirttemberg (“Mitteilungen der Gesellschaft fir Deutsche Erziehungs- und Schul geschichte,” ix. 51 et seg.); Hanover, Bavaria, Baden, Hesse, etc. Since the emancipation of the Jews their children have entered the state or municipal schools, receiving religious in- struction in the same way as the pupils of other de- nominations. In Austria the Jewish teachers of re- ligion employed in the public schools have the same official standing as their Christian col- General leagues, which is not the case in Prus- Com- sia. Besides this, Jewish children pulsory receive instruction also in special re- Education. ligious schools (Talmud Torah Schu- len). The founding of Jewish ele- mentary schools called for normal schools for Jewish teachers. In 1809a teachers’ seminary was founded at Cassel; others are in Berlin, Hanover, Miinster, etc. With this awakening to the need of general cul- ture came the demand for scientifically trained rabbis. The following institutions provide such training: the Jewish Theological Seminary at Breslau, founded by Frinkel; the Institute for the Science of Judaism at Berlin; the Orthodox Rabbinical Seminary at Ber- lin; the State Rabbinical School at Budapest; the Jewish Theological Institute of Vienna. The last two institutions are supported, the first Education entirely, and the second partly, by the of Rabbis. government. Similar institutions ex- ist in Paris, London, Florence, Cincin- nati, and New York (see SEMINARIES, RABBINICAL). As of old, larger communities support schoolhouses (wit ‘na), where popular lectures on the Bible, the Talmud, and the Midrash are delivered. Education ‘Eduyot In the eastern countries of Europe, in Russia, Ru- mania, and Turkey, Jewish education is in almost the same condition as it was prior to Mendelssolin; that is, those countries are given over to one-sided Talmudic study, and hold aloof from general cul- ture (see ALLIANCE ISRAELITE UNIVERSELLE). The Russian government has founded rabbinical schools —for instance, at Jitomir—which furnish the offi. cially recognized rabbis. More important, however, are the yeshibot. The rabbis who direct these are remarkable for their minute knowledge of the Tal- mud as well as for their antagonism to culture. In Rumania the Jews are not only curtailed in their civic rights, but their educational opportunities also are limited by the government. For education in other countries see PEDAGOGICS. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Giidemann, Das Jildische Unterrichtswesen Withrend der Spaniseh-Arabischen Periode, Vienna, 1873; idem, Gesch. 3 vols., Vienna, 1880-88 ; idem, Quellenschriften zur Gesch. des Unterrichts und der Erziehung bet Deutsch- en Juden, Berlin, 1891; Samuel Marcus, Die Pdidagoyik des Tsraelitischen Volkes, 2 vols., Vienna, 1877; B. Strassburger, Gesch. der Erziehung wind des Unterrichts bei den Israe- liten, mit einem Anhang, Bihliographie der Jiidischen Pidagogie, Stuttgart, 1885; Ludwig Horwitz, Gesch. der Herzoglichen Franzschile di Dessaw 1799-1849, in Mit- theilungen des Vereins fiir tnhaltische Gesch. und Al- terthumskunde, vi.; Ehrenberg, Die Samson’sche Frei- schule im Wolfenhbiittel, in Orient, Lit. 1844, pp. 66 et seq.; Arnheim, Die Jacobsonschule zu Seesen am Harz, Bruns- wick, 1867; Baerwald, Zur Gesch. der Real-und Volksschule der Israelitischen Gemeinde in = Frankfurt-a.-M., in Kinladungsschrift, 1869-75; Das Jiidische Schuhilehrer Seminarium in Berlin, Berlin, 1840; Joseph Perl’s Biog- raphy, in Busch’s Jahrbuch, 1846-47. G. M. G. ——Trade-Schools: As soon as emancipation came there was a tendency among Jewish philanthropists to train their poorer coreligionists in handicrafts, though there were many difficulties in the way ow- ing to the existence of the gilds. Thus, Jacobson wished to train Jews as artisans as early as 1805, and was encouraged by the government of Westphalia to do so, though he was informed that they would not be allowed to enter the gilds (Rilf, “Jacob- son,” p. 11). Notwithstanding this, many societies for the training of Jewish boys in handicrafts were formed; the earliest, so far as is known, being that established in 1793 at Copenhagen (“ Orient,” 1848, p. 58). This was followed at Cassel in 1802; and during the next fifty years general associations were formed in Prussia (1812), Bavaria (1830), Baden (1883), Saxony (1887), Hanover (1841), Hungary and Bolhe- mia (1846); in many cases these general movements had been preceded by local associations, the success of which led to their spread. In 1888 Baron de Hirsch gave large sums of money (2,000,000 guiden) for the training of Jewish artisans in Galicia and Bukowina. Inthe preceding vear N. Hiindler of leipsic had given 100,000 marks for a school for Jewish boys to be trained as artisans (“Allg. Zeit. des Jud.” 1888, p. 505). In 1844-45 many private benefactors devoted their money to a Similar purpose. In the former year H. Todesco founded a prize of 500 florins for every Jewish jour- neyman who completed his apprenticeship at Vienna (“ Orient,” 1844, p. 188), and D. Massaroni of Rome gave 2,000 florins tothe Trabotti foundation to train each year two Jewish lads as watchmakers (“ Allg. Zeit. des Jud.” 1845, p. 654), Technical Training Among Jews. THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 48 na a i en ee I ee ee ere TS The following isa Jist of some towns and countries in which exist certain of the most effective assogjg. tions that have helped to train Jews in handicraft, throughout Europe in the nineteenth century Countries in which general institutions exist are indicated by italics. Founded. Place. Souree. Spee S eee 1793 Copenhagen Orient, 1843, p. 5d. 1802s | Cassel tA. Z. J. 1891, No. 12, p. 2. 1812. | Prussia A. Z. J. 1882, p. 415 1900, pp, 22, yy 1819 Strasburg iA. Z. J. 1840, p. 214; 1900, p. 15, ° 1823 Frankfort-on-the- Main A. Z. J. 1845, p. 22. 1826 Bavaria 1A. Z. J. 1888, p. 165. 1829 Dresden (‘A Z. J. 1837, p. 4. 1833 Bader ‘A. Z. J. 1837, p. 382. 18384 Venice jA. Z. J. 1838, p. 497. 1885 {Schwerin iA. Z. J. 1839, p. 398. 1837 Sarony (A. Z. J. 1837, p. 15. 1839 | Budapest l'4. Z. J. 1839, p. 550. 1840 Breslau ‘Orient, 1843, p. 325. 1841 Bonn ja. Z. J. 1841, p. 84. 1841 Hanover (A. Z. J. 1841, p. 325, j841 Vienna ne Z. J. 1883, p. 107; Wertheimer Jahrb. i. 69. : 1813 | Milhausen IA. Z. J. 1843, p. 297 3843 Prossnitz A. Z. J. 1848, p. 324 1845 {Mannheim A. Z. J. 1845, p. 478. 1846 Prague Wertheimer, Jahrb. iff. 52. 1846 Hungary (L. L6w) ‘A. Z. J. 1826, p. 748. 1846 Bohemia .A. Z. Jd. 1846, p. 630. 1850 |Bayonne ‘Univers. Isr. April 19, 1901, 1855 |Posen iA. Z. J. 1842, p. 14. 186 =|Rome Hebr. Bibl. xix. 455. 1888 Galicia and Bu- kowina (Baron de Hirsch) ae Z. J. 1888, p. 790. A. Z. J. = Allgemeine Zeitung des Judenthums, In more recent times the Alliance Israélite Uni- verselle and the Anglo-Jewish Association have estab- lished technical schoolsas part of theirregular work in the East, while it is the aim of most apprentice- ship committees, attached to boards of guardians and other Jewish philanthropic institutions, to train in manual labor the lads entrusted to their care. See ALLIANCE ISRAELITE UNIVERSELLE; ANGQLO- JEWISH ASSOCIATION. A. D.—J. EDUCATIONAL ALLIANCE. See New YORK. EDUCATORE ISRAELITA: Monthly period- ical founded by Giuseppe Levi, and published by him, in conjunction with Esdra Pontremoli, at Vercelli (1838-74). It advocated moderate Jewish reform, to be brought about by the cooperation of all communities. Luzzatto, Della Torre, Cantoni, Mortara, and Benamozegh were among its contribu- tors. After Levi’s death in 1874 the periodical was continued in Casale by Flaminio Servi under the title I] VEss1Lio0 IsRAELITICO. BIBLIOGRAPHY : Educatore. tii. 822. a, I. E. ‘EDUYOT (“ Evidences” of the sages on ancient halakot; called also Behirta [“Choice” of hala- kot]): The seventh treatise in the order Nezikin of the Mishnah. When, after the destruction of the Temple, it became necessary, through the removal of R. Gamaliel II. from the office of patriarch, t decide religious questions by the will of the majority, there was produced, as the groundwork of the trea tise ‘Eduyot, a collection of unassailable traditions. too enti arever (‘18 ag UNISs[N Jo TOWsassod ay} Ul YdesZojoqd & TI01g) 7X0] paWoaul WOJJ Bulpray s[tdng ZuIMoys "A ‘AVTVSOUATC LY TOOHOS HSLMGS ‘Eduyot Eger THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 50 a a CC TRC From time to time more material was added to this groundwork, until the treatise was concluded on the redaction of the whole Mishnah. There is no con- nection between the many subjects touched upon in the ‘Eduyot; and an exhaustive discussion of each is not its purpose. Even the names of the sages re- sponsible for the halakot provide but a loose thread of union, | Following is a synopsis of the longer portions of the treatise: Chapter i: In 1-3 a matter of dispute between Hillel and Shammai is again brought up for consideration; namely, the chief rules to be observed in regard to niddah, hallah, and mikweh. In 7-1] the schools bring forward various decisions relating either to Levitical purity or to priestly tithes (** toho- rot,”’ ““zera‘im’’), In 12-14 a group of halakot is given in which the Hillelites incline to the opinion of the Shammaites. Chapters ii. and iii.: Insertions in which Hanina, ** the deputy of the high priest,”’ reports concerning certain customs in the Temple and other precedents at Jerusalem (ii. 1-3). Each mish- nab consists of three halakot, which were pro- pounded by Ishmael or in his school, or by Akiba or in his house of learning (4-8); they are followed by two haggadic sentences of Akiba (9-10), In ch. iii. space is given to Dosa ben Harkinas, who was promi- nent in the disputes with Gamaliel; and matters relating to tohorot and zera‘im are treated together with a marriage law. In 7-12 the thread dropped in ch. ii. is taken up again: it con- tains four questions disputed by Joshua; three by Zadok; four by Gamaliel (besides two groups of his teachings, each group consisting of three parts, which reconcile the conflicting opinions of the two schools); and three by Gamaliel’s colleague, Eleazar ben Azariah., Chapter iv.: Continues i. 12-14 by giving the exceptional cases. Here the Shammaites appear as putting a milder construction upon the Law than the Hillelites (1-12). Chapter v.: Gives other halakot in which the Hillelites and Shammaites take a stand similar to that taken in the earlier chapters. These halakot are severally mentioned by Judah, Jose, Ishmael, and Eliezer (1-6). Chapter vi.: The opinions of new colleagues of Jose, Joshua, and Eliezer are given in continuation of ch. iii., partly treating of the same subject (1-3). Chapter vii.: Joshua and Judah again appear (1-7), and Ga- maliel’s halakot are given on the consecration of the new moon and of the leap-year, a subject of dispute at the time. In 8-9 the opinions of older colieagues are given. Chapter viii.: The opinions of members of the house of Beteira (1, 3) and of important contemporaries and older teachers (2, 4) are presented; also a halakah of Akiba on a marriage law, already treated, and a statement of Joshua on the future mission of the prophet (5). To this the opinions of other teachers are added. The tractate closes with an ethical teaching: ‘* The wise men say, Elijah will not appear in order to draw some nigh and to Keep others away, but in order to bring peace into the world: * Behold, I will send you Elijah the prophet before the coming of the great and dreadful day of the Lord: And he shall turn the heart of the fathers to the children, and the heart of the children to their fathers’ (Mal. iii. 23-24 [A. V. iv. 5-6]).” The space in this treatise allotted to each of the teachers is in proportion to his importance; and the frequent occurrence of Akiba’s name is justified by the great conciliatory part which he took in the disputes of the time. A synopsis of some of the insertions follows: In i. 4-6 this question is put: ‘** Why are not the names given of the authors of those halakot which are not accepted ?”” The answer is: ‘To show that after a clearer in- Insertions. sight they withdraw their opinions and do not abide by them stubbornly; or they are used as sources to serve as precedents in certain cases.’’ In v. 6 Akiba ben Mahalalel is cited as having firmly adhered to his opinion; but at his death he bade his son yield to the majority. In ii. 9-10 and viii. 6-7 are sayings to encourage the people for the loss of the Temple. The Tosefta to ‘Eduyot generally follows the or- der observedinthe Mishnah. After the introductory Contents. halakot (Tosef. i. 1-3 = Mishnah i. 1~3) and the peace exhortations (‘Tosef. i. 4-6 = Mishnah 1. 4-6), those cases mentioned in Mishnah i, 12 are taken up in which the Hillelites yield to the Shammaites (To. sef. i, 6), the disputes between the schools being omitted. Sentences follow (Tosef. i. 8~14 = Mish. nah ii. 5-10) advising a wise and moderate limitation of individual opinions where certainty is lacking in cases of dispute. After a short selection from the third chapter of the Mishnah (Tosef. i. 16-18 = Mishnah iii. 3, 6, 7), con. sideration is given to the occasional milder constructions of the Shamma. ites and the severer ones of the Hillelites (Tosef., ij, 2-9 = Mishnah iv. 6, 7, 11; v. 1, 3-5). In Tosef. ii, 9, the exceptional opinion of Akabia (Mishnah v, 6, 7) is considered. Tosef. ii, 10 (= Mishnah vi. 8) and iii. 1 (= vii. 2) touch briefly upon the chief oppo- nents of Gamaliel. Tosef. iii. 2, 3 (= Mishnah viii, 5) gives laws of purification which have reference to the position of Jerusalem after the destruction. The conclusion (Tosef. iii. 4) agrees with Mishnah viii. %. Tosef. i. 7, ii. 1-2, and ii. 6 do not wholly fit into this treatise. The last paragraph is a fragment from the Mishnah of Eliezer ben Jacob. In general, the Tosefta took as a basis a treatise which dealt only with the chief questions regarding the day called “bo ba-yom” (that day); but the Mishnah of ‘Eduyot is of a wider range. BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. H. Dtinner, Hiniges tiber Ursprung und Bedeutung des Traktats ‘Eduyot, in Monatsschrift, 1871, BP 33-42, 59-77; Rabbinowicz, Législation Criminetle, pp. 205-212, Paris, 1871; Sehwarz, Controverse der Scham- maiten und Hilleliten, Vienna, 1893; Briilll’s Jahrb. iv. 638-64; Rapoport, in Kerem Hemed, vy. 181; Krochmal, Moreh Nebuhke ha-Zeman, pp. 163-164 et passim: Kltger, Ueber Genesis und Composition der Halachasammlung ‘Eduyot, Breslau, 1895; L. A. Rosenthal, Veber den Zusam- menhang der Mischna, pp. 37-53, Strasburg, 1891; idem, Ueber die Hagada in der Mechilta, in Kohut Memorial Volume, New York, 1897; Albert Scheinin, Die Hochschule zu Jamnia, Krotoschin, 1898; Rosenthal, Die Mischna: Aufbau und Quellenscheidung, Strasburg, 1903. S. 8. L. A. R. ‘EFA or HEFA: Rabbinicscholar of the fourth century. He was a native of Babylonia, who. al- though but few halakot and fewer haggadot are associated with his name, acquired considerable fame as belonging to “the ingenious scholars of Pumbedita” (Sanh. 17b; Men. 17a). His full name, which was “‘Efa b. Rahba,” appears once in the Babylonian Talmud (Sanh. Z.¢.); but in Yerushalmi he is always cited as “ Hefa,” without patronymic or title. The Tosefta. BIBLIOGRAPHY : Frankel, Mebo, p. 85a; Heilprin, Seder ha- Dorot, ii., 8.v. S. M. 8. §. EFES, AFES, or PAS: Scholar of the third century; secretary to the patriarch Judah J. (Gen. R. Ixxv. 5), and one of the last tannaim. Af- ter Judah’s death, while Efes conducted a col- lege in southern Judea, on account of which he was called “Efes (in Yerushalmi, “Pas”) Daromi” (Yer. Ta‘an. iv, 68a; Eccl. R. vii. 7), he was made principal of the academy at Sepphoris, although the dying patriarch had ordered the appointment of Hanina b. Hama to that position. The latter re- fused to supersede Efes, who was his senior by two years and a half (Shab. 59b; Ket. 103b; com- 51 are Yer. lc. ; Eccl. R. i.c.). Hosha‘yah Rabba was one of his disciples, and reported in his name several haggadic remarks, among them one bearing on Isa. Ix. 3 (Hebr.): “ Nations shall walk by thy light,” from which he argues that Jerusalem will in the future become a torch by the light of which people will walk (Pesik. xxi. 144b). Hosha‘yah reports also 4 civil law in Efes’ name (Yer. Yoma v. 48a); and Simeon b. Lakish applied to him for information on q ritualistic point (‘Er. 65b; Yer. ‘Er. iv. 28c). Efes did not survive Judah I. many years. He was succeeded by Hanna B. Hama, BIBLIOGRAPHY : ramet tega Bucher, dg. Pah. dinors i 91, Heilprin, Seder ha-Dorot, ii., 8.v.; Weiss, Dor, iii. 44. s. 5. S. M. EFODI. See DuRAN, PROFIAT. EFRATI, AMRAM BEN NATHAN: Rabbi of Valencia in the second half of the fourteenth cen- tury. He was acontemporary of Nissim b. Reuben, rabbi of Barcelona, and of Simeon b. Zemah (RaSH- BaZ), whom he consulted on rabbinical] questions. He occupied the rabbinate of Valencia for more than forty years. Efrati was held in high esteem by his contemporaries, notwithstanding the fact that at the very outset of his career he had had occasion to at- tack certain powerful members of his community whose actions had given public offense. He enjoyed the reputation of being a great Talmudist and mys- tic, and was credited with a knowledge of secular sciences also. He seems to have been opposed to casuistry. In his decisions there is good reason to suppose that he largely followed Maimonides. Toward the end of his life there came to Valencia Hasdai b. Solomon, a distinguished casuist, who en- deavored to defame Efratiand attacked him openly. Efrati’s literary remains consist only of a few re- sponsa, which are to be found in the collection of Isaac b. Sheshet. BIBLIOGRAPHY : Weiss, Dor, v. 157-161; Azulai, Shem ha-Ge- dolim, i. 77b. 8, gs. M. SEN. EGER (Czech, Cheb): Bohemian town, on the right bank of the River Eger. The population of Eger in 1890 was 17,148, including 508 Jews. The oldest document mentioning the Jews is dated March 12, 13814, and refuses them permission to inhabit a hew street near the monastery. They are again mentioned in a document of Oct. 23, 1822, in which the emperor Louis the Bavarian pledges Eger to John, King of Bohemia. Louis annulled all the debts of Abbot Griebel of Waldsassen to the Jews. At that time the Jews inhabited a special part of the city called “Unter den Juden.” About 1332, under Charles IV., many rich Jews settled in Eger, where they succeeded so well that i a short time the Jews formed one-fourth the pop- ulation of the town. They had then a high school, asynagogue, a synagogue courtyard (“ Judenhoff ”), & house for the cantor, and a cemetery. Their wealth aroused the jealousy of the other inhabitants. he charges against the Jews at the time of the Black Death (1348) reached Eger on March 25, 1849; and in 1850 they were suddenly attacked by the mob, incited by a monk’s preaching; nearly THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA financial assistance, Eduyot Eger all were massacred, their goods appropriated, and their books taken to the town hall, whence they were sent to the Imperial Library cf Prague. The street where this occurred still bears the name “ Mordgiiss- chen.” On May 15 the citizens were absolved from all guilt in the matter by Charles IV. himself. It seems that the few survivors fled to Kénigsberg, a neighboring town, where they gave Jewish burial to many of the dead whom they had carried with them. Some Jews returned to Eger shortly after this, for four “ Judenmeister ” (rabbis) are mentioned in 1352, and a tombstone of a Jewess, “ Kele ” (1853), is still to be seen. They repurchased from Albrecht Noth- heft, the “ Landvogt,” their synagogue, school, and cemetery. This purchase was confirmed by Charles Nov. 6, 1864. On Jan. 25, 1879, King Wenzel form- ally declared that the Jews of Eger were his serfs (“Kammerknechte ”), and that they could be sum- moned only before the royal judge of the town; they were thus protected against the injustice of the popular authorities. Two years later, May 5, 1881, he freed the Jews of Eger (together with other inhabitants) from taxes for five years in return for In 1390 he remitted all debts due the Jews. He included them in the safe-con- duct given (1891) to the inhabitants of the city, so that they had protection within the empire and in Bohemia. Many documents of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries evidence the jealousy aroused through their success by the “ Jewish bread-thieves.” In 1410 they had their own “Tanzhaus” in the “ Judengasse.” In the fifteenth century, during the Hussite troub- les, a deputation from Eger complained to King Sigismund (1430) that the Jews, on the strength of their old privileges, were not performing military service. The city council thereupon received permis- sion (Oct.3) to expel all the Jews. Thesynagogue be- came achapel. But the council soon repented, and in 1434 received permission from Sigismund to allow as many Jews to enter the city as business intcrests demanded. nvb3 Nw 3. His authority at times, when Syria wasa part of the Egy ptian-Mohammedan empire, extended over Palestine; according to the Ahimaaz Chronicle (180, 5), even to the Mediterra- nean littoral on the west. In one document (“ Kauf- mann Gedenkbuch,” p. 236) the word is used as syn- onymous with “padishah.” The date is 1209; but the term may refer to the non-Jewish overlord. In Arabic works he is called “ra’is al-Yahud” (R. E. J, xxx. 9); though his connection with the “shaikh al-Yahud,” mentioned in many documents, is not clear. Meshullam of Volterra says expressly that his jurisdiction extended over Karaites and Samari- tans also; and this is confirmed by the official title of the nagid in the instrument of conveyance of the Fostat synagogue. At times he had an official vice- pagid, called by Meshullam 353 °y°{ (CML. V. p. 187, 5); in Hebrew, pn» wn nivuy VJ. Q. R. x. 162). To assist him he had a bet din of three persons (S. 133, 21)—though Meshullam mentions four judges and two scribes, and the number was at times in- creased even to seven—and there was a special prison over which he presided (M. V. p. 186). He had full power in civil and criminal affairs, and could impose fines and imprisonment at will (David ibn Abi Zimra, Responsa, ii., No. 622; M. V. 73.; O. p. 17). He appointed rabbis; and the congregation paid his salary, in addition to which he received cer- tain fees. His special duties were to collect the taxes and to watch over the restrictions placed upon the further construction of synagogues (Shihab al-Din’s “Ta‘rif,” cited in R. E. J. xxx. 10). Even theolog- ical questions—regarding a pseudo-Messiah, for ex- ample—were referred to hiin (J. Q. R. v. 506, x. 140). On Sabbath he was escorted in great state from his home to the synagogue, and brought back with similar ceremony in the afternoon (S. 116, 8). On Simhat Torah he had to read the Pentateuchal lesson and to translate it into Aramaic and Arabic. Upon his appointment by the calif his installation was effected with much pomp: runncrs went before him; and the royal proclamation was solemnly read (see BE. N. Adler in J. Q. R. ix. 71%. The origin of the nagidship in Egypt is obscure. Sambari and David ibn Abi Zimra (Frumkin, * Eben Shemuel,” p. 18) connect it directly with a daugh- ter of the Abbassid calif Al-Ta‘i (974- Origin of 991), who married the Egyptian calif the Office. ‘Adud al-Daulah (977-982). But ‘Adud was a Buwahid emir of Bagdad under Al-Muktafi; and, according to Ibn al-Athir (“ Chron- icles,” vili. 521), it was ‘Adud’s daughter who mar- ried Al-Ta‘i. Nor does Sambari give the name of the nagid sent from Bagdad. On the other hand, the Ahimaaz Chronicle gives to the Paltiel who was brought by Al-Mu‘izz to Egypt in 952 the title of “nagid ” (125, 26; 129, 9; 130, 4); and it is possible that the title originated with him, though the ac- counts about the general Jauhar may popularly have been transferred to him. If this be so, he was fol- lowed by his son, R. Samuel (Ahimaaz Chronicle, 130, 8), whose benefactions, especially to the Jews in the Holy Land, are noticed. This must be the Sam- uc] mentioned as head of the Jews many hundred THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 68 re ee a ee years previous by Samuel b. David, and claimed ag a Karaite. The claim is also made by Firkoviteh and his date is set at 1063. He is said to have oh. tained permission for the Jews to go about at night in the public streets, provided they had lanterns, ang to purchase a burial-ground instead of burying their dead in their own courtyards (G. pp. 7, 61). The deed of conveyance of the Rabbinite synagogue at Fostat (1038), already referred to, mentious Aby (Ibn?) Imran Musa ibn Ya‘kub ibn Ishak al-Isra’j]j as the nagid of that time. The next nagid men. tioned is the physician Judah b. Josiah, a Davidite of Damascus, also in the eleventh century (S. 116, 20; 138, 10); a poem in honor of his acceptance of the office has been preserved (J. Q. R, Succession viii. 566, ix. 360). In the same cen. of tury lived the nagid Meborak pb, Nagidim. Saadia, a physician (J. Q. R. viii, 537); he is referred to in a contract dated 1098 (zd. ix. 88, 115), in the epistle of the ex- minister of finance of the vizier Al-Afdal (Z. D. M, G. lii. 446), and in a Lewis-Gibson fragment (J. Q. R. ix. 116). He was maligned by the exilarch Da. vid, and was foreed to take refuge for a time in Fayum and Alexandria (7b. xv. 89). It is uncertain whether there was a nagid named Mordecai; the expression “ Mordekai ha-Zeman” is probably appellative (7b. ix. 170); but the frag- ment of a poem (see “He-Haluz,” iii. 153) ad- dresses him as “ Negid ‘Am El,” which is quite dis: tinctive (J. Q. R. viii. 553). His full name would then be Mordecai b. al-Harabiyyah. He was suc- cecded by Abu Mansur Samuel b. Hananiah, who was nagid at the time of Judah ha-Levi (1141). He is not to be confused with Samuel ha-Nagid of Spain, as he is even in Sambari (8. 156, 24; see J. Q. R. ix. 170, xiil. 108; M. xl. 417). He wasliving in 1157, but not so late as 1171, as he is not mentioned by Benjamin of Tudela. When Benjamin was in Egypt the nagid was Nathanael (Hibat Allah ibn Jami, a renowned physician; B. A. § 145). This can be seen from Benjarin’s description, though the title is not used (despite Neubauer, J. Q. R. viii. 553). He is mentioned in 1164 in a marriage con- tract published by Merx (“ Doc. Paleogr.” 1894; M. xxxix. 150, xli. 214; J. Q. R. xiii. 108; B. A. § 145). During the time that he farmed the revenues the usurper Zuta must have held office (M. xli. 468). Zuta was ousted by Maimonides, though whether the latter took his place as nagid, and what was his relationship to Nathanael, are not clear. . A ke- tubbah, dated 1172, in the library of the late D. Kaufmann, seems by its wording to indicate that Maimonides did hold the offiee (Z. D. M. G. li. 451; M. xli. 425, 463). Maimonides induced many Kara- ites to return to Rabbinism (Gritz, “Gesch.” vi. 359). The dignity of nagid was vested for some time in the family of Maimonides: Abraham (1186-1237; a document from his bet din is published by D. W. Amram in “The Green Bag,” xiii. 339, Boston, 1901); his son David (1212-1300; S. 120, 15; 134, 29; M. xliv. 17; “Kerem Hemed,” ii. 169; “Or Meir,” p. 34); the latter’s son Abraham Maimonides IJ. (1246-1810); and Abraham’s son Joshua Db. Abraham (b. 1248). In regard to the fourteenth century there is no 69 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA a a eee information. In the fifteenth occursa Nagid Amram 1419), to whom a letter was sent (preserved by the Italian stylist Joseph b. Judah Sarko) introducing 4 certain R. Elias, who was on a mission to seck the Lost Ten Tribes (JJ. Q. R. iv. 308). Lipmann of Mihlhausen mentions the office in his “ Nizzahon” (ed, Amsterdam, p. 96). In 1481 Meshullam of Vol- terra mentions Solomon b. Joseph, whose father be- fore him had also been nagid. Solomon was physi- cian to the sultan Al-Malik al-Ashraf Ka’it Bey (ML. V. p. 186); his dayyanim were Jacob b. Samuel M23 (427%); Jacob MM aNvdy, Samuel b. Akil, and Aaron Me‘appe. He was followed by Nathan Kohen Sholal (seen by Obadiah of Bertinoro, 1488), who was born in the Maghreb and had fornierly lived in Jerusalem (O. p. 52). Nathan was followed by his nephew, Isaac Kohen Sholal (1509; §. 157, 1). A letter from his bet din is mentioned, among others, by Conforte (“Kore ha-Dorot,” p. 81a; compare Frumkin, Zc. p. 20, and Azulai, “Shem ha-Gedolim,” No. 822, i. 45a). Fora time he was deprived of his rauk; but he returned to Egypt in 1500 (Samuel de Avila in Frumkin, “Eben Shemuel,” p. 18; Brill’s “Jahrb.” vii. 128). Abraham de Castro (1524), the mint-mas- ter, is given the title “nagid” by Sambari (145, 10; 159, 20); his nephew, Jacob de Castro (d. 1610), was a rabbinic authority. The same source men- tions (S. 157, 6) as the last dignitaries JNM O3NN ?) and Jacob ibn Hayyim. From the time of the Os- manlirule, says Sambari (116, 22), the nagid dynasty was no Jonger in the family of David, but was given to the one preeminent for wisdom and riches. He was sent to Egypt by the Jewish notables of Con- stantinople. The pretensions of Jacob ibn Hayyim made him disliked (116, 25). He was put under the ban by Bezaleel Ashkenazi, and driven from the country. The office of nagid was suspended about the mid- dle of the sixteenth century (according to Azulai, “Shem ha-Gedoliin,” i. 16, by Bezaleel himself), the chief rabbi being given the title “tshelebi.” David ibn Abi Zimra was chief rabbi of Egypt for many years (c. 1070), and his decisions were widely fol- lowed throughout the Orient (“Ma‘alot 1i-Shelo- moh,” p. 18b). The title “nagid” given to Berab (Responsa, 9°", i. 87) is purely honorific. The following is a tentative list of the negidim, as far as they can at present be determined: Tenth Century. Paltiel (?) Samuel (?) Eleventh Century. Musa ibn Ya‘kub al-Isra‘ili Meborak b. Saadia Judah b. Josiah (Mordecai b. al-Harabiyyah 7) Twelfth Century. Samuel b. Hananiah Nathanael Hibat Allah Zuta Maimonides Thirteenth Century. Abraham Maimonides I. Abraham Maimonides II. David Maimonides Joshua b. Abraham Maimonides Fifteenth Century. Solomon b. Joseph (1481) Nathan Kohen Sholal Isaac Kohen Sholal Amram Joseph Strteenth Century. Abraham de Castro (1524) TINT Jacob ibn Hayyim Egypt The question of the relation of the religious lead- ership (gaonate) to the more worldly nagidship is extremely difficult of solution on account of the paucity of documents. The Egyp- Gaon and tians seem to have recognized the au- Nagid. thority of the Babylonian geonim; for they addressed questions to them (Har- kavy, “Teshubot ha-Geonim,” p. 342), and even helped the declining fortunes of the Eastern schools (Schechter, “Saadyana,” pp. 117 e¢ seg.). The head of the schools in Egypt was cailed, as in Babylon, “rosh ha-yeshibah,” or “nasi”—a title which was much misused, to judge from a responsum of Abra- ham Maimonides (“ Teshubot ha-~-Rambam,” p. 50a). The quarrel between the Babylonians and the Pales- tinians regarding the right to fix the religious calen- dar each year could not have been passed unnoticed inEgypt. All the fragments dealing with the con- troversy between Saadia and BEN Mrfr that have been found of recent years have come from the Cairo genizah (sce R. E. J. xliv. 230). There is evi- dence that the question became acute for the Jews in Egypt also, during the califate of Al-Mustansir Billah (1086-94). This evidence is the so-called “ Abiathar scroll.” It scems as if a new Palestinian gaonate had begun about 1045 with Solomon b. Ju- dah. Abiathar was a scion of a Palestinian priestly family. His father Elijah and a certain Joseph (be- fore 1054) claimed jurisdiction over the Jews both in Palestine and in Egypt under the title of “ gaon.” They were bitterly opposed by a member of the ex- ilarch’s family, Daniel b. Azariah, “the Nasi,” who had come from Babylon. Joseph was supported by the government; he died in 1054, and Daniel ruled for eight years without opposition (d. 1062). On his death, Elijah (d. 1084) held the office for nearly twenty-three years. In 1082 this Elijah called a synod at Tyre, and ordained his son Abiathar as gaon. But about 1081 David b. Daniel, a descend- ant of the Babylonian exilarch, aged 20, had gone to Egypt (Damira’), and in 1083 was in Fostat, where his claims were supported by the government, e¢s- pecially by the nagid Mcborak and by a relative of his, Josiah b. Azariah, the head of the school there, to whom the title “ gaon” is also given (J. Q. R. xv. 86). At times the title does not seem to have been distinctive of any office. The Babylonian gaonate had died out with Heze- Kiah; and the idea was to renew itin Egypt. David was declared exilarch; and he exercised power over the Jewish communities in Alexandria, Damictta, and Fostat, which he oppressed with taxes. He also had power over the Jews in Ashkelon, Ciesarea, Haifa, Beirut, and Byblus, and over Tyre also when it came again under the power of Egypt (1089), causing the gaon there to flee. Daniel then sent his own representative to the city. In 1093, in opposition to Abiathar, David endeavored to be made “rosh gelayot” over all Israel. His harshness caused Meborak to support Abiathar; and in 1094 Meborak assisted in having Abiathar’s power as gaon acknowledged (J. Q. R. xiv. 449, xv. 91). A defense of the pretensions of David by the school in Fostat has been published by Schechter (20. xiv. 476). Abia- thar was probably succeeded as gaon by his brother, Solomon b, Elijah, who had been “ab bet din” (72, Egypt xiv. 481). Solomon was followed by his son Maz- liah (c. 1181). Following a notice of Benjamin of Tudela, Bacher believes that the gaonate was then transferred to Damascus (7). xv. 95). This gives the following list of Egyptian geonim: Abiathar Solomon Mazliah (c. 1181) Solomon (1047) Joseph (d. 1054) Elijah (d. 1084) Tt is not known how early the Karaites commenced to settle in Egypt. The polemics against them of Saadia Gaon (before 928) show that at that time their numbers must have been large; and his activ- ity in this respect may have won for him his position at Sura (J. Q. R. x. 240). Tt was in Egypt that he wrote his polemical work against Anan, “ Kitab al- Rudd” (915), and his “ Kitab al-Tam- Karaites yiz” (926). His“ Emunot” was writ- in Egypt. ten in 933. Four years afterward Al- Kirkisani wrote his “ Kitab al-Anwar,” in which he gives an account of the Jewish sects of his day. Among these he mentions the “ Kar‘ites ” (@ynpdy), so called because they used vessels made of gourds. They resided near the Nile, 20 parasangs from Fostat, and traced their descent from Johanan the son of Kareah (Jer. xliii. 4), who had emigrated to Egypt. They celebrated Sunday in addition to Saturday (7d. vii. 704). Suadia even had personal disputations with Karaites, notably with Abu al- Sari ben Zuta (M. xli. 204). Of his adversaries in Egypt, mention may be made of Solomon b. Jeroham, author of Karaitic commentaries to the Bible and of controversial tracts (B. A. § 40), and of Menahem Gizni of Alexandria, who wrote polemics against Saadia, and of whom a poem and a letter to the Karaites of Fostat have been preserved (L., Notes, p. 50). The oldest Egyptian Karaitic document pub- lished is a bill of divorce dated Fostat, 1030 (E. N. . Adler in J. Q. R. xii. 684). Present knowledge of Karaitic scholars and communities commences really with the twelfth century. Cairo and Alexandria became, after Jerusalem and Constantinople, their chief centers; and Karaites were to be found in Egypt wherever Jews dwelt. Most of the Karaitic manuscripts in the Paris and St. Petersburg libra- ries have come from Egypt (Neubauer, “ Aus der Petersburger Bibliothek,” p. 21). At the end of the twelfth century there lived in Egypt the Karaite poet Moses Dar‘t; Israel b. Daniel al-Kumisi (about 1162), who wrote a “Sefer ha-Mizwot” (J. Q. R. viii. 701; B. A. § 70); and David b. Solomon (Sulaiman b. Mubarak, 1161-1241), who is described by his con- temporary, Ibn Abi Usaidia, as an excellent physician and teacher in the service of the Ayyubid Abu Bakr al-‘Adil, and as being connected with the hospital Al-Nasiri in Cairo (J. Q. R. xiii. 108; B. A. § 154). Ibn al-Hiti, in his literary chronicle, mentions in Ramleh the sheik ‘Ali b. Abraham al-Tawil, and es- pecially the nasi Solomon, who wrote on forbidden matriages (J. Q. R. ix. 440). Of Karaites in the fol- lowing centuries mention may be made of Yafith b. Saghir, author of a “Sefer ha-Mizwot”; Solomon Kohen (Abu Mansur Sulaiman ibn Hafas), writer on medical subjects (B. A. § 194); and Yafith ibn Abi 1-Hasan al-Barkamani, polemic—all of the thir- teenth eentury ; Israc] b. Samuel ha-Ma‘arabi (1310), THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 70 who also wrote a “Sefer ha-Mizwot” (B. A. § 184). Samuel b. Moses ha-Ma‘arabi (1434), author of “ AJ- Mushid,” on the laws and commandments, as wel] as of commentaries to the Bible (B. A. § 199). Little is known about the organization of the com. munal life of the Karaites. They claim to have had at the head a “ra’is,” whose seat for a time was in Fostat; though Saadia (Commentary to Ps. 119, end) expressly states that Or- the Karaites agreed to have no nasi in ganization the Diaspora (L., Notes, p. 52). This in Egypt. head was called “nasi” or “rosh ha- golah.” A list of the nasis is given in Karaitic manuscripts, carrying their genealogy back to David, which fact at once raises suspicions. For Egypt the following are given: Saadia, 980; Solomon; Hezekiah; Hasdai; David; and Solomon Abu al-Fad1—(see Fiirst, “ Gesch. des Karierthums,” ii. 192; Notes, p. 77; J. Q. R. ix. 441). The fact of there being such a head can hardly be doubted, since several of those cited above are men- tioned regularly with the title attached to their names, Samuel b. Davi’ gives a description of his Karaite brethren in Egypt in the seventeenth cen- tury, and paints their condition in glowing colors (G. p.5; transl in Neubauer, le. p. 40). He stayed in Cairo with the nasi Baruch; and he mentions espe- cially one Abraham Kudsi (7.¢., “of Jerusalem”). This latter, together with the physician Zachariah, is mentioned by Moses b. Elijah also (G. p. 34). Sam- uel relates further that many of the Karaites were goldsmiths, but that in his day the wealth of the community was reduced (p. 5). Ibn Safir likewise speaks of the Karaitic goldsmiths. In his day Moses ha-Levi of Jerusalem was their hakam and Elisha their “rosh.” Reference has already been made to the number of Karaites in Egypt at various times. Occasionally many were converted to Rabbinism, notably by Abraham Maimonides in 1818 (8. 184, 15; “Kaftor u-Ferah,” p. 18b; J. Q. R. xiii. 101), a fact due, perhaps, to the mild apd considerate man- ner in which they were treated, especially by Moses Maimonides (see his “'Teshubah,” No. 153, ed. Leip- sic, p. 85b). A similar policy was pursued by Jo- seph del Medigo, who, being in Cairo in 1616, en- tered into friendly relations with their hakam, Jacob Alexandri (Geiger, “Melo Chofnajim,” p. xxxii.). According to a report in Jost’s “ Annalen ” (ili. 84), they numbered 100 in Cairo in 1841; while BE. N. Adler speaks of 1,000 in 1900 (J. Q. R. xii. 674). A Karaitic Haggadah, with Arabic translation for the use of the Karaites in Cairo, was published at Presburg in 1879 by Joshua b. Moses (“ Hebr. Bibl.” xix. 2). The Samaritans also scttled in Egypt at an early date, though very little is known of their actual his- tory. For Alexandria, sce JEW. ENncyc, i. 866; and for the Dosithean sect, 7b. iv. 643. The Samart- tan chronicle published by Neubauer Samaritans (J. A. 1869, No. 14) gives the names of in Egypt. the high priests and of the chief Sa- maritan families in Egypt. He men- tions Helbah b. Sa‘adah, who went to live in Egypt and was the progenitor of the Ha-Mora and Helbah families (¢dem, offprint, p. 74); Garnakah b. Helef, progenitor of the Garnakah family (p. 75); Rahiz b. Shafar, the first to go to Egypt by sea; Joseph b. Karaite 71 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA a Helef; Elias Sadakah ha-Hifi, progenitor of the Hofni family at Cairo (p. 77); and in 1504 one Ja- cob of the family Pukah, who is called “Ising of Israel” and “ Abrek ” (compare “ He-Haluz,” iii, 153, 9) and whom the writer praises for his numerous good deeds(p. 80). In the fifteenth (?) century Jived Abu Sa‘id al-‘Afif, one of the best-known physicians in Cairo, and a writer on medical subjects (B. A. g 325). Mention must also be made of Muhadhdhib al-Din Yusuf al-‘Askari, author of a “Sefer ha-Miz- wot” (70. § 328). In 1481 Meshullam of Volterra found 50 Samaritan families in Cairo, with asynagogue (p. 185). A hang- ing for the Ark with a Samaritan inscription and com- ing from this synagogue was presented to the congre- gation of Widdiu or to that of Ofen in the sixteenth century. Samaritans are also mentioned by David ibn Abi Zimra and by Joseph del Medigo, who saw them at disputations with Aliibn Rahmadan (Briill’s “Jahrb.” vil. 44). Of Samaritan literature in Egy pt nothing is as yet known. Miller and Kaufmann suspect that a papyrus fragment containing part of an acrostic litany is of Samaritan origin (“ Mitthei- lungen aus der Sammlung der Papyrus Erzherzog Rainer,” i. 39). The use of Hebrew script by Samari- tans is not, as Harkavy thinks (see “ Allg. Zeit. des Jud.” 1891, p. 57), peculiar. Oneof the Arabic Penta- teuch manuscripts described by De Sacy (“ Mémoire sur la Version Arabe & VUsage des Samaritains, ” p. 18) was bought at Cairo, and seems to have been written thereat the timeof the Circassian sultan Al- Ashraf Kansuh al-Ghuri (beginning of the sixteenth century) by one Sadakah b. Joseph pransnon wow osaypa ow iIpn; 25. p. 17; compare a similar ex- pression, YIP ANIA wot, in the colophon of a Cambridge Samaritan Pentateuch, J. Q. R. xiv. 28, L 8; 352; xv. 73). The Scaliger manuscript, from which Juynboll edited the Book of Joshua (Leyden, 1848), came from the Egyptian Samaritans in 1584. It was written upon the skin of the Passover lamb (Juynboll, “Commentarii in Historiam Gentis Sam- aritane,” p. 38). The importance of the Jewish communities in Egypt may be seen from the number of synagogues which formerly existed in and around Syna- Cairo. Arabic topographers of Egypt gogues in have even given accounts of them; Cairo. é.g., Ibrahim ibn Mohammed ibn Dukmak (1350-1406; “Description de Egypte,” ed. Vollers, 1898, p. 108) and Al-Mak- rizi (“ Al-Hitat,” ii. 464). These accounts are fol- lowed by Sambari (S. 118, 186; see Schreiner in Z. D. M. G. xiv. 296). There were at least ten syna- gogues; Meshullam of Volterra (M. V. p. 185) de- sertbes six of them. The Karaite Samuel b. David Speaks of thirty-one, besides fifty mvapnm ‘na (“charitable foundations”), of which there were originally as-‘many as seventy (G. p. 6). Following is a list of the synagogues: 1. The Damwa synagogue in Gizeh, on the west bank of the Nile, opposite Fostat: ay27 (8. 120, 4. 111 (O. p. 18 and a MS. in “ Or Meir,” p. 84), yo" (M. V. p. 182; see J. Q. R. xv. 75)3 on the spot to which Moses is said to have retired. Tradition says that it was built forty years after the destruction of tbe First Temple. A tree there is said to have grown out of Moses’ rod. Al- Makrizi relates that the Jews made pilgrimages to this syna- fogue on the Feast of Revelation. Sambari states that the Cairo Egypt Jews were accustomed to invite their brethren from all parts of Egypt to come there on Adar 7 (Death of Moses), the day fol- lowing being celebrated with feasting. It was also called ** Moses’ Synagogue ” (“ Kanisat Musa’: S120, 137: Benjamin of ‘Tudela, ii, 235}; but in Sainbari’s time it was in ruins (S. 119, 00; 107, 14), According to Benjamin of Tudela, the overseer of the synagogue was called ** Al-Shaikh abu Nasr’ (p. 98). Berti- noro speaks also of a Karaite synagogue in the place. 2. The Jauhar synagogue, built upon the spot where both El jah and Phineas b. Eliezer were born (*' Al-Hitat,” ii. 47). This also was in ruins (S. 121, 15). 3. The Al-Masagah synagogue in Cairo, built in the year 315, Seleucidan era [= 3-4 ¢.F.], and restored under Omar ibn al- Khattab (816); situated in the Darb al-Karmah: 4. The synagogue of the Palestinians (**‘ Al-Shamiyyin’’), in a section of Cairo called Kasr al-Sham; according to Ibn Duk- mak, in the Kasr al-Rum. y9>N (i.¢., the street Al-Khurunfush in tbe northern part of Cairo; Makrizi, Le. il. 27; Al-Kalkushandi, p 72); itis now inruins. Ibn Dukmak mentions one in Masmuma, in a small alley of the Darb al-Karmah (see above). The Karaites, however, speak of two; one, large and spacious. for the Jerusalem Karaites, with fourteen marble pillars and containing five hekalot, fourteen scrolls, and many Arabic Karaitie manuscripts ; the second, stnaller and private, situated in tbe courtyard of a certain Aaron (G. pp. 6, 34). 8. A Rabbinite synagogue in which Sambari worshiped, “* Ka- nisat al-Musta‘rab” (8S. 156, 5; compare Conforte, ** Kore ha- Dorot,” 82b, 33a), for the Arabic Jews. The deed of conveyance of the synagogue (1038) speaks of it as situated in the Darb al- Banadir in the Zuwailah quarter. It was closed at one time, opened again by Eliezer Skandari in 1580, but had been closed for forty years before Sambari wrote (S. 160, 10). A specially venerated Bible codex, called ** Al-Sunbati,”’ Was brought to the synagogue in 1623 from the Egyptian village of Sunbat; a light was kept burning before it, aodon Simhat Torah it was carried once around the synagogue (8. 1/9, 1; perhaps the “ Codex Sambuki’’; see JEw. Encyc. iii. 179). 9. Synagogue al-Hadrah (Al-Makrizi). This also was in the Zuwailah quarter, in the Darb al-Ra‘id. 10. A Samaritan synagogue (Al-Makrizi: M. V. p. 185). In addition, Sambari mentions a synagogue of the West-Afri- can Jews (a0 p’n Sy nv39; 134, 9), in which Maimonides was buried before his body was taken to Palestine, and a private one of R. Sedillo, still standing in his day (S. 145, 16; but 159, 7 has xS-ap = Sevilla ?). In tbe middle of the nineteenth cen- tury Ibn Safir (l.c. p. 9a) found ten old synagogues in Cairo | proper, and of them mentions the following: (1) Synagogue of Egypt Ehrenkranz THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 72 R. Ishmael, rebuilt, in which most of the Franks (European Jews) worshiped. Attached to it was a school for orphans and poor children. (2) Synagogue Mizrayim, the oldest of all, about to be rebuilt. (8) Synagogue of the Portuguese, rebuilt. (4) Synagogue of R. Moses (Maimonides), still standing ; on the north side was a smail room before which a perpetual light burned. This must be Sambari’s Maghrabi synagogue. (5) Synagogue of R. Zimrah (David ibn Abi Zimrah). (6) Synagogue of R. Hayyim ‘pips (see below). (7) Synagogue of the “ Ba‘al ha-Nes’’: who he was is unknown. (8) Turkish synagogue; very old, and in which various minyanim prayed. Of the literary ability of the Egyptian Jews the old Cairo genizah is continually giving further evi- dence. The old Bible fragments stiil to be found there are minutely described by Ibn Safir, ¢.c. pp. 11b et seg.; the standard Bible codex of Aaron b. Asher was brought to Egypt and used by Maimonides (“ Yad,” Sefer Torah, p.8, end). A codex of the year 1008, written in Egypt, was corrected by means of this standard manuscript (M. xx. 8). Maimonides found there portions of the Gemara which he thought were 500 years old (“ Yad,” Mal- weh, xv. 2). Many of the writers and scholars whose names have become famous have already been mentioned. All departments of Jewish literature are represented; but it was especially in poetry of various kinds that they excelled. This was prob- ably due to their intimate personal and literary acquaintance with Arabic au- thors. Mention may be made here of the dedicatory poem to the nagid Judah (J. Q. R. viti. 556, ix, 360); the “ Makamah ” of the historian Abraham b. Hillel (¢d. ix. 168), which shows also the influence of the Span- ish-Hebrew poets; the involved and extremely well- executed “Tarshish ” (Arabic, “ Tajnis”) of the pro- fessional scribe who wrote the letter of the ex-minister of Al-Afdal (2, ix. 29, x. 480); the verses of Abraham Maimonides, mentioned even by Sambari (8. 1384, 16); and the prose with occasional lapses into piy- yut, many specimens of which have been found by Schechter. The megillah form was generally used for historical records, cither in prose or in poetry ; ¢.7., the Cairo Purim, the Zuta, and the Abiathar Me- gillot (tb. xiv. 449). From Egypt have come nearly all the fragments of the Hebrew original of Ben Sirach (Ecclesiasticus). The number of the manuscripts of this text testifies that it was widely read. Many pri- vate libraries of large extent must have existed in Egy pt—e.g., those of Bezaleel Ashkenazi and David ibn Abi Zimrah; and the fragments of catalogues which have been preserved show the wide scope of the literary interests of the times (Schechter, “Saadyana,” p. 78). The material used for writing was at first papyrus (for an example of the eighth century see Chwolson, “Corpus,” p. 121; for a marriage contract of the ninth century see “Fiibrer Durch die Papyr. Erz- herzog Rainer,” p. 262; see also7zd. p. 284; “ Aegyp- tische Zeitschrift,” xxxiii. 64; “ Magazin,” vi. 250); later, parchment and paper were employed. The Egyptian Jews wrote in Arabic as frequently as in Hebrew, and wrote well. Sambari’s remark to that effect (S. 120, 1) is borne out by recent discoveries. At times they even went so far as to write their He- brew in Arabic characters; e.g., the Karaite Bible manuscripts described by Hérnle (“ British Museum Karaite MSS.” London, 1889), and the fragments Literary Pro- ductions. published by Hirschfeld (J. Q. R. xv. 168). They busied themselves also with Arabic literature, frag. ments of which have been found written in Hebrew characters (2.). As regards typography, one Jewish work only ig known to bear the imprint “ Mizrayim” (Cairo)— Hayyim Vital’s ritual book in two volumes, “ Hok le. Yisrael” (1740). It was edited by Isaac Baruch and published by Abraham Zaddik. The establishment in which it was printed was owned by Abraham ben Moses Yatom, whose workmen were Solomon §a- chata ben Samuel, Aaron ben Isaac Nahmias, Israe] ben Jacob Kimhi, and Gershon ben Solomon. The book wasapproved by Nissim Solomon al-Gazi, rabbi at Cairo, and Moses Israel, rabbi at Alexandria. With the exception of this one work, it is only quite recently that Hebrew books have been printed in Egypt, notably by Faraj Hayyim Mizrahi in Alexandria. He has published the following works: By Solomon Hazzan : anbyd mbynn ‘3, acompanion to the “Shem ha-Gedolim,”? dealing with Eastern authors (1894); Dvspn apy /p (1895); mnvpn 3179/0 (1895); nndw 72, an alpha. vetic collection of ritual ordinances (1900). By Elijah Hazzan: ciby m3 ’d, on the peculiar religious observances and customs of the Alexandrian Jews (1894). By Meborak Berhent of Trip- olis: wip op mop bw atan ‘D (1896). In addition, the following works have been print- ed in Alexandria: mas pr, with commentary of David Maimonides (1901). man (1888); 5yndsx (1887). By Abraham Kestin: naw syn xy, ** Hebrew Grammar for Arabic-speaking Jews” (1896). ayeony Syn prim ety (1880). yonA mysy, prayer-book, Egyptian rite. ADI MADDY. The peculiarities in the liturgy and religious ob- servances of the Egyptian Jews have been indicated by Zunz (“Ritus,” p. 55), and for Al- exandria they have been explained at length by Elijah Hazzan in his “ Neweh Shalom” (Alexandria, 1894); see also Ibn Safir, pp. 10 et seg. Inthe Siddur of Saadia there is given probably the earliest form of the Egyptian order of service (see the account by Steinschneider in “ Cat. Bodl.” col. 2203, and B. A. § 62); but it seems doubtful if this order was observed for any length of time. Maimonides found little occasion to make changes; though his decisions in such matters be- came authoritative for the greater part of the East. As the Palestinians and Babylonians had their own synagogues, so they preserved some of their pe- culiar customs; e.g., the Babylonians preserved the yearly cycle in the Reading of the Law; the Pales- tinians, the triennial—an arrangement not touched by Maimonides (“ Yad,” Tefillah, xiii. 1), and of which Abraham Maimonides complains (J. Q. R. v. 420; M. xli. 464; Benjamin of Tudela, p. 98; S. 118, 25). The buying of certain mizwot was a heredi- tary privilege. The “Kol Nidre” prayer was not recited in Cairo (Geiger’s “ Zeitschr.” ii. 254; M. xli. 464). On special occasions, when more than seven were called to the Law on a Sabbath, certain por- tions were repeated. On week-days the Sabbath portion was read, but without the Haftarah (Samuel b. David, ed. Gurland, p. 6). According to Con- forte (7.c. p. 14a), David Maimonides’ Midrashot to the Torah were read in some of the Egyptian con- gregations every Sabbath, Liturgy. 73 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Egypt Ehrenkranz a ee ee ee ee eee Some Egyptian liturgical texts have been found in the Cairo genizah, and their peculiarities noted py Schechter (J. Q. R. x. 654), From these, frag- ments of the Passover Haggadah have been pub- lished by I. Abrahams (2. p, 41), in which the repeated reference to the “Memra” or “ Logos” dis- closcs peculiar Egyptian traits. The first attempts to illustrate the Haggadah are also found in the genizah fragments (Kaufmann, 7). p. 381). Pecu- liarities in connection with the rite of circumcision are described in the letter of Moses b. Elijah (ed. Gurland, p. 85); but it is not said whether these are Karaitic. It was customary in Egypt to put a ref- erence to the ritual bath (“mikweh”) in the ketub- bah, a point upon which Maimonides, having the Karaite system in view, insisted with rigor (“ Teshu- pot,” No. 116); also to insert a promise from the man that he would not marry an additional wife (ketub- bah of 1896; MS. Cambridge Add. No, 8124; compare ven, i. 94). It was also customary to carry the dead to Palestine for burial (Abi Zimrah, Responsa, §§ 611, 741). According to Ibn Safir (p. 11b), in every synavogue in Cairo there is a small cupboard (called also 65°77) in which an old copy of the Bible jn book-form, or portions of it, ig kept, and before which a light is kept burning (sce above). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Many of the genizah fragments mentioned have been republished by Schechter, Saadyana: Geniza Frag- ments, Cambridge, 1908. Compare, especially, Bacher, E tir Newerschlosseres Capitel der Jiid. Gesch. in J. Q. R. xv. 79 et seq.: Berliner, Die Nagid-Wiirde, in Magazin, xvii. 50 et seq. See further Steinschneider and Cassel, in Erseh and Gruber, Hneye. section ii., part 28, p. 64. The following is a key to the abbreviations used _ in this article: B. = Butler, Arab Conquest of Egypt. B. A. = Steinschneider, Bibliotheca Arabica Judaica, Frankfort, 1902. G. = Gurland, Giize Yisrael: Neue Denkmiiler der Jitd, Literatur, part 1, Lyck, 1865. J. Q. R. = Jewish Quar- terly Review. L.= Pinsker, Likkute Kadmoniyyot, Vienna, 1860. L.-P. = Lane-Poole, A HHistoryof Egypt in the Middle Ages, London, 1901. M, = Monatssehrift. M. J. C. = Me- dieval Jewish Chronicles. M.V.= Meshullam of Volterra, in Lunez, Jerusalem, i. O. = Obadiah of Bertinoro, in Neu- bauer, Zwei Briefe Abadjah’s, Leipsic, 1863. R. FE. J. = Re- vue des Etudes Juives. S. = Sambari, ed. Neubauer, in M. J. C.i. T.L. Z.=Theologische Literaturzeitung. Z.D.M.G.= Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgentiindischen Gesellschaft. Z. H. B. = Zeitschrift fiir Hebritische Bibliographie. EHAD MI YODEA‘ (“One; who knows ?”): Initial words of a Hebrew nursery-rime which, with Hap Gapya, is recited at the close of the Seder on Passover eve. It consists of thirteen numbers, and was probably recited originally as a dialogue, if not in chorus. Question: **One—who knows?” Answer: **Qne—I know: One is our God in heaven and on earth.” Question: **Two—who knows?” Answer: *Two—I know: the two tables of the Covenant.’? Chorus: “ Oneis our God in heaven and on earth.” Question: “Three—who knows?” Answer: ‘* Three—I know: the three patriarchs.”” Chorus: ““Two tables of the Covenant, One is our God in heaven and on earth.” Question : ** Four—who knows?” Answer: * Four—I know: the four mothers in Israel." Chorus: ** Three patriarchs, Two tables of the Covenant, One is our God in heaven and on earth." Question: ** Five—who knows?” Answer: * Five—I know : the five books of Moses.”? Chorus: ‘* Four mothers in Israel, Three... .” Question: *‘Six—who knows?” Answer: ‘*Six—I know: the six books of the Mishnah.’”? Chorus: ‘* Five books of Moses, Four... .” Question: ‘‘Seven—who knows?” know: the seven days of the week.” of the Mishnah, Five... .” Question; ‘‘Eight—-who knows?” Answer: ‘ Eight—I know: the eight days of circumcision.” Chorus: ‘Seven days Of the week, Six... .” Answer: **Seven—I Chorus: “Six books Question: ‘* Nine-—who knows?" Answer: ‘‘Nine—Iknow: the nine months of child-bearing.” Chorus: ‘* Eight days of circumcision, Seven... .” Question: ‘*Ten—who knows?” the Ten Commandments.”’ Answer: ‘* Ten—I know: Chorus: *‘ Nine months of chiid- ‘bearing, Fight... .” Question: “*Eleven—who knows?” Answer: “* Eleven—! know: the eleven stars”? (in Joseph’s dream: Gen. xxxvii. 9). Chorus: **Ten Commandments, Nine... .” Question: ** Twelve—who knows?” Answer: ** Twelve—I le the Twelve Tribes of Israel.” Chorus: “ Eleven stars, CEN we. Question; “* Thirteen—who knows?” Answer: “ Thirteen —I know; the thirteen attributes of God”? (Ex. xxxiv. 6-7). Chorus: “* Twelve Tribes of Israel, Eleven... .” This song, stated by Zunz in “G. V.” p. 1838 to occur only in German Pesah haggadahs since the fifteenth century, was later found by Zunz him- self in the Avignon ritual as a festal table-song for holy-days in general (“Allg. Zeitung des Ju- denthums,” iii. 469). The theory, therefore, ad- vanced by Zunz, and worked out in detail by Perles (“Griitz Jubelschrift,” 1887, pp. 37 e¢ seq.; Brall’s “ Jahrb.” iv. 97 e¢ seq.), that it is an adapta- tion of a German folk-song, must be revised, not- withstanding the striking parallels brought by the former from Simrock’s “ Die Deutschen Volkslieder ” (1851, p. 520), where it is shown that what was orig- inally a peasants’ drinking-song was adapted by monks, and the numbers (one to twelve successively) declared to signify: one, the Lord Ged who lives in heaven and earth; two, the tablets of Moses; three, the Patriarchs; four, the Evangelists; five, the wounds of Jesus; six, the jugs of wine at the wed- ding of Cana; seven, the sacraments; eight, the beatitudes; nine, the choruses of angels; ten, the Ten Commandments; eleven, the eleven thousand virgins; twelve, the twelve Apostles. Other Ger- man parallels are given in L. Geiger’s “ Zeitschrift fiir die Geschichte der Juden in Deutschland,” iii. 93, 234 (note), 288; while Sauder (“Das Volksleben der Neugriechen,” 1844, p. 328) has compared an old Greek Church song; Kohler, in Geiger, “Zeitschr.” lc. p. 239, an English Church song; and Green, in “The Revised Hagada,” p. 98, London, 1897, a Scotch nursery-rime. A peculiar feature of Ehad Mi Yodea‘ is that it proceeds to the unlucky number thirteen (see “ D, M. L. Z.” xxix. p. 634, note), and stops there as if to make the Jew feel that with him thirteen (= Sn) is a holy, and therefore lucky, number. The origin of the numerical folk- or riddle-song has been traced by Kohler (.c.) to ancient Oriental sources (comp. Cosquin, “Contes de Lorraine,” 1876), BIBLIOGRAPHY: Kohler, Sage und Sany im Spiegel Jtidischen Lebens, in L. Geiger’s Zeitschrift fiir die Gesch. der Juden in Deutschland, 1889, iii. 284-240. K EHRENKRANZ, BENJAMIN WOLF (also known as Zbarazer): Galician Yiddish peet; born in Zbaraz, Galicia, about 1826; died June 2, 1883. He spent many years in Rumaazia and southern Russia, wandering from place to place, and singing his songs, sometimes extemporaneously composed, in cafés and similar resorts. Some of his poems were written down by his hearers, and given to him for revision when he was in better condition for such literary work, He was a real folk-poet, and his songs are still sung by the Jewish masses of Galicia and south- Ehrenreich Eibenschiitz THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 74 ern Russia. Some of them are reproduced in Dal- man’s “Jiidisch-Deutsche Volkslieder aus Galizien und Russland,” pp. 29-42, 2d ed., Berlin, 1891. Iiis first published poem, written in Hebrew and based on a Talmudical parable, appeared in “ Kokebe Yizhak,” xii. 102-103, Vienna, 1848. His next work, “ Hazon la-Mo‘ed,” asatire on the Hasidimand their rabbis, is also in Hebrew (Jassy, 1855). His Yiddish songs were published with a Hebrew translation in four parts, under the collective name “ Makkel No‘am” (Vienna, 1865, and Lemberg, 1869-78). A new edition in Roman characters appeared in Braila, Rumania, 1902 (see “ Ha-Meliz,’’ v. 42, No. 125). His “ Makkel Hobelim ” (1869) and “ Sifte Yeshenah ” (1874) appeared in Przemysl. BIBLIOGRAPHY: L. Wiener, History of Yiddish Literature in eee pc Century, pp. V7-80; Ha-Shahar, ii. 204-206; S. P. Wi. EHRENREICH, MOSES LEVI: Italian rabbi; born at Brody, Galicia, 1818; died at Rome Dec. 27, 1899. Having graduated from the gym- nasium of his native city, Ehrenreich, attracted by the reputation of Samuel David Luzzatto, went to Padua to study at the Istituto Rabbinico, where he received the rabbinical diploma (May 10, 1845). He immediately begun teaching at G6ritz, where he became friendly with Isaac Reggio, whose daughter Helena he married Jater on. After a short stay at Triest, he became rabbi at Modena, and in 1861 rabbi at Casale, Piedmont. In 1871 he was teacher in the families of Guastalla and Malvano at Turin, and in 1882 he was called to the principalship of the Tal- mud Torah in Rome, shortly afterward becoming chief rabbi of the Italian capital. It was through his efforts and under his direction that the Collegio Rabbinico Italiano was reopened in 1887. In 1894 the infirmities of old age compelled his retirement from the rabbinate. His chief literary work consisted of the part he took the translation of the Bible into Italian under the direction of Luzzatto, for which he translated Hosea, Micah, Daniel, Ezra,and Nehemiah. He also wrote a biography of his father-in-law, Isaac Reggio. He was a member of the committee of the society of Mekize Nirdamim from its reestablishment in 1885. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Allg. Zeit. des Jud. 1900, p. 20; Vessillo Is- raelitico, 1900, p. 23. 8. . Sie be EHRENTHEIL, MORITZ: Hungarian edu- cator and writer; bornat Szilagy-Nagyfalu in 1825; died at Budapest Dec. 27, 1894. After teaching in various cities, he established himself in Budapest (1867), and devoted his time to literary work. His published works are: a Hungarian grammar, written under the pseudonym “Erényi Mor”; “Kleine Deutsche Sprachlehre,” Budapest, 1865; “Jidische Charakterbilder,” Sfros-Patak, 1866; a Hebrew-Hungarian dictionary to the five books of Moses, Saros-Patak,1868: “ Jiidisches Familienbuch,” Budapest, 1888; “ Der Geist des Talmud,” 7), 1888; “Rezeption und Orthodoxie,” 72. 1892. He also edited the magazines “ Jiidische Volksschule ” (Arad) and “ Das Traditioneile Judenthum ” (Budapest). the latter under the pseudonym “ Dr, Freund.” BIBLIOGRAPHY: Petrik, KOnyvészef; Kiss Arén, Magyar Neépiskolait Tanitus Torténete, p. 322. g. L. V. EHRLICH, ADOLPH (ABRAHAM ABEL®E): Russian educator and rabbi; born in Mitau, Courland, Sept. 20, 1887. Tn 1858 he became teacher of the Hebrew language and religion at the Jewish government school in Friedrichstadt, Cour- land. In 1861 he studied at Berlin under Michae] Sacus, who employed him as teacher for his chil- dren, Hespent tlrec years at Berlin University, and in 1868 received his degree of Ph.D. from Halle. We then taught at the Religionsschule in Berlin until 1870, when he became rabbi of Neudenberg, East Prussia; cighteen months later he returned to his old post in Berlin; in 1872 he was elccted gov- ernment rabbi of Riga, but the election was not con- firmed; and in 1876 he was placed by the Russian government at the bead of the Jewish schoolin Riga, This position he held for about twenty years. Ehr- lich is now (1908) rabbi of Tilsit, Prussia. Ehrlich has written: “De Judicio ab Aristotele de Republica Platonica,” Berlin, 1872; “ Vaterland und Landesvater,” three sermons, St. Petersburg, 1888; “Le-Regel ha-Yeladim,” a Hebrew primer, Wilna, 1888; and “ Entwickelungsgeschichte der Jiidischen Gemcindeschule zu Riga, ein Beitrag zur Culturge- schichte,” St. Petersburg,1894. He has aiso written critical notes to the “Be’er Mikael” of his teacher, Michacl Sachs. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sefer Zikkaron, pp. 61-¥2, Warsaw, 1891. H. R. P. Wr. EHRLICH, ARNOLD: Bible critic; born in Volodovka, near Brest-Litovsk, Russia, Jan. 15, 1848, Educated at the universities of Leipsic and Berlin, he later became assistant librarian of Orien- tal books in the Royal Library in Berlin. In 1878 he emigrated to the United States, settling in New York city, where he still (1903) resides. Since 1898 Ehrlich has devoted practically his en- tire time to his commentary on the Hebrew Bible, entitled “Mikra ki-Peshuto.” The first volume, on the Pentateuch, appeared in Berlin in 1899; the sec- ond, on the prose books (including Ruth, but not Esther), has the subtitle “ Dibre Soferim ” (2d. 1900); the third, entitled “Dibre Nebuah” (2d. 1901), in- cludes all the Prophets; and the fourth and last vol- ume, on the poetical works of the Old Testament, is in course of preparation. BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. Frankenberg, in Gdttingische Gelelirte Anzeigen, V. 162, 333-838; Hebrew Standard, May 9, 1902; Ha-Magyid, 1901, Nos. 23-26; Ha-Shiloah, v. 546-502. W. R. P. Wr. EHRLICH, HEINRICH: German composer, pianist, and musical critic; born at Vienna Oct. 5, 1822; died Dee. 20, 1899. He began his musical earecr at Bucharest and Jassy, and for some years was court pianist to George V. of Hapover. From 1855 to 1862 he lived successively at Wiesbaden, in England, andat Frankfort-on-the-Main. Thence he removed to Berlin, where he became teacher of piano at the Stern Conservatorium, and musical critic on the “ Tageblatt,” the “Gegenwart,” and the “ Neue Berliner Musikzeitung.” In 1875 the title of pro- fessor was conferred upon him. Among Ehrlich’s noteworthy compositions are 75 ee « Konzertstiick in Ungarischer Weise,” “ Variationen aber cin Originalthema,” and a sonata for violoncello. He was one of the foremost writers on music; his chief work in this line includes the text-books “ Der Musikalische Anschlag,” “ Wie Uebt Man Klavier?” “Musikstudien beim Klavierspiel,” “Die Ornamen- tik in Beethoven’s Sonaten,” “Die Ornamentik in Sebastian Bach’s Klavierwerken,” and the works “Schlaglichter und Schlagschatten aus der Musik- welt,” “Aus Allen Tonarten,” “Lebenskunst und Kinstlerleben,” “Modernes Musikleben,” “ Dreissig Jahre Kiinstlerleben.” He wrote besides many novels and stories. His autobiography was pub- lished posthumously in the “Berliner Musik- und Theater-Welt” (vol. iii., Nos. 21, 22) by Ad. Kohut, who also published the letters addressed to Ehrlich py Hector Berlioz, Robert Frank, Clara Schumann, and others. Ehrlich embraced Christianity in mid- dJe life. 8. A. Ko. EHRLICH, MESHULLAM: Polish philolo- gist; born at Lublin 1818; died at Paris 1861. He was one of the leading Talmudic scholars of his time, us well as a master of Oriental and modern Jan- guages. His numerous works all remain in manu- script, with the exception of one containing re- searches in the field of Hebrew philology, published under the title “Heker Millim u-Sefat Kodesh,” Paris, 1868. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Ha-Karmel, Russian Supplement, 1861, No. 6; Zeitlin, Bibl. Post-Mendels. s.v. BH. XR. M. R. EHRLICH, PAUL: German physician; born at Strehlen, Prussian Silesia, March 14, 1854. He studied medicine at the universities of Breslau, Frei- burg-in-Baden, Leipsic, and Strasburg, being grad- uated from the last-named in 1878. After holding some minor appointments, he became privat-docent at Berlin University in 1887, and in 1890 assistant professor and assistant to Koch in the laboratory for infectious diseases. In 1896 he was appointed director of the laboratory for serum examination (Institut ftir Serumforschung und Serumpriifung) at Steglitz, near Berlin; and when in 1899 this labo- ratory was transferred to Frankfort-on-the-Main, Ehrlich became its director, resigning his university position. Ehrlich is the author of various essays and treatises relating to his profession. BIBLIOGRAPIIY: Pagel, Biog. Lex. s.v. and Appendix, Vienna, 1901; Meyers Konversations-Lexikon, xvili. s.v. s, By: EHRMANN, DANIEL: Austrian rabbi; born at Muttersdorf, Bohemia, in 1816; died at Briinn Noy. 15, 1882. After studying at Budapest and Prague, he became rabbiand preacher at Kuttenplan and Diirrmaul in 1848; and a year later succeeded Abraham Kohn in Hohenems. He was rabbi at Boh- misch-Leipa from 1852 to 1860, when he resigned his office and, removing to Prague, engaged in the book business. In Prague and Briinn he edited for many years the Jewish periodical “Das Abendland.” Jn 1867 he was called as teacher of religion to Brinn, Where he remained until his death. Ebhrmann’s works include: “Betrachtungen tiber Jiidische Ver- haltnisse” (Budapest, 1841); “Gebete fur Isracli- tische Frauenzimmer ” (Prague, 1845); “Beitriige zu THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Ehrenreich Eibenschtitz einer Geschichte der Schulen und der Kultur Unter den Juden” (Prague, 1846); “Geschichte der Israe- liten von den Uriiltesten Zeiten bis auf die Gegen- wart,” 2 vols. (Briinn, 1869; 2d ed., 1871); “Aus Palistina und Babylon: Eine Sammlung von Sagen, Legenden, Allegorien, Fabeln, Erziihlungen, Gleich- nissen, u. s. w. aus Talmud und Midrash” (Vienna, 1880). He also wrote a story, “Die Tante”: and contributed to the “Orient,” “Kokebe Yizhak,” and other periodicals. S. M. K. EHUD.—Biblical Data: Second judge of Israel ; 2 Benjamite, theson of Gera. Concealing under his garment a two-edged sword, he carried a preseut to Kglon, the Moabite king whe had held Israel in sub- jection for eighteen years. After delivering it he requested a private audience, which was granted. Being left-handed, Ehud was able to draw his weapon without suspicion, and he plunged it through the body of the king, who was too surprised and too corpulent to resist. Ehud made his escape to Seirath, and gathering an Israelitish army, slew the whole Moabite forces numbering 10,000 men (Judges ili. 14-30). See EcLon, J. dR. C. J. M. ——Critical View: The story of Ehud was taken from one of the oldest sources of the Book of Judges, into which it had possibly been put after having passed from mouth to mouth as a folk-tale. The beginning of the tale has been displaced by the prag- matic introduction of the author of Judges (com- pare Moore, Commentary on Judges, pp. 89 ef seq.; “ Judges,” in “8, B. O. T.” pp. 6 e seg.; and Budde, “Die Biicher Richter und Samucl,” etc., p. 28). The author of Judges has taken the narrative of a local incident and transformed it into a deliverance of all Israel. The story is not quite homogeneous, but is not so compositeas Winckler (“ Untersuchungen zur Altorientalischen Geschichte,” pp. 55 e¢ sey.) believed. Recent critics accept Ehud as a historical character. In addition to references above, compare Budde, 7. pp. 98 e€ seg. J. IR, G. A. B. EIBENSCHUTZ, ALBERT: German pianist; born in Berlin April 15, 1857; studied pianoforte under Reinecke and composition under Paul at the Leipsic Conservatorium. He was professor at the musical institute at Kharkof, Russia, until 1880, and then teacher at the Royal Conservatorium at Leipsic until 1888, when he accepted a professorship at the Cologne Conservatorium. In 1893 he became director of the Cologne Liederkranz, and in 1896 first pro- fessor of piano at the Stern Conservatorium in Berlin. Two years Jater be became the owner and director of the Conservatorium at Wiesbaden. As a pianist Eibenschiitz is distinguished by a vrilliant technique, richness of tone, and remarkable delicacy and precision of touch. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Ehrlich, Cclehrated Pianists, p. 91, Leipsie, 18943 Riemann, Musik-Levikon. S, J. So. EIBENSCHUTZ, DAVID SOLOMON: Rus- sian rabbiand author; diedin Safed, Palestine, 1812. He was a pupil of Rabbi Moses Zebi Heller, author of “Geon Zebi,” and occupied the position of rabbi Eibenschitz Hilenburg THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 76 in Buzhanow, Soroki (Volhynia), and Jassy, (Ruma- nia), From the last-named city he went to Palestine and remained there till his death. He was the author of many cabalistic and Talmudical works, which still exist in manuscript. He also wrote “Lebushe Serad,” in two parts, The first part con- tains a commentary on the Shulhan ‘Aruk, Orah Hayyim, with comments on David b. Samuel’s “Ture Zahab” and Abraham Abele Gumbinner’s “Magen Abraham”; at the end of this part is added the plan of the Temple as described by Eze- kiel (Mohilev, 1818, and frequently). The second part is on Shulhan ‘Aruk, Yoreh De‘ah (Mohilev, 1812). His “Ne’ot Deshe” is a compilation of 188 responsa, in two parts, the first of which was pub- lished in Lemberg, 1861, while the second is in manu- script. “‘Arbe Nahal” is also in two parts, the first being a treatise on the Pentateuch, the second con- sisting of sermons (Kopust, Sdilkov, 1835; Kro- toschin, 1840; Jitomir, 1850; Lemberg, 1856). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Eliezer Kohn, Kin'at Soferim, p. 90; Fuenn, Kiryah Ne’emanah, p. 223; Benjacob, Ozar ha-Sefarim, pp. 255, 391, 449. L. G. N. T. L. EIBENSCHUTZ, ILONA: Hungarian pian- ist; born at Budapest May 8, 1872. She received her first instruction in music from her cousin Albert Kibenschiitz; Liszt is said to have played at a con- cert with her when she was only tive years old. She later studied with Carl Marek, and from 1878 to 1885 at the Leipsic Conservatorium under Hans Schmitt. At her début in Vienna her remarkable playing cre- ated a sensation. After attaining her twelfth year she annually made a concert tour through Germany, Austria, France, Russia, Denmark, Norway, and Sweden; playing before the Queen of Denmark at Copenhagen, before the Czarand Czarina of Russia at the Gatschina Palace, and before the Emperor of Austria at Vienna, by whom she was granted an im- perial stipend for five years. From 1885 till 1890 she was taught by Clara Schu- mann, and then resumed her concert tours, playing with great success in London. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Ehrlich, Celebrated Pianists, p. 98. s. J. So. EIBENSCHUTZ, JONATHAN. See Eynr- scHUTz, JONATHAN. EIBESCHUTZ, SIMON AARON: Danish philanthropist; born Nov. 14, 1786 in Copenhagen ; died there Nov. 25, 1856. He lefta fortune amount- ing to about 1,700,000 Danish crowns; a part of the income was to go to his nearest relatives, provided they continued in the Jewish faith, but by far the greater part was to go to Jewish and municipal in- stitutions. The income of the sum bequeathed to the Copenhagen University Library was to be devoted to the purchase of Hebrew and Oriental works. Equal sums were bequeathed to the Polytechnic Institute and to the Academy of Arts in Copenhagen, on con- dition that they receive without compensation two Jewish youths annually, and that the Academy of Arts employ the income of its share to establish a prize for a work of art, the subject of which must be derived from the Old Testament. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Allg. Zeit. des Jud. xxi. 104; Fortegnelge over de Legater, p. 118, Copenhagen, 1878; Dansk, Bingrapy, Lexikon. s. M. K. EICHBERG, JULIA. Sce Rosewatp, Jury EICHBERG. EICHBERG, JULIUS: Violinist, director of music, and composer; born in Diisseldorf, Germany, June 18, 1824; died at Boston, Mass., Jan. 18, 1893. In his youth he had the benefit of the best musica] instructors in his native town and at Maycnce, and he became a favorite of Reitz and Mendelssohn. He also studied at the Conservatoire in Brussels, and upon his graduation received the first prize for vio- lin playing and composition. Soon afterward he became the director of an opera troupe at Geneva, Switzerland, where he remained for eleven years. In 1857 Eichberg went to New York, and two years later removed to Boston, where he was engaged as director of music at the Museum. At this time he wrote the operetta “The Doctor of Alcantara,” which had a favorable reception, and is even now frequently played in America. His other composi- tions include the operettas “The Rose of Tyrol,” “The Two Cadis,” and “A Night in Rome,” besides trios and quartets for strings, violin pieces, and songs. After serving seven ycars as conductor of the or- chestra at the Boston Museum he established the Bos- ton Conservatory of Music, and about the same time was appointed general supervisor and director of music in the high schools of the city. A. G. Mo. EICHBERG, PAULINE. See WEILLER, Pav- LINE EICHBERG. EICHENBAUM, JACOB: Russian educator, poet, and mathematician; one of the pioneers of modern education among the Russian Jews; born in Krasnopolie, Galicia, Oct. 12, 1796; died at Kiev Dec. 27, 1861. He showed extraordinary ability in Hebrew and mathematical studies, In which latter he was assisted by his father, Moses Gelber. In 1815 Eichenbaum settled in Zamoscz, Russian Poland, in which city there was a circle of progress- ive Jewish youths who were followers of the “ Ber- lin culture.” Here he gave himself up to his fa- vorite work, occupying himself with the rational interpretation of the Bible, and with the study of Hebrew, German, philosophy, and mathematics, especially the last-named. 1n18i9 he translated for his own use Kuclid’s “Elements” from German into Hebrew. Jacob, who had assumed the family name of “Eichenbaum,” soon entered on a period of wan- dering and of hard struggle for his daily bread. He became a private tutor, and lived in different towns of southern Russia, teaching Hebrew subjects and mathematics in the houses of wealthy people. In 1835 at Odessa, which was then the educational cen- ter of the south-Russian Jews, he opened a private school for Jewish children on the lines of the Ger- man-Jewish schools. In 1886 he published at Leip- sic, under the title “ Kol Zimrah,” a series of Hebrew poems. This little book was one of the first pro- ductions of Neo-Hebrew poetry which received its inspiration from Mendelssohn’s school. The verse-making talent of Eichenbaum is stri- at THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Nplate ee ee kingly evidenced in his “ Ha-Kerab,” London, 1840, +n which are described the moves in the game of chess. Joseph (Ossip) Rabbinovicz translated this poem into Russian verse (Odessa, 1847; 2d ed., 70. 1874). In the course of a few years the pedagogic and literary labors of Kichenbaum attracted the atten- tion of the Russian government, which in 1844 ap- pointed him overseer of the Russo-Jewish school in Kishinev, and six years later chief inspector of the new rabbinical school opened by the Russian gov- ernment in Jitomir (1850). Heretained this position uutil his death. In the later years of his life he published a text- pook of arithmetic in Hebrew, “Hokmat ha-Shi‘u- rim,” Warsaw, 1857, and an allegorical poem, “ Ha- Kosem,” in “Ha-Meliz,” 1861 (also in book form, Odessa, 1862), BIBLIOGRAPHY: Tarnegol, J. Eichenbaum, in Razsvyet, 1861, Nos. 51-52; Fuenn, Safah le-Ne’emanim, § 101, Wilna, 1881 ; idem, Keneset. Yisrael, s.v.; Ha-Mizpah, iv. 15-18, St. Peters- purg, 1886; Beer Yizhak (correspondence of I. B, Levin- son), pp. 61, 98, Warsaw, 1899. S. M. D. H. RB. EICHHORN, JOHANN GOTTFRIED: Orientalist and Biblical scholar; bornat Dérrenzim- mern, in the principality of Hohenlohe-Oehringen, Oct. 16,1752; died at Gottingen June 27, 1827. After studying theology and Oriental languages under Johann David Michaelis at the University of Got- tingen, he was appointed professor of Oriental lan- guages at Jena in 1775. Later (1788) he became pro- fessor of philosophy at Gottingen. After Michaelis’ death (1794) he succeeded his former teacher as pro- fessor of Old Testament literature. This post he oc- cupied until his death. The diversity of Eichhorn’s studies and labors is remarkable, but his lasting merit lies in the field of Old Testament research. His “Einleitung in das Alte Testament” (3 vols., Leipsic, 1780-82) marks an epoch in the study of the Bible. Accepting the theories advanced by Herder, Eichhorn attempts to give a just appreciation of the poetry and religion found in Hebrew literature. His work, which passed through four editions and was often reprinted, com- bines vividness of exposition with great scholarship, although the criticism is often immature, and is di- rected more to an esthetic enjoyment than to a real solution of the difficulties. Eichhorn’ssecond great work is “ Die Hebriiischen Propheten ” (3 vols., 1816- 1819), a poetical translation, with a short exposition, of the prophetic literature, arranged in chronolog- ical order. Here for the first time an important and Suggestive problem was seriously dealt with, al- though it was not solved. In 1777-86 Eichhorn published a “Repertorium fiir Biblische und Mor- genliindische Litteratur,” and in 1787-1803 appeared his “ Allgemeine Bibliothek der Biblischen Littera- tur.” BIBLIOGRAPHY: Allg. Deutsche Biographie, v. 731-7387. J. K. H. C. EICHTHAL, GUSTAVE D’: French publicist and Hellenist; born at Nancy March 22, 1804; died at Paris April 9, 1882. At the age of thirteen he became a convert to Roman Catholicism, and when he left the Lycée Henri IV. in 1822, he became a dis- Eibenschiitz Filenburg ciple of Auguste Comte, who initiated him into the doctrines of Saint-Simon, to the propagation of which he devoted a part of his fortune. In {832 D’Eichthal went to Greece, and on his re- turn to Paris in 1836 published “ Les Deux Mondes,” containing his reflections on the Orient. He now began to advocate the use of Greek as a universal language, and published many works, among which were; “Les Trois Grands Peuples Méditerranéens et le Christianisme,” Paris, 1864; “Origines Boud- dhiques de la Civilisation Américaine,” in the “Re- vue Archéologique,” Sept., 1864, and April, 1865; and “Texte Primitif du Premier Récit de la Cré- ation,” Paris, 1875; reprinted after his death under the title “ Mélanges de Critique Biblique.” D’Eichthal was one of the chief founders (1881) of L’Association pour l’Encouragement des Etudes Grecques. After his death his son published his “La Langue Grecque,” Paris, 1887, DES EST La Grande Encyclopédie, s.v.; Larousse, ct. Sv. 8. V. E. EIDLITZ, MOSES ZARAH: Austrian Tal- mudist; born before 1725; died May 17, 1786, at Prague. Following the custom of the time, he con- ducted a Talmud school in his dwelling, and, besides teaching his pupils gratuitously, he aided them with his smali means to such an extent that he impover- ished himself. Nevertheless, he continued to pay the same Jew-tax that had been apportioned to him in his better days. Only when he was actually un- able to pay the sum did he bend to the entreaties of his friends and state his case to the “ primator,” Israel Frankl. Eidlitz, however, refused the roll of ducats that the latter sent him. Frankl, desiring to force the modest rabbi to accept the money, de- clared that he could not remit the tax if Eidlitz was rich enough to refuse such a sum of money, and the rabbi was finally forced to yield. After his death the roll of ducats was found among his few posses- sions, with a note requesting his family to restore the money to its original owner, Frankl. Eidlitz wrote Pavnnr noxdn, a manual of arith- metic in Hebrew, Prague, 1775; and Dw") ARN, haggadic discourses, 7b. 1785. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider, Cat. Bodt. col. 2584; Lie- ben, Gal ‘Ed, p. 62; German ed., pp. 56 et seq. 8. A. K1. EIGHTEEN BENEDICTIONS. See Sue- MONEH ‘ESREH. EILENBURG, ISSACHAR BAER BEN ISRAEL LEYSER: Polishrabbi; born in Posen about 1570; died in Austerlitz, Moravia, in 1623. His father gave him a thorough training in the Tal- mud, From Posen Eilenburg went to Prague and entered the yeshibah of Rabbi Liva. After study- ing there for afew years, he returned to Posen and continued his studies in the yeshibah of Rabbi Mor- decai Jafe. About 1600 Eilenburg became rabbi of the city and district of Géritz, and about 1620 rabbi of Aus- terlitz, Moravia. Eilenburg’s works are: “ Be’er Sheba‘,” commen- taries on the treatises of the Talmud upon which there are no tosafot (Venice, 1614). This work is dividec into seven parts, namely: (1) “Ner Mizwah,” on Binbeck Einhorn THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 78 Horayot ; (2) “Ner Tamid,” on Tamid; (3) “Ner Adonai,” on the first and last chapters of Keritot ; (4) “Ner Elohim,” on two chapters of Sotah ; (5) “Ner Yisrael,” on the last chapter of Sanhedrin ; (6) “Ner Hora’ah,” on parts of Hullin; (7) “Ner Torah,” novell and responsa. Hilenburg also wrote “Zedah la-Derek,” supercommentary on Rashi to the Pentateuch (Prague, 1623-24). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Azulai, Shem ha-Gedolim, i. 115; S. Wiener, Bibl. Friedlandiana, No. 1052; Roest, Cat. Rosenthal. Bibl. S.V. Tere. B. Fr. EINBECK: Town in the province of Hanover, Prussia. That Jews lived there at a very early date is shown by the fact that some Einbeck Jews were burned at the stake in 1298, Ina document of 1855 a Jews’ street and a “schole der Joden” are men- tioned, and an “old Jewish cemetery ” is referred to ina document dated 1454. — —P HY tie a eh ee i =f | H=V20-3=0: “O=e= % “We Qniti —— 3; Rey Eurydemus ben Jose Eve The following table gives the official or estimated number of Jews in the different European countries at the four most recent census periods, about 1870, 1880, 1890, and 1900; the first set of figures being taken from Andree, “ Volkskunde der Juden”; the second, from I. Loeb’s article “ Juifs,” in Vivien de St. Martin, “ Dictionnaire de Géographie ”; the third, from J. Jacobs, “Jewish Year Book,” 1900; and the last partly from I. Harris, in “Jewish Year Book,” 1903. Estimates are marked with an asterisk.* JEWS IN EUROPE. 1890. 1900. Country. 1870. 1880. MVISUPIG:, vec cus are buen 820,200 | 1,005,894 | 1,143,305 | 1,224,899 Belsai y..85 6548.05 3,000* 4,000* 3,000*; = 12,000 BOR ap dw wteconcees 3% Tr ee AeA | ~ a ee brews 5,845 BUGarin. aa ereea ar: 8,959 JO M00! |i asdescess 28, 000* DEDMMTE ss5.cei0005% 4,290 3,946 4,080 5,000* Eastern Rumetia..... | tense ses oT 1 8sa4 exes 6,982 England, ete......... 68, 300* 60,000*; = 101,189 179,000* FRANCO. p40srccessaes 49,439 76,897 72, 86,885 Germany ..........6. 520,575 | 561,610 | 567,884 | 586,948 GLGCCb 66 icaceeewins 2,582 2,652 5,792 8,350 HOUanG is xcasieseane 68,003 81,698 97,324 103,988 HOng@ery occ.ciaeseeus 552,283 638,314 716,801 851,378 1:7 bere oe 30,806 40,430* 50), OOO 44,087 Luxemburg .,....... 661 177 1,000* 1,200* Norway and Sweden. 1,870 3,027 3,402 5,000* POURRA Ga cndk eaees 1,000* * 300* 1,200* Rumania..........5. 400,000*; 265,000*] 300,000*) 269,018 Russia (European)! and Poland........ | 2,992,049 | 2,502,145 | 4,500,¢ 5,142,195 OPV IG cy. o 6 sien oats ee es 2,000* 3,492 4,652 5,100 Spain (with Gibraltar) 6,000* 1,902 2,500 4,500* Switzerland ......... | 6,996 7,373 8,069 | 12,441 Turkey, GtC.....20.6s | 62,418 115,000*| = 120,000* 15,295 CY PIS RNG MAGA. cst wa ccece ssa deretes || Ree bees 130 te 5,166,426 | 5,441,455 | 7,701,298 | 8,659,496 J. EURYDEMUS BEN JOSE: One of the sons of Tanna Jose b. Halafta. His name has been trans- mitted in the most varying forms: “ Awradimus” (DID"TNY), “ Abirodimus” (pyoIVBN), “ Abdimus ” (DID'ISN), and “ Wradimus” (pip). As a basic form Bacher assumes “ Eurydemus” (compare the Biblical Dyan), a name which occurs in Herodotus. Levy (“Neuhebr. Worterb.” i. 505a) and Kohut (“Aruch Completum,” iii. 257b), on the other hand, favor the name “ Eudaimon.” Others, following the Palestinian sources, read all these names, “ Abdi- mus,” whom they identify with Menahem b. Jose (compare ABDIMUS BEN R. Jose). The few remarks ascribed to Eurydemus contain admonitions to be- nevolence, BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bacher, Ag. Tan. ii. 416-417; idem, 4g. Bab. Amor, p. 64, note 21. M. Sc. 8. §. EUSEBIUS: Bishop of Cesarea and the “father of Church history”; born about 270. Though ani- mated by zeal for the conversion of the Jews, he often gives evidence of his bitter dislike of them. In his “ Demonstratio Evangelica,” which is a direct attack on Judaism, he charges the Jews with serious errors in the exposition of Scripture, and advises that efforts should be made to induce them to abandon their heresies (iv. 16). His advice doubtless influ- enced the enactment of anti-Jewish laws by Con- stantine, at whose right hand Eusebius sat in the Council of Nicea. The “ Demonstratio Evangelica ” is divided into twenty books, of which only ten have been preserved. Eusebius first endeavors to demon- THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 274 strate that the Mosaic law had only a local character and was not intended for a universal religion. For instance, the injunction to appear “thrice in the year” before God (Ex. xxxiv. 23) can only be ap- plicable to the inhabitants of Palestine (zb, i. 2). He then comments upon the Messianic prophecies of the Bible, which, according to him, were fulfilled in the appearance of Jesus. Of great interest for Jews is Eusebius’ “ Preepara- tio Evangelica.” It is divided into fifteen books, of which the last eight treat of Judaism, its religion, history, and institutions, and show its superiority over paganism. Especially valuable are books viii. and ix., in which he reproduces fragments of Jewish- Hellenic writers, such as Eupolemus, Demetrius, Artapanus, Philo, Ezekielus, and Josephus. The fragments, taken from the writings of Alexander Polyhistor, are faithfully rendered. Eusebius seems to have had a Jewish teacher, who instructed him in Hebrew, and through whom he became familiar with many haggadot and Jewish traditions; of these le made use in his works on Biblical exegesis. See CHURCH FATHERS, BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gritz, Gesch. iv. 312; 8. Krauss, The Jews in the Works of the Church Fathers, in Jewish Quarterly Re- view, vi. 82; Freudenthal, Hellenistische Studien, pp. 1 et seq.: Gritz, Haggadische Elemente bei den Kirchenvdtern, in Monatsschrift, 1854; L. Ginzberg, Die Hagyada bei den ee und in der Apokryphischen Literatur, at I. Br. EUTOLEMUS: Name borne by a number of Palestinian Jews. R. Jose quotes in reference to several halakic questions the testimony of a certain “EKutolemus,” who gave a decision in the name of five elders (R. H. 15a; Suk. 40a; ‘Er. 35a), and whose full name was “Eutolemus ben Reuben” (Sotah 49b). THeis quoted in the Talmud as having been permitted by the Rabbis to cut his hair in con- formity with pagan custom because of his inter- course with court officials (B. K. 88a). In Hebrew the name “ Eutolemus” is variously spelled poms, pipdpas, ppd. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Krauss, in Byzantinische Zeitschrift, ii. 510; idem, Griechische und Latetinische Lehnworter, p. 43 Weiss, Seder ha-Dorot, p. 22, Warsaw, 1882. I. Br. Ss. 8. EVANS, SAMUEL (Young Dutch Sam): English pugilist; born in London Jan. 30, 1801; died of consumption Nov. 4, 1843, Evans’ first encounter in the prize-ring took place at Knowle Hill, Maidenhead, Berkshire, July 5, 1825, when he beat Ned Stockman in seventeen rounds. His next match was with Harry Jones, whom he defeated at Sheremere, Bedfordshire, Oct. 18, 1825. These two victories were succeeded by others in 1826 and 1827. Then followed two more victories: the first, over Jack Martin, which took place at Knowle Hill, Berkshire, Nov. 4, 1828, and ended in the sixteenth round; the second, over Ned Neale, “a youth,” at Ludlow, April 7, 1829, which terminated in the sev- enty-firstround. On Jan. 18, 1831, Evansand Neale met again, Evans defeating his opponent in fourteen rounds, which occupied fifty-two minutes. His next victory was over Tom Gaynor of Bath, whlch took place June 24, 1884, near Andover, in the seven- teenth round. 275 Evans’ career as a pugilist is remarkable for the number of victories he achieved. BIBLIOGRAPHY: American Jews’ Annual, 5647 (1886-87) ; Evans, Boxiana, London, n.d. J. F. H. V. EVANSVILLE. See INDIANA. EVARISTUS: The fifth pope; consecrated about 100; died about 109. The breviary of Pope Pius V. reserves Oct. 26 to the memory of “ Evaris- tus Grecus ex Judo patre Trajano Imperatore Pontificatum gessit.” From this it would follow that this pope was a Jew, whose father was a native of Bethlehem, and therefore, no doubt, a Roman provincial. Evaristus, then, must have been a Greek-speaking Jew, and, under the laws of the empire, a Roman subject. Of lis life little is known. He died under either Trajan or Hadrian, and is said to be buried near St. Peter’s body in the Vatican. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Acta Sanctorum (Bollandus), Iviii. (ad Octob. Xxvi., tom. xi.), Paris, 1870; Analecta Romana, vol. i., ed. H. Grisar, Rome, 1899: A Harnack, Die Chronologie der Altehristlichen Litteratur, i. 1897; W. H. Simcox, The Be- ginnings of the Christian Church, 2d ed., 1892; Milman, His- tory of Later Christianity, i. G. G. Dr. EVE (7)n).—Biblical Data: The wife of Adam. According to Gen. iii. 20, Eve was so called because she was “the mother of all living” (R. V., margin, “Life” or “ Living”). On the ground that it was not “good for man to be alone” God resolved to “make him an help meet for him” (2d. ii. 18), first creating, with this end in view, the beasts of the field and the fowl] of the air and then bringing them unto Adam. When Adam did not find among these a helpmeet for himself, YHwu caused a deep sleep to fall upon him, and took one of lis ribs, from which He made a woman, and brought her unto the man (2b, 11. 22), Upon seeing her, Adam welcomed her as “bone of my bones, and flesh of my flesh ” (2d, ii. 23), declaring that she should be called “ishshah” be- cause she was taken out of “ish” (man.) Dwelling in the Garden of Eden with Adam, Eve is approached and tempted by the serpent. She yields to the reptile’s seductive arguments, and par- takes of the forbidden fruit, giving thereof to her husband, who, like her, eats of it. Both discover their nakedness and make themselves aprons of fig- leaves. When God asks for an accounting Adam puts the blame on Eve. Asa punishment, the sor- rows of conception and childbirth are announced to her, as well as subjection to her husband (20. iii. 16). Driven out of Eden, Eve gives birth to two sons, Cain and Abel; herself naming the elder in the ob- scure declaration “I have gotten a man with the help of Yuwn” (2. iv. 1, R. V.). Later, after the murder of Abel, she bears another son, to whom she gives the name “Seth,” saying that he is given to her by Yuwuas a compensation for Abel (2b. iv. 25). E. G. H. ——In Rabbinical Literature: Eve was not created simultaneously with Adam because God foreknew that later she would be a source of com- plaint. He therefore delayed forming her until Adam should express a desire for her (Gen. R. xvii. ). Eve was created from the thirteenth rib on Adam’s right side and from the flesh of his heart (Targ. THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Eurydemus ben Jose Eve Pseudo-Jonathan to Gen. ii. 21; Pirke R. El. xii.). Together with Eve Satan was created (Gen. R. xvii.). God adorned Eve like a bride with all the jewelry mentioned in Isa. iii. He built the nuptial chamber for her (Gen. R. xviii.). According to Pirke R. El. xii., as soon ag Adam beheld Eve he embraced and kissed her; her name pwr, from yx, indicates that God (4°) joined them together (see also Ab. R.N. xxxviii.). Ten gorgeous “huppot” (originally, “bridal chambers”; now, “bridal can- opies”), studded with gems and pearls and orna- mented with gold, did God erect for Eve, whom He Himself gave away in marriage, and over whom He pronounced the blessing; while the angels danced and beat timbrels and stood guard over the bridal chamber (Pirke R. El. xii.). Samael, prompted by jealousy, picked out the serpent to mislead Eve (Yalk., Gen. xxv.; comp. Josephus, “Ant.” i. 1, $4; Ab. R. N. i.), whom it approached, knowing that women could be more eas- ily moved than men (Pirke R. El. xiii.). Or, accord- ing to another legend, the serpent was induced to lead Eve to sin by desire on its part to possess her (Sotah 9; Gen. R. xviii.), and it cast into her the taint of lust (ROAY; Yeb. 108b; ‘Ab. Zarah 22b; Shab. 146a; Yalk., Gen. 28, 180). Profiting by the absence of the two guardian angels (Hag. 16a; Ber. 60b), Satan, or the serpent, which then had almost the shape of a man (Gen. R. xix. 1), displayed great ar- gumentative skill in explaining the selfish reasons which had prompted God’s prohibition (Pirke R. El. l.c.; Gen. R. xix.; Tan., Bereshit, viii.), and con- vinced Eve by ocular proof that the tree could be touched (comp. Ab. R. N. i. 4) without entailing death. Eve thereupon laid hold of the tree, and at once beheld the angel of death coming toward her (Targ. Pseudo-Jon. to Gen. iii. 6). Then, reasoning that if she died and Adam continued to live he would take another wife, she made him share her own fate (Pirke R. El. xiii.; Gen. R. xix.); at the invitation of the serpent she had partaken of wine; and she now mixed it with Adam’s drink (Num. R. x.). Nine curses together with death befell Eve in consequence of her disobedience (Pirke R. El. xiv. ; Ab. R. N. ii. 42). Eve became pregnant, and bore Cain and Abel on the very day of (her creation and) expulsion from Eden (Gen, R. xii.). These were born full-grown, and each had a twin sister (25.). Cain’s real father was not Adam, but one of the demons (Pirke R. EI. xxi, xxii.). Seth was Eve’s first child by Adam. Eve died shortly after Adam, on the completion of the six days of mourning, and was buried in the Cave of Machpelah (Pirke R. El. xx.). Comp. ADAM, Book OF. 8. S. E. G. H. —-In Arabic Literature: Eve is a fantastic fig- ure taken from the Jewish Haggadah. Inthe Koran her name is not mentioned, although her person is alluded to in the command given by Allah to Adam and his “wife,” to live in the garden, to eat what- ever they desired, but not to approach “that tree” (suras ii. 33, vii. 18). According to Mohammedan tradition, Eve was created out of a rib of Adam’s left side while he was asleep. Ridwan, the guardian of paradise, conducted them to the garden, where they Eve Evidence were welcomed by al) creatures as the father and mother of Mohammed. Iblis, who had been forbidden to enter paradise and was jealous of Adam’s prerogative, wished to entice him to sin. He asked the peacock to carry him under his wings, but, as the bird refused, he hid himself between the teeth of the serpent, and thus managed to come near Adam and Eve. He first persuaded Eve to eat of the fruit, which was a kind of wheat that grew on the most beautiful treein the garden, and she gave some to Adam. Thereupon all their ornaments fell from their bodies, so that they stood naked. hen they were expelled from the garden. Adam was thrown to Serendib (Cey- lon), and Eve to Jidda (near Mecca). Although Adam and Eve cowd not see each other, they heard cach other's lamentations; and their repentance restored to them God’s compas- sion. God commanded Adam to follow a cloud which would lead him to a place opposite to the heavenly throne, where he should build a temple. The cloud guided him to Mount Arafa, near Mecca, where he found Eve. From this the mount derived its name. Eve died a year after Adam, and was buried out- side Mecca, or, according to others, in India, or at Jerusalem. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Weil, Bibliseche Legenden der Muselmiin- ner, E. G. H. H. Hr. ——Critical View: Theaccount of the creation of woman—she is called “Eve” only after the curse— belongs to the J narrative. It reflects the naive speculations of the ancient Hebrews on the begin- nings of the human race as introductory to the his- tory of Israel. Its tone throughout is anthropomor- phic. The story was current among the people long before it took on literary form (Gunkel, “ Genesis, ” p. 2), and it may possibly have been an adaptation of a Babylonian myth (2. p. 85). Similar accounts of the creation of woman froma part of man’s body are found among many races (Tuch, “Genesis,” notes on ch. ii.); for instance, in the myth of Pan- dora. That woman is the cause of evil is another wide-spread conceit. The etymology of “ishshah ” from “ish” (Gen. ii. 28) is incorrect (WR belongs to the root wx), but exhibits all the characteristics of folk-etymology. The name ain, which Adam gives the woman in Gen. iil. 20, seems not to be of Hebrew origin. The similarity of sound with 94 explains the popular etymology adduced in the ex- planatory gloss, though it is W. R. Smith’s opinion (“Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia,” p. 177) that Eve represents the bond of matriarchal kinship (“Shayy”). Néldeke (“Z. D. M. G.” xiii. 487), fol- lowing Philo (“De Agricultura Noe,” § 21) and the Midrash Rabbah (ad lor.), explains the name as meaning “serpent,” preserving thus the belief that all life sprang from a primeval serpent. The nar- rative forms part of a culture-myth attempting to account among other things for the pangs of childbirth, which are comparatively light among primitive peoples (compare ADAM; EDEN, GARDEN OF; Fai oF Man). Asto whether this story incul- cates the divine institution of Monocamy or not. see THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 276 Gunkel, “ Genesis,” p. 11, and Dillmann’s and Hol- zinger's commentaries on Gen. ii. 23-24. EVE OF HOLIDAYS: Unlike the early Baby- lonians, whose day began with sunrise, the Jews began theirs with sunset. Some critics, Dillmann among them, attempted to find traces of the Babylonian reckoning in the early portions of the Bible, but there is no doubt that with the spread of the Law the reckoning from evening to evening be- came established among the Jews (sce Ibn Ezra’s poem on the Sabbath, in which he decries the cus- tom of a certain sect which began the Sabbath and festivals with sunrise; Rosin’s edition, fi. 78, Bres- lau, 1885). The eve of Jewish holidays is therefore not the evening of the festival, but the day prece- ding it; in conversation, the expression “‘ereb yom- tob” is even extended to denote an indefinite period preceding the holiday. It is observed as @ day on which is prepared (zapackev7) such work as it is not permitted to do on the holiday or on the Sabbath. The Rabbis enjoined that the celebration of holi- days should begin some time before sunsct, in order “to add from the profane to the holy” (R. EH. 9a; Yoma 81b). In Temple times the blowing of the trumpet thrice by the Levites on the Announce- eve of a Sabbath or holiday notified ment of the people to cease from work (Suk. Beginning. 53b; Maimonides, “Yad,” Kele ha- Mikdash, vii. 5, 6; see TRUMPET’). This custom was retained for a long time in Jewry, although for the trumpet a wooden mallet was sub- stituted, with which the Shammash knocked at the doors of the shops or private dwelling-places to remind the Jews that the Sabbath or holiday had begun (Abrahams. “Jewish Life in the Middle Ages,” p. 56). He who engages in regular work late in the afternoon of the eve of the Sabbath or holiday will receive no blessing upon his work (Pes. 0b). Eating late in the afternoon before Sabbath is also forbidden, because the appetite must be reserved for the evening meal (Pes. 99b; Shulhan ‘Aruk, Orah Hayyim, 529, 1: Isserles’ gloss). It was con- sidered a commendable act to bathe on the eve of the Sabbath or holiday (Shab. 25b; Orah Hayyim, 260, 1; 471, 3: Isserles’ gloss). In the afternoon services the penitential psalm (“Tahanun”) was onitted, as it was on all holidays or festive occasions (74. 131). But besides these general rules which ap- plied to the eves of all holidays, there are certain laws and ceremonies prescribed for the eve cf each holiday in particular. As there is no restriction of work on the day of the New Moon (Rosh Hodesh), the eve of that day would have remained unnoticed were it not for the haggadic parallel] between the Jewish nationand the moon (Hul. 60b).. The various phases of the moon are compared to the various vicissitudes of Israel, and the last day of the month reminds the Jew of his: shortcomings in the service of God, and thus becomes a day of repentance, a miniature of the Day of Atonement (“Yom Kippur Katan”). The after- noon prayer therefore includes many penitential hymnsand formulas of confession of sin (“ widdui ”). These, however, are recited only by the very pious, who are also accustomed to fast on that day, at Jeast 277 until after the afternoon service (Orah Hayyim, 417; comp. “Magen Abraham” and *Be’er Heteb” «ud foc.) While the special additional prayers (* selithot ”) ure recited before dawn during the week preceding New- Year’s Duy. the prayers for the day before New- Year's are much more numerous and are recited with greater contrition. The hymn commencing with the words *Zekor Berit” (Remember the Covenant) is included in these prayers, and the day is frequently desiguated by the initial words of that hymn. It is also customary to fust on that day, or at least until noon, although pious Jews fast the greater part of the ten penitential days (Tanhuma, Emor, 22; Orah Hayyim, 581, 2). It is different, however, with the eve of the Day of Atonement. Not only is it forbid- den to fast on that day, but feasting is encouraged ; it is said that he who eats and drinks on the eve of the Day of Atonement will be rewarded as if he bas fusted both days (Yoma 81b; Orvah Hayyim, 604, 1). The early prayers for that day are also considerably reduced, and after the morning service a repast pre- yared by the congregation is served in the synagogue for the purpose of establishing a feeling of general fellowship. Each one begs the forgiveness of those he has wronged during the year. See also Kapra- ROT and STRIPEs. The meal taken before sunset should consist of light dishes, easily digestible, so that the evening prayer ¢an be recited with devotion. A certain so- lemnpity usually prevails iu every household during this meal, after which the parents bless the children and immediately repair to the synagogue. This meal should be concluded before twilight sets in (2. 604-608). In Temple times the paschal lamb was offered duriug the afternoon of the eve of Passover; there- fore more laws and Ceremonies are grouped around this day than around the eve of any other holiday. On the evening of the day preceding Passover the ceremony of searching for leaven is performed by the master of the house (Pes. 2a; see JEW. Excyc. ii. 628 s.7.; BEbigkArT HamMez). If Passover falls on a Sunday, the searching is begun on Thurs- day evening. The leaven found during this exam- inationis burned the next morning before noon (Pes. 21a). No leaven should be eaten after the fourth hour of the day, and after the sixth hour it is not permissible to derive any benefit from the leaven left over (¢h. 28b). Work on the eve of Passover is ab- solutely forbidden, and the transgressor exposes himself to the danger of being excommunicated. Even in the forenoon some are accustomed to cease work, and he who lives in a community where this custom prevails must conform to if (7. 50a e7 seq. ; sce CUSTOM). The maie first-born fast the whole day in com- nemoration of the miracle performed in Egypt, when the first-born in [srael were saved while those of the Egyptians were slain (Soferim xxi. 3; comp. Yer. Pes. x. 1; see First-Born). As is the case on the eve of the Sabbath, it is forbidden to begin a meal after the tenth hour (four P.M.) of the day, so that the appetite for the evening meal be not spoiled. Some are accustomed to fast the entire day in order to be better prepared for the festival meal in the THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Eve Evidence aw evening (Pes. 99b, 108a). It is forbidden to eat any mazzah during the day preceding Passover, so that after the fourth hour no bread, leavened or un- leavened, may be eaten (Yer, Pes, x. 1; see Rosh to Pes. 01.7; Orah Hayyim, 468, 470, 471). x. Ss. J. H. G. EVICTION. EVIDENCE: Whenever in proceedings at law wun issue arises—that is, ju civil cases when a fact is asserted on one side and denied on the other—the issue is generally determined by evidence, which the party having the burden of proof must proffer; and evidence to the contrary may be brought forward by the other party. The evidence may consist cither of the testimony of witnesses or of documen- tury writings. What here follows applies in the main to civil cases. I. Witnesses: In order to provea disputed fact, witnesses must fulfil the following requirements: 1. Two must testify to the same fact. This rule is laid down in Deut. xxv. 15 and in other passages apparently for criminal cases only, but it has been extended to civil cases as well. In See EFECTMENT. Number = civil cases, however, it is not necessary and that the two witnesses should agree Qualifica- very closely as to time and place. tions. Thus, if of two witnesses toa loan one should say, “A lent Ba jar of oil”; the other, “He Jent him a jar of wine”; or if one should say, “I was present when the money was paid at Jerusalem”; the other, “I saw it paid at Hebron”; or if one should say, “I saw it paid in the month of Nisan”; the other, “I saw it paid in Tyyar,” their testimony would be void, But if one says he saw it paid in the upper, and the other in the lower, story; or if one says on the first of the month, and the other on the second of the month, such evi- is within the limit of fair mistake, and the testimony stands. Even less docs a disagreement as to cir- cumstances other than time and place affect the testimony; for instance, if one says the money was black from usage, the other that it was new, this would be regarded as an immaterial circumstance, and the testimony would stand. Where the two Witnesses vary only in the matter of quantity, the lesser quantity is sufliciently proved. In criminal cases, as has been shown under ACQUITTAL IN TAL- mubic Law, a much closer agreement is required. 2. The wituess must be an Israelite. The Tal- mud seems to take this for granted; though it allows some facts to stand proved upon a statement “made innocently” by a Gentile; that is, not as a witness in court. In damage cases the Mishnah (B. K. i. 3) says expressly that the witnesses must be freemen and sons of the Covenant. __ 3. The witness must be a man, not a woman (R. H. i. 8); of full age, that is, more than thirteen years old; not a deaf-mute or a lunatic, and, ac- cording to the better opinion, not a blind man, aud not either deaf or dumb. . 101, 4). Bonds for the payment of money may be taken in execution, but they are not sold; they are appraised according to the solvency of the obligors and according to the character of their lands, and turned over to the creditor at such appraisement (7b. 5, based only on authorities later than the Talmud). The presumption prevails that all goods found on the debtor’s premises are his, But when third par- ties claiin them against the execution creditor, this presumption can be overcome by witnesses, but only when the goods are of the kind it is customary to lend or hire. When the debtor is a factor engaged in selling goods such as are found on his premises, there is no longer a presumption that the goods are his (20, 99, 2; no mode of trial of the right of prop- erty in the goods is indicated). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Shulhan ‘Aruk, Hoshen Mishpat, 97-105; Maimonides, Yad, Maiweh; Bloch, Civil-Process Ordnung, s.v. Bxecutions-Verfahren; Judah ben Barzilai, Sefer ha- Shetarot. N. D. 8, Ss. L. EXECUTORS. See WILL. EXETER: County-seat of Devon, England. The first Jew mentioned as living in Exeter, about 1181, paid a fine of 10 marks for the king to take charge of his bonds. A number of Jews are men- tioned as paying 10 per cent of the debts recovered through the law courts at the beginning of the reign of King John; one of these, named “ Deulecresse le Eveske,” appears to have lent money to the Priory of St. Nicholasin Exeter. During the latter part of the thirteenth century Exeter was one of the cities in which an archa was kept, with two Christian chirographers and two Jews. In 1275 the Jewish chirographers were accused of having forged a char- ter, but were acquitted. At the expulsion the king seized all the debts still owing to the Jews of Exe- ter, who numbered about thirty-nine families, and who were creditors to the amount of £1,058 4s, 2d., and 542 quarters of corn worth £180 138s. 4d. A small community arose toward the end of the eighteenth century. It still exists, and worships in the synagogue in St. Mary Arches, which was founded in 1768. BIBLIOGRAPHY : Jacobs, Jews of Angevin England, pp. 73, 240, 376; Select Pleas of the Jewish Exchequer, ed. Rigg, pp. 838-84: B. L. Abrahams, in Transactions of the Jewish Historical Society of England, ii. 91; M. Margoliouth, Jews of Great Britain, iii. 489-440. ; EXILARCH (Aramaic, xmi$x ws; Hebrew, 753) wes or m3 wNI: see Hul. 92a, ef al.) : Title given to the head of the Babylonian Jews, who, from the time of the Babylonian exile, were desig- nated by the term “ golah” (see Jer. xxviii. 6, xxix. 1; Ezek. passtim) or “galut” (Jer, xxix. 22). The THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 288 ee Aes pis to chief of the golah or prince of the exiles held a position of honor which, recognized by the state, carried with it certain definite prerogatives, and was hereditary in a family that traced its descent from the royal Davidic house. The origin of this dignity is not known. The first historical doc- uments referring to it date from the time when Babylon was part of the Parthian empire, and it was preserved uninterruptedly during the rule of the Sassanids, as well as for several centuries under the Arabs, A chronicle of about the year 800—the Seder ‘Olam Zuta—fills up the gaps in the early history of the exilarch by constructing an account according to which the first exilarch was no Jess a person than Jehoiachin, the last king but one of the house of David, whom the exilarchs regarded as their an- cestor, The captive king’s advancement at Evil- merodach’s court—that curious incident of the Babylonian exile with which the narrative of the Second Book of Kings closes (II Kings xxv. 27)— was apparently regarded by the author of the Seder ‘Olam Zuta as the origin of the exilarchate. Even without any authentic genealogical Traced to trce of the family of the exilarchs, it Jehoiachin. could not have been difficult to find a genealogical connection between them and King Jehoiachin, since a list including gen- erations of the descendants of the king is given in I Chron. iii. 17 e¢ seg. A commentary to Chroni- cles (ed. Kirchheim, p. 16) dating from the school of Saadia quotes Judah ibn Kuraish to the effect that the genealogical list of the descendants of David was added to the book at the end of the period of the Second Temple, a view which was shared by the author of the list of exilarchs in Seder ‘Olam Zuta. This list has been synchronistically connected with the history of the Second Temple, Shechaniah being mentioned as having lived at the time of the Tem- ple’s destruction. The following are enumerated as his predecessors in office: Salathiel, Zerubbabel, Meshullam, Hananiah, Berechiah, Hasadiah, Jesaiah, Obadiah, and Shemaiah, all of which names are also found in I Chron. ili, (compare the list with the vari- ants given by Lazarus in Briill’s “Jahrb.” 1890, p. 171). The names of the next two prehistoric exil- archs—if that term may be used—Hezekiah and Akkub, are also found at the end of the Davidic list in Chronicles. Then follows Nahum, with whom the authentic portion of the list probably begins, and who may, perhaps, be assigned to the time of the Hadrianic persecution (135), the period in which are found the first allusions in traditional literature to the existence of the exilarchic dignity. In the account referring to the attempt of a Pales- tinian teacher of the Law, Hananiah, nephew of Joshua b. Hananiah, to render the First Babylonian Jews independent of the Historic Palestinian authorities, a certain Ahi- Mention. jah is mentioned as the temporal head of the former, probably, therefore, as exilarch (Ber. 68a, b), while another source substi- tutes the name “Nehunyon” for “ Ahijah” (Yer. Sanh. 19a). It is not improbable that this person is identical with the Nahum mentioned in the list (Lazarus, U.c. p. 65). The danger threatening the 289 Palestinian authority was fortunately averted; and about the same time R. Nathan, a member of the house of exilarchs, came to Palestine, and by virtue of his scholarship was soon classed among the fore- most tannaim of the post-Hadrianic time. His Davidic origin suggested to R. Meir the plan of making the Babylonian scholar “nasi” (prince) in place of the Hillelite Simon b. Gamaliel. But the conspiracy against the latter failed (Hor. 13b). BR. Nathan was subsequently among the confidants of the patriarchal house, and in intimate relations with Simon b. Gamaliel’s son Judah J. R. Meir’s at- tempt, however, seems to have led Judah J. to fear that the Babylonian exilarch might come to Pales- tine to claim the office from Hillel’s descendant. He discussed the subject with the Babylonian scholar Hiyya, a prominent member of his school (Hor. 11b), saying that he would pay due honor to the exilarch should the latter come, but that he would not re- nounce the office of nasi in his favor (Yer. Kil. 32b). When the body of the exilarch Huna, who was the first incumbent of that office explicitly mentioned as such in Talmudic literature, was brought to Pal- estine during the time of Judah I, Hiyya drew upon himself Judah’s deep resentment by announcing the fact to him with the words “Tuna is here” (Yer. Kil. 32b). A tannaitic exposition of Gen. xlix. 10 (Sanh. 5a) which contrasts the Babylonian exilarchs, ruling by force, with Hillel’s descendants, teaching in public, evidently intends to cast a reflection on the former, But Judah I. had to listen at his own table to the statement of the youthful sons of the above-mentioned Hiyya, in reference to the same tannaitic exposition, that “the Messiah can not ap- pear until the exilarchate at Babylon and the patri- archate at Jerusalem shall have ceased” (Sanh. 38a). Huna, the contemporary of Judah I[., is not men- tioned in the list of exilarchs in the Seder ‘Olam Zuta, according to which Nahum was followed by his brother Johanan; then came Jo- Succession hanan’s son Shaphat (these names also of are found among the Davidians in I Exilarchs. Chron. ni. 22, 24), who was succeeded by Anan (comp. “ Anani,” I Chron. iii. 24), From the standpoint of chronology the identi- fication of Anan with the Iluna of ‘the Talmud ac- count is not to be doubted; for at the time of his successor, Nathan ‘Ukban, occurred the fall of the Arsacids and the founding of the Sassanid dynasty (226 ¢.&.), which is noted as follows in Seder ‘Olam Zuta: “Tn the year 166 [¢. 234 c.5. | after the destruc- tion of the Temple the Persians advanced upon the Romans” (on the historical value of this statement see Lazarus, f.¢. p. 83). Nathan ‘Ukban, however, who is none other than Mar ‘Ukban, the contempo- rary of Rab and Samuel, also occupied a prominent position among the scholarsof Babylon (see Bacher, “Ag. Bab. Amor.” pp. 34-386) and, according to Sherira Gaon (who quotes Shab. 55a), was also exil- arch. As ‘Ukban’s successor is mentioned in the list his son Huna (Huna IT.), whose chief advisers were Rab (d.247) and Samuel (d. 254), and in whose time Papa b. Nazor destroyed Nehardea. Huna’s son and successor, Nathan, whose chief advisers were Judah b. Ezekiel (d. 299) and Shesheth, was called, like his grandfather, “ Mar ‘Ukban,” and it is he, the second V¥.—19 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Executors Exilarch exilarch of this name, whose curious correspondence with Eleazar b. Pedat is referred to in the Talmud (Git. Ta; see Bacher, lc. p. 72; ¢dem, “Ag. Pal. Amor.” i. 9). He was succeeded by his brother {not his son, as stated in Seder ‘Olam Zuta); his leading adviser was Shezbi. The “exilarch Nehe- miah” is also mentioned in the Talmud (B. M. Nib); he is identical with “Rabbanu Nehemiah,” and he and his brother “Rabbanu ‘Ukban” (Mar ‘Ukban ITI.) are several times mentioned in the Tal- mud as sons of Rab’s daughter (hence Huna II. was Rab’s son-in-law) and members of the house of the exilarchs (Mul. 92a; B. B. 51b). According to Seder ‘Olam Zuta, in Nehemiah’s time, the 245th year (813 c.£.) after the destruction of the Temple, there took place a great religious persecution by the Persians, of which, however, no details are known. Nehemiah was succeeded by his son Mar ‘Ukban (IIT.), whose chief advisers were Rabbah b. Nahmani (d. 323) and Adda. He is mentioned as “‘Ukban b. Nehemiah, resh galuta,” in the Talmud (Shab. 56b; B. B. 55a). This Mar ‘Ukban, the third exilarch of that name, was also called “ Nathan,” as were the first two, and has been made the hero of a legend under the name of “Nathan di Zizuta” (see Shab. 56b). The conquest of Armenia (337) by Sapor I]. is mentioned in the chronicle as a historical event occurring during the time of Mar ‘Ukban II]. He was succeeded by his brother Huna Mar Huna II]., whose The Mar chief advisers were Abaye (d. 388) ‘Ukbans. and Raba; then followed Mar ‘Uk- ban’s son Abba, whose chief advisers were Raba (d. 352) and Rabina. During Abba’s time King Sapor conquered Nisibis. The designation of a certain Isaac as resh galuta in the time of Abaye and Raba (Yeb. 115b) is due to a clerical error (see Briill’s “ Jahrb.” vii. 115). Abba was succeeded first by his son Nathan and then by another son, Mar Ka- hana. The latter’s son Huna is then mentioned as successor, being the fourth exilarch of that name; he died in 441, according to a trustworthy source, the “Seder Tannaim wa-Amoraim.” Hence he was a contemporary of Ashi, the great master of Sura, who died in 427. In the Talmud, however, Huna b. Nathan is mentioned as Ashi’s contemporary, and according to Sherira it was he who was Mar Kahana’s successor, a statement which is also con- firmed by the Talmud (Zeb. 19a). The statement of Seder ‘Olam Zuta ought perhaps to be emended, since Huna was probably not the son of Mar Kahana, but the son of the latter’s elder brother Nathan. Huna was succeeded by his brother Mar Zutra, whose chief adviser was Ahai of Diphti, the same who was defeated in 455 by Ashi’s son Tabyomi (Mar) at the election for director of the school of Sura, Mar Zutra was succeeded by his son Ka- hana (Kahana II.), whose chief adviser was Rabina, the editor of the Babylonian Talmud (d. 499). Then followed two exilarchs by the same name: another son of Mar Zutra, Huna V., and a grandson of Mar Zutra, Huna VI., the son of Kahana. Huna Y. fell a victim to the persecutions under King Peroz (Firuz), being executed, according to Sherira, in 470; Huna VI. was not installed in office until some time later, the exilarchate being vacant during the Exilarch THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 290 persecutions under Peroz; he died in 508 (She- rira). The Seder ‘Olam Zuta connects with the birth | of his son Mar Zutra the legend that Per- is elsewhere told in connection with secutions Bostanai’s birth. Mar Zutra, who Under came into oflice at the age of fif- Peroz and teen, took advantage of the confusion Kobad. into which Mazdak’s communistic at- tempts had plunged Persia, to obtain by force of arms for a short time a sort of polit- ical independence for the Jews of Babylon. Wing Kobad, however, punished him by crucifying him on the bridge of Mahbuza (¢. 620), A son was born to him onthe day of his death, who was also named * Mar Zutra.” The latter did not attain to the office of exilarch, but went to Palestine, where he became head of the Academy of Tiberias, under the title of “Resh Pirka” ( Apyioepenizyc), several generations of his descendants succeeding himin this office. After Mar Zutra’s death the exilarchate of Babylon re- mained unocupied for some time. Mar Ahunailived in the period succeeding Mar Zutra I], but for more than thirty years after the catastrophe he did not dare to appear in public, and it is not known whether even then (¢. 550) he really acted as ex- ilarch. Atany rate the chain of succession of those who inherited the office was not broken. The names of Kafnai and his son Haninai, who were exilarchs in the second half of the sixth century, have been preserved, Taninai’s posthumous son Bostanai was the first of the exilarchs undcr Arabic rule, Bostanai was the ancestor of the exilarchs who were in oftice from the time when the Persian em- pire was conquered by the Arabs, in 642, down to the eleventh century, Through him the splendor of the office was renewed and its political position made secure. His tomb in Pumbedita was a place of worship as late as the twelfth century, according to Benjamin of Tudela. Not much is known re- garding Bostanai’s successors down to the time of Saadia except their names; even the name of Bos- tanai’s son is not known. The list of the exilarclis down to the end of the ninth century is given as follows in an old document (Neubauer, “ Medieval Jewish Chronicles,” i, 196): “Bostanai, Hanina b. Adoi, Hasdai I., Solomon, Isaac Iskawi I, Judah Zakkai (Babawai), Moses, Isaac Iskawi II., David b. Judah, Hasdai 10.” Uasdai I. was probably Bos- tanai’s grandson. The latter’s son Solomon had a deciding voice mm the appointments to the gaonate of Sura in the years 733 and 759 (Sherira Gaon). Isaac Iskawi I. died very soon after Solomon. In the dispute between David’s sons Anan and Hana- niah regarding the succession the latter was victor; ANAN then proclaimed himself anti-exilarch, was imprisoned, and founded the sect of the Karaites. His descendants were regarded by the Karaites as the true exilarchs. The following list of Karaite ex- ilarchs, father being succeeded always by son, is given in the genealogy of one of these “Karaite princes”: Anan, Saul, Josiah, Boaz, Jehoshaphat, David, Solomon, Hezekiah, Hasdai, Solomon (see Pinsker, “Likkute Kadmoniyyot,” ii. 53). Anan’s brother Hananiah is uot mentioned in this list. Judah Zakkai, who is called “Zakkai b. Abunai” by Sherira, had as rival candidate Natronai b. Habibai, who, however, was defeated and sent West in ban- ishment; this Natronai was a great scholar, and, according to tradition, while in Spain wrote the Talmud from memory. David b. Judah also had to contend with an anti-exilarch, Daniel by name The fact that the decision in this dispute rested with the calif Al-Ma’mun (825) indicates a decline in the power of the exilarchate. David b. Judah, who carried off the victory, appointed Isaac b. Hiyya as gaon at Pumbedita in 8338. Preceding Hasdai II.’s name in the list that of his father Natronai must be inserted. Both are designated as exilarchs in a geonic responsum (Harkavy, “Responsen der Geo- nim,” p. 889). ‘Ukba is mentioned as exilarch immediately fol- lowing Hasdai II.; he was deposed at the instiga- tion of Kohen Zedek, gaon of Pum- Deposition bedita, but was reinstated in 918 on of ‘Ukba. account of some Arabic verses with which he greeted the calif Al-Mukta- dir, He was deposed again soon afterward, and fled to Kairwan, where he was treated with great honor, After a short interregnum ‘Ukba’s nephew, David b. Zakkai, became exilarch; but he had to contend for nearly two years with Kohen Zedek before he was finally confirmed in his power (921). In conse- quence of Saadia’s call to the gaonate of Sura and his controversy with David, the latter las become one of the best-known personages of Jewish his- tory. Saadia had David’s brother Josiah (Al- Hasan) elected anti-exilarch in 980, but the latter was defeated and banished to Chorasan. David b. Zakkai was the last exilarch to play an important partin history. He died a few years before Saadia ; his son Judah died seven months afterward. Judah left a son (Whose name is not mentioned) twelve years of age, whom Saadia took into his house and edu- cated. His generous treatment of the grandson of his former adversary was continued until Saadia’s death in 942. Only a single entry has been pre- served regarding the later fortunes of the exilarchate. When Gaon Hai died in 1038, nearly a century after Saadia’s death, the members of his academy could not find a more worthy successor than the exilarch Hezekiah, a descendant, perhaps a great-grandson, of David b. Zakkai; he thereafter filled both oftices. But two years later, in 1040, Hezekiah, who was the last exilarch and also the last gaon, fella victim to ca- hunny. He was cast into prisonand tortured; twoof his sons fled to Spain, where they found refuge with Joseph, the son and successor of Samuel ha-Nagid. Hezekiah himself, on being liberated from prison, became head of the academy, and is mentioned as such by a contemporary in 1046 (“J.Q. R.” xv. 80). The title of exilarch is found occasionally even af- ter the Babylonian exilarchate had ceased. Abraham ibn Ezra (commentary to Zech. xii. 7) speaks of the “Davidic house” at Bagdad (before 1140), calling its members the “heads of the Exile.” Benjamin of Tudela in 1170 mentions the exilarch Hasdai, among whose pupils was the subsequent pseudo- Messiah David Alroy, and Hasdai’s son, the exilarch Daniel. Pethahiah of Regensburg also refers to the latter, but under the name of “ Daniel b. Solomon ” ; hence it must be assumed that Hasdai was also Later Traces. 291 THE JEWISH called “Solomon.” Al-Harizi (after 1216) met at Mosul a descendant of the house of David, whom he calls “ David, the head of the Exile.” A long time previously a descendant of the ancient house of ex- ilarchs had attempted to revive in Egypt the dignity of exilarch which had become extinct in Babylon. This was David b. Daniel; he came to Egypt at the age of twenty, in 1081, and was proclaimed ex- ilarch by the learned Jewish authorities of that coun- try, who wished to divert to Egypt the leadership formerly enjoyed by Babylon. A contemporary document, the Megillah of the Palestinian “ gaon ” Abiathar, gives an authentic account of this episode of the Egyptian exilarchate, which ended with the downfall of David b. Daniel in 1094 (“J. Q. R.” xv. 80 ef seg.). Descendants of the house of exilarchs were living in various places long after the office became extinct. A descendant of Hezekiah, “ Hiyya” by name, with the surname 7), that is, “departure”; the Latin, “ (Li- ber] Exodus.” It contains, according to the Masorah, 1,209 (?) verses in 164 sections (° parashiyyot ”), 69 ending in the middie of the line (“petuhot” = “open”), and 9) with a space in the middle of the line (“setumot” =“closed”), in 29 chapters (“seda- rim”), and 14 sections (“piskot”), for reading on the Sabbath, in 11 lessons. The common division into 40 chapters is taken from the Vulgate. The second book of the Torah is the organic con- tinuation of the first book. It narrates the depar- ture of the descendants of the Patriarchs, increased to a people, from servitude in Egypt, Name and their journey to Sinai, and the revela- Contents. tions and laws which they received there. It is a well-planned and well- arranged work, displaying much literary skill in the command over great masses of material as well as in the marshaling of the facis. Itis homogeneous in its views, and is not encumbered by unnecessary repe- titions, though the sequel to it is found only in the following books. It is divided into two principal sections: (1) ch. 1.-xviii., recounting Israel’s deliv- erance from Egvpt; (2) ch. xix.-xlL, the promul- gation of the Law. These may again be divided into subsections. Ch. i.-iv.: The Call of Moses. The Israclites living in Egypt are oppressed by forced labor, 297 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Exodus imposed upon them by a new Pharaoh who de- sires to destroy them (i.). The exposed male in- fant of a Levitic family (whose name, in order not to divert interest from the main story, 1s not given here), is found by Pharaoh’s daughter, who calis him “Moses” and adopts him. Moses, grown to man’s estate, sympathizcs with his suffering brethren, and flees the country because he has slain an Egyptian overseer. He goes to Midian, becomes shepherd to the priest Jethro, and marries the latter’s daughter Zipporah Gi). As he is feeding thesheep on Mount Horeb, he hasamarvelousexperience. God appears to him from a thorn-bush which, though burning, is not consumed. He reveals Himself as the God of the Fathers of Isracl, and orders Moses to go before Pharaoh and demand the release of his breth- ren. God overcomes Moses’ reluctance by His prom- ises of supreme aid, and appoints his brother Aaron to be his assistant. Moses then returns to Egypt. Ch. v., vi.: The Preparation. As Pharaoh not only refuses Moses’ request, but oppresses the people still further, Moses complains to God, who thereupon announces to him that He will now dis- play His power and will surely liberate Israel. At this point the genealogy of Moses and his family is inserted, in order that it may not later interrupt or weaken in any way the story which follows. Ch. vil.-x.: The Plagues: the proofs of God’s power. After God has assigned their tasks to Moses and Aaron, and predicted Plaraoh’s obdu- racy, and after they have attested their commission by working a miracle before Pharaoh (vii. 1-18), God sends nine plagues over Pharaoh and his land: (1) the changing of the waters of the Nile into blood (DT. vii, 14-25); (2) frogs (YIMDY, vil. 28-vili. 11); (8) vermin (2°99, vill. 12-15); (4) noxious animals (ayy, viii. 16-28); (5) death of the cattle (4334, ix. 1-7); (6) boils upon men and beasts (pny, 1x. 9-12); storms, killing men and beasts (313, 1x. 18-85); (8) locusts that devour all vegelation (FAIIN, x. 1-20); (%) deep darkness for three days (Wwm, x. 21-29). These plagues, which give evidence of God’s power over nature, are increasingly obnoxious and dan- gerous, and are so arranged that every third plague - (hence narrated more briefly) confirms the two pre- ceding ones (narrated more in detail), and each group follows naturally upon the preceding one. The story displays a skilful climax, rhythm, and variety, Pharaoh, however, is untouched by the first plague, which his magicians can imitate; after the second plague, which they can reproduce, but not check, he begins to supplicate; after the third plague he al- lows his magicians to comfort him; from the third on he makes fresh promises after each plague, but recalls them when the danger is past, and remains obdurate. Ch. xi.-xiii. 16: The Departure. The last, de- cisive blow, namely, the death of all the first-born of the Egyptians (nyN33 M3), and the departure are announced. For the protection of their homes the Israelites are commanded to kill a lamb (Mob) and to eat it quickly with unleavened bread (AY) and bitter herbs (py), on the 14th of the first month, and to be ready for immediate departure. The first-born of all the Egyptians die. Pharaoh dismisses the Israclites. To the number of 600,000 men, not including women and children, they leave the country, after a sojourn of 480 years, carrying With them rich gifts from benevolent Egyptians. They go first from Rameses to Suecoth. Chap. xii, 48—xiij. 16 contain supplementary regulations regarding the future observance of the Passover. Ch. xiii. 17-xv. 21: Pharaoh’s Death. Re- peuting his clemency, Pharaoh, with chariots and horsemen, pursues the Israelites, who have reached the shores of the Red Sea (1D O°), divinely guided by day by a pillar of cloud, and by night by a pillar of fire. The Israclites pass dry-shod through the waters, which marvelously recede before them while engulfing Pharaoh and his entire army. Moses and his people sing a song of praise to God. Ch. xv. 22-xviili.: The March to Sinai. The Israclites journey into the desert of Shur, to Mara. The people, complaining of Jack of water, are satis- fied. They reach Elim. in the desert of Sin they complain of lack of food. God sends them quails, and from this time on, except on the Sabbath, sends them a daily shower of manna. Upon arrival at Rephidim the people again complain of lack of water. God gives them water froma rock (“ Mas- sah and Meribah ” = “place of temptationand quar- rels”; xvii. 7). Amalek attacks Israel and is van- quished by Joshua. God commands eternal war against Amalek. Moses’ father-in-law, Jethro, hav- ing heard of Israel’s deliverance, visits Moses, bring- ing him his wife Zipporah and their two children, whom Moses had left behind at home. On Jethro’s advice Moses appoints subordinate judges. Ch. xix.-xx.: Israel’s Call: the promulgation of the Ten Commandments on Mount Sinai. In the third month the Israelites arrive in the desert of Sinai and encainp at the mountain. God announces to them through Moses that, having by His power liberated them, He will now constitute them His people, making them a nation of priests and a holy people. The Israclites accept this call with one accord, and after they have prepared themselves worthily, God, through Moses’ mediation, and with thunder and lightning, clouds of smoke and noise of trumpets, reveals Himself to them on Mount Sinai and pronounces the ten fundamental commands of religion and morals, which are followed by a com- mand regarding the altar, Ch. xxi.-xxiv.: The Law and the Covenant. The Ten Commandnients, formally declaring the di- vine will regarding man’s attitude to God and to all His creatures, are followed by enactments relating to civil law: (1) indemnifications for injuries done to a fellow man; (2) duties toward persons who have no actual claims, though they are dependent on the good will of others. In conclusion there are the promise of the land of Canaan as the reward of obedience, and the warning against the pagan in- habitants. God then enters into a solemn covenant with the people, through Moses. Hecalls Moses up into the mountain to receive the stone tablets of the Law and further instructions. Ch. xxv.-xxxi.: The Sanctuary and the Priests. In order that God may dwell perma- nently among the Israelites, they are given in- structions for erecting a sanctuary. The directions provide for: (1) a wooden ark, gilded inside and —— Exodus outside, for the Tables of the Covenant, with a cover similarly gilded as “mercy seat” for the Divine Presence; (2) a gilt table for the so-called “ shewbread” (o.99 ONS); (8) a golden candlestick for a light never to be extinguished; (4) the dwell- ing, including the curtains for the roof, the walls made of boards resting on silver feet and held together by wooden bolts, the purple curtain veil- ing the Holy of Holies, the table and candlestick, and the outer curtain; (5) a sacrificial altar made of bronzed boards; (6) the outer court formed by pillars resting on bronze pedestals and con- nected by hooks and crossbars of silver, with em- broidered curtains; (7) preparation of the oil for the candlestick. Then follow directions for the garments of the priests: (1) a shoulder-band (ephod) with two onyx stones, on each of whichare engraved the names of six of the tribes of Israel, also golden chains for holding the breastplate (“ hoshem”) set with twelve precious stones, in four rows; (2) a robe for the ephod, with bells and pomegranates around the seam; (3) a golden miter plate with the inscription “ Holiness to the Lord ”; (4) a coat; (5) a aniter; (6) a girdle. Al! these things are for Aaron, For his sons coats, bonnets, girdles, and linen breeches shall be made. Then follow directions for ordaining the priests, including robing, anointing (of Aaron), and aseven (lays’ sacrifice; the institution of daily morn- ing and evening offerings; directions for making a golden altar of incense, to be sect up in front of the inner curtain, opposite the Ark of the Covcnant, and on which an atonement shall be made once @ year with the blood of the sin-offering; directions for a yearly tax of half a shekel to be paid by every Isracl- ite enumerated in the census toward the expenses of this service; directions for making a laver and stand of brass, to be set up between the Tabernacle and the altar of sacrifice; the preparation of the holy oi] for anointing and of the holy incense; ap- pointment of the master workmen Bezaleel and Aholiab to direct the work; the observance of the Sabbath. . The most striking point in thisenumeration is the place given to the directions regarding the altar of incense, which, to agree with the arrangement as de- scribed in chaps. xxxv.-xl., should follow the direc- tious for making the golden candlestick (xxv. 31~40). This has been a puzzle to the critics, who have made it the basis of the most far-reaching hypotheses. The passage was not only supposed to bea later inter- polation, but it was assumed that originally there was no altar of incense, not even in Herod’s temple! The riddle may be solved as follows: In xxxv,-x]. the articles are enumerated in the order in which they were set up, while here they are enumerated according totheir uses. The golden altar of incense later stood in the Tabernacle, between the table and the candlestick, a fact leading to the assumption that, like them, it belonged to the Tabernacle. But. as throughout ancient literature the offerings of sacrifice and incense are two independent coordinated acts of worship, so the altar of incense was, to all intents and purposes, an independent requisite of worship as important as the rest of the apparatus. For this reason everything that is necessary for the dwelling of God and the sacrifices that guarantee THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 298 His presence is described first, and the altar of in- cense after (comp. especially Lev. xvi. 16-17: first, atonement for the Holy of Holies and the “taher- nacle . . . that remaineth among them in the midst of their uncleannesses”; then, the cleansing and sanctify ing of the altarof incense “ from the unclean- nesses of the children of Israel”), The sacrifice presumes God's presence, while it is the object of the incense to insure the continua- tion of Lis presence. The things, again, that must be repeatedly renewed are placed last, namely, the oil for lighting; the yearly tax; the laver with stand, consisting of mirrors, which were taken apart again after the laver had been used, and are, therefore, not enumerated In Num, iv, 14; the oil for anointing; and the incense. In conclusion, there are the directions for the workshop, the appointing of the master workman, and the arraugement of the work. These directions areadmirably thought out, down to the smallest detuil. Ch. xxxii.-xxxiv.: The Sin of the People with the Golden Calf. While Moses is on the mountain the people become impatient and urge Aaron to make them a golden calf, which ‘they worship with idolatrous jov. God informs Moses and threatens to abandon Israel. Moses at first in- tercedes for the people, but when he comes down and beholds their madness, he augrily breaks the two tablets containing the divine writing. After pro- nouncing judgment upon Aaron and the people he again ascends to God to implore forgiveness for them, as God is about to withdraw from them His blessed presence and to leave them unguided in the wilderness. Moses’ intercession prevails. When he petitions God to tell him who will accompany them, what He intends to do, and how He will manifest His splendor, God commands him to make new tab- lets, and reveals Himself to Mosesas a God of inex- haustible loveand mercy. He assures Moses that in spite of their waywardness He will lead Israel into the Promised Land, giving Moses in token thereof new commandments applicable only to that land. He commands the Israelites not to have intercourse with the pagan natives, to refrain from all idolatry, and to appear before Him on the three pilgrimage festivals, Moses then returns to the people, who listen to him in respectful silence. Ch. xxxv.-xl.; The Sanctuary and the Gar- ments of the Priests (almost in the same words as in ch. xxv.-xxxi.). Moses collects the congrega- tion, enjoins upon them the keeping of the Sabbath, and requests gifts for the sanctuary. The entire people, men and women, high and low, respond willingly and quickly, and under the direction of the superintendent they make: (1) the dwelling, including the curtains, the walls, and the veil; (2) the Ark and cover; (38) the table; (4) the golden can- dlestick; (5) the golden altar of incense; (6) the altar of burnt offerings; (7) the Javer; (8) the outer court. An estimate of the cost of the material fol- lows. Next comes the preparation of the garments of the priests, including: (1) the ephod with the onyx stones, together with the breastplate and its twelve precious stones and its golden chains; (2) the robe of the ephod; (3) the coats for Aaron and his sons; (4) the miter and bonnets; (5) the breeches; 299 (6) the girdle; (7) the golden plate of the crown. Moses inspects the work when completed and praises it, and the sanctuary is set up on the first of the second month. In connection with this section (xxxv.-xl.) the questions arise: Why the lengthy repetition of ch. XXV.-XXXi, in ch. Xxxv.~xl.? and Why the differ- ence in the order in which the various objects are described? To the first question the answer is: When the people fell away and God renounced them, the tablets of the covenant seemed to have become useless, wherefore Moses broke them. Butafter the people had been forgiven new tablets were made and the promises relating to the country had to be repeated. Furthermore, the promise given by God that He will dwell among Isracl, in a sanctuary erected by them and in which they will worship, must not be allowed to remain unfulfilled; and there- fore the building of the sanctuary that had been planned is undertaken anew, but according to the original idea. Hence ch. xxxii.-xxxiv. belong nec- essarily between ch. XXv.-xXxi. and xxxv.-xl. To the second question the reply is, that in Xxv.-xxxi., which contain the plan, the pieces are enumerated according to the uses to which they are put, while in xxxv.-xl. (as also in the working-plans given to the overseers in xxxi. 7 et seg.), which narrate the progress of the work, they are enumerated accord- ing to their arrangement. Exodus contains the most fundamental and sub- lime revelations of God regarding His nature and will, and describes the beginnings of Religion. the theocratic constitution of the Israelitic people and the foundations of its ethics, law, customs, and worship. God, as revealed in Exodus, is not a new, hitherto unknown God: He is the God of Abraham, of Isaac, and of Jacob—the Fathers of the people—who has protected them and has been worshiped by them (Ex. ii. 24; iii. 6, 18-18; iv. 5; vi. 8,8; xv. 2; xxxii, 13). He Himself designates the name by which He is to be addressed: “fin [Yawu], the God of your fathers, the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob” (iii. 15). The book, however, expressly purposes to reveal, or fully de- velop, for the first time certain aspects of the divine nature that have not hitherto been noted. When God appears to Moses in the flaming bush, and com- missions him to announce to the Israelites their im- pending liberation, Moses asks doubtingly (tii. 18): * Behold when I come unto the children of Israel, and shall say unto them, The God of your fathers hath sent me unto you; and they shall say to me, What is his name? what shall I say unto them?” Moses seeks to know, not the name of God, but what God’s name, which he knows is full of signifi- cance, expresses in this particular case. Moses is well aware that the name “ Yaw” means “ihe Al- mighty,” and that salvation rests with God; but in his anxiety, amounting indced to a lack of faith, he wishes to know at once how God will save. God, however, will not announce that now; merely comforting him by saying (ii. 14) FAN WR DAN (“I will be there [helping when necessary] in sucha way as I may deem fit”; A. V. “I AM THAT I AM”). “I will prove myself as the Almighty, the THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Exodus unfailing savior.” On this passage, if interpreted rightly, is based the passage vi. 2, where God en- courages Moses—who is disappointed Revela- because reference to this name has tions of availed him nothing—by saying “I am God. Yuwu! Ihave revealed myself as a faithful God [“ El Shaddai”} to Abra- ham, Isaac, and Jacob, without their having known me according tomy name Yuwu.” And now God works His miracles, all with the express intention that the people may “know that [am Yawn” (vi. 7; vil. 5, 17; viii. 6, 18; ix. 14, 25, 29; x. 2; xiv. 18; xvi. 12). Thus, God is, as His name Yuwu im- plies, the almighty Savior, subject only to His own will, independent, above nature and commanding it; the God of miracles; the helpful God, who uses His power for moral purposes in order to establish law and liberty in the world, by destroying the wicked and saving the oppressed (iii. 8; vi. 6; vii. 5; xv. 2, 3, 11), in whose hands are given judgment and sal- vation (iil., iv., vi. 1-8). In ch. xxxii. e¢ seg. is revealed another side of God’s nature, Israel has merited His destructive anger because of its siu with the golden calf. But God not only refrains from destruction and from re- calling His word regarding the promised land; He even listens to Moses’ prayers to grant His presence anew to the people. When Moses again asks, “Show me thy glory,” God answers, “TI will make all my goodness pass before thee, and I will proclaim the name of Yuwua before thee, and will be gracious unto whom I will be gracious, and will show mercy unto whom I will show mercy” (xxxiii. 18-19), And again, “Thou canst not see my face: for man shall not see me and live; . . . thou shalt see my back ; but my face shall not be seen” (2d. 20, 23, R. V.). When God appears to Moses He reveals Him- self as “Yuwu, Yuwu God, merciful and gracious, long-suffering, and abundant in goodness and truth. Keeping mercy for thousands, forgiving iniquity and transgression and sin, and that will by no means clear the guilty; visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the children, and upon the children’s chiidren, unto the third and to the fourth generation ” (xxxiv. 6-7). In these words God has revealed Himself as a being full of holy zeal against wickedness—a zeal, however, which is counteracted by the immeasurably greater power of His love, mercy, and forgiveness, for these are inexhaustible. But even this does not constitute His entire nature, which in its full depth and clarity is beyond the comprehension of man. These two revelations contain the highest and most blessed insight into the nature of God ever attained; and around them may be grouped the other statements regarding God which the book of Exodus contains. God is the absolutely Exalted One, who can not be compared with any other gods; even the Midian- ite Jethro admits that Yawn is greater God the than all gods (xv. 1, 11; xviii. 11). Absolutely The whole world belongs to God: He Exalted has created heaven and earth and all One. that is therein; He rules forever; He performs marvels; nothing like Him has ever been; hence He is an object of veneration (xv. 11, 18; xix. 5; xx. 11; xxxiv. 10). He gives Exodus THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 300 speech to man, or leaves him deaf and dumb: gives him sight, or makes him blind (iv. 11). He has power over men’s hearts, cither encouraging them to do good (iil. 21, xi. 8, xii. 36), or, having larger ends in view, not preventing them from doing evil (“hardening the heart,” iv. 2t; vil. 8; x. 1, 20; xiv. 4, 17). God isomniscient: THe knows the distant, the future, what man may be expected to do according to his nature (vi. 4-18, 29; viii. 11, 15; ix. 12, 35; xxiv. 20; xxxiv. 10-12). From God proceed artistic inspiration, wisdom, insight, knowledge, and skill (xxxi. 8; xxxv. 81, 84; xxxvi. 1, 3). God is Providence (ii. 25); He rewards good deeds, be they done from fear of or love for Him (i. 21, xx. 6). He is not indifferent to human misery; He sees and hears and intervenes at the right moment (ii. 7; iv. 81; vi. 5; xxii. 22, 26); He makes promises which He fulfils Gi. 24, iii, 16, iv. 81, vi. 5, xxxii. 18). God is jealous and leaves nothing unpunished (xx. 7, xxxiv. 7); but Healways punishes the sinner Himself, admitting no vicarious death, even if it is offered (xxxii. 83), His great moral indignation (“anger”) against sin would be destructive (xxxil. 10, 33) were not His forgiving love still greater (xx, 6, xxxil. 14, xxviii. 19). IIe is gracious and full of mercy (xv. 13, xxxiv. 6). His presence means grace; it sanctities; for He Himself “is glori- ous in holiness” (xv. 11, xxix. 48). Man ean not perceive God in His entire nature; he may only look after God when He has passed by and imagine Him (Dillmann to Ex, xxxiil. 22), Yet God reveals Himself to man; ¢.e., He informs man visibly and audibly of His presence and will. God, who has already appeared to the Fathers, ap- pears in the flaming bush, in the piliar of cloud and of fire on the march, in the clouds in which He came down on Sinai, in the fire on the mountain, in the cloud in the desert, in the pillar of cloud on Moses’ tent, in the cloud from which He calls out to Moses His attributes of grace, in the cloud and the fire that serve as signals to the Israclites to start or to en- camp (vi. 8; xili, 21; xiv. 19; xix. 11; xx.; xxiv. 15, 17; xxxill. 9; xxxiv. 5; x], 384-36). This divine appearance is called God’s message (xiv. 19; xxiii. 20, 28; xxxil. 84; xxviii, 2) or His glory (xvi. 7%, 10; xxiv. 16-17; xxxiii. 22; xl. 34), God appears in order to make Himself known, to give commands, and to impart reverence leading to obedience (xvi. 10, xix. 9, xx. 20). God speaks chiefly with Moses; He puts the words in Moses’ mouth, and tells him what to say; He talks with him face to face, as a man with his neighbor, and gives him a staff as a token of his office (iii. 15; iv. 17; vii. 2, 17, 20: ix. 23; x. 18; xxxiii. 11). But God also speaks from heaven to the entire people (xx. 22), and orders for Himself a permanent dwelling-place among them in the tabernacle set up according to His directions (xx. 22, xxv. 8, xxix. 45); He de- scends thither in order to talk with Moses, His espe- cial place being the cover of the Ark of the Cove- nant, between the two cherubim (xxv. 22, xxix. 48, xxx, 6), God has made a covenant with the Fathers of the people, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, that He will multiply them as the stars of heaven; that He will remember them, save them, and give to them and their descendants the land of Canaan—a land “ flow- ing with milk and honey,” and that shall reach “from the Red Sea even untothesea cf the Philistines, and from the desert unto the river” (ii. 24; tit. 8, 17; vi. 4-8; xiii. 5; xxiii. 81; xxxii. 13; xxxii. 3). God remem- bers this covenant and keeps it despite everything, as is exeinplified in the deliverance of Israel and the destruction of Pharaoh (i. 7, 12; iii. 7; vi. 1; xxiii 20); He does not forget it, in spite of the dejection and the murmurings of the people (vi. 9; xiv. 10; xv. a4; Xvi. 2, 27; xvii. 3), their worship of the golden > Israel. ‘calf and their obstinacy (xxxii. 9; xxNiii. 3,5; xxxiv. 9). He leads, fights for, heals, and educates Israel and clestroys Israel’s enemies (xiii. 17; xiv. 14, 25; xv. 8, 26; xvi. 4; xx. 20; xxii, 22, 28, 27; xxxiii. 2, xxxiv. 11, 24). The Israelites are God’s people, His host, Fis first-born son (vi. 7, vii. 4, xii. 41, xv. 16, xxxii. 11 e¢ seq.; xxxiii. 18, 16). Yuwnr will be Israel’s God (vi. 7, xxix. 5). Israel is His property (“segullah”). Above all people Israel shall be His people, “a kingdom of priests, and a holy nation,” if Israel will listen to God’s voice and keep His cove- nant (xix. 5, 6). Therefore He gives to the Israel- ites commandments, descends to them in His glory, holds them worthy of renewed revelations, and or- ders divine service (xxiv. 8, xxxiv. 27). In Exodus are found for the first time the preemi- nent characteristics of the Israelitic law: its origin in and pragmatic connection with history. An ac- count is given of the Jaws in connection with the events that called them forth. Thus, on the one hand, history explains and justifies the The Moral Law, while on the other the Law keeps Law. alive and commemorates the events and teachings of history. As furthermore God is the subject of history as well as the lawgiver, Israel’s religion assumes here the fundamental ciar- acteristic that determines its entire future develop- ment: it is a law founded on God as revealed in history. The basis is the Decalogue, the Ten Com- mandments (Ex. xx. 1-17), in which all dutics are designated as dutics toward the God who liber- ated Israel from the slavery of Egypt. Israel must not recognize any other God; idolatry and the ma- king and worshiping of images are forbidden (xx. 2-5, 23; xxili. 138, 24, 838; xxxti.; xxxiv. 12-14, 17); Israel] shall beware of seductive intercourse with the idolatrous Canaanites; sacrificing to idols, and magic, are punishable by death. Nor may the name of the true God be applied to vain idols (this is the only correct explanation of xx. 7). God is recognized as Creator of the world by the sanctification of the Sabbath, on which man and beast shall rest from all labors (xvi. 23 e¢ seqg., xx. Tet se7., XXii1. 12, x xxi. 12-17, xxxv. 1-3), and also by the observance of the Sabbatical year (xxiii. 10). He is recognized as Is- rael’s savior from Egyptian oppression by the cele- bration of the Passover (see below). “Honor thy father and thy mother: that thy days may be long upon the land which the Lord thy God giveth thee” (xx. 12, fifth commandment). He who strikes or insults his father or mother is pun- ished by death (xxi. 15, 17). Honor must also be accorded to those tn authority (xxii. 27 [A. V. 28]). 301 “Thou shalt not kill” (xx. 13). Murder is punish- able by death (xxi. 12); there is no place of refuge for the murderer, as there is for the accidental honti- cide, even at the altar (xxi. 18-14). For bodily in- juries there is a fine (xxi. 18-19, 22-25, 28-81). “Thou shalt not commit adultery” (xx. 14). Lechery and intercourse with animals are punish- able by death (xxii. 17); the seducer of a virgin must either marry her or compensate her father (xxii. 15 et seg.). “Thou shalt not steal” (xx. 15). Kidnap- ing is punishable by death (xxi. 16). Killing of a burglaris justifiable. Whoever steals cattle, slaugh- tering and selling it, has to pay four or five times its value; if it is found alive, double; if the thief is un- able to pay he is sold into slavery (xxi. 87. xxii. 3). Property injured or destroyed must be made good (xxi, 33-36, xxii, 4-14). “Thou shalt not bear false witness against thy neighbor” (xx. 16), Justice, veracity, impartiality, honesty in court, are enjoined (xxiii. 1, 2, 6-8). An oath is demanded where there ts suspicion of a de- fault (xxii. 7 e¢ seq.). “Thou shalt not covet thy neighbor's house, thou shalt not covet thy neighbor’s wife, nor his manscrvant, nor his maidservant, nor his ox, nor his ass, nor anything that is thy neighbor’s (xx. 17). The duties to one’s neighbor include both kindly deeds and kindly thoughts. The poor man must be cared for: justice shall be done to him; loans shall be made to him; and he shall not be pressed for pay- ment, nor shall the necessaries of life be taken in pawn (xxii. 24 e¢ seg.). Widows and orphans shall not be oppressed; for God is their advocate (xxii. 21). Strangers shall not be injured or oppressed ; “for ye were strangers in the land of Egypt” (xxii. 20, xxiii. 9); they also shall rest on the Sabbath (xx. 10). A Hebrew bond-servant shall not serve longer than six years, unless he himself chooses to remain. He may not earn any wages for himself while serving. The master of a girl that has been sola into servitude shall marry her or give her a dower. Servants are to be set free on receiving bodily injuries; and death caused by an animal is requited (xxi. 1-11, 20, 21, 26, 27, 82). Servants also shall rest on the Sabbath (xx. 10, xxiii. 12). Animals shall be treated gently (xxiii. 4, 5, 19), and be allowed to rest on the Sabbath (xx. 10; xxiii. 12). Consideration for an enemy is enjoined (xxili. 4, 3). To do these commandments is to obey God (xv. 26, xvi. 28, xx. 6, xxiii. 13). Israel shall trust in Him (iii.—vi., Xiv. 381, XVi., xvii. 7, xix.9); and in a signifi- cant passage (xx. 6) the love for God is accentuated. In Exodus the beginnings of the national cult are seen. Itisstrictly forbidden to make or worship idols (xx. 8, 23; xxiii, 24; xXNXil.; xxxiv. 18, 17). The symbol of the Divine Presence is the Tabernacle built ac- cording to God’s directions, more especially the cover of the Ark of the Covenant and the space be- tween the cherubim thereon (see TABERNACLE). Worship by specially sanctified priests shall be ob- served in this sanctuary (see Leviricus). The festi- vals include the Sabbath, for which no ritual is mentioned, and three “pilgrimage festivals,” at which all males are to appear before God (xxiii. 14-17, xxxiv. 18~23). Cult. THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Exodus The Passover is discussed in detail, a large part of the book being devoted to its institution (xii. 1-28, 48-500; xiii. 1-16; xxiii. 15; xxxiv. 18-20); and its historical origin is to be brought home to all fu- ture generations (xii. 2, 14, 17, 24-27, 42; xiii, 5-10, 16; see Mazzan; Pesan; SEDER). Toward eve- ning of the 14th day of the first month a yearling male Jamb or kid without blemish shall be slanghtered, roasted by the fire, and eaten at the family dinner, together with unleavened bread and bitter herbs. It must be roasted whole, with the legs and entrails, and no bones must be broken; none of the meat must be carricd from the house, but Whatever remains until morning must be burned. In connection with this there is a seven days’ festival (gn), the Feast of Mazzot (unleavened bread). This bread shall be eaten for seven days, from the 14th to the 2ist of the first month (the month of Abib, in which Is- rael went out from Egypt; xxiii. 15, xxxiv. 18). It is strictly forbidden to partake of anything leav- ened; it must be removed from the house on the first day. The first and the seventh day are strictly days of rest, on which only necessary food may be prepared. The sanctification of the firstlings that belong to God is also connected with the Passover. The first-born child, and that of the ass, which can not be sacrificed, must be redeemed by a lamb (xiii. 1 et seg., XXii, 28, xxxiv. 19 e¢ scq.). Other festivals are (1) the cutting of the first-fruits of the harvest (“Hag ha-Kazir”) or the Feast of Weeks (“Hag Shabu‘ot”), and (2) the harvest-home (“Hag ha- Asif”) at the end of the year, after the harvest has been gathered in (xxiii. 16, xxxiv. 22). At these festivals the people must not appear empty-handed before God; they must not mix the blood of the Passover sacrifice with Jeavened bread, nor leave the sacrifice until the morning; they must take the firstlings of the field into the house of God, and must not seethe the kid in its mother’s milk (xxiii. 18, 19; xxxiv. 25, 26). The tithes from the barn and the vineyard must not be delayed. Animals torn in the field (“terefah”) must not be eaten, but must be thrown to the dogs, for “ye shall be holy men” (xxii, 28-80; A. V. 29-31). E.G. H. B. J. —Critical ViewI.: The Book of Exodus, like the other books of the Hexateuch, is of composite ori- gin, being compiled of documents originally dis- tinct, which have been excerpted and combined by a redactor (see PentaTEtcH). The two main sources used in Exodus are the one now generally known as “JE,” the chicf component parts of which date probably from the seventh or eighth century B.c., and the one denoted by “P,” which is generally con- sidered to have been written during or shortly after the Babylonian captivity. The former of these sources is in tone and character akin to the writings of the great prophets; the latter is evidently the work of a priest, whose chief interest it was to trace to their origin, and describe with all needful particu- larity, the ceremonial institutions of his people. It is inipossible, within the limits of the present article, to state the details of the analysis, at least in what relates to the line of demarcation between J and E, or to discuss the difficult problems which arise in Exodus SHE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 302 ee Pe Se connection with the account of the legislation con- tained in JE (xix.-xxiv. and xxxii,-xxxiv.); but the broad and important line of demarcation between P and JE may be indicated, and the leading character- istics of the principal sources may be briefly outlined. The parts of Exodus which belong to P are: i. 1-5, 7, 18-14, ji. 23b-25 (the oppression); vi. 2-vii. 13 (commission of Moses, With genealogy, vi. 14-27); vii. 19-20a, 21b-22, viii. 1-3, 11b-15 (A.V, 3-7, 15b-19), ix. 8-12, xi. 9-10 (the plagues); xfi. 1-20, 28, 37a, 40, 41, 48-51, xiii. 1-2,20 (Passover, mazzot, dedica- tion of first-born); xiv. 1-4, 8-9, 15-18, 21a, ¢, 22-23, 26-27n, 280-29 (passage of Red Sea); xvi. 1-3, 6-24, 31-36 (the manna); xvii. la, xix. 1-2a (journey to Sinai); xxiv. 15-18a, xxv. 1-xxxi. 18a (instructions respecting the Tabernacle); xxxiv. 29-35, xxXxv.-x1. (the construction and ercction of the Tabernacle). The rest of the book consists of J and E, which (before they were combined with P) were united into a whole bya redactor, and at the same time, it seems, expanded in parts (especially in the legal por- tions) by hortatory or didactic additions, approximating in style to Deuteronomy. In JE’s narrative, particularly in the parts belong- ing to J, the style is graphic and picturesque, the descriptions are vivid and abound in detail and colloquy, and both emotion and re- Char- ligious feeling are warmly and sym- acteristics pathetically expressed. As between of JE. J and E, there are sometimes differ- ences in the representation. In the account of the plagues, for instance, the Israelites are represented by J as living apart in Goshen (viii. 18 [A. V. 22], ix. 26; compare Gen. xlv. 10, xlvi. 98, etc.; also J); and the plagues are sent by YuHwi at a specified time announced beforehand to Pharaoh by Moses. In E the Israelites are represented, not as occupying a district apart, but as living side by side with the Egyptians (iii. 22, xi. 2, xii. 35 e¢ seg.); and the plague is brought to pass on the spot by Moses with his rod (vii. 20b; ix. 28; x. 12, 18a; compare iv. 2, 17, 20b; xvii. 5; also E) or his hand (x. 22). An interesting chapter belonging to E is xviii., which presents a picture of Moses legislating. Disputes arise among the people; they are brought before Moses for settlement; and his decisions are termed “the statutes and directions [“torot”] of God.” It was the office of the priests afterward to give direction (AMIN, ANN) upon cases submitted to them, in matters both of civil right (Deut. xvii. 17) and of ceremonial observance (7b. xxiv. 8; Hag. ii. 11-18); and it is difficult not to think that in Exodus xviii. there is a genuine his- torical tradition of the manner in which the nucleus of Hebrew law was created by Moses himself. JE’s account of the Sinaitic legislation is contained in xix, 8-xxiv. 14, 18b; xxxi. 18b-xxxiv. 28. This narrative, when examined attentively, discloses manifest marks of composite structure. The greater part of it belongs tolerably clearly to E, viz.: xix. 3-19; xx.-xxiii. 33 (expanded in parts by the com- piler); xxiv. 3-8, 12-14, 18b; xxxi. 18b; xxxii. 1-8 (9-14, probably compiler), 15-85; xxxiii. 5-11. ToJd belong xix. 20-25, xxiv. 1-2, 9-11 (fragments of an account of the theophany on Sinai); and xxxiii. 144, XXxill, 12-xxxiv. 28 appear also to be based upon J, but amplified by the compiler. A particularly noticeable passage in E’s narrative is xxxili. 7-11, which preserves the oldest representation of the “Tent of Meeting”: it was outside the camp (com- pare Num. xi. 16, 17, 2480; xii. 4; also E; and contrast the representation of Pin Num. il. e¢ seg.); the youthful Joshua was its keeper; and Moses from time to time repaired to it for the purpose of communing with Yuwu. Evidently the Tent of Meeting, as pictured by E, was a much simpler structure than it is in the representation of P (xxvi.- XXXi., etc.), just as the altar (xx. 24-26), feasts, ete. (xxiii. 10-19), presented by E, reflect the usage of a simpler, more primitive age than do the corre- sponding regulations in P. The laws of JE are contained in xii. 21 27 (Passover); xiii. 3-16 (mazzot and consecration of first-born); xx, 1-17 (the Deca- logue); xx. 22-xxiii. 88 (the “Book of the Covenant’’; see xxiv.7); and the repetition (with slight verbal differences, and the addition in xxxiv. 12-17 of more specific warnings against idolatry) of xiii. 12-13, and of the theocratic section of the Book of the Covenant (xxiii. 10-19) in xxxiv. 10-26 (sometimes called the “Little Book of the Covenant”’’). The Decalogue and the Book of the Covenant both belong in particular to E, These laws have in many places had parenetic additions made to them by the compiler (e.g., much of xiii. 8-16; the explanatory comments in xx. 4-6, 9-11, 12b, 17; xxii. 21b, 22; xxiii, 28-25a), The laws in xxxiv. 10-26 are introduced ostensibly as embodying the conditions for the renewal of the Covenant after it liad been broken by the sin of the golden calf; but it is generally supposed that orig- inally they formed a separate collection, which was introduced independently, in slightly different re- censions, into E in xxiii. 10-19, and into J here, and which probably, when J was complete, stood as part of J’s direct sequel to xxiv. 1-2, 9-11. Further, although by the author of xxxiv. 1-28 in its present form (see verse ib), the “ten commandments” (Hebr. “ten words”) of verse 28b are evidently in- tended to be the Decalogue of xx. 1-17, yet the natural subject of “And he wrote” in verse 28 is “ Moses ” (compare verse 27); hence it is also inferred by many critics that, in the original context of verse 28, the “ten words ” were the preceding group of laws (verses 10-26), which, though now expanded by the compiler, would in that case have comprised orig- inally ten particular injunctions (the “ritual Deca. logue” of J, as opposed to the “moral Decalogue” of E in xx. 1-17). Whatever the true explanation of the double appearance of this little group of laws may be, it is in any case the earliest existing formu- lation of what were regarded at the time as the essential ritual observances of the religion of Yuwau. The literary and other characteristics of P are, mutatis mutandis, the same in Exodus as in other parts of the Hexateuch. The same or _ similar stereotyped formulas appear; and (as a reference to the synopsis above will show) there is the same disposition to reduce the account of ordinary events to a bare summary, but to enlarge upon every- thing connected with ceremonial insti- tutions. In i.-xi. the narrative of P runs parallel to that of JE; and the compiler has sometimes pre- served divergent versions of the same events. Thus, if vi. 2-vii. 138 be compared carefully with ili. 1-vi. 1, it will be seen not to describe the sequel of it, but to contain a parallel and partly divergent ac- count of the commission of Moses and of the pre- liminary steps taken by him to secure the release of the people. Inthe narrative of the plagues there are Char- acteristics of P. 303 systematic differences between Pand JE: thus in P Aaron cooperates with Moses; no demand for Israel's release is ever made upon Pharaoh, the plagues being viewed rather merely as signs or proofs of power; the description is brief; the success or fail- ure of the Egyptian magicians (who are mentioned ouly in this narrative) Is noted, and the hardening of Pharaoh’s heart is expressed by the verb “ hazak,” “hizzak ” (this verb is used also by E; but J has reg- ularly “kabed,” “hikbid”). In xii.-xiii. the double strand is particularly evident: Passover, mazzat, narrative, and the dedication of the first-born are all in duplicate (in P, xii. 1-18 [43-50 supplementary], 14-20, 28, 87a, 40-41, 51; xiii. 1-2: in JE, xii. 21- 27 (which careful comparison will show to be not really the sequel of xii. 1-18), 29-36, 37b-39, 42a; xiii. 8-10, 11-16). The most characteristic part of P is, however, the account of the instructions given to Moses on the Mount (xxiv. 15-18a) for the construction of the Tab- ernacle and the appointment of a priesthood (xxv.- xxxi.). These instructions fall into two parts: (1) XXV.—-XXIX.; (2) XXX.-xxXI, In xxv.-xxix. the fol- lowing subjects are dealt with: the Ark, table of show-bread, and candlestick (xxv.); the Tabernacle (“mishkan ”), its curtains, boards, and veil (xxvi.);: the altar of burnt offering, and the court (xxvii.); the dress of the priests (xxviii.); the ritual for their con- secration, and for the daily burnt offering, which it is a primary duty of the priesthood to maintain (xxix. 1-42); and finally what is apparently the formal close of the eutire body of instructions, Yuwn’s promise to take up His abode in the sanctuary thus established (xxix. 43-46). Chapters xxx.-xxxi. contain directions respecting the altar of incense, the maintenance of public worship, the brazen laver. the anointing-oil, the incense (xxx.); the nomination of Bezaleel and Aholiab, and the observance of the Sabbath (xxxi.). While now it is not doubted that Xxv.-xxix., with unimportant exceptions, form part of the original Jegislation of P, it is generally held by critics that xxx.-xxxi. belong to a second- ary and posterior stratum of it, reflecting a later stage of ceremonial usage. The chief reason for this conclusion is the manner in which the altar of incense is introduced (xxxi. 1-10). If such an altar had been contemplated by the author of xxv.-xxix., he must, it is argued, have introduced it in xxv., together with the other furniture of the Holy Place, and also mentioned it in xxvi. 33-35; moreover, he would naturally, in such a case, have distinguished the altar described in xxvii. 1-8 from the altar of incense, and not have spoken of it simply as the altar. This conclusion respecting the secondary charac- ter of the altar of incense appears to be confirmed by the fact that in the other laws of P there is a stratum in which such an altar is not recognized (for instance, Lev. xvi.). There are also other indi- cations tending to show that xxx.~xxxi. belong to a posterior stratum of P, as compared with xxv.-xxix. Chapters xxxv.-xl. describe, largely in the same words as XXv.-xxXxi. (the tenses alone being altered), but with several differences of order, how the in- structions given there to Moses were carried out. In these chapters the altar of incense and the brazen THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Exodus laver (xxx. 17-21) are introduced in the places which they would naturally be expected to occupy, namely, in the descriptions of the Holy Place and the court respectively (Xxxvii. 25-28, xxxviii. 8). It follows that if xxx.-xxxi. belong to a secondary stratum of P, the same must be true of xxxv.-x}]. The later origin of xxxv.-xl. scems to be further supported by the fact that the Septuagint version of these chap- ters is not by the same hand as the rest of the book: so that presumably they were not in the manuseript used by the original translators. The chapters, if this view is correct, have taken the place of a much briefer account of the manner in which the con- struction of the Tabernacle was carried out. P’s representation of the Tabernacle and its ap- potntments can pot be historical. The Israelites in the wilderness had undoubtedly an “ ohel P’s Repre- mo‘ed”; but it was the simple “ohel sentation mo‘ed” of E (Ex. xxxiij. 7-11; Num. of the Xi., xli.), not the costly and elaborate Tabernacle structure described by P. P’s repre. Un- sentation is the embodiment of an historical. ideal; it is a “product of religious idealism,” constructing for the Mosaic age, upon the basis of traditions or reminiscences of the Temple of Solomon, a shrine such as might he adequate to YHwuH’s majesty, and worthily sym- bolize His presence in the midst of His people (com- pare Ottley, “ Aspects of the O. T.” p. 226). BIBLIOGRAPHY: The introductions to the O. T. by Kuenen, Driver, Holzinger, Konig, Cornitl, Baudissin; the commenta- ries of Dillmann, Baentsch (1000), Holzinger (1900). and A. R. s. Kennedy (forthcoming); C. A. Briggs, The Higher Criti- cism of the Herateuch, 1897; Carpenter and Harford-Bat- tersby, The Herateuch, Oxford, 1900, especially ii. 9-143 (text of Hvodus, with the sources distinguished typographically, and full critical notes); G. F. Moore, Eerodus, in Cheyne and Black, Eneye. Bint, ii. (where further literature is referred to). E.G. H, S. R. D. -——Critical View ITI.: The critical problems and hypotheses that Exodus shares with the other books, such as the historical value of the accounts; author- ship; relation to the later books; age, origin, and character of the alleged sources, can not be discussed here now; the analysis of sources of Exodus can alone be treated. According to the critics of the Pentateuch, Exodus, like all the other books of the Torah, possesses no unity, having been compiled from different sources at different times, the vari- ous parts being then revised finally by one redactor (it); the same sources as those for Genesis furnish the material, namely, J WJahvist), E (Elohist), and P (Priestly Code), in which again several strata must be distinguished, as P?, P#, P4, J}, J*, E}, E?, etc. It is not necessary to refer to all the sugges- tions that have been made: the analvses of sources by Kuenen and Cornill are chiefly treated here (Kuenen: Introduction; § 5; § 6, 2-15; § 8, 10-13; 13, 12 et seq.; § 16,12; Cornill: Introduction; & 7; 11, 4; § 12; § 18, 2,8; § 14, 1, 2, 3. To P? is assigned, according to Kuenen: i. 1-7, 13, 14; ii. 23-25: vi. 2-12 (18-28 interrupt the course of the story and are by a later reviser; they are, according to Welihausen, uunskilfully inserted and amplified); vii. 1-18, 19, 20a (21c ?), 22; viii. 1-3. Lib, 12-15; ix. 8-12 (85 9); xi. 9-10; xii. 1-20, 28, 40 *, 41 *, 43-51 (xiii. 20 ?); xiv. 1-4, 8, 9, 10 (in * = revision; ++ = essentially. ? s 2 5 Exodus Exorcism part), 15-18, 21 (in part), 22, 238, 26, 27 (in party, 28, 29; xvi. (this chapter has been subsequently re- vised and completed”) (xvii. 1; Nix. 2a 7); XXiv. 15-18a; xxv.-xxix. “follow in natural and regular order, and may have been arranged in this way by the author himself,” but ($ 16, 12) contain many in- terpolations by R. Ch. xxx., xxxi. 1-17, in which “the connection is looser, or is wanting altogether; and in which there are contained regulations that do not harmonize with what has preceded, and that are not presupposed later where they would naturally be mentioned ... probably contain later additions, harmonizing in style with xxiv.-xxix., but not composed by the same author.” To P tare assigned ch. xxxv.-xl. (and also Lev. viil.), which “depend cutirely on XXV.-XXXi., Which the author must have had before him.” They formed “originally a very brief ac- count of the observance of the regulations laid down in xxv, et seq.; they seem to have been gradually worked out, and then made as similar to those regulations as possible. The striking varia- tions found in the Greek translation of xxxv.-xl. lead to the assumption that the final redaction of these chapters was hardly completed—if indeed it was completed—when that translation was made, ze, about 250 Bc.” This entire theory regarding XXV.-XXXi., XXXv.-XI. is based on Popper's work, which the other critics also follow. Cornill, who includes the later parts of P? 1nder the gen- eral designation Ps, assigns to the Priestly Code the following portions; i. 1-5, 7*, 18, 14.*5 if. 28%, 24-25; vit (13-30 = Ps): vii. 1-13, 19, 20a*, 21b-22: viii. 1-3, lla,b-15; ix. 8-12; xi. 9 10; xii. 1-20, 28, 37 *, 40-41, 48-51 (15-20 and 48-50 = Ps); xii. 1-2; xiv. 1-4, 8, 9b, 10a,b, 15 *, 16-18, 21-234, 26-28na, 28 *, 29; xvi. 1-3, 6-7, 9-18*, 20, 22a,b-24, 32-35a; xvii. la; xix. 1*, 2a; xxiv. 15-Ll8aa; xxv. 1-xxxi. 18a (xxviii. 41 belongs surely to Px, as do perhaps also other shorter additions to XxXV.-XXiX.; and xXX.-xxXi. entire); xxxiv. 29-85 (2); xxxv.-xl. (entirely Ps). It is much more difficult in what remains to dis- tinguish between the closely related J and E. Pas- sages relatively complete in themselves are: (1) ch. XXi.-xxiii., the so-called “Book of the Covenant”; it belongs to EH, though dating from an carlier time, and was found by him and incorporated in his work ; (2) the story of the golden calf (xxxii.-xxxiv.), J and E sharing about equally in the account; (8) the Decalogue and the preparations for it (xix., xx.), chiefly E, but J also has a Decalogue tradition, its Ten Commandments being found in xxxiv. 14-26 (Wellhausen). E', originally composed in the North- ern Kingdom, must be distinguished from E*; the latter was compiled about 100 years later for Judah, and was worked over with J to form JE, many passages of which can no longer be analyzed. E: Kuenen: Tracesof E arefound ini. (15-21, and apparently also 8-12, “Sis generally included in E**); in ii. ‘‘ there is great difference of opinion” on the origin of verses 1-23 (according to Jilicher verses {-22 are taken from E; according to Dillmann 1-14 from E and 15-23a from J. Wellhausen takes the story on the whole to bea combination from Jand E.) This document ap- pears especially clear, though not without admixture, in iii, 1-15, a section that, as complement to vi. 2 et seq. (P), also explains the use of “Elohim” in the account of the pre-Mosaic time taken from E. In the following ** the traces are only with diffi- culty distinguished ; in tii. 16-xii. only here and there with any certainty.” (Dillmann includes in E: the greater part of iii. 16--22; iv. 17, 20b, 18, 21; the greater part of v.; vii. 15, 16, 17b, 20b, 2a, 23 in part, 24; viii. Iba, 21-24a, 25b 5 ix. 22, 23a, 24a, 25b (2), 31, 32, 385; x.8-lda, ld in part, 14 in part, 20, 21-27; xi. 1-3; xii. 31- THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 304 Oo, 31d, 388. Jtdieher includes: iv. 17, 18, 20b¢ vy. 1, 2.5) vib 17 in part, 18, 20 in part, and 21, 24, 25a 5 viii, 2b, 22, 255 ix. 22, 23a, 24 and 28 in part, 39; x. 7, S11, 12, 1a, Ma, 15a, 20. 21- 2y, BS, 20; xi. 1-7: xii, 32, 35-38.) E is found again in: xiii. 1-10, 21, 225 xiv. 19a (9b 7); AV. 22-263 xvii. Ub-1, 8-16; xviii. Also xix. Qa, LU-AT; xx. 18-21, 1-17 (in this order); this—the so- called “first ’?-- the Deealogue, with the histerical inatter con- nected with it in xix.-xxiv., belongs to E?. From the Book of the Covenant xxiv. 1, 2, 9-14, Isa, and various other passages, belong to E, as does also the story of Israel’s apostasy at Sinai, Which appears enlarged and connected with other stories in XXX1i.-xxxiv., belonging originally to E?, Cornill: i. 11-12, 13-22+53 ij. 1-10+-5 iii, 1-15+, 21-22; iv. 17, 18, 20b3; vii, 15b, 17b-18, 20b-21a, 243 ix. 22-28a, 24b*, 25b, 31-32, 35; x. 12-l8aa, l4aa,b, lob, 20-23, 25 (7); xi. 1-3; xii. 35-36, 387 *: xiii. 17-19; xiv. 7-9a,8, 10a,8, 19a, 20 (4); xv. 20- 20-- 3 XViL.-XXIV.- i OXXXiISb; xxxii.+; xxxili.1-ll+; xxxiv. la,t *, 28b* (?).. In xix.-xxxiv. only xix. 18b (perhaps); xxiv. 1-2, 9-113 and xxxiii. 7-10 belong to E}. J, accordiag to Kuenen, is represented in i-xy. by aecounts parallel with those of E, but which can not now be distin- guished; " but it is Goubtful whether J contributed anything to the account of the laws promulgated at Mount Sinai and of the defection of Israel, Xix.-xxiv. and xXxxii.-xxxiv.”) (Wellhansen finds J in: xix. 20-25; xx. 25-26; xxi.-xxili.; xxiv. 3-8; Dill- mann, in: xix. 9a, 20-25 [xx. 1-17, perhaps under a ditferent form]; XXiv. 1,2; xxxiv. 10-27; fragments in xxiv. 3-8, 9-11, 2 in part, 18b3 xxxii. 1-l4, 19b-24, 30-34; also in xxxiii. 1-6, 2,18, 18-23; xxxiii, 14-17; xxxiv. 1-9.) Cornill: 1. 6, 7a,b, 8-10, l4a,B, 20b, 22 (7); ii. 11-28aa; iii. 16- 20; iv. 1-12, 19, 20a, 24-26, 29 *, 80%, 31; v.q-3 vi. 13 vii. 14-lia, l6-Lva, 23, 25, 293 viii. 4*, 5-7, 8 *, 9-Llaa, 16-20, 21 *, 22-285 ix. 1-7, 15-21, 28b, 24 *, 25a, 26, 27*, 28-30, 33; x.t3 xi. 4-8; xii. 21-27+, 29-89-+-, 42a; xiii. 8-]6+-, 21-22; xiv. 5-6, 9aa, 10ba, 11- 14, 19b, 2la,B, 24-25, 274, 28b, 30-81; xvi. 4-5, 16a,8, 18b, 21-22aa; 25-31-+-, 85b; xvii. lab, 2,73 xix. 2b, 7, 9-11, 18, 20-21, 22b, 25a; XXxiii. 12-28-+ (7); xxxiv. la*, 2-3, 4 *, 5, 6a, 8, 10-28+. Editions (according to Cornill): In the first place J and E were combined into one book (JE) by one redactor (RJE). He greatly revised Redaction. iii., and may have added the marching song xv. 1-19 (“it is entirely improb- able that it was composed at the time the event itself took place”). Healso did much editing of the peric- ope dealing with the legislation (xix.-xxxiv.), He used E? throughout as foundation, supplementing it with J; he omitted entirely tle second Decalogue in J, incorporating what he thought valuable in the Book of the Covenant, xxiii. 15-19, and reduced XXX1i.-XXXill., on the whole, to its present form. A second redactor then combined (the later) Deuteron- omy with JE(=JE-+ D). He added iv. 21-23; in the story of the Egyptian plagues (x. 2) “there is at least a Deuteronomistic touch”; he also added viii. 18b and ix. 29b, and probably revised ix, 14-16. He greatly revised xii, 21-27, xiii, 8-16, xv. 26, xvi., and xviii, 20b. He transferred, according to Kuenen, the Book of the Covenant to Mount Sinai in order to get room for Deuteronomy, being re- sponsible, therefore, for all the confusion caused thereby—for example, the transferring of xx, 18-21 from its original position before, to its present posi- tion after, xx. 1-17; the transition to the Book of the Covenant as found in xx, 22, 28; and the peculiar form of xxiv. 1-15a. Ch. xix. 3b-8 is also specif- ically Deuteronomic, as well as the revisions of the Book of the Covenant with the final admoni- tions In xxiii. 22b-25a, 27, 31b-33, and the revision of the second Decalogue, which RJE transferred to the Book of the Covenant. A third redactor, who combined JED with P, thus practically producing the Pentateuch (Rr), added iv. 18-16 and 27-28, revised 29-80, and in v.-x. added every Where the name of Aaron (which was not in- 305 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Exodus Exorcism cluded at all originally !). He or P* (see ante) added vi. 18-80. It is more difficult to ascertain the method of his revision of xii. 40-42. To xvi. he transferred (in consideration of JE) a passage by P on the manna, which originally was placed after the revelation on Sinai (the reason assigned for this assumption on the part of the critics is that verse 34 presupposes the Tabernacle; but this verse is as much mercly an anticipatory comment as is 39). He added to xvii. the fragment of the Jahvistic miraculous story of the spring in order to make room for Pin Num. xx. He added finally the re- peated phrase “the tables of testimony,” xxxi. 18, xxxiv. 29, and in xxxiii. he omitted the Elohistic account of the making of the Ark of the Covenant. It is often doubtful whether a revision was made by Iv or by P® 4 >—Rp is himself a priestly redactor. All these and similar analyses of the sources of Exodus and the conclusions based thereon are en- tirely wrong. However rich and many-sided may have been the traditions from which the author drew his material, the book from beginning to end is com- posed and arranged according to a predetermined plan. The fundamental errors of the critical views are these: (1) The distinction made between J and His erroneous, resting as it does on the varying use of the divine names “ YHWH” and “ Elohim” ; this use does not indicate a difference in authorship, but is due to the different meanings of the two names, the choice of which is carefully considered in each case. The statement that E uses in ili. 15 the name “ Yuwr” for the first tine, is due to a wrong interpretation; it is based on the Alexandrian-Essenic-Christian-Gnostic common superstition of the power of namesand mere words, which, going back to Egyptian antiquity, is strongly marked in the New Testament—and lence naturally influences modern scholars—but is en- tirely foreign to the Old Testament. The verses vi. 2 et seq. are likewise interpreted wrongly. (2) An entirely insufficient argument is the alleged further variations of the language; for this presupposes the point to be proved. This argument turns in a cir- cle: the critics seek to prove differ- Errors ent sources by the variations of lan- of Critical guage, and vice versa. Moreover, the School. vocabulary is too limited for such as- sertions. (8) The differences of style and treatment do not indicate different authors, but are called forth by the clifferent subjects. The account of the Tabernacle demanded technical details; while the stories of the deliverance from Egy pu and of the revelation on Sinai prompted a strong, energetic, and thoughtful style. A separation into JE and P is not admissible. (4) All suggestions of reduplica- tions, differences, and contradictions show an insuffi- cient insight into the spirit and intentions of the author. Ch. i-vi., for example, appear, on close investigation, to be an indissolubly united passage, from which not one word may be omitted. The same holds good of the story of the Egyptian miracles (vii.—xi.), the arrangement of which the critics have entirely misunderstood. ‘The critics have refuted their own argument by making as a criterion of the division of this narrative into J and E the very want of definite scheme which is, according to them, characteristic of J and E. V.—20 The Book of the Covenant (xix.-xxiv.) is a uni- fied piece of work, with logical connections that are admirably established. The alleged double tradition of the revelation, and especially Wellhausen’s so- called second Decalogue in ch. xxxiv., are mere fig- ments of the brain, The inadequacy of these criti- cisms is most striking in the review of the account of the Tabernacle, in the sequence of the passages XXV.-XxXxi. and xxxv.-xl. and their connection with XxXxii.-xxxiv. (5) The theory that the book was compiled from previous works is not sufficiently supported; and the attempt to analyze it into its component parts is a hopeless one, for ail the ele- ments of the book are closely welded together into one harmonious whole. Compare DEUTERONOMY. BIBLIOGRAPHY: The commentaries: M. Kaliseh, 1855; A. Knobel, 1857 (2d ed. by A. Dillmann, 1880; 8d ed. by V. Ryssel, 1897); J. P. Lange, 1874; Rawlinson, 2d ed., 1882; H.L. Strack, 1894: B. Baentsch, 1899. Criticism: Th. Néldeke, Untersuchungen zur Kritik des Alten Testaments, 1869; Colenso, The Pentateuch and Book of Joshua, vi., 1872; A. Kayser, Das Vorewvilisehe Buch der Urgesch. Israels und Seine Erweiterungen, 1874; Well- hausen, Die Composition des Hexrateuch und der Histori- schen Bilicher des Alien Testaments, 1876-77, 2d ed. 1889; A. Jiilicher, Die Quellen von Exodus, ¢.-vit. 7, 1880; idem, Die Quellen von Ixodus, vit. 8rxiv. 11,in Jahrb. fiir Protes- tantische Theologie, 1882, viii. 79-177, 272-315; A. Kuenen, ip Theologische Tijdschrift, 1880, xiy. 251-802 (Ex. xvi.); ib. 1881, xv. 164-223 (Israel at Sinai, Ex. xix.-xxiv., XxXxii.-xxxlv.); Cornill, in Stade’s Zeitschrift, 1881, xi. (on the relation of Ex. xvii. 1~7 to Num. xx. 1-13); E. Berthean, Die Sieben Gruppen Mosdadischer Gesetze, etc., 1840; Bruston, Les Quatre Sources des Loisde 0 Hxode, in Revue de Théologie et de Philosophie, 1883, xvi. 329-369; idem, Des Cing Documents de la Loi Mo- saiqgue, 1892; J. W. Rothstein, Das Bundesbuch und die Re- ligionagesch. Entwickelung Israels, 1883 (designates Ex. xxi. et seq. as a commentary to the Decalogue); Budde, Die Gesetz- geburng der Mittleren Bitcher des Pentateuch, Insbesondere der Quellen J und bh, in Stade’s Zeitschrift, 1891, xi. 193- 2343; idem, Bemerkungen zum Bundesbuch, in ib. pp. 99 et seq., B. W. Bacon, JE in the Middle Books of the Penta- teuch, in Jour. Bih. Lit. 1890, ix a, 161-200 (Ex. vii.-xii.); ib. 1891, x b, 107-180 (Ex. i.-vii.); ib. xi b. 1892, 177-200 (Ex. xif. 37-XVii. 16); ib. 1893, xii a, 238-48 (Ex. xvili.-xxxiv.); idem, The Triple Tradition of the Exodus, Hartford, 1894: B. Baentsch, Das Bundesbuch, 1892 (EX. xx. 23-xxiii. 83); L. Ts. Paton, The Original Form of the Book of the Covenant, in Jour. Bib, Lit. 1893, xii b, 79-93; Briggs, Higher Criticism of the Hevateuch, 18938, Appendix, vi.; idem, The Greater Book of the Covenant, etc., pp. 211-282; R. Kraetzschmar, Die Bundesvorstetlung im_A. JT. 1896, pp. 70-99; Steuernagel, Der Jehovistische Bericht Qher den Bundessehluss aan Sinai (Ex. Xix.-XXiv., XXXi. 18, xxxiv. 28), in Studien und Kri- tiken, 1899, p. 319. On the Decalogue in particular: Franz Delitzsch, Der De- kalog in Eradus und Deuteronomium, in Zeitschrift ftir Kirchiliche Wissenschaft, 1882, tii. 281-299; O. Naumann, Der Dekalog und das Sinaitische Bundesbuch, ib. 1888, pp. 551- 571; C.G. Montefiore, Recent Criticism upon Moses and the Pentateuchal Narratives of the Decalogue, in J. Q. R. 1891, xi. 251-291; Briggs, The Hiyher Criticism, Appendix, iii. 181- 187; 0. Meissner, Der Dekalog, 1893. On the question of the division of the Ten Commandments : Dillmann, J.c. p. 221. On the Tabernacle: J. Popper, Der Biblische Bericht tiher die Stiftshtitte, 1862; Delitzseh, in Zeitschrift fiir Kirchliche Wissenschaft und Kirchliches Leben, 1880, i. 57-66, 622; Green, in Presbyterian and Re- formed Review, v. 69-88; A. Klostermann, in Neue Kireh- liche Zeitschrift, 1897, pp. 48-77, 228-258, 289-328, 353-383; introductions by Kuenen, Cornill, Strack, Driver, Konig, Bau- ea ane especially Holzinger, Einleitung ia den Herxra- cuch, ; B. J. EXOGAMY. Sce MARRIAGE. EXORCISM: The expulsion of evil spirits by spells; in Greek éxBarAecv (Matt. viii. 16, 81; ix. 34, 38; Mark i. 34, 38; ix. 38; Luke xiii. 82; and elsewhere). See DEMONOLOGY; and compare the sorcery-papy- rus in Paris, line 1257, ex@aiew rov dtaSodov and d:aBoarov exBaddovoa, In Hebrew only x¥ = “ goout— occurs (Me‘i. 17b; ‘Ab. Zarah 55b; Greek e&97.%e). The demon was cast out by exorcism, for which the Greek term éfopxif~w (from éfopxdu, éSopxieric, Exorcism Expectation of Life only Acts xix. 18) and the Hebrew yo3wn7 arc used. In the Bible the melancholia of King Saul 2s ascribed to an evil spirit, which David, by his harp-plaving. drives away. The word “bi‘et” (terrify) was still used in the fourth century of our era as aterm to express the troubled state which pre- cedes that of being possessed ([Sam. xvi. 14-23; com- pare Meg. 3a, bottom), The angel Raphael teaches Tobit how to ban the evil spirit (Tobit vi, 7, 16, 17; viii. 3; see Tosrr and TESTAMENT OF SOLOMON). Josephus (“ Ant.” vili, 2, § 5) relates: **T have seen a certain man of my own country, Whose name Was Eleazar, releasing people that were demoniacal, in the pres- ence of Vespasian and his sons and his captainsand the whole multitude of his soldiers. The manner of the cure was this: He puta ring that bad a root of one of those sorts mentioned by Solomon to the nostrils of the demoniac, after which he drew out the demon through his nostrils: and when the man fell down, immediately he abjured him to return into him no more, still inaking mention of Solomon, and reciting the incantations Which he composed. And when Eleazar would persuade and demonstrate to the spectators that he had such @ power, be set a little way off a cup or basin full of water, and commanded the demon, as he went out of the man, to overturn it, and thereby let the spectators know that he had left the man; and when this Was done the skill and wisdom of Solomon were shown very manifestly.” See BASARAS,. Rabbi Johanan ben Zakkai, a contemporary of Josephus, alludes to the practise of exorcism by say- ing: “Has an evil spirit never entered Exorcism into you? Have you never seen a in person into whom an evil spirit had Rabbinical entered? What should be done with Literature. onc so affected? Take roots of herbs, burn them under him, and surround him with water, whereupon the spirit will flee” (Pesik., ed. Buber, 40a). R. Akiba (d. 182), in speak- ing of diseases, uses the technical terms of exorcism (Ab. Zarah 55b). Simon ben Yohai drove out the demon Bren Tema rion from the daughter of a Roman emperor (Me‘i. 17b). According to the statements in the Talmud, cures by exorcism were especially common in Judeo- Christian circles. Mention is several times made of a certain Jacob of Sekanya (see JACOB Jewish ‘THe GNOSTIC), Who desired to cure in Christi- the name of Jesus one who had been anity. bitten by a snake; R. Ishmael, how- ever, would not permit it, preferring rather to let his sister’s son die (Tosef., Hul. ii, 22). Origen says (“Contra Celsum,” iii. 24) that he saw people cured of dangerous diseases—of possession, madness, and other ts—simply by calling on the names of God and Jesus, and that otherwise neither men nor demons could cure them. Christianity has preserved this belief up to the present day, for ex- orcism still forms a part of the rite of baptism (Herzog-Hauck, “Real-Encyc.” v. 695-700; Hast- ings, “Dict. Bible,” i. 811 ef seqg.; Winer, “B. R.” i. 161-165; Acts xix. 13-16). An interesting recipe is given in a Greek papyrus (see Dietrich, “ Abraxas,” pp. 188 e¢ seqg.). In order to drive out a demon one must take Sorcery an unripe olive. together with certain Papyri. plants, and murmur some magic words over them, among the words used be- ing caw, the Greek equivalent of the Hebraic Tet- ragrammaton, The exorcist says: “Go out [‘ de- THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 306 mon’| from Thereupon a phylactery is made from a. piece of tin and is hung from. the neck of the one possessed. The exorcist places himself in front of the possessed one and begins as follows: “L conjure thee in the name of the God of the Flebrews, Jesus, Jahaia,” etc. Thespirit is then conjured by a god, whose epithets are taken chicfly from the Bible. A shorter but similar exorcism is found in the same papyrus (lines 1225 e¢ seqg.). Com- pare also the Babylonian exorcisms cited in Wohl- stein’s * Dimonenbeschworungen auf Babylonischen Thongefiissen des Kéniglichen Museums in Berlin ” (Berlin, 1894), and in Stiibe’s “ Jiidisch-Babylonische Zaubertexte ” (Halle, 1895). Mysticism existed in all ages as an undercurrent, but in the thirteenth and following centuries it came to the surface. While in Spain, southern France, and Italy wide circles Were opposing superstition and exorcism (see Jacob Anatoli, “ Malmad,” pp. 68a, 184a, Lyck, 1866), German Judaism, saturated with ignorance and mysticism, adopted with other super- stitious customs the exorcistic method of working cnres. The “Book of the Pious” (§ 462) states: “Whoever wishes to cure one possessed must re- peat the magic formula nine times, as is done in Germany, where they count nine knots; or else he must cure him with rods of nine kinds of wood, or with turnips, which should be lung around the invalid” (Giidemann, “Geschichte des Erziebungs- wesens und der Cultur,” i. 202, 205, 216). At the close of the Middle Ages, and even in the first centuries of the modern era, the Cabala obtained more and more influence over people’s minds, and as a consequence the belief in exorcism increased. In the “Zera‘ Kodesh” (Fiirth, 1696) a regular method for driving out demons is cited; this superstition still exists in Hasidic circles, just as it prevails among civilized Arians and Semites. It is a note- worthy fact that a Hebrew proselyte in olden times was not exorcised at baptism (Herzog-Hauck, J.¢, v. 696). Curtiss relates (“ Primitive Semitic Religion of To-day,” p. 152) that a few years ago a woman was exorcised in Palestine, and that the evil spirit when questioned replied that he was the spirit of a Jew murdered in Nablus twelve years before. The belief that the possessing spirit is often the soul of a wicked or a murdered person unable to find rest is frequentiy held. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Blau, Das Altjiidische Zauberwesen, Stras- burg, 1898; Wessely, Griechische Zauberpapyrus ton Paris und London, Vienna, 1888; idem, Neue Griechische Zau- berpapyri, ib. 1893; Dietrich, Abraxas, Leipsic, 1871; Alex- ander W. M. Menz, Demonic Possession in the N. T., Edin- burgh, 1902; Glidemann, Gesch. des Erzichungswesens und der Cultur; Tylor, Primitive Culture; Lehmann, Aber- glaube und Zauberei, Stuttgart, 1898; Budge, Egyptian Magic, London, 1899; Strauss, Leben Jesu, 4th ed., ii, Tiibingen, 1840. K. L. B. EXPECTATION OF LIFE: The expected duration of life after any given age, estimated ac- cording to fixed tables of mortality based on the mean number of years which individuals, under various conditions, have been tound to live. The earliest important contribution to the subject is the work (1855) of De Neufville on the mortality of Frankfort-on-the-Main during the three years 1846— 1848, derived from a total mortality of 3,213 among 307 Christians and 263 among Jews. A more recent in- vestigation was published as part of the census of 1890, entitled “ Vital Statistics of the Jews in the United States,” being the partial results of a special inquiry, made under the direction of Dr. John 8. Billings, formerly assistant surgeen-general of the United States and an authority on hygicne, of about 10,000 Jewish fainilies in the United States. Both investigations fall short of the necessary degree of scientific accuracy with which such tables of mor- tality and life-expectancy are prepared for life-in- surance purposes. Their value is impaired by the fact that the method adopted for the calculation of the tables was not stated. De Neufville’s tables have found their way into almost every treatise on the comparative mortality of Jews and Christians. His tables, excepting No. 15, where the numbers of those surviving to different ages are shown in a comparison between the Christian and Jewish populations, are mostly limited to a per- centage statement of deaths at different periods of life. Table No. 15, which is as follows, must not be confused with a table showing the expected after- lifetime: CALCULATION, AT EQuaL AGEs, OF UIb NUMBER OF CHRISTIANS AND JEWs, OUT OF 1,000 OF Each Born, SURVIVING ‘tO SPECIFIED AGES (1846-48), men oe | Ritdined | Christians. | Jews. | Perea | Christians. | Jews. (saioeaae . Oj 3c8 35 | 736 | ger iso... | 351 540 Wicastosay 601} 887 60... 248 441 Dries atues | 5 i ae ee 1B4 274 Woes) 461 639 ||80........ 370 | a9 | HO, cabbies | oo Me This table leads to the conclusion that the expec. tation of life was much more favorable for the Jew- isk population of Frankfort at that period than for the Christian. While in the main the conelusions of TABLE SHOWING THE NUMBERS OF JEWS, OUT OF 100,000 Borx, SurRvivinc TO GIVEN AGES, COMPARED WITH THE CORRESPONDING NUM- BERS OF NON-JEWISH INHABITANTS OF MASSA- CHUSETTS, a ————_--—— _ +. Se ae = Non-Jews in Massa- Jews—1589. chusetts (1878-82), Ages. | | ; Male. | E emale. | Male. Female. { Dsatticcens 50,684 “| 49,316 51,253 48,747 FERS 4 ah BC 41.731 2308 | §686.727 36,361 Dice coats 39,849 i 999 | 34548 34,121 FC eee 38 592 | 39.608 | 82.023 31,290 ah laee Se 37.314 | B645L | 29.208 9817] GS oe gis oaks 35, 74 83.563 | 26.939 25,244 5 een ee ee 33,78 30,613 | 22.668 22 114 i ee 29, BR 26,4015 17.585 17,740 SO rc seas 21,836 14,742 10,168 11,243 Re oe 13,391 7,492 2 951 3,950 aR oer 108 | 468 | 185 358 i @ i. ae De Neutville fairly coincide with general observa- tions derived from mortality tables, they do not THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Exorcism Expectation of Life warrant the extravagant opinions usually based upon his tables. His general conclusions. derived from a percentage distribution of deaths at different ages, are inaccurate and misleading. The method adopted by him was crude and defective in theory, and therefore the value of this contribution to the literature of Jewish longevity is materially im- paired. Census Bulletin No, 19, references to which are found in nearly all recent works on Jewish pa- thology and longevity, is open to criticisms similar to those directed against De Neufville’s work. The same fundamental error was committed in not sta- ting in detail the method adopted for the calculation of the life-tables, (1) for the year 1889, (2) for the five years 1885-89, The essential facts as derived from the bulletin are set forth in the above table for the year 1889, which gives evidence of greater accuracy than the table based upon five years of observation, The expectation of life for these Jews as compared with the expectation for other populations is set forth in Table No. 9 of the bulletin, which, in a recon- structed form, is given below. Comparison is made of the expectation of life among Jews with that of the general population of Massachusetts and New South Wales, two exceptionally healthful regions representing conditions rather above the average. EXvrECTATION OF YEARS or JLIFR. —$_——. ee — ———. - ee Males. Females, | Ages cand | New WwW | New i | of re ’ Mass. | South we Mass. | south 1gs9, |1898-97.) Wales, | ygg9° |1893-87.; Wales, ise ise-87 1 [1800-9 i aD I ATL | 44.09 | 49.60 | 55.39 | 46.01 | 52.90 Pera: 61.09 | 5288 | 5490 | 59.34 | S417 | Bre RE Sa LIL | 49.83 | 50.89 7 56.02 7 50.70 | 53.39 eee 5693 | 45.07 | 4640 | 5139 | 4653 | 4878 cs Weer 52.59 | 41.20 | 4216 | 46.78 | 42.79 | 44.48 SER eis | 48.60 | 37.68 | 38.16 | 42.68 | 39.29 | 40.34 Cee 44.73 | 3428 | 34.30 | 39.82 | 35.85 | 36.42 Ce 40.13 | 30.87 | 30.51 | 36.09 | 32.43 | 32.64 eben 36.17 | 2741 | 26.84 | 31.98 | 29.00 | 2900 De ae ait 31.97 | 23.93 | 23.27 | 28.69 | 25.54 | 25.34 | eee | 27.40 | 20.53 | 19.82 | 24.88 | 22.30 | 21.61 eae | 23:6 | 17.33 | Jess | 20.07 | Iss | Treg Me Achueess | qo.09 | 14:38 | 1360 | 17°58 | 1574 | 14/5] eet ; 15.97 | ITO | 10.97 | 13.58 | 1290 | 114 See 12.08 | 9.84 | 864 | 11.88 | 10.36 | 8.64 i a eee ; 933 | 787 ' 651 | 1045 | 829 | 6.47 SE ivi 712 | 5.70 | 5.00 | 7.93 | 856 | 5.04 Sat ig Re | 2.85 4.31 | 3.44 5.64 5.07 3.72 MS one ad | 3.16 | 954 | 3.05 | 3.73 | 2.64 95 Sf a Shenae aes we | 2.2? { 2.50 2.60 eeee | The table for 1889 may be accepted as approxi- mately accurate. The cumulative effect of superior longevity must necessarily be quite considerable, and the relative increase in the Jewish population must therefore be much larger than the increase in the gen- eral population. In marked contrast to the general experience, this table shows that male Jews are likely to live longer than female Jews. On the whole these tables are approximate indications of superior vitality and resulting longevity ainong the Jewish population, More definite evidence is fur- nished by comparative mortality rates, in particular by the data published for Budapest under the di- rection of Dr. Joseph Korési. The insurance as- sociations of the Jews in the United States have Ey beschiitz THE JEWISIT ENCYCLOPEDIA 308 never made known the results of their experience, butthe published data as to average ages at death, average duration of membership, mortuary cost, death rate, etc., support the conclusion that the Jews in this country, as well asabroad, enjoy a longevity superior to that of the Christian population. J. F. G. H. EXPRESSION. EYBESCHUTZ (or EYBESCHITZ), JONA- THAN: Germanrabbi and Talmudist; born in Cra- cow about the year 1690; died in Altona Sept. 18, 1764. His father, Nathan (Nata), who was a grand- son of the cabalis- tic author Nathan Spira, was called as rabbi to Eiben- schitz, Moravia, about 1700, where he died about 1702 in early manhood (on the conflicting reports in regard to the date of his death see Dembit- zer, “Kelilat Yo- fi,” pp. 118 et seq., Cracow, 1888). Jonathan was then sent to the yeshi- bah of Meir Eisen- stadt, who was then rabbi of Prossnitz, and la- terto the yeshibah of Holleschau, where a relative, Eliezer ha - Levi Oettingen, was rabbi. After the latter’s death (1710) Ey beschtitz went to Vienna, where Samson Wertheimer in- tended to marry him to his daugh- ter, He thence went to Prague, where he married Elkele, daughter of Rabbi Isaac Spira; and later on he resided two years at Hamburg in the house of Mordecai ha-Kohen, his wife’s mater- nal] grandfather. About 1714 he returned to Prague, where he became preacher, probably in succession to Asher Spira, who died in that year (Hock, “ Die Fami- lien Prags,” p. 881, Presburg, 1892). Here he soon became popular (see Nehemiah Reischer’s letter to Jacob Emden, in the latter’s “Sefat Emet,” p. 11b, Lemberg, 1877); but he also incurred the enmity of some of the family and admirers of the former See TYPEs. Jonathan Eybeschitz (with Autograph). (After a portrait by Gutekunst.) rabbi, Abraham Broda (“Bene Abubah,” 15b; see Dembitzer, 7), p. 120a), among them being Jacoh Reischer, and David Oppenheimer, chief rabbi of Prague, ‘These personal animosities were most likely responsible for the fact that about 1725 Jonathan was accused of sympathy with the followers of Shabbe- thai Zebi, who were still very active. Jonathan took an oath that the accusation was false, and with the other members of the Prague rabbinate signed the ex- communication of the followers of Shabbethai Zebi. Believing that his prospects in Prague were poor, he made an effort, upon the death of Jacob Reischer (17338), to secure the rabbinate of Metz. On this oc- casion he failed, but after Jacob Joshua, who had succeeded Rei- scher, had gone to Frankfort-on-the- Main, Eybeschiitz again became a candidate, and was elected (1741). But in Metz, asin Prague, his con- gregation divided into enthusias- tic admirers and bitter enemies. When in 1746 he was elected rabbi by the congrega- tion of Fiirth, the Metz congrega- tion would not release him from his contract. In 1750 he became chief rabbi of Altona, Hamburg, and Wandsbeck. From that time he became a cen- tral figure in Jew- ish history. Short- ly after his arrival in Altona a rumor began to spread that he still be- lieved in the Mes- sianic mission of Shabbethai Zebi. In substantiation of this charge a number of “ke- me‘ot,” (see AMULET) were produced which, it was al- leged, he had given to sick people in Metz and Al- tona, and the text of which, though partly in cipher, admitted of no other explanation than that given by his enemies. The inscription read substantially as follows: “In the name of Jahve, the God of Israel, who dwelleth in the beauty of His strength, the God of His anointed one Shabbethai Zebi, who with the breath of His lips shall slay the wicked, I decree and 309 command that no evil spirit plague, or accident harm, the bearer of this amulet ” (Emden, “Sefat Emet,” beginning). These amulets were brought to Jacob Emden, who claimed to have been ignorant of the accusations, although they had been for several mouths the gossip of the congregation, In his pri- vate synagogue, Which was in his house, he declared that while he did not accuse the chief rabbi of this heresy, the writer of these amulets was evidently a believer in Shabbethai Zebi (Feb. 4, 1751). The trustees of the congregation, who sided with their rabbi, at once gave orders to close Jacob Emden’s synagogue. Emden wrote to his brother-in-law, ARYEH L6s, chief rabbi of Amsterdam, and to vari- ous rabbis who were outspoken enemies of Eybe- schiitz, among them Jacob Joshua of Frankfort, Samuel Helman (Eybeschiitz’s successor in Metz), and Nehemiah Reischer, rabbi of Kriechingen in Lorraine, formerly Eybeschiitz’s admirer, but now his bitterest enemy. All of these pronounced Ey be- schiitz a dangerous heretic, unfit to hold any rabbin- ical office. However, the trustees of the Altona congregation declared Emden a disturber of the peace, against whom drastic measures should be taken; and the followers of Eybeschtitz assumed such The a threatening attitude that Emden was Dispute compelled to flee to Amsterdam (May About 22,1751). There he brought charges Amulets. against his enemies before the Danish courts, with the result that the congre- gation of Altona was ordered to stop all proceedings againsthim. In Hamburg the conflict assumed such proportions that the Senate issued strong orders to make an end of the troubles, which were disturbing the public peace (May 1, 1752, and Aug. 10, 1753; sce “ Allg. Zeit. des Jud.” 1858, pp. 520e¢ seg.). Em- den returned to Altona Aug. 3, 1752; and in Decem- ber of the same year the courts ordered that nothing should be published concerning the amulets, Mean- while Ey beschtitaz’s popularity had waned; the Sen- ate of Hamburg suspended him, and many members of that congregation demanded that he should submit his case to rabbinical authorities. “Kurze Nach- richt von dem Falschen Messias Sabbathai Zebhi,” etc. (Wolfenbiittel, 1752), by Moses Gershon ha- Kohen (Carl ANTON), aconvert to Christianity, but a former disciple of Eybeschiitz, was evidently an inspired apology. Emden and his followers, in spite of the royal edict, published a number of po- lemical pamphlets, and Eybeschtitz answered in his “TLuhot ‘Edut” (1755), which consists of a long in- troduction by himself, and a number of letters by his admirers denouncing as slanders the accusations brought against him. His friends, however, were most numerous in Poland, and the Council of Four Lands excommu nicated all those who said anything derogatory to the rabbi. A year after the publication of the “Tuhot ‘Edut” he was recognized by the King of Denmark and the Senate of Hamburg as chief rabbi of the united congregations of Hamburg-Altona- Wandsbeck. From that timeon, respected and be- loved, he lived in peace. Hisenemy Emden testifies to the sincere grief of the congregation at the death of Eybeschiitz (“Megillat Sefer,” p. 208). THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Even Eybeschiitz the notorious extravagances and the subsequent fail- ure in business of his youngest son, Wolf, seem not to have affected the high esteem in which the father was held. Eybeschiitz’s memory was revered not only by his disciples, some of whom, like Meshullam Zalman ha-Kohen, rabbi of Fiirth, became prominent rabbis and authors, but also by those who were not under personal obligations to him, such as Mordecai Benet, who speaks in the most enthusiastic terms of him in his approbation to the “Bene Ahubah,” and Moses Sofer, who trics to defend him in a case where he committeda very bad blunder(Hatam Sofer, Yoreh De‘ah, No. 69). With regard to Eybeschiitz’s actual attitude toward the Shabbethai Zebi heresy, it is diffi- Amulet Prepared by Jonathan Eybeschiitz. (in the collection of Albert Wolf, Dresden.) cult to say how far the suspicions of his enemies were justified. On the one hand it can not be denied that the amulets which he wrote contain expressions sug- gestive of belief in the Messiahship of Shabbethai Zebi; but on the other hand it isstrange that the ac- cusations came only from jealous enemies. Jacob Emden himself speaks of a rumor to the effect that even before Eybeschtitz went to Altona he (Emden) had expressed himself in terms which showed a de- termination to persecute the successor of his father in the office of chief rabbi (“ Megillat Sefer,” p. 176); and although he indignantly denies this rumor, he speaks in another place of the chief rabbinate of Altona as “the heritage of my fathers” (2d. p. 209). Eybeschiitz’s works, given in the order of their publication, are as follows: 1755. Luhot ‘Edut. Altona. 1765. Kereti u-Peleti, novella on Shulhan ‘Aruk, Yoreh De‘ah. Altona. Taryag Mizwot, the 613 commandments in rimed acrostics. Prague. . Tif’eret Yisrael, notes on the rabbinical laws regarding menstruation, with additions by the editor, Israel, grandson of the author and rabbi of Lichtenstadt. 1775. Urim we-Tummim, novelle to Shulhan ‘Aruk, Hoshen Mishpat. Carlsruhe. 1779-82. Ya‘arot Debash, sermons, edited by his nephew Jacob ben Judah Lob of Wojslaw. Carlsruhe. 1796. Binah la-‘Ittim, notes on the section of the " Yad” dealing ia Eye with the holy days, edited by the author's disciple Hille] of Stampfen. Vienna. 1799. Hiddushim ‘al Hilkot Yom-Tob, edited by Joseph of Trop- pau. It is in substance the same as the last-named work, but differs froiw it in wording, and contains in addition Maimonides’ text. Both therefore present not a work of the author, but notes taken frou bis iectures. Berlin, 1817. Sar ha-Alef, novella on Shulhan ‘Aruk, Orah Hayyim. Warsaw, 1819. Bene Abubah, on the matrituoniai laws in the ** Yad,” ed- ited by his grandson Gabriel Eybeschiitz. Prague. 1825. Tif’eret Yehonatan, homilies on the Pentateuch (n.d., though 1825 is probably eorrect). Zolkiev. 1862. Perush ‘al Piska Had Gadya, a homiletical interpretation of the “ Had Gadya.”) Lemberg. 1869. Notes on the Haggadah, edited by Moses Zaloshin. Pres- burg. 1891. Shem ‘Olam, letters on the Cabala, edited by A. S. Weiss- inann. Vienna. A commentary on Lamentations under the title “ Allon Ba- kut,” and homilies on the Pentateuch under the title ** Keshet Yehouatan,”’ are extant in manuscript in the Bodleian Library (Neubauer, ** Cat. Bodl. Hebr. MSS.” pp. 50 et seg.). BIBLIOGRAPHY: G. Klemperer, Hayye Yehonatan: Rabbi Jonathan Bibensehittzs eine Buographische Skizze, Prague, 1858 (reprinted in Brandeis’ Jtdische Universalbibliothek vols. 91-93, Prague, n.d.); Ehreutheil, Jiidische Charakter- bilder, Budapest, 1867 ; Isaac Gastireund, Sefer Anshe Shem, Lyck, 1879; J. Cohn, Bhrenrettung des R. Jonathan Hihbe- schitz; ein Beitrag zur Kritik des Griitz’schen Geschichts- werkes, in Sefer ‘Ale Stah, Bititter aus der Michael. Da- vid’schen Stiftaag. Hanover, 1870; Gritz, Geseh, 8d ed., x. 315 et seq.; Fuenn, Kenesct Yisrael, pp. 425 et seg.; Jacob Emden’s autobiography, Megillat Sefer, Warsaw, 1896. The bibliography on the controversy between Emden and Eybe- schiitz is given in Gratz, Gesch. x. dU et seq. D. S. 8. EYE (j'y).—Biblical Data: This important organis mentioned more thau 80 times in the Bible, but is described only in its external appearance and significance, according to the experience of daily life. The following parts are mentioned: the eye- ball (“bat ‘ayin ” = “ girl of the eye,” “little doll”; Lam. ii. 18; “ babat ‘ayin,” Zech. ii. 12; comp. Levy, “Chal. Worterb.” 1. 419b); the pupil (“ishon” = “littl man,” whose image appears in the eye as in a mirror; Deut. xxxil. 10; Ps. xvii. 8; Prov. vii. 2, comp. Prov. vii. 9, xx. 20); the eye-socket (“hor ”; Zech. xiv. 2); the eyelashes (“‘ap‘appavini”; Ps. xi. 4; Prov. vi. 25; by synecdoche = “the eye”; comp. Job xli, 10); the eyelids (“ shemurot”; Ps. xxvii. 5), and the eyebrows (“ gabbat ‘enaw ”; Lev. xiv 9). The eye of the Oriental is not only large, but it is also very strong. Itappears from Gen. xxix. 17 that weak eyes were an exception. Near-sightedness, far-sightedness, and weak-sightedness are not men- tioned. The eye became weak, heavy, or fixed in old age (Gen. xxvii, i.; Deut, xxxiv. 10, I Sam. iv. 15; compare also Eccl. xii. 8). The sight was also impaired by sorrow and misfortune (Ps. vi. 8, xxxi. 10, Ixxxvili. 10; Job xvii. 7). The eye is the source of tears (Jer. vili. 23); and tears flowed often and copiously (Lam. i. 16; 111. 48, 49; Ps. cxix. 136), injuring and even ruining the eyes (Lam. ii. 11, ii. 51; I Sam. ii. 838; Jer. xiv. 6). Sorrow dims and obscures the eyes (Lev, xxvi. 16; Deut, xxviii, 32, 65; Job xxxi. 16; Lam. v. 17); while under favora- ble circumstances they light up (I Sam. xiv, 27, 29). The eye is said to be affected by emotions in general (Ps. Ixtx. 4; exix. 82, 132). The fat eye of persons addicted to high living protrudes (Ps. Ixxiii. 7); much drinking of wine makes the eye deep red (Gen, xlix. 12; Prov. xxiii. 29). The son closed the eyes of his dead parent (Gen, xIvi. 4). THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA | I i 310 How far blindness—very frequent in antiquity— prevailed in ancient Israel can not be determined from the references found in the Bible. Blind per- sons are spoken of comparatively seldom (see JEW. Encyc, iii, 248, 5.2. Buinp, THE), If a priest be- came blind or had a spot on his eye Diseases (“tebajlul be-‘eno”; Lev. xxi. 20), he and Care of was not allowed to officiate at the sac- the Eye. rifice. Diseases of the eye were not recognized as such, since the oculist’s art was not at all developed among any ancient pco- ple except the Egyptians; hence nothing has been transmitted on this point, and the nature of the diseases mentioned can not be definitely determined. The reference to the “shut” eyes (Isa. xliv. 18) in- dicates that an inflammation of the eyes is generally meant; and the same may be assumed from the ex- pressions used to denote “opening the eyes” (Isa. xiii. 7, xxix. 19, xxxv. 5; comp. 2d. xliii. 8; Num. xxii. 831; Ps. exix. 18). The original inhabitants of Palestine are called figuratively “pricks” and “thorns” in the eycs (Num, xxxiii. 55; Josh. xxiii. 13). In regard to the care of the eyes, it is said that smoke injures them (Prov, x. 26). Women used a cosmetic for the eye consisting of a mixture of plumbagin and zinc, which they applied to the inner surface of the eyelids in such a way as to produce a narrow black rim, making the eyes appear larger (II Kings ix. 80; Jer. iv. 30; Isa. liv. 11; Ezek. xxiii. 40). The barbaric custom of putting out the eyes was practised quite frequently. Samson was blinded by the Philistines, and King Zedekiah by the Babylonians (Judges xvi. 21; II Kings xxv. 7, Jer. xxxix. 7, Hii, 11). The Ammonites consented to make peace with the inhabitants of Blinding Jabesh only on condition that all of asa Pun- them would submit to having their ishment. right eyes “thrust out” (I Sam, xi. 2). The “Jex talionis ” is expressed by the phrase “eye for eye” (Ex, xxi. 24; Lev. xxiv. 20; Leut. xix. 21; comp. Ex. xxi. 26). The custom of putting out the eyes was so widely spread that it be- came a figurative term for deceiving (Num. xvi. 14). The ancient Israelites had very expressive eyes. Desire, love, hatred, pride, etc., were all expressed in the eye; and inthe Hebrew language are found sep- arate terms for all modes of seeing and Emotional not seeing (Gen. iii. 6; Num. xv. 39; Sig- I Kingsix. 8; If Chron, xvi. 9; Jobx. nificance of 4, xv. 2, xvi. 9, xxxi. 7, xXx xix. 29; Ps. the Eye. x. 8, xxxv. 19; Prov, vi. 18, x. 10, xxili. 5, xxviii. 27, xxx. 18; Eccl. ii. 10; Cant. iv. 9; Ecclus, [Sirach] xxvi. 29, xxvii. 22; Isa. iti. 16, vi. 10; Ezek. vi. 9, xxii. 26; God’s eye, Ps. xciv. 9). According to Ecclus. (Sirach) xxiii. 19, God’s eye is 10,000 times brighter than the sun. Good will and malevolence are mirrored in the eye (Prov. xxii. 9, xxiii. 6; I Sam. xviii. 9; Deut. xv. 9; xxviii. 54, 56). The raising of the eyes expressed a wish, as it still does among children (Ps. cxxiii. 1; Isa. xxxvili, 14). “Eye” is often used metaphorically (Ex. x. 5, 15 and Num. xxii. 5 [“ the eye (= “ face ”) of the earth”]; Prov, i. 17 [“the eye (= “sight ”) of any bird”]; Cant. i. 15, iv. 1, v. 12 [“eyes of doves”]; Ezek. i. 4, 7; x. 9 [“like the eye 311 (= “color”) of amber,” ete.]; Zech, ix. 1 [“the eyes (= “sight ”) of all men”). E, G. H. ——In Rabbinical Literature: Much more was known regarding the anatomy and physiology of the eye during the period of tradition in the cen- turies immediately preceding and succeeding the beginning of the common era than in Biblical times. The eyeball of man is round, while that of a beast is oblong. It consists of a dark and a white mass separated from each other by a narrow rim. The white part preponderates in the human eye, while the black preponderates in the eves of beasts. The white is derived from the father; the black, from the mother. The black part is the means of sight. Eyes and eyesight differ in size and strength in various persons, “Persons with large eyes often have a peculiarexpression. Heavy eyelids droop, The eyebrows are sometimes close to the eye; sometimes they are so long that they hang far down the face; and again there are no eye- brows at all. The eyelashes also may be heavy or sparse, or there may be none at all. Sometimes the eyes are very deeply set, a formation that may be regarded as a bodily defect” (Rosenzweig, ‘Das Auge in Bibel und Talmud,” pp. 12, 19). Pain in the eyes is dangerous, as the sight is con- nected with the heart (‘Ab. Zarah 28b). Some kinds of food are beneficial and others harmful to the sight. Fine bread and old wine are good for the eyes, as well as for the entire body. Rapid walking consumes one five-hundredth part of the sight. Much talking hurts one whose eyes are affected. Dirt is harmful, and many diseases are caused by touching the eyes with unwashcd hands. The salt taken from the Dead Sea is especially dangerous. The eyes of the inhabitants of Palmyra twitch be- cause they live in a sandy region (Rosenzweig, (.e. pp. 20 et seg.). Water is excellent for the eves. A drop of cold water in the eyes in the Care and morning and washing the hands and Diseases of feet at night are better than all the eye- the Eye. salves in the world (Shab. 78a, 108b). Tears contain salt in order that they may not flow unrestrictedly in sorrow and distress, which would be very injurious. Tears produced by smoke or weeping injure the eye, while those that are produced by laughter or incense are beneficial. A collyrium made of stibium or antimony is often mentioned (comp. Levy, “ Neuhebr. Worterb.” sz. br, “IPD, nvdp). This salve was forbidden when made by the heathen (Niddah 55b; Yer, ‘Ab, Zarah 40d). The veil of the Arabian Jewish women Icft the eyes exposed (Shab, 65a; Yer. Shab. 7b). Sev- eral diseases of the eve are mentioned, but they can not be definitely identified. Professional and popu- lar therapeutics are found side by side. Either Galen influenced the rabbinical physicians, or both he and they drew from the same source (see Mep1- ciNE). Artificial eyes made of gold are mentioned (Yer. Ned. 41c; comp. Yer. Sanh. 18c). With the rise of Arabian culture the art of medi- cine was more highly developed, and physicians ac- quired a scientific knowledge of the eye, although this was not advanced beyond the point reached by THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Eye Galen, either by the Arabian or the Jewish physi- cians, or by Christian practitioners, down to the eighteenth century. The general history of medi- cine, therefore, presents also the theories of the Jewish physicians regarding the eye. For the his- tory of the sense of sight as recorded by the Jewish philosophers, exegetes, and other non-medical writ- ers of the Middle Ages, see D. Kaufmann’s exhaus- tive monograph, “Die Sinne,” in “ Jalresbericht der Landes-Rabbinerschule,” Budapest, 1884. BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. Rosenzweig, Das Auge in Bibel und Tal- mud, Berlin, 1892; Friedmann, Der Blinde,. Vienna, 1873; G. Brecher, Das Transcendentale; Magie und Magische Heil- arten im Talmud, ib, 1850; Hamburger, R. B. T. i. 134 et seq., 193; Hastings, Dict. Bihle, i. 814. L. B. S. 8. ——Color: The color of the eyes is an important racial trait. The various colors are due to the amount of pigmentation, and can be reduced to three ; viz., fair (blue, gray), dark (black, brown), and intermediate (green, yellow, etc.). The Jews have usually black or brown eyes. The appended table (No. 1) shows the colors of the eyes of 147,375 school-children in various countries: TaxLe No. 1. — =— = = ee ee nt ee + j Percentage, Country. Number. |___ ; __.| Observer. | Blue. | Brown. | Gray. zee [owen ire Se, eS ee Germany..... | 74,146 19.63 | 52.88 27.49 | Virchow. Austria....... 59,808 23.5 45,9 30.6 | Schimmer. Hungary..... | 3,14) 18.3 57.9 24.2 kGrosi. Bavaria ...... | 7,054 20.0 49.0 31.0 | Mayr. Wirttem berg | 1,993 20.0 52.0 | 28.0 | Fraas. ee Sees) a i ee Observations on children must, however, be taken with reserve, because their eyes grow darker when they reach maturity. The appended table (No. 2), showing the colors of the eyes in more than 7,006 Jews, brings out this point clearly: TaBLE No. 2. se i | | Percentage. CONEY. tNOs |S es Observer. | Brown.}| Gray.| Blue. ASHKENAZIN. | | Galicia......./ 943) 55.04 | 37.01] 7.95 [Majer and Koper- | | nicki. Russia ....... | 100| 57.0 | 38.0 | 10.0 |Blechman. RUSSIA 6 20605 100 | 67.0 | 11.0 | 22.0 |Weissenberg. Russia ....... 938 | 53.19 | 36.47 | 10.34 |'Talko-Hryncewicz. LEAN Cie: ee 245 | 69.8 | 25.2 4.9 |Yakowenko. Various...... | 310 | 59.0 | 14.0 | 2%.0 |Beddoe. Caucasia...... 204 | 84,31 | 14.22] 1.47 |Pantukhof. Baden........| 86) 488 25.6 | 25.6 |Ammon. England. ...| 423| 588 | 30.1 |i. Jacobs. Various...... (1,188!) 58.41 | 17.51 | 24.08 |Fishberg. PONG 464 003 200 | 60.5 17.5 | 22.0 |Elkind. SEPHARDIM. | Various ...... 290} 68.0 112.0 | 20.0 |Beddoe. England ..... 50} 66.8 11.9 | 21.38 }Jacobs. Bosnia....... 55 | 69.1 | 30.9 Gliiek. Ttal¥icc sis oéee 108; 70.0 | 30.0 Lomnbroso. Wor. | | hot Various ...... 1,084 {| 68.46 | 16.89 | 19.65 |Fishbere. Russia ....... 41! 75.6 (12.2 112.2 |Weissenberg. Russia ....... | 799) 62.2 | 15.6 22.2 |Talko-lryncewicez. Russia .......; 100) 76.0 | 16.0 | 8.0 |Yakowenko. Galicia.......: 25} 60.0 | 20.0 | 20.0 Majer and koper- nicki, Poland....... | a 62.4 {13.6 | 24.0 |Elkind. | es =e It will be observed that the frequency of light, Eve Ezekiel particularly blue, eyes among Jews reaches 25 per cent in some series (Ammon, Beddoe, Fishberg, Weissenberg). Some anthropologists claim that this trait points to intermixture of foreign, non-Semitic blood, especially Arvan. In support of this view it is shown that in those countries where light-colored eyes are frequent among the indigenous population the Jews also show a larger percentage of blue and of gray eyes. This can be seen in Table No. 2. In Baden over 50 per cent of Jewish recruits have blue or gray eyes; in Russia the percentage is less; while in Caucasia, where the native races have dark eyes, the Jews show 84.31 percent of dark eyes. The English Sephardim show even a higher percentage of blue eyes than the Ashkenazim. An important phenomenon in connection with the eyes of Jews is the variation of color according to sex. It appears from the figures in Table No. 2 that the eyes of Jewesses are darker than those of Jews, Joseph Jacobs sees in this a comparatively small variability of type among Jewesses as com- pared with Jews (“ Racial Characteristics of Modern Jews,” in “Jour, Anthropological Institute,” 1885, v. ). The appearance and form of the Jewish eye have attracted much attention. It is stated that a Jew may be recognized by the appearance The Jew’s of hiseyes even when his features as a Eye. whole are not peculiarly Jewish. Rip- ley (“Races of Europe,” p. 396) gives this description: “The eyebrows, seemingly thick because of their darkness, appear nearer together than usual, arching smoothly into the lines of the nose. The Hds are rather full, the eyes large, dark, and brilliant. A general impression of heaviness is apt to be given. In favorable cases this imparts a dreamy, melancholy, or thoughtful expression to the countenance; in others it degenerates into a blinking, drowsy type; or again, with eyes half- closed, it may suggest suppressed cunning.” Sim- ilar descriptions of the Jewish eye are giveu by Leroy-Beaulieu (“Israel Among the Nations,” p. 113) and also Jacobs (JEW. Encyc. i. 620a, 8.0. AN- THROPOLOGY). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Majer and Kopernicki, Charakterystyka Fi- zyczna Ludnosct Gaticyjskiej, in Zbior Wiodom. do Antro- pol. Kraj. i. 1877, ii. 1885; Blechman, Elin Beitrag zur An- thropologie der Juden, Dorpat, 1882; J. Talko-Hryncewicz, Charakterystyka Fizyezna Ludnoscit Zydowskie} Litwiit Rusi, in Zbior Wiodom. do Antropol Kraj. Xvi., 1892; S. Weissenberg, Die Stidrussischen Juden,in Archiv fiir An- thropologie, xxiii. 847-423, 531-579: J. Jacobs, On the Racial Characteristics of Modern Jews,in Jour. Anthropological Institute, xv. 23-62; idem and I. Spielman, On the Compara- tive Anthropometry of English Jews, ib. xix, 76-88; L. Gliick, Bettrdye zur Physischen Anthropologie der Spanio- len, in Wissenschafiliche Mittheilungen aus Bosnien und der Herzegowina, iv. 587-592; 1. I. Pantukhof, Observations Anthropotogiques au Caucase, Tiflis, 1893; O. Ammon, Zur Anthropologie der Badener, Jena, 1899; J. Beddoe, On the Physical Characteristics of the Jews, in Tr. Ethnological Soe. t. 222-237, London, 1861; Yakowenko, Material for the Anthropology of the Jews (in Russian). St. Petersburg, 1898 ; M. Fishberg, Physical Anthropology of the Jews, in _Ameri- can Anthropologist, Jun.-Mareh, 1903. ~——Color-Blindness: Inability to distinguish col- ors may be the result of disease or of injury, or it may be congenital. Among Jews the defect is known to be extremely frequent, as is shown very clearly by the first table following, taken from Jacobs. | In a later communication Jacobs gives his own investigations on the subject (“On the Comparative THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 312 Anthropometry of English Jews,” in “Jour. Anthro- pological Institute,” xix. 76-88), which show a yet : gig NO Place = | 2 | Authority. eo ee a 8l4..../ Breslau 4.1 | 2.1) Cohn, in ** Centralbl. fiir Au- | genheilkunde,”’ 1874, p.97. 949....i London (boys) | 4.9 (3.5/5) "Tr. Ophthalmological 730....) (girls) } 3.1 | 0.4) 7 Soe.’ i. 198. 500... «| Frankfort 1.8 (2.9 cs ‘** Untersuchungen,” | 1&s1. 500....| Italy (boys) 29 (2.7 |Ottolenghi, “Gaz. Cli- | piche,”’ 1883. 40.000) 0 |... |) Zdem,in ** Vessillo Israeli- tico,”’ Sept., 1884. ——w ** (girls) lo. | larger proportion of color-blindness among English Jews: East End. | West End. | All. |Sephardim. JOWS cc iaew were: 14.8 3.4 12.7 13.4 JEWSSES.....000- aes 2.1 2.0 0.0 The average percentage of color-blindness among Jews examined by Cohn, Carl, Ottolenghi, and others, is about 4 per cent. Among the English Jews Jacobs has found that it is more than three times as large as this. These investigations con- firm the general observations that color-blindness is more frequent in men than in women (Havelock Ellis, “Man and Woman,” pp. 188-145), They also show that the East End (London) Jews, who are poorer, have a larger percentage of color-blindness than their wealthier brethren of the West End. Jacobs attributes color-blindness to the fact that the Jews are town-dwellers, where comparatively so little color, and especially so little green, is to be niet with. To this high proportion of color-blindness he also attributes “the absence of any painters of great ability among Jews, and the want of taste shown by Jewesses of the lower grades of society,” which manifests itself in the preference for bright primary colors for wearing-apparel, It must also be remembered that in the inain the Jews in almost every country are poor. They are consequently the class of people which is most pre- disposed tocolor-blindness. Inthe “Report” of the Committee on Color-Blindness appointed by the Ophthalmological Society of London it is stated that the reason for the high percentage of color- blindness found among the Jews lies in the fact that those of them who were examined were prin- cipally of the poorer class. Defective Vision: Jacobs and Spielman in their investigations on the comparative anthro- pometry of English Jews (“Jour, Anthropological Institute,” 1889, p. 79) showed that London Jews could read a test-type at a distance of only 19 inches as against 25 inches by other Londoners; Jewesses were not so markedly inferior, 23 inches as against 24 inches. On the other hand, the better-nurtured Jews hada range of 29 inches. Botwinnick reports his observations on 829 Jews and 2,763 Christians in Russia. Of the Christians 313 2.21 per cent were affected with near-sightedness, while about 44 times as many Jews—9.88 per cent— were thus affected. The same observer shows that cases of myopia of a high degree (technically known as “10D”) are more frequent among Jews than among non-Jews. His investigations in the Jewish schools in St. Petersburg revealed the fact that among Jewish schoo]-children 16.7 per cent (16.5 per cent in boys and 16.8 per cent in girls) suffered from near-sightedness, 48 against 2 to 7.5 per cent in Chris- tian children. Beginning with the twelfth year of life, when 18.2 per cent were affected with myopia, the percentage rose, nearly one-half of all the Jewish children from 16 to 18 years of age being nearsighted. Astigmatism is also very frequent among Jews. Javal and Wecker have shown that it is of a pecul- jar kind. The horizontal meridian of the cornea presents the maximum of curvature. This is con- trary to the rule, the maximum of curvature being usually perpendicular (Wecker, “Sur ] Astigmatisme dans Ses Rapports avec Ja Conformation des Os du Crane,” in “ Bulletin de la Société d’ Anthropologie,” June 15, 1869, pp. 545-547). Botwinnick attributes the near-sightedness of the Jews to hereditary predisposition to weakness of the organ of sight. But this does not by any means explain the problem. The fact that the Jews are town-dwellers must not be overlooked. Besides this, the Jews are a nation of students. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Joseph Jacobs and I. Spielman, On the Com- parative Anthropometry of English Jews, in Jour. Anthro- pological lnstitute, xix. 76-88; N. R. Botwinnick, Materiali k Voprosu o Blisorukostiu Evreev, in Vratelh, 1899, No. 42. -—Pathology: Jews are known to be great suf- ferers from diseases of the eyes. The most frequent of these appears to be trachoma or granular conjunctivitis. Pilz (“ Augenheilkunde,” 1859) was the first to direct attention to this fact. In the city of New York the board of health recently (1908) investigated the frequency of trachoma among school-children. The results show that the disease was very prevalent in schools where the majority of the pupils were Jewish. Glaucoma is another disease of the eyes preva- lent among Jews. The characteristics of this dis- ease are steadily increasing hardness of the globe of the eye, with pressure and cupping of the optic nerve; and forward pressure of the iris and dilation of pupil. It is very injurious to the eyesight. Asa result of these diseases blindness is very fre- quent among Jews (sce Jew. Encyc. iii. 249, 8.0, BLINDNESS). The most important sequela of trachoma is en- tropion, which consists in a distressing distortion of the lHid-borders, due to the formation of contract- ing scar-tissue, which causes misdirection of the eyelashes, so that they turn against the globe. This condition is frequent amoug the Jews of castern Europe, Egypt, and Palestine, who are huddled to- gether in unhealthful dwellings and live under the worst conditions of poverty and misery. Hervé states that Jacrima]l tumors are very fre- quent among Jews. He attributes this to an ana- tomical peculiarity, the narrowness of the nasal canal among Jews (“Bulletin de la Sociéte d’Anthropo- logie,” Dec. 20, 1888, p. 915). Of the other diseases of the eyes frequent among THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA ‘falling out of the eyelashes. Eve Ezekiel Jews may be mentioned simple conjunctivitis, and particularly blepharitis, which consists in an inflammation of the lid-borders, with a resulting In extreme cases, because of the destruction of the eyelashes and con- sequent distortion of the eyelids, it proves to bea most unsightly facial blemish. This disease is fre- quent among the Jews of eastern Europe, Egypt, and Palestine. It can be stated that the conditions predisposing to this disease are identical with those causing trachoma. J. M. Fr. EZBAI (33s): Father of Naarai, one of David's thirty mighty warriors ( Chron, xi. 87). The par- allel list of I] Samuel has “ Paarai the Arbite ” (xxiii. 35) instead of “ Naarai the son of Ezbai.” Kennicott concluded (“ Dissertation,” p. 209) that the latter is the correct reading. E. G. H. M. SEL. EZBON (jayx): 1. Son of Gad, and father of one of the Gadite families (Gen. xlvi. 16). In Num. xxvi. 16“ Ezbon” is replaced by “Ozni” (37x). 2. A son of Bela, son of Benjamin (I Chron. vii. 7). E, G. H. M. Sen. EZEKIAS: High priest mentioned by Josephus, who relates that among those who accompanied Ptolemy to Egypt after the battle of Gaza (820 B.c.) was Ezekias, then sixty-six years of age, a man skilled in oratory and in affairs of government. He is said to have become acquainted with Heka- teeus, and to have explained to him and to some other friends the differences between the peoples whose homes and constitutions he had noted. The existence of Ezekias is questionable, for Josephus states elsewhere that Jaddua was succeeded by Onias-I., who was in turn succeeded by Simeon I., which leaves no room for Ezekias. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Josephus, Contra Ap. i. § 22; Reinach, Fontes Rerum Judaicarum, i. 229; Willrich, Judaica, pp. 91, 106; Sehtirer, Gesch. 3d ed., i. 348. G. S. Kr. EZEKIEL.—Biblical Data: Concerning the lifeof Ezekiel there are but a few scattered references contained in the book bearing his name. He was the son of Buzi, a priest of Jerusalem (Ezek. i. 3), and cousequently a member of the Zadok family. As such he was among the aristocracy whom Nebu- chadnezzar (597 B.c.), after the first capture of Jerusalem, carried off to be exiles in Babylonia (II Kings xxiv. 14). Ezekiel therefore reckons the years from the abduction of Jehoiachin (Ezek. i. 2, XXXiii. 21, xl. 1). He lived among a colony of fel- low sufferers in or near Tel-abib on the River Che- bar (not the River Chaboras), which probably formed an arm of the extensive Babylonian network of canals (iii. 15). Ezekiel was married (xxiv. 16-18), and lived in his own house (iii. 24, viii. 1). On the fifth day of the fourth month in the fifth year of his exile (Tammuz, 592 3.c.), he beheld on the banks of the Chebar the glory of the Lord, who consecrated him as His prophet (i. 1-iti. 13). The latest date in his book is the first day of the first month in the twenty-seventh year of his exile (Nisan, 570); con- sequently, his prophecies extended over twenty-two Ezekiel THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 314 years. The elders of the exiles repeatedly visited him to obtain a divine oracle (viii., xiv., xx.). Heexerted no permanent influence upon his con- temporaries, however, whom he re- peatedly calls the “rebellious house ” (ii. 5, 6, 8; iti. 9, 26, 27; and elsewhere), complaining that although they flock in great num- bers to hear him they regard his discourse as a sort of esthetic ainusement, and fail to act in accordance with his words (xxxiiil. 30-88). If the enigmatica] date, “the thirtieth year” (i. 1), be understood to apply to the age of the prophet—and this view still has the appearance of probability—HEzekiel must have been born exactly at the time of the reform in the ritual introduced by Josiah. Concerning his death nothing is known. Ezekiel occupics a distinct and unique position among the Hebrew Prophets. He stands midway between two epochs, drawing his conclusions from the one and poiuting out the path toward the other, Through the destruction of the city and the Temple, the downfall of the state, and the ban- ishment of the people the natural development of Israel was forcibly interrupted. Prior to these events Israel was a united and homogencous nation. True, it was characterized by a spirit totally unlike that of any other people; and the consciousuess of this difference had ever becn present in the best and noblest spirits of Israel. The demands of state and people, however, had to be fulfilled, and to this end the monarchical principle was established. There is undoubtedly an clement of truth in the opin- ion that the human monarchy was antagonistic to the dominion of God, and that the political life of Israel would tend to estrange the nation from its eternal spiritual mission. The prophecy of the pre-exilic period was compelled to take these fac- tors into account, and ever addressed itself either to the people as a nation or to its leaders—king, princes, priests—and sometimes to a distinguished individual, such as Shebna, the minister of the royal house mentioncd in Isa xxii. 15-25; so that the opinion arose that the Prophets themselves were merely a sort of statesmen. With the Exile, monarchy and state were annihi- lated, and a political and national life was no lounger possible. In the absence of a worldly foundation it became necessary to build upon a spiritual one. This mission Ezekiel: performed by His Influence. The observing the signs of the time and by Prophet’s deducing his doctrines from them, In Spiritual conformity with the two parts of his Mission. book his personality and his preach- ing are alike twofold. The events of the past must be explained. If God has permitted His city and His Temple to be destroved and His people to be led into exile, He has thereby betrayed no sign of Impotency or weakness. Tle Himself has done it, and was compelled to do it, because of the sins of the people of Israel, who misunderstood THis nature and His will. Nevertheless, there is no rea- son to despair; for God docs not. desire the death of the sinner, but his reformation. The Lord will re- main the God of Israel, and Israel will remain His people. Assoonas Israel recognizes the sovereignty of the Lord and acts accordingly, He will restore the | people, in order that they may fulfil their eternal mission and that He may truly dwell in the midst of them. This, however, can not beaccomplished until every individual reforms and makes the will of the Lord his law. Herein Hes that peculiar individualistic tend- ency of Ezekiel which distinguishes him from all his predecessors. He conceives it as His his prophetic mission to strive to reach Individual- his brethren and compatriots individ. istic ually, to follow them, and to win Tendency. them back to God; and he considers himself personally responsible for every individual soul. Those redeemed were to form the congregation of the new Temple, and to exemplify by their lives the truth of the word that Israel was destined to become a “ kingdom of priests” (Ex. xix. 6). Law and worship—these are the two focal points of Ezekiel’s hope for the future. The people become a congregation; the nation, a religious fraternity. Political aims and tasks no longer exist; and monarchy and state have become absorbed in the pure dominion of God. Thus Ezekiel has stamped upon post-exilic Juda- ism its peculiar character; and herein lies his unique religio-historical importance. Another feature of Ezekiel’s personality is the pathological. With no other prophet are vision and ecstasy so prominent; and he repeatedly refers to symptoms of severe maladies, such as paralysis of the limbs and of the tongue (ii. 25 et seg.), from which infirmities he is relieved only upon the an- nouncement of the downfall of Jerusalem (xxiv. 27, xxxili. 22). These statements are to be taken not fig- uratively, but literally; for God had here purposely ordained that a man subject to physical infirmities should become the pliant instrument of His will. E.G. HL. K. WT. C, In Rabbinical Literature: Ezekiel, like Jere- niah, is said to have been a descendant of Joshua by his marriage with the proselyte Rahab (Meg. 14b; Sifre, Num. 78). Some even say that he was the son of Jeremiah, who was also called “ Buzi” be- cause le was despised—* buz ”—by the Jews (Targ. Yer., quoted by Kimhi on Ezek. i. 3) Ue was already active as a prophet while in Palestine, and he retained this gift when he was exiled with Jehoiachin and the nobles of the country to Babylon (Josephus, “ Ant.” x. 6, § 8: “while he was still a hoy”; comp. Rashi on Sanh. 92b, above). Had he not begun his career as a prophet in the Holy Land, the spirit of prophecy would not have come upon him in a foreign land (Mek., Bo, i.; Targ. Ezek. i. 3; comp. M. K. 25a). Therefore the prophet’s first prophecy does not form the initial chapter in the Book of Ezekiel, but the second: according to some, it is the third (Mek., Shirah, 7) Although in the beginning of the beok he very clearly describes the throne of God, this is not due His to the fact that he had seen more Description than Isaiah, but because the latter of God’s was more accustomed to such visions; Throne. for the relation of the two prophets is that of a courtier to a peasant, the latter of whom would always describe a royal court more floridly than the former, to whom such things 315 would be familiar (Hag. {8b), Ezekiel, like all the other prophets, has beheld only a blurred reflection of the divine majesty, just as a poor mirror reflects objects only imperfectly (Lev. R. i. 14, toward the end). God allowed Ezekiel to behold the throne in order to demonstrate to him that Israel had no reason to be proud of the Temple: for God, who is praised day and night by the hosts of the angels, does not need human offerings and worship (Lev. Rt. ii. 8: Tanna debe Eliyahu J. vi.). Three occurrences in the course of Ezekiel’s prophetic activity deserve especial mention. It was he whom the three pious men, THananiah, Mi- shael, and Azanah, asked for advice as to whether they should resist Nebuchadnezzar’s command and choose death by fire rather than worship his idol. At first God revealed to the prophet that they could not hope fora miraculous rescue; whereupon the prophet was greatly grieved, since these three men constituted the rempant of Ju- dah. But after they had left the house of the prophet, fully determined — to sacrifice their lives to God, Ezekiel received this revela- tion: “Thou dost believe in- deed that I will abandon = them. That shall not happen; but do thou let them carry out their intention ac- cording to their pious dictates, and tell them nothing” (Cant. R. vii, 8; comp. AZARIAH IN RABBINICAL LITERATURE). Ezekiel’s greatest miracle consisted in his resusci- tation of the dead, which is recounted in Ezek. xxxvil. There are different traditions as to the fate of these men, both before and after their resur- rection, and as to the time at which it happened. Some say that they were godless people, who in their lifetime had denied the resurrection, and committed other sins; others think they were those Ephraimites who tried to escape from Egypt before Moses and perished in the attempt (comp. EpHratm In Rab- BINICAL LITERATURE). There are still others who . maintain that after Nebuchadnezzar The Dead had carried the beautiful youths of Ju- Revived by dah to Babylon, be had them executed Ezekiel. and their bodies mutilated, because their beanty had entranced the Baby- lonian women, and that it was these youths whom Ezekiel called back to life. The miracle was per- formed on the same day on which the three men were cast into the fiery furnace; namely, on the Sab- bath and the Day of Atonement (Cant. R. vii. 9). Nebuchadnezzar, who had made a drinking-cup from the skull of a murdered Jew, was greatly aston- 1 ANY ‘ Z THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA et a ere ee ce et eer pene’ Traditional Tomb of Ezekiel, South of Birs Nimrud. (After Lottus, ** Travels in Chaldea.’’) ee a ee a Ezekiel ished when, at the moment that the three men were cast into the furnace, the bodies of the dead boys moved, and, striking him in the face, cried out: “ The companion of these three men revives the dead!” (see a Karaite distortion of this episode in Judah Hadasi’s “ Eshkol ha-Kofer,” 45b, at foot; 184a, end of the section). When the boys awakened from death, they rose up and joined in a song of praise to God for the miracle vouchsafed to them; later, they went to Palestine, where they married and reared children. Asearly as the second century, however, some authorities declared this resurrection of the dead was a prophetic vision: an opinion regarded by Maimonides (“ Moreh Nebukim,” ii. 46; Arabic text, 98a) and his followers as the only rational expla- nation of the Biblical passage (comp. Abravanel’s commentary on the passage) An account of the Npim’ $7 varying from these stories of the Tal- mud (Sanh. 92b), found in Pirke R. El. xxxiii., runs as follows: “When the three men had been rescued by God from the fiery furnace, Nebu- chadnezzar, turning to the other Jews who had obeyed his commands and worshiped the idol, said: ‘ You knew that you had a_ helping and saving God, yet you deserted Him in order to worship an idol that jis nothing. This shows that, just as you de- stroyed your own country through your evil deeds, you now atiempt to destroy my country ’; and at his command they were all killed, to the number of 600,000.” ‘Twenty years later God took the prophet to the place where the dead boys were buried, and asked him whether he believed that He could awaken them. Instead of answering with a decisive “ Yes,” the prophet replied evasively, and as a punish- ment he was doomed to die “on foreign soil.” Again, when God asked him to prophesy the awa- kening of these dead, he replied: “ Will my prophecy be able to awaken them and those dead ones also which have been tornand devoured by wild beasts? ” His doubts were unfounded, for the earth shook and brought the scattered bones together: a heavenly voice revived them; four winds flew to the four corners of the heavens, opened the treasure-house of the souls, and brought each soul to its body. One only among all the thousands remained dead, and he, as it was revealed to the prophet, had been a usurer, who by his actions had shown himself un- worthy of resurrection. The resurrected ones at first wept because they thought that they would now have no part in the final resurrection, but God said to Ezekiel: “Go and tell them that I will awaken Ezekiel THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 316 them at the time of the resurrection and will lead them with the rest of Israel to Palestine” (comp. Tanna debe Eliyahu R. v.). Among the doctrines that Ezekiel set down in his book, the Rabbis notcd the following as especially important : He taught “the soul that sinneth, it [alone] shall die” (Lzek. xviii. 4), although Moses had said (Ex. xxxiv. 7) that God would visit “the iniquity of the fathers upon the children.” Another important teaching of Ezekiel is his warning not to lay hands on the property of one’s neighbor, which he considers the greatest sin among the twenty-four that he enumerates (Ezek. xxii. 2 e¢ The Book §seg.), and therefore repeats (Eccl. R. 1. of Ezekiel. 13)attheend of hisindex of sins (Ezek. xxii. 12). Inritual questions the Book of Ezekiel contains much that contradicts the teach- ings of the Pentateuch, and therefore it narrowly escaped being declared as “apocryphal” by the scholars shortly before the destruction of the Temple (Shab. 13b; Men. 45a). No one was allowed to read and explain publicly the first chapter of the book (Hag. ii. 1; 2. Gem. 18a), because it dealt with the secrets of God’s throne (comp. Ma‘asEH MER- KABAH). 5. 8. L. G. EZEKIEL’S TOMB: The traditional burial- place of the prophet Ezekiel, around which many sagas and legends have gathered, is shown at Ketil near Birs Nimrud; for centuries it has been a favorite place of pilgrimage for Mohammedans as well as for Jews. The mausoleum, dating probably from the time of the califs, was regarded already in the twelfth century as the work of King Jehoiachin, who is said to have erected it when he was liberated from prison by Evil- merodach. The Sefer Torah found there is alleged to have been written by the prophet himself; and he is said to have lighted the lamp which was burning on his grave and had never gone out, as the oil was constantly replenished. In the twelfth century the mausoleum contained a large Hebrew library, and it was said that many of these books dated from the time of the First Temple (Ben- jamin of Tudela, “Itinerary,” ed. Asher, i. 67; comp. also in Schechter, “Saadyana,” the letter of She- rira, p. 123, line 45). The bringing of presents to the sacred spot was considered efficacious in the rearing of a large progeny, and in causing animals to be prolific. The objects placed there could not be stolen, as such an attempt was immediately fol- lowed by sickness. Therefore people contempla- ting lengthy journeys brought their treasures to the mausoleum, sure of having a safe deposif there. Moreover, in case of death only the legal heirs were able to take the goods away. The pilgrimages to the spot took place in the autumn, and thousands of Jews celebrated the Feast of Tabernacles there. On these occasions the small gate in the wall sur- rounding the tomb of the prophet was miraculously enlarged, so that the camels with their burdens could go through (Pethahiah of Regensburg, ed. Jerusa- lem, 1872, pp. 4b, 5b, 6b; comp. also Benjamin of Tu- dela, @.c. ii, 141-143). The tomb of the prophet was the subject of two fine poems by A1)-Harizi (“ Tahkemoni,” ed. Kaminka, xxxv. 298-296, 1. 392- 393). 8. 8. L. G. EZEKIEL, BOOK OF: Ezekiel’s book is one of the most original in the sacred literature of Is- ruel, Its principal features are its systematic ar- rangement and homogeneity. The book falls into two principal parts, i1.-xxiv. and xxv.—-xlviil., cor- responding to the two principal themes of Ezekiel’s prophetic preaching—repentance and salvation, judgment and restoration. It is introduced by a vision, i. 1-iii. 15. At the River Chebar the glory of the Lord appears to Ezekiel on the chariot of the cherubim and consecrates him a prophet, sent to a “rebellious house” to preach only wailing, sigh- ing, and misery. Chaps. iii. 16-xxiv. 27 show the prophet fulfilling this mission. Here Ezekicl is merely a “reprover” (iii. 26); he confronts the peo- ple as if he were not one of them; he shows no emo- tion, not a suggestion of pity, throughout the de- livery of his dreadful tidings. He symbolizes the siege and conquest of Jerusalem, the leading of the people into exile (iv.-v.); on all the hills of Israel idolatry is practised (vi.), and therefore “the end” will come (vii.). The Temple is defiled with abomi- nations of every description; therefore the glory of the Lord departs from it and from the city, and ded- icates them to flames (vili.-xi.). Ezekiel represents the final catastrophe symbolically ; judgment will not tarry, but approaches to immediate fulfilment (xii.). No one will mount into the breach. On the contrary, prophets and prophetesses will lead the people completely astray (xili.); even a true prophet could not avail now, as God will not be questioned by idolaters. That the judgment is fully merited will be de- monstrated by the godliness of the few who survive the catastrophe (xiv.). Jerusalem is a useless vine, good only to be burned (xv.). And thus it has ever been: Jerusalem has ever requited the mercies and benefits of the Lord with blackest ingratitude and shameless infidelity (xvi.). The ruling king, Zed- ekiah, particularly, has incurred the judgment through his perjury (xvii.). God rewards each one according to his deeds, and He will visit upon the heads of the present generation, not the sins of the fathers, but their own sins (xviii.). Therefore the prophet is to sound a dirge over the downfall of royalty and the people (xix.). In an oration he once more brings before the people all the sins com- mitted by them from the Exodus to the present time (xx.). Nebuchadnezzar approaches to execute the divine judgment (xxi.). Jerusalem is a city full of blood-guiltiness and impurity, all classes being equally debased (xxil.), and far lower than Samaria’s (xxili.). The city is a rusty kettle the impurities of which can be removed only by fire. The exiles, who still boast of the sanctity and inviolability of Jerusalem, will be amazed by the news of its fall (XX1V.). Then follows (xxv.~xxxii.) a group of threatening prophecies against seven foreign nations: the Am- monites (xxv. 1-7), Moabites (xxv. 8-11), Edomites (xxv. 12-14), Philistines (xxv. 15-17), Tyrenes (XXV1.—-xXVHi. 19), Zidonians (xxviii. 20-23), and 317 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Ezekiel Egyptians (xxix.-xxxii.). This division belongs to the promise of salvation as detailed in xxviii. 24-26; for it refers to the punishment visited ‘*Dooms” on the neighboring hations because of ofthe their aggressions against Judah. It Nations. also indicates that Isracl may yet be restored to fulfil its sacred mission, a mission which can be accomplished only when the nation lives in security. Ch. xxxiii. announces the downfall of Jerusalem, and the prophet now freely speaks words of consolation and promise to the people. The shepherds hitherto placed over Israel have thriven, but have neglected their flock, which God will now take under His protection, ap- pointing a new David as a shepherd over it (xxxiv.), The Edomites, who have seized certain portions of the Holy Land, will be annihilated (xxxv.); Israel will be restored (xxxvi.); that is, Judah and Joseph will be merged into one (xxxvii.). The last on- slaught of the pagan world against the newly estab- lishcd kingdom of God will be victoriously re- pelled by the Almighty Himself, who will mani- fest His sanctity among the nations (xxxviii.- xxxix.). The final division, x1.-xlviii., embodying the celebrated vision of the new Temple and the new Jerusalem, coutains a description of the future era of salvation with its ordinances and conditions, which are epitomized in the final sentence: “ And the name of the city from that day shall be, The Lord is there” (xl viii. 35). The evident unity of the whole work leaves only one question open in regard to its authorship: Did Ezekiel, as some maintain, write the whole book at one time, or is it a homogeneous com- pilation of separate parts written at different times? A number of pieces were dated by the prophet himself, in accordance with the number of years after the ab- duction of Jehoiachin: i. 1, in the fifth; viii. 1, in the sixth; xx. 1, in the seventh; xxiv. 1, in the ninth; xxix. 1, in thetenth; xxvi. 1, xxx. 20, xxxi. 1, xxxiii. 21 (LXX.), in the eleventh; xxxii. 1,19 and xxxiii. 21 (Hebr.), in the twelfth; xl 1, in the twenty-fifth; and xxix. 17, in the twenty-seventh year. The last-mentioned passage (xxix. 17~21) is evidently an appendix to the already completed book; and the twenty-fifth year (572), the date of the important division xl.-xlviii., is probably the date when the work was completed. If it were true, however, that the whole book was written at that time all previous dates would be merely Jiterary embellishments, and this view is difficult because of the importance of the dating in several instances where the prophet claims to tran- scend ordinary human knowledge. Examples of such instances are: xi. 18, where Eizekicl at the Chebar is cognizant of the death of Pelatiah, the idolater, in Jerusalem; xxiv. 2, where he knows the exact day on which the siege of Jerusalem will begin; and xxxiii, 21, where he predicts to a day the arrival of the messenger bearing tidings of the capture of Jerusalem. Moreover, it can be shown from the contradictions which the various divisions of the Book of Ezekiel contain that they were written at different peri- ods. This is particularly true of the Messianic The Com- position. prophecy, which, although kept somewhat in the background in Ezekiel, is nevertheless directly ex- pressed in Xvii, 22-24, xxi. 82, xxxiv. 28-24, xxxvii. 22-24, and xxv. 14 (where Edom is referred to- “And I will lay ny vengeance upon Edom by the hand of my people Israel”). In xl.—xiviii.—that grand panorama of the future—this feature has en- tirely disappeared. There is still some reference to a prince, but his sole function is to defray from the people’s taxes the expenses of worship; there is no longer room for a Messianic king. Neverthe- less, Ezekiel permitted the earlier passages to re- main. Even more significant is xxix. 17-21, which can be understood only as an appendix to the al- ready complete book. In xxvi.-xxviii. Ezekiel had positively prophesied the capture and destruction of Tyre by Nebuchadnezzar, but after thirteen years of fruitless labor the latter had to raise the sicge and to arrange terms of peace with the city. Thereupon, in the above-mentioned passage, Ezekiel promises Egypt to Nebuchadnezzar as an indemnity. Here, then, is an oracle the non-fulfilment of which the prophet himself is destined to see. Yet he does not venture to change or to expunge it. Inciden- tally it may be stated that the transmission of oracles of which the prophets themselves were doomed to see the non-fulfilment is the strongest proof that they regarded these as messages for which they were not personally responsible, and which, consequently, they did not venture to change; they regarded them as God’s word, the responsibility for the non-fulfil- ment of which rested with God, not with themselves. In view of these facts it must be assumed that al though Ezekiel completed his book in 572, he availed himself of earlier writings, which he allowed to re- main practically unchanged. Not only is the whole artistically arranged, but the separate parts are also distinguished by careful finish. The well-defined and deliber- ate separation of prose and poetry is particularly conspicuous. The poetic passages are strictly rhythinical in form, while the didactic parts are written in pure, elegant prose. The author prefers parables, and his use of them is alwayslucid. In xx. 49 he even makes his audience say: “Doth he not speak parables?” Very striking are the numerous symbolical actions by which the prophet illustrates his discourse. Nine unique examples may be distinguished; indeed at the very beginning of his prophetic activity there are not fewer than four by which he describes the siege, capture, and destruction of Jerusalem and the banishment of the people (iv. and v.). The two in xii. and the two in xxiv. refer to the same subject, while that in xxxvii. refers to the future redemption. Here, also, there is no question of mere literary embellishment, for Ezekiel undoubt- edly actually performed the symbolic actions; indeed, he was the first to introduce symbolism into Hebrew literature, and therefore has been called the “ fa- ther of apocalypse.” The picture of the chariot (“merkabah ”) in i., and the concluding division of xl.-x] viii., are full of deep symbolism; and, accord- ing to the Rabbis, neither should be read by any one younger than thirty. Thecelebrated vision of Gog, the Prince of Rosh Meshech (A. V. “the chief prince Style. Ezekiel, Ezekiel Abraham Ezekiel, Moses Jacob of Meshech”) and Tubal (xxxviii. and xxxix.), is also symbolical. The Book of Ezekiel shows throughout the touch of the scholar. The Talmud (Hag. 13a) relates that in consequence of the contradictions to the Torah contained in x1.- xlviii. Ezekiel’s book would have remained unknown had not Hananiah b, Hezekiah come to expound it. Nevertheless it has never been appreciated as it de- serves; and it is probably due to this fact that the text of the work has been transmitted in a particu- larly poor and neglected form. The Septuagint, however, affords an opportunity to correct many of the errors in the Hebrew text. The statement of Josephus (“ Ant.” x. 5, § 1) that Ezekiel wrote t wo books is entirely enigmatical. The doubt cast upon the authenticity of the book by Zunz, Seinecke, and Vernes has rightly never been taken seriously; but theauthorship of several parts, such as iii, 16b-21, x. 8-17, xxiv. 22-23, and xxvii. 9b-25a, has, with more or less justification, some- times been questioned. That the book consists of two divergent versions compiled by an editor, a hy pothesis recently advanced by Kraetzschmar, has yet to be demonstrated. BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. Ewald, Die Prophetendes Alten Bundes, 1841; F. Hitzig, Der Prophet Ezechiel, 1847; S. D. Luzzatto, Perush ‘al Yirmeyah we-Yehezekei, 1876; R. Smend, Der Prophet Ezechiel, 1880; Cornill, Das Buch des Prophcten Ezechiel, 1886; D. H. Mitier, Ezechielstudien, 1895; A. B. Davidson, The Book of the Prophet Hzekiel, Cambridge, 1896; A. Bertholet, Das Buch Hezekiel, 1897; C. H. Toy, The Book of Ezekielin Hebrew, 1899; idem, The Book af the Prophet Ezekiel, new Eng. transl. with notes, 1899; R. Kraetzschmar, Das Buch Ezechiel, 1900. K. H. C. E. G. H, EZEKIEL, EZEKIEL ABRAHAM: Eng- lish engraver; born in Exeter 1757; died there 1806. He engraved paintings by Opie, Sir Joshua Reynolds, and others, and was also known as a miniature-painter and scientific optician. His son Solomon Ezekiel (b. 1781; d. 1867) dissuaded Sir Rose Price from establishing in Penzance a branch of the Society for Promoting Christianity Among the Jews. Ezekiel published a series of lectures on the lives of Abraham and Isaac and on the He- brew festivals (Penzance, 1844-47). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Dict. National Biography ; Jacobs and Wolf, Biblicthecea Anglo-Judaica, Nos. 970-971; Jew. Chron. March, 1867. J. EZEKIEL FEIWEL BEN ZE’EB WOLF: Russian Talmudist and preacher; born at Polangen 1755; died at Wilna 1888. arly in life he tilled the position of preacher in his native town, and later at Deretschin. He then traveled as a preacher through Germany and Hungaty, and, after residing for some time at Breslau, returned to Polangen and devoted himself to literary work. In 1811 he was appointed preacher to the community of Wilna, which posi- tion he filled until his death. Ezekiel was the author of “Musar Haskel,” a commentary on Maimonides’ “Yad,” De‘ot and Teshubah (Dyhernfurth, 1790); and “Toledot Adam,” a biography of Rabbi Solomon Zclman ben Isaac, whom Ezekiel had met in the house of Elijah Wilna (7b. 1809-10). The latter work, in two volumes, contains biographical data, various novel- THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA ! 318 le, and a chapter devoted ta remonstrances against the neglect of the study of the Bible. son mn? ovbon bral NY3°, and on the other side the same scntiment in Spanish; ** Dios abrird, rey entra.” (God will open, the king will enter.) BIBLIOGRAPHY: Amador de los Rios, Hist. i. 856 et seq.; Ad. de Castro, Hist. de lus Judios en Espatia, pp. 52 et seq.; Erseh and Gruber, Eneyc. section ii., part 27, p. 210; Gratz, Geach. vii. 136. The key, now in the possession of the cathe- dral in Sevilie, is represented in Zuniga’s Anales de Sevilla, i, 47, and in Papenbroeck, Acta Vitw S. Ferdinandi, Ant- werp, 1684. G. M. K. FERDINAND IV.: King of Castile and Leon (1295-1312); son of Sancho IV.; came to the throne in his youth. He had for his confidential friend a Key Presented to Ferdinand III. by the Jewish Community of Seville. (Frot:. Papenbroeck, “ Acta Vite 5. Fer- dinandi,” 1684.) Jew of Andalusia, Don Samuel, who acted as his “almojarife mor,” or farmer-general of taxes, and di- rector of the royal finances, and exercised a power- ful influence over him (“ Chron. de D. Fernando IV.” xix, 34). In contrast to his pious mother, Dota Maria de Molina, who was regent during his minor- ity, Ferdinand was very partial tothe Jews. Soon after his accession he ordered the city of Ocafia to cease its attacks on and oppression of the Jews, and to allow them to enjoy all their rights un- disturbed. He granted extraordinary privileges to the Jews of Valladolid, to the great mortification of his mother, with whom he had difficulties for sev- eral years. He curtly denied the petition of the Cortes to revoke the Jews’ right of appeal in legal disputes between Jews and Christians. Ferdinand was considered an adversary of the clergy, but for no other reason than that he would not permit the Archbishop and Chapter of Toledo to take the Jews under their jurisdiction and impose heavy penalties contrary to law and justice. The Jews rendered him considerable service during the differ- cnt wars that he waged with the King of Portugal, the King of Aragon, and the Moorish king, espe- cially at the conquest of Gibraltar. In recognition of their services he granted the Jews of Gibraltar complete exemption from taxes. He was finally compelled to recede before the repeated and bitter complaints brought against the Jewish and ecclesi- astical tax-gatherers, and to promise that neither Jew nor cleric should thenceforth fill that post. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Rios, Hist. ii. 64-88 et seq. G. M. K. FERDINAND AND ISABELLA.— Ferdi- nand V. the Catholic: King of Spain; born 1452; died 1516; son of Juan II. of Aragon by his second wife, Juana Enriquez, daughter of Fred- rique Enriquez, admiral of Castile, and grand- daughter of the beautiful Jewess Paloma of Toledo. While still heir to the throne Ferdinand had friendly dealings with many Maranos. His marriage with the much-adinired Isabella of Castile was materially furthered by Jews and Maranos on the supposition that he, himself of Jewish descent on his mother’s side, would prove, like his father, benevolent toward the Jews. Abraham Senior of Segovia, the chief farmer of the taxes, was specially concerned. He had the young Ferdinand come secretly to Toledo, although this afterward directed against him the opposition of a part of the Castilian nobility. In Monzon Ferdinand had to borrow twenty thou- sand sueldos from his “beloved” Yayme Ram, who was the son of a rabbi and one of the most impor- tant jurists of his time. Pedro de la Caballeria, a very rich and respected Marano of Saragossa, was called upon to win over the Archbishop of Toledo, Pedro Gonzalez de Men- doza, the Bishop of Siguenza (later Primate of Spain), and others, to this marriage of Ferdinand. and the bridal gift, a costly necklace worth 40,000 ducats, was paid for largely by him. Yayme de la Caballeria, son of Don Bonafos, was the trusted friend of Ferdinand, and accompanied him on his first jour- ney to Naples. Miguel de Almazan and Gaspar de Barrachina, son of Abiatar Xamos, were his private Ferdinand Ferrara secretaries; the Maranos Gabriel and Alfonso San- chez, his treasurers. He made Francisco Sanchez his majordomo, and raised Francisco Gurrea, son-in-law of Gabriel Sarchez, to the position of governor of Aragon. As Xing of Aragon he had recourse to the Santangels when in need of money. Ferdinand wrapped hims:lf in a mantle of piety. The intro- duction of the Spanish Inguisition, and the subse- quent banishment of the Jews from Spain, although decreed by the royal pair, were chiefly the result of Ferdinand’s work. Isabella the Catholic, Ferdinand’s wife (b. 1451 ; d. 1504), was also surrounded by baptized Jews or theirsons. He confidential advisers and secretaries were Fernando Alvarez de Toledo, w hose descendants bore the title o? Count of Cedillo, and Fernando del Pulgar, authorof a history of the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella. Pulgar openly defended his corelig- ionists and aporoved neither of the expulsion of the Jews nor o:? the institution of the Inquisition. The queen’s coafessor, Fernando de Talavera, was of Jewish descenton his mother’s side, and was perse- cuted as a Marano by the Inquisition despite his high office. Even avowed Jews (for instance, Don Isaac Abravand) enjoyed Isabella’s confidence; but she soon came entirely under the power of the Dominicans. Nor was she ‘ree from covetousness. Pope Sixtus IV. says in a breve dated Jan. 28, 1483: “It seems to us that the queen is urged to institute and con- firm the Inquisition by ambition and a desire for worldly goods rather than by zeal for the faith and true fear of God” (Llorente, “Hist. Critique de l’Inquisition d’Espagne,” etc., i. 165). Isabella not only endeavored to exterminate the Jewish race from her own kingdom, but also compelled the petty Italian princes to do the same; she made Henry VIII. promise aot to allow the Spanish Jews to stay in England; and she promised the hand of her daughter to Don Manuel of Portugal only on con- dition that he vould expel both the Spanish immi- grants and the rative Portuguese Jews. BIBLIOGRAPHY : Prescott, History of the Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain; Adolfo de Castro, Historia de los Judios en Espaia, pp. 166 et seq.; De Vita et Seriptis Elice Kapsalii Cura ei Studio M. Lattesti, pp. 56 et seg., Padua, 1869; Kayserling Sephardim, p. 145; idem, Christopher Columbus, pp. 2: ef seq.; Clemencin, Elogic de la Reyna Tsahel, in Mem. lela Real Academia, v. i. Amador de os Rios. Hist. iii.; da Costa, Israel und die Voilker, p. 245, Frank fort-on-the-‘Tain, 1855. G. M. Is. FERDINAND, PHILIP: Hebrew teacher; born in Poland apout 1555; died at Leyden, Holland, 1598. After an adventurous career on the Continent, during which he became first a Roman Catholic and afterward a Protestant, he went to Oxford Univer- sity, and later 1emoved to the University of Cam- bridge, where he was matriculated Dec. 16, 1596. He claimed a pension from the “Domus Conver- sorum,” which vas paid Feb. 3, 1598, and receipted for by him in Latin, Hebrew, and Greek. The same year he was attracted to Leyden by Joseph Scaliger, who obtained a professorship for him. Scaliger himself acknowledges having learned much from Ferdinand, in tke short time he was at Leyden. Ferdinand’s only publication was a translation of the six hundred and thirteen commandments as col- THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 364 lected by Abraham ben “ Kattani” in the Bomberg Bible (Cambridge, 1597). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Dict. National Biog.: Wood, Athenw Gxo- nienses, ed. Bliss, i. 677; Cooper, Athena ¢ vantabrigte nses, ii. 289; Scaliger, Epistolae, pp. 208, 594, Leyden, 1627, Trans- actions Jew. Hist. Soc. Eng. 1. 27. J: FERMOSA: A Jewess of Toledo uamed “ Rahel,” afterward called “Fermosa” (The Beauti- ful) because of her rare beauty. She held Alfonso VIII. of Castile, husband of the beautiful and clever Donna Leonora, under her spell for almost seven years. With the consent of the clergy she was seized in the presence of the king by members of the Spanish nobility, and murdered, together with those of her coreligionists who gathered about her. This love-story, which had been relegated to the realm of fable by the Marquis de Mondejar (“ Memorias Historicas,” xxiii, 67 e¢ seg.) and other Spanish literary historians, is related as a fact by Alfonso X., grandson of Alfonso VIII., and by the latter’s son Don Sancho. It has been dramatized by Mar- tin de Ulloa, Vicente Garcia de la Huete, and other Spanish writers, as well as by Grillparzer in his play, “ Die Jiidin von Toledo.” BIBLIOGRAPHY: St. Hillaire, Histoire d’ Espagne, vy. 18{, 527 et seq.; Amador de los Rios, Hist. i. 835 et seq.; Kayserling, Die Jtidischen Frauen, p. 74. G. M. Kk. FERNANDEZ, MANUEL, DA VILLA- REAL: Political economist and dramatist; born in Lisbon of Marano parents. He attended the Uni- versity of Madrid, and served for a number of years in the army, in which he became captain. Later he removed to Paris as Portuguese consul-gencral, re- turning to Lisbon about 1650. He was seized hy the Inquisition and garroted in Lisbon (Dee. 1, 1652), He wrote: “El Color Verde a Ja Divina Celia,” a eulogy on the physician Fernando Alvarez Bran- dam, also a Portuguese Marano, Madrid, 1637; * El Politico Christianissimo: Discursos Politicos sobre Algunas Acciones de la Vida del. . . Duque de Richelieu” (the first edition of which appeared under the title “Epitome Genealogico del... Duque de Richelieu”), Pamplona, 1642; “ El Prin- cipe Vendidoe VentadelInocente, y Libre Principe D. Duarte, Celebrada en Viana 4 25 de Junio de 1642,” Paris, 1648; “Anti-Caramuel 6 Defensa del Mani- festo del Reyna de Portugal 4 la Respuesta que Escrevio D. Juan Caramuel Lobkovitz,” Paris, 1643: “Cinco Livros de Decada 12 da Historia da India,” Paris. Fernandez’s son José da Villa-Real was professor of the Greek language in Marseilles (1682). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Barbosa, Bibl. Port. i. 668, iii. 910: Kayser- ling, Sephardim, p. 229; idem, Bibl. Esp.-Port.-Jud. p. 109. G. M. K. FERNANDEZ, PHILIP. See FrERpINAND, PHILIP. FERNANDEZ Y GONZALEZ, FRAN- CISCO: Spanish Orientalist; professor in the Uni- versity of Madrid ; member of the Academia de la His- toria. He is a son-in-law of the historian D. José | Amador de los Rios. His great interest in the history and literature of the Jews has been manifested in the following works: “De la Escultura y la Pintura en 365 --—-- los Pueblos de Raza Semitica y Sefialadamente entre los Judios y los Arabes,” in “ Revista de Es- pata,” 1871; “Instituciones Juridicas del Pueblo de Ysrael en los Diferentes Estados de la Peninsula Iberica desde su Dispersion en Tiempo del Empe- rador Adriano hasta los Principes del Siglo XVI.” ‘vol, x. of the “ Biblioteca Juridica de Autores Espa- fioles ”), Madrid, 1881; “Ordenamiento Formado por los Procuradores de las Aljamas Hebreas Perteneci- entes al Territorio de los Estados de Castilla en la Asamblea Celebrada en Valladolid el Afio 1482; Texto Hebreo Rabbinico . . . Traducido, Anotado éIllustrado con una Introduccion Historica,” Madrid, 1886 (from “Boletin de la Real Academia de la Historia,” vii.); “El Mesianismo Israelita en la Pe- ninsula Iberica Durante la Primera Mitad del Siglo XVI,” in “ Revista de Espafia,” xviii., Nos. 406 e¢ seq., treating of David Reubeni and Salomon Molcho, BIBLIOGRAPHY: Kayserling, Bibl. Exp.-Port.-Jud. p. 45. G. M. K. FERNANDO, AARON: Teacher and reformer at Leghorn, Italy; died 1830. He held a position under the first Napoleon, for whom he had the great- estadmiration; and in the enthusiasm of that period, he imagined that the eve of universal brotherhood had arrived, and that the Jews must put themselves in line by simplifying their ceremonial, The com- mandments of the Law were to be reduced to sixty, and most of the ceremonial laws abolished. He set forth these theories in his “ Progetto Filosofico di una Completa Riforma del Culto e dell’ Educazine Poli- tico-Morale del Popolo Ebreo. Tiberiade 1810,” of which only the first of the two volumes was printed. The Jews denounced the book to the authorities as dangerous to religion. The publication was inter- dicted, and all the copies of the first volume were confiscated (July 14, 1814), bought up by the con- eregation, and burned. ‘ihe only existing copy is that of the author, which is now in the Stadtbiblio- thek at Frankfort-on-the-Main. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Reggio, Ha-Torah weha-Filosofia, p. 148; Jost’s Annalen, 1841, p. 72: Zunz. G. V. 2d ed., p. 489; Ber- liner. .4us Meiner Bihliothek, p. 16. Rg, G. FERRARA (35x85, NID): City in central Italy ; capital of the province and former duchy of the same name, The Jewish community of Ferrara was one of the most flourishing and important in Haly, and it gave to Judaism a number of prominent men. It would seem that Jews existed at Ferrara in 1088, but not until the thirteenth century was their num- ber large enough to give them a status in history. In 1275 an edict was issued in their favor, with a clause providing that neither the pope nor the duke nor any other power might relieve the authorities of their duties toward the Jews. Thecommunity must have been of importance at that time, In the because many well-known men became Thirteenth residents of the city with the view of Century. winning members of the community to support one side or the other of the controversies then raging among the Jews. Thus Hillel of Verona regarded Ferrara as a desira- ble field for his efforts in defending Maimonides’ philosophy, and at the same time Solomon Petit considered the city a suitable place wherein to con- THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Ferdinand Feriara duct his fight against it. The tosatist Moses ben Meir was probably an older contemporary of these two rabbis (Zunz, “Z. G.” p. 57). Moses’ father, or son, Meir ben Moses, was rabbi at Rome and a friend of R. Isaiah di Trani, and is known for his liturgical compositions (Vogelstein and Rieger, “Gesch. der Juden in Rom,” i. 376). Of the existence of Jews in Ferrara during the fourteenth century the only evidence is furnished by the name of a rabbi, Solo- mon Hasdai, who was active at Bologna also. Under the dukes of Este in the fifteenth century the community developed rapidly. It was the aim of these rulers to strengthen the economic condition of their country by attracting settlers. The grow- ing need of credit facilitated the settlement of Jews, who probably were at first admitted here, as to other states of Italy, as money-lenders, though they after- ward became active as retailers, manufacturers, and tradesmen. The Jews were allowed autonomy; and the government appointed a special judge to adjudi- cate matters between Jews and Christians. Though the Jews were permitted to dwell anywhere in the city, most of them lived together in certain streets, which were collectively called “La Zuecca.” The community of Ferrara was at that time large enough to be represented at the rabbinical congresses of Bologna (1416) and Forli (1418), It was the duty of Elhanan ben Menahem Portaleone and Joseph Heze- kiah ben Moses, delegates at Forli, to see that the enactments of the congress were carried out, and that the money necessary to secure papal intervention was paid at the proper time. The Jews of the Romagna shared in the privileges granted by Mar- tin V. in 1419 to secure to the Jews gencrally the protection of their rights. Fanatical priests, it is true, constantly sought, by threats of excommu- nication, to incite the populace against the Jews, to prohibit the sale to them of provisions, and to break off all relations with them; but upon the combined requests of the archduke Lionel and the Jewry, Nich- olas V. assured the latter the fullest protection and forbade all further incitation to trouble on the part of the priests. The same pope was Under = also petitioned in 1451 by Duke Borso the Dukes for immunity for having extended of Este. to the Jews, who had lived there “from time immemorial,” the priv- ilege of further residence, and for having granted them permission to build synagogues. In return for the legal protection which Borso accorded the Jews, the state imposed high taxes upon them, while the princes no doubt borrowed money from them with- out paying interest. The Jews were further called upon on various occasions to undertake special tasks. In 1456 Borso forced them, as a penalty “for insults to religion,” to lay out at their own expense a long avenue of poplars. Thedukes of Este not only pro- tected the Jews, but even offered anasylum to those who were persecuted. Thusin 1478 Duke Ercole I. declared, probably in answer to the pope’s request for their expulsion, that in the interest of the duchy he could not spare them, and that he would therefore relieve them not only from all special burdens, but also from the payment of the sums formerly ex- torted as taxes by papal legates. On account, how- ever, of the magnificent buildings which were being Ferrara erected, the burden of the ordinary taxes had be- come so heavy that Alfonso I., in confirming (1505) the privileges of the Jews of Ferrara, decreed that the communities of the province should bear a part of that burden. The expulsion of the Jews from Spain and Portu- gal proved to be a matter of great importance to the community of Ferrara. Ercole I., at the instance of his wife, Eleanora of Naples, granted to twenty-one families which had landed at Genoa the privilege of settling in his territory and of leaving it at any time. They were allowed to follow any trade, to farm the taxes, and to be apothecarics; and the duke even promised to secure for them papal permission to practise medicine among Christians. Their baggage was to be admitted free of duty; but, since the revenues were farmed, and the matter was out of the jurisdiction of the state, the customary rates had to be paid on merchandise. The refugees were to share all the privileges of the other Jews, with the exception of establishing loan-offices, though afterward permits were granted even to do this. On Nov. 20, 1492, the fugitives received their pass- ports, and on Feb. 1, 1493, the fina] agreement was made. Among those who signed this compact were members of well-known families, like the Nahmias, the Abulafias, and the Francos. The immigrants were physicians, merchants, and artisans. The kind treatment of the duke soon attracted to Ferrara other fugitives,among whom were many Ma- ranos from Portugal, who now open- Settlement ly professed Judaism, The Christian of Maranos. population gladly received the new- comers (all of whom they called “ Por- tuguese”), since they were wealthy and intelligent citizens through whom the flourishing city entered into new commercial relations and was taught new industries. By their share in the commerce of the Spanish colonies, from which they brought Spanish wools, silks, and crimson, as well as of India, whence pearls were imported, they greatly developed the commerce of thecity, They likewise stimulated the export trade by their transactions with Maranos in Flanders, Lyons, Rome, Naples, and Venice. The population of Ferrara grew rapidly at this time. Under Ercole the city doubled in population, and there was a rapid development of industries, espe- cially in silk and cloth. The Jewish community of Ferrara is said to have consisted of 3,000 souls, The fact that the sum paid by it—5 per cent of the total property of the Jews—as “Turks’ tax” amounted to one-third more than that paid by the community of Rome, is an indication of its develop- ment and increasing resources, It is true, however, that the Estes could not free themselves from all the prejudices of the time. They, also, regarded it as a “mark of respect ” for the Jews to be distinguished from the Christian population; thus Alfonso I. “in grazia loro” de- creed that the Jews and Maranos should wear the Jews’ badge, an “O” with an orange-yellow stripe a handbreadth wide. A “monte di pieta” (pawn- shop)—one of the institutions established by Chris- tian socialism in opposition to the Jews—was opened at Ferrara in 1507, without, however, ruining the Jews there as in other places. Religious disputa- THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 366 tions, also, were forced upon the Jews. Ercoie L., his wife, and his brother compelled Abraham Faris- sol to dispute with several monks (after 1505), and to write his arguments in Italian, so that his op- ponents might examine and refute them. Under Julius III. the Inquisition was allowed to proceed against the Jews, and as a result the Talmud and other rabbinical writings were burned (1553), The compact between Ercole IT. and the arch- enemy of the Jews, Pope Paul TV., made the condi- tion of the Jews worse. Taxes for the maintenance of the House of Catechumens at Rome were then rigorously exacted. Isaac Abravanel II., whom the Estes highly esteemed as a physician and philan- thropist, was imprisoned on a charge of treason, but was found innocent and released. But the princes were not so blind as not to per- ceive the beneficial effect of Jewish immigration upon the general welfare. Jn 1534 Ercole IL, espe- cially emphasizing the loyalty of the Jews, con- firmed them in all their former privileges, allowed the Maranos free admission to his territories, and granted them permission to openly profess their an- cestral faith. Ata time when hatred of the Jews was strongest and the fiercest persecution was gen- eral, Ferrara remained a bulwark of religious liber- ty, an asylum for “heretics”; the expelled Jews of Naples and Bologna found a refuge there, as did also the Maranos from Ancona, the duke assuring them perfect religious freedom. When Pius II. wished to abolish the pawn-shops, Alfonso II. de- cidedly opposed the step, because he felt that thein- terest of his country demanded their retention. In 1570 (Feb. 16-17) a terrible earthquake visited Ferrara, “on which occasion many houses and about twelve churches, monasteries, and nunneries were destroyed. Under the ruins of the houses about 200 persons met their death, but not The Earth- a single Jew perished. The wealthy quake and liberal Jews who owned houses, of 1570. courts, or enclosed gardens, opened them and received every one who came, so that some of them harbored no less than 100 strangers; they cared for the needs of the poor, pro- vided fuel for them, and clothed and fed them” (Joseph ha-Kohen, “‘Emek ha-Bakah ”), The Jews felt themselves so closely connected with the house of Este that when in 1581 Princess Leonora, the friend of Tasso, fell sick, they offered public prayers in the synagogue for her recovery. She herself was a friend of the Jews and repeatedly protected them. Her husband, Alfonso II., also showed his good will toward them; during the famine of 1590 he dis- tributed bread among 2,000 Jews and 200 Spanish and Portuguese Maranos. The prosperous condition of the Jews, which rested on the favor of the ruling prince, came to an end when, in 1597, the last Este died without teav- ing any direct male heir. The pope claimed the duchy, and received it after a short resistance, Car- dinal Pietro Aldobrandini taking charge of it in be- half of the Curia. Amidst the shouts of rejoicing which greeted the papal legate upon entering the city, the cry was heard: “Down with the Jews!” Great anxiety took possession of the community, especiaily the Maranos, who dreaded the rule of the 367 pope; and about one-half of the Ferrara Jews mi- grated to Modena, Venice, and Mantua, so that the census of 1601 showed only 1,530 Jews in a total population of 32,860. The new ruler, however, proved himself more just than the Jews had anticipated. The cardinal soon became convinced of the importance of the Jews for the commerce and industry of the city; and he granted to the Maranos a respite of five years, which he had obtained with great difficulty from the pope. On Feb. 17, 1598, was issued a constitution which provided that the Jews in the city and duchy of Ferrara were to be tolerated only on condition that, commencing with May 24, both men and women wore the Jews’ badge. Permission to engage in trade was renewed; but the farming of taxes, the keeping of animals, and the acquisition of real estate were prohibited. Within five years all property in the hands of Jews was to be sold—a provision which was carried out in 1602. The number of synagogues was limited to one for each rite; and for the per- mission to sustain them the Jews had to pay a tax to the House of Catechumens. They were allowed to have only one cemetery (public obsequies be- ing entirely prohibited), and to use Hebrew books only when provided with the imprimatur of the cen- sor. Every new arrival had to report himself to the authorities within three days. Lending money on interest and banking were forbidden to the Jews, being permitted to the monte di pictaé exclusively, This provision, however, failed as early as 1599; and the excited population was quieted only when the Jews were again allowed to open banks, a privilege which remained in force till 1683. Other enactments tending to mortify the Jewsand to lower them in the eyes of the populace were issued, and finally the severest measure which the papacy ever ] “ Die Schlacht von Pavia. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Pagel, Biographisches Lexikon. 4 \ BIBLIOGRAPHY : Gritz, Gesch. 3d ed., x. 29,35; Theodore Crei- | 8. F. T. H. zenach. in Mittheilungen des vere a G pel ale cian isi ae Gone Rencaien Ih Gee fOr Gem der den | Fe OSt, KARL: German jurist; son of the in Deutschland, iv, 127-169, 319-365; v. 1-26: Schudt, Jé- | chief rabbi of Bamberg; born at Bamberg Oct. 9, dische Merckwiirdigkeiten, 1715, ii. 51, iii. 9-62, Kriegk, | 1798; died at Firth Aug. 19, 1872. Having been destined for a rabbinical career, he received a Talmudic education. At the age of fifteen he en- 1871; David Gans, Zemah Dawid, pp. 191-192, Warsaw, 1890. Gesch.v. Frankfurt-a.-M. pp.237-417, Frankfort-on-the-Main, D. M. SEL. | Fez Fiametta tered the Bamberg gymnasium, In 1818 he went to the University of Wiirzburg, where he studied first philology, and later law, and whence be grad- uated as ductor of law in 1822, Unwilling to change his religion in order to gain admittance to the bar, he became editor of the “ Aachener Zeitung.” A few years Jater he was appointed to a minor office at the sudicial court in Bamberg. In 1831 he removed to Firth, and became the secretary of the Jewish com- munity, In 1848 he was finally admitted to the bar, and became a counselor at Fiirth. . Feust devoted himself to writing on jurisprudence, the most im- portant of his works being a translation of the eigh- teenth, thirty-ninth, and forty-ninth books of the “Pandects,” (ed. Karl Sintenis, 1834). In 1868, on his seventieth birthday, the King of Bavaria created him a knight of the Order of Michael. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Allg. Zeit. des Jud. 1872, pp. 979-980. g, M. K. FEZ (75, DD, DNB; Arabic, Fas): Capital of the province of Fez in the sultanate of Morocco; built in the year 808 by Imam Idris IT., who founded in Morocco the first Shiite state. A. small wadi, known under various names, divides the city into two parts, Old Fez, containing the palace and the “Mellah” or Jewish quarter, and New Fez, which contains the bulk of the modern city. Idris, finding that his nomadic subjects were thoroughly averse to a town life, colonized his new capital with 8,000 Andalusians and a number of Jews; the latter must have been numerous even at this early date, since he sought their aid in his rebellion against the ruling king, Muhadi. The Jews re- eeived from Idris a special quarter, the Mel- lah, aud thence- forth paid a spe- cial tax of 80,000 denarii annually in lieu of mili- tary service. A similartax exists in Morocco to the present day. The Mellah has high walls anda single gate; itis very dirty and unsanitary. First mention of the Jews of Fez is found in Ju- dah ibn Kore- ish’s letter on Targum study, which was ad- dressed to them about 900. As several teshubot show, they communicated with the Geonim. The civil and political liberties of the Jews were restricted hy the Pact of Omar, and after the capture of Fez by Yusuf ibn Tashtin in 1070 these restrictions were rigidly enforced over all North Africa. In 1145 Fez fell into the hands of ‘Abd al-Mu’min, the fol- THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Group of Jews at Fez. (From a photograph by Count S. Adelman.) 380 lower of the fanatical Mohammed ibn Tumart, and an era of persecution began. On the capture of Morocco in the following year the Jews were given the alternative of conversion or banishment. Manv fled toItaly, Spain, and Palestine, R. Jehudab. Abun b. Abbas among them; the majority adopted the semblance of Islamism. It was during this time that the martyrdom is re- corded of Judah ha-Kohen ibn Susan. From 1152 to 1165 Maimonides’ father, with his family, sought refuge in Fez from the persecutions at Cordova, attracted thither by the scholarship of Judah ha- Kohen. In 1275 the mob attacked the Mellah, and forty Jews were slain, after which Moors were forbidden to enter the Jewish quarter. The emir laid out New Fez, where the Jews were permitted to dwell, and where they still reside. With the inauguration of the Spanish persecutions of 1391 the influx of Jews increased until, according to Bakuwi, a geographer of the fifteenth century, they formed a majority of the population. Under the merciful government of Maula Shaikh fugitives from Spain found a resting-place here, Some years later a great persecution took place, accompanied by pil- Jage and massacre, the king and his favorite Aaron falling victims tothe fury of the mob. But the next king allowed the pseudo-Mohammedans to return to their faith under certain conditions, which are still in force: they were forbidden to wear leather shoes, to ride on horseback through the city, or to carry arms. In addition to these restrictions the earlier decree of Mansur ordering that Jews should wear black mantles and Jewesses yellow mantlesand veils, was enforced. At the time of the expulsion from Spain (1492) many Jews fled to Fez, but were ex- pelled by the natives, who feared an in- crease in the price ot provi- sions. Some ot the refugees died of starva- tion, the rest were enslaved by the popula- tion. but were later freed by a decree of the governor. Abu Sa‘id [II set apart for them a large district in the new city. The Arabic language, which had hitherto been spoken by the Jews, was now replaced by Spanish. At the beginning of the sixteenth century the Jew- ish population, according to Bernaldes, amounted to 10,000, according to Leo Africanus to 5,000, ac- cording to Mendoca to 1,000. In the first quarter of the century the Jews had an influential states- 381 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Fez Fiametta a a = ~~ —_—_—— er fs SG Pe ge, ee a ee ese man, Shumel al-Barensi, minister of the emir Sa‘id | a Talmud Torah attended by about 500 pupils, and al-Watas, by whom scveral Jews were admitted | twoschools founded by the Alliance in 1883 and 1899, to the royal court. In the struggle between the | attended respectively by 103 boys and 80 girls. A Merinids and the Sherifs a Spanish Jew, Samuel Al- | synod of six rabbis whose salaries are paid from the valensi, was a political partizan of the former. | meat-tax takes charge of the spiritual interests of The Jews of Fez also took part in the movement | theJews. There are no Jewish government officials. connected with the person of David Reubeni, who ; The Jews of Fez are by preference shoemakers and appears to have grocers. The been cheated in richer are mon- a transaction ey-lenders) The entered into by men wear cork- correspondence screw curls be- from Cairo with hind their ears, R. Cohen, a shave the head, writer of Fez, in and leave a pig- 1523. In 15382 tail pendent the Franciscan from the top. Andre of Spo- The women, who leto had a public are partly — se- disputation with cluded, wear aft- the Jews, but er marriage a being unable to black wig cov- make any con- ered with a ker- versions, he com- chicf. Women in mitted suicide. mourning wear Because of the a red head-ker- severe persecu- chief, leave the tions under Mu- feet bare, and lai Mohammed wear around the many Jewish mouth part of captives were the winding- brought to Fez sheet of the and there ran- Interior of a Jewish Residence at Fez. dead. Early somed by the (From a photograph by Count S, Adelman.) marriages are ‘community. the rule. After the defeat of the Portuguese at Al-Kasr in Fez has produced several writers. Prominent 1978, many Portuguese noblemen were sold as slaves | among them are the grammarians Dunash ibn to the Jews in Fez, who ranson ed and treated with | Labrat, and Judah b, David Hayyuj; Atrast. and kindness their former oppressors. In 1670 Fez | the Karaite Moses Alfasi and members of the Azulai was the asylum of the Jews of Sus, expelled by family, authors of various bibliographies of Jewish Mulai Arshid. In the reign of his successor, Ismail, | literature. Hayyim Azulai emigrated from Castile the Jews suffered greatly because of high taxes. | to Fez in 1492. Toward 1630 Vidal Zarfati, author When in 1780 Mulai Sidi Mohammed was slain | of “ Zuf Debash,” was chief rabbi of Fez, as was (ce. through the sedition of his son Mulai Yazid, the | 1755) Jacob ben Zur, author of “ Mishpat Zedakah.” latter persecuted the Jews because they had not | Fifteen years later the chief rabbi was Elijah Zarfati. helped him against his father... Houses and syna- | A former rabbi of Fez, Jacob ben Na‘im, became gogues were pillaged and the bones of the dead dis- | chief rabbi of Leghorn, where he died in 1800. interred. The condition of the Jewish community | prsriogRaprty: Ersch and Gruber, Encye. section i., parts 43-44, did not improve in the nineteenth century. In 1834 | a evi if ee oe a aa i. ea oe de a Jewish girl, a daughter of Sol Hachucl, was a Tosti, Brague, eles Inn Vers, shebet. Fentdiah, No. martyr to her faith, preferring death to becoming 30 5 a oe Jewish Chronicles, 1. 54, 106, 112 5 ii. the bride of the sultan. Her tomb became a place 179, 189, 191. 218; Josef ha-kohen, Sefer Dibre ha-Yamim, of pilgrimage. transl. by Bialloblotzky, ii., No. 1075, London, 1835; Samuet Romaneili, Wassc’, ed. Schiller-Szinessy, pp. 61, 63; Zedner, Outof a total estimated at from 100,000 to 130,000 Auswahl Histor. Stitcke, pp. 96, 220 et seq.; Kayserling, ‘ sl - $ y ’ Gesch. der Juden in Portugal, pp. 136, 218, 260; Moses Men- the Jewish population of Fez a few years ago was SY, ESSEC Sees Peer a Brtraite : ws : ° ~ ; sds Pe aes LANUSCripts GU NOL, Ih 5; Leo Africanus, Mescreplro 9.000 according to Balbi, 2,500 according to Mordt- Afric; Richardson, Travels in Moroceo, ii. 139 ct seq. mann, 8,000 according to Richardson, 10,000 accord- ng prin rasreiern ene we Marohko, a be ie : a eee ; Pietsch, Marokko, p. 175; Conring, Maroceo, p. 185; ing to Horowitz, ard 30,000 according to Meakin, Horowitz, Marokko, p. 188; Bulletin ‘All. Isr. 1900, p. 112; while the Alliance Israélite Universelle placed the ape pp. A 115 3 As ae AL G. au ue i ae oe o AL oie ‘ eke cae ‘ -2 XXXVI. LAU, XXXIX. 3105 J. GI. - ‘Wee s JQHTESDERICH és number at 12,000. Over 2,000 died recently in a Breslauer Seminars, 1894, p. 31; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. typhus epidemic, and their number is now esti- oe a oe Sey iy ne eat Poznanski, in mated at 8,000, most of whom live in New Fez. ee UR sense BAe aT Oe M. Sc. There are nineteen synagogues, many of which possess very old scrolls of the Law. They are mostly FEZ, DAVID OF. Sce Fez. named after their founders, as Keneset Jonathan FIAMETTA, JOSEPH BEN SOLOMON: Severo, or Keneset Rabbi Judah Attar. Fez possesses | Rabbi of Aucona, Italy; died in 1721. His name is Fichel Finance written variously: Wolf, in the Latin transcription of his name, gives “Flamneta”; Carmoly (“ Hist. des Médecins Juifs,” p. 287) has “ Piamita”; and Delitzsch (“Zur Geschichte der Jiidischen Poesie,” p. 74) gives “Piatita.” He was the father-in-law (Steinschneider says son-in-law) of Samson Mor- purgo,rabbiof Ancona. He wrote: “ Widdui,” atone- ment prayers of the Italian rite, included in the “ Tik- kun Shobabim ” of Moses Zacuto, Venice, 1712; “Or Boker,” containing prayers and selihot, Venice, 1709. He wrote also an approbation to Nehemiah Hayun’s “*Qz le-Elohim,” Berlin, 1718, and a panegyric poem on Abraham Cohen’s “ Kehunnat Abraham,” Venice, 1719. Among the Italian responsa there is one regarding communal taxation signed by Shab- bethai Panzieri and Joseph Fiametta. BIBLIOGRAPHY : Wolf, Bibl. Hebr. iii., No. 9’6c; First, Bibl. Jud. i. 279; Nepi-Ghirondi, Toledot Gedole Yisrael, pp. 32, 383; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 1460; Azulat, Shem ha-Gedolim, ii. 144; Mortara, Indice, p. 22. M. SEL. 8. 8. FICHEL, BENJAMIN-EUGENE: French painter; born in Paris Aug. 30, 1826; died there Feb. 7, 1895. After essaying historical painting he turned his attention to producing small genre pic- tures in the style of Meissonier, though he was a pupil of Paul Delaroche. These he executed with great skill in technique, historic correctness of cos- tume being a characteristic feature of his composi- tions. He received the Cross of the Legion of Honor in 1870. Some of his genre paintings were exhibited in Munich in 1879. “L’Arrivée 4 l’ Auberge,” one of his best works, has been since 1863 in the posses- sion of the Luxembourg museum at Paris; “La Joueuse de Luth” is in the Stettin museum. Other works: “Le Numismate”; “Le Joueur du Vio- lon”; “Une Féte Foraine en 1776”; “La Capture Yun Espion”; “Le Savetier et le Banquier”; “La Belle Marchande ” ; “ Une Partie d’Echecs”; “Chan- teurs Ambulants”; “Le Rapport au Général”; “La Derniére Acquisition du Maitre.” Among his his- torical genre paintings may be named: “Le Duc de Choiseul chez ?Abbé Barthélemy”; “La Nuit du 24 Aodit 1572”; “Fondation de )’Académie Fran- caise ”; “ Bonaparte et Eugéne Beauharnais ”; “ Dau- benton dans Son Laboratoire”; “ Lacépéde Ecrivant Y’ Histoire des Poissons.” Fichel’s wife, née Jeanne Samson, a pupil of her husband, has exhibited at the Salon since 1878. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Singer, Ahinstler-Lex. vol. i., 8.v.: Larousse, Diet. lst Supplement, p. 817; 2d Supplement, p. 1248. S. N. D. FIDANQUE, JACOB BEN ABRAHAM: English scholar; died at London in 1701. He was one of the first Jews after the Return to busy him- self with the study of rabbinic literature. He is the author of notes on the commentary to the Earlier Prophets by Isaac Abravanel, published with the text, Hamburg, 1686. Fidanque revised and published a second edition of the “ Miklal Yoti” by Solomon ben Melek, Amsterdam, 1685. BIBLIOGRAPHY: First, Bibl. Jud. 1. 200; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. No. 1211; Zedner, Cat. Hebr. Books Brit. Mus. p. 296. J. I. Br. FIELDS. See AGRARIAN Laws: LANDLORD AND TENANT, THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 382 FIG AND FIG-TREE: The fig-tree (Ficus Carica) and its fruit are designated in Hebrew by the same word, “te’enah” (Deut. viii. 8; Judges ix. 10; Num. xiii. 28; I Kings xx. 7); the plural, “te’enim,” indicating the fruit as distinct from the tree. Ac- cording to Lagarde (“ Mittheilungen,” i. 58 et seq.), the fact that the name is not found originally in any other Semitic language indicates that the fig is indigenous to the territory occupied by the Hebrew- Aramaic Semites (see also Guidi, “Della Scde Primitiva dei Popoli Semitici,” p. 35). *Te’enah” is the common term for “fig”; in a special sense, however, it denotes the figs which ripen in An- gust and form the largest crop. The early figs, appearing in March or April and ripening in June, are called “bikkurah.” In the Revised Version this word, in accordance with its etymology, is uniformly rendered by “first ripe fig” (Isa. xxviii. 4; Micah vii. 1; Hosea ix. 10). The early fig was considered a great delicacy by the Hebrews. The late or green figs, which sometimes ripen after the fall of the leaf, and occasionally remain on the tree during the win- ter months, are called “pag,” whence the Greek Budoay” (“the house of green figs”). They are al- luded to in Cant. ii. 18, where the Vulgate rightly translates “paggeha” by “ grossos suos,” ?@.¢., “its green figs.” The term “kayiz,” primarily meaning “the harvest of fruits” and “summer fruits” (Jer. xlvili. 82; Isa. xvi. 9), is sometimes used for the fig itself, probably for the late fig (I Sam. xvi. 1; Amos viii. 12). The fig was one of the principal fruits of Pales- tine, even before the entrance of the Hebrews into the Promised Land (Num. xiii. 28). Figs were sometimes dried and pressed into cakes, called “de- belah” on account of theirround shape. These were used as food (I Sam. xxx. 12) and as a remedy for boils (II Kings xx. 7; Isa. xxxviil. 21), “Fig leaves ” are mentioned as the material of the “aprons” of Adam and Eve (Gen. iii. 7), these leaves being larger than those of any other Palestinian tree. The fig-tree was associated with the vine as an emblem of peace and prosperity (Micah iv. 4; Isa. xxxvi. 16). On the other hand, the failure of the fig-crop and the destruction of the fig-tree were re- garded as a misfortune and as a punishment from God (Ps. cv. 83). In Jotham’s parable (Judges ix.) the fig is distinguished for its sweetness and good fruit. BIBLIOGRAPHY: P. Bourdais, Flore de la Bible, Paris, 1879; ne Psu, The Natural History of the Bible, London, E. G. i. H. H. FIGAH (73°5): River in the Damascene, affluent of the Barada (the Biblical “Abana”). “ Figah” comes from the Greek w7y7, and is still to be found in the name “‘Ain Fijah,” the chief source of the Barada. Reland has identified it with Pliny’s “Pagida” (“Palestina.” i. 290), and Schwarz, wrongly, with the Biblical Pharpar (“Das Heilige Land,” p. 81). The Figah is spoken of in the Mishnah (Parah viii. 10) as a troubled stream, the water of which was unfit for sacrificial uses. Nevertheless, it is supposed to be one of the four rivers which surround Palestine (B. B. 74b). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Neubauer, Géographie du Talmud, p. 32. G. M. SEL. 383 FIGO(PIGO), AZARIAH BEN EPHRAIM : Preacher at Venice; died at Rovigo 1647. Figo was an excellent scribe, and the scrolls which he wrote are highly prized. He was the author of “Tegerot u-Teshubot,” letters and responsa, pub- lished in a similar work entitled “Be’er Sheba‘,” Venice, 1614; “Giddule Terumah,” a casuistic com- mentary on Samuel ha-Sardi’s “Sefer ha-Terumot,” ib, 1643; “Binah la-‘Ittim,” seventy-five sermons for Saturdays and holidays (¢. 164'7-48), a work which went through many editions and is still very popular with Eastern Jews. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Azulai, Shem ha-Gedolim, i. 77: Berliner, fahot_Abanim, p. 131, Frankfort-cn-the-Main, 1881; First, Bibl. Jud. i. 280. Ss. 8. M. SEL. FILEHNE. Sce POSEN. FILIPOWSKI (PHILLIP), HIRSCH: Math- ematician, linguist, and editor; born at Wirballen, Russia, 1816; died in London, England, July 22, 1872. At an early age he showed great aptitude for the study of mathematics and languages, and was fortunate in finding a Polish schoolmaster who secretly aided him in acquiring the rudiments of a modern education. In 1839 he emigrated to Lon- don. Here he was at first employed as teacher in a Jewish school, at the same time preparing him- self for his future career as a mathematician and au- thor. His first work was “Mo‘ed Mo‘adim,” on the Jewish, Karaite, Christian, and Mohammedan cal- endars, with tables from the Creation to tlic year six thousand (London, 1846; republished 1863). In 1847 he edited a Hebrew anuual, “ Ha-Asif,” containing various essays on Hebrew literature and mathemat- ics (London and Leipsic, 1849). He edited for the Jewish Antiquarian Society the “Mibhar ha-Peni- nim” of Ibn Gabirol; appended to it is “Megillat Anteyukas,” Aramaic text, with Hebrew and Eng- lish translations by the editor (London, 1851). He edited also: “Sefer ha ‘Ibbur,” by Abraham ben Hiyya (London, 1851); “Sefer Mazref la-Kescf,” by Azariah dei Rosst (Edinburgh, 1854); “ Mahberet,” by Menahem ben Saruk (London, 1854); “ Teshubot Dunash bern Labrat,” with critical notes by Dukes and Kirchheim (London, 1855); “Sefer Yuhasin ha- Shalem,” by Abraham Zacuto, with notes by Jacob Emden (London, 1857). Appended to the last- mentioned work are: (1) Josephus, “Contra Apio- nem”; (2) “Binyan Herodes,” a description of Herod’s Temple; (8) “Jggeret Rab Sherira Gaon” ; (4) “Iggeret Abraham Farissol,” on the Ten Tribes; (5) “Iggeret Yehoshua‘ ben Nun.” Filipowski was also employed as an actuary at Edinburgh. In this capacity he published a work on “ Anti-Logarithms” (1849), which established his hame among mathematicians. In 1857 he trans- lated Napier’s “Canon of Logarithms” from the Latin into English, and in 1864-66 he edited Baily’s “Doctrine of Life Annuities and Assurance.” In 1862 he designed a font of Hebrew type with the vowel-points attached to the letters, from which a pocket edition of a Hebrew prayer-book was printed, containing also an English translation by him. In 1867 he founded the “Hebrew National,” a journal Which lived but six months. His last work was a pamphlet entitled “Biblical Prophecies” (London, THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Fichel Finance 1870), on the Jewish position in regard to the Biblical prophecies and the Messiah. In appreciation of his services to antiquarian research he was elected a fel- low of the Antiquarian Society, and for his actuarial work a fellow of the Society of Actuaries. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Goldberg, in Ha-Maggid, 1872, pp. 580 et seq.: idem, Bet Ozar ha-Sifrut, i. 72-74; First, Bibl. Jud. iii. 85; Zeitlin, Bibl. Post-Mendels. pp. 83-85. M. B. H.R, FINANCE: The supplying of capital for large undertakings, a characteristic of modern forms of commerce. As distinguished from the more passive side of banking, the reception of deposits, it may be described as the active aspect of a banker’s opera- tions. The earliest beginnings of finance are probably to be found in the money-lending of the Middle Ages (see Ustry). In the modern form, however, the ori- gin of financial operations came with the need of large sums to supply the armies of the Hapsburgsand the Valois in the sixteenth century (see Ehrenburg, “Zeitalter der Fugger”). Jews had nothing to do with this except in so far as the Antwerp firm of Mendes may have assisted Charles V. It was only with the gradual accumulation of capital in Jewish hands during the seventeenth and eighteenth cen- turies, when such capital was toacertain extent free from government interference, that any Jewish ac- tivity in finance began. The court Jews of Ger- many, who had acquired a certain amount of capi- tal by the purchase of loot during the Thirty Years’ war, and the Jewish frequenters of the Amsterdam bourse (of which the London exchange is only a “ filial”) in the eighteenth century, were the earliest examples of Jewish financiers. When Napoleon captured Holland, the financial center of the Anti-Napoleonic league was trans- ferred to Frankfort-on-the-Main, where the house of Rothschild obtained its prominent position in the financial world. With the peace of 1815 came the beginnings of international finance, in which industrial operations in one country were assisted by loans from financiers of other countries. The Jews, through their inter- national position, were the first tocombine into syn- dicates for such purposes, and the earlier stages of national loans and the larger industrial operations —especially those relating to railways—were largely financed by means of Jewishcapital. Even in cases where, as in England and the United States, there were large bodies of capitalists ready to advance money, the actual operation was often conducted by means of Jewish firms. The practise initiated by the Rothschilds of having several brothers of a firm establish branches in the different financial centers was followed by other Jewish financiers, like the Bischofisheims, Pereires, Seligmans, Lazards, and others, and these financiers by their integrity and financial skill obtained credit not alone with their Jewish confréres, but with the banking frater- nity in general. By this means Jewish finan- ciers obtained an increasing share of international finance during the middle and last quarter of the nineteenth century. The head of the whole group was the Rothschild family, for whose operations see ROTHSCHILD. Of more recent years non-Jewish financiers have learned the same cosmopolitan Finance Finder of Property THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 384 method. and, on the whole, the coutrol is now rather less than more in Jewish hands than formerly. For further details see the respective countries and BANKING. There is no evidence that Jewish financiers of one country, or of all countries, are in any sense com- bined to form one fund for financial operations. On the contrary, Jewish firms compete very Keenly with one another, and the more ambitious among the smaller firms are always combining to divert business from the larger and older institutions. Still, the existence of branches of various firms in different countries often enables them to obtain the assistance of forcign Jewish capital in any large operations to this extent. As regards the special directions in which Jewish finance has been directed, during the first half of the nineteenth century state and muni- cipal loans in Europe were largely in Jewish hands. The Sterns and Gold- smids, for example, financed Portugal almost exclusively. In railways, however, Jewish activity was not so prominent, though Baron de Hirsch in Turkey, the Rothschilds in France, Strousberg in Rumania, Poliakoff and Speyer & Co. in Russia, and more recently Kulin, Loeb & Co. in the United States, have been important factors in railway financing. Jewish financial interests have rarely been connected with industrials, except as re- gards some of the precious stones and metals, the Rothschilds controlling mercury, Barnato Bros. and Werner, Beit & Co. diamonds, and the firms of Lewisohn Brothers and Guggenheim Sons control- ling copper, and to some extent silver. Perhaps the most important operation financed by Jewish capi- tal in recent years has been the great dam of the Nile. the capital for which was furnished by Sir Ernest Cassel. It is, however, mainly in the direc- tion of foreign loans that there has been any definite predominance of Jewish financiers, this being due, as before stated, to the international relations of the larger Jewish firms. It is clear from the above account that Jewish financiers could not have had much influence on the various crises of the last thirty years, as has often been charged against them by anti-Semitic writers. Such crises have almost invariably been caused by overspeculation in industrials, in which Jewish capital has rarely been invested. It is for this rea- son that they appear to be rarely affected by such occurrences as the “Krach ” of 1878 in Germany, or the Baring panic of 1893 in England, which was tided over mainly by the influence of the Roths- childs. Indeed, the history of Jewish finance has been remarkably free from any tendency to rash speculation. The namesof Mires in France, Strous- berg in Germany, and Baron Grant in England are almost the oniy examples of reckless speculation on a large scale among Jews, though the operations of Special Activity. Baron de Hirsch are stated to have been sometimes - characterized by remarkable financial audacity, only justified by success. As contrasted with the gen- eral run of dealers in capital, Jews have shown them- selves especially cautious, and no case is known of any large “corner” having been attempted by Jewish financiers. ———— Here it is only necessary to refer to one particular organization with which Jewish financiers have been especially connected. The stock exchange finds its function in modern capitalism in “ma- The king a market ” for all kinds of securi- Stock ties. Here, undoubtedly, Jews have Exchange. takena prominent part, though at first sight their numbers do not scem to be exceptionally large. Inthe London Stock Exchange they were only 5 per cent in 1885 (Jacobs, “Stud- ies in Jewish Statistics,” p. 38), and in that of New York the Jews appear to have only 128 out of the 1,150 members—a Httle more than 10 per cent; whereas Jews form at least 20 per cent. of the whole population of New York, and much more than that percentage of the business section. But on closer examination it is found that the majority of these are concentrated in the foreign market; and here undoubtedly the Jews fill a particular function, that is, in accommodating prices in interuational finance. It has been stated that nearly 60 per cent of the members of the foreign market at Frankfort, and nearly as many at Berlin, are of Jewish origin. The Prussian law against options was declared to be influenced by anti-Semitic desire to undermine the preponderating influence of Jews on these mar- kets; but as their activity was mainly connected with the Foreign Exchange or Arbitrage Market, the law was ineffective, and is about to be repealed. The activity of Jews in this latter direction is in- timately connected with their work as foreign ex- change-brokers, the movement of the precious metals throughout the world being largely directed by Jewish hands, and the rate of exchange between one country and another being largely determined by them. It is only in this direction that there can be any mention made of Jewish finance as such. The chief Jewish firms of financial importance, be- sides the Rothschilds, are those of Camondo, Fould, . Pereire, and Bischoffsheim in Paris; Montague, Sassoon, and Stern in London; Bleichréder, War- schauer, and Mendelssohn in Berlin; Ginzburg in Russia; and Kuhn, Loeb & Co., Seligman, and Lazard in the United States. The members of some of these firms have terminated their connection with the Jewish faith, but still maintain connections with their Jewish relations, It is characteristic of these and of most Jewish financial firms that they do not lose their identity in joint-stock companies, but re- tain personal control of the business. Besides these, there are many other banking firms which have no specific family beads but are mainly controlled by Jews and run by Jewish capital, as, for instance, the Dresdner Bank, the Handels Gesellschaft, and National Union Bank of Berlin, and the Crédit Mobiier of Paris. BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. Sombart, Der Moderne HKapitalismus, Leipsic, 1902, J FINCKENSTEIN, RAPHAEL: German phy- sician and poet; born at Breslau Nov. 10, 1828; died there July 31, 1874. He was educated at the gym- nasium and the university of his native town, re- ceiving the degree of doctor of medicine in 1850. The same year he established himself as a physician in Breslau, and in 1854 became at the university 385 a TOON EAOS Y 1 11 Oona RRND Ne privat-docent in the history and geography of medi- cine and in epidemiology. He contributed to the medical journals many essays on his specialty, and is the author of several works, among which may be mentioned “ De Furori- bus Epidemicis,” Breslau, 1858; and “ Zur Geschichte der Syphilis die Aeltesten Spanischen Nachrichten iiber Diese Krankheit und das Gedicht des Francesco Lopez de Villalobos vom Jahre 1498,” 7. 1870. Finckenstein also wrote: “Dichter und Aerzte,” Breslau, 1868; and “ Bei Saarbriicken,” 1870, a one- act play, which was very successful on the German stage. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Pagel, Biog. Lez’. s.v., Vienna, 1901. 8. F. T. H. FINDER OF PROPERTY: In law he who finds and takes up lost goods acquires thereby a special ownership as first occupant against all the world excepting the true owner. The duty, how- ever, to seek out the true owner and to restore the lost things to him ts imposed on the Israelite, first as to lost cattle or beasts of burden, and then in more general terms as follows: “and thus shalt thou do to his garment: and thus shalt thou do to all the lost property of thy brother which is lost from him and thou mayest find, thou canst not withdraw thyself” (Deut. xxii. 1-3, Hebr.). Thus the law of things lost and found falls into two parts: (1) respecting the person who is the true finder and gains the qualified ownership; (2) defi- ning his duties to the owner. The latter part is more a question of morals and of conscience than of right to be determined by the courts. This is aside from the question arising in regard to lost and found documents. 1. The first part of the law has been developed by the rabbinical authorities without the aid of Scriptural texts. The qualified ownership depends in the main upon such acts of occupation as in the case of a purchase would vest title in the buyer— vZ.ée., upon the “kinyan” (acquisition), fully ex- plained under ALIENATION AND ACQUISITION. In- animate things are “found” by seizing them, not by secing them (B. M.i.), while domestic animals are “acquired ” by leading or pulling them (26. Mishnah, ij. 3,4). Things may also be found by dependents: everything found by a man’s minor children, his wife, or his bondmen belongs to him (26. v. 5). 2. There are special laws relating to the finding of lost writings, it being enjoined, on grounds of public policy, that certain classes shall not be re- turned to their owners. Foremost among these are bonds for debt. The sages, overruling the opin- ion of R. Meir, say such bonds should not be re- turned, though they contain no lien clause; for the court might declare the absence of Lost Deeds. such a clause a mere mistake of the scrivener, and might thus enforce the bond against innocent purchasers of the debtor’s land, after the amount of it had been paid off and the document lost or thrown away by the debtor. In the case of a bill of divorce, a deed of manumis- sion, a last will, a deed of gift, or an acquittance, the finder should not return the document; for it is probable that after it had been written the grantor, V.—25 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Finance Finder of Property re ate. donor, etc., decided not to put it in force. A letter of APPRAISEMENT, however, a grant of alimony, a deed attesting a halizah or refusal (a woman’s re- fusal to ratify a marriage concluded for her in infancy; see Mr’tn), a deed for selection of arbiters, or any other judicial writing—all these the finder should return. Writings found ina pocketbook, ina writing-case, or in a bundle of deeds should be returned; that is, when three or more are tied to- gether (¢b.8; compare Gemara ad loc.). Deeds or bonds found among a man’s own papers but which he can not account for must be left there; that is, must not be returned to the parties mentioned in the deeds or the bonds, unless they bear some in- dorsements or riders for his guidance (¢d.). The finder must, as a rule, advertise (“hakriz ”) for the true owner. But some things which can hardly be identified, and which the owner has presumably “given up in despair” (“yi’esh”), the finder may keep with- out advertising, e.g., grain, fruits, or Finds to Be copper coins scattered about, small Advertised. sheaves on the common thrashing- ground, round cakes of figs, etc. But when articles even of this cluss contain anything thac distinguishes them they must be advertised; for in- stance, if there is a piece of pottery among the figs. Fowls tied together by their wings, found be. hind a hedge or behind a stone fence or on the foot- paths of a field, must not be touched; for should they be removed and advertised, the owner would have no means of identifying them. Articles found covered up in a dung-heap must not be taken; for they are evidently not lost, but hidden away. Things found in a very old wall or stone-heap may be kept, for they probably belonged, if found in the Holy Land, to the ancient Canaanites, or to one of some other forgotten nation. I[f found in a new wall, and in the outer half of the wall’s thickness, they belong to the finder; if in the inner half, to the master of the house. In the former case it is sup. posed that some one passing on the highway has placed them in the wall. Things found before the counter in a store are the property of the finder, having presumably been dropped by a customer; what is found behind the counter belongs to the storekeeper; and so with a money-changer. The Scripture text, it is explained, names specific- ally a garment, because it is the best type of an article that can be identified and for which an owner is apt to look; hence every found article which has these two characteristics must be advertised by the finder. Nothing can be legally found that has not first been lost. A cow or an ass which is grazing along the highway is not lost; an ass with his gear hanging upside down or a cow grazing in the vineyards is lost; and the finder lies under the duty, enjoined by Scrip- ture (Deut. xxii. 1-2), of returning the beast; and though it runs off even four or five times, he must still bring it back, and he must not charge more for his time than a workman out of employment would be willing to take for the time occupied in suchatask. If the lost article is in a large basket Garments Typical. Finder of Property Finland THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 386 or sack, and the finder is an old gentleman whose _ dignity would suffer by carrying it along the street or road, he is excused from carrying it himself to the owner; but he should notify him of his find. As regards the use of anything found, a beast that “works and eats” should be set to working and eat- ing while it waits for the true owner; one that eats and does not work should be sold, and the pro- ceeds laid away. The rules in detail as to the time and mode of keeping sundry kinds of animals can not be here discussed. Where money is raised by the sale of lost and found things, the finder may use the mouey, but in any event he is responsible for its loss; but when money itself is lost and found he should keep it unused; and he is not responsible as a hired keeper would be, except for negligence. Such is also the liability four goods still unclaimed. He who finds books should read from them once in thirty days; if he can not read, he should turn them over at such intervals; but he should not use them for study, nor let another man read with him. He who finds coverings (¢.g., bedspreads) should shake and spread them out once in thirty days—not by way of display on his own behalf, but for better preserva- tion. Silver and copper vessels the finder may put to use, but not so as to wear orinjure them. Vessels of gold and glass he should not touch at all. According to the Mishnah (zd. ii. 6), under the prevailing opinion of R. Judah, the advertisement —of course, by word of mouth—is to be continued for the three festivals (Passover, Weeks, Booths) next following, and for seven days thereafter, Dur- ing the days of the Temple this was done with a view to the possibility of the owner being absent on a pil- grimage to Jerusalem; but by an “in- Mode stitution ” made by the sages after the of Adver- Temple’s fall, announcement was to tisement. be made fora shorter time in the syna- goguesand housesof study. At times when men of violence (Q°D3N) claimed all things lost and found as perquisites of the crown, the finder would be justified in doing no more than telling the fact to all his neighbors and acquaintances (see Bertinoro on the Mishnah, @.c.; Shulhan ‘Aruk, Hos- hen Mishpat, 267, 3). The announcement is made in very general terms, such as: “ Who has lost coins [or garments, or a do- mestic animal], let him come and describe the marks of identification.” These marks: should be very clear, or the property should not be given up; and if the applicant is known as a cheat, it should not be delivered to him unless he brings witnesses. In lat- ter days, when cheats became numerous, the courts adopted the rule of calling on the applicant for wit- nesses as to his good character; otherwise, besides describing identifying marks, he would have to prove hisownership by witnesses. Between an applicant who describes the identifying marks on a found arti- cle and one who proves his ownership by witnesses, the latter prevails. The active duty of the finder to take care of lost goods and to return them to the owner (“of thy brother,” Deut. xxii. 3), imposed by the words of Scripture, applics only when the owner is an Israel- ite; in fact, no aid is to be given to an idolater by such service. However, if the finder treats a Gentile fairly (“to sanctify the Name”) by impressing the outside world with the honesty of Israel, he deserves praise. An Israelite who denies his faith or defies the Law is not entitled to the finder’s active care and work in returning lost property. For the sake of peace, where a Gentile leaves his implements at night in the open air, Israelites ought to take them under cover to save them from thieves (Yer. Git. v.). If the Gentile or infidel learns of the whereabouts of his goods, his title is not affected by his status, BIBLIOGRAPHY: Mishnah B. M. i., ii.; Gemara on same; Yad, Gezelah, xi.-xviii.; Shuihan ‘Aruk, Hoshen Mish- pat, 259-271. 8, 8, L. N. D. FINES AND FORFEITURE (p3p): A fine or forfeiture, in the sense either that a sum of money is to be paid, or that the whole or a part of a man’s property is to be turned over to the king or com- monwealth by way of punishment for an offense, is unknown to Jewish law as understood by the sages. The genera! forfeiture of estate, in the case of polit- ical offenders put to death by the king’s government, was a controverted point among the Rabbis, Ac- cording to some rabbis the estate went to the king; but it seems that there was no real tradition con- erning the matter, as the only precedent cited in connection with this controversy is the case of Na- both in I Kings xxi. 18 (Sanh. 48b; compare Tosef., ab. 4). The payment of a fixcd sum is in some cases imposed by the Mosaic law upon a wrong-doer; but the money is paid to the injured party or his repre- sentative, not to the sovereign or the community. Four cases are given in the Torah in which a fixed sum (the “mulcta” of Roman law) is to be paid by the wrong-doer to the injured party: (1) where an ox whose owner has been forewarned kills the bondman or bondwoman of another, in which case the mulct is thirty shekels (see SHEKEL), to be paid to the master (Ex. xxi. 32); (2) where a man rav- ishes a damsel (A Ys) who is not betrothed, the mulct being fifty shekels, payable to the damsel's father (Deut. xxii. 29); (3) where a newly married husband untruly accuses his wife of having lost her virginity before marriage, the mulct being a hundred shekels (Deut. xxii. 19); (4) where a girl is seduced, the amount of the mulct, given by inference only (Ex. xxii. 16), being fifty shekels. Cases 2 and 4 are fully treated in the Mishnah (Ket. iii. 1-4). The ravisher and seducer are on the same footing as to the mulct, though not as to the time and circumstances of payment, Case 8, thatof him who “brings out anevil name,” is the only one in which an offender gets a twofold punishment, paying a fine and receiving forty stripes. As mentioned elsewhere, fines or mulcts may only be imposed by a court made up wholly of ordained judges. Maimonides, dealing with law already ob- solete in bis day, treats the subject in his “ Yad” as follows: Case 1 in Hilkot Nizke Mamon; 2 and 4 in Na‘arah Betulah, 1, 10 e¢ seg.; 3 in Na‘arah, 3. ° While neither Bible nor Mishnah knows aught of a fine payable to the community, a jurisdiction grew up in the Diaspora by which the rabbinical courts in an emergency would inflict fines, payable into some communal funds, for some crying public 387 offense (Shulhan ‘Aruk, Hoshen Mishpat, 2); for instance, on men keeping false scales, weights, or measures, and like (2d. 281, 2). 8. 8. L. N. D. FINGER (Hebr. yayx, pl. myayx; Aramaic, yay or NyI4): One of the digits. In the Bible the term JY3SN is sometimes used in a figurative sense, denoting power, direction, or immediate agency. “Thy heavens, the works of thy fingers [of thy power],” says the Psalmist (Ps. viii. 3). “Tables of stone written with the finger [by the direction] of God” (Ex. xxxi. 18). On beholding the fourth plague, which they were unable to imitate, the ma- gicians said: “This is the finger [power] of God” (ib. viii. 19). The finger is mentioned in the Bible as a measure of length (Jer. Hi. 21). Putting forth the finger was an insulting gesture (Isa. lviii. 9)— probably the thumb between the first and middle fingers. Although each finger must have had a special designation, the names of only three are found in the Bible: (41) pass, which, besides being a common name, means especially the index-finger; (2) 72, the thumb (in the Mishnuh, Sa, Sy3, sono) ; and (3) 1), the ear-finger. In the Talmud the names of the five fin- gers are: bsg, the thumb; p3ywy, the index-finger; mor, the middle finger; Aywwp, the ring-finger; and nv, the ear-finger. Normal fingersand toes consist, according to the Mishnah, of six joints (Oh. i. 8). The fingers form the subject of certain Talmudical laws relating to the priestly benediction (MN wo) ps5). Only those priests whose fingers were with- out blemish were allowed to deliver the blessing (Meg.iv.8). During its recital the priests stretched out the fingers (Sotah 39b); in post-Talmudical times, however, the custom was tu separate the fin- gers into pairs. A. figurative image representing this division is generally carved on the tombstones of priests (“kohanim”). In rabbinical literature ex- pressions in which the finger occurs are frequent. To inquire into the mysteries of God is to put the finger in one’s eye; so long as the finger remains therein the eye waters (“Batte Midrashim,” i. 13). To put the finger in one’s teeth is to give opportunity (Tosef., Nazir, iii. 287, §§ 2-6). “The finger of the heathen is therein,” or “he hasashare in it.” Simi- lar to the English expression “He has more wit m his little finger than you have in your whole body,” is the following, found in Ab. R. Natan (ed. Schech- ter, p. 59). “The finger of Eleazar ben ‘Arak out- weighs all the scholars together.” The Haggadah sets forth the great value of the fingers by inferring from the words of Lamech pro- nounced on the birth of Noah, “ This Hagegadic son shall comfort us... for the toil Teachings. of our hands” (Gen. vi. 29), that Noah was the first who was provided with fingers (cited from the Midrash Abkir by Isaac Judah ha-Levi in “ Pa‘aneah Raza,” ad loc.), Each finger of the right hand of God, says a haggadah, had a special mission to fulfil: the ear-finger in- structed Noah in the building of the ark; the ring- finger smote the Egyptians; the middle finger wrote the tablets of the Law; the index-finger showed the Names. THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA . part of Sweden. Finder of Property Finland form of the shekel to be employed; the thumb and the whole hand shall inflict punishment on Esau (Pirke R. El. xlviii.; Yalk., Gen. 158, 56d). According to a legend, Abraham was fed by the angel Gabriel, in the cavern where he was born, by being made to suck milk from his finger (Beer, “ Le- ben Abrahams,” pp. 3, 102). The same legend with some variations is current among the modern Arabs in the following form: In order to feed Abraham, God made water flow from one of his fingers; from another, milk; froma third, honey; from a fourth, juice of dates; and from the fifth, butter (Beer, /.¢.). A parallel is drawn by the cabalists between the ten fingers and the ten Sefirot. Because of this connection, says the “ Bahir,” the priests deliver the benediction with outstretched fingers (§ 48). Man should not stretch out his fingers, except in prayer or in the priestly benediction, because Cabalistic of the mysterious connection existing Views. between the ten fingers and the ten Sefirot (Zohar iii. 145a). The victory gained by Moses over Amalek through stretching out his hands is explained by the cabalists in this sense (Bahya, “ Wayehi,” 71d). In the midrashic lit- erature the ten fingers correspond to the Ten Com- mandments. Gershon ben Solomon and many other writers of the Middle Ages drew a parallel between the five fingers on each hand and the five senses. Each finger, according to them, stands in a natural connection with one of the senses, Among the Jews of Germany and Austria it is customary to bend the thumb of the dead toward the palm of the hand in the form of a Su- 3, and to draw over it the three middle perstitions. fingersin the form of a yw, and to bend the little finger in half as a», in order that the whole may represent the name of God ("y). In Russia and Palestine, among the Ashkenazim as well as among the Sephardim, it is customary to stretch out the fingers of the dead. But if the de- ceased was a prominent man, and there is a drought, the fingers are bent in order that he may be able to carry a paper containing a prayer for rain. The squeezing of the thumb was believed to be a remedy against theevil eye. “He who fears an evil eye,” says the Talmud, “let him put the thumb of the right hand into the left hand, and that of the left into the right” (Ber. 55b). The belief that the fingers have the power to cure maladies caused by the evil eye is still prevalent among the Sephardim in Palestine. Hands with outstretched fingers are painted on the outer walls of the houses to protect their inhabitants. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Low, Die Finger. in the Kaufmann Gedenk- buch; Krauss, in Zeitschrift fitr Ethnologie, xv. 89: Grun- wald.in Mittheilungen des Vereins fiir die Jtidische Volks- kunde, v. 66; Sefer Hasidim, p. 327. I. Br. s. 8, FINLAND: Russian grand duchy; formerly It has a small Jewish population, which finds itself in a somewhat peculiar position with regard to the law of the land. In 1772 Fin- land was stilla part of Sweden. The constitution granted to the Swedish kingdom in that year pro- vided that “the citizens must belong to the Lutheran Evangelical Church.” At that time the possibility Finland Finzi of the transfer of Finland frem Sweden to Russia had not been considcred. The clause was inserted for the protection of the country from Laws of the Catholic Church. On Jan. 26, 1779 and 1779, the Diet decided that the Jewish 1782. inhabitants (whose number did not ex- ceed 2,000) “will not be permitted to possess a synagogue except in the city of Stock- holm, and in two or three other large cities, where they can be under a more complete surveillance of the police.” On Jan. 25, 1782, the government passed a special regulation allowing the Jews to possess syn- agogues in Stockholm, Géteborg, and Malmdhus. They were also permitted to visit other towns, but for commercial purposes only. According to this regu- lation the Jews had no right of permanent residence in Finland. Notwithstanding this expressed pro- hibition of residence, a number of Jews have been living there for years, and no attempt has been made to rigidly enforce the old law. The following table shows the number and distribution of Jews in Fin- land at the census of 1885: | Adults. | Children.| Total. = —_— ae ed, Se en ee aos ti Pasi lors ics icc ysaas sige esis: | 168 293 461 "TRVASLGIUS: vivaagve.e6-octeine watecw st 14 17 31 TAMIMENIOVS:. 624559 Aeeieeteuades | 14 4 18 PRUs 5 2 dead acs RAR MONEE eRe 51 64 115 RCRA TORE. oy nko cen aarreawans | 68 92 160 (OEHEL. BIBCOS co c.deaaareaea cae naa | $7 101 188 POA eats aaa ahenvEvoaee | 402 571 973 Most of these were comparatively recent arrivals. In 1807 a law was passed by the government of Fin- land ordering all the Jews in Finland to settle in the cities, where they were allowed to re- side on securing passports as forcign- ers. There were at that time living in the country a number of Jewish families bearing Swedish names and recognized as Swedes. In 1862 a law concerning passports was enacted in Finland, by virtue of which Jews were permitted to travel in the country and to remain at places for a short time for commercial purposes; but they were absolutely forbidden to settle permanently in the country districts. In spite of this prohibition, Finland does possess a permanent Jewish population. An imperial de- cree dated March 29, 1858, granted to retired Rus- sian sailors and soldiers, as well as to the widows and children of such, the privilege of residing in Finland. Nodiscrimination was made as to religion, and it was assumed that the decree included retired soldiers and sailors of the Jewish faith. Further- more, tle officers of administration in Finland deemed it improper to call the imperial decree in question. Thus Finland came to have a Jewish population. Those in Finland who are opposed to the privilege of residence being granted to Jews claim that the decree of 1858 was not properl: interpreted. This decree grants to retired soldiers and sailors the right to become citizens. But since by an older law Jews were forbidden to become citizens of Finland, it is claimed that the decree of 1858 evidently ap- plies to Christians only, and that therefore it is Passport Law. THE JEWISIDE ENCYCLOPEDIA 388 Wegal for Jews to live iv Finland. In 1885 the leader of the political party in power gave this in terpretation to the decree in question, and he intro. duced in the Dict a resolution calling for an inves- tigation of the subject by the Russian government, or, Should that be impracticable, praying the gov- erument to enforce the regulation of 1782 until the following session of the Dict. The resolution was referred to a commission, which decided that it was desirable to strictly enforce the old regulation until final action by the Diet. In 1894 the Diet petitioned the emperor to confirm a law granting to native and domiciled Jews the right of citizenship, and to other Jews Regu- the privilege of trading in the country, lations of subject to the regulations concerning 1894. foreigners in general. The number of Jews classed as “native” or “domi- ciled” is very small, and applies to the Jewish sol- diers of the time of Nicholas I. No other Jews have a right to remain permanently in Finland. Excep- tion is made, however, in favor of the necessary re- ligious functionaries, as rabbis, shohetim, beadles of synagogues, and instructors in the Jewish religion. The regulation of 1894 has conferred on the Finn- ish Jews the following rights: (1) they have the same trading privileges as all other foreigners, ex- cept that of visiting the fairs; (2) they are granted annual instead of semi-annual passports; (8) they are allowed to live and trade only in the towns of Hel- singfors, Abo, and Wyborg; (4) their male children, even on marrying “foreign” Jewesses, do not lose the right of residence in Finland. In all there were in Finland in 1895 about 120 Jew- ish families (according to the “ Allg. Zeit. des Jud.” 1902, No. 16, 800 persons). Most of them are arti- sans and small traders. As artisans they compete successfully with both Finns and Russians. The recent persecution of the Finns by Russia has not in any way affected the status of the Jews of Finland. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Razsvyet, 1881, No.5; Sovremennyya Izvye- stiya, 1882, No. 30; Voskhod, 1885, No. 5; Russki Yevrei, 1884, No. 26. H. R. J. G. L. FINN, JULIUS: Russian-American chess- player; born April 28, 1871, at Vladislavovo, gov- ernment of Suwalki, Russian Poland; emigrated to the United States in 1887. Ata tournament played in the city of New York November, 1895, he won twenty-three games, losing two and drawing one. In 1901 he won the championship of New York state. Finn is perhaps the most successful Jewish blind- fold player; he engages in twelve simultaneous games with facility. H.R. A. P. FINTA: A Spanish term signifying a tax which is paid to the government. It is still used—for ex- ample, in London by the Spanish and Portuguese congregations to designate a part of their revenue, levied by assessors (“fintadores”) appointed for the purpose. Every two years the elders fix the entire amount to be raised as finta; and this the fintadores apportion among the individuals of the congrega- tion. The highest finta may not exceed £40, and the lowest may not be less than £1. There are mi- 389 pute regulations with regard to the finta and the election of the fintadores. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Ascamot ... of the Pa a taste of Span- ish and Portuguese Jews... » pp. d-d, 12 18-20, London, 1872; Israel Abrahanis, Jewish ‘Life in the Middle Ages, p 42, note 1. A. M. SEu. FINZI (y7°5, °¥35): An ancient Italian family, which probably derived its name from “ Pinehas,” through the Latin “Finea.” The remotest known bearers of the name of “ Finzi” were Musetino del fu Museto de Finzi di Ancona, who was con- cerned in establishing the first Jewish money-lend- ing office in Padua in 1969, and his sons Emanuel, Solomon, and Cajo, who bought real estate in 1380. Cajo is probably identical with the Isaac ben Moses Finzi who represented his congregation at the congress in Bologna in 1416. He seems to have been a scholar, for in a document of 1889 he is styled “magister gayus.” A Bible manuscript (Cod. Asher, No. 2) belonging to Solomon contains the genealogy of the Finzi family. After his death in 1421 the manuscript came into the hands of his son Abra- ham (d, 1446), and after him into the possession of his son Mordecai, a physician, who flourished at Mantua (1440-75), and who was distinguished also as mathematician and astronomer. The library of Turin contains many of his manuscripts. His as- tronomical tables were published at Mantua under the title “Luhot, Tabule Longitudinis Dierum,” probably before 1480. He also wrote glosses to Efodi’s Hebrew grammar, “ Hesheb ha-Efod.” Jo- seph Sarka, Efodi’s pupil, was hospitably received by the Finzis at Mantua. To this oldest branch of the Finzis probably be- longed the following: Judah Finzi, of Bologna: In 1399 he arranged the sale of a Bible. Benjamin Finzi, of Piacenza: Founder of a banking-house at Fanc in 1489. Judah ben Moses Finzi: Author of acommentary on Mor- decai Finzi’s “Seder Mo‘ed,” written at Ferrara in 1457 (Neubauer, “ Cat. Bodl. Hebr. MSS.” No. 1065). Isaac Finzi da Ascoli: Corresponded with Joseph Colon (Responsa, No. 171). Abraham Raphael Finzi da Bologna: Promoter of Hebrew literature, who had a copy made of a mauuscript, now at Ox- ford (No. 1229) and of MS. De Rossi, No. 1418; in 1449 he procured Codex Benzion 18. Hananiah Finzi ben Solomon, of Gazuolo near Mantua: Rabbi and poet. Hewas part owner in 1587 of a printing-office at Venice, which issued the second part of the Mah- zor Romi; his poems are contained in the collection “Kenaf Renanim.” David ben Uzziel Finzi: Rabbi at Mantua in 1721. His sermons, entitled “Shetah ha-Ohel,” of a cabalistic character, are still in manuscript. In1682he procured the manuscript now known as Oxford No. 1403. He was the father- in-law of Moses Hayyvim Luzzatto. Solomon ben Eliakim Finzi: Rabbi at Forli in 1536; he was the author of “ Mafteah ha-Gemara,” reprinted in the collection “Tummat Yesharim” (Venice, 1622). was republished in Bashuysen’s “Clavis Talmudica Maxima,” with a Latin translation and notes by B. Rittmeier (Hanau, 1714). He also wrote a disserta- tion on the proper names in Gen. xxv. 13-15, Moses Finzi: Translator from Hebrew and Arabic. He translated into Latin Moses ibn Tibbon’s Hebrew It | THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Finland Finzi version of Themistius’ commentary on the twelfth book of Aristotle’s * Metaphysics” (“ Themistii Para- phrasis in Duodecimum Librum Metaphysice Aris- totelis ex Interpretatione Hebraica Latine Versa,” Venice, 1558-76), and translated into Hebrew Abu Kamit’s “ Algebra.” He is probably identical with Moses ben Israel Finzi da Arezzo. Hayyim ben Jacob ben Judah Finzi da Forla: Physician and rabbi at Pesaroand Ancona. At Pesaro, in 1581, he wrote a commentary on the Psalms, called “ ‘Ez Hayyim ” (Neubauer, /.c. No. 2818). He wasa pupil of Isaac ben Gershom Treves. David Finzi, of Mantua: Possessed a collection of ancient coins, of which Azariah dei Rossi made use in his studies. To the Da Recanati branch of the Finzi family belonged: Abraham ben Foa, of Ancona: In 1455 he had a copy of the “Libnat ha-Safir” made by Messer Leon, rabbi at Mantua. Jacob ben Menahem: Was teacher of Gedaliahb ibn Yahya, author of “ Shal- shelet ha-Kabbalah.” Jacob Israel ben Raphael : Rabbi at Pesaro (1540-60); corresponded with Moses Proveng¢al and Nathaniel Trabotti, and criticized Azariah dei Rossi’s chronology; the latter defended himself in “Ma’amar Zedek ‘Olamin.” The Da Arezzo branch of this family is identified chiefly with Ferrara, and among its members were Joab Emanuel and his cousin David. The The latter in 1477 bad a copy made of Recanati MS. Bodl. No. 2183. To the same and Arezzo family belonged Israel Finzi da Families. Arezzo, owner of MS. Bodl. No. 656 (“Shibbole ha-Leket”). His sons were: (1) Aaron ben Israel, rabbi at Ferrara about 1575. His responsa (MSS.) are in the Col- legio Rabbinico Italiano. (2) Moses ben Israel, rabbi at Imola and Ferrara. To a parallel line belong: Benjamin da Arezzo (1500), Eliezer ben Benjamin: Rabbi at Forli in 15386. Ephraim and Benjamin ben Ephraim, both of Ferrara: Their decisions are contained in a manuscript owned by the late David Kaufmann of Budapest. At Cremona about 1586 David Finzi and hisson Ishmael ben David da Arezzo were heads of the Talmudic academy. To this branch belong the Finzis of Ferrara and Tuscany. One of the greatest Talmudists of his time was Heze- kiah ben Benjamin Finzi of Ferrara, teacher of Leon da Modena. The branch of the Finzi family now living at Florence is directly descended from Yehiel ben Abraham Finzi, rabbi at Florence about 1660. His responsa are mostly in manuscript. Samuel Isaac ben Moses Hayyim Finzi, rabbi at Reg- gio in 1686, was the author of “Sefer Tikkun ha-Shulhan” (Codex Montefiore, No. 353). Gur Aryeh ha-Levi ben Benjamin Finzi, rabbi at Mantua about 1680, composed and collected ad- ditions to the Shulhan ‘Aruk, printed in the Man- tua edition of 1722, Gur Aryeh Finzi, grand- son of the preceding, edited and wrote an intro- duction to “Gur Aryeh,” a commentary on the Shulhan ‘Aruk (Mantua, 1722). He was rabbi at Casale in 1711. Samuel Sar Shalom Finzi (d. 1791) was rabbi at Ferrara; he was a pupil of Isaac Lampronti, and was a famous preacher. His ser- Finzi Fire THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 390 mons are preserved in manuscript under the title “Imre Emet.” Alessandro (Elisha) Michael - Finzi, also a pupil of Isaac Lampronti, was in 1721 secretary of the rabbinical academy of Ferrara. Isaac Raphael ben Elisha Michael Finzi was born at Ferrara in 1728, and died at Padua in 1813. He was one of the most famous preachers of his time. Christians were often seen among his hearers. He wasa member of the Paris Sanhedrin in 1806, and was made vice-president. His manuscripts are in the library of the Jews’ College in London. Solo- mon Finzi was rabbi at Elba about 1800. He was the author of “ Messia Verra,” a poem which resulted in his imprisonmcnt on the charge of attacking Christian ministers, He was soon released, how- ever, and afterward lived at Florence. Jacob Levi ben Isaac Finzi probably took the name of “ Finzi” in Italy, but, being from Germany, he added “ Tedesco,” and thus became the ancestor of the Tedesco-Finzi family in Venice. He was the author of “Dibre Agur” (Venice, 1605). Massimo (Meshullam) Tedesco di Solomon Finzi was ap- pointed by the Senate of the Venetian republic as translator of Hebrew works, and officiated from 1771 to 1795. In 1780 he published “Sefer Me’ah Bera- kot” for the German ritual; his son, Joseph Jacob Tedesco-Finzi, prepared an edition for the Sephar- dic ritual. Besides those already mentioned there have been a number of Finzis who may be regarded as the modern representatives of the family: Marco Finzi, mayor in Bozzolo in the time of Napoleon I, (“Corriere Israelitico, "ix. 63). Isaac Finzi, of Rivarolo, about 1800 (De Rossi, “MSS. Cod. Ebr.” i. 187). Moses Finzi, of Modena, about 1771 (Barbieri, “ Dell’ Origine della Poesia Rimata,” p. 418; “Il Vessillo Israelitico,” 1879, p. 367). Dott. Moses Leone Finzi, physician and politician, was born at Ferrara Jan. 16, 1808, and died April 18, 1865 (Pesaro, “ Memorie Storiche della Communita Israel. di Ferrara,” pp. 77, 82; “Corriere Israelitico.” v. 294). Giuseppe Finzi(see below). Moses Finzi (see below). Daniel Finzi was rabbi at Jerusalem, and wrote in 18804 work on the zizit (Nepi-Ghirondi, “Toledot Gedole Yisrael,” p. 74). Abraham Finzi translated the “ Leket ha-Zohar” into Judexo-Span- ish (Belgrade, 1859; Kayserling, “Bibl. Esp.-Port. - Jud.”). Judah Finzi is “rabbino maggiore” in Sarajevo. BIBLIOGRAPHY : Steinschneider, Lelteratura ltaliana, p. 52; idem, Cat. Bodl. cols. 682, 744, 982, 1211, 2312, 2864; idem, Hebr. Uebers.; Mortara, Indice, pp. 22-23; Mosé CAntologia Tsraeliticea), v. 125, 191, 231, 306: vi. 52, 263 et seg.; Shalshelet ha-Kabhalah, ed. Zolkiev, p. 52h (ed. Venice, p. 64b); Eisen- stadt, Da’at Kedoshim, pp. 1-36, 38, 48, 53,59 ; Nepi-Ghirondi, Toledot Gedole Yisrael, pp. 25-348 ; Zunz, Z. G. p. 256; idem, in Kerem Hemed, Vv. 154, 156; Neubauer, Cat. Bodl Hebr. MSS. Nos. 5a, b, 807, 1406, 2804; Michael, Or ha-Hayyim, No. 765; Geiger, Wiss. Zeit. Jiid. Theol. iii. 286: Azariah dei Rossi, Me’or ‘Enayim, ch. 57: Benjacob. Ozar ha- Sefarim, Nos. 61,977: Vogelstein and Rieger, Juden in Rom, ii, 98; Ha-Asif, iii. 218; Zacuto, Responsa, No. 37; Jew, Quart. Rev. xiv. 770; Il Vessillo Israelitico, 1878, p. 380; 1879, pp. 305, 367 : 1880, pp. 211, 245 ; Pesaro, Memorie Storiche della Communita Israel. di Ferrara, p. 15; Corriere Israel- itico, x. 165; Monatsschrift, 1900; Luzzatto, Proleyomena ad Una Grammatica Ragionata, § 59. D. I. E. FINZI, FELICE: Italian Assyriologist; born at Correggio, 1847; died at Florence, 1872. While studying law at the University of Bologna he devoted himself to languages, and especially to the As- syrian language and literature, on which he lectured before the Istituto di Studi Superiori of Florence. He founded with Paolo Mantegazza the Archivio di Etnologia e di Antropologia; was one of the founders of the Italian Oriental Society, subse- quently transformed into the Accademia Orientale, and finally into the Societé Asiatica Italiana. He is the author of “ Alcuni Recenti Studi Intorno All’ Archeologia Etrusca,” and of “11 Brahui: Saggio di Etnologia Linguistica” (Florence, 1870). BIBLIOGRAPHY: De Gubernatis, Matériaux pour Servir a U Histoire des Etudes Orientales en Italie, pp. 426-428 ; Boc- eardo, Enciclopedia. S, U.. & FINZI, GIUSEPPE: Italian patriot and par- liamentarian; born at Rivarolo Fuori, province of Mantua, 1815; died Dec. 17, 1886. He studied at Padua from 1831 to 1835; in 1884 he joined the secret organization Giovane Italia. In 1844 he met Mazzini in London, who entrusted him with the nationalist propaganda in Switzerland and Lom- bardy. In 1848 Finzi fought behind the barrieades at Milan during the “cinque giornate.” After serv- ing for a time in the army of Charles Albert, he or- ganized a Bersaglieri regiment, consisting of Man- tuans; he first fought at Novara against Austria, and afterward at Rome against the papal troops. Asan intimate friend of Mazzini, he was brought be- fore an Austrian court martial at Mantua. While many of his friends were condemned to the gailows, he was sentenced to eighteen years’ imprisonment ; but aftera short term of imprisonment at Theresien- stadt and Josephstadt, the amnesty of 1856 set him at liberty. When Lombardy was freed from Austrian domi- nation, Finzi was appointed royal commissary for the province of Mantua. He became the confidant of Garibaldi, and was entrusted with the funds for the expedition to Sicily. The voluntary contribu- tions not being sufficient, Finzi appealed to Cavour, who, on condition of strictest secrecy, supplied him with state funds. Cavour urged Finzi to revolution- ize Naples while Garibaldi was in Sicily. Accord- ingly, with Zanarde!li, Besana, and others, Finzi went there, but had little success; nevertheless he paved the way for Garibaldi’s entry later. Ill health compelled Finzi to resign the office of gen- eral director of public safety for the southern prov- inces, to which he had been appointed. He some- times mediated between Garibaldi and Cavour when their relations became strained. For about twenty- five years—from 1860 onward—Finzi was a member of the Lower House, and highly esteemed by all parties. He wasa man of unflagging energy, but he was not an orator. June 7, 1886, he was made a senator; he was destined, however, never to enter the Senate chamber. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Leone Carpi, Zl Risorgimento Italiano, Bio- grafie Storico-Politiche @ Itlustri Italiani Contemporanei, iv. Milan, 1888; Telesforo Sarti, 11 Parlamento Subaipino e Nazionale, Profilie Cenni Biografiel, Turin, 1890, S. S. Mun. FINZI, GIUSEPPE: Italian scholar and poet; born at Busseto Nov. 12, 1852. He has filled the chair of Italian literature in various gymnasia and 391 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Finzi Fire academies, at Modena, Turin, and other cities of Italy, and has written a number of works dea)- ing chiefly with Italian literature. They include: “T,’Asino nella Legenda e nella Letteratura,” Turin, 1888; “Saggi Danteschi,” 7d. 1886; “ Lezioni di Storia della Letteratura,” 2d. 1888; “Principi di Stilistica Italiana,” 25. 1888; ‘“ Manuale Completo di Lettera- tura Italiana,” Verona, 1893; “ Nel Golfo di Spezia,” poems, Spezia, 1899; “ Nuova Grammatica Razionale della Lingua Italiana,” Verona, 1893. BIBLIOGRAPHY : De Gubernatis, Dictionnaire des Ecrivains du Jour. S. U. C. FINZI, MOSES: Italian lawyer; born at Flor- ence in 1880. He studied law at Pisa, and was ad- mitted to the bar in 1856. For some years he was an associate of Mari. In 1900 the rabbinical title of “maskil” wasconferred upon him. He is professor of political economy and siatistics at the Istituto Tecnico of Florence. His works include: a biog- raphy of Adriano Mari, Florence, 1888; “Le Uni- versita Israelitiche e la Libert& di Coscienza,” 7d. 1898; anda short article on the “Jus Hazaka,” in the “Festschrift zum Siebzigsten Geburtstage A. Berlin- ers,” Berlin, 1903. S. Cie FIORENTINO, SOLOMON : Italian poet; born at Monte San Savino, Tuscany, March 4, 1748; died at Florence Feb. 4, 1815. He studied at Sienna, where he commenced to write. The reaction of 1799 brought him to prison, and when released he lived in penury at Sienna and Florence. He after- ward accepted the chair of Italian literature offered him by the Jewish inhabitants of Leghorn, where he taught until 1808. His chief production is the “ Elegie,” written after the death of his wife, Laura Gallico. He wrote also “La Notte d’Etruria,” upon the coronation of the grand duke Leopold I.; “L’Anima,” a didactic poem; and a translation of Hebrew prayers. His exchange of sonnets with Corilla Olimpica is famous. His son Angiolo, born at Monte San Savino in 1770, accompanied his father on all his travels, and was a Hebrew instructor, first at Leghorn, afterward at Florence, where he died (Oct. 22, 1845). 6. ) U, @. FIORINO, JEREMIAH DAVID ALEX- ANDER: German miniature-painter; born at Cas- sel Feb. 20, 1796 (according to the catalogue of the Dresden Gallery, 1798); died at Dresden June 22, 1847 (not Aug. 24, 1845, as Hoffmeister says); son of the merchant David Alexander Fiorino of Gottingen ; studied under a porcelain: painter and at the academy of Cassel, winning a medal in 1816. Fiorino went to Dresden in 1824, where he was appointed court painter and received the title of “professor.” The following are among his works: the medallion of Prince Maximilian of Saxony, in the Dresden Gal- lery; two miniatures in the Kunstgewerbe Museum of that city; the medallion of King Albert of Sax- ony, which he later reproduced asa lithograph; the medallion of Prince Ernest of Saxony and the por- trait of the elector Wilhelm II. in the Bose Museum at Cassel. The portrait of Fiorino’s father, and pastels of Fiorino’s brother, the mechanician and optician Abraham David Alexander Fiorino, and his wife, in bridal costume, are also at Cassel. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hoffmeister, Gesch. der Haupt- und Resi- denz-Stadt Cassel, Cassel, 1882; Buch der Dresdner Beer- digungsbriiderschaft, and notes by Fiorino’s nephew, Alex- ander Fiorino. 8. A. W. FIR or FIR-TREE: The usual Authorized Ver- sion rendering of w979 (once of nyn3, the North-Pal- estinian prcnunciation). Inthe Revised Version “cy- press ” has been adopted in almost every case in the margin. Of the ancient versions the Vulgate almost invariably gives “Abies, ligna abiegna ” (fir-tree), while the Septuagint and the Peshitta render it vari- ously “cypress,” “pine,” “juniper,” “cedar,” and “almond-tree.” The translation “ fir-tree” is strongly supported by the texts when studied in the light of Syrian flora, In the great majority of passages in which “ berosh” occurs that tree is depicted as hav- ing its home in the higher regions of Mount Lebanon, where the cedar grows. This can not be said of the pine or of the cypress, these being trees pecul- iar to lower altitudes, and though they grow in Palestine and on Mount Lebanon, they are never scen incompany withthecedar. On the other hand, there is in the subalpine and alpine zones of Mount Lebanon a species of fir-tree, the Abies Cilicica, which compares favorably both in height (130 feet) and in beauty with the cedar, its neighbor. There- fore the presumption is strong that whenever in the Old Testament “berosh” represents a tree or wood of Mount Lebanon the fir-tree is meant. In Hosea xiv. 9(A.V. 8), however,“ berosh ” repre- sents a tree with edible fruit: it must therefore be sought for among the Conifere, and the only possi- ble rendering is “ pine ””—the stone-pine, or pignon- pine (Pinus Pinea), the kernel of which is used for food in Palestine and in other countries in the Medi- terranean zone. “Pine-wood” might be suggested as an alternative for “fir-wood ” in IJ Sam. vi. 5, as both pine- and fir-wood make excellent sounding- boards for musical instruments. It is probable, however, that this passage should be corrected from the parallel passage, I Chron. xiii. 8, so as to read pws) ry-b33 (“with all their might and with songs”), instead of D'WINA *NY $53) (“with all man- ner of instruments made of fir-wood”). As for Na- hum ii. 4(A. V. 3), if “beroshim” in that passage means “spears,” “fir-trees” would be the only acceptable literal interpretation. It is well known that next to ash fir-wood makes the best spear-shaft. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Tristram, The Natural Paget of the Bible; G. A. Post, Flora of Syria, Palestine, and Sinai; Low, Aramdische Phanzennamen; Payne Smith, Thesaurus Syriacus; Delitzsch, Assyrisches Handworterb.; Muss-Ar- nolt, 4 Concise Dictionary of the Assyrian Language ;: Theophrastus, Historia Plantarum TI (with the notes of Bo- doeus and Scaliger), Amsterdam, 1644. E. G. H. H. H. FIRE.—Biblical Data: The ordinary process of combustion, for which the Hebrew generally has we, in Daniel (Aramaic) 4)3, and, with reference to the accompanying heat and glow, AyD and NN; while AWN (HUN is a corrupt a7ag Acyouevor), the derivation of which from we is not certain, isa tech- nical sacerdotal term for burnt offering. The ma- terials for making fires (see Fue.) were wood, charcoal, thorns, and dung. Rubbing pieces of wood against each other, a primitive method of Fire Firkovich THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 392 getting fire, was apparently in use among the He- brews. This at least seems to be the more probable meaning of the word “ mekoshesh ” (gathering), used in describing the act of the Sabbath-breaker (Num. xv. 82-33; see I Kings xvii. 12, “shenayim ‘ezim” = “two sticks”). Jewish legend (see ADAM, Book OF) maintains that Adam and Eve were shown this method of making fire. In IT Macc. x. 3 reference is made to the method of procuring fire by striking stee] against flint. The fire-stone (“hallamish ”) was certainly known to the Hebrews, though the Biblical references to it simply emphasize its hardness, and give no intimations concerning its use for the pur- pose of ignition. In domestic life fire was kindled to prepare food, to bake bread or cakes, to give warmth (Ex. xii. 8; II Chron. xxxv. 13; I Kings xvil. 12; Isa. xliv. 16; Jer. vii. 18, xxxvi. 22). The ancient Hebrews rarely needed fire to heat their dwellings. They occasionally used braziers (“ah ”), though the larger houses were provided with “ winter rooms” (Amos iii. 15), which had excavations for the ah, the heat being preserved as long as possi- ble by means of a carpet or rug placed over the charcoal (Nowack, “Lehrbuch der Hebréaischen Archiologie,” i. 141; Benzinger, “ Arch.” p. 124). On the Sabbath no fire for domestic usescould be kindled (Ex. xxxv. 8). In refining, smelting, and forging metals fire was extensively employed ;¢.g., in the making of the golden calf (Ex. xxxii. 24) and of idols (Isa. xliv. 12, liv. 16; Ecclus. [Sirach] ii. 5). Fire was a means of vengeance (II Sam. xii. 31 [but see commentaries on this passage]; Jer. xxix. 22: Dan. iii. 11, 15; If Macc. vii. 5). Idols especially were destroyed by fire (Deut. vii. 5; II Kings xix. 18). Cities were burned as a war measure (Josh. vi. 24). Crops were set on fire to incite hostilities (Judges xv. 4-5; II Sam. xiv. 30). If damage was done to vineyard or field or crop by carelessness in building a fire, the blameworthy party was held lia- ble (Ex. xxii. 6). Books of an obnoxious character were thrown into the fire (Jer. xxxvi. 23). For cer- tain offenses the penalty was death by fire (Lev. xx, 24, xxi. 9; comp. Jer. xxix. 22; CapiTaL Pwunisn- MENT), Garments infected with leprosy were con- signed to the flames (Lev. xiii. 52, 57). Animal refuse and stubble were burned (Lev. iv. 12, vi. 30; Isa. v. 24). Only in exceptional cases were human bodies incinerated (see CREMATION).. : The fire on the altar, needed for the burnt of- fering, was always kept burning (Lev. vi. 12). “Strange fire,” that is, fire newly kin- Sacerdotal died or taken from profane hearths, Use of Fire. was not permitted (Lev. x.1; Num. iii, 4, xxvi. 61; comp. ARIEL). The holy fire was believed to have had a divine origin (Lev. ix. 24; II Chron. vii. 1-8; comp. JI Mace. i. 19-22). Fire as the means of offering human sacri- fices is abhorred (Deut. xii. 81; Il Kings xvii. 31); its use for such infamous purpose is prohibited (Lev. xviii. 21; Deut. xviii. 10), though it was in vogue even among the Israelites (II Kings xvii. 17; Jer. vii. 31), especially under Ahaz and Manasseh (II Kings xvi. 3, xxi. 6; see TOPHET, and Gen. xxii. 6). Portions not consumed during the actual ceremony of sacrifice were burned (Ex. xii. 10). Uses of Fire. The phenomenon of lightning may perhaps under- lie such expressions as “fire from heaven” and “fire from before Yuwu” (Lev. x. 2; II Kings i. 10, 12); indeed, fire and hail are associated (Ex. ix. 28; Ps. cv. 82). Fire was re- garded as one of the agents of divine will; it is a concomitant of various theophanies (Gen. xv. 17; Ex. iii. 2; Deut. iv. 36; Ps. Ixxviii. 14; see Exisan); and divine fire consumes the acceptable offering (Judges vi. 21; [ Kings xviii. 38). Asadevelopment of this conception, God Him- self is called a consuining fire (Deut. iv. 24, ix. 8). The appearance of fire on the Tabernacle is sig- nificant of the divine presence (comp. Num. iii. 4). Fire is the instrument of God’s wrath (Num. xi.1; Deut. xxxii. 22; Amos i. 4; Isa. Ixv. 5), but God Himself is not in the fire (see Exisan; I Kings xix. 12). Fire implies complete destruction (Isa. i. 7, v. 24, ix. 18; Joelii. 3). Fireisa burning, wasting disease ; it consumes courage and pride (Isa. Fire from Heaven. Meta- x. 16, xxxiii. 11). Fire is insatiable phorical (Prov. xxx. 16). Jt betokens danger and Illus- (Ps. lxvi. 12; Isa. xlili. 2; Zech. iii. 2). trative It causes pain, and therefore it is the Use. synonym of terrible punishment (Isa. Ixvi. 24; Jer. xx. 9). Venomous rep- tiles share the power of fire (Num. xxi. 6), Love and lust (Cant. viii. 6; Ecclus. [Sirach] ix. 8, xxiii. 16), the slanderous tongue and cruelty (Prov. xvi. 27; Ps. exx. 4; Isa. ix. 18), burn like fire; and even so does God’s word (Jer. xxiii. 29). ——In Rabbinical Literature: Fire was created on Monday (Pirke R. El. iv.), as was the fire of Ge- henna: God blew the fire and heated the seven chambers of Gehenna. According to others, it was created on Sabbath eve, when Adam, overwhelmed by the darkness, began to fear that this also was a consequence of his sin. Whereupon the Holy One (blessed be He!) put in his way two bricks, which he rubbed upon each other, and from which fire came forth (Yer. Ber. 12a). Again, fire is one of the three elements (water, spirit, and fire), which preceded the creation of the world. The water became pregnant and gave birth to darkness; the fire became preg- nant and gave birth to light; the spirit became pregnant and gave birth to wisdom (Ex. R. xv.; comp. Freudenthal, “ Hellenistische Studien,” i. 71). There are six kinds of fire: (1) fire that “eats” but does not “drink,” that is, does not consume water-— the common fire; (2) fire that “drinks” but does not “eat” (the fever of the sick); (8) fire that both eats and drinks (as that of Elijah, which both consumed the sacrifices and licked up the water; I Kings xviii. 38); (4) fire that eats wet as well as dry things (that arranged by the priests on the altar); (5) fire that _quenches fire (that of Gabriel, who, according to tradition, was the angel sent down to the fiery fur- nace in order to save Hananiah, Mishael, and Aza- riah; Dan. ii. 25); (6) fire that consumes fire (that of the Shekinah), In the First Temple alone was the fire of divine origin (Yoma 21b). The Torah given by God was made of an integument of white fire, the engraved letters were in black fire, and it was itself of fire and mixed with fire, hewn out of fire, and given from the midst of fire (Yer. Sotah viii. 22d). 893 The Torah has two fires, the oral and the written law (Cant. R. ii. 5); “in fact, all their words [the sages’] areas coals of fire” (Ab. ii. 10). Study of the Torah brings about certain effects like fire (Sifre, Deut. xxxiii. 2). The holy fire on the altar had the appearance of a lion—according to another, of a dog (Yoma 21b). Fire descended from heaven when God desired to intervene in human affairs. It is thus that the keys of the Temple which Jecouiah wished to keep from Nebuchadnezzar are removed from earth (Lev. R. xix.). What the Bible calls “strange fire” the Tal- mudists denominate NIWyIAN WRK, fire of the “com- moners ” (idcorac; Num. R. ii.). Though God prom- ised not to visit earth again with a flood, He did not specify what kind; hence Abraham fears lest a flood of fire may still be sent (Gen. R. xxxix.). Myth- ical streams of fire are mentioned by the Rabbis (see ANGELOLOGY), by which angels and men are con- sumed (Pesik. R. 20). Fire-worshipers (“ habbarin”) are known to the Talmudists (see ZOROASTRIANISM). Regarding the benediction over fire or light, the Hillelites declare that fire emits many colors, and hence the plural should be used (WRR NY, “the lights of fire”), while the school of Shammai pleads for the singular (WN YN), as fire holds only one light or color (Ber. 52b). Two fire-animals are men- tioned, the salamander (Rashi to Sanh. 68b), and the “alitha,” which extinguishes fire (Sanh. 108b). The salamander’s blood protects against fire (Hag. 26a), as is proved by the escape of Hezekiah, whose father had devoted him to Moloch (Sanh. 68b). The later rabbis held the salamander to be the product of a fire burning seven years. Fire for domesticand industrial uses receives much attention from the Rabbis in consequence of the Sab- bath law, Quite a variety of fuel is mentioned— different kinds of wood, reeds, willows, fruit-stones, plaited weeds, pitch, sulfur, wax or cheese and fat, straw, stubble, flax; and various methods of building a fire, with shavings, reeds bound together, etc., are indicated. Stoves were known. The “warming-hall” in the Temple enjoyed certain im- munities from the rigorous Sabbath law. An open coal-fire in a pan was used to bake cakes (Shab. i. 10, 22a, b). Torches of twigs were carried by way- farers at night (Ber. 43b) and on festive occasions. Great fires built on mountain-tops served as signals, and were used to announce the beginning of the new moon (Sanh. 11b). “Fire” in time came to denote “fever” (Yoma 29a; Shab. 66b, 6%a, et al. ; see GEHENNA; Li@uHt). 8. 8. KK. G. H. FIRE, PILLAR OF. See PILLAR or FIRE. FIRKOVICH, ABRAHAM B. SAMUEL (Aben ReSheF): Russian Karaite archeologist; bornin Lutsk, Volhynia, Sept. 27, 1786; died in Chu- fut-Kale, Crimea, June 7, 1874. He was educated as a Karaite scholar, but later paid much atten- tion to rabbinical literature, by which his Hebrew style was influenced. In 1818 he was hazzan of his native city, an office which among both Karaites and Rabbinites includes that of cantor, reader, teacher, and minister. In 1828 he lived in Ber- dychev, and had controversies with some Rabbinite | THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Fire Firkovich Jews, the result being his anti-rabbinical work “ Masah u-Meribah” (Eupatoria, 1838). In later years when he became closely connected with the Rabbin- ites, he repudiated the sentiments contained in that pamphlet. In 1880 he visited Jerusalem, where he collected many Karaite and Rabbinite manuscripts. On his return he remained two years in Constanti- nople, as teacher in the Karaite community. He then went to the Crimea and organized a society to publish old Karaite works, of which several appeared in Eupatoria (Koslov) with comments by him. In 1838 he was the teacher of the children of Simhah Babovich, the head of the Russian Karaites, who one year later recommended him to Count Vorontzov and to the Historical Society of Odessa as a suitable man to send to collect material for the history of the Karaites. In 1889 Firkevich began excavations in the ancient cemetery of Chufut-Kale, and unearthed many old tombstones, some of which, he claimed, belonged to the first centuries of the common era. The following two years were spent in travels through Caucasus, where he ransacked the genizot of the old Jewish communities and collected many valuable manuscripts. He went as far as Derbent, and returned in 1842. In later years he made other journeys of the same nature, visiting Egypt and other countries. In Odessa he became the friend of Bezalel Stern and of Simhah Pinsker, and while re- siding in Wilna he made the acquaintance of Fuenn and other Hebrew scholars. Jn 1871 he visited the small Karaite community in Halicz, Galicia, where he introduced several reforms, From there he went to Vienna, where he was introduced to Count Beust and also made the acquaintance of Adolph Jellinek. He returned to pass his last days in Chufut-Kale, of which there now remained only a few ruins. The discoveries made by Firkovich, which were first announced to the world in Pinner’s “ Prospec- tus” (Odessa, 1845), gave rise to a whole literature. The collection of stones, facsimiles, manuscripts, and molds taken from tombstones, which was ac- quired from Firkovich by the Imperial Library of St. Petersburg, on the recommendation of Professor Chwolson in 1859, was declared by some authori- ties to consist partly or wholly of forgeries com- mitted for the purpose of glorifying the Karaites and of enhancing the value of Firkovich’s discoveries. As the full extent of his forgerics will probably never be known, a list of the genuine and the spurious in the collection is therefore impossible. Briefiy stated, the discoveries include the major part of the manuscripts described in His Pinner’s “ Prospectus der der Odessaer Forgeries. Gesellschaft fiir Geschichte und Alt- erthum Gehérenden Aeltesten He- briiischen und Rabbinischen Manuscripte ” (Odessa, 1845), a rather rare work which is briefly described in “TLiteraturblatt des Orients” for 1847, No. 2. These manuscripts consist of: (1) Fifteen scrolls of the Law, with postscripts which give, in Karaite fashion, the date and place of writing, the name of the writer or corrector or other interesting data. (2) Twenty copies of books of the Bible other than the Pentateuch, some complete, others fragment- ary, of one of which, the Book of Habakkuk, dated 916, a facsimile is given. (8) Nine numbers Firkovich Firman THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 394 of Talmudical and rabbinical manuscripts. The account of the contents of his second and more important collection, which he sold for a very large sum to the Imperial Library of St. Petersburg in 1862-63 (see First, “Geschichte des Karier- thums,” iii. pp. 174 et seg., Leipsic, 1869), gives more than 700 numbers of various Karaite and Rabbinite manuscripts. Another collection of 317 Samaritan manuscripts, acquired in Nablus, arrived in the St. Petersburg Imperial Academy in 1867 (2b. p. 176). Probably the greatest service that Firkovich ren- dered to Jewish sci- ence was the awa- kening of interestin Karaite history and literature, that led to the discussion of his alleged discov- eries. His personal contributions to it are mostly of a bib- liographical na- ture, and great cau- tion is necessary in utilizing his ma- terials. His most sympathetic critic, Chwolson, gives as a résumé of his be- lief, after consider- ing all controver- sies, that Firkovich succeeded in de- monswrating that some of the Jewish tombstones from Chufut-Kale date back to the seventh century, and that seemingly modern forms of eulogy and the method of counting after the era of creation were in vogue among Jews much earlier than had been hitherto suspected. But even on these points the opinions of authorities are far from being unanimous. S. L. Rapoport has pointed out some impossi- bilities in the inscriptions (“Ha-Meliz,” 1861, Nos. 13-15, 37); Geiger in his “Jiidische Zeitschrift ” (1865, p. 166), Schorr in “ He-Haluz,” and Neubauer in the “ Journal Asiatique ” (1862-68) and in his “ Aus der Petersburger Bibliothek” (Leipsic, 1866) have challenged the correctness of the facts and the theories based upon them which Jost, First, and Gritz, in their writings on the Karaites, took from Pinsker’s “Likkute Kadmoniyyot,” in which the data furnished by Firkovich were unhesitatingly ac- cepted. Further exposures were made by Strack and Harkavy (St. Petersburg, 1875) in the “Catalog der Hebr. Bibelhandschriften der Kaiserlichen Oeffent- lichen Bibliothek in St. Petersburg”; in Harkavy’s “ Ajtjiidische Denkmialer aus der Krim” (2d. 1876); te <= ries ENA = —— Sa aay ‘e ~ 3 = - Ryker SSSA SS = Abraham ben Samuel Firkovich. in Strack’s “A. Firkowitsch und Seine Entdeck- ungen ” (Leipsic, 1876); in Frinkel’s “ Ahare Reshet le-Bakker” (“ Ha-Shahar,” vii. 646 e¢ seq.); in Dei- nard’s “ Massa‘ Krim” (Warsaw, 1878); and in other places. Chwolson alone defended him, but he also was forced to admit that in some cases Firkovich had resorted to forgery. In his “Corpus Inscrip- tiorum Hebraicarum” (St. Petersburg, 1882; Rus- sian ed,, 2), 1884) Chwolson attempts to prove that the Firkovich collection, especially the epitaphs from tombstones, contains much which is genuine. It must be admitted that Firkovich did much to further the study of Karaite and Crimean Jewish history, and that after all deductions are made his dis- coveries still remain of great value. Firkovich’s chief work is his “ Abne Zikkaron,” contain- ing the texts of in- scriptions discov- ered by him (Wilna, 1872). It is pre- ceded by a lengthy account of his trav- els to Daghestan, characterized by Strack as a mixture of truth and fiction. His other works are “Hotam Toknit,” antirabbinical po- lemics, appended to his edition of the “Mibhar Yesha- rim” by Aaron the elder (Koslov, 1885); “Ebel Ka- bod,” on the death of his wifeand of his son Jacob (Odessa, 1866); and “Bene Reshef,” essays and poems, published by Smolenskin (Vienna, 1871). Gabriel Firkovich of Troki was his son-in-law. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jellinek, Abraham Firkowitsch. . . ein Ge- denkblatt, Vienna, 1875: Deinard, Toledot Eben Reshet, War- saw, 1875; idem, Ha-Maggid, xix., Nos. 7, 12; Zeitlin, Bibl. Post-Mendels. pp. 83-86; Mandelstamm, Hazon la-Moed, iii. 18-20, Vienna, 1877; Gurland, Ha-Shahar, ix. 228-229; McClintock and Strong, Cyc. xii., Supplement, s.v. See also Literaturblatt des Orients, viii, Nos. 1-2. J. P. Wr. FIRMAMENT. See Cosmocony. FIRMAN, JOSEPH (the Elder): Grecian rabbi and author; lived in the sixteenth century. Ac- cording to Solomon Cohen, he was a native of Seres, European’ Turkey, whence he went to Salonica, be- coming rabbi there. Later he went to the Morea in Greece, and assumed rabbinical supervision of all communities in that peninsula. He left many un- published decisions. Joseph Firman is mentioned in the responsa of Moses di Trani and of Jacob ha- Levi, as well as in those of his pupil Solomon i ag Ts Hoe Han Beis Bh ‘ ERS Ht MT 4 Wy site Nea! Matt SeCoAy wheal ly * te ‘ ah " HALAGEASUENEPOUELUUSOE LEO EAUSU SU ITEH DUNT LTLEDTSILEEUH TE HAAR TEE Hi Ui H i eld i Kr Ki Te eager nate ae Mme at DEMPTION OF FIRST-BORN IN HOLLAND. (After a drawing by Picart in 1722.) . Rk "s First-Born Cohen. Besides Joseph Firman the Elder there is known a Joseph Firman the Younger, the grandson of the former, by whom, as by Solomon Cohen and Moses Alshech, he is mentioned. BIBLIOGRAPHY : Conforte, Kore ha-Dorot, pp. 37-41. S$. 8. N. FIRST-BORN. See PRIMOGENITURE. FIRST-BORN, REDEMPTION OF: Accord- ing to Talmudic tradition, the first-born acted as officiating priests in the wilderness, until the erec- tion of the Tabernacle, when the office was given to the tribe of Levi(Num. iii. 12, 18, 45-51; Zeb. 112b; compare Onkelos to Ex. xxiv. 5). In consequence of the deliverance from the tenth plague, when “the Lord slew all the first-born in the land of Egypt” but spared the first-born of the Israelites, the fol- lowing commandment was given: “Sanctify unto me all the first-born, whatsoever openeth the womb amoug the children of Israel, both of man and of beast: it is mine” (Ex. xiii. 2), which is explained in greater detail in verses 12-15. The first-born of clean beasts were thus made holy and were unre- deemable, while the first-born of unclean beasts and of man had to be redeemed from the priests (Num. xviii. 15-18; Deut. xv. 19-22; compare Neh. x. 37). I. The first-born male of a clean beast had to be brought to the Temple as a sacrifice; its blood sprinkled on the altar; its fat burned; and its flesh given to the priest, who had to eat it with the same sanctity as other sacrificial meats. If it had some physical defect, through which it became un- fit for sacrifice, it lost its holy character, and the priest to whom it was given might eat it outside of Jerusalem, and even an ordinary Israelite might partake of it. It was not necessary for the owner to dedicate the first-born, as was the case with other sacrificial animals, although it was considered proper to do so. The first-born became holy at its birth, and had to be offered on the altar (Bek. 18a; Mai- monides, “ Yad,” Bekorot, i. 7). The Rabbis recom- mended that the owner should keep the first-born in his possession for some time (small cattle 30 and large cattle 50 days) before giving it to the priest, so that the priest be spared the trouble of attending to it during the early days of its life. It had, however, to be given away and sacrificed during the first year of its birth (Deut. xv, 20; Bek. 26b; Maimonides, J.c. i. 7-15.) : This law is valid for all lands and all times, even since the destruction of the Temple, when all sacri- fice ceased ; according to the Rabbis the first-born is still holy and must be given to the priest, who, however, may not make any use of it until it has suffered some physical defect. To cause a defect in the body of the animal, or even to expose it to the danger of receiving such a blemish, is strictly forbidden. No work should be done with it, nor should its wool be shorn or any other benefit derived from it (Deut. xv. 19). If, however, it receive a blemish which a scholar or three prominent Israelites declare to be of the kind which would make it unfit for sacrifice, the animal becomes profane, and even an Israelite may eat of its meat. However, it should not be sold in the shop like other meat, and the T. L. Animals. THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA a a a a RP 396 scholar who examines it and permits its use may not, for obvious reasons, eat any of it (Bezah 27a: Hul. 44b; Bek. 25a; Maimonides, /.c. i. 5, tii. ; Shul- han ‘Aruk, Yoreh De‘ah, 306-320). II. The first-born of an ass had to be redeemed with a sheep or a lamb, and if it was not re- deemed its neck had to be broken (Ex. xiii. 18). The sheep or lamb with which it was redeemed had to be given to the priest, who might use it in any way he desired. At the redemption the owner pro- nounced the blessing, “Blessed art thou who... commandeth us concerning the redemption of the first-born of an ass.” If he had no sheep or cattle with which to redeem it, he might redeem it with money, the smallest amount being three zuzim, and the largest one sela‘ (Bek. 11a). If he did not wish to redeem it, he had to break its neck, and even after its death he might have no benefit from its body, but had to bury it, Although the Scriptural pas- sages in this connection use the general expression “unclean beasts,” the Rabbis made the law apply only to the first-born of an ass. The law is valid for all times and places. The priests and Levites, however, are excluded from the obligation (Bek. 5b; “Yad,” Bikkurim, xii.; Yoreh De‘ah, 321; compare Lev. xxvii. 27 and Rashi ad loc.). III. Every Israclite is obliged to redeem his first- born son thirty days after the latter’s birth. The mother is exempt from this obligation. The son, if the father fails to redeem him, has to redeem him- self when he grows up (Kid. 29b). The sum of redemption as given in the Bible (Num. xviii. 16) is five shekels, which should be given to the priest. This sum may be given Men. either in money or in valuables, but not in real estate, slaves, or promissory notes. The priest may afterward return the money to the father, although such practise is not recom- mended by the Rabbis. At the redemption the father of the child pronounces the blessing, “ Blessed art thou. .. and commandeth us concerning the redemption of a son,” and then also the blessing of “she-heheyanu.” It is customary to prepare a feast in honor of the occasion, at which the ceremony is made impressive by a dialogue between the priest and the father of the child. This law applies to the first-born of the mother and not of the father. Hence the husband of several wives would have to redeem the first-born of each one of them, while the husband of a woman who had had children by a previous marriage need not redeem her child, although it was his first-born. Not only priests and Levites, but also Israelites whose wives are the daughters of priests or Levites, need not redeem their first-born. Any doubt regarding the primogeniture of a child is decided in favor of the father (Mishnah Bek. viii.; Maimonides, ¢.c. xi, ; Yoreh De‘ah, 305). For the same reason as that which underlies the sanctification of the first-born—z.e., the deliverance from the tenth plague—the first-born are required to fast on the day preceding Passover (Soferim xxi. 3; compare Yer. Pes. x. 1; Shulhan ‘Aruk, Orah Hayyim, 470). 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Fomine a neat ke Bid ow rf xe 1 TERR a» abe te eae PRG Gay 5355 GREE ERE EERIE w9 : 5S eine % 3 é 5 MOF CD ETE 5 “ee ee Ti ee en Ee Reexek se: Est 3 aad ; : ’ = 29 ¢ z : : : 5 bs Pere pasar ty 1% ers mine a ere ee 4 : i: Be sais : eet 770 As = cSearenens: : : hat atk 2 ES AT REDEMPTION OF FIRST-BOR (From Bodenschatz, “* Kirchliche Verfasaung,’’ 1748.) First-Fruits THE of the opinion that both mother and father must fast—he for himself, and she for her son. See INHERITANCE; PATRIARCHAL FAMILY. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hamburger, R. B. T. s.v. Erstgeburt ; Saal- schlitz, Das Mosaische Recht, Berlin, 1 lHG S. 8. FIRST-FRUITS.—Biblical Data: As the firstling among the cattle, so the first-fruits of the field (“reshit,” “heleb” [LXX. azapyq4], “ bik- kurim” [LXX. pwroyevyguara]), of corn, of wine, and of oil belonged to Yuwn. According to Ex. xxii. 28 (A. V. 29), the Israelite was not to delay to offer “ of his abundance,” a phrase that is ex plained in Ex. xxili. 19 and xxxiv. 26 as meaning the choi- cest products, the first-fruits of theland. These first- fruits, as in the case of the first-born, were used for a feast-offering, even at the time of the compilation of the Deuteronomic code, according to which the offering had to take place at Jerusalem. If the dis- tance was too great, the gifts might be sold at home, and a feast might be procured at Jerusalem with the proceeds (Deut. xiv. 22 et seg.). This ordinance agrees only in part with another given in Deut. XXvi. 2 et seg., according to which the feast-offering was prescribed for only two years. The first-fruits of the third year were to be brought to Jerusalem and given to the Levites, widows, orphans, and the poor. Thisis probably an innovation due to the em- phasis laid on charity toward the poor and the Levites, a feature characteristic of the Deuteronomic code. In view of these ordinances it is remarkable that, according to Deut. xviii. 4 (probably written at a later date), the priest might claim the reshit of corn, wine, oi], and wool. This is hardly intended to supersede previous ordinances, the reshit being evidently taken from the first-fruits set apart for the feast-offering (comp. xxvi. 12 e¢ seq.). The same is probably to be inferred from Ezek. xliv. 30, where a reshit of all the first-fruits of all things (“terumat kol”) and of the first of the dough is demanded for the priest. These ordinances, at all events, form the transition to P, where both the first- fruits and the first-born lose their original significa- tion, and assume the character of a tax paid to the priest. According to Num. xviii. 12, the priest’s reshit (called also “ terumah,” 2). xvili. 27) was to con- sist of the best of the corn, wine, and oil. In verse 13, “whatsoever is first ripe in the land” (“ bikkurim ”) is added. It is not clear what “bikkurim” means here, although it may refer to the fruit which ripens first. The distinction made between “reshit” and “ bik- kurim ” in post-exilic times is clearly evident from Neh. x. 86 (A. V. 85), 38, where the congregation agrees to deliver the reshit to the chambers of the Temple, but to take the bikkurim to the house of YHWwH in a solemn procession, and with the cere- monies laid down in Deut. xxvi. 2 e¢ seg. (comp. Neh. xii. 44, xiii. 5; II Chron. xxxi. 5, 12). Besides this double offering, the reshit of the dough is demanded as terumah for YHwu (Num. xv. 1 ef seg.). Just as the Israelites offered up grains from the thrashing-floor, so they were to make an offer- ing—a cake (“halah ”)—from the dough. Finally, Lev. xix. 28 decrees that the fruit of JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 398 young trees shall not be eaten during the first three years, and that in the fourth year all the fruit tiere- of shall be given to YuwsH as a praise-offering (“kodesh hillulim”). The reshit and bikkurim de- veloped into the later institution of the tithe (“‘ma- ‘aser”), which was originally identical with these, as may be learned from Deuteronomy. While, ac- cording to Deut. xiv. 22, the annual offering of the tithe in the sanctuary is made the occasion for a feast, in XXvi. 2 et seg. the word “reshit” appears to designate the offering which is made obligatory for two successive years at the central sanctuary; the tithe (“ma‘aser”) in the third year being given at home to the indigent. The expression “ma‘aser” evidently arose in the endeavor to determine the amount of the reshit, which depended on personal option, and was not fixed by law. “ Ma‘aser,” how- ever, in earlier times may have signified merely an approximate estimate. The expression perhaps rec- flects the customs prevailing at the sanctuaries of northern Israel (comp. Amos iv. 4 et seg.; Gen. xxviii, 22). Thus the absence of any mention of the tithe in the old laws is probably due to its iden- tity with the reshit. Ma‘aser is first mentioned asa separate tax in connection with reshit and bikkurim in P (comp. Num. xxviii. 21 et seg.). See TiTHe. E. G. H. W. N. ——In Rabbinical Literature: The first-fruits (“bikkurim ”) are known under three designations: (1) “reshit kezirkem ” (Lev. xxiii. 10), “the first- fruits of your harvest”; (2) “lehem ha-bikkurim” (Lev, xxiii. 17-20), “the bread of the first-fruits”; (3) “reshit bikkure admateka” (Ex. xxiii. 19), “the first of the first-fruits of thy land,” or “reshit kol peri ha-adamah ” (Deut. xxvi. 2), “the first of all the fruit of the earth.” (1) The “first-fruits of the harvest” were offered on the 16th day of Nisan, from that fruit which ripened first in Palestine—barley (but see Men. 84a)— and with considerable ceremony, in order to empha- size dissent from the Sadducean interpretation of the Scripture text, “the morrow after the Sabbath” (Lev. xxiii, 11), which is, according to the SADDUCEEs, always Sunday (Men. 65b). The ceremony occurred toward the evening of the first day of Pesah, in a field in the neighborhood of Jerusalem, sheaves of choice barley having been bound there before- hand by men deputed to this work by the authori- ties. In the presence of a vast throng, from the neighboring towns as well as from Jerusaiem, the sheaves to the amount of three seah were cut by three men with three sickles and placed in three baskets. As soon as it grew dark the “harvester” addressed to the assembly the following questions, repeating each one three times, and receiving to each an affirma- tivereply: “Hasthesunset?” “Is this the sickle?” “Ts this the basket?” and on Sabbath, “Is this the Sabbath day?” He next inquired thrice: “Shall I harvest?” to which they answered: “Do harvest.” All this was to confound the Sadducean heresy. The barley was then gathered into the baskets and carried to the hall of the Temple, where it was beaten out, not, as usually, with sticks, but with soft reeds; or, according to a divergent opinion, it was first roasted in a perforated vessel over a fire, so that the heat might touch all parts evenly. Then it was 399 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA First-Fruits spread out on the floor of the hall and winnowed in the draft. Ground in a coarse hand-mill, an ‘omer of the finely sieved four mixed with oil and incense was “swung and offered up,” and a handful was burned as incense by the priest. The rest was distributed among the priests (Men. x. 1-4; Maimonides, “ Yad,” Temidin, vii.). The completion of this ceremony was the signal for open- ing the bazaars for the sale of new flour and “kali” (see BREAD), somewhat to the displeasure of the Rabbis (Men. x. 5). Israelites in distant districts, in fact, were permitted to eat from the new crop from midday on, a privilege withdrawn by Johanan ben Zakkai after the destruction of the Temple (Men. x. 5). The ceremony of the “reshit kezirkem ” was considered as an act of gratitude to God for His providential care of the fields (Lev. R. xxviii.). (2) The “ bread of the first-fruits ” consisted of two loaves baked of new wheat, though, according to Akiba and Nathan, they were not unusable even if baked of old wheat (Men. 83b). No meal-offering (“minhah”) could be brought before these two loaves had been offered up on Shabu’‘ot (Sifra to Lev. xxiii. 16; Sifre, Pinehas). They had to be exactly alike (Sifra, /.c.), the leaven rising from the dough itself, though, according to another opinion, the yeast was added to the dough (Men. v.; Sifra, i.c.); these loaves were offered by the whole com- munity (at public expense). (8) The third class of bikkurim embraced the first- fruits of all the land. Laying stress on the words “ thy land ” (Ex. xxiii. 19), the Rabbis provide that the law is not applicable to fruit not literally grown on land (Bik. i. 1), or to that grown on land not one’s own property. Renters, in whole or in part, robbers, and despoilers (“sicarii”), therefore, are exempt (so also Mek. to Ex. xxiii. 19). For the reazon that they could not consistently recite the benediction (Deut. xxvi. 5), slaves and women and persons of uncertain sex, as well as proselytes unless their mothers were Israelites, were permitted to offer up the first-fruits without pronouncing the eulogy (Bik. i. 4; Mek., l.c.). The proselyte praying by himself or with the congregation pronounced a modified benedic- tion (“the fathers of Israel”; “the God of your fathers”). The bikkurim were offered only from the “seven” plants (comp. Deut. viii. 8); not from dates grown in the mountains nor from fruits grown in the valleys; not from olives unless they were of the best quality (Bik. i. 3); and never before the Feast of Weeks. But if one offered, between that festival and the Feast of Tabernacles, fruit of the “seven” plants, or fruit from the mountains, or dates grown in the valleys, or olives from beyond the Jordan, the offering was accepted and the bene- diction was allowed (7b. i. 10). Olives and grapes were accepted as fruits, but not in their liquid State (“mashkim”) as oil and wine (“ Yad,” Bik- Sale of New Flour. kurim, ii. 4; Ter. 59a; ‘Ar. lla; Yer. Ter. xi. 3;_ Hul. 120a; Mek., J.c.). Fruit from beyond the border of Palestine, “the land flowing with milk and honey,” was exempt; but Syria and the cities of Sihon and Og were included; not so Moab and Ammon. Jose the Galilean therefore took excep- tion to including in the Holy Land the district beyond the Jordan (Gilead; Bik. i. 10). The law of the first-fruit is held in abeyance, now that the Temple is not extant and Israel is not in possession of Palestine (“ Yad,” Bikkurim, ii. 1). The following was the method of selecting fruits for the offering: Upon visiting his field and seeing a fig, or a grape, or a pomegranate that was ripe, the owner would tie a fiber around the fruit, saying, “This shall be among the bikkurim.” According to Simeon, he had to repeat the express designation after the fruit had been plucked from the tree in the orchard (Bik. iii. 1), The fruits were carried in great state to Jerusulem. Deputations (“ma‘amadot ”), representing the people of all the cities in the dis- trict, assembled in the chief town of the district, and stayed there overnight in the open Procedure. squares, without going into the houses. At dawn the officer in charge (the “ me- munneh ”) called out: “Arise, let us ascend to Zion, the house of Yawn our God.” Those from the neigh- borhood brought fresh figs and grapes, those from a distance dried figsand raisins. The bull destined for the sacrifice, his horns gilded and his head wreathed with olive-leaves, led the procession, which was accompanied with flute-playing. Arrived near the Holy City, the pilgrims sent messengers ahead while they decorated the first-fruits. The Temple officers came out to meet them, and all artisans along the streets rose before them, giving them thesalutation of peace, and hailing them as brothers from this or that town. The flute kept sounding until they reached the Temple mount. Here even King Agrippa, fol- lowing the custom, took his basket on his shoulder, and marched in the ranks, until they came to the outer court and hall. There they were welcomed by the Levites, singing Ps. xxx. 2. The doves which had been carried along in the baskets were offered for burnt offerings, and what the men had in their hands they gave to the priests. But before this, while still carrying his basket, each man recited Deut. xxvi. 3 ef seg.; at the words “a wayfaring Aramxan was my father” the basket was deposed from the shoulder, but while the owner was still holding its handles or rims, a priest put his hand under it and “swung it” (lifted it up), and repeated the words “a wayfaring Araméan,” etc., to the close of the Deuteronomic section. Then placing the basket by the side of the altar, the pilgrim bowed down and left the hall. The custom of having the section of the Torah read by the priest and not by the pilgrim arose out of the desire to spare the feelings of those that did not know how to read. The rich brought their fruits in gold and silver baskets, the poor in such as were made of peeled reeds; these baskets were left with the priests. The fruit was decorated with other fruits and plants, so that the offering really consisted of the first-fruit, an addition to the first- fruit, and the decorations. These additions had to be eaten in purity like the first-fruit. Like other property of the priest, the bikkurim could be util- ized by him to purchase slaves, fields, or cattle; and he could settle his debts or pay his wife’s dower (“ketubbah ”) with them. Judah holds that the first: fruits were considered as the provincial offerings, which the donor could give toanybody he liked. It First-Fruits Fischer nc RR A aN RS OM was advisable he should give them to a “haber” in exchange for thanks; while the majority of the rabbis considered them as sacrifices of the altar, which could be divided only among the men of the watch—that is, the division of priests who hap- pened to be on duty—and who should divide them like other sacrifices (Sik. iii.). The quantity of the first-fruits to be brought into the Temple was in the Scriptures (Deut. xvi. 10) left to the pleasure of the owner, but the Rabbis afterward decided that it should amount to one- sixtieth of the whole crop (“ Yad,” Bikkurim, ii. 17). After the destruction of the Temple bikkurim could not be offered, but the Rabbis regarded acts of phi- lanthropy as a proper substitute (Yer. Peah 19a; Lev. R. xxiv.), especially in the form of assistance extended to men of learning (Ket. 104). 8. 5. EK. G. H. FIRST-FRUITS OF THE WEST, THE. See PERIODICALS. FIRUZ. See Banywonra, Post-BIBLIcAL Data. FIRUZ-SHABUR: City of Babylonia; the “Sipphara” of Ptolemy and the Bypoafdpa of Zosi- mus; situated a few miles south of Nehardea; built by Shabur I. about 250 c.z. In Berakot 59b it is called “33y 93. “Formerly one who saw the Eu- phrates at the bridge of Babylon recited the blessing ; but now, since the Persians have changed the course of the river, he does not recite the blessing until he sees it from Be-Shabur.” It was the largest city of Babylonia after Ctesiphon. During the war between Julian the Apostate and Shabur II., Firnz-Shabur, which contained many Jewish inhabitants, was be- sieged and burned. Later, about 581, under Hormizd IV., the academies of Sura and Pumbedita were closed, and a new one was opened at Firuz-Shabur, under Arab rule. According to Sherira Gaon, the best-known school was that of bis ancestor, Rab Mari, son of Rab Dimi jy1y7. But under Yezdegerd ILI. the Academy of Pumbedita was reopened, and Rab Hanan of [skia, the chief of the school of Firuz-Shabur, left the latter for Pumbedita. R. Hanan was succeeded by Rab Mari. The schools continued till Ali, the fourth calif, took Firuz- Shabur, in 656. The Jews of Firuz-Shabur sided with Ali, and R. Sherira mentions the fact that Mar Isaac, the chief of the schoo! there, came with 90,000 Jews to meet the conqueror, and was received in a friendly manner, BIBLIOGRAPHY: Griitz, Gesch. 3d ed., iv. 252, 347; v. 113 Neu- bauer, G. T. pp. 336, 351; Berliner, Beitrdge zur Geographie und Ethnographie Babyloniens im Talmud und Mi- drasch, p. 60, Berlin, 1883; Fiirst, Die Juden in Asien, pp. 6 et seq., Leipsic, 1849; Sherira Gaon's Iggeret, in Neubauer’s Medicval Jewish Chronicles, i. 35-187. G. M. SEL. FISCHEL, ABRAHAM JEHIEL BEN ZE’EB WOLF: German rabbi of the eighteenth century. He was the author of a work entitled “Imrah Zerufah,” nove)le on several treatises of the Talmud and on Maimonides (Berlin, 1755). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. coi. 690. S. S. M. SEL. FISCHEL, ELIEZER BEN ISAAC: Russian Talmudist and cabalist; lived at Strizhov (Striz- hovka) in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 400 a a el Se me REN RR OE a De was the author of many cabalistic and homiletic works, among them being: “ ‘Olam Ehad.” homilies on the unity of God, Zolkiev; “‘Olam Hafuk,” explanation of contrasts, Zolkiev; “‘Olam Barur,” cabalistic homilies, Lemberg: “‘Olam ha-Gadol,” also called “ Midrash li-Ferushim,” seventy caba- listic homilies on Gen, xxxiii. 18 (thirty on the spheres and lights, and forty on the Jewish holi- days), Zolkiev, 1800. First (“ Bibl. Jud.” i. 281) and Benjacob (“Ozar ha-Sefarim,” p. 539) ascribe to Eliezer ben Isaac Fischel a work called “ Para- shat Eliezer,* a conimentary to “Karnayim,” the cabalistic work of Aaron b. Abraham, and to its commentary, the “Dan Yadin” of Samson of Qs- tropoli, Jitomir, 1805, BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider, Cal. Boal. col. 9563; Walden, Shem ha-Gedolim he-Hadash, ti. 58; Fueun, Kevrieset Yis- rael, p. 131. M. SEL. Ss. 58. FISCHELL, A.: Rabbi and historian; lived in the city of New Yorkin the middle of the nineteenth century. He was for some time an assistant to Dr. Raphall, minister of the Shearith Israel congrega- tion. Concerning Fischell, whose name is also spelled “Fischel” and “ Fishell,” but little is known: it is believed that he died in Holland in the last quarter of the nineteenth century. In 1859 Fischel! read a paper, “Chronological Notes on the History of the Jews in America,” before the New York Historical Society. With this he prepared a chronological con- spectus, which has been reprinted by the American Jewish Historical Society (“ Publications,” ii, 99 eé seq.). Inthe discussion which grew out of this paper Fischell claimed that the early Jews enjoyed the fullest measure of liberty under Dutch rule in New Amsterdam, while George Bancroft maintained that Roger Williams, in Rhode Island, was the first to grant religious liberty in America. Fischell’s paper was first published in the “ Historical Magazine,” 1860 (vol. iv.). | BIBLIOGRAPHY: Daly, The Settlement of the Jews in North America, p. Xiv., notes 32 and 85, New York, 1893. A. A. M, F, FISCHELS, MEIR: Austrian Talmudist, died at Prague, Dec, 16,1769. He was called “ Fischels ” as the son of Epbraim Fischel of Bunzlau, while some of his ancestors are mentioned in docu- ments under the names of “Bimes” and “ Mar- golies.” The family was a very prominent one, tracing back its genealogy to R. Léw ben Bezalel, the “hohe Rabbi Low” of Prague. Meir Fischels was one of the greatest Talmudists of his time. Re- fusing numerous invitations from the largest com- munities in Europe, he remained in Prague as presi- dent of the great bet din, and conducted there for more than forty years a yeshibah that attracted stu- deuts from the most remote countries. His author- ity stood so high that even the world-famous chief rabbi of the community deferred to his halakic deci- sions (see “ Noda‘ bi-Yehudah,” “Yoreh De‘ah,” responsum No. 82, end). In the great conflagration in the ghetto of Prague in 1754 Fischels had the misfortune to lose the man- uscripts of all his works, the fruit of years of devo- tion to the study of the Torah; and he never over- came the grief occasioned by this loss, His death 401 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA First-Fruits Fischer was mourned far and wide. He was buried in the famous old Jewish cemetery of Prague, where, as is customary in the case of especially prominent per- sons, his grave is marked by a mausoleum, with sev- eral stone slabs covered with inscriptions in verse. BIBLIOGRAPHY: K. Lieben, Gal. ‘Hd, No. 114. gs, 8. N. E. FISCHER, BERNARD: Austrian rabbi and author; born at Budikau, a village in the district of Chrudim, Bohemia, Jan. 12, 182!, graduated from the University of Prague (Ph.D., 1850); rabbi of various small congregations in the district of Eger (1854-63). Besides preparing new editions of Bux- torf’s rabbinic lexicon (1878) and Wiener’s Chaldaic grammar (1882), Fischer wrote: “Kochbuch der Kalliope, eine Aesthetik ftir Kunst und Theater- Freunde,” Leipsic, 1896; “Grundziige der Philo- sophie und Theosophie,” 2. 1899; he also edited “ Bikkure ha-‘Ittim,” an illustrated Hebrew monthly, Leipsic, 1868. 8. FISCHER, KARL: Christian censor of Hebre books in Prague; born in Lichtenstadt, Bohemia, July 5, 1755; died at Prague Jan. 22, 1844. He became assistant (1781), and finally successor, to the imperial censor Leopold Tirsch. He possessed an extensive knowledge of Semitic languages and liter- atures, aS appears from his introductory notes to M. J. Landau’s “ Rabbinisch-Aramiisch-Deutsches Worterbuch,” dated 1818, and to L. Dukes’ transla- tion of Rashi, dated 1888. He maintained a corre- spondence in Hebrew with Rabbi Eleazar Flekeles of Prague. His learning and impartiality are especially de- monstrated in his “Gutmeinung iiber den Talmud der Hebréer,” ed. Em. Baumgarten, Vienna, 1883, Fischer acted for a time as librarian of the Univer- sity of Prague. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Baumgarten’s Hinleitung to Fischer's Gut- meinung ither den Talmud der Hebréer. S. M. K. FISCHER, MARCUS (MAIER): Austrian Hebraist; born in Vienna 17838; died at Prague May 22, 1853; son of Moses Fischer, rabbi of the Jewish community of Vienna. He wrote in He- brew an able and comprehensive work on the his- tory of the Jews under Mahdi and Imam Idris, kings of Mauretania, entitled “Toledot Yeshurun Tahat Malke Moritaniyya,” Prague, 1818. He trans- lated from Czech into German the so-called “ Wal- lerstein Chronicle,” a manuscript Which was Known in Prague up to fifty years ago, but which has since disappeared, and which contained a history of the Jews in Prague at the time of the Hussites (“Zik- karon le-Yom Aharon,” by Moses Wolf Jeiteles, Prague, 1828), This translation, unfortunately, has also disappeared. It is said to have been last in pos- session of the historian G. Wolf of Vienna. S. A. Kr. FISCHER, MORITZ VON: Hungarian porce- lain-manufacturer; born at Totis, Hungary, 1800; died there Feb. 25,1900. He rendered distinguished Service to Hungarian industry and art through his porcelain manufactory in Herend near Veszprim. He was compelled to struggle against innumerable difficulties before he succeeded in developing the small factory which he founded in 1839. It, how- V—26 ever, became a veritable art institute, comparing favorably with the famous porcelain establishments of Sévres, Meissen, and Berlin. It has been repre- sented at a large number of international expositions by interesting and artistic exhibits, which were in- variably awarded first prizes, The establishment is at present (1903) under the direction of Eugéne von Fischer, a grandson of the founder. In recognition of the latter’s services Francis Joseph I. raised him in 1869 to the ranks of the Hungarian nobility. S. Ss. 8S. W. FISCHER, MOSES: Austrian rabbi; born at Prague about 1756; died at Eisenstadt, Hungary, about 1883; son of the wealthy Talmudic scholar Meir Fischer, and father of Marcus Fischer. In ad- dition to Talmud, Fischer studied philosophy and mathematics, and was praised for his attainments in logic and Hebrew grammar by Moses Mendelssohn, with whom he corresponded, and to whom he com- municated various observations on his Pentateuch commentary. For nearly two decades he officiated as rabbi (but without assuming the title) of the com- munity of Vienna, which at that time was small. In 1827 he retired to Eisenstadt, a neighboring town. BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Gastfreund, Die Wiener Rabbinen, p.111; Kayserling, Moses Mendelssohn, Ungedrucktes und Unbe- kanntes, pp. &3 et seqg.; M. Kunitz, Ha-Mezaref, No. 22. S M. K. FISCHER, NICOLAUS WOLFGANG: Phy: sician and chemist; born Jan. 15, 1782, in Great Meseritz, Moravia; died Aug. 19, 1850, in Bres- lau. He studied at the universities of Vienna, Prague, Breslau, and Berlin. Having obtained his doctor’s degree at Erfurt Oct. 10, 1806, he settled there in the following year to practise medicine. In 1813 he was appointed assistant professor of chemistry at the University of Breslau, and a year later was made professor, and at the same time was put in charge of the Institute of Chemistry. He filled this office until his death. Besides a large number of chemical disquisitions which appeared in the “Journal fiir Chemie und Physik,” Schweigger’s “ Annalen fiir Chemie,” “ Ab- handlungen der Akademie der Wissenschaften in Berlin” (Physische Classe), “Annalen der Physik und Chemie,” and other publications, Fischer wrote: “Medicaminum Mercurialium Precipua Classifica- tio; Adjectis Nonnullis de Eorum Preparatione Chem.-Pharmac. Annotationibus,” 1806; “De Modis Arsenia Detegendi,” 1812; “Ueber die Wirkung des Lichts auf das Hornsilber,” 1814; “Ueber die Che- mischen Reagentien,” 1816; “Chemische Untersu- chungen der Heilquellen zu Salzbrunn,” 1821; “Ueber die Natur der Metallreduction auf Nassem Wege,” 1828; “Das Verhiiltniss der Chemischen Verwandtschaft zur Galvanischen Elektricitat, in Versuchen Dargestellt,” 1830; and “Systematischer Lehrbegriff der Chemie, in Tabellen Dargestellt,” 1838. In 1815 Fischer and his entire family em- braced Christianity, and from that time he became an ardent supporter of the Christian mission which then flourished in the Jewish section of Breslau. BIBLIOGRAPHY: J.C. Poggendorff, Biog.- Literariaches Hand- worterbuch zur Geseh. der Exacten Wissenschaften, vol. i., Leipsic, 186°; J. F. A. dele Roi, Gesch. der Evangelischen Judenmissicn. p. 240, ib. 1899; Constant von Wurzbach, Bing. Lex. des Kaiserthums Oesterreich, iv., Vienna, 1858. 8, B. B. Fischhof Fish and Fishing THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIs 402 FISCHHOF, ADOLF: Austrian writer and politician; born at Alt-Ofen, Hungary, Dec. 8, 1816; died at Emmersdorf, near Klagenfurth, Carinthia, March 28, 1898. After studying medicine (1836- 1844) he was appointed physician at the Vienna hospital. Fischhof was one of the leaders in the revolutionary movement of 1848, commanding the students’ legion of Vienna and presiding over the Committee of Public Security. He was es- pecially prominent in the Constitutional Assembly (Reichstag), in which he represented one of the Vi- enna districts, In the Libera] cabinet of Doblhof he was attached as counselor to the Ministry of the In- terior. After the dissolution of the Kremsier Diet, March 7, 1849, Fischhof was arrested, accused of rebellion and high treason, but was acquitted after an imprisonment of nine months. He devoted him- self to the practise of medicine until about 1875, when failing health compelled him to retire. With Joseph Unger, later a member of the Aus- trian cabinet, he published in 1861 a pamphlet en- titled “ Lésung der Ungarischen Frage,” in which he pleaded for the division of the empire into Austria and Hungary. After the Austro-Prussian war of 1866 Fischhof wrote “Ein Blick auf Oester- reich’s Lage,” and strongly advised an alliance with Germany. In his “ Oesterreich und die Biirgschaften Seines Bestandes,” 1869, he recommended an auton- omous constitution for Austria. In conjunction with Walterskirchen he planned in 1882 the founda- tion of a German-Austrian people’s party, which by concessions should act as a mediator in the question of nationalities and unite all liberal elements of the empire; but his efforts were frustrated by the resist- ance of the constitutional party. He also wrote: “Zur Reduktion der Kontinentalen Heere” (1875); “Die Sprachenrechte in den Staaten Gemischter Nationalitit” (1885); and “Der Oesterreichische Sprachenzwist ” (1888). BIBLIOGRAPHY : Brockhaus, Konversations-Lexikon; Meyers Konversations-Lexikon; La Grande Encyclopédie; Die Neuzeit, 1893, No. 18; Wurzbach, Biographisches Lexikon der Oest.-Ungarischen Monarchie, 8. S. Man. FISCHHOF, JOSEPH: Austrian pianist and composer; uncle of Robert Fischhof; born April 4, 1804, at Butschowitz in Moravia; died at Vienna June 28, 1857. In 1813 he began to study at the lyceum of Briinn, at the same time receiving instruc- tion in music from the pianist Jahelka ana the bandmaster Rieger. After having finished his stud- ies at the lyceum, he went to the University of Vienna to study philosophy and medicine. At the Austrian capital, through the intercession of his patron, Constantin von Gyika, he was instructed in piano by Anton Halm and the famous bandmas- ter, Ignatz, Ritter von Seyfried. The sudden death of his father in 1827 changed the career of Fiscbhof. He decided to devote him- self from that time entirely to his art, and in 1833 became professor at the conservatory of music in Vienna. He was one of the most popular pianists of the Austrian capital, distinguishing himself particu- larly by his rendition of the compositions of Bach, Beethoven, Mendelssohn, and Chopin. Fischhof was also active as a musical writer and composer. He contributed to Schumann’s “ Cicilia” the excel- lent essay “ Ueber die Auffassung von Instrumental. Compositionen in Hinsicht des Zeitmasses, Nament- lich Beethoven’schen Werken.” He was the author of “Versuch einer Geschichte des Klavierbaus” (1853). He also published a string-quartet, many pianoforte pieces (rondos, variations, fantasias, dances, marches, etc.), variations for the flute, and songs. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jildiseher Plutarch, 1848, ii. 52-55; Baker, Biog. Dict. of Musicians, 1900 g FISCHHOF, ROBERT: Austrian musician; born in Vienna Oct. 31, 1857, When only seven years old Robert Fischhof played in public. He studied at the Vienna Conservatorium under Anton Door (pianoforte), and under Fuchs, Krenn, and Bruckner (composition), and later took piano lessons from Franz Liszt. He has played throughout Europe under the leadership of Abt, Dessoff, Lassen, Grieg, Reinecke, Hiller, Gade, etc., and at the courts of Austria, Prussia, Sweden, and Denmark. In 1884 he became a professor at the Vienna Conserva- torium. He has composed various pieces for the pianoforte, and has played his own compositions in Paris, Berlin, etc. BiBLIOGRAPHY: Eisenberg, Das Geistige Wien, i., 8.v. S$ N. D. FISCHMANN, NAHMAN ISAAC: Austrian author; died in 1873. His home was in Lemberg. He wrote: “Eshkol ‘Anabim,” a collection of He- brew poems (Lemberg, 1827); “ Ha-Ro’eh u-Mebak- ker Sifre Zemannenu,” a criticism of the philological and archeological works of §. L. Rapoport, 8. D. Luzzatto, and 8. J. Reggio (Lemberg and Ofen, 1837-39); “Mappalat Sisera: Der Sturz Sisera’s, oder die Befreiung Israels Durch Barak und De- borah,” a two-act Biblical drama (Lemberg, 1841); “Safah le-Ne‘emanim,” a comprehensive commen- tary on Job (2. 1854); “Ha-‘Et weha-Meshorer,” poem (tb, 1870); “ Kesher Shebnah,” a five-act Bib- lical drama (2b. 1870). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zeitlin, Bibl. Post-Mendels. pp. ast 8. : FISCUS JUDAICUS: The yearly Temple tax of half a shekel prescribed by the Law (Ex. xxx. 13; compare Shek. i. 1), and which the Jews of the Diaspora contributed during the time of the Second Temple. It was diverted by Vespasian, after the destruction of the sanctuary in 70 c.., to the tem- ple of Jupiter Capitolinus at Rome, the amount be- ing two drachmas (Josephus, “B. J.” vii. 6,§ 6; Dion Cassius, lxvi. 7). This was an affront to Jewish religious feeling. Rabbinical law ordained, although merely theoretically, that the half-shekel need not be paid when the Temple no longer ex- isted (Shek. viii. 8). Rome furnishes the best in- formation of the manner in which this tax was collected. Domitian proceeded with great rigor, causing the names of those that lived a Jewish life without paying the tax, or that sought to keep their origin secret, to be reported to him (Suetonius, “Domitian,” § 12). The satirist Martial alludes to the efforts of the Jews to hide the visible sign which showed their nationality (vii. 82, vii. 35), An in- scription of the time of the Flavian emperors men- 403 -_— tions by name a “procurator ad capitularia Jude- orum ” (ofticer of the Jewish tax-lists; “C. I. L.” vi., No. 8604). Rabbinical sources express the idea that this tax was a punishment put upon the Jews for not having paid the half-shekel during the time of the Temple (Mek., Yitro, xii.; Ket. 66b). There was some re- lief during Nerva’s short reign. One of his coins, still extcnt, bears the inscription “Fisci Ludaici calum- nia sublata” (Proceed- ings on account of the fiscus imposed upon the Jews are abolished). But this put a stop merely to the vexations connected with the col- lection of the tax, which was still levied (Ap- pian, “Syr.” § 50; Ori- gen, “Ep. ad Africanum,” § 14; Tertullian, “ Apolo- get.” § 18). Itis not known when it was formally abolished. It was revived in the Middle Ages under the name of OPFERPFENNIG by the German-Roman emperors, BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zorn, Historia Fisci Judaici, Altona, 1734; Minter, Der Jiidische Krieg, p. 5; Gratz, Gesch. 3d ed., iv. 24, 111; Schiirer, Gesch. 3d ed., i, 640, ii. 259, iii. 75; Vogelstein and Rieger, Gesch. der Juden in Rom, pp. 37 et seq.; Madden, History of Jewish Coinage, p. 199; Reinach, Textes d’ Au- teurs Grecs et Romains Relatifs au Judaisme, pp. 196, 333. G. S. Kr. FISH AND FISHING: The Bible does not mention any particular fish by name. “Dag” and “nun” are the generic terms covering all species, thus designated as exceedingly prolific and always to be found in shoals or in Jarge numbers (comp. blessing of Joseph, Gen. xIvill. 16). The large sea- fish are collectively denoted as “tannin,” though in this category quasi-mythological creatures (see Dracon)are also included. By the Dirtary Laws fish are divided into clean and unclean (Lev. xi. 8 Reverse of Brass Coin of Nerva, Bearing Inscription ‘* Fisci Iudaici Calumnia Sublata,”’ (After Madden, “‘ History of Jewish Coin- age.’’) 3 game aE s*. cA A wn PTS Porn Fs ae - NIT ean en ea ee, di Pe is ree J ~ %. tr a oo F = > ( UTNE Fishing in Egypt. (From Wilkinson, ‘‘ Ancient Egyptians,’’) et seg.). The majority of fishes have scales and fins, and therefore belong to the clean class; but, con- trary to their natural order, eels are counted in the unclean class (‘Ab. Zarah 39a). Speculations on the nature of the fish mentioned in the story of Jonah THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Fischhof Fish and Fishing (ii. 1-11). or of that by which Tobit (vi. 3 e¢ seg., viii. 2, xi. 18) was relieved of blindness, belong to the category of Biblical curiosities. Fish, both fresh and salted, constituted a favorite dish among the Hebrews (see CookERY; Foop), On this account the Talmudists value fish highly. Both large and small fish, salted or fresh, raw or cooked, were considered delicacies (Ned. vi. 4). Chopped fish-meat (e.7., tunny-fish) was offered for sale and largely consumed, and the brine from the salted fish (“zir”) was used, as well as the fat or oil (2d.). A dish composed of pieces of fish was known and much affected under the name “zahanah.” As the meaning of this name, “ evil-odored,” indicates, fish was believed to be best when near decomposition (M. Kk. 11a). Small fish were especially recom- mended as wholesome food (Ber. 40a; ‘Ab. Zarah 29a). During pregnancy women were advised to partake of fish (Ket. 61a). Water was regarded Fishing in Assyria, (After Lavard’s ‘ Nineveh.”’) as the best drink after eating fish (M. K. 11a). Young fish were deemed injurious to health (Ber. 44b). Fish-oil was used for fuel (Shab. 24b), sometimes mixed with olive-oil (Bek. 29b). The skin was util- ized for various implements (IKelim x. 1) and as wri- ting-material (Shab. 108a). Similar use was made of fish-bones (Kelim x. 1). Certain medico-prophy- lactic observations concerning the eating of fish at certain periods—before being bled, while nursing a child, while suffering from affections of the eye, etc.—are recorded by the Rabbis (see ‘Ab. Zarah 29a; Ket. 60b; Rashi to Ned. 54b). In the month of Nisan a fish diet predisposes to leprosy (Pes. 1i2b; comp. Ber. 44b; Shab. 67a). The biological knowledge of the Talmud concern- ing fish was of a very primitive order, not only in regard to embryology and propagation—whether by spawn or like mammals (Bek. 7b, Zoological Rashi)—but also as to the method of Views. hatching (Rashi, /.c., and to ‘Ab. Zarah 40a; Ned. 380b); nor was its anatomical knowledge of the piscatorial realm very accurate (see Lewysohn, p. 245). According to the Rabbis, there were in the East not less than 700 kinds of unclean fish (Hul. 63b), but in the West one need not scruple to eat the roe of any fish, be- cause no unclean fish is found there (‘Ab. Zarah 29a). Fish are said to be so prolific becanse Fish and Fishing Flag they are not exposed to the evil eye (Ber. 20a). Among other cities Acre seems to have been re- garded as a great fish-market: hence the prov- erb “Carrying fish to Acre,” an equivalent of the English “Carrying coals to Newcastle” (Ex. R. 126c). Stories concerning tish are not rare in the Tal- mud (RaBBA Bar Bar Hana; ‘Ab. Zarah 39a; B. B. 73b, 74a). Among the tish specifically mentioned in the Talmud the following are the best known: the Spanish mackerel (“cohas ”), the common tunny, the triton, the swordfish, the herring, the sprat, the eel, the muriena, the sturgeon, and the tonguefish. In view of the fact that the Lake of Gennesaret and the Jordan, if not the Dead Sea, were well stocked with fish, it is reasonable to presume that fishing was among the occupations of the ancient Israelites, though comparatively few references to it are found in the Old Testament. In Amos iv. 2 my7.s designates “fishing,” while the fisherman is known as 39 (keri 3%) in Jer. xvi. 16 (comp. Ezek. xvii. 10). Among the fishing-implements mentioned are the “ mikmeret,” a drag-net thrown out from a boat, and which, loaded, sank to the bottom (Isa. xix. 8; Hab. i. 15); and the “ herem,” a smaller net which was thrown either from the boat or the shore (Ezek. xxvi. 5, 14; Hab. i. 16, 17). Hook and line were also in use (“hakkah,” “sir,” “zinnah”; Amos iv. 2; Isa. xix. 8; Hab. 1.15). The “zilzal daggim” mentioned in Job x}. 8l seems to have been aharpoon. Fishing was an occupation; at least a fish-market (sce GATE; JERUSALEM) is named in Neh. iii. 3, xiii. 16. New Testament allusions show that the Lake of Gennesarct was a good fishing-ground (Mark i. 16; Luke v. 2 e¢ seg.). Josephus (“B. J.” ili. 10, § 7) and the Talmud confirm this statement, the Rabbis maintaining that Joshua obliged the tribe of Naphtali to permit open fishing (B. K. 80b). The name “ Bethsaida” (“Zeyadta”), the Biblical [Ha-]Nekeb (Josh. xix. 33), seems to be derived from the fact that fishing was frequent in its neighbor- hood. Fishing-implements, as hook and line, sometimes secured on shore so as to need no further attention (Shab. 18a), and nets of various constructions (Men. 64a; Kelim xxiii. 5, “mezudat ha-sakkarin”; Shab. 18a, “kukare ”; with close meshes, “uzle,” Hul. 51b), are named in the Talmud, as is also a basket-like receptacle (“akon,” Kelim xii. 2, xxiii. 5) of wicker- work in which to keep the fish. Lewysohn’s state- ment (4.¢. p. 250) that ponds were drained for their fish is not borne out by the passage quoted (M. K. 11a). BIBLIOGRAPHY : Nowack, Lehrbuch des Hebrdischen Archd- dlogie; Benzinger, Hehrdische Archdologie; Lewysohn, Die Zoologie des Talmuds; Tristram, Natural Hist. of the Bible, k. G. H. FISHBERG, MAURICE: American physi- Ciun; anthropologist; born Aug. 16, 1872, at Kame- netz, Podolsk, Russia; educated at the public schoo) of his native town. He emigrated to the United States in 1889, and, arriving in New York, studied medicine at the university there. He received his degree from New York University in 1897. Fish- berg has been associated with Beth Israel Hospital, New York, and is medical examiner of the United Hebrew Charities of that city. THe has made a spe- THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 404 cial study of the anthropology and pathology of the Jews, and is the author of “Comparative Pathology of the Jews,” 1890; “Health and Sanitation of the Immigrant Jewish Population of New York City”; “Physical Anthropology of the Jews,” 1902-03, and has contributed various papers on general subjects to the periodical press. F. H. Y. FIUME: Hungarian free city and Adriatic sea- port, with a Jewish population in 1901 of about 2,000. That there were Jews at Fiume in the eigh- teenth century is indicated by the existence there of a Jewish tombstone dated 1746 and a scroll of the Law dated 1789. They were mostly Sephardim who had emigrated from Dalmatia and the Levant, especially from Ragusa and Spalato. Down to 1835 their min- hag was that used at Spalato, and their prayer-book was that of David Pardo, rabbi at Spalato. In 1835 Italian, Greek, German, and Bohemian Jews settled in the city and introduced the minhag “ Ita- liani.” The records of the community were regularly kept as carly as 1824, but down to 1840 only Judeo- Spanish and Italian names are found therein. Begin- ning with 1841 German names appear, and later Hungarian names are met with. The community grew considerably after 1879, when the harbor improvements were begun and trade commenced to increase rapidly. The com- munity numbers now about 2,000 souls. Itsinstitu- tions include a hebra kaddisha (1885), a society of Jewish women, and a society for clothing poor school-children. The community owns an old and anew cemetery, and the hebra kaddisha also owns a cemetery, The corner-stone of a new temple was laid in 1902. There are more than 800 Jewish pupils in the public schools of the city, instruction being carried on in Hungarian, Italian, German, and Croa- tian. Sermons are delivered in Hungarian, German, and Italian. Of its rabbis are known: Mayer Ran- degger; Solomon Raphael Mondolfo (d. 1872); and Adolf Gerléczi (Goldstein), who has held the posi- tion since 1882. D. A. Bt. FIVE SCROLLS. See Meaii.Lot, THE Five. FIXTURES: Things fastened to the ground, directly orindirectly. Doubt may arise with regard to them, whether or not they become in law part of the land. This may be a question between the Jandlord and the tenant, or between the seller and the purchaser of the land. It can not, in Jewish law, arise, on the death of the owner, between the heirs of his land and those succeeding to his movables, as the same law of descent applies to both. For a discussion of the question concerning wri- tings that convey a house or other landed property and concerning what passes as part of such house or property and what does not, see Sate. In An- glo-American law the important question as to fix- tures arising between landjord and tenant is what buildings, fences, machinery, etc., placed by the lat- ter on the land during his tenancy, become part of the freehold, and thus the landlord’s property; and what, as personalty, may be removed by the tenant. This question could not often arise in Jewish law, as, under the customs recognized by it, the tenant 405 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Fish and Fishing Flag was not expected to make, and seldom did make, any substantial improvements or even repairs, either in house or in farming property. Of the tenant of a dwelling-bouse nothing was expected save the placing of a railing about the roof; the putting of the inscribed strips (“mezuzet”) on the door-posts; and the setting up of a ladder to the roof if he wished one. These things he could take with him when he left (Shulhan ‘Aruk, Hoshen Mishpat, 314, based ona baraita to B. M.101b). Ona farm rented either for a fixed rent or on shares, the landlord fur- nished all the fencing (Hoshen Mishpat, 320). Hence ‘there was very little room for dispute over tenants’ fixtures; and the codes are silent about them. 8. 8. L. N. D. FLACCUS: Governorof Egypt; enemy and per- secutor of the Jews of ALEXANDRIA, for which reason Philo, in 42 c.k., directed a special work (“In Flac- cum”) against him. Philo only once (§ 1) gives the full name, @AdKKog ’Aoviddiwc. This is copied by Eusebius (“Chron.” ed. Schoene, ii. 150) and Syncellus (ed. Dindorf, i. 626; in i. 615 the name is corrupted to Ad««xog ’Aotaaoc), The full name, “Aulus Avilius Flaccus,” is found on an inscription from Tentyra in Egypt (“C. L. G.” No. 4716); it is found aiso on a papyrus fragment containing a de- cree of Flaccus, though some scholars read “ Lucius ” instead of “ Aulus.” Flaccus grew up with the sons of Augustus’ daughter, and was in later years a friend of Tiberius, under whom he was for five years prefectof Egypt. Philo himself says (§3) that he tilled his office peacefully and uprightly, surpassing all his predecessors. He remained in office under Caligula not for one year, as Philo says, but for one and a half years. Tiberius died in 37; but Macro, whom Caligula forced to commit suicide, died in 88 (Philo, “ Legatioad Caium,” $§ 6-8 ; Dion Cassius, lix. 10; Suetonius, “ Caligula,” § 26); while the massacre of the Jews took place in the fallof 88. It was only after this event that Flaccus was suddenly recalled. Regarding the persecutions see ALEXANDRIA, It may be noted here that Flaccus had previously shown his ill will toward the Jews by keeping back the deed of homage which they had addressed to Caligula (“In Flaccum,” § 12). _ His animus against them was manifest also during the persecutions that took place at the time of mourning for DRUSILLA. Flaccus was recalled and banished to the island of Andros, where he was soon after executed, in 39 C.E. (¢b. $3 12-21). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gratz, Gesch. 4th ed., iii. 331; Vogelstein and Rieger, Gesch. der Juden in Rom, i. 17; Schiirer, Gesch. 3d ed., i. 496; Nicole, Avilius Flaccus, Préfet Wd Eqypte, et Philon @ Alexandrie, in Revue de Philologie, xxii. 18-27; Prosopographia Imperit Romani, i. 190. G. S. Kr. FLACCUS, L. POMPONIUS: Roman gov- ernor of Syria (82-357); no particulars concerning hislifeare known. When Agrippa(afterward King Agrippa I.), while poor and suffering, was insulted: by his brother-in-law Herod Antipas, he applied to Flaccus, with whom he had formed a friendship at Rome. BIBLIOGRAPHY : Gritz, Gesch. 4th ed., iii, 319; Schiirer, Gesch. 3d ed., i. 551; Prosopographia Imperit Romani, ili. 76. G. S. Kr. a aa a a I IA A SS A A FE A FP SSE EA AO FLACCUS, L. VALERIUS: Proconsul of Asia Minor in 62-61 B.c. He is notorious in the his- tory of the Jews for having seized for the public treasury the Temple money intended for Jerusa- lem; thus, at APAMEA, nearly 100 pounds of gold through the Roman knight Sextus Cesius; at Lao- DICEA, more than 20 pounds through L. Peducsus; at Adramyttium, an unknown sum through the legate Cnzus Domitius; at PERGAMON, asmall sum, as probably not many Jews were living there at that time. Accused of extortion during his term of of- fice, Flaccus was defended by CricExo (59), himself opposed to the Jews. Cicero justified Flaccus in reference to the Temple money by using a clever oratorical device to show that his edict, to the effect that no money should besent out of Asia, was a law general in its application, and that the subordinates of Flaccus, who were all men of good repute, had proceeded openly and not in secret (Cicero, “Pro Flacco,” & 28). The outcome of the suit is not known. It is not likely, however, that Flaccus was punished. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gritz, Gesch. 4th ed., iii. 166; Vogelstein and Rieger, Gesch. der Juden in Rom, i. 8; Schiirer, Gesch. 8d ed., ili. 10, 70. G. S. Kr. FLAG: A standard or banner having a certain color, emblem, and sometimes an inscription, and carried before a marching army to distinguish its nationality. Flags are of ancient origin. Accord. ing to the Bible, each of the twelve tribes of the Israelites had its special banner. The Midrash (Num. R. ii.) on the passage “ Every man of the children of Israei shall pitch by his own standard, with the ensign of their father’s house” (Num, ii. 2), explains that the emblems and colors corresponded to the twelve precious stones set in the breastplate worn by the high priest, as follows: Repre- Tribe. sentative | Color of Banner. Emblem. Stone.* | Reuben......... Sardius ietelBOe va paektetevs Mandrake. Simeon......... ‘Topaz ...... GTOCU sive ciaaeeé City of Sche- chem. TOV iin ioc 4 ay Carbuncle ..j/Tricolor of white,,Urim and black, and red. Thummim., JUAN .... cee eee Emerald...'Sky-blue......... Lion. Issachar......../Sapphire ...|Black.,.........../Sunm and moon, Zebulun..,.....|Diamond...|White............ Ship. Dad oiidess es far Ligure ..... BluGies os cc se ese os (BNAKE GAs 66-06 hone Agate...... TAG sctrraesasdaqas Camp Naphtali,....... Amethyst...|Wine-color....... ‘Hind. ASNELr 2... cece Beryl...... Pearl-color....... Female figure 6 and olive-tree, yt _ é Ephraim..../Onyx....... Jet-black......... = | Bullock. % i Manasseh..| “ ......, ree” ee teweees to | Unicorn. S| | = | Benjamin......|Jasper....../The above colors combined...,...) Wolf. The Targum Yerushalmi says that the flag of Judah bore, over a roaring lion, the inscription “Rise up, Lord, and let thine enemies be scattered ; and let them that hate thee flee before thee” (Num. x. 35). A legend ascribes the origin of the name “Maccabee” to the phrase ” pon 1193 9 (abbre- * Regarding the order of the stones in the ephod, see EPHOD. Flagellants Fleck viated “'93%. Who is like thee among the mighties, O Lord”), written on the banner of the Hasmoneans. In the synagogue at the Festival of the Rejoicing of the Law it is customary for children to carry in the procession together with the holy Scrolls flags of various designs. The Zionists have adopted a flag made up of a white ground with a blue horizontal stripe on each side, and the shield of David in the center in blue. A. J. D. E. FLAGELLANTS. See FERRER, VICENTE. FLAGELLATION. See Stripes. FLAMBEAU, LE. Sce PERIODICALS. FLATAU, THEODOR SIMON: German phy- sician; born at Lyck, province of East Prussia, June 4, 1860. He received his education at the gymna- sium of his native town, at the Grauen Kloster in Berlin, and at the universities of Berlin and Heidelberg, taking his degree as doctor of medicine at Berlin in 1883. In the same year he established himself as physician in that city, where he now (1903) practises, making a specialty of the treatment of ear- and nose-diseases. He is teacher of the physiology of the voice and the theory of singing at. the royal academical high school for music, and holds similar offices in connection with the courses for teachers offered by the Ministry of Education, aud with the advanced courses for army physicians given at the Kaiser Wilhelms Akademie. Flatau is the author of several works, chiefly on laryngology, among which are: “Die Laryngo- skopie und Rhinoskopie mit Einschluss der Allge- meinen Diagnostik und Therapie,” Berlin, 1890; “Die Nasen-, Rachen- und Kehlkopfkrankheiten, ” Leipsic, 1894; “Die Bauchrednerkunst” (with H. Gutzmann), 20. 1894; “Die Sprachgebrechen des Jugendlichen Alters,” Halle, 1896; “Die Anwen- dung des Rontgenschen Verfahrens in der Rhino- laryngologie,” Vienna, 1899; “Prophylaxe der Hals- und Nasenkrankheiten,” Munich, 1900; and “Yntonationsst6rungen und Stimmverlust,” Berlin, 1902. BIBLIOGRAPHY : Pagel, Biographisches Lexikon, 8.v. S. F. T. H. FLATTERY (Ilebr. “helek,” “helkah”: lit. “smoothness”; Neo-Hebr. “hanufah”): Insincere, obsequious, or venal praise. Flattery is condemned by Jewish moralists as an offense against sincerity (Ps. xii. 3). Et spreads a net for man, and may work his ruin (Prov. xxvi. 28, xxix. 5; compare ii. 16, vi. 24, vil. 21). “He is more blessed that rebuketh a man than he that flattereth with his tongue” (Prov. xxviii. 23, Hebr.). Evil-doers command their seers to speak flatteries and prophesy deceits (Isa. xxx. 10; Ezek. xiii. 10, 16; Jer. xxiii. 17); true prophets do not smoothen their words in reproving the people for their sins (Jer. xxiii. 22). In the same spirit, the Rabbis praise truthfulness of speech and frank reproof, and condemn the insin- cerity of flattery (Shab. 104a, 119b; Tamid 28a; B. M. 49a). “Flattery causes degeneracy,” said R. Simeon b. Halafta. “The flatterer brings wrath into the world; his prayer is not heard; he is ac- cursed and is doomed to Gehinnom,” said R. Bleazar. THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 406 “Despicable is the congregation which flatters.” “When Israel flattered Agrippa, it deserved anni- hilation,” said R. Nathan. “Upon flatterers the Shekinah doth not rest” (Sotah 41b, 42a). It is reprehensible to flatter the great (Ket. 63b, 84b). “Hate him who lauds thee so that thy wisdom be not lessened ” (Derek Erez Zutaix.). “A man should not accustom himself to the use of flattery ” (Mai- monides, “Yad,” De‘ot, ii. 6). In the Middle Ages the Rabbis frequently con- demn flattery in their moral treatises and ethical wills. R. Eleazar b. Judah of Worms (d. 1238) said: “Mislead no one by flattery or untruth” (Zunz, “Z.: G.” p. 184). “ Flatter not even relatives or children when they are not doing right. Especially should the head of a congregation, the judge, the adminis- trator of charity, be a candid man who would never flatter from personal interest. Most blameworthy is that flattery which aims at tempting another to wrong-doing ” (. p. 155). Asher b. Jehiel (d. 1827) said in his testament: “ Flatter not your companion, and speak no untruthful word to him; be sincere with every one, also with those who are non-Jews” (tb. p. 148). Frequently testators request that no eulogy (“hesped ”) be delivered over their remains, lest the preachers ineur the guilt of falsehood and flattery (“J. Q. R.” iii. 469; Liebmann Adler’s “ Last Will,” in “History of Kehillath Anshe Ma‘arabh,” Appendix iv., Chicago, 1897). K, J. Sto, FLAVIA DOMITILLA: Convert to Judaism and martyr at Rome. An carly branch of the im- perial Flavian house was at one time inclined toward Judaism and Christianity. Even Titus Flavius Sabinus, Vespasian’s elder brother, led during his last years a life that may be called Jewish or Chris- tian. One of his four children, Titus Flavius Clemens, later consul and martyr, married Flavia Domitilla, who was a granddaughter of his uncle, the emperor Vespasian, and therefore a cousin of Titus and Domitian. Clemens’ two children, called Vespasian and Domitian, were educated by the famous Quintilian (“Institutio Oratoria,” iv. 1, § 2), and were secretly destined as successors to Domitian (Suetonius, “ Domitian,” § 15). This arrangement, however, was disturbed when it became known that both Clemens and Domitilla leaned toward the de- spised “ Oriental superstition.” Dion Cassius relates that Domitian had many persons executed, including the consul Flavius Clemens and his wife, Flavia Domitilla, although both were his own relations. He adds: “ Both had been accused of atheism [aved- 7c], a charge under which many who had followed Jewish customs and laws were executed, while many others were deprived of their property; Domitilla, however, was only banished to the island of Panda- taria” (“ Hist.” xvii. 13). Clemens and Domitilla may be regarded as converts to Judaism. The incident is alluded to in rabbinical writings. An eminent senator, ason of Titus’ sister, and hence Domitian’s nephew, is said to have adopted Judaism ; even traces of the name “Clemens” are visible in the account (Git. 56b). The tradition is again men- tioned in ‘Ab, Zarah 10b, but with the allegcrical name “Keti‘a b. Shalom” (yp = “ circumcised,” oroey 43 = ‘son of the world to come”); reference 407 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Klageilants Fleck is probably made to the same pious senator who averted a misfortune which threatened the Jews at Rome (Deut. R. xi.). It is curious that the Domitilla chapel in the catacombs of Rome is arranged on a Jewish pattern (N. Miller, in Herzog-Hauck, “ Real- Encyc.” 8d ed., x. 863). Clemens and Domitilla, how- ever, on the authority of Eusebius (“ Hist. Eccl.” iii. 18), are generally considered to have been Chris- tians. But he mentions only the conversion of Dom- itilla, saving that she was the daughter of Clemens’ sister, and that she was deported to the island of Pontia (compare also his “ Chronicle,” year 98). Eu- sebius must refer to some other Flavia Domitiila. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gritz, Die Jidischen Proselyten im Rimer- reiche, pp. 28 et seg.; idem, Gesch. 380 ed., iv. 403; Lebrecht, in Geiger’s Jtid. Zeit. xi. 273; Berliner, Gesch. der Juden in Rom, p. 39; Kraus, Roma Sotterranea, p. 41, Freiburg-in- Breisgau, 1873; Reinach, Fontes Rerum Judaicarum, i. 195 ; Prosopographia Imperit Romani, ii. 81. G. . S. Kr. FLAVIA NEAPOLIS. See SHECHEM. FLAVIUS CLEMENS. See Fuavia Domt- TILLA. FLAVIUS EBORENSIS or DIDACCO PYRRHO: Poet; born at Evora, Portugal, April 4, 1517; died at Ragusa, Sicily, 1607. He belonged to the Adumim, an old Spanish family, the greater part of which settled in Italy and assumed the name “De Rossi.” His parents, in order to avoid persecution, pretended to adopt Christianity; but they inculcated in their son a love of Judaism, and recommended him, when he was scarcely seventeen years old, to leave his native country for a land where he could openly profess his faith. In 1536 Flavius went to Flanders, then to Switzerland, and in 1552 settled at Ancona. He was considered one of the greatest Latin poets of his time, and was the author of many valuable poetical works, several of which were published. These include: “ Excerpta ex Flavii Jacobi Eborensis Carminibus ad Historiam Sacram Rachusinam Ali- quo Modo Facientibus”; “Jacobi Flavii Eborensis seu Didaci Pirrhi Lusitani Elegiarum Libri Tres ad Dominicum Slatorichium,” Venice, 1596; “ Elegia in Obitum P. Marci Vetranii,” in the collection “ Vite et Carmina Nonnullorum [llustrium Civium Racusi- norum,” 2b. 1598; “Cato Minor,” 7d. 1592; “De Ex- ilio Suo,” Castelnuovo, 1588; “Carmina Selecta,” Cracow, 1582. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Cherso, Della Vita e degli Scritti di Didacco Pyrrho; Mortara and Griinwald, in Jtidisches Centratblatt, ii. 74; M. Lattes, Notizie e Documenti di Letleratura e Storia Giudaice, pp. 32 et seq.; Leone Luzzatto, in Corriere Israelitico, xv. 12, 181; Griimwald and Casnacick, Didacco Mee aun Flavius Eborensis Genannt, Frankfort-on-the ain, G. I. Br. FLAVIUS JOSEPHUS. See Josepuus Fua- ViIUs. FLAVIUS (RAIMUNDUS) MITHRIDA- TES: Italian scholar; flourished at Rome in the second half of the fifteenth century. His Jewish name is unknown. About 1486 he lived at Fratta, near Ferrara, in the house of Count Johannes Pico de Mirandola, whom he instructed in Aramaic. Flavius was charged by Pope Sixtus IV. with the translation into Latin of some cabalistic works (thirty-eight fragments in Vatican MSS. Nos. 189- 191). He furthermore translated into Latin Maimon- ides’ epistie on resurrection, Levi ben Gershon’s commentary on the Song of Solomon, and Judahi’s “ Ma’amar ha-Hawayah ha-Hekkeshiy yah,” or “ Ser- mo de Generatione Sylogismorum Simplicium et Compositorum in Omni Figura.” He seems not to have known that the last-named work was really written in Latin by gidius, and that Judah was only the translator of it. Flavius was the au- thor of “De Tropis IUlebraicis,” an original work in Latin on Hebrew accents, which was highly praised by Sebastian Munster and [mbonatus. Some scholars think, but without sufticient reason, that Flavius is identical with the cabalist Johanan Aleman ben Isaac, a contemporary and associate of Johannes Pico de Mirandola. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Dukas, Recherches, pp. 46, 69, 72; Joseph Perles, in R. BE. J. xii. 249: idem, Beitrdge, pp. 178-196; Bbrill’s Jahrb. iii. 196; Salfeld, Das Hohelied, p. 17; Stein- schneider, in Monatsschrift, 1898, p. 262; idem, Hebr. Uebers. Ee tet Vogelstein and Rieger, Gesch. der Juden in Rom, li. 75. G. I. Br. FLAX (Hebr. “pishtah”): The principal species of the natural order Linacew, which includes more than fifty other species. The culture of flax in Palestine preceded the conquest of that country by the Hebrews (Joshua ii. 6). Some of the processes in its preparation for man- ufacture into cloth are alluded toin the Bible. After being pulled, the stalks of flax were spread out on the flat roofs of the houses, and left to dry by expo- sure to the heat of the sun (2b.); they were then peeled and their fibers separated and sorted, an oper- ation implied in the etymology of the word “ pish- tah”; finally, the fibers were hackled or combed and made ready to be woven into cloth (7. xix. 9). The fiax or linen thread called “bad ”—probably the best variety, white, fine, and strong, was used in making the vestments of the priests and other rich clothing (Ex. xxviii. 42; [Sam. ii. 18). The plural “baddim” (Ezek. ix. 2, 3) designates “linen gar- ments,” especially the garments of the priests (comp. Lev. xvi. 4). The angels themselves are described as being clothed in linen garments (Ezek. ix. 2; Dan. x. 5). The commoner kinds of linen were used in the manufacture of various articles, such as cords (Ezek. xl, 3), lamp-wicks (Isa. xlii. 3; comp. Matt. xii. 20), etc. Linen used for clothing could not lawfully be mixed with woo]. “Thou shalt not wear a mingled stuff, wool and linen together” (Deut. xxii. 11). The flax industry seems to have been held in high esteem by the Hebrews; for one of the character- istics of the virtuous woman is that “she seeketh wool and flax and worketh willingly with her hands” (Prov. xxxi. 18). BIBLIOGRAPHY : P. Bourdais, La Flore dela Bible, Paris, 1879; H. Tristram, The Natural History of the Bible, London, 1889; I. Low, Aramdische Planzennamen; Post, Flora of Syria, Patestine, and Sinat. E. G. H. H. HH. FLEA. See INsEctTs. FLECK, JOHANN FRIEDRICH FERDI- NAND: German actor; born at Breslau 1757; died in Berlin Dec. 20,1801. He made his début in 1777, at Leipsic, where he remained until 1779, when he Fleckeles Flesh went to Hamburg. - After a stay of four years in that city he went to Berlin. Fleck was one of the leading actors of his time; and so highly esteemed was he that on his death Abramson was commissioned to strike a commemo- rative medallion bearing the inscription, “Gross als Kiinstier; bieder als Mensch.” His best rdéles were Wallenstein, Gétz, Karl Moor, Otto von Wittelsbach, Essex, and Tancred. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Moniteur des Dates, p. 81: Fliggen, Blihnen Lexikon, pp. 85-86 ; G. Karpeles, Gesch. der Jtid. Lit. Index. 8, E. Ms. FLECKELES: One of the oldest Jewish fam- ilies in Prague; probably “Falkeles” originally, from “Falk,” acommon name among Jews of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The name occurs with various spellings (as “Felkeles” and “Falkenes”) on old tombstones in the Jewish ceme- tery of Prague (see Hock, “ Die Familien Prags,” 1892, s.v. “Presburg”). The only known attempt to construct a family tree was made by R. Eleazar Fleckeles, who traced his ancestors to the ninth gen- eration as follows: Eleazar (1723-98) b. David b. Wolf b. Shalom b. Selig b. David b. Wolf (d. 1672) b. David b. Wolf. The last-named was a son-in-law of David Gans, and is mentioned by Heller in Tosafot Yom-Tob on Kilayim 3, Mishnah 1, From the above-mentioned work of Hock it seems that Wolf was theson of David b. Judah, who died in 1602, and who had another son, Hirsch (d.1605), anda daughter, Pessel (d. 1636). The Fleck- eles family was connected by marriage with that of R. Low of Prague and that of R. Heschel of Cracow, as well as with other prominent families. Eleazar Fleckeles’ daughter was married to R. Isaac Spitz of Bunzlau. Leopold Fleckeles, physician and writer (in German) on medical subjects, was born in Vienna 1802, and died in Carlsbad 1879. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Ha-Maggid, x. 197 et seq. (biography of Elea- zar Fleckeles by his grandson Yom-Tob Spitz); Kaufmann, Der Stammbaum des R. Elasar Fleckeles, in Monatsschrift, XXXVii. 378 ef seq. P. Wr. H. R. FLECKELES, ELEAZAR BEN DAVID: Austrian rabbiand author; born in Praguc Aug. 26, 1754; died there April 27, 1826. He was the pupil of Moses Cohen Rofe, Meir Fischels, and Ezekiel Landau. At the age of twenty-four he became rabbi of Kojetein, a small town in Moravia. In 1780 he was appointed dayyan in his native city. Later he accepted the office of rabbi of the bet ha-midrash founded by Joachim Popper and Israel Frinke). Fieckeles was renowned for his scholarship and ora- torical gifts, and for his skill in worldly affairs. He twice had audience with Emperor Francis I. Fleckeles wrote: “‘Olat Hodesh,” in four parts, containing sermons, a criticism of Mendelssohn’s translation of the Pentateuch, and an address di- rected against the followers of the pseudo-Messiah Shabbethai Zebi, Prague, 1785-1800; “Teshubah me-Ahababh,” responsa, in three parts (the respon- sum concerning Eleazar ha-Kalir is often quoted by writers on Jewish hymnology), Prague, 1800-21; a funeral sermon on the occasion of the death of Joachim Edler von Popper, 7. 1795; “ Meleket ha-Kodesh,” two funeral sermons and two essays THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 408 on the holy names of the Lord which occur in the Scriptures; “Nefesh Dawid we Nefesh Hayyah.” delivered by the author on the death of his par- ents, 7). 1812; “ Ma‘ase de-Rabbi Eliezer,” a commentary on the Hag ygadah of Passover, tb. 1812; “Mebasser Tob,” two sermons de- livered by the author on the occasion of the victory of the Austrian army at Naples in 1821, 7b. 1821; “Hazon la- Mo‘ed,” a part of his “Sefer ha-Doresh,” <0. 1824; “ Mille de-Abot,” a commentary on Pirke Abot; “Mille de-Oraita,” sermons. Many of his ser- mons were translated into German by J. Jeitteles, Marcus Fisher, and Isaac Spitz. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Fiirst, Bibl. Jud. i. 263-284; Fuenn, Keteset Yisrael, p. 182; Orient, Lit. 1840, p. 231; Yom-Tob Spitz, Biographie desVerewigten Rabbi Hlasar Fleckeles, Prague, 1827; Kaufmann, in Monatsschrift, 1898. pp. 378-392; Kauf- mann Gedenkbuch, p. 560. N. T. L. 8. 8, FLEISCHER, MAX: Austrian architect; born in Prossnitz, Moravia, March 29,1841. After grad- uating from the polytechnic high school of Vi- enna, he entered the Vienna academy of fine arts, where he studied under the architects Van der Null, Storck, Roesner, and Friedrich vonSchmidt. For the part he had taken in the building of the new Vienna town hall, he received from the emperor the golden cross of merit with the crown, and from the common council the freedom of the city; and his bust was placed upon the keystone of the entrance to the town hall. After acquiring a competence he devoted him- self chiefly to designing synagogues and tombs. He planned the synagogues in the eighth and nineteenth districts in Vienna, also those in Budweis, Krems, Pilgram, etc.; while others (e.g., those in Nikolsburg and Lundenburg) were rebuilt under his direction. The tombs of Wilhelm, Ritter von Gutmann, Salo- mon Sulzer, Adolf Jellinek, Adolf Fischhof, and oth- ers, at the Central-Friedhof, Vienna, are from his de- signs. Fleischer is active in the affairs of the Jewish community of Vienna, of whose council he has been a member since 1879. He is one of the founders and trustees of the Gesellschaft fiir Sammlung und Con- servierung von Kunst- und Historischen Denkmi- lern des Judenthums. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Oesterreichische Woehenschrift, March 29, 1901, p. 221; April 28, 1893, pp. 320-321, 483. 8. N. D. FLEISCHL VON MARXOW, ERNST: Aus- trian physician; born at Vienna Aug. 5, 1846; died there Oct. 22, 1891. He received his education at the universities of Leipsic and Vienna, graduating from the latter as doctor of medicine in 1870. In the following year he became prosector at the ana- tomical institute of Vienna University under Roki- tansky, and in 1873 privat-docent and assistant to the chair of physiology. In 1880 he was appointed assistant professor, and in 1887 was elected a cor- Eleazar Fleckeles, 409 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Fleckeles Flesh responding member of the Imperial Academy of Sciences in Vienna. Fleisch] invented several physiological instru- ments, among which are the “ Kapillarelektrometer ” and the “ Héimometer.” He contributed many e€s- says to the medical journals, and was also the au- thor of the following works: “Ueber den Bau der Sogenannten Schilddriise des Frosches,” in “Sitzungsberichte der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften,” 1868; “ Eine Liicke in Kant’s Philosophie,” Vienna, 1872; ‘“ Unter- suchung tiber die Gesetze der Nervenerregung,” seven essays, in “Sitzungsherichte der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften,” 7. 1875-80; “ Die Doppelte Brechung des Lichtes in Fliissigkeiten,” ¢, 1884; “Die Deformation der Lichtwellenfliche im Magnetischen Felde,” 7). 1885. He also translated CO. Maxwell’s “Matter and Motion,” Vienna, 1887. His “Gesammte Abhandlungen” were edited by Exner, Vienna, 1893. A mural portrait of Fleisch] was placed in the arcade of the University of Vienna in 1898. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Pagel, Biog. Lev. s.v., Vienna, 1901. 8. F. T. H. FLEISCHMANN, JULIUS: American mer- chant; mayor of Cincinnati, Ohio; born at River- side, Ohio, June 8, 1872. Fleischmann was a mem- ber of the staff of Governor McKinley (later President of the United States), and also of the staffs of Gov- ernors Bushnell and Nash. In the spring of 1900 Fleischmann was nominated as the candidate of the Republican party for mayor of Cincinnati, and was elected April 2. A unique feature of this election was that the candidates of both of the principal parties were Jews. Fleischmann was reelected by a largely increased majority on April 6, 1903. A. D. P. FLESCH, ABRAHAM: Rabbiin Vienna at the beginning of the seventeenth century. According to G. Wolf, he is identical with Abraham Austerlitz. Flesch is the author of a eulogy beginning with the words “ Arid be-Sihi,” which appeared at the conclusion of the “Minhat Yizhak” of Isaac b. Judah L6éb Mentz of Nikolsburg (Amsterdam, 1688). BIBLIOGRAPHY : Steinsehneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 1128; Lands- huth, “Anonude ha-“Abodah, p. 10; Zunz, Literaturgesch. p. 442; Wolf, Juden in der Leopoldstadt, Ist Addenda. S, M. K. FLESCH, JOSEPH: German merchant; born in Rausnitz, Moravia; died there Dec. 17, 1889. Flesch wrote excellent Hebrew, was a collaborator of the “ Bikkure ha-‘Ittim,” and translated into He- brew several of the writings of Philo, notably “Quis Rerum Divinarum Heres Sit” (under the title “Ha-Yoresh Dibre Elohim,” Prague, 1830) and “De Vita Moysis” (under the title “ Hay ye Mosheh,” 7b. 1888). To the former work is added the ora- tion which Joseph delivered at his father’s funeral. The list of Jewish scientists which he compiled under the title “Reshimat Anshe Mofet,” and which has appeared as an addition to M. J. Landau’s work on Isaiah, and also separately (Prague, 1838), is faulty and unreliable. His father, Abraham Flesch (born Jan. 22, 1755; died Jan. 24, 1828). was rabbi in Rausnitz, Moravia. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Roest, Cat. Rosenthat. Bibl. pe. 374, 932; Ap- pendix, Nos. 604, 1118, 1852; First, Bibl. Jud. i. 284, J. M. K. FLESH (4y’3): The soft portions of the animal body, internally connected with the skeleton of bones and externally enclosed by the skin (Gen. ii. 21; Job x. 11). Fleshis anarticle of food (Dan. vii. 9), generally roasted over the fire or boiled (I Sam. ii. 18, 15). The word is also applied to the flesh of birds (Num. xi. 33). Otherwise, the Hebrew has usually the word aNy (Ex. xxi. 10; Ps. Ixxviii. 20, 27). Ina graphic description of the oppressive tactics of the powerful, Micah charges them with eating the flesh (9Nw) of the people, preparing it “as flesh [Swa]}] for the caldron” (Micah iii. 2-3, Hebr.). Eating of flesh with the blood in it was as- sociated with a riotous, gluttonous disposition (Prov. xxiii. 20). A familiar but terrible menace is that one’s flesh shall be given over to the birds to eat (Gen. xl. 19; I Sam. xvii. 44; Ezek. xxvii. 5), In an enlarged sense, “flesh ” assumes the meaning of “body ” (ix. iv. 7; Lev. xiv. 9, xix. 28; II Kings vi. 80; Zech. xiv. 12) or of parts of it (Lev. vi. 10; Ezek. xliv. 7). Employed figuratively, “flesh,” soft and impressionable, is contrasted with “stone,” hard and unyielding (“stony heart” as against “heart of flesh”: Ezek. xxxvi. 26). As the corruptible and weak part of the body, “flesh” expresses weakness, as against “spirit,” which indicates strength (Isa, xxxi. 3); in Job vi. 12 it is similarly contrasted with “brass.” Thence also its use as designating “man” (Jer. xvii. 5; Ps. xxviii. 39), especially in the phrase “all flesh ” for “all man- kind” (Gen. vi, 12-18[A.V. “every living thing "J, vi. 19, vil. 21; Num. xvi. 22; Job xxxiv. 15; Ps. Ixv. 2, cxxxvi. 25; “All flesh is grass,” Isa. xl. 6; “the God of all flesh,” Jer. xxxii, 27). “Mesh,” therefore, denotes also a person; “my flesh” = “[” (Ps, xvi, 9, Ixili. 2); one’s whole being is ex- pressed by “my heart and my flesh” (Ps. 1xxxiv. 8). The original meaning of “ flesh "—clan—under- lies its use in Adam’s welcome to Eve and in the designation of husband and wife as “one flesh” (Gen. ii. 23-25). It is probable, if the correct read- ing were given in the other parts of the passage, that in Job xix. 26 “in my flesh ” would be found to have this meaning: His “ go’el” (blood-avenger) even now liveth; from hisown clan willhearise. Not to “ with- hold thyself from thine own flesh” (Isa. } viii. 7) ex- presses, therefore, the obligation to help one’s fellow man. In Ecclesiastes “flesh ” carries the implication of carnal appetite, as the sensual part of man’s being (Eccl. xii. 12), a use very general in the New Testa- ment. “Take my flesh in my teeth” (Job xiii. 14) is an idiomatic equivalent for running dangerous risks. The word 4w3 is explained by the Talmudists as composed of the initials 9 = Awa, “shame”; w=D = ANMND or Nw, “corruption” or “Sheol”; 9 = Nor, “worm” (Sotah 5a), an opinion which reflects a certain theological leaning toward the Pauline view of the sinfu!ness of the flesh (Rom. viii. 1; Col. ii. 11). Judaism knows nothing of the “mortification of the flesh” (see ABSTINENCE; ASCETICISM; Bopy); the vows of castigation are called “nidre ‘innui ha- nefesh,” not “ha-basar” (Yer. Ned. xi. 42c). The “mortifications” on Yom ha-Kippurim consist in Flexner Flood abstaining from eating and drinking, washing, ointments, shoves, and cohabitation (Yoma 76a). “Flesh and fish” represents substantial food as against a vegetable diet (Shab. 140b; compare the English expression “neither flesh, fowl, nor fish,” or the German “ weder Fisch noch Fleisch ”). EK. G. H. FLEXNER, SIMON: American physician and pathologist; born at Louisville, Kentucky, March 25, 1863. He received the degree of doctor of medi- cine at the University of Louisville, and continued his studies at Johns Hopkins University and the universities of Strasburg and Prague. Flexner was formerly assistant professor of pathology at Johns Hopkins University, and is now (1903) professor of pathology at the University of Pennsylvania. He has recently been appointed head of the Rockefel- ler Institute of Preventive Medicine, New York. In 1900 he served asa member of the Johns Hopkins University Medical Commission to the Philippine Islands, and in 1901 as a member of the National Plague Commission. Flexner is a member of nu- merous learned societies, among them being the As- sociation of American Physicians, the American Philosophical Society of Philadelphia, the Washing- ton Academy of Sciences, and the Medico-Chirur- gical Society of Bologna. He has published numer- ous papers on medical subjects, principally original researches in pathology and bacteriology. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Who's Who in America, 1902. a FLISFEDER, D. I.: Russian physician and scholar; born about 1850; died in 1885 at Kishinev, where he had settled a few years previously. Flis- feder was best known for his writings in Russian on the Jewish question. When only twenty years old he wrote for the “Novorosiski Telegraf” (1870, p. 1) an article on the Jews of Kiev under the title “Yevrei v Kievye.” Under the same title he wrote also for the “ Kievski Telegraf” (1872, pp. 120-180) and for the “ Kievlyanin ” (1880, p. 206). His two im- portant works on the Jewish question are “ Yevrei i ikh Uchenie ob Inovyertzakh,” St. Petersburg, 1874, an essay on the Jewish teaching concerning people of other religions; and “ Yevreiski Vopros pred Sudom Istorii,” 2b. 1882, which bears on the Jewish question. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Ha-Meliz, 1885, col. 696. H. R. : M. SEL. FLOGGING. See FINES AND FORFEITURE. FLOOD, THE (Hebr. 5139; LXX. xaraxAvoyds). —Biblical Data (Gen. vi. 9-ix. 17): When God on account of man’s wickedness resolved to destroy by a flood all mankind and all! the animal world, only Noah and his family and two (or seven) pairs of every living species were excepted. To save them Noah was bidden by God to build a huge chest or ark, in which they were hidden during the Flood. When the waters abated and the ark rested on one of the mountains of Ararat, Noah sent forth a raven and doves, and when the second dove returned with an olive-leaf in her mouth, while the third dove did not return, it was proof that the ground wasdry. On leaving the ark, Noah built an altar and offered sacrifice, which God accepted, proniising to curse THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 410 the earth no more. He blessed Noah and madea covenant with him and his descendants, signified by therainbow. In later literature this event is alluded to in Ezek. xiv. 14, 20; Isa. xxiv. 5, 18; liv. 9; Ps, xxix. 10; Job xxii. 15 ef seg. E. G. H. W. M.-A. ——In Rabbinical Literature: When Noah was four hundred and eighty years old all the righteous sons of men were dead, except Methuselah and Noah himself. At God’s command they both an- nounced that one hundred and twenty years would be given tomen for repentance; if in that time they had not mended their evil ways, the earth would be destroyed. But their plea was in vain; even while Noah was engaged in building the ark the wicked made sport of him and his work, saying: “If the Flood should come, it could not harm us. We are too tall; and, moreover, we could close up with our feet [which were of moustrous size] the springs from below.” (Being descendants of the “sons of God,” they were of immense stature; see FALL Or ANGELS; Grants). In fact, they resorted to these tactics; but God heated the water, and their feet and the flesh of their bodies were scalded (Pirke R. El. xxii, end). According to another version (Midrash ha-Gadol, ed, Schechter, p. 145), Noah was asked what kind of flood was to come upon the wicked: if a flood of fire, they had a fire-animal, ‘alitha, the name of which would act as a spell against fire; if of water, they had sheets of iron wherewith to cover the earth so that no water could come through from below ; but in case the waters descended from above, they had another contrivance by which to escape—the “‘akob” or “‘akosh” (sponge; Sanh. 108a, b). The sins of the “men of the generation of the Flood” (Sanh. 88b e¢ passim) are variously given. They were proud and therefore shameless, parading the earth in a state of absolute nudity (Tanna debe Eliyahu, xxxi.). They were licentious and lascivious (Sanh. 108; Midrash ha-Gadol, pp. 142-146), so that even the animals followed their example (2b. p. 153; Tan., Noah, ed. Buber, p. 5). They were robbers; in daytime they marked the houses of the rich with balsam, to find them by means of the odor in the dark (Midrash ha-Gadol, p. 142; Gen. R. xxi., xxvii.). They de- nied God (Midrash ha-Gadol, pp. 144, 145). A re- spite of 120 years was granted that Methuselah might complete his allotted life (db. p. 144; “Sefer ha- Yashar,” ii.); after his death seven more days were allowed as days of mourning (“shib‘ah”). During these seven days God changed the natural order of things, converting day into night and vice versa, to remind the wicked of their perversion (Midrash ha- Gadol, p. 155; Sanh. 108b). Noah himself had not much faith; he did not enter the ark until the water had reached his knees (Gen. R. xxxii.). God covenanted with him that the fruit he took with him would not spoil or mildew, or lose color; also that none of the giants would stop up the abyss. The lion came to him tamed and with teeth dulled (Gen. R. xxxi.). As the waters rose the true character of Noah’s contemporaries became evi- dent; with extreme cruelty they hurled their own children into the abyss in an endeavor to stay the Causes of Flood. All rising flood (Tan., Noah, 10). To convince these robbers and murderers that they could not destroy the ark, Noah had to enter it in full daylight (Mid- rash ha-Gadol, p. 158; Gen. R. xxxii. 8; Sifre, p. i41a). Water was chosen as the instrument of de- struction because man was made of dust, and water is the exact opposite of dust; because it was the first element to sing God’s praises; because it enters into the composition of all that has hfe; because it recalled the haughty cye of the sinners (Midrash ha- Gadol, p. 152; Mek., Beshallah, 87b; Gen. R. xx xii. ; Sanh. 108), The waters from above met those from beneath as though the former were male and the latter female, their union producing new floods (Pirke R. El. xxiii.). By displacing two stars in the constellation of Kimah (see CoNsTELLATIONS) God brought on the Deluge (Midrash ha-Gadol, p. 156; comp. Ber. 58b, 59a). The land of Israel was exempt from the Flood (Pirke R. EL. xxiii.). Noah was in the ark one whole year, during which time he did not sleep; hence his anxiety to be released (Tan., Noah, 14). He sent out a raven, which, alighting upon a dead body on a high mountain, forgot its errand in the feast. The dove brought back a twig of the olive-tree, which, though bitter, she preferred, as coming from God, to any sweet thing at the hand of man; hence the proverb, “ A foolemploysan unclean messenger” (Pirke R. EL. xxiii). Noah was exceedingly annoyed by the odor of the beasts of prey (¢b.). For the reasons for the forty days and forty nights of the flood see Forry. The year of the Flood is not included in Noah’s years (Gen. R. xxxii.). The number of those coming out of the ark was exactly that of those who entered it, none having been born in the meantime (Gen. R. xxxi.). Twelve months was the duration of the punishment of the generation of the Flood. The rain lasted during the months of Heshwan and Kis- lew; the waters increased in Tebet, Shebat, Adar, Nisan, and lyyar; the ark rested in Siwan on Mount Kartunja (sce Midrash ha-Gadol, p. 161; ‘Eduy. ii. 10; Seder ‘Olam R. iv.). The confusing notation, according to both solar and lunar years, in the Bib- lical account is noticed by the Rabbis (Gen. R. xxxiii.). The generation of the Flood has no share in the world to come (Sanh. 108a). According to the “Sefer ha-Yashar,” severe storms frequently oc- curred during Noah’s voyage, frightening the beasts as well as Noah and his family. The Ark. E. G. H. -——Critical View: This story has been shown, by a careful study of the Hebrew text by scholars throughout the last century (see Cheyne, “ Founders of Old Testament Criticism: Biographical, Descrip- tive, and Critical Studies,” New York, 1898), to be a compilation by a late redactor from two (or even three) different sources, Which, while agreeing in general outlines, differ considerably in details, style, and character of language. The collection or codi- fication, in writing, of the oral traditions concerning these legends was not done by one hand nor at one period, but in the course of a very long process and by several or many hands. Many collections must have been made from time to time. Among these several have survived. Two stages are still notice- THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Flexner Flood able (J! and J*), to the earlier of which are referred the collections of the Jahvist (J) document and the Elohist (E) narrative; while the later is a thorough revision known as the “priestly writing ” or “ priests’ code ” (P), whose common theme was “the choice of Israel to be the people of Yuwt” (Wildebocr). The oldest strata of J did not know the story of the Flood: it is preserved in the later strata (J ?, about 650 B.C. ). The sections of the narrative of the Flood (sce Bud- de, “ Die Biblische Urgeschichte,” pp. 248 e¢ seg. ; Jit- licher ; Holzinger; Driver, “ Introduction to the Liter- ature of the Old Testament,” Tthed., pp. 14 et seg. : W. E. Addis, “ Documents of the Hexateuch,” London; Carpenter and Harford-Battersby, “The Hexateuch. According to Revised Version,” etc., New York) as- cribed to J? are: vi. 5-8 (after which a considerable portion of the story is missing, as, forexample, God’s first appearance and command to build an ark, there- by testing Noah’s trust ard obedience); vii. 1-2b (God's second appearance to Noah), [8a], 3b, 4, 5, 10, 7 (8, 9], 16b, 12, 17b, Wad, 22, 2b; viii. 6a, 2b, 38a (after which a sentence is missing), 6b, 8-12, 13b, 20-22. To P are assigned: vi. 9-22 (14-16 and 17-22 correspond to J*’s account in vi. 8 and vii. 1; comp. Budde, “ Die Biblische Urgeschichte”; Cheyne and Black, “Encyc. Bibl.” s.v. “ Deluge”); vii. 6, 11, 18- 16a, 17a, 18-21, 24; vili. 1-2a, 3b-5, 18a, 14-19; ix. 1-17, 28, 29. The story of the Flood and similar stories show that in J? arecontained separate legends and legend cycles; delicate and coarse elements exist side by side; they do not bear the stamp of a single definite period or time, and still less of a single General personality. There is a decided an- Character- thropomorphic flavor in the account istics. of J which is not found in P; and yet it is much purer and more spiritual than the cuneiform account of the Deluge. P pre- serves the more detailed account, aiming at legal clearness and minuteness, having always the same expressions and formulas, and observing a tone of prosaic pedantry, dry and monotonous; giving the early stories, and few of them at. best, only as a sort of preamble to the genealogies, the chief aim of this collection. In his account P manifests a wide con- trast with the vivid colors of the older narratives, lacking all the concrete elements of a story. He at- taches to the legends a detailed chronology which is absolutely out of keeping with the simplicity of the oldlegends. Noticeable, also, are the precise form of God’s promises and the sign of the covenant made with Noah. Only the objective element is consid- ered as the important feature of his religion, which to him consists in the prescription of ceremonies, etc. He does not, in the account of the Deluge, dis- tinguish between clean and unclean. The theoph- anies are not of a character usually found in the Old Testament; God appears, speaks, and then ascends; and everything characteristic of other stories is omitted (see Prresti.y Cope). FP was written from its own definite point of view after the catastrophe of the people and the kingdom of Judah, when, overwhelmed by the tremendous impression of their The Sources of the Old Testament Account. Flood measureless misfortune, they recognized that their fathers had sinned and thata great religious reforma- tion was necessary. It is clear, then, that J? contains the early popu- lar legends, while P represents the later learned re- daction, preserving at the same time some very old traditions. To an entirely different collection may have originally belonged viii. 7, which was inserted when the two collections J (J *) and E were later on combined by an editor, the Jahvist (Wellhausen), prior to the addition of the still later priests’ code. To the final redactor (R) who united J, E, and P may be ascribed some of the brief additions and glosses, The accounts as found now may be grouped un- der four headings: I. The Cause of the Flood (vi. 5~8: J). II, The Preparation of Noah (vi. 9-vii. 5): Here there is a first and a second account. (1) The first account (vi. 9-22: P) is incorporated in the text entire, including the minute instruc- tions concerning the building of an ark, or chest (see also Ex. ii. 3), that would float on the water. The Hebrew word nan is of disputed origin; it is trans- lated by xc8wrd¢ in the Septuagint and The “arca” in the Vulgate (see Gesenius, Accountsof “Th.” 13th ed.; Jensen, in “Zeit. fiir J?andP Assyr.” iv. 272 et seqg., explains the Combined. word as of Babylonian origin). The Babylonian Noah, Pér -napishtim, builds a ship. “It is most probable that the narra- tor of P wishes to indicate that in the time of the Patriarchs ships were unknown” (Mitchell). Le- normaut (“Beginnings of History,” ch. viii.) and others maintain that the Biblical narrative bears the stamp of an inland nation ignorant of things apper- taining to navigation. The ark is to be madeof wood, perhaps cv press (Lagarde, “Symmicta,” ii. 98; idem, “ Mittheilungen,” 1.227; dem, “ Nominaltiber- sicht,” pp. 218, 218 e¢ seq.; Cheyne, in Stade’s “ Zeitschrift,” 1898, pp. 163 e¢ seg.); it is to be built in three stories and divided wholly into cells (Lagarde, * Onomastica Sacra,” 2d ed., p. 867; comp. the Baby- lonian account of the building of the ship). The seams are to be stopped by smearing outside and in with bitumen or asphalt. Its length is to be 300 (comp. Ezek. xl. 5) cubits = 487.2 feet; its breadth 50 cubits = 81.2 feet; its height 30 cubits — 48.72 feet; contents, 1,927,394.38 cubic feet. A roof is to be constructed, capable of being turned from above on a hinge, in order to admit of opening and closing (see viii. 13b); a door is to beat the side of the ARK. The making of the ark was God’s test of Noah’s confidence and obedience. Noah did as he was com. manded, and brought his family into the ark, and two of every kind of living creature, male and female, as well as food for himself and for them. Notice the making of the first covenant (v. 18). (2) The second account (vii. 1-5: J) isa mere frag- ment, The story of the ark and its construction, no doubt originally also in J, connecting it with vi. 8, is omitted by the redactor as a mere repetition. Pre- served is the command to enter into the ark with the whole family and with representatives of the whole animal kingdom, of clean animals by sevens (or seven pairs ?) suitable for sacrifices and for food (vili. 20), and of unclean by twos. The Hebrew THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 412 text says “two,” perhaps indicating only one pair. which would favor the interpretation of “ by sevens” as “three pairs and one [male ?].” All this is to be done in seven days. III. The Waters of the Flood (vii. 6-viii. 14): (1) Here is to be noticed the duration of the Flood (vii, 6-24; Pand J? combined). Thetwo narratives separated stand as follows: With P the Flood begins (vii. 11) in the six hundredth year of Noah, the sec- ond month and the twenty-seventh day (so with LXX.; Haupt, in Ball, “Genesis,” p. 118). “This gives exactlv a lunar year for the duration of the Flood (see vili. 14) instead of a year and eleven days, for which there seems no reason. Such er- rors in numerals are common enough” (Haupt). The waters rose for 150 days, and at the end of these 150 days they began to subside. When the Flood began Noah had lived for 600 years, 7.2, a Babylonian “neru.” To go further into details, Noah had reached in his life the six hundredth year, the second month, and the twenty-seventh day, when the Flood began; the six hundredth year, the seventh month, and the twenty-seventh day (LXX.), when the Flood was at its height; the six hundredth year, the tenth month, and the first day, when the highest mountain-peaks began to re- appear; the six hundred and first year, the first month, and the first day, when the waters bad dis- appeared [This number is important inasmuch as P therewith indicates that the old world has ceased to be; the new will now begin. This, and not the beginning of the Flood, is the new terminus a quo. This beginning of the yearis not the old Israel- itish New-Year’s Day in the autumn, when the rainy season sets in, but the beginning of the Baby- lonian year, the first of Nisan, when the wet season ends. P usually reckons after the Babylonian sys- tem.]; the six hundred and first year, the second month, and the twenty-seventh day, when the earth was dry, and he was able to leave the ark (sce B. W. Bacon, “The Chronology of the Account of the Flood in P, ” in “ Hebraica,” 1892, viii. 79-88). The Hebrew year originally began in the fall (see Dillmann’s “ Ueber das Kalenderwesen der Israeliten vor dem Babylonischen Exil,” in “ Monatsberichte der Berliner Akademie,” Oct. 27, 1881; Muss-Arnolt, “The Names of the Assyro-Babylonian Months and Their Regents,” in “Journal of Biblical Literature,” xi. 72 et seg.); and since P elsewhere (Ex. xii. 2) dis- tinctly attributes to Moses the change in the method of reckoning time, he would naturally reckon from Tishri in the period preceding the advent of the Lawgiver. The second month would be “Bail” (I Kings vi. 38), later Marheshwan, beginning about the middle of October; so that the twenty-seventh of the month would correspond to the first half of November, the period when the rainy season in Pal- estine and the neighboring countries usually sets in. With J? the Flood begins seven days after the announcement by God. It lasts forty Date of the daysand forty nights (vi. 4,12). The Flood. rain then ceases, and after seven days, during which the waters begin to de- crease (viii. 38a), Noah sends out the first dove (vii. 6b); after another seven days, another dove (vii. 10); after a third seven days, a third dove (vii. 12), 413 which returns no more. He then uncovers the ark, and Jo! the face of the earth is dry. Then he dis- embarks and offers a sacrifice, which in its descrip- tion recalls very vividly the Babylonian account. This account mentions seven days of preparation, six (seven?) days of storm, and seven days of wait- ing after the flood-storm. (2) The gradual subsidence is deseribed in viii. j-14, and belongs mostly to J*. The waters had risen fifteen cubits above the highest mountain- peaks. As soon as they began to subside the ark grounded on one of the mountains of the land of Ararat (the “Urartu” of the Assyrians; see Belck, in “Zeit. fir Assyr.” ix. 851; Jensen, in 7. pp. 306 et seg.; Belck and Lehmann, 7. xii. 1-8 et seq.; Streck, 7. xiv. 103 et seq.; Billerbeck, “ Das Sand- schack Suleimania und dessen Persische Nachbar- landschaften zur Babylonischen und Assyrischen Zeit,” Leipsic, 1898; Lehmann, “Armenien und Nordmesopotamien in Altertum und Gegenwart,” Berlin, 1900; Ndldeke, “ Untersuchungen zur Kritik des Alten Testaments”; Hastings, “ Dict. Bible,” i. ; Cheyne and Black, “Encye. Bibl.” i. 288-290; JEw. Encoye. ii. 178, 174), precisely as in the Babylonian account the ship rests on a mountain in the land of Nisir (see Muss-Arnolt, “Concise Dict. of the As- syrian Language,” pp. 716, 717; “Zeit. fiir Assyr. ” xv. 272). Mount Mas(s)is (see Friedrich Murad, “ Ararat und Masis, Studien zur Armenischen Alter- tumskunde und Litteratur,” Heidelberg, 1900; F. C. Conybeare, in “ American Journal of Theology,” 1901, pp. 335-337) is commonly identified with the one on which the ark rested; it is 17,000 feet high (so Targum, Syriac version; Berosus; see Cory, “Ancient Fragments,” p. 63). Others identify it with Mount Judi in Kurdistan, southwest of Lake Van. The fact that the ark grounded on the very day the waters began to subside proves that the narrator assumes that of the 30 cubits of the ark’s height, 15 were under water. In this he differs from the Babylonian account. (8) Birdsare sent out as messengers (viii. 6-12: J). After vili. 8a there must originaily have followed an account of the settling of the ark on a mountain, perhaps in the East (Babylonia? comp. xi. 2: Well- hausen). The sending out of the three doves isa proof of the sagacity of Noah, who thereby shows himself as the Old Testament equivalent of the Babylonian Hasis-adra. The first dove returns at once; the sec- ond, with a fresh olive-leaf, at eventide, when birds return to their nests; the third does not return. Ch. viii. 7 does not belong to the account of J (Wellhausen, “Composition des Hexateuch,” p. 15; Gunkel, p. 59; Mitchell, pp. 218, 214). Jt is imported from another source, perhaps by the redactor of J and E(from the Babylonian story ?). Ball (“ Genesis,” in “8. B. O. T.”) would retain the verse, but change the order of sentences, placing verse 7 after 8 and 9. “This arrangement has the additional advantage of agreement with the cuneiform account, in which version the dove comes first.” But it is evident that Ball’s suggestion does not solve the difficulties as well as does Wellhausen’s rejection of viii. 7. The two accounts, J and the cuneiform story, agree in the main—for instance, in the sending out of the bird—but they differ in details. Winckler (“ Altori- THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Flood a a rr A et A entalische Forschungen,” 8d series, vol. i., part 1) holds that in the present J there is the combination of an older and shorter E account, according to which there were seven days of preparation, forty days of the Flood (the number of the Pleiades, the rain-constellation), and seven days preceding the sending out of the dove which returned no more. This would make fifty-four days altogether, about two lunar months. The other and longer account speaks of the threefold sending out of birds, which will have to be identified, in accordance with the cuneiform account, as swallow, dove, and raven. IV. The Future of the Survivors (viii. 15-ix. 17): This includes: Noah’s offering, composed of the account by P of the exit from the ark (15-19), serving as an introduction to the extract from J’; the sacrifice in which Noah expressed his gratitude for deliverance (20-22); instructions given to Noah on the sacredness of life, of men as well as of beasts, stating emphatically that “whoso sheddeth man’s blood, by man shall his blood be shed” (ix. 1-7: P); the making and proclaiming of a covenant, the sign of which was to be God’s bow, the rainbow (ix. 8-17: P). The Babylonian account After does not have this last feature. It the Sub- suggeststhe Hindu myth in which the sidence. bow used by Indra in shooting bolts of lightning at his enemies, when the storm is over becomes the rainbow, a promise of peace to mankind. It is also found among the Ara- bians. P preserved this old mythological account simply because he desired for the construction of his world-scheme three covenant signs for the three covenants made with Noah, Abraham, and Moses— the rainbow, circumcision, and the Sabbath. Well- hausen (“Prolegomena zur Geschichte Israels,” 4th ed., p. 817), Keil, and others stoutly defend the statement of the author, which implies that hitherto there had been no such thing as a rainbow; others, again, maintain that P is here explaining the origin, not of the rainbow, but of its adoption as a sign (see J. G. Murphy, “Genesis ”). In proof of the separate origin of the two docu- ments J* and P, attention may be called to: (1) the many repetitions; (2) the contradictions, such as vi. 19 et seg. and vii. 14-16 as against vii. 2 é¢ seg.; vii. 11 (a poetic and mythological description) as against vii. 12 (a prosaic narrative); vil. 12 as against vii. 24 (the duration of the Flood); (8) the many linguistic differences. On the other hand, there are also points of agreement, such as (1) the cause of the Deluge, (2) the persons saved, (3) the new relationship between God and man, (4) the words for “flood” and “ark.” “Mabbul” is perhaps from the same root as Assyr- ian “nabélu” = “destroy,” and corresponds to the Assyro-Babylonian “abfibu,” whence perhaps its vocalization (see Gesenius, “Th.” p. 550, and the literature cited in Muss-Arnolt, l.c. p. 636, col. 2, note). On “tebah” see above. But Budde (“Die Biblische Urgeschichte,” pp. 417 et seg., 467 et seq.) is incorrect in maintaining that J* has been the only source for P, nor is Cheyne right in making P de- pendent on J®. P, as it now stands, is fuller than J? in (1) the announcement to Noah of the impend- ing Deluge, and the command to build an ark, whose measurements are given in detail; (2) the notice of Flood the place where the ark grounded; and (8) the ap- pointment of the rainbow as the sign of the cove- nant between God and man. Of the account in J? it may in general be said that the tradition of the Flood was known very early in Israel, but that, on the other hand, the present ferm of the tradition is of a more recent date. The traces of great antiquity are: (1) the closing of the ark by Yuwu Himself (vii. 16); (2) the sacrifice offered by Noah after the Flood, and especially the expression “ And YHWH smelled the pleasant odor” ; (3) the sending out of the birds; (4) the terms for “flood” and “ark.” In the mixture of Noah the pious and Noah the wise and prudent there is the combination of a later and an earlier tradition, the latter, perhaps, originally of a more secular, worldly character, the remnant of an old hero-song. Of the account in P it may in general be said that there are now and then traces of very old traditions. Thus, vil. 11 (and viii. 2a), the origin of the Flood, which in the minute and on the whole prosaic ac- count of P is all the more remarkable because of its highly poetical coloring: (for example, the concep- tion of the primeval man, just as in the Babylonian tradition [see Creation account, Rawlinson, iv., lines 139, 140], of the waters above the heavenly expanse held back by bars and sluices [comp. Gen. xlix. 25; Ps. xxiv. 2]); the proverb or saying in ix. 6; the very old story of the rainbow; the tradition con- cerning the termination of the period of peace and the new order of things; the account of the cove- nant, including also the animal creation, alluded to in Deutero-Isaiah liv. 9 (Kraetzschmar). Fur- ther, the sources used by P also mentioned Mount Ararat, and perhapsalso the “ 150days.” These and some minor points indicate for P a source very simi- lar to that of J; but the considerations just given weigh against the assumption that P was directly dependent on J? (Wellhausen, @.¢., 4th ed., p. 399; Budde, J.¢. pp. 467 et seg.; Holzinger, “ Genesis,” pp. 85 et seg.; Cheyne and Black, “Eneye. Bibl.” s.v. “Deluge,” § 10). Nor can it be maintained with Kosters (“ Theol. Tijdschrift,” xix. 833 et seg.) that Pis remarkably similar to the account in Berosus, a view which would assume the later Babylonian tra- dition as a source (sec Dillmann, “ Genesis,” p. 136). The tradition as found in P must have been known in Israel in early times. Many other nations have traditions of an early flood. These have been carefully collected and sifted by Richard Andree (“Die Flutsagen, Ethno- graphisch Betrachtet,” Brunswick, 1891), Hermann Usener (“Die Sintfluthsagen Untersucht,” Bonn, 1899), Franz von Schwarz (“Sintflut und Volker- wanderungen,” Stuttgart, 1894), and Winternitz (“Die Flutsagen des Altertums und der Natur- volker,” in “ Mitteilungen der Anthro- Other pologischen Gesellschaft in Wien,” Flood- xxxi., No. 6). Winternitz believes Legends. that the widely spread legends are the outgrowth of local traditions based on actual local occurrences. The fact that many peoples have flood-legends can not justify the as- sumption that they all go back to one great prehis- toric event, for there are many other nations and | | is the “ Xisuthrus” of Berosus (the “Sisithros” of groups of nations without such legends. THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 414 Of greatest interest and importance for the study of the Old Testament account, among all these legends, is the cuneiform account of the Deluge. This was mentioned and epitomized by Berosus and Abydenus, preserved by Eusebius, “ Chronicon,” i. 19, edited by Schoene in “ Fragmenta Historicorum Grecorum,” ii. 50 e¢ seq., iv. 281 (translated by Usener, “ Flutsagen,” pp. 13-15), and is fully known since George Smith’s discovery, in 1872, of the cunci- form text, on editions and translations of which see Muss-Arnolt, “ Assyrian and Babylonian Literature,” pp. 850, 851, New York, 1902. Pér-napishtim, the ancestor of Gilgamesh and the favorite of the gods, relates to Gilgamesh the story of the Flood, in which he and his family and his belongings were alone saved. Owing to the corrup- tion of the citizens of Shurippak, the gods decided to bring about a deluge, destroying all mankind. Tn a dream the god Ea revealed their intention toa man of the city named “ Pér-napishtim” (Scheil in Maspero’s “Recueil des Travaux,” 1898, xx. 55 e¢ seg.), who, in accordance with Ea’s instructions, saved himself, and his family, and every kind of beast, by building a ship in which they escaped from the Flood. The ship was built in seven days. Its sides were 120 cubits high; its beam was 120 cubits also (see Haupt in “Am. Jour, Philology,” ix. 419 e¢ seq.). After Pér-napishtim had stowed away his fam- ily and belongings, and living creatures of every kind, the storm, called “abtibu,” broke loose so fearfully that even the gods became affrighted. Everything was destroyed. The storm ceased after the sixth day, and after twelve (double) hours there rose out of the water a strip of land. To Mount Nisir the ship drifted and stuck fast. And when the seventh day drew nigh Pér-napishtim sent forth a dove. The dove flew hither and thither, but as there was no resting-place for her, she returned. Then he sent forth a swallow. The swallow flew hither and thither, but as there was no resting-place for her, she also returned. Then he sent forth a raven, Theraven flew away, saw the land emerging, alighted upon it, waded about, croaking, and re- turned no more (comp. with this the account of J”). Pér-napishtim then disembarked, and offered to the godsa sacrifice, whose savor the godssmelled, gather- ing like flies around the sacrificer. The anger of Bél, the god who was the prime mover of the Flood, and who was displeased at the salvation of Pér-napishtim, is assuaged; he goes up into the ship, takes Pér-nap- ishtim and his wife, blesses them, and makes them dwell far away at the mouth of the rivers. The character and actions of Bél and of Ea, as described here, appear united in Ynwit by J’, whose account, of course, is strictly monotheistic, purer, and loftier. The Deluge fragment discovered by Scheil is dated in the reign of Ammizadugga, one of the last kings of the first dynasty of Babylon, and may be ascribed to about 2100 B.c. It was found at Sippar—where the Deluge is placed by Berosiis—and represents the local form of the legend current in that city during this early period. Tablet seven of this fragment mentions Pér-napishtim, and tablet eight speaks of Atrakhasis; both occur in the account which was found by Smith. Atrakhasis (Hasisatra) 415 Abydenus). The conjectures ou the relationship between the two names are given in Muss-Arnolt, “Assyrian and Babylonian Literature,” p. 358. On the etymology of the two names see tdem, “ A Con- cise Dictionary of the Assyrian Language,” pp. 184, 712. See also Zimmern in “Zeitschrift fir Assy- riologie,” xiv. 277 et seg. Thestory of the Deluge had originally no connection with the story of Gilgamesh. Here in general there is a similarity between J? and the Babylonian account, but as a vehicle of moral and religious instruction the superiority of the Old Testament account is at once apparent. The Babylonian account is polytheistic, its gods capricious, jealous, quarrelsome; the hero a favorite of only one of these gods. The Old Testament tra- dition, even in its earliest known form, is thoroughly monotheistic; its God commands instant and unre- served reverence; its hero is saved on account of his righteousness. It is maintained by many that the IIebrew tradi- tion, especially as preserved in J’, was directly bor- rowed from the Babylonian at the Source of time of the ascendency of Assyria, the Hebrew that is, about 700 B.c., when Judah Tradition. was a vassal kingdom of Assyria (see Haupt, “Sintflut Bericht,” 1881, p. 20; Usener, J.c. p. 256; Stade’s “ Zeitschrift,” 1895, p. 160; Budde, lc. p. 457; “ Am. Jour.of Theology,” Oct., 1902, pp. 706, 707). Itis, however, more cor- rect to assume with Zimmern (“ Biblische und Baby- lonische Urgesch.” p. 40) that these Babylonian legends were first made known about the Tell cl-Am- arma period among the original Canaanite inhabitants of Palestine, from whom they passed to the Israel- ites when the latter settled in the land. Others as- sume later Aramean or Phenician mediation (see Gunkel, “ Genesis,” pp. 67, 68; Winckler, “ Altorien- talische Forschungen,” ii. 140 e¢ seg., 160 et seq.). In the Babylonian, and especially in the Hebrew, tradition there is the blending of two still earlier legends, the one of the destruction of mankind, wholly or in part, by the punitive judgment of the divine powers, owing to man’s wickedness—a legend of a character similar to that of the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah, or the story of Philemon and Baucis in classic lore; the other, that of a flood as such, either local or universal. The Flood was not in the tradition’s view universal, as “universal” would be understood at present, simply because the world of the early writers was a totally different world from that of to-day. This latter legend again undoubtedly goes back ultimately to a nature-myth representing the phenomena of winter, which in Babylonia especially is a time of rain. The hero rescued in the ship must originally have been the sun-god. Thus the Deluge and the deliverance of Pér-napishtim are ultimately but a variant of the Babylonian Creation-myth (Zimmern; see also Cheyne, 8.0. “ Deluge,” § 18). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hermann Gunkel, Genesis Uebersetzt und Erkldrt,in Handkommentar zum Alten Testament, pp. 55- 71, Géttingen, 1901; H. Holzinger, Genesis Erkldrt, in Kurzer Hand-Commentar zum Alten Testament, pp. 68-89, Frei- burg, 1898; Dillmann, Genesis Erkldrt, 6th ed., 1892, pp. 127- 156: Eng. transl., i. 245-300, Edinburgh, 1897; Franz Delitzsch, Neuer Commentar tiher die Genesis, 5th ed., pp. 146-191, -Leipsic, 1887; H. G. Mitchell, The World Before Abraham According to Genesis i.-xi., with an Introduction to the Pentatewch, pp. 84-90, 194-227, Boston, 1901; Budde, Die Bi- THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Flood iische Urgyeschichte, 1893 ; Heinrich Zimmern, Biblische und Babylonische Urgesch. (= Der Alte Orient, ii., No. 3), Leip- sic, 1901: Eng. transl., The Hebrew and Babylonian Gene- sis, London, 1902; B. N. Bacon, The Genesis of Genesis; Noideke, Untersuchungen zur Kritik, pp. 145 et seq., Kiel, 1869 ; Theophilus G. Pinehes, The Old Testament in the Light of the Historical Records and Legends of Assyria and Babylonia, pp. 8-117, London, 1902; Schrader, K, A. T. 3d ed., pp. O47 et seq.; Julius Wellhausen, Composition des Hexateuch ; idem, Prolegomena zur Gesch. Israels; idem, History of Israel and Judah; Winer, B. R. 3d ed., 1847, ii. 161-166; Diestel, Die Sintflut wnd die Flutsagen des Alter- thums, in Sammlung Gemeinverstindlicher Wissenschaft- licher Vortrdge, series vi., No. 137 (871); E. Siiss, Die Sint- fiuth, a geological study, Prague and Leipsic, 1883 (with an important contribution by Professor Haupt); J. Prestwich, On Certain Phenomena Belonging to the Close of the Last Geological Period, and on the Bearing upon the Tradition of the Flood, New York, 1895; L. Dupare, Le Déluge Bi- blique: Essai @Diterprétation Scientijique, Paris, 1898; J. E. C. de Kirwan, La Localisation du Déluge et les Péripé- ties de la Question, pp. 45 et seq., Paris, 1899; idem, Un Ad- versaire du Déluge et de Sa Localisation: Réponse da 8S. Reinach, pp. 44 ef seq., Paris, 1809; Cheyne and Black, Hneye. Bibl. s.v. Deluge; Hastings, Dict. Bible; Dilimann, Sitnd- flut, in Schenkel, Bibel-Levikon, 1875, y. 484-437; A. Loisy, Notes sur la Genese: V., Le Deluge, in Revue d Histoire et de Litérature Réligieuses, 1898. pp. 167-183; Ch. Perga- meni, Une Explication Seientifique du Déluge, in Revue de V Université de Bruretles, No. 8, May, 1898; Th. Néldeke, Der Mythus von der Siindfluth, in lm Neuen Reiche, 1872, 747-299; J. Halevy, La Date du Déluge dV Apres les Textes Principaux, in Journal Asiatique, April, 1899, pp. 353-356 ; A. Gittér, Les Légendes du Déluge Devant V Ethnographie et U Histoire, in Revue Belgique, Nov.-Dec., 1899; Paui Ca- rus, The Legend of the Flood, in The Monist, July, 1901: G. F. Wright, The Geological Confirmations of the Noachian Deluge, in Bibliotheca Sacra, April and July, 1901; idem, Geology and the Deluge, in MeClure’s Magazine, June, 1901. See Sunday School Times, suly 6, 1901; Science, June 21,1901; Popular Science Monthiy, Aug. and Sept., 1901; Wright, in Advance, Ang. 29, 1901; idem, in The Independ- ent, Aug. 8, 1901; M. Gander, Die Geologie und die Siind- flut, in Katholik, Dec., 1897. E. G. H. W. M.-A. —-In Mohammedan Literature: In the Koran Noah is mentioned not less than eleven times. The Koranic term for “flood” (“tufan ”) betrays an Ara-~ maic origin, and leads one to infer that Mohammed had heard the story from Jews or Christians in Syria, probably from both. The most concise and accu- rate account is given in sura xxix. 138-14: “ We sent heretofore Noah to his people; he remained with them one thousand years save fifty years. Then the Flood seized them while they were acting wickedly. But we rescued him and those who were in the ark, and we made it a sign unto all creatures.” This quotation shows that Mohammed had not read the account of the Flood in the Bible, but had heard it in the form of the Jewish Haggadah. According to the latter, Noah was bidden to spend one hundred and twenty years in building the ark, so that peo- ple might take warning. Moslem tradition renders the story in a more elab- orate form. Noah planted an ebony-tree brought to him by Gabriel. Afterit had grown for many years he cut it down and prepared the planks. When he commenced to build the ark, the people taunted him in the following words: “At first thou wert a prophet; now thou hast turned carpenter.” Assoon as the ark was finished, Noah dug up Adam’s body and placed it therein. Then the rain poured down for forty days and forty nights. All mankind and all animals perished save those in the ark. Two luminous disks in the walls of the ark marked day and night, as wellas the hoursof prayer. For forty days (according to other reports, seven times) the ark floated round the Kaaba in Mecca; and after six months it settled on the top of a mountain in Mesopotamia. Noah sent out a dove, which re- Flora Florence THE JEWISH turned with an olive-leaf in its beak. When the water had disappeared he saw the rainbow, and then he knew that it was time to leave the ark. The accounts in the Koran (suras xi. 42, xxiii, 27) end with the words: “Then our decree came [true] and the oven boiled.” This is evidently a reproduction of the Talmudical saying, “The generation of the Flood was judged with boiling water” (Sanh. 108). See ARK OF NoaH IN MOHAMMEDAN LITERATURE. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Geiger, Was Hat Mohammed aus dem Juden- tum Aufgenommen? Bonn, 1833; Weil. Biblische Legen- den der Muselmiinner; Rehatsek, Raudat al-Safa, part i., 1. 78 et seq., London, 1891-94. H. Hir. E.G. FH. FLORA. Sce Botany. FLORENCE (yp; nosed; (xInyep =Fiorenza; Florentia; Firenze): Capital of Tuscany, Italy. Jews settled here probably before 1400. They were not needed in this flourish- ing commercial city, the scene of factional strife between the Guelfs and Ghibellines; there was an abundance of capital, the Flor- entines being the greatest specu- lators and the most rapacious usurers of the Middle Ages. But having ad- mitted the Jews, the Florentines granted them at once many rights and priv- ileges. In 1414 the republic sent a Jewish banker, “ Valo- ri” by name, to represent it at Milan before the Duke of Viscon- ti. As the latter refused to re- ceive a Jewish ambassador, Florence de- clared war against him, This fricndly attitude of the Florentines, however, was as subject to change as their government; the Jews were expelled and re- admitted at the pleasure of the Senate. That Jews were in the city in 1441 is indicated by the fact that a “mahzor” according to the Italian ritual was writ- ten there and sold in that year (Zunz, “ Ritus,” p. 84). One of the first Jews of Florence known by name was Emanuel b. Uzziel da Camerino, for whom Codex ante ENCYCLOPEDIA A Nook in the Florence Ghetto. (From a photograph.) 416 Montefiore No. 219 was written (1458). A Jewish physician by the name of “ Abramo” was called in to amputate a leg of Giovanni delle Bande Nere, the ancestor of the house of Mcdici. The favorable at- titude toward the Jews scems to have changed in 1472, for during the plague raging in Expelled that year all the Jews were expelled. During the Shemariahb. Abraham Jehiel wrote an Plague. elegy in commemoration of the event. (Codex Merzbacher, Munich, No. 90). When the plague subsided in 1478 the populace de- manded that the Jews be recalled as money-lenders, and for some years thereafter they lived in peace in the city, protected by the Senate. When Bernardin of Feltre was preaching in Florence in 1487, the young men attempted to sack the houses of the Jews and slay the inmates; the authorities, however, expelled the preacher, who thereupon pre- tended that they had accepted large bribes from the Jews. In the mean- time the house of Medici had risen to power, and under Lorenzo the Magnificent Florence became the center of art and science. The Jews also took part in this splendid life of the Renaissance. Lorenzo called Jewish physi- cians and schol- ars to his court, among them Abraham Faris- sol. Elijah Del- medigo took part in a relig- ious disputation in his presence. The philoso- phers Marsilio Ficino and Gio- vanni Pico della Mirandola stud- ied the Hebrew language and the Cabala, and called a number of learned Jews to Florence; among these Elijah . Delmedigo was especially noted as an expounder of the Aristotelian philosophy. Johanan AlJemanno, a close observer of Florentine life, gives a good de- scription of it in “Heshek Shelomoh,” his com- mentary to Canticles. As foreign traffic had widened the horizon of the Florentines, they hospitably received the Spanish refugees who, noted for their business experience, 417 scholarship, and wealth, sought shelter in Italy. The first comers were followed by many other Jews and Maranos who had been driven by the Settlement Inquisition from Portugal. The com- of munity of Florence now became an im- Spanish portant one, and the city also derived Refugees. great bencfit from the immigrants, who were in close intercourse with their coreligionists in Brabant, Lyons, Marseilles, Naples, Venice, in Portugal and especially in the East, and carried on commerce in co- lonial products, silk and wool. All opposition to them was Si- lenced in face of the services they rendered to the city. Expelled in 1490 (accord- ing toIbn Verga, “Shebet Yehu- dah”), they were recalled in 1492; expelled again, they were once more recalled in 1498, being found indispen- sable to the com- merce of the city. Among the Portuguese im- migrants was the aged Don Jo- seph ibn Yah- yah, whoarrivecd at Florence with his sons in 1494. The condition of the Jews was a favorable one under the first. princes of the house of Medici; the Maranos were allowed even the free ex- ercise of their re- ligion, and were not attacked during the plague of 1539. Cosimo I. favored the Jews; his wife, Leonora of Naples, had as teacher Donna Benveniste Abravanel, towhom Under the shewas a lifelong friend. Jt was due a amare ee he a | Medici. to her influence that Cosimo granted extensive privileges to the Jews in 1551. They numbered at that time about 500, the majority living in the Via dei Giudei, be- yond the Arno: the street still bears that name. The political differences between the Medici and the pope were a direct advantage to the Jews, as the Medici paid no attention to the cruel papal decrees issued against them. The continual at- tacks, however, bore fruit in the end; in 1570 the V.—27 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA The Large Synagogue at Florence. (From se photograph.) i a i ee rr i a er a NT Flora Florence Jews were enclosed ina ghetto. Some strects not far from the Duomo, in the lowest and dampest part of the city, the Via della Nave, were assigned to them, and enclosed by gutes; in 1571 an insulting inscrip- tion was affixed to the gate of the ghetto. The communities of the outlying towns of Montalcino, Torricella, San Miniato, Monte Pulciano, and Prato were obliged to move into the ghetto of Florence. However, the anti-Jewish laws were never as strictly enforeed in Florence as elsewhere. The wealthy Jews were permitted to live outside the ghetto, the inhabitants of which were not treated harshly. Toward the end of the seven- teenth century the city threat- ened to force all the Jews to live in the ghetto, probably be- cause many houses there were vacant at the expense of their Christian owners. The community therefore was obliged in 1690 to pay the entire rent of the ghet- to. It was the underlying prin- ciple of Floren- tine legislation to treat the Jews as mildly as was consistent with the prejudices of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The clergy combated Judaism by ma- king converts rather than by physical coer- cion; the baptism of children under thirteen years of age was regulated by law. Riots against the Jews occurred but seldom, and were Inthe repressed by the government and the Seven- clergy; the attacks which were made teenth and at the time of the French Revolution Eighteenth in 1790 were quelled by the bishop. Centuries. During the Napoleonic régime the community shared the varying for- tunes of the city, freedom alternating with op- pression, until its autonomy was recognized in 1814. The gates of the ghetto were opened, never to be closed again, and the Jews were permitted to live outside its limits. Although no civic rights Florence Florus were granted to them, the Jews of Tuscany were reated so justly that they did not demand eman- cipation, which came to them, however, in 1859, when the grand duke was expelled and the provi- sional government instituted; on this occasion San- sone d’Ancona was appointed minister of finance. When Tuscany was annexed to the kingdom of Italy in 1861, the Jews received full citizenship in conformity with the constitution of 1848. None of the rights then conceded has since been abro- gated, and since then the Jews have always hada share in the government of the city. In the fifteenth century the community had only THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 418 Sephardim have used the Portuguese language in their documents and their service down to very recent times. Other internal dissensions arose at the time of the movement started by Shabbethai Zebi; in spite of their rabbi, Johanan Ghiron, the commu- nity did not believe in the pretender, siding with Zebi’s two chief oppovents, Jacob and Immanuel FRANCEs, who were staying at that timein Florence. Emanuel wrote in 1660 a duet for the Society of the Anelanti (“Hebrat ha-Sho’afim”), which was sung in both synagogues. The earliest known scholars of Florence, given in chronological order, are: R. Moses, preacher and PULPIT AND READING-DESK OF THE FLORENCE SYNAGOGUE. (From a photograph in the possession of Maurice Herrmaan, New York.) one synagogue, with the Italian ritual; but with the advent of the Portuguese Jews the Sephardic ritual also wasintroduced. The bitter strug- Syn- = gle ensuing between the two nation- agogues alities was finally adjusted when both and Rabbis. were recognized as of equal standing. Two synagogues were organized, with two rabbis, one for each ritual. The growth of the community of Leghorn strengthened the Sephar- dic party in Florence, which finally became domi- nant, with the result that at present (1903) the ma- jority of the community follows that ritual. The commentator (c. 1472), whose works are included in Codex Montefiore, No. 17, and his brother Abigdor; Shemariah b. Abraham b. Jehiel and Raphael of Florence (c. 1480), whose works are included in Codex Merzbacher, No. 90; Jacob b. Jekuthiel da Corinaldo (1510); Eliezer b. Solomon b. Zur (1512); Isaac b. Joseph Monselice (1540); Moses b. Abraham Coen; Azriel b. Jehiel Trabotti (1567); Jehiel b. Abraham Finzi; Solomon b, Samuel Montedelolmo; Judah b. Joseph Uzziel; Moses b. Bassa da Blanes (seventeenth century); Isaac and Raphael Cal6; Samuel and David Piazza; Zechariah b. Ephraim Porto; Jo- 419 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Florence Florus banan Ghiron; Isaac b, Samuel Baruch; Jacob de Alba; Hananiah b. Menahem Cases; Raphael b. Sam- uel Corcos (eightcenth century); Abraham Jedidiah Shalit; Judah Raphael b. Menahem Baruch Jaghel di Monselice (1737) ; Raphael Lonsano (—-17738) ; Men- ghem Azariah b. Judah Mazliah Padova; Abraham Fonseca; Aaron Ashkenazi; Moses Hayyim b. Sam- uel Rimini; Daniel Terni; Moses Hayyim Soschino ; Mattithiah Nissim b. Jacob Israel Terni; Elananiah Hai Coen (nineteenth century); Castelnuovo; Sam- uel Olper; Jacob David Maroni; 8. H. Margulies, occupying the position of rabbi since 1890. For a time there was a Hebrew printing-press in Florence. In 1700 the first part of Aaron ha- Kohen’s (?) “Orhot Hayyim” was published there, and various works appeared about 1800. In 1903 the community of Florence numbered about 8,000 souls. It is governed by a council (“consiglio”) composed of sixteen members, wlio elect a committee of five from among themselves. There are two syna- gogues—the large new Sephardic syn- agogue, the “most beautiful syna- gogue of Europe,” built through the munificence of the director David Levi (d. 1869), and completed in 1882 (see Jew. Encyc. i. 480, illustration), and a small synagogue (Italian ritual) in the Via dell’ Oche. The ritual in both is Orthodox; in the larger synagogue there are a choir and an organ, and the sermon is preached in ItaHan. There are two ceme- teries, an old one dating from the eighteenth cen- tury, and a new one dating from about 1875. There is a common school for boys and girls, in which much attention is given to Hebrew, in addition to the elementary studies prescribed by law. A He- brew school prepares for entrance to the rabbinical seminary. The following philanthropic institutions are under the direction of the community: the Jewish hospital on the Arno; the Jewish orphan asylum, Achille Leone Athias; the Asili Infantil; Ospizio di Marina; Malbish Arumim; the society Arti e Mestieri. The societies Oavé Tord (with a large library), Ez Hajjim, and the more recent Mekize Nirdamim are devoted to the study of the Torah. The Mattir Asurim Society, founded for the pur- pose of securing the release of Jews imprisoned for debt, supports a second synagogue with Sephar- dic ritual in a house in the Via dell’ Oche. There are a hebra kaddisha, societies for nursing the sick, “misericordia,” ete. Since 1899 the Collegio Rab- binico Italiano is at Florence; it was completely reorganized under the direction of Rabbi Margulies. BIBLIOGRAPHY : Depping, Die Juden im Mittelalter, pp. 368- 371; Ersch and Gruber, Eneyc.s.v. Juden, p. 156; Corriere [s- raelitico, x. 2793 on the rabbis see Mortara, fiidice, passim. G. I. FE. FLORENTIN, HAYYIM SAMUEL: Rabbi of Salonica; lived in the seventeenth century. He was the author of a work entitled “ Me‘il Shemuel ” (Salonica, 1725), containing forty-five responsa and ninety-one analectaon the Talmud. At the end are some notes by his brother, Isaac Florentin, on Maimonides. Hayyim wrote also some notes on the Shulhan ‘Aruk, Hoshen Mishpat, which are found in the collection “Moreh Zedek” by Michael b. Moses ha-Kohen (7b. 1655). Present Status. BIBLIOGRAPHY: First, Bibl. Jud. 1.285; Benjacob, Ozur ha- Sefarim, p. 349 s. S. M. SEL. FLORENTIN, ISAAC. See FLORENTIN, Hay- yim SAMUEL. FLORENTIN, SAMUEL B. DAVID: Rabbi of Salonica in the cighteenth century. He was a nephew of Hayyim Samuel FLlorentix. He wrote: “ Bet ha-Ro’eh,” a collection of the ritual laws prac- tised in daily life, with an index and notes on the Yad ha-Hazakah, Salonica, 1758; “ Minhat Shemuel,” responsa, homilies, and Biblical comments, 2b. 1776. BIBLIOGRAPHY: First, Bibl. Jud. i. 285; Benjacob, Ozar ha- Nefarim, pp. 76, 3438. 8. 5, M. Set. FLORENTIN, SOLOMON B. SAMUEL: Turkish Talmudist; lived at Salonica in the seven- teenth century. He wrote “Doresh Mishpat,” a collection from the marginal notes of Solomon ibn Hassun, Solomon b. Isaac Levi, Daniel Estrumsa, Baruch Angel, and Samuel Florentin the Younger (Salonica, 1655). This book is an addition to the “Moreh Zedek” of Michael b. Moses ha-Kohen, which consists of marginal notes from the responsa of the later rabbis. BIBLIOGRAPITY: Zedner, Cat. Hebr. Books Brit. Mus. pp. 259, 538, 727; Benjacob. Ozar ha-Sefarim, p. 109. 8. 8. Nes las FLORIDA: The most southern of the United States of America, forming a peninsula washed on the east by the Atlantic Ocean and on the west by the Gulf of Mexico. Little is known of the early history of the Jews in Florida. In 1825 a plan was projected in London for the purpose of sending a number of Jews to Florida as colonists, but it proved abortive. However, that Jews settled in the state somewhat later is known, for two of them took part in the Civil war: Gus Cohen enlisted in the Milton Artillery, and M. Daniel was a member of Company A, Ist Regiment Florida Infantry; the latter was captured. Daniel diced at Elmira, N. Y., and was buried in Woodlawn Cemetery in that city. In i874 a congregation, named “ Beth El,” was founded at Pensacola, and one named “ Ahavath Chesed ” was founded in 1882 at Jacksonville, where a Hebrew Benevolent Society had been formed in 1874. At Ocala in 1885 a similar society was estab- lished. Religious organizations were founded at Tampa and Key West. Morris Dzialinsky was twice elected mayor of Jacksonville, and Jacob A. Huff held the office of city treasurer many years. Among the names of the directors of the National Bank of the State of Florida is found that of Bern- hard M. Baer. Philip Walter, who for many years held the office of clerk of the United States court, was elected a member of the state constitutional convention in 1885. Florida hasa Jewish popula- tion of about 3,000, the total population in 1890 being 391,422. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Statistics of the Jews of the United States, p. 23, Philadelphia, 1880; Wolf, The American Jew as Pa- triot, Soldier, and Citizen, Philadelphia, 1895; Markens, The Hebrews in America, New York, 1888. a FLORUS, GESSIUS (or, incorrectly, Cestius) : Last procurator of Judea (64-66), Florus was notorious for his cruelty and rapacity, and was so much detested by the Jews that in comparison Flour Fly with him Albinus was considered a just man. Florus, indeed, hastened the outbreak of the revolu- tion by rendering the condition of the Jews unbear- able. He protected the Sicarii in return for a share of their plunder, and during his administration many towns were sacked. When the Jews of Cxsarea op- posed the obstruction of the entrance to their syna- gogue by the Greeks, they bribed Florus not to interfere. Florus accordingly went to Samaria. Finding themselves overpowered, the Jews sent to him an embassy of twelve, imploring his protection against the Greeks; but Florus, instead, threw the ambassadors into prison. Later he sent to Jerusa- lem, demanding from the warden of the Temple treasury seventeen talents of gold. Ilis demand being refused and even ridiculed, he went to Jeru- salem and ordered his soldiers to attack the upper market-place. The Jews were killed, regardless of sex or age, and the houses plundered. On that day (16th of Iyyar, 66) more than 3,600 were slaughtered; many were scourged and crucified. Queen Berenice in vain implored him on her knees to stop the carnage. Florus even demanded a friendly reception for the troops appointed to seize the Temple. But the people opposed him with so much vigor and deter- mination that he left Jerusalem with the larger number of his troops. When the insurrection had broken out, Florus gave full liberty to the Greeks of Cexsarea to attack the Jews. The majority of the Jatter were killed; the remainder, by the com- mand of Florus, were sent to the galleys. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Josephus, Ant. xx.11,§1; B. J. ii. 14, § 4; Gritz, Geach. 4th ed., ili. 445-450 et seq.; Schiirer, Gesch. 3d ed., i. 585, 601 et seq. G, M. SEL. FLOUR: The finely ground substance of any cereal. The earliest and most simple way of crush- ing grain consisted in pounding it in a mortar, pro- ducing a coarse flour, or rather different grades of grits (comp. the preparation of the manna, Num. xi. 8). In order to obtain fine flour the grain, it seems, was pulverized between two stones (see illustration in Erman, “Aegypten und Aegyptisches Leben im Altertum,” p. 268; Bliss, “A Mound of Many Cities,” p. 85). But as far back as can be traced the Israelites used a mill for preparing fine flour. A small hand-mill was used down toa late date, but in the Gospels mills worked by asses are mentioned (uirog ovixdc, Matt. xviii. 6, R. V., margin). Each household prepared its own flour—hence the prohi- bition to take a hand-mill in pledge from the poor (Deut. xxiv. 6); the heavy work of grinding was the task of the women and the female slaves (Ex. xi. 5; Isa. xlvii. 2; Matt. xxiv. 41), or of captives (Judges xvi. 21; Lam. v. 18). . The ancient mill could hardly have differed from that now used in Palestine, which consists of two cir- cular stones (“pelah”); hence the designation “ re- hayim” (lit. “the two millstones”; comp. Deut. xxiv. 6; Isa. x}vii. 2). The mill is also known as “tahanah” (Eccl, xii. 4; “tehon,” Lam. v. 15). At present these stones, generally made of basalt, are about 40-48 cm. in diameter and about 10 em. thick. The nether stone (“ pelah tahtit ”) is fixed aud is espe- cially hard (Job xli, 16). It is somewhat convex, THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 420 aa eee) a with a small plug of hard wood in the center. The upper stone is correspondingly concaved on the nether side, with a funnel-shaped hole in the center, into which the plug of the nether stone is fitted. On the edge isa peg (“yad”) used asahandle. The upper stone is turned by the grinder around the plug of the nether stone; hence its name “ pelah Modern Palestinian Hand-Mill. (From a photograph by the American Colony, Jerusalem.) rekeb,” or merely “rekeb” (“the wagon”; Judges ix. 58; IL Sam, xi, 21; Deut. xxiv. 6). The grain is poured by hand through the funnel-shaped hole of the upper stone, and the flour, dropping from the edge of the nether stone, is collected on a cloth spread beneath. The grain commonly made into bread was barley and wheat, especially the latter, spelt (“ kussemet ”) being evidently used in special cases only (Ezek. iv. 9). Wheat bread was the superior Grain article, barley bread being the food of Used. the poor. In the ritual, barley flour was used for the offering of jealousy (Num. v. 15). Wheat flour was prepared in two different grades, The flour that was generally used for baking was called “kemah,” being fine or coarse as it fell from the mill; and from this a finer flour (which is probably the meaning of the term “solet” = oeuidadic) was separated by means of a hair-sieve. This tine flour, the “fat of the wheat” (Deut. xxxii. 14; Ps. Ixxxi. 17, exivil. 14), was worth twice as much as barley (II Kings vii. 1, 16, 18; comp. Erman, ic, p. 266, as to the two kinds of four imported from Syria into Egypt). With the one exception men- tioned above, the use of fine flour (“solet”) is pre- scribed throughout in the ritual; the conclusion is not warranted, however, that the ordinary flour used for daily consumption was not employed for sacri- fices in ancient times. E. G. Wi. I. Be. FLOWERS OF THE BIBLE. See Botany and PLANTs. FLOWERS IN THE HOME AND THE SYNAGOGUE: As an agricultural people the Jews in their own land appreciated flowers as a means oI natural decoration. The first crop of 421 THE JEWISH tNCYCLOPEDIA Flour Fly fruits offered at the altar in Jerusalem on the Feast of Harvest (Ex. xxiii. 16) was crowned with the choicest flowers (Bik. ii. 3). Among all the flowers native to Palestine the rose was preeminent, Solomon compared his Shulamite heroine to the “rose of Sharon.” The Mishnah calls this the “king’s rose” (Kil. v. 8). | The festival day of the harvest (Shabu ‘ot) is desig- nated as the judgment day of trees (R. EE. i. 2). This is supposed to be the origin of the custom of decorating the house and the synagogue with flow- ers on Shabu ‘ot, Jacob b. Moses Molin (d. 1427), in his “Meharil,” first mentions the custom of scattering on the floor of the synagogue roses and other odor- ous blossoms as an expression of joy in the festival (see Shulhan ‘Aruk, Orah Hayyim, § 494). The “Macen Abraham ” says itis customary to place trees in the synagogue. Elijah Wilna, however, prohib- ited this innovation, since it would be aping the Christian custom on Pentecost (Danziger, “ Hayye Adam,” § 131, 13). In Palestinian synagogues flowers are distributed to the worshipers as they leave the services on Passover eve. Isaiah Hurwitz, in his “Shelah” (p. 180a, Amster- dam, 1698), relates a custom prevailing in Safed, where the sexton distributed fragrant weeds to every person during the moruing service on Shabu‘ot, while the cantor recited “ Ha-El be-Ta‘azumot.” That flowers were highly valued by the Jews is further shown by the fact that nearly all their works of art are distinguished by floral representations, as the candelabra of the Tabernacle (Ex. xxv. 33), the pillars of the Temple, and the molten sea with its brim wrought with “flowers of lilies” (I Kings vii. 19-26). The Talinud states that Solomon’s Temple contained representations in gold of various aromatic trees in full fruit, from which fragrant perfumes ex- haled with the movement of the air (Yoma 389b). A. J. D. E. FLUTE. See Music AND MusicaL INSTRUMENTS. FLY (Hebr. 3533): A two-winged insect, espe- cially the common house-fly (fusca domestica). Itis referred to in Eccl. x. 1: “Dead flies cause the ointment of the apothecary to send forth a stink- ing savor.” Since a fly in food is offensive, its presence there is a ground for divorce; according to some, however, its presence is accidental, and is not the fault of the housewife (Git. 6b). In gen- eral, if a fly falls into a cup of wine and is re- moved, the wine is still fit to drink; fastidious people, however, do not drink it, though the vul- gar even cat of a dish into which a fly has fallen (Tosef., Sotah, v. 9, Yer. 1%a; Bab. Git. 90a; Num. R. ix. 12; Midrash in Kohut Memorial Voluine, p. 176). The Jews were censured because, while they were willing to drink wine into which a fly had fallen, they would not drink such as the king had merely touched (Meg. 13b). The fly is extremely annoying when one is eating, and since it persistently returns even after being driven away it is the emblem of evil desires (Ber. 10b, 61a; Targ. Eccl. x. 1). The Egyptian fly (Isa. Vii. 18) is so dangerous that it may be killed even on the Sabbath (Shab. 121b}. It is used asasymbol for the Egyptian king Shishak (Seder ‘Olam R. xx.), and for Sennacherib (Ex. R. xxx. 5). It issupposed to be the species Culex molestus (Forskal, “ Descrip- tiones Animalium,” p. 85, Copenhagen, 1775). The Mishnah (Parah ii. 3) mentions a kind of gadfly (probably the Chrysops eecutiens) against which cattle are protected by a covering; another kind, the “baka,” the animals drive away with their tails (Shab. 77b). There were other kinds, especially the gray fly, which the Talmudic writers regarded, ap- parently, not as flies, but as worms (larve). Cur- tains as a protection against flies were hung over the beds (Yer. Suk. 58b; Bab. 26a; Rashi on M. K. 27a). There isa species of fly that lives only one day, while the common house-fly lives longer, al- though not for an entire year. This fact is the sub- ject of a pretty legend in the Talmud (Hul. 58b). The fly occasionally became such a scourge in Palestine that public prayers were ordered (Ta‘an. 14a). Hence it is easy to understand that the Philis- tines at Ekron worshiped a special god of flies, BAAL-ZEBUB (II Kings i. 2); but there is no reason to assume that the Aramaic word for “enmity ” was derived from it (Geiger, “Urschrift,” p. 58). The fly alights on gonorrheal persons and then infects healthy people (Ket. 77b); it also alights on wounds (Pesik. 26b). Strange as it may seem, there were no flies in the abattoir of the sanctuary at Jerusalem (Abot v.5; Ab. R. N.i., xxxv.); Maimonides be- lieves they were driven away by the smoke of the incense; Rashi, however, attributes their absence to the fact that the tables were of marble (see also Mahzor Vitry, p. 538). According to another tradi- tion, the “sons of Moses” are in a miraculous man- ner kept from being troubled by gnats or flies (Gas- ter, “The Chronicles of Jerahmeel,” p. 196). The sons of Eli were blamed for leaving the juicy pagrt of the offering to the flies (Yalk., Sam. 86). The Haggadah often emphasizes the fact that the fly serves a purpose in the world (Gen. R. x. 7; Ex. R. x. 1, etc.); it is also said that a crushed fly is good for a hornet’s sting (Shab. 77b). The third plague of the Egyptians, “kinnim” (Ex. viii. 12), is commonly translated “lice.” Modern investigation, however, favors the view of the Septuagint that the word means oxvigec, which Philo (“De Vita Moysis,” ed. Mangey, p. 97) and Origen (“ Homilia in Exo- dum,” iv. 6) interpret as a species of gnat, an insect, under the name “ yittosh ” or “ yattush ” (win), often mentioned in connection with “ zebub” in rabbinic sources. It is much more certain that the Bibli- cal “‘arob” (Ex. vili. 17-20; Ps. Ixxviii. 45) is a species of fly, though even the Tannaim disputed as to its exact meaning (Bacher, “Ag. Tan.” iti. 252); according to the Septuagint and Symmachus, who translate it cuvozwa, it is the dog-fly or stinging-fly, described by travelers as a great scourge in Egypt. According to the critical view, the plague of dog- flies is merely a variant of that of the gnats. Gnats are referred to in the simile in Matt. xxiii. 24. ADNDNn, between 1197 and 1199. DAPo7 axon, a paraphrase by Zerahiah ben Isaac ben Shealtiel of Rome (1277-94), in four books: (1) on the diversity of maladies; (2) on their causes; (3) on the variety of symp- toms; and (4) on the causes of the symptoms. D‘JANDp, three treatises on the compounded medicaments ac- cording to their species, by the same. yxn2’pd, on the crisis, by Solomon Bonirac of Barcelona (1300- 1350). On bleeding, by Kalonymus ben Kalonymus, in 1308. a3>9pay xypna (‘ De Clysteriis et Colica’’), by the same. MHI As NawWAA, on the regimen of the epileptic boy. Honnp sn pr’p (‘De Malitia Complexionis Diverse’), by David ben Abraham Caslari (1280-13387). Deaay0oNS Dy)D 5m, summaries of the Alexandrian school, by Simson ben Solomon. These summaries contain the follow- ing treatises: "AN DAT My7D, on the medical Transla- sects; mx am moxso or map noxbdn (“Ars tions of His Parva’); pp 3, 0n the pulse; yw ‘DD ap, Medical chapters from the treatise on the urine; P1037, Works. on marasmus; y303 ;poax ox, on aature; myyo+3a, on the elements according to Hippoec- rates ; 139723, on the temperament; Fyyaym Min3a, on the fac- ulties of nature; mi725, on anatomy; Sapom) bya, on mala- dies and their symptoms; 5°3N199 D°74N7, on a knowledge of diseases of the internal organs; MIn4p3 +3103, on the various kinds of fevers; yX 723, on crisis: [RANI +013, on critical days; mxyenn mid anna, on the art of healing; mx an nyu, on hygiene; and AAW ANS, on melancholy. 549 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Galatia Galicia The following supposititious works of Galen were also translated into Hebrew: Onn ’d, on the uterus (“* gynzeceeas*’). A733P79 Vox ’dD, against speedy interment, by Judah al-Harizi. vpn ’D, on the soul, by the same, A medico-astrological treatise (** Prognosticum de Decubitu ex Mathematica Scientia ’’), paraphrased by Leon Joseph. sWNNwWe ( Passionarios’’). A summary of various maladies, their natures and symptoms, and the remedies for them, by Abraham ben Shem-Tob. MINI AYud wp, a collection of remedies. Of Galen’s commentaries to the works of Hippoc- rates the following were translated into Hebrew: on the aphorisms, by Nathan ha-Meati; on three treatises of the Pronostics, probably by the same; on air, water, and countries, by Solomon ha-Meati. In the twenty-sixth chapter of the “Healing of the Soul,” by Joseph ibn Aknin of Barcelona (12th cent.), Galen’s works are mentioned as forming a part of the regular schoo] curriculum (Giidemann, “Das Jiidische Unterrichtswesen,” etc., p. 100). He is also cited as an authority on ritual responsa; ¢.¢., by Isaac b. Abraham Latif (13th cent.; see “Sam- melband,” i. 51, 58; Mekize Nirdamim, 1885), BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider, Alfarabi, pp. 31, 34, 1384, 142; idem, Cat. Bodl. col. 1918; idem, Hebr. Uebers. p. 650; idem, Cat. Hamburg, pp. 143, 197, 308; idem, Cat. Leyden, pp. 335, 337; idem, in Monatsschrift, xxxviii. 177, 366. G. TY. Br. GALICIA, Austria: Province of Austria; ac- quired at the partition of Poland, 1772, and which, except for some small territorial changes, has re- mained such since the Vienna Congress of 1815. The census of 1900 showed the number of the Jews in Galicia to be 811,371 in a total of 7,315,989 inhabitants, or about 11 per cent. Statistics. Notwithstanding heavy emigration, their number has increased steadily in proportion to the total population. The census of 1850 showed 817,227 Jews among 4,734,427 inhabit- ants, in 1827 there were 246,147 among 4,382,388, and the first census made by the Austrian govern- ment in 1789 showed 178,072 among 3,039,391 in- habitants. Most of the Jews live in cities, and in seven of these they form the majority of the popu- lation—in Brody, about three-quarters. While the great masses receive no other education than that which the heder affords, the number of Jews in the high schools, in the universities, and in the pro- fessions is far above their proportion to the popula- tion. Thus in 1890, Jewish scholars in the gymna- siums aggregated 18 per cent; in the realschools, 21 per cent. Among the physicians there were 25 per cent Jews, and among the lawyers 48 per cent. Even among the veterinary surgeons and the drug- gists the number of Jews is somewhat above their proportion to the population, notwithstanding the fact that the opportunity to practise these professions depends largely on governmental appointments, to which comparatively few Jews are assigned. The oldest history of Galicia is identical with that of the Jews inthe kingdom of Poland, of which this province formed part up to its occu- pation by Austria in 1772. Upon the annexation of Poland, the empress Maria Theresa pursued the policy of not interfering with the customs and habits of the population in or- der to reconcile them to the new government. This History. policy was followed also in the treatment of the Jews. As under Polish dominion, the Jews formed a separate body and enjoyed a liberal measure of autonomy ; the congregations formed a politica! com- munity, and were combined into a district, over which an elder (“ Kreisaeltester ”) presided ; the elders of the six districts together with six representatives at large (“ Landesaeltester ”) formed a board of trus- tees (“ Generaldirektion ”), over which the chief rabbi (“ Oberlandesrabbiner”) presided. The last was se- lected by the empress from three candidates pre- sented by the trustees. Maria Theresa selected Ezekiel] LAnNpAv for this office, but he declined (see “ Noda‘ bi-Yehudah,” partii.; “Orah Hayyim,” No. 36; Buber, “Anshe Shem,” Cracow, 1895, p. xxi.), whereupon Libush Bernstein of Brody was selected in his place, but he failed to make his office effective. The office was abolished by Joseph II., and Bern- stein died in retirement in 1789. The power of ex- communication was vested in the chief rabbi, who exercised it under the supervision of the govern- ment, which made use of it in punishing evaders of taxes, smugglers, or deserters from military service. The school system was organized in three grades along traditional lines: in the lowest grade elemen- tary branches and Bible were taught; in the second the Talmud was studied; while in the third or high- est grade rabbinical instruction was given. Maria Theresa applied paternal government in its most minute details to the internal life of the Jews. She devised the rules for bestowing the titles of haber and morenu and for granting the licenses for the reader and the shohet. Different from the practise pursued in the older provinces, the empress decreed no limitation to the number of marriages, except in so far as affected the taxes which had to be paid be- forea marriage license could be issued. Severe penal- ties were devised for persons who baptized Jewish children without the consent of their parents, but these were not enforced, as the canonical law which declared such a baptism valid was respected, and children baptized against the will of their parents were taken from them and handed to some Christian institution for custody and education. A serious re- striction placed on Jewish artisans was the provision of Marta Theresa’s “Judenordnung,” which did not permit them to work for Christian customers, except in places where no Christian was working at the same trade. This provision was incorporated in the con- stitution of the Galician gilds of May 9, 1778, which contains the requirement that no Christian master mechanic should “aid or abet any charlatan |“ Pfu- scher ”], disturber, quack, or Jew, nor should any such charlatan or Jew be permitted to work at any trade, except that Jews might work for Jews.” The taxes were originally levied according to the tra- ditional Polish system, which demanded a per capita tax of two florins, Polish (about 28 cents); but soon after the annexation this tax was increased to one florin (“Conventionsmuenze”), which was almost double the original amount. This system was changed by the law of 1776, which provided that every family should pay a tax of four florins ($1.60) for right of residence, and another tax of the same amount for license to trade, and an income tax, for the payment of which the community Galicia was held responsible. Thus the community as- sessed the individual congregations, which in turn assessed the individual members, Aside from these taxes, special licenses were required for every mar- riage, for the building of a new synagogue or the repairing of an old one, for holding services in a private house and for similar ceremonies. During the eighteenth century ideas of humani- tarianism found their way into the Austrian empire ; and Joseph IL., imbued with a com- Joseph II. mendable desire, wished to establish in his domains the principle of the equality of all mankind. As he improved the con- dition of the rest of his Jewish subjects, so he pro- claimed for the Jews of Galicia a policy which was a departure from that of his mother. The “ Patent” of May 27, 1785, and the “ Judenordnung ” of May 7, 1789, regulated their legal condition (“ Pillerische Sammlung der Patente und Verordnungen fuer die Koenigreiche Galizien und Lodomerien,” 1785, p. 89; and Koefil’s “ Systematischer Auszug der Galizischen Gesetze und Verordnungen,” ii. 391). The purpose of the law-giver is clearly defined in the preamble to the “Judenordnung” of 1789, which says: “It is both in accordance with the accepted principles of toleration as well as conducive to the general good to abolish the discrimination which legislation has hitherto made between Jewish and Christian sub- jects, and to grant to the Jewish inhabitants of Ga- licia all the rights and privileges which the Christian subjects enjoy.” Previous to the publication of these general laws individual laws had established the principle of toleration. A Jaw of Feb. 4, 1782, stated that Jewish physicians should have the right of practising medicine among Christians, and on June 28 of the same year the schools were declared to be open to Jewish children and students. The restriction which prohibited Jewish mechanics from working for Christians was abolished Sept. 16, 1784; and in order to encourage manual labor Jews who lived exclusively by farming were exempted from paying taxes, while artisans and factory employees enjoyed certain privileges in the matter of taxation. The “Patent” of 1785 had abolished the “ General- direktion,” so that the Jews should not form 4 sep- arate body politic; the special Jewish checks (“ Ma- meras”; see MAMRAN) were declared void; rabbin- ical civil law was abolished 1785; early burial was prohibited April 10, 1787. In the same year an or- dex was issued that the Jews must serve in the army, and that before Jan. 1, 1788, all Jews must adopt fixed and hereditary family names. Further, in bookkeeping they were ordered to use the language of the country; books kept in Yiddish were not ac- cepted as evidence in court. Joseph II. ruled in that spirit of paternalism which regulated all the in- ternal affairs of the citizens. Though his policy would sometimes clash with religious practises, the general spirit of his legislation was benevo- lent. Once he prohibited the stringing of the wires which marked the Sabbath boundary (“Sabbath- schniire ”), but permitted it later on the condition that it would not interfere with public traffic (see ‘ERv8). He ordered that itinerant preachers and hazzanim should be treated as vagabonds. The pamphlet “Ruah Hayyim” (Briinn, 1785), in which THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 550 the driving out of a devil is minutely described, afforded the emperor an opportunity of admonish- ing the censor and of directing him to withhold per- mission to publish such literature as “tended only to retard the enlightenment of the Jews, as there were enough old books of this type extant” (Nov. 2, 1785), but he was sufficiently broad-minded to declare himself opposed to any alterations in the text of the Talmud, because such a work belonged to literature, and should be Kept intact for the sake of historical study (Sept. 19, 1789). The reign of Leopold II. (1790-92) was of too short duration to have had any influeuce on the de- velopment of Jewish affairs. How- Benevolent ever, it should be mentioned that Despotism, shortly after the death of Jaseph IL. 1790- __— personal service in the army was abol- 1848. ished, and the old Polish exemption- tax (“Rekrutengelder”) was intro- duced (Nov. 24, 1790); but with the provision that it should never be reintroduced, it was finally re- pealed in1796. The general principle of Francis IT. (1792-1835) and of Ferdinand J. (1835-48), who ruled through Metternich, was that of restricting all liberal thought; hence it was opposed to the emanci- pation of the Jews. In those days the government hoped that by closely regulating the internal] affairs of the Jews it would succeed in assimilating them with the rest of the population. The temper of the new emperor was made manifest by an order (Sept. 7, 1792) which declared that the right of the Jews to participate in municipal elections should be so regulated that they would not inconvenience the Christian citizens (“die Christlichen Buerger nicht beeintraechtigen ”). This law decreed that only such Jews as enjoyed municipal franchise might be elect- ors. The granting of the franchise was in the hands of the municipal council, and might be granted only to property-holders and master mechanics. From the inner city of Lemberg the Jews were excluded, With the exception of such proprietors of large business houses as could prove that the volume of their business amounted at least to 30,000 florins ($12,000) per annum; as arule strangers were not admitted, and even the residents were not per- mitted to marry women from other cities. Ifa Jew from another city wished to move to Lemberg, he had to prove that he had induced two other Jews to leave the lattercity. Foreign Jews could come to Ga- licia for only a limited time, and from July 18, 1811, a poll-tax (“ Geleitzoll ”) was introduced in the case of Jews coming from the kingdom of Poland, which amounted to 4.45 florins for men, 8.15 florins for women anc servants, and 1.45 florins for children. Jewish importers of cattle and provisions fared bet- ter, having to pay but 1.06 florins. It must be ad- mitted, however, that this reactionary step was in- troduced only as a reprisal against Saxony, which levied a similar poll-tax on Austrian Jews, while those of the then existing dukedom of Warsaw were ex- empted from paying it. This strange relic of medi- evalism survived until March 7, 1851, when it was abolished by animperial edict. The business of drug- gist, like the medical profession, which in Polish times was generally followed by the Jews, was pro- hibited to them under Austrian rule, at first only ia 551 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Galicia West Galicia (1802), then in the entire province (1829). The strong attachment that Francis HW. formed for the Catholic Church is responsible for re- peated orders (1806, 1820) that Jews must not deal in ecclesiastical furniture, crucifixes, or vestments. The system of taxation was very burdensome. Joseph II., while filled with the noblest of intentions and desirous of carrying the principle of equal rights into practise, was hindered by financial needs. The always depleted treasury of the empire made it im- possible to forego the income derived from special Jewish taxes. So, while in civil law and in their municipal affairs Joseph II. placed the Jews on a2 level with the Christians, he retained in Galicia, as well as in the older provinces, a system of special Jewish taxes. Besides the taxes introduced by his mother, which he retained with slight changes, he introduced a special tax on kasher meat, which, when additional revenue was required, was often increased. The original tax of 1% kreuzer (a little more than acent) on every pound of meat was later increased to 3 kreuzer, while that of 5 kreuzer on a goose was advanced to 17 kreuzer. The “Schutz- steuer” of four florins for every family, to which one florin was added for the benefit of the landlord (“ Do- mesticalsteuer ”), was abolished in 1797, because it did not yield the expected revenue and also because it gave the authorities a great amount of trouble in dealing with the numerous delinquents. In its place a light tax was introduced which was levied on every light burned for religious purposes (as on Sabbath and holy days), on every oil-lamp burned at the an- niversaries of the deaths of relatives (see JAHRZEIT), on every candle used in the synagogues on the Day of Atonement, on every Hanukkah light, and on every candle lighted at awedding. This tax ranged from one-half a kreuzer for every Hanukkah light to one florin for a torch at a wedding, and was a greatsourceofannoyance. Asa rule, it was farmed out and levied with absolute indifference to the hardship which it caused. But when it failed to yield the expected revenue, a direct tax was im- posed upon all the Jews of the province in order to make up for the deficiency, and this had to be paid by the congregations as a body. With re- gard to this, it must, however, be admitted that in general Francis II. was averse to taxing relig- ious rites and ceremonies. When some Jews cf- fered to pay 150,000 florins for the privilege of col- lecting a tax on every ETROG used on the festival of Sukkot, he declared himself strongly opposed to it, although Maria Theresa had established a precedent by levying 4,000 florins on the Jews of Moravia for the privilege of importing that fruit (“Oest. Wo- chenschrift,” 1901, p. 727; “Israel. Familienblatt,” Hamburg, Oct. 10, 1901). While on the one hand discrimination against the Jews in civil and political affairs was frequent, on the other hand, owing to the system of taxation, the traditional policy of con- stant interference with their religious practises and other internal affairs could not be avoided. In or- der to maintain the revenue of the treasury it be- came necessary to compel every Jew to kindle lights on Sabbath and holy days and to eat none but kasher meat. Paternalism, however, did not stop here, An imperial order of Dec. 14, 1810, decreed that no one should marry unless he had passed an examination in religion based on Herz Homberg's catechism “Bene Zion.” While this law was in force over the whole monarchy, it was particularly exasperating for Galicia, where only a very small fraction of the population could read German, and where Homberg, whom the government had sent there as inspector of the schools, had made himself universally hated by his irreligious conduct and by his proneness to inform against the Jews. The conse- quences were that the educational movement inau- gurated by Joseph IT. was abandoned, and the special Jewish school fund, formed from Jewish taxes, was merged into the general tax-fund of the country. The various attempts to raise the status of the rabbis fared no better, and the government decree (1836) that after ten years no rabbi should be appointed who had not taken an academic course at a univer- sity became a dead letter. The meddlesomeness of the government was noticeable in an order of 1812 which prohibited the collecting of gifts for the poor in Palestine. It threatened to treat as a vagabond a solicitor of such alms. Inspired, as was the de- mand for a higher education of the rabbis, by higher motives was an attempt to encourage secular educa- tion and the assimilation of Jews and Christians by privileges offered to such as would acquire school education and would discard their peculiar dress. Since the time of Joseph II. repeated laws prohibited the Jews from dealing in alcoholic liquors, but these remained ineffective, chiefly on account of the power of the landowners, who pos- sessed the exclusive privilege of distilling, and who, from the time of the earliest settlement of the Jews in Poland, farmed out this privilege to Jews (see Solomon Luria’s Responsa, No. 34). Finally, on March 24, 1841, the government promulgated a law which permitted such Jews as would abandon their distinctive dress, and who would acquire an ele- mentary-school education, to live in villages and to engage in the liquor traffic. This law also re- mained a dead letter. A new order, dated Sept. 9, 1847, required all Jewish liquor-dealers to qualify by Jan. 1, 1847. Even this law did not have the desired effect, for in 1847 the trustees of the congre- gation. of Lemberg were asked to assist the govern- ment in its attempt to enforce the law. A decided step in advance was the abolition of the limitation of marriages in Lemberg (1846); but the general status of the Jews remained unchanged until 1848, and even the constitutions of 1848 and 1849 did not have any immediate effect, as the national move- ment among the Poles, who considered the Jews as strangers, and the hostility of the cities, which were unwilling to give up the privileges which they pos- sessed of limiting the business activity of the Jews, were strong factors in making it impossible for the Jews toavail themselves of the privileges which the new order of things conferred upon them. The principle of full equality, introduced by the constitution of 1848, was not long enforced. Two Jews from Galicia, Berish Meisel, rabbi of Cracow, and Abraham Halpern, a merchant of Stanislau, were members of the Reichstag of Kremsier, and Isaac N. Mannheimer, a Vienna preacher, was elected for Brody; but with the interruption of parliamentary Galicia Galilee THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 552 government certain restrictions were reintroduced, while others were enforced by the local authorities contrary to law, but with the connivance of the gov- ernment. The only permanent improvement was the abolition, March 7, 1851, of the poll-tax levied on Jews from Russian tion and Poland who came to Galicia on busi- Reaction ness, but a number of other disabilities Since 1848. were reenforced. With the rest of the Austrian Jews those of Galicia lost the right of acquiring land by the law of Oct. 2, 1858; but while for the other provinces inhabited by Jews this right was restored by the imperial order of Feb. 18, 1860, the restrictions were enforced in Galicia and in the Alpine provinces until! the consti- tution of Dec. 21, 1867, was proclaimed. Jewish merchants of Lemberg who had opened stores in the inner part of the city were forced to close them within two months, and the landlords who had rent- ed stores to Jews were punished. The same regu- lation was enforced in Sambor; and when the Jews appealed to the provincial government against these illegal proceedings, the latter referred the case to the district authorities (“ Kreisamt”), who decided against the Jews. As late as 1859 the city of Tar- now demanded the enforcement of a decree made by the King of Poland in 1765 which restricted the Jews to a ghetto. The law which prohibited the employ. ment of Christian domestics by Jews, while never strictly enforced, was used from time to time as a vexatious measure, even where a Jewish tenant of farm-land employed Christian laborers. Under this law a Jew of Wadowice was fined on Sept. 11, 1859. Afterward the Bishop of Przemysl in a pastoral let- ter of Jan. 20, 1860, declared that such a law, con- flicting with that of the Church, and could never be valid. In some instances the police arrested Chris- tian domestics who served in Jewish houses, and brought them to the priest, who ordered them to leave their places under penalty of whipping. The law was formally abrogated on Nov. 20, 1860. Lemberg, the capital of the province, continued to disregard the constitution. In drawing up the municipall statutes (1863 and 1866), the city council demanded that Jewish members should be limited to fifteen per cent of the total number, and that the property of the city should belong exclusively to the Christians. By the constitution of 1867 Jews were admitted to the municipal boards, to the provincial diet, and to the Parliament; but while the letter of the constitution was maintained, the local Jaws were often framed so as to discriminate against the Jews in fact. A notable instance of this kind is the school law of 1883, which declared that every school prin- cipal must be of the same religion which the ma- jority of the school-children professed, but as in that case a great number of Jewish school princi- pals would have to be appointed for Galicia, the Galician members of the Reichsrath insisted on the introduction of a clause which made an exception in the case of Galicia. Another instance which proves that the laws granting the Jews full civil liberty are merely theoretical is the case of Michaline Araten, who was taken to a convent Dec. 80, 1899, all efforts of her father to rescue her proving futile. Neither the courts nor the administrative authorities would Constitu- render a verdict against the convent; a mayor who at the request of the father searched the convent was punished with arrest for breach of peace, and even an audience which the father obtained with the emperor proved abortive. Similar instances of the abduction of Jewish girls into convents against the will of their parents, and their retention against their own will, have happened quite frequently, al- though none made such an impression as that of Michaline Araten because the relatives in the other cases did not have the means to exhaust all legal resources. Another instance showing how the law is often a dead letter in Galicia is found in the fact that a Jewish government official who in 1895 rented a room in Saybusch was forced to quit the town because the municipal authorities claimed on the basis of a governmental decision of 1809 that they could not be compelled to tolerate any Jews among them. That under such conditions nothing is done by the government to alleviate the great misery which exists among the Jewish population, espe- cially in the country districts, is self-understood, notwithstanding the fact that a recently appointed governor, Count Potocki, admitted to a Jewish com- mittee who waited on him that it was necessary that something be done (“ Oest. Wochenschrift,” 1908, p. 434), The Baron de Hirsch fund, formed from a leg- acy of $4,000,000, and the Hilfsverein for the Galician Jews in Vienna, formed 1902, are making noble ef- forts to alleviate misery and to encourage education. The great majority of the Galician Jews, espe- cially those in the eastern part of the province, are still in a condition similar to that which prevailed among the western Jewsin the first half of the eight- eenth century: their education is limited to Hebrew and the Talmud. From the time when Intellec- the Jews of Poland entered into the tual field of Hebrew literature Galicia has Culture. been a seat of learning. About the middle of the sixteenth century Moses IssERLES spread over western Europe the fame of Polish Talmudists. Since the sixteenth century Lem- berg has been the seat of an important yeshibah, and many of its rabbis have been called to occupy promi- nent rabbinical positions in Germany. When that part of Poland was annexed by Austria the intellec- tual life of the Jews remained unchanged. Maria Theresa made no attempts to improve it, and the efforts of Joseph II. were without permanent results. IJerz Homberg, who was appointed inspector of the Jewish schools in Galicia, 1787, was recalled in 1794, because he could effect no improvement. The Gali- cian Jews constantly petitioned the emperor to repeal the law of compulsory education, and they were finally successful, so that even now, after the new school law for Austria has been in existence for more than thirty years, it is still a dead letter for the Gali- cian Jews. (Ou the Galician school question see Wolf in “Allgemeine Zeitung des Judenthums,” 1887, p. 231.) Galicia produced a great number of promi- nent Talmudists in the latter part of the eighteenth and in the nineteenth century. Of this number may be mentioned the various representatives of the Ettinger and Orenstein families, who furnished Lem- berg with the rabbis Jacob (died 18387) and Hirsch Orenstein (died 1888), Marcus Wolf Ettinger (died 553 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Galicia Galilee 1868), Isaac Aaron Ettinger (died 1891), Solomon Klueger of Brody (died 1869), A. M. Taubes (at the end of his life rabbi of Jassy), and Joseph Saul Nathansohn, rabbi of Lemberg (died 1875). A more modern course was pursued by Hirsch Hagis, rabbi of Zolkiev (died 1835), who contrib- uted to scientific periodicals and wrote on historical and dogmatic topics. By the end of the eighteenth century the Mendelssohnian movement had also taken root in Galicia. Its pioneer was Nachman Krochmal (1785-1840), who gathered about himself a circle of sympathizers, among whom 8. L. Rapo- port (1790-1867), Joseph Perl (1777-1839), Isaac Er- ter, and Isaac Mieses were prominent. The younger HAaskALAH had also quite a number of prominent rep- resentatives, among whom may be mentioned QOsias H. Schorr (died 1895), Hillel Kahane, Alexander Langbank, Naphtali Keller, Hayyim Nathan Dembit- zer, Joseph Kohen Zedek, Solomon Rubin, and the two assiduous workers in the field of the history of literature, Solomon H. Halberstamm and Solomon Buber. The ghetto novel has two representatives from Galicia, Leo Herzberg-Frinkel and Karl Emil Franzos. In connection with this onght to be men- tioned the fact that Leopold von Sacher-Masoch, a Christian, drew the inspiration for his beautiful idyls of Jewish life from scenes in Galicia. Numerous also are those who have made a name in general lit- erature and in science, among whom may be men- tioned David Heinrich Miller, the Orientalist, and Marcus Landau, the essayist. Attempts made to introduce modern ideas into the life of the Jews by means of modern schools and a re- formed synagogue service have been successful in only a small measure. The greatest merit in this di- rection belongs to Joseph Perl, who established the first German school in Tarnopol, Galicia (1815), and introduced into it a modern synagogue service. In the same year a Jewish high school was estab- lished in Brody. Very slight reforms were intro- duced in Lemberg, where Abraham KoHN was elected rabbi in 1843. He fell a victim to fanatics, who poisoned him Sept. 6, 1848. Reforms, re- stricted toacertain decorum in ritual practises, were introduced in Cracow. They are still a rare phe- nomenon, for the HastpIm have gained a strong foothold in Galicia, especially since the immigration of Israel of Raisin, who fled from Russia in 1842 and established himself in Sadagora, where his grandson continues to gather a large number of de- voted followers around him. Hillel Lichtenstein, a native of Hungary, fostered Hasidism through his numerous works in Hebrew and Yiddish, while Moses Teitelbaum, a native of Galicia, introduced Hasidism into northern Hungary. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Von Kortum, Ueber Judenthum und Juden, Nuremberg, 1795; Stoeger, Gesetzliche Verfassung der Ga- lizisechen Judenschaft, Lemberg, 1833; Bernfeld, The Jews in Galicia, in Luah Ahiasaf, viii. 291-299; and the Jewish periodical press. | , OD. GALICIA, Spain: An ancient province in the northwestern part of Spain; a barren, mountainous region where Jews settled sparsely in the eleventh century. There were Jewish communities at Al- lariz, Corufia, Orense, Monforte, Pontevedra, Rivada- via. and Rivadeo, besides individual Jews scattered here and there. D. Menendez Gonzalez, a rich and powerful nobleman, received Jewish merchants, probably from Allariz, in his domain, not far from Orense, and when they were attacked by Arias Oduariz in 1044, he led an armed force against the latter, and recovered the silks and other goods that had been taken from the Jews. When John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, invaded Spain (1885), and Rivadavia was taken by Sir Thomas Percy, the English soldiers attacked the Jews, who were sup- posed to be rich, and plundered them, killing sev- eral. The ghetto, however, was not destroyed. Eighteen years before the expulsion, the Jews of Corufia, Betanzos, and Rivadeo paid an annual tax of 1,800 maravedis, and those of Orense, Monforte, and Rivadavia one of 2,000 maravedis. . (d) Multiplication and Division: One of the terms may be a multiple of the other; for an example comp. § II. 2 k, above. Multiplication may be used also in many other forms; e.g., a term may be multiplied by its letters, as ny" = (5 X 6 X 5 X 10)= 1,500. Similarly, one of the terms may be a quo- tient of the other; ¢.g., the world was created by means of npr (“truth”), these being the final letters of nx obs win (Gen. i. 1). The end of all crea- tion is ooN (“man”); for the latter is a tithe of the former: D = py NM, I— 7p D, & is indivisible. (e) Integration: Just asin the sefirot all things are contained ina latent state, potentially, so ina number there are latent ramifications. The letter 7 for instance, amounts on the face of it to 30; but it contains also its alphabetic name “105, and therefore THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Gematria really amounts to 74. The word 35, on the face of it amounting to 32, may be integrated (xbpn3) to m3 3105, and would then amount to 486. This in- tegral ( xbp) may again be integral to nby on 5105 WN Wy m9, and this double integration (NSpn Sp or 393~ 51) would raise the value of 3 to 1,486. In the above example 3 is the integral (wiw. IpY, miwp, mda, Wp. map? NYMR, mre ‘ts, Md IN), MW the integrant (oby3, ndyn), the doubly integrated number xo xbp, the process of integration sb». The numerical value of the in- tegral is the bb>5, that of the integrant the Orb. Some of the names of the letters may be spelled in various ways, so as to affect the numerical value of the word. Hence, one and the same word may, when integrated, yicld several values. The Tetra- grammaton mim, for example, may be integrated in many forms, but the following four are the usual ones: (1) SAINI NT TY = 45; (2) AA WAR TW = OR; (3) TANT TT TY = 63; (4) TT TY = 72. (f) Quaternion: The quaternary term (313%, Te- tpaxtic) 10 = (1+2+5-+4) shows that 5 = 10, as 4 includes all the preceding lower numbers. If the above equation, 4=10, be put in the form (1+ 1 14-1) =f (1-4) $4414 (14-1-444-)] it be- comes evident why a word like #7, for instance, is equivalent to @-+7p +1 + AIA) = 72. This proc- ess is called a5, DWAN Wp; the term itself, yian, your. The simple form myn is the p95 (“face”); the quaternated form D™\iNS&, NN (“back”). Quaternation may be combined with in- tegration, and the process is extended to words hav- ing more or less than four letters. (g) Spatiaity: A word may also be considered under the aspect of dimension, and expressed in terms of spatiality. Thus, m7 in terms of space would have a am (“width”) of 4, and a Ay} or map (“height”) of 10; the height being the extent of the integral (comp. § III. D e, above), E. Numerical Values: From the above explanation it is clear that one word may yield a variety of values. The early cabalists have, for some mystical reason, decided arbitrarily the number of these values to be nine, either because nine is the high- est number of units and contains all the lesser num- bers, or because of the nine psychic powers of man which are the cause of the whole organism—viz., intellect, understanding, consciousness, the five senses, and the practical will—since man,the micro- cosm, reflects the world, the macrocosm. However that may be, belowis given an enumeration of the cabalists’ nine values (Nos. 1-9) and of all the other values actually used. 1, Normat Value, "MDM AOD, MDD "1p, count- ing N—p as units, »— p as tens, p — nas hundreds. The 5 final letters have here the same values as their respective initial forms. 2. Cyclical or Minor Value, %b5 Soy “SDD, jOp %, where the tens, hundreds, and thousands are reduced to units; e.g., DIN = MON. ze, (40+4+1) = (400+ 40+1). This procedure is also called yIM Sybian (“return of the cycle”), since with 1,000 the alphabet must be begun anew, symbolizing that the beginning is connected with the end (\EID py) yndnn 3). This value is assigned to Enoch, who is Gematria Gems identified with Mattatron (a differentiation of Mrta- TRON), Who, like the gnostic demiurge, has neither knowledge of nor understanding for involution, the pneumatic nature of things. 3. Jnelusive Value, YOIP ADD, a development of the quaternion, where each number includes all the other numbers that precede it in the order of the alphabet; e.g., 7 = (5+44-8+2+4+D=15; 5= (20 +10+948474+6+51413+ 2-11) = 75. 4, Additory Value, ‘DDD ADDY, when the exter- nal number of words or of letters is added (comp. § III. Dc, above). 5. Square Value of the Word, 55 yard ADP. The numerical value of the word is successively multiplied by the value of cach letter, and the prod- ucts are added; e.g., Wi= [4 x 4) + (14 x 6) + (14 x 4)] = 196, or, in short, 142, The reason for such a procedure is that inasmuch as 14 branches are con- tained in 3 powers, each power must be contained in the other two. 6. Square Value of the Letter, YO1D yard AWoY; eg., WI = (44+ 6+ 4°) = 68. 7. Nominal Value, Mw “DoDD, taking the alpha- betical name of the letter for the letter itself (comp. & III. De, above). 8. Numeral Value, “BDD IBD, substituting the numeral noun for the number; e.g., bon = DYIIN owoy mx = (40+ 10+ 300+ 304 3004+-5-+1-+ 40+ 40+ 10 +70-+ 2+. 200+ 1) = 1,049. The prin- ciple is the same as in the preceding. 9. Major Numeral Value, On 5pDp, the pre- ceding combined with integration; eg., °= Fy= Dw} = 620. 10. Firternal Value, ‘38°M WH|DbH, when the con- tents are disregarded, every letter counting for 1. The Tetragrammaton can not be taken in this value (“Asis Rimmonim,” 86b). 11. Major Value, 13 "po. In this value the final letters count as hundreds (J"BYINT Ota “BD). In contradistinction to the minor or cyclical value (see § IIT. E 2, above), the values 10—400 (see § III. E 1, above) also belong under this head. 12. Multiple Value, Sp oan (comp. § III. Dd). 13. Quotient Value, ‘pon “Hp (comp. § III. Dd). 14. Cube Value of the Word, bbs 3DYyD TBDY, S55 why ‘np. 15. Cube Value of the Letter, ‘OI Apyp raDp (comp. “ Hayyat,” in “Minhat Yehudi,” iii.), 16. First Decadic Involution Value, nibbs “SDD “wy (comp. § III. Da, above). 1%. Second Decadic Incolution Value, nibs ADDY middan. 18. Double Integration Value, sw wow ADDY. 19. Permutation Value, “Yon IBD, when the values of the permutated letters are taken (comp. § II. 2c, above). 20-22. Quaternion Values, sia ppp, either of the simple word or of the singly and doubly inte- grated forms (comp. § III. D f, above). Considering that the procedures and values ex- plained above may be used in various combinations, it will easily be seen that a word may be made to yield an almost unlimited number of values. F. Scientific Value: What scientific value the Talmudists placed on gematria is difficult to tell THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 592 with certainty. AJthough ounce Jegal enactment, tiv the duration of the Nazaritic vow be 30 days, is osten- sibly founded on gematria, it will perhaps be nearer the truth to assume that they considered it merely as an “asmakta,” a mnemonic aid, and that, as in other similar cases, that law had another basis. In later literature, outside of cabalistic circles, and beginning with [bn Ezra (comp. “ Monatssehrift,” xhili. 84), the value of gematria is spoken of more or less derogatorily, especially by Joc] Siirkes (n"a to Tur Orah Hayvim, 24, 63), Leo di Modena (“ Ari No- hem,” ch. xiv.), Milsahagi (”%aN5 15c e¢ seg.), and Zweifel (“Kerem Hemed,” ix. 80 e¢ seq.). ) BIBLIOGRAPHY: Waldberg, Darke ha-Shimnuyim ; Cordavero, Pardes Rimmonimay xxx. 8: C. Taylor, Sayings of the Jew- ish Fathers, p. 62, note 46; KatzeneNenhogen, in Netibot ‘Olam, § 29; Friedmann, in Bet-Talmud, i; M. Hartmann, Semukim le-‘Olam. 8. 8S. C. J. GEMEINDEBUND, DEUTSCH - ISRAE- LITISCHER (“Union of Judeo-German Congre- gations”): Anassociation of Jewish corporations in Germany, founded July 8, 1869, on the occasion of the Jewish synod at Leipsic, and incorporated Feb. 18, 1899. The federation has for its object the exchange of experiences in matters of administra- tion, and especially the promotion of the common interests of German Jews, excluding, however, from its sphere of activity ail matters relating to ritual. It directs itsattention chiefly to education and charity. It grants subsidies for religious instruction to the smaller communities, and helps the needy by assist- ing them to take up agricultural and technical pur- suits. At the same time it provides for the training of religious teachers and cantors, and for peusions to aged officials of the congregations or to their fami- lies, contends against the evil of strolling beggars, and furnishes aid for released convicts. These ob- jects are enumerated in section two of its constitu- tion of Nov. 15, 1898. At the head of the federation, which at present includes two legally established boards (in Baden and Wiirttemberg), ten provincial and district con- gregational associations (“ Verbiinde ”), and 750 con- gregations, are a president anda board Con- of thirty-six members. This board ap- stitution. points delegates in the various commu- nities (numbering 118 in 1908) to watch the interests of the federation. The first two presi- dents were Jacob Nachod and Moritz Kobner, in Leipsic. When the society moved from Leipsic to Berlin in 1882 Dr. 8. Kristeller became president: in 1896 ill health compelled him to resign the office to the present incumbent, Dr, Martin Philippson, formerly professor at the University of Brussels. A regular meeting of delegates is held every four years. The business of this meeting comprises the hearing of the report of the board, as well as that of the treasurer, etc. The last mecting, the ninth since the existence of the federation, was held in Berlin Feb. 23-24, 1902. The charitable funds and institutions under the administration of the federation are as follows: German-Jewish Loan-Fund for Women and Girls: established 1875; administration in Leipsic. Mendelssohn House in Dessau. Bought 1879, on the 150th anni- versary of Moses Mendelssohn's birthday. The rear part of the house in which Moses Mendelssohn was horn has been left in its 593 original condition, while the front part has been remodeled. lt was planned as a home for retired Jewish scholars, and was opened in 1886. Samuel Kristeller Fund; founded May 26, 1890. Its object is to assist young Jews who wish to learn a trade, and to help de- serving Jewish mechanics in settling themselves. Montefiore Fund; founded 1900. It offers prizes to be com- peted for by teachers of mechanical trades and of gardening. Jewish Workingmen’s Colony at Weissensee, near Berlin. Its object is to provide work, food, and shelter for unemployed Jewish men. It was started in 1902, and numbers about 60 in- mates, Jewish Reformatory (Israelitische Firsorge-Erziehungsan- stait) for Boys (the Eugene and Amialie Rosenstiel foundation) at Repzin and Schivelbein: opened 1901 with twenty-five inmates. Jewish Reformatory for Girls at Plétzensee, near Berlin ; opened 1902. Commission for the maintenance of indigent congregations by means of contributions to the salaries of religious teachers and to the expenses of school buildings. It at present (1908) sub- sidizes about 150 needy congregations. Friedrich-Wilhelm-Victoria Fund; founded (18838) under the protectorate of the crown prince and princess (Emperor Fred- erick III. and Empress Victoria). It maintains the life-insur- ance policies of 1.000 community officials. Philippson Fund; founded 1875. It affords temporary relief to needy congregational officials. Herxheimer Fund; fonnded September 26, 1877. Enables poor Jewish students to attend normal schools in Germany. The following institutions are for the promotion of Jewish science: Zunz Fund; subsidizes eminent scientific works. Historicai Commission for Investigating the History of the Jews in Germany; founded 1885. It has published ** Zeitschrift fiir die Gesch. der Juden in Deutschland ” (Brunswick, 5 vols.}; Aronius, ** Regesten zur Gesch. der Juden im Frankischen und Deutschen Reiche bis zum Jahr 12737; Héniger-Stern, ** Das Judenschreinsbuch der Laurenzpfarre in K6ln**; Neubauer- Stern-Baer, ‘Berichte tiber die Judenverfolgungen Wahrend der Kreuzziige *; Salfeld, ** Das Martyrologium des Ntirnberger Memorbuehes.”’ Educational Department (for discussing pedagogical ques- tions). The Gemeindebund has published a number of popular tracts, the best known being “ Grundsitze der Jiidischen Sittenlehre,” by Dr. 8. Kristeller, ap- proved by the most influential rabbis and Jewish no- tables. It publishes a statistical year-book of the Jewish communities of Germany (fifteen have so far appeared), and from time to time the “ Mittheilun- gen vom JDeutsch-Israclitischen Gemeindebund ” (sixty numbers), The decisions of courts and author. ities (‘ Behérdliche Entscheidungen und Verord- nungen”) appended to the year-book give it addi- tional value. The assets of the union are valned at about 650, - 000 marks. It hasa library of about 5,000 books, mostly Judaica. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Mittheilungen vom Deutsch-Israelitischen Gemeindehund, Nos. 1-60; Statistisehes Jahrbuch of the association, Berlin, 1901. Dd. S. Sa. GEMMINGEN, URIEL VON. See Revucutin, J OILN. GEMS: Frecious stones, usually cut or polished for ornamental or other uses. Gems were nof in- digenous to Palestine; they were imported, under Solomon, in ships from Ophir (I Kings x. 11; II Chron. ix. 10), or brought by wandering merchants from Arabia and Phenicia (Ezek. xxvii. 22). Pre- cious stones were among the Queen of Sheba’s gifts (I Kings x. 2, 10), as well as among the riches for which Hezekiah provided treasuries (II Chron. xxxii. 27). Together with gold, they were esteemed V.—38 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Gematria Gems the most costly and rare possessions (Job xxviii. 15 ef seqg.; Prov. xvii. 8, xxvi. 8; Wisdom vii. 9). Therefore the restored city of Zion (Isa. liv. 11, 12) will be founded and beautified with precious stones (comp. Rev. xxi. 18 e¢ seg.); even the vision of God’s glory recalls the glow of gems (Ezek. i. 26, 27). They were in use as ornaments at a comparatively early period (in the crown of the Ammonite mon- arch: II Sam. xii. 80; on robes and canopies: Ezek. XXvili, 138; Apocr. Esther iv. 6; on golden vessels: Kicelus. [Sirach] 1. 9-10). They were especially em- ployed for signet-rings and seals, cylinders and cones (see ENGRAVING ; SEALS; also Benzinger,“ Arch.” 8.2. “Siegel”; Cant. v. 14; Ecclus. [Sirach] xxxii. 7 e¢ seq.; Greek, xxxv. 9 et seqg.; Greek, xxxviii, 27). David is said to have gathered gems while prepar- ing for the erection of the Temple, and Solomon is credited with having studded its interior walls with them (I Chron. xxix. 2, 8; If Chron. iii. 6). Gems are designated as map? jaw (Ezek. xxviii. 13; I Kings x. 2, 11; Assyrian, “abnu akartu ” = jax jn: Prov. xvii. 8; YEN ON: Jsa. liv. 12: Eeclus. [Sirach] xlv. 11; owSp wan: Ex. xxv.7; J) WON: I Chron. xxix. 2; Talmudic, 7216 jas: B. B. 10b; also in the plural Pi D'ISN, in the frequent ex- pression nvSoor mai OwIN =“ gems and pearls ”). In addition to a few other specific references, the twelve stones in the breastplate of the high priest and the two in his ephod are specifically enumerated (Ex, xxviii. 9, 17-20; xxxix. 10 e¢ seg.), from which lists that given by Ezekiel in the description of Tyre’s glory (“cherub ”) (Ezek. xxviii. In High 138; comp.Rev. xxi. 9-11) isin all prob- Priest’s ability an adaptation; some extreme Breastplate critics have even assumed the reverse and Ephod. relation between Ezekiel and Exodus (see Guthe, “Kurzes Bibelworterb.” s.v. “Edelsteine”). The exact determination of the value of the names given is extremely difficult, in some cases impossible. It has rightly been held (Flinders-Petrie, in Hastings, “Dict. Bible”; and J. L. Myres, in Cheyne and Black, “Enecyc. Bibl.” both s.v. “Stones, Precious”) that the Septuagint represents the Greck knowledge on the subject in the Alexandrian period assummed up in Theophras- tus’ treatise (Tepe Ai@ar), while Rev. xxi. 9-11 reflects Pliny’s views (“ Historia Naturalis,” xxxvil.). The Targumim throw light on the views traditionally held in their time by the Jews, but there is no rea- son to believe that they preserve accurate knowl- edge of the stones in use before their day. Jose- phus’ description (“ Ant.” iii. 7,§3; “B. J.” v. 5, § 7) is valuable only as giving his personal interpre- tation. Modern versions, as far as they do not follow the Septuagint, resort to equivalents based on the practise of theirday. Itisnoteworthy in this connec- tion that Sirach contents himself with a general de- scription without details (Ecclus. [Sirach| xlv. 11). On the well-grounded supposition that the He- brews could not have been familiar with stones un- known to the peoples with whom they came in con- tact and from whom they drew their stock of gems, Myres has compiled a table of stones in actual use among Egyptians, Babylonians, etc., at various pe- riods. In the following, Myres’ compilation has been consulted. Dividing the twelve stones into Gems THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 594 four rows of three each, Exodus (xxviii, 17-20) enumerates them thus: (1} DIN; capdcov = ‘*sardius”; A. Y. and R. V. “sardius”’ or “ruby”? (Ex. xxviii. 17, xxxix. 10; Ezek. xxviii. 13; Rev. xxi. 20); Targ. Onk. jo7p; Targ. Yer. i. xopyco, ii. NOPD; Ex. R. Xxxviii. ua ; Josephus, ‘ Ant.”’ iii. 7, § 5, “ sardonyx.” This, as the name implies and according to the Targumim and Num. R. vi. 7, was of red color, though possibly its name meant merely to suggest its Edomite origin. It is thus safe to identify it with the modern sard, which, according to Pliny (l¢. xxxXvil. 106), was very common among the engraved stones in antiquity. Petrie holds it to be the opaque blood-red jasper, Which was valued as a charm against bleeding, and was indeed common in Egypt, Babylonia, aud Assyria. While the sardonyx is a variety of agate in which white or semiopal chalcedony alternates with sard, the latter is a very compact variety of chalcedony, trans- parent, and much esteemed by ancient lapidaries. The reading in Ex. R. xxxviii. shonld be emended to pag, the sardonyx or carnelian, possibly the same stone as that which occurs elsewhere in rabbinical writings under the name rasan or pyipoayp (Sanh. 59b; Ab. R. N., Text A, i. and xxxviii.; Targ. to Job xxviii. 18), which Levy derives from cavédapaxn, and Kohut identifies with a Persian word meaning ‘“‘ruby” (see Bacher in ‘'R. E. J.”’ xxix. 83). On this stone in the breast- plate was engraved ** Reuben” (Ex. R. l.c.). (2) MMOD: Tomagcoy = “ topazius’’; A. V. and R. V. “*topaz” (Ex. xxviii. 17, xxxix.10; Ezek. xxviii. 13; Job xxviii19); Rev. Xxi. 20, capdovvg; Targ. Onk. 799; Targ. Yer. i. and ii, xnp7y, Ex. R. le. prrsnw; Josephus, Lc. “topaz.”? These render- ings agree in identifying the ‘* pitdah’’ with the “ topaz” (for the reading in Exodus Rabbah is doubtless a corruption of PMpDWwWs comp. the Syriac in Job xxviii. 19; see Monats- schrift,’’ 1882, p. 334; Bacher, in “* R. E. J.” xxix. Chrysolite 84), and in making it a stone of yellow-green or Topaz. color. By modern scholars it is identified as the Assyrian ‘‘hipindu,”’ a “flashing ”’ stone. Thus the pitdah could scarcely represent our modern topaz. But it may have been the ‘false topaz,”’ that is, a yellow rock- crystal, or with still greater probability the modern chrysolite, which is a green-colored, vitreous, transparent or translucent mineral, of which there are two kinds, the common and the precious. The precious, of a pale yellowish-green color, isfound in the Leyant. In Pliny the description of the topaz fits the modern chrysolite, and that this corresponds to the Hebrew *“pitdah *’ is the opinion of Myres, Petrie, Cheyne, and Fraas (see Riehm, ** Handworterb.”’ 2d ed., p. 388b, note). According to Job xxviii. 19 this stone came from Cush (Ethiopia). This seems to agree with the report (Pliny, le. vi. 34 and xxxvii. 32, Sard. where it is described as green; Targum to Job, l.c. ; Diodorus | Siculus, iii. 39) about the topaz island in the Red Sea. This stone was engraved **Simeon.”’ (3) mp ra: Septuagint and Josephus, gudpaydos; A. V. * car- bunncle’’; R. V. **carbunele”’ or *‘emerald” ; Targ. Onk. jp 23; Yer. i, ii. OPI; Ex. R.pmupws. In Ezek. xxviii, 13 the Septuagint retains guapaydsos, but the Masoretic text has ** ya- halom.’’ As the Hebrew name etymologically indicates, this was a “flashing, brilliant” stone. Its identification, however, is doubtful. According to the Greek writers, the Greek ona- paysos (Lewy, ‘Die Semitischen Fremdworter,” p. 57) was a crystal found in immense columns and was of intense brilliancy. ‘a‘his would apply to the rock-erystal and the beryl. In favor of the former see Rev. iy. 3, and Petrie in Has- tings, “ Dict. Bible” (.e.). In Egypt colorless, brilliant rock- crystal was extensively used for engraving, as it was from the later Babylonia time onward in Mesopotamia (Myres); hence tbe presumption is that the Biblical Mp a represents this crystal, The reading in Exodus Rabbah expresses the Greek vaxtvOos (Syriac of Rev. xxi. 20). This would make it a stone of the color of the hyacinth, or the jacinth, one of the many varieties of zircon. It is mentioned in Revelations, but not in the Old Tes- tament. Pliny (l.c. xxxvii. 41 et seq.) names Ethiopia as the source of its supply. In rabbinical literature it is frequently named (Gen. R. lxxix.; Yalk. to Deut. 854; Yalk. to Gen. 134; Mahzor Vitry, pp. 312, 386; comp. ““R. E. J.” xxix. 84). This stone was engraved with Levi’s name. (4) Jo: A.V. and R. V. ““emerald”’; R. V., margin, ** car- buncle *” ; Septuagint and Josephus, avépag; Targ. Onk. par aiN: Yer. i. wyoms; Yer. Ti. x339525 Ex. R. pyr aa (pdduvos = “ruby,” “rose-stone’’). The Hebrew name has the appear- ance of being a loan-word. W. M. Miiller (‘‘ Orient, Lit.”’ ii. 39) identifies it with Egyptian ‘* M-f-k-t,”’ and thus in turn with Rock- Crystal. the * lupaaku ” stone of the El-Amarna tablets (see Muss-Arnolt, * Concise Diet.” p. 8U1lb). This, however, is doubted by Knud- son (* Assyr. Beitrage,”’ iv. 324). It must have belonged to the green stones, and the Sinaitic peninsula and Emerald or Phitistia have furnished itin quantities. Fifty Garnet. of these stones were part of the tribute sent from Ashkalon, just as the “ nofek”’ was among the goods sent from Syria (Masoretic text SN; or, if reading is a3, from Edom) enumerated in Ezek. xxvii. 16. Onkelos and Targ. Yer. i. support this value of nofek as a green stone (em- erald) often mentioned in Jewish writings (Lev. R.ii. 5; Pesik. R. x. [p. 39b] as quoted in the ‘Aruk, which conneets the later name 4712I°% With the Arabic **zumurrud*’). The modern identification of the nofek with the red garnet, or that by the Septuagint with the carbuncle and ruby, has the support of Targ. Yer. ii. and of Exodus Rabbah. It was assigned to Judah. (5) sos: A. Vand R. V. “sapphire” (Ex. xxiv. 10, xxviii. 18, xxxix. 11; Isa. liv. 11; Lam. iv. 7; Cant. v. 14: Job xxviii. 6, 16; Ecclus. [Sirach] xliii. 19; Ezek. i. 26). The same word is employed in the Septuagint, in the Vulgate, and by Josephus (comp. Lewy, lc. p.56); Targ. Onk. ray, Yer. i. yy37a0, Yer. it. Np|tC, Exodus Rabbah jy3*np2p (“sapphire ’’). This stone probably represented in Biblical usage the opaque blue lapis Ja- zuli, according to W. M. Miiller the ‘‘uknu” of the El-Amarna tablets (see Rev. xxi.19, R. V., margin). It has Lapis Lazuli the appearance of being sprinkled with gold- or dust (Theophrastus, l.c. p. 692). This is due to Sapphire. the presence of iron pyrites, and harinonizes with both Ex. xxiv. 10 and Ezek. i. 26 (comp. Toy, ** Ezekiel,” in ‘*S. B. O. T.’). Others, however, have con- tended that the Biblical sapphire is identical with the modern sapphire, the blue corundum (hence Onkelos, “‘shabziz’’), though this was almost unknown before the Roman empire, and was regarded by the classical mineralogists as a jacinth or hyacinth. The sa_phire (probably the true one) occurs in rabbinical books (Tan., Ki Tissa, 29; Eccl. R. x. 20; Yelamdenu to Ex. xxxiii. 1 {quoted in the ‘Aruk]; Ex. R. vili. 3; Cant. R. v. 14; and fre- quently; see Krauss, ** Lehnworter,” pp. 398-399). On this stone was engraved ** Issachar.”’ (6) obas: A. V. “diamond”; R. V. “diamond ”’ or “‘ sardo- nyx’’ (see No.12). Therendering of the old versions is in doubt, as, owing to transpositions, the Septuagint taomes and Latin “* ias- pis”? (Ex. xxviii. 18, xxxix. 11) may correspond to another He- brew term (‘‘yashefeh” according to Petrie and Myres). The readings in Targum, o19723D, Yer. i. 31572, Yer. ii. sory Py, Ex- R. “smaragd ’’ (emerald), p1277DN, confirm the suspicion of a confusion. pi*nsp in Onkelos might suggest ** yahalom,” but see under No.9; “kadkodi” is the ruby; and ** ‘en ‘egla,”’ else- where the rendering for anbns, is the hyacinth (‘' vacci- nium’), Moreover, the Greek taomcs is linguistically the equiv- alent of the Hebrew “ yashefeh,”’ which, according to Benfey, is of Egyptian origin (Lewy, l.c., p. 56), As Josephus also men- tions the jasper, though as the second, not as the third stone of the second row, it is advised to put “* yashe- feh * in place of the “‘yahalom”’ here. This stone was known to the Assyrians (** yashpi’’), and was used for the royal seal. The Greek taoms was a dull, opaque stone, generally green, but occurred also in red and opalescent varieties. The modern jasper is an impure variety of silica, opaque, and of many colors and shades, Pliny (lc. xxxvii. 9) reports that in the East the variety of jasper which resembled the emerald was especially affected (hence Ex. R. has ‘‘emerald’’?). In the Greek of Isa. liv. 12 tagms corresponds to the Hebrew ‘“kadkod,’” which identification underlies the rendering of Targ. Yer. i. Symmachus, “ charchedonion” is another rendering agreeing with the Targum (see Krauss, ** Lehnworter,”’ p. 299). Fraas contends that the jasper of the Bible was the opal found often in Egyptian tombs, and which even furnished the material for a delicately chiseled statuette of Isis (Riehm, *“* Handworterb.” 2d ed., p. 335, note). All things point to the conclusion that in the breastplate the last place in the second row was occupied by an opaque stone of rich green color. On it was engraved the name ‘* Zebulun.” (7) ows: Septuagint, Acyvptoy (so also Josephus) = “*li- gurius”; A. V. “ligure”’; R. V. ‘‘jacinth,”’ margin “amber”; Tare. Onk. s29p; Yer. i. pavaap; Yer. ii. pr; Ex. R. pons. AS these Various renderings show, tradition emphasizes the ig- hnorance concerning the true value of the He- Amber or brew word. The only fact made prominent is Jacinth. that the stone was brilliant and of an intense luster. Hence the Midrash makes it of the white tin-like color of antimony ; Yer. ii. merely calls it “ shiny.”’ Onkelos and Yer.i. name it by the Greek xéyxpever (** with little grains’), which also is the Syriac equivalent, Based on Pliny’s Diamond. 695 description of the ligure (l.c. viii. 57, xxxvii. 11-13), it has been identified with the amber, while the fact that in the apoealyptic enumeration (Rey. xxi.) the hyacinth appears in its stead has suggested the rendering “‘jacinth.”” The only conclusion war- ranted is that the “*leshem" was a lustrous gold-colored stone. It is the stone of Dan (comp. Hommel, ** Altisraelitische Ueber- lieferung,”’ p. 283). (8) 1n¥ ; Septuagint and Josephus, 4xa7ys ; Targ. Onk. 8*p7% 5 Yer. i. prays Yer. ii, pora; Ex. R. DoNaN; A.V. and R. V. “agate.” Tradition confirms the modern identification with the agate, one of the cryptocrystalline varieties of quartz, according to Dana of one class, therefore, with chalcedony, carnelian, onyx, and jasper. Itis found in many varieties, some banded, or in clouds, others with hues due to impurities. Its use is well attested for Egypt and Assyria, the Hebrew name even appear- ing to be borrowed from the latter, if it is not a place-name (¥edw), Exodus Rabbah’s reading is either a corruption or | a variant of D‘ONDN (CR. E. J.’? xxix. 87) ; the Agate. peculiar pbiwa of Yer. ii. consists of a series of successive corruptions of porta = pW = 275, which is }73"3; and thus Yer. ii. agrees with the Peshitta of Ex. xxviii. 19, xxxix. 12, meaning under this namea variety of the agate. The pp ry of Yer. i. must be corrected into pp w= NX pw of Onkelos. This is the Thracian stone, the **turkis’’? or turquoise (Gen. R. xii. 13; Mahzor Vitry, **tur- kiza’*’ [p. 163]; Yer. Ber. 2c. (according to Serillo]; not as Bacher {in °° R.E. J.’ xxix. 87] has it, the “* anthrakion’’=“"* carbuncle ”; see Krauss, ** Lehbnworter,”’ pp. 278 et seq.). rendering a sky-blue stone would be meant. ‘The agate— Naphtali’s stone—was regarded as potent in procuring divine aid (Schwab, ‘* Vocabulaire de l’Angélologie,’’ p. 53). (9) novne: R.V. and A.V.‘S amethyst’; Septuagint and Josephus, aue@voros: Targ. Onk., Yer. i., and Yer. ii. xbay py; Ex. R. JD10°7, which is a misreading for ** amethyst,” and not ‘*the bloodstone ” (see ** Monatsschrift,”” 1882, p. 385; ““R. E. J.’ xxix. 87). For the meaning of the *‘ calf’s eye’ of the Tar- gumim see above. The amethyst, which name is connected with the stone’s supposed power to quench inordinate thirst for strong drink, is a variety of quartz, of a clear purple or bluish- violet color, and was extensively known and Amethyst. used by the Egyptians; many specimens with engravings are among the finds from the coast of Syria. It has been suggested that the Hebrew name points to some folk-lore connection between the “ahlamah” and dreams (‘‘halom’’), The etymology seems to imply the idea cf being strong (Halévy, in * Journal Asiatique,” 7th series, x. 426), or it may beindicative of the place (Ahlamu) where the stone was found (see Gesenius, *‘ Thesaurus,” s.v.).. Targum Yer. ii. gives to “‘ yahalom ”’ (No. 6) the same rendering as it, together with the two other Aramaic paraphrases, gives to “*ah- lamah,” t.e., “the calf’s eye,” that is, ““vaccinium” or hya- cinth. But Onkelos’ translation for the sixth stone (ob129) must be * amethyst.’’ Its first syllable certainly refers to ** strong drinking *’ (from sap, ‘* to drink to excess,’’ whatever the second be—perhaps sbn= pon = “strong ’’), recalling thus the super- slition implied also in the Greek term. This was Gad’s stone. (10) wawan: A. V. ‘beryl’; R. V. “beryl” or *‘chalced- ony’’: xpvedaAcGos (also Josephus), “ chrysolithus ”’ (Ezek. x. 93 Septuagint has av@pag = “*carbuncle,” but Vulgate * chrysoli- thus *’); Targ. Onk. and Yer. ii. x2. oy 3 Yer. i. the same with the addition of NIN; Ex. R. pownrp. This must have beena stone believed to be imported from Tarshish. It has been yari- ously identified with the beryl (R. V.), with amber, with the modern pale-green topaz (see No.2). To a green stone, not to amber, the rendering of the Targumim ‘* of the color of the sea” refers (Krauss, ** Lehnworter,” p. 297; comp. Ber. 6b; Cant. R. i. 14; Targ. to Esth. viii. 15; Sachs, * Beitrige,” ii.41). The word of Exodus Rabbah is a corruption of the Greek xpuaoAc6os. What may be meant by the Greek term is very doubtful, and the best rendering is that of the Septuagint (to Ezek. i. 6; Cant. v. 14): ‘‘Tarshish’? stone, without attempt at greater definiteness. This stone was reserved for Asher’s name. (11) omw; A.V. “onyx”; R.V. “onyx or “ beryl”; Bypua- Avey (Josephus gives “beryl” for No, 12), “‘onychinus ”: Targ. Onk xow3; Yer. i. Nom md was Yer. ii, xmdysa; Ex. R. npixia. The Jewish tradition identifies this stone with the beryl, Yer. ii. being the exception, naming the ** bedolah ” (Gen. ii. 12), usually an aromatic plant, but here and in Syriac an In- dian crystal (Lagarde, **Gesammelte Abhandlungen,” xx. 39; * Orientalia,” ii, 44; Gen. R. xvi.). The beryl, of which the readings in Yer. i.and Exodus Rabbah give the name in corrupt form, is also by later Jewish commentators said to be the Biblical “shoham ” (see Kimhi, s.v. onv). The Septuagint translates Beryl. THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA According to this - Gems the word in other passages by ‘*‘ onyx’? (see Josephus, *'B. J.” v.5,87), by “emerald? (Ex. xxviii. 9, xxxv. 27, xxxix. 6). in Gen. ii. 12 by “the leek-green stone,” by “sard’’ (EX. xxXxix. 9), while in Chron. v. 1 the Hebrew is simply transliterated. This shoham-stone is frequently mentioned in Biblical writings. Havilah is its home (Gen. ii. 11). Two such stones with six tribal names engraved on each were fastened to the ephod (Ex. xxviii. 9). This stone is described in Job xxviii. 16 as very precious. If it was the beryl], it must have been that variety distinguished by the modern mineralogists from the beryl proper (which is of a bright emerald-green), namely, the chrysophras (leek-green golden). It is very likely that the word “‘“shoham” was a generic term covering a large number of varieties of different colors, which fact may account for the wide range in the Greek equivalents for it. Myres’ identification of it with the malachite seems to meet every implication of the various traditional equivalents (“* green emerald,” “ cloudy beryl,” and ** opaque *’’ and “striped” enough to be described as an onyx). This was Joseph’s stone. (12) Ap (but see No. 6; ‘“‘ yahalom ”’ should replace * ya- shefeh *’): in Septuagint ‘ bery],’’ but more frequently ‘* onyx’; Vulgate “‘beryl,”’ probably, as in Josephus, due to a trans- position of 11 and 12; Targ. Onk. *77353 Yer. i. the same, preceded by m°)).70; just asin Yer. ii.; Ex. R. pwr: On- kelos’ ** panther-stone,’’ a “ yellow, light-flecked stone,”’ may ren- der the ‘“‘yashefeh ” (‘aomis, jasper), but the other Targumim use the word which frequently denotes pearls and precious stones in general. ‘* Yahalom”’ might very properly be trans- lated by a general term, as its identification Ring-Stone. was involved in doubt. The diamond, because ‘the hard stone” (yabalom, from pon, “to be hard,” *‘to hammer’’), has been suggested, but the art of cutting diamonds is of a much later date, and the list of stones in use among the ancients fails to name it. Nor does onyx occur early enough to look for its being known among the Hebrews of Ex. XxVili. All that may be safely said is that this wasa hard stone, probably used in the making of whole rings (“‘ onyx” = Assyr- ian “‘unku” = “ring ”’), according to Myres; therefore the As- syrian ‘‘elmeshu,’’ the ‘‘ring-stone.’’ This is Benjamin’s stone. Of other stones mentioned the “kadkod” (A. V., “agate,” R. V. “ruby,” in Isa. liv. 12 and Ezek. xxvii. 16; the Septuagint gives iaome in Isa. liv. 12) undoubtedly was the “Karkedon” stone quoted by the Rabbis (Pesik. 186a; Yalk. Shimeoni to Isa. § 339 e¢ passim), the (Carthaginian) carbuncle. The “shamir” in Ezek. iii. 9, said to be “ harder than flint ” (R. V. and A. V. “adamant”), was not a precious stone, and the traditional identification, “ diainond,” should be abandoned (Loew, “Graph. Requisiten,” i. 181). The legendary character given the shamir by the Rabbis (Sotah ix. 10, 48b; Yer. Sotah ix. 24b; Git. 68a) indicates that the exact determina- tion of its value had been lost. Etymologically it is related to the Egyptian “asmer,” which passed, probably through Semitic channels, into the Greek opipic (Lewy, “Fremdwéorter,” p. 59), and signi- fies “emery” or “corundum”; possibly “diamond. dust.” It is the Targumic }w, identified (see above) with the “"Bp in Onk. to Ex. xxviii. 18, xxxix. 11 (Targ. Yer. to Num. ii. 10, Ezek. xxviii. 13, Job xxviii, 6, 16, Lam. iv. 7, and Cant. v. 14); the Arabic “sunbadaj” = “emery ” (Krauss, J.c. p. 579). It has been noticed that of all the stones used for engraving among the ancients, the turquoise alone is not mentioned in the Biblical enumerations. As shown above, Targ. Onk. to Ex. xxviii. 19 (comp. Targ. Yer. to Num. ii. 18) evidences that in post- Biblical times this stone was known to the Jews. To recapitulate, according to the above the fol- lowing were the order and character of the stones on the high priest’s breastplate: Malachite. I. Sardonyx or sard, red. Topaz, pale-yellowish green. Rock-erystal, brilliant white (colorless). Genappe Genealogy THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 596 II. Emerald, green. Lapis lazuli, blue with gold (yeliow-reddish) dots. Yashefeh, rich green. III. Leshem, lustrous gold. Agate, sky-blue. Amethyst, bluish violet. IV. Tarshish stone. Malachite, bright green. Yahalom, yellowish to dark blue. This seems, on the whole, to correspond to the color scheme of the Egyptian reports (see Mtiller, in “Orient, Lit.” it. 39). In post-Biblical writings the following gems appear: amethyst; amiantus (a green stone, a fibrous kind of chrysolite); ruby; agate; beryl; chalcedony; sapphire; sardonyx; em- erakl; topaz; jacinth; chrysolite; turquoise; “ pan- ther-stone” (for “yashefeh” in Targ, Ezek. xxviii. 13): diamond, probably designated by woop and pp sian; crystal, spdoppiip (Abba Gorion i. 1; see also Perles, * Thron und Circus,” p. 18; comp. Acts iv. 6, xx. 1). The mop (Bzek. i. 22) may pos- sibly denote a crystal; wna} (Job xxviii. 18) cer- tainly does (Lagarde, “Reliquiz Juris Ecclesiastici Syriaci,” xxii., Leipsic, 1856). The art of fabri- cating false gems seems to have been known (Tan., Benidbar, 23; Num. R. iv. 2; see Krauss, “ Lehn- worter,” p. 182). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Léw, in Krauss, Lehnwérter, Berlin, 1899; Winer, B. R. s.v. Adelsteine; Rienam, Handworterb. s.v. Edelsteine; Schenkel, Bibellexricon, s.v. delstetne ; Myres, in Cheyne and Black, Encyc. Bibl. s.v. Stones, Precious ; Petrie, in Hastings, Dict. Bible,s.v. Stones, Precious ; Lewy, Die Semitischen Fremadworter im Griechischen, pp. 58- 62, Berlin, 1895; Nowack, Hehr. Archdologie, i. 130 et seq.; Kluge, Handbuch der Eceisteinkunde, Leipsic, 1860. FE. G. H. GENAPPE. Sce HoLuann. GENAZZANO, ELIJAH HAYYIM BEN BENJAMIN OF: Italian physician, theologian, and cabalist; flourished in the first half of the six- teenth century. He had a religious controversy with Fra Francisco da Acquapendente, in which he bitterly attacked Christianity for its dogma of origi- nal sin, for its claim of salvation exclusively for its own adherents, and for its hatred of Judaism, the re- ligion which furnished it with the kernel of its teaching, and which, in contrast with the Charch, attributes a share in the future world to the right- eous of all nations. This disputation he described ina Hebrew pamphlet entitled “ Wikkuah,” existing in manuscript (Cod. Munich, No. 312, aud Cod. Vi- enna, No. 16). He wrote also under the title “Ig- geret Hamudot” (Neubauer, “ Cat. Bod!. Hebr. MSS.” No. 1927; Cod. Munich, No. 112; e¢ al.) a strong apology of cabalistic doctrines, which, although not printed, became well known in the sixteenth century. In this pamphlet he attacked the religious philosophers in an undignified and offensive manner, especially Isaac Abravancl, the author of “‘Ateret Zekenim ”; and he was one of the first to spread the fable that Maimonides had retracted his anti-Tal- mudic and anti-cabalistic sentences (Leon de Modena, “Ari Nohem,” pp. 4, 38, 35, 70; Ibn Yahya, “Shal- shelet ha-Kabbalah,” p. 60). ‘The name of Elijah Hayyim of Genazzano often occurs as “ Elijah Mag- istratus,” or as “Markianz,” etc. (Steinschneider). There exists in manuscript a poem by “ Elia Genaz- zano” (published by Neubauer in “ Letterbode,” x. 104) which contains an attack on woman, and in which Biblical personages are treated ina very irrev- erent manner. It is perhaps a work of this author. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Mortara, Indice, p. 27; Fuenn, Kereset Yis- rael, p. 104; Steinschneider, Helr. Bibl. x. 104; idem, Die Hehriiischen Handsehriften in der Mttnehener Hofbibli- athek, pp. 48, 186; idem, Polemisehe und A pologetische Litteratwa, p. 379; Gtidemann, Gesch. des Hrziehungswesens und der Cultur der Juden in Italien, p. 2338. {. BER. K. GENEALOGY.—Biblical Data: A list, in the order of suecession, of ancestors and their descend- ants. The Pentateuchal equivalent for “ genealo- gies” is “toledot ” (generations), the verb being bo in the “kal” and “hif‘il” forms. The later form is wa (Neh. vii. 5), and the verb “hityahes” (to enroll oneself or be enrolled by genealogy). In later Hebrew, as in Aramaic, the term pm and its de- rivatives “yihus” aud “yuhasin” recur with the implication of legitimacy or nobility of birth. The following genealogical lists are given as far as possible in the order in which they occur in the Ilebrew canon: 1, Adamites (with historical glosses): Adam; Cain; Enoch; Irad ; Mehujael; Methusael; Lamech—seven generations, be- coming, with the eighth, two parallel! streams, (1) Jabal and his brother Jubal, (2) their half-brother Tubal-cain and his sister Naamah (Gen. iv. 1-24: Cainites). 2. Adamites (with chronological details): Adam: Seth; Enos; Cainan; Mahalaleel; Jared; Enoch; Methuselah; Lamech; Noah—ten generations, the eleventh comprising (1) Shem, (2) Ham, (3) Japheth (Sethites). 3. The Noahites, divided into (1) Shemites, (2) Hamites, (3) Japhethites—the ‘* ethnic table,” or “list of nations” (Gen, x. 1-31). 4, Abrahain‘’s pedigree, from Shem downward, enumerating ten generations (Gen. xi. 10-26). 5. Rebekah’s pedigree, from Nahor through Mileah, with men- tion of collateral line through his father’s concubine Reumah (Gen. xxii. 20-24), 6. Abrahamites through Keturah (Gen. xxv. 1-4). 7. Abrahamites through the line of Ishmael (Gen. xxv. 12-18: Ishmaelites). 8 Abrahamites through Isaac and Esau = Edom (Gen. xxxvi. J-43). 9. Jacob‘’s (= Israel’s) descendants (Gen. xxxv. 23-27, xlvi. 8-28: seventy svuls). 10. The pedigree of Moses, enumerating the ** heads of their fathers’ houses ”’ of the sons of Reuben, the sons of Simeon, the sons of Levi: (1) Gershon, (2) Kohath, (3) Merari. Out of Ko- hath came Amram, from whom came (a) Moses and (b) Aaron; the pedigree continues the chain of descent, after mentioning side lines, through Aaron’s son Eleazar to Phinehas (Ex. vi. 14-25). ll. A register of the Israelites as a nation—in which Levi, however, is omitted-—-grouped under the heads: ‘* generations ” (nbn), “family” or “clan” (Ampex), and ‘fathers’ house” (man res: Num. i. 1-47). This is, strictly speaking, a census- roll. 12. The tribal list (Num. ii. 1-38), also a census-rol}. 13. The genealogy of the Aaronites (Num. fii. 1-5). 14. The genealogy of the Levites (Num. iii. 17-39), with data concerning their respective assignments to service in the sanc- tuary. 15. A list of the Israelites, with reference to division and oc- cupation of territory (Num. xxvi. 1-51). 16. The families of the Levites (Num. xxvi. 57-61), with de- tails concerning the births of Aaron, Moses, and Miriam, and the names and fate of Aaron's sons. 17. The “genealogy of those that went up with me [Ezra] from Babylon” (Ezra viii. 1-14; the list of *‘ the children of the province that went up out of the Captivity ” [Ezraii. 1 et seq.] is in reality not a genealogy, but is of importance as bearing upon the standing of their descendants in the congregation of Israel.) 18. Ezra’s own pedigree (Kzra vii. 1-6). 19. A list with genealogical notes concerning priests that had taken strange wives, and of Levites, and, moreover, of Israelites (Ezra x. 18 et seq.). 20. Genealogies of certain of the descendants of Judah and Benjamin (Neh. xi. 4 et seg.). 597 21. List of priests and Levites (Neh. xii. 1-26). 22. The pedigree of Adamites from Adam to Noah (I Chron. i. 1-8), continued through the Noahites, with details of the genea- logical descent of the Hamites and Japhethites (2-23), and non- Israelitish Shemites down to the Kings of Edom (23-54). 23. Genealogy of the sons of Israel (1 Chron. ii. 1-33) down to Jerahmeel, continued (1) in the part Egyptian line of Sheshan through his daughter’s marriage to Jarha the Egyptian (34-41); and (2) in the family of Caleb (42-55), coming down to David. 24. David’s pedigree (Ruth iv. 18-22). 25. The descendants of David (II Sam. iii. 3-5, v. 14-16; I Chron. iii. 1-9; compare xiv. 4-7), Of Solomon, of Jehoiakim (verse 16), of the sons of Jeconiah, of Pedaiah, of Zerubbabel, and of Hananiah (I Chron. iii. 10-21). 26. Genealogy of Judah and Simeon (I Chron. iv.). 27. Genealogy of Reuben, Gad. and the half-tribe Manasseh {I Chron. v.). . -28. The genealogy of the Levites, according to families {I Chron. vi.), of Issachar, Benjamin, Naphtali, Manasseh, Ephraim, Asher (vii.), and of the Benjamites (viii.) and the inbabitants of Jerusalem (ix.). E. G. H. ——In Rabbinical Literature: Rabbinical sources show that with the dominance of Ezra’s influence and ideas importance came to be attached to genealo- gies. Ezra would not leave Babylon until he had succeeded in establishing the genealogical relations of the new Israel toa degree of fineness resembling that of the finest flower (Kid. 69b). His own pedigree, too, he had been careful to verify (B. B. 15a). Chroni- cles and Ezra-Nehemiah were in fact regarded as 4p pon (“scrolls of genealogies”), as "3n3 miosp omn (B. B. 15a; Pes. 62). That the Exile and the subsequent vicissitudes had heavily impaired tribal and racial purity was nevertheless recognized (see the discussion between R. Joshua and R. Gamaliel: Yer, Kid. iv. 1). But for the priests purity of de- scent was indispensable. Hence their Geneal- gcnealogies were scrupulously kept ogies of and, when necessary, minutely investi- Priests. gated. A special officer seems to have been entrusted with these records, and a court of inquiry is mentioned as having becu insti- tuted in Jerusalem (Kid. 76b). The testimony of Jo- sephus corroborates the fact that a record of the pedi- grees of the priests was kept (Josephus, “Contra Ap.” i.,$7;“ Vita,”$1). A priest was bound todcmonstrate the purity of the pedigree of the priestly maiden he desired to wed, evenas far back as her great-great- grandfather and great-great-grandmother. In the case of marriage with a daughter of Levi or of Israel his scrutiny had to extend a degree further (Kid. iv. 4). Exemptions depending upon the presumption created in favor of credibility and honorableness by general reputation or public service, were admitted (Kid. iv. 5). The very division of Israel into “houses” presupposes among them the existence of well-authenticated genealogies. Such divisions are mentioned in connection with the furnishing of wood (Ta‘an. iv. 5: “house of Arak, tribe of Judah”; comp. Ezra ii. 5; Neh. vii. 10; “house of David, tribe of Judah”; comp. Ezra viii. 2; “men of unknown pedigree” are also named). Hillel’s pedi- grec is quoted (Yer. Ta‘an. iv. 68a, bottom), Ben ‘Azzai also speaks of a jYONY nbsp (“ genealogical record”; Yeb. 49b). It is assumed that under Herod I. all genealogical rolls kept in the Temple were destroyed (Sachs, “ Beitriige,” ii. 157). The loss of official genealogies was deeply deplored as a calamity, more especially THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Genappe Genealogy a — because of their importance for the understanding of the books of Chronicles (Pes. 62b; B. B. 109). How pro- lific these Biblical books were in pro- Loss of voking genealogical conceits is shown Gen- by the statement that 900 camel-loads of ealogies. commentary existed on I Chron. viii. 37 toix. 44(Pes. 62b). Much mischief must have been done by this speculation on family originsand pedigrees; at least the provision requiring caution in instruction in genealogy and limiting the hours for it (Pes. 76) would seem to indicate as much. Family pride is rebuked also in the familiar saying that a “mamzer” (bastard), if learned in the Law, outranked an ignorant high priest (fTor. 11); in fact, the priestly insistence upon purity of pedigree was fully counterbalanced by the demand for knowledge, which, through Phariseeism (nobility of learning) as opposed to Sadducecism (priestly nobility), gradu- ally succeeded in developing a new aristocracy, that of the mind, in the place of the old one (Zadokite) of blood. Many stories preserve the memory of the struggle for recognition of the one or the other claim to distinction which agitated learned and unlearned Israel in the early Christian centurics (Kid. 70a, 71a, b). Of spurious genealogies, specimens of which Sprenger (“Das Leben und die Leire Mohammad ”) adduces, Jewish literature has a goodly number to show (Seder ‘Olam Zuta; Zunz, “G. V.” 2d ed., 1892, pp. 142 ¢¢ seg.; Itinerary of Benjamin of Tu- dela, Asher’s ed., li. 6 e¢ seg.). Yet this is not proof that all the pedigrees current among Jews were of this class (Zunz, “ Analekten,” No. 15, p. 46). The tribes of Reuben, Simeon, and Levi, according to Midr. R. to Num. xili., preserved while in Egypt their “yihus” (genealogy) to prove the purity and legitimacy of their descent. Upon this ythus the Jews have always laid great stress, as have also the Gen- tiles (Yeb. 62a; Yer. Yeb. ii. 4a). Marriage was in- validated if any deception regarding one’s yihus was discovered, even if the actual rank was higher than the assumed (Yer. Kid. ii. 62c). Silence when taunted with low origin creates the presumption that the person taunted is of high stock (Kid. 71b). yon nbwhw, the “chain of genealogies,” is spoken of (Gen. R. 1xxxii.), and the word }spnyv bas passed into literature to designate historical annals. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hamburger, R. B. T. ii. EK. G. H. ——Critical View: The genealogical lists of Gen- esis, as well as those that are meant to account for the origin and subdivisions of the Israelitish tribes, are similar to the tables which were current, first orally and then in written form, among the Arabs. These lists illustrate the theory obtaining in early Semitic civilization, according to which the tribe—the central unit of every institution—was looked upon as the progeny of one common ancestor, assumed, in many cases,as theeponym. Historical, geographical, and ethnological data and reminiscences are spontaneous- ly (not artificially or intentionally) expressed in the terms of this theory. Geographical or racial propin- quity is indicated by the degree of relationship as- cribed to the component elements. Political suprem- acy and dependence are reflected in the assumption of Genealogy Genesis descent on the one hand in direct line from the first- born, on the other in a collateral line, sometimes traced through a concubine or a second wife, perhaps the bondmaid of the ancestor’s legitimate spouse. Septs and subdivisions are ranked in the tribal tree according to their numbers or importance, either as branches or as continuing the main trunk. Conversely, the descendants of groups originally not connected with the tribe, but in course of time incorporated into it, are characterized as offshoots, the issue of illegitimate conjugal unions (comp. W. R. Smith, “ Marriage and Kinship in Early Arabia,” passim; Wellhausen, “Die Ehe bei den Arabern”; see also GOVERNMENT). Con- crete illustrations of the foregoing view may be seen in the genealogies of the Hebrew tribes and clans e.g., BENJAMIN, Dan, and Esav. The many discrepancies among the various gene- alogies are not due exclusively to imperfections of memory and the vicissitudes to which tradition is always exposed. Changes in geographical and political relations, as well as in religious views, are often reflected in these variations, the subject of the genealogy or a component part of it appearing at one time as the son or descendant of one person, while at another he is named as a member of some other family. It must be reinembered that these genealogies are not all of oneage. The institution of the blood covenant, by which are established re- lationships as close as natural ones (see BROTHER), may also underlie these variants and discrepancies. In some of the genealogies of Genesis, however, intentional readjustments of the traditional mate- rial come clearly to the surface, as in the twofold genealogy of Noah. He is a Cainite in one; a Sethite in the other. To the Cainites later historiog- raphy and theology ascribe the corruption of the pre-Noachian race (see ENocH; FaLL oF ANGELS; Fuoop, IN RABBINICAL LITERATURE). This mid- rashic and pseudepigraphic view rep- Geneal- resents an ancient popular tradition ogies probably antedating by centuries the in Genesis. written form in the Apocrypha or the Haggadah. To the desire to disconnect Noah from Cain’s seed, the second genealogy with its but thinly disguised duplications of the first owes its origin. The so-called “List of Nations” (Gen. x.), while showing in what degree the peoples of which the ancient Hebrews had knowledge were re- garded as related to the Israelites, reflects geograph. ical and not ethnological data, the nations being ranged in the main under three great geographical zones. AS now preserved, the chapter is not free from indications of being a composite of several ethnic-geographic lists. That place-names and districts figure in many of the genealogies as individuals is beyond dispute; even arts and musical accomplishments come near being represented as “sons” (Gen, iv. 21). The ne- cessity for keeping accurate genealogical lists in pre-exilic Israel is not apparent. Neither for the regulation of the royal succession nor for the division of inherited property was proof of legitimate descent imperatively needed. By far the greatest number of genealogies of individuals occur in the post-exilic Tribal Relations Indicated. THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 598 books: elsewhere individual genealogies rarely go back further than one or two generations. No men- tion is made of any officer appointed to keep the records. Nor was pre-exilic Israel jealous of racial purity (comp. Gen. xxxviil.); sacerdotal preoccu- pation in this regard is post-exilic (Ezraic), The genealogies of Genesis exhibit a strong realization of the unity of the human race, while framed to assign to Isracl a distinct place in the economy of the human family. From Adam, Noah, Abraham, and Jacob a continuous process of selection is posited in the scheme. This is the ethical aspect and value of these genealogies. The Exile stimulated genealogical zeal (Ezek. xiii. 9). The old tribal organization had passed away. A spiritual factor took its place as the uniting and differentiating energy, the congregation gradually but steadily adjusting itself to the tripartite scheme: priest (Zadokite), Levite, and Israel, The with Israel as a “holy seed.” To Influence this new attitude must be ascribed in of the exilicand early post-exilic congre- the Exile. gation the rise of many Levitical and other genealogies, constructed on data such as memory could supply and skill could mar- shal to good effect, some of which are undoubtedly at the basis of the genealogical lists in Ezra-Nehe- miah and Chronicles. These first attempts were not very complex in plan (see, for instance, Ezra ii. 40, iii, 9; Neh. ix. 4; Num. xxvi. 58; see also LEv1). But as the Ezraic construction of JIsrael’s past and part came to triumph, the “Levitizing” purpose asserted itself in ever greater measure; and the lists of Chronicles and Ezra-Nehemiah display the over- ruling passion. That of the high priests (I Chron. vi, 38-15, v. 29-41) is altogether typical of the sacer- dotal view -point, in which the Zadokites are exalted. Moreover, it is virtually a duplicate of Ezra’s gen- ealogy (Ezra vii. 1; comp. I Esd. viii. 2 and IT Esd. i, 7). BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. R. Smith, Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia, Cambridge, 188; Stade, Gesch. des Volkes Tsrael, 1887, vol. i.; Guthe, Gesch. des Volkes Israel, 1899; Sellin, Studien zur Enstehungsgesch. der Jiidischen Ge- meinde nach dem Bahylonisehen Exil, 1901; Eduard Meyer, Die Entstehung des Judenthums, 1896: Wellhansen, Tsraelitische und Jitdische Gesch. 5th ed., 1899; idem, De Gentibus et Familiis que in I Chron. tt. 4 Enumerantur, 1870; Smend, Die Listen der Bitcher Hzra und Nehemiah, 1881; Hastings, Dict. Bible, and Cheyne and Black, Enecyc. Bibl. s.v. Genealogies. EK. G. H. GENERATION: This many-sided word, like its equivalents in the modern versions of the Bible, is used to translate the Hebrew “dor” and “tole- dah” (the latter found only in the plural). The primary meaning of “dor” is “ period”; the second- ary, the period bounded by the life of a man or of a single family. Thus “dor” signifies generations, or ages, of men in the past or future; it alsodesignates the men who live in any special period or age (see especially Ps. cxlv. 4; Eccl. i. 4). From this idea of men regarded asa group bound together by re- lationship a transition is made to men of any partic- ular time taken asa class connected only by contem- poraneousness. Thus in “a generation that curseth its father” (Prov. xxx. 11) the class character is so Strong that the persons described are spoken of throughout as a single unit. rr en na In “toledot,” on the other hand, the idea of de- scent by birth and family relationship gives its spe- cial force to the translating term. Thus “ genera- tions ” in Gen. x. 32 means a genealogical succession of families; in Num. i. 20, genealogical divisions by parentage. A secondary and very important usage may be seen where “ generations ” means the history in the form of a genealogical account of any sect of people along with their descendants (Gen. v. 1). All early history began with gene- alogical lists, and even the process of creation of heaven and earth is viewed in Gen. ii. 4 as a genealogical history. The word “toledot” is found mostly in the Hexateuch, and there only in the Priestly Code. E. G. H. J. F. McC. GENERATION, LENGTH OF: The number of years that elapse before the children of one set of human beings arrive at a marriageable age. This number has been defined to be equal to the average male age at marriage, plus one year before child- bearing begins, plus half the average number of years during which fecundity lasts. Asa rule, Jews marry much earlier than the rest of the male popu- lation among which they dwell, probably owing to the rabbinic requirement that a man should marry before attaining the age of twenty (Kid. 29b), On the other hand, their fecundity is greater; therefore the time of fertility of the female is longer; but exact figures concerning this detail are not available. From such data as are obtainable it appears that Jews marry at the age of twenty-two, as compared with twenty-nine for the rest of the population (Mayo-Smith, “Science of Statistics,” i. 108); while fertility lasts, on an average, for fourteen years after marriage, as compared with twelve among non-Jews (2.118). This would give the length of a generation among Jewsas thirty years, as compared with thirty- six in the remaining population. The difference does not appear to be large, but its effect on the in- crease of population is cumulative and increases in geometrical progression, the modulus being 1.2, causing the Jewish population in four generations to become double that of the unit rate. Another con- ~ sequence of the less length of generations among Jews is the proportionately larger number living simul- taneously, and, asa result, the greater opportunity for, and superior strength of, tradition among them. BIBLIOGRAPHY : Riimelin, Reden, i. Tiibingen, 1815; F. Gal- ton, Human Faculty, App. F., London, 1883 ; E. Cc, é GENESIS, THE BOOK OF. — Biblical Data: § 1. The first book of the Torah, and there- fore of the whole Bible, is called by the Jews “Bereshit,” after the initial word; by the Septuagint and by Philo it is called Téveosg (xéopov) = “ origin ” (of the world), after the contents, and hence “Gen- esis” has become the usual non-Hebrew designa- tion for it. According to the Masorah, it is divided into ninety-one sections (“ parashiyyot ”), forty-three of which have open or broken lines (“ petuhot ”), and forty-eight closed lines (“setumot”); or into forty-three chapters (“sedarim”) and twenty-nine sections (“ piskot ”); for reading on the Sabbath, into twelve lessons; according to the division adopted THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Genealogy Genesis from the Vulgate, into fifty chapters with 1,543 verses. § 2. Genesisisa historical work. Beginning with the creation of the world, it recounts the primal his- tory of humanity and the early history of the people of Israel as exemplified in the livesof its patriarchs, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, and their families. It contains the historical presupposition and basis of the national religious ideas and institutions of Israel, and serves as an introduction to its history and leg- islation. It is a well-planned and well-executed composition of a single writer, who has recounted the traditions of his people with masterly skill, combining them into a uniform work, without con- tradictions or useless repetitions, but preserving the textual and formal peculiarities incident to their difference in origin and mode of transmission. § 3. The author has treated the story as a series of ten “generations” (“toledot”); namely, (1) of heaven and earth, ch. ii. 4-iv.; (2) of Adam, v.-vi. 8; (3) of Noah, vi. 9-ix.; (4) of Noah’s sons, x.-xi. 9; (5) of Shem, xt. 10-26; (6) of Terah, xi. 27-xxv. 11; (7) of Ishmael, xxv. 12-18; (8) of Isaac, xxv. 19- xxxv.; (9) of Esau, xxxvi.; (10) of Jacob, xxxvii.-l. Nature and Plan. § 4. In the beginning God created heaven and earth (i. 1), and set them in order in six days. He spoke, and on the first day there appeared the light; on the second, the firmament of heaven; on the third, the separation be- tween water and land, with vegetation upon the latter; on the fourth, sun, moon, and stars; on the fifth, the marine animals and birds; on the sixth, the land animals; and, finally, God created man in His image, man and woman together, blessing them and giving them dominion over all beings. On the seventh day God rested, and blessed and sanctified the day (i. 2-ii. 3). As regards the creation and subsequent story of man (Adam), God forms him out of earth (‘‘adama ’’), and breathes into him the breath of life. Then He sets him in a pleasure-garden (Eden), to cultivate and watch over it. Adam is allowed to eat of all the fruit therein except that of the ‘“‘tree of the knowledge of good and evil.”’ God then brings all the animals to Adam, to serve as company for and to receive names from him. When Adam can find no being like himself among all these creatures, God puts himinto a deep sleep, takes a rib from his side, and forms a woman (called later ‘‘ Eve’), to be a companion to him. The woman is se- duced by the artful serpent to eat of the forbidden fruit, and the man also partakes of the same. AS punishment they are driven out of Eden (ii. 4-iii.). Adam and Eve have two sons, Cain and Abel. Cain grows envious of the favor found by his brother before God, and slays him; he then wanders over the earth as a fugitive, and finally settles in the Jand of Nod. Enoch, one of his sons, dnilds the first city, and Lamech takes two wives, whose sons are the first dwellers in tents and owners of herds and the earliest inventors of musical instruments and workers in brass and iron. Cain’s descendants know nothing about God {iv.). Another son, Seth, has in the meantime been born to Adam and Eve in place of the slain Abel. Seth’s descendants never lose thought of God. The tenth in regular descent is the plous Noah (v.). § 5. As mankind has become wicked, indulging in cruelties and excesses, God determines to destroy it entirely. Noah only, on account of his piety, will escape the general ruin; and God commands him to build a large ark, since the work of destruction is to be accomplished by means of a great flood. Noah obeys the command, entering the ark together with his wife, his three sons, Shem, Ham, and Japheth, their wives, and, by God's instructions, with one couple of each kind of animal on the earth. Then the flood comes, destroving all living beings save those in the ark. When it bas subsided, the latter leave the ark, and God enters into a covenant with Noah and his descendants. Noah begins to cultivate the fleld that has been cursed during Adam’s lifetime (iii. 17-19: v. 29), and plants a vineyard (ix. 20). When, in a fit of intoxieation, Noah is shamelessly treated by his son Ham, he curses the latter in the person of Ham’s son Canaan, while the reverential Snem and Japheth are blessed (ix, 21-27), Ch. x. contains a review of the peoples that are descended from Contents. Genesis Japheth, Ham, and Shem (down to the chief branch of the last- named), and are living dispersed over the whole earth. The dispersion was due to the “‘confusion of tongues,’ which God brought about When men attempted to build a tower that should reach up to heaven (xi. 1-9). A genealogy is given of Shem’s descendants in regular line, the tenth generation of whom is represented by Terah (xi. 10-25). § 6. Terah, who lives at Ur of the Chaldees, has three sons, Abram, Nahor, and Haran. Haran’s son is Lot. Nahor is mar- ried to Milcah, and Abrain to Sarai, who has no children (xi. 26-82). God directs Abram to leave his home and kindred be- cause He intends to bless him. Abram obeys, emigrating with his entire household and Lot, his brother’s son, to the land of Canaan. Here God appears to him and promises that the land shall become the property of his descendants. Abram is forced by a famine to leave the country and go to Egypt. The King of Egypt takes possession of the beautiful Sarai (whom Abram has represented as his sister), but, smitten by God, is compelled to restore her (xii.). Abram returns to Canaan, and separates from Lot in order to put an end to disputes abont pasturage, leaving to Lot the beautiful country in the valley of the Jordan near Sodom. God thereupon again appears to Abram, and again promises him the whole country (xili.). Lot is taken prisoner during a war between Amraphel, King of Shinar, and Bera, King of Sodom, with their respective allies, whereupon Abram pursues the victors with his armed servants, liberates Lot, and seizes the booty, refusing his share of the same (xiv.). After this exploit God again appears to Abram and promises him protection, a rich reward, and, in spite of the fact that Abram still has no children, @ numerous progeny. These descendants must pass four hundred years in servitude in a strange land; but after God has judged their oppressors they, in the possession of great wealth, shall leave the land of their affliction, and the fourth generation shall return to the same land (xy.). Sarai being still childless, Abram gets a son, Ishinuel, by her Egyptian handmaid, Hagar (xvi.). Godagain appears to Abram, and enters into a personal covenant With him securing Abrain’s future: God promises hin a numerous progeny, changes his name to ** Abraham’? and that of Sarai to ** Sarah,’ and insti- tutes the circumcision of all males as an eternal sign of the covenant. Abraham, together with his whole house, iminediately fulfils the rite (xvii.). God onee more eppears to Abraham in the person of three messengers, Whom Abrahain receives hospi- tably, and who announce to him that he will have a son within a year, although he and his wife are already very old. Abraham also hears that God’s messengers intend to execute judgment upon the wicked inhabitants of Sodom and Gomorrah, where- upon he intercedes for the sinners, and endeayors to baye their fate set aside (xviii.). Two of the messengers go to Sodom, where they are hospitably received by Lot. The men of the city wish to lay shameless hands upon them, and, having thus shown that they have deserved their fate, Sodom and Gomorrah are destroyed by fire and brimstone, only Lot and his two daughters being saved. The circumstances of the birth of Am- mon and Moab areset forth (xix.). Abraham journeys tu Gerar, the country of Abimelech. Here also he represents Sarah as his sister, and Abimelech plans to gain possession of her, but de- sists on being warned by God (xx.). At last the long-expected son is born, and receives the name of “Isaac.” At the instance of Sarah, the boy Ishmael, together with his mother, Hagar, is driven out of the house, but they also have a great future promised to them. Abraham, during the banquet that he gives in honor of Isaac’s birth, enters into a covenant with Abimelech, who confirms his right to the well Beer-sheba (xxXi.). Now that Abraham seems to have all his desires fulfilled, having even provided for the future of his son, God subjects him to the greatest trial of his faith by demanding Isaac as a sacrifice. Abraham obeys; but, as he is about to lay the knife upon his son, God restrains him, promising him numberless descendants. On the death of Sarah Abraham acquires Mach- pelah for a family tomb (xxiii.). Then he sends his servant to Mesopotamia, Nahor’s home, to find among his relations a wife for Isaac; and Rebekah, Nahor’s granddaughter, is chosen (xxiv.). Other children are born to Abraham by another wife, Keturah, among whose descendants are the Midianites ; and he dies in a prosperous old age (xxv. 1-18). §'7. After being married for twenty years Rebekah has twins by Isaac: Esau, who becomes a hunter, and Jacob, who becomes a herdsman. Jacob persuades Esau to sell him his birthright, for which the latter does not care (xxv. 19-34); notwithstanding this bargain, God appears to Isaac and repeats the promises given to Abraham. His wife, whom he represents as his sister, is endangered in the country of the Philistines, but King Abime- lech himself averts disaster. In spite of the hostility of Abime- THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 600 lech's people, Isaac is fortunate in allhis undertakings in that country, especially in digging wells. God appears to him at Beer-sheba, encourages him, and promises him blessings and numerous descendants; and Abimelech enters into a cove. nant with him at the same place. Esau marries Canaanite women, to the regret of his parents (xxvi.). Rebekah per- suades Jacob to dress himself as Esau, and thus obtain from his senile father the blessing intended for Esau (xxvii.). To escape his brother’s vengeance, Jacob is sent to relations in Haran, being charged by Isaae to find a Wife there. On the way God appears to him at hight, promising protection and aid for himself and the land for his numerous descendants (xxvili.). Arrived at Haran, Jacob hires himself to Laban, his mother’s brother, on condition that, after having served for seven years as herdsman. he shall have for wife the younger daughter, Rachel, with whom he is in love. At the end of this period Laban gives him the elder daughter, Leal; Jacob therefore serves another seven years for Rachel, and after that six years more for cattle. In the meantime Leah bears him Reuben, Simeon, Levi, and Judah; by Rachel's maid Bilhah he bas Dan and Naphtali; by Zilpah, Leah’s maid, Gad and Asher; then, by Leah again, Issachar, Zebulun, and Dinah; and finally, by Rachel, Joseph. He also acquires niuch wealth in flocks (xxix.~ XXX.). In fear of Laban, Jacob flees with his family and all his posses- sions, but becomes reconciled with Laban, who overtakes him (xxxi.). On approaching his home he is in fear of Esau, to whom he sends presents; and with the Worst apprebensions he turns at night to God in prayer. An angel of God appears to Jacob, is vanquished in wrestling, and announces to him that he shall bear the name “Israel,” i.e., ‘“*the combatant of God” (xxxii.). The meeting with Esau proves a friendly one, and the brothers separate reconciled. Jacob settles at Shalem (xxxiii.). His sons Simeon and Levi take bloody vengeance on the city of Shechem, whose prince has dishonored their sister Dinah (xxxiy.). Jacob moves to Beth-el, where God bestows upon him the promised name of ** Israel,’ and repeats His other promises. On the road frown Betli-el Rachel gives birth to a son, Benjamin, and dies (xxxv.). A geneaiogy of Esau and the inbabitants and rulers of his country. Edom, is given in ch. xxxvi. § 8. Joseph, Jacob’s favorite, is hated by his brothers on ac- count of his dreams prognosticating his future dominion, and on the advice of Jiidah is secretly suld to a caravan of Ishmael- itic merchants going to Egypt. His brothers tell their father that a wild animal has devoured Joseph (xxxvii.). Joseph, car- ried to Egypt, is there sold as aslave to Potiphar, one of Pharaoh’s officials, He gains his master’s confidence: but when the latter’s wife, unable to seduce him, avcuses him falsely, he is cast into prison (xxxix.). Here he correctly interprets the dreams of two of his fellow prisoners, the king’s butler and baker (x1.). When Pharaoh is troubled by dreams that no one is able to in- terpret, the butler draws attention to Joseph. The Jatter is thereupon brought before Pharaoh, whose dreatis he interprets to mean that seven years of abundance will be followed by seven years of famine. He advises the king to make provision accordingly, and is empowered to take the necessary steps, being appointed second in the kingdom. Joseph marries Asenath, the daughter of the priest Poti-pherah, by whom he has two sons, Manasseh and Ephraim (xli.). When the famine comes it is felt even in Canaan; and Jacob sends his sons to Egypt to buy corn. The brothers appear be- fore Joseph, who recognizes them, but does not discover him- self. After having proved them on this and ona second journey, and they having shown themselves so fearful and penitent that Judah even offers himself as slave, Joseph reveals his identity, forgives his brothers the wrong they did bitin, and promises to settle in Egypt both them and his father (xlii.-xlv.). Jacob brings his whole family, numbering 66 persons, to Egypt, this making, inclusive of Joseph and his sons and himself, 70 persons. Pharaoh receives them amicably and assigns to them the land of Goshen (xlvi.-xlvii.). When Jacob feels the ap- proach of death he sends for Joseph and his sons, and receives Ephraim and Manasseh among his own sons (xlviii.). Then he calls his sons to his bedside and reveals their future to them (xlix.). Jacobdies, and is solemnly interred in the family tomb at Machpelah. Joseph lives to see his great-grandchildren, and on his death-bed he exhorts his brethren, if God should remem- ber them and lead them out of the country, to take his bones with them (1.). § 9. In the choice, connection, and presentation of his material the narrator has followed certain principles incident to the purpose and scope of his work. Although he adopts the universal view- AP : MNT ILLUMINATED PAGE OF GENESIS. (Fram a manuscript formerly in the possession of the Duke of Sussex.) Genesis point of history, beginning with the Creation and giving a review of the entire human race, he yet in- tends to deal particularly with Israel, Aim the people subsequently chosen by of Work. God, and to give an account of its ori- gin and of itselection, which is based on its religious and moral character. His chief point of view, therefore, is that of narrator of tribal and religious history; and only the details that bear on this history are reported. § 10. It is his primary intention to show that the people of Israel are descended in a direct line from Adam, the first man created by God, through legiti- mate marriages in conformity with Israelitish moral ideals, 7.e., monandric marriages. Offshoots branch from this main line at central points represented by Adam, Noah, Shem, Eber, Abraham, and Isaac, though their subsequent legitimacy can not be guar- anteed. Linguistically the descent from the main line is always indicated by the word 547, vouching for the paternity; while descent in a branch line is indicated by ab. This is the explanation of the in- terchange of these two words, a phenomenon which has never yet been correctly interpreted. The line branching off atany one central point is always fully treated before the next member of the main line is mentioned. Only suchmatters are related in regard to the branch lines as are important for the history of humanity or that of Israel. No fact isever introduced merely on account of its historical or antiquarian value. In the main line the interest is concentrated upon the promised, long-expected generations of Tsaac—Jacob, his sons and grandsons—who safely pass through all dangers and tribulations, emphasis being laid on their religious and moral character, § 11. The events are related in definite chrono- logical order, the chief dates being as follows: —_—. — $= Event. Year of Creation. ARAM GIES ca pddeceset die csisdeaneeesaese ce 930 Noah is born, the first birth after Adam’s URS Giis ccs wdg peat sees saawsaeuaes eameeens 1056 DE BIOOG cents 0055 sek evs aoe Reed DPA 1656 Birth of Abraham........... Ree pr eee 1948 Noah's death at the age Of 950... ......ccee ees Abraham goes to Canaan......ccccccsoevveses 2023 Birth-Ol IsbMaehiws2sceestiew is dst Gictesaaaaewe 2084 Btn Ol Tease uy oitre oteas 24 het bakeoee ot aaene 2048 Death of Terah at the age Of 203... ...cccseeee 2083 Death of Sarah at the age of 127.............. 2085 Isaac marries Rebekah........ccccsscccvenece 2088 Birth of Esau and Jacob......cccassccaseceas 2108 Death of Abraham, aged 175..........0..c00- 2123 Death of Shem at the age of 60Q.........000605 2158 Ishmael dies at the age of 137... .... cc cece 2171 Death of Eber at the age of 464.............. 2181 Jacob marries Leah and Rachel.........se008 2192 ITEH Ol POSED ox5 <9 aces oa/exs a meron ann