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About Google Book Search Google’s mission is to organize the world’s information and to make it universally accessible and useful. Google Book Search helps readers discover the world’s books while helping authors and publishers reach new audiences. You can search through the full text of this book on the web atthtto: //books.gqoogle.com/ DHE Jewish Encyclopedia A DESCRIPTIVE RECORD OF THE HISTORY, RELIGION, LITERATURE, AND CUS- TOMS OF THE JEWISH PEOPLE FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESENT DAY Prepared by More than Four Hundred Scholars and Specialists UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE FOLLOWING EDITORIAL BOARD Cyrus ADLER, PH.D. (Departments of Post! KAUFMANN KOHLER, PH.D. (Departments of Biblical Antiquities ; the Jews of America). Theology and Philosophy). GOTTHARD DeEvutTscH, PH.D. (Department of HERMAN ROSENTHAL (Department of the Jews of History from 1492 to 1904). Russia and Poland). RICHARD GOTTHEIL, PH.D. (Departments of History from Ezra to 1492; History of Post- ewe Pegg ak id) M.A., Litt.D. (Depart. Talmudic Literature). ment of the Talmud). Emit G. Hirscu, Pu.D., LL.D. (Department of ISIDORE SINGER, PH.D, (Department of Modern the Bible). Biography from 1750 to 1904). JOSEPH JaAcoBs, B.A. (Departments of the Jews CRAWFORD H. Toy, D.D., LL.D. (Departments of England and Anthropology; Revising Editor), of Hebrew Philology and Hellenistic Literature). ISAAC K. FUNK, D.D., LL.D. FRANK H. VIZETELLY, F.S.A. Chairman of the Board Secretary of the Board WILLIAM Popper, M.A., PH.D. Associate Revising Editor ; Chief of the Bureau of Translation ISIDORE SINGER, Ph.D. Projector and Managing Editor ASSISTED BY AMERICAN AND FOREIGN BOARDS OF CONSULTING EDITORS VOLUME VI GOD—ISTRIA FUNK AND WAGNALLS COMPANY NEW YORK AND LONDON COPYRIGHT, 1904, IQIO, 1912, BY FUNK & WAGNALLS COMPANY AU rights of translation reserved Registered at Stationers’ Hall, London, Engiand Lerinted in the United States of A merica } LITERARY DIRECTORATE EDITORIAL BOARD CYRUS ADLER, Ph.D. HERMAN ROSENTHAL. (Departments of sicickerfun ri an aaa the Jews of (Department of the Jews of Russia and Poland.) ; Chief of the Slavonic Depart t, , k Li ‘ president of the American Jewish Historical Society ; Libra- i ae a a a jan, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. ‘ z SOLOMON SCHECHTER, M.A., Litt.D. GOTTHARD DEUTSCH, Ph.D. (Department of the Talmud.) acs , ¢ President of the Faculty of the Jewish Theological Seminary of (Department of History from 1492 to 1908.) America, New York ; Author of ** Studies in Judaism.”’ professor of Jewish History, Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati, Ohio; Editor of ‘* Deborah.”’ ISIDORE SINGER, Ph.D. MANAGING EDITOR. RICHARD G0 toatl, Ph.D. (Department of Modern Biography from 1750 to 1903.) (Departments of History from Ezra to 1492; History of Post-Talmudic Literature.) Professor of Semitic Languages, Columbia University, New York; Chief of the Oriental Department, New York Public Library ; President of the Federation of American Zionists. CRAWFORD HOWELL TOY, D.D., LL.D. (Departments of Hebrew Philology and Hellenistic Literature.) Professor of Hebrew in Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.: EMIL G. HIRSCH, Ph.D., LL.D Author of ‘* The Religion of Israel,” ete. - 9 ° *9 e Ps (Department of the Bible.) I. K. FUNK, D.D.. LL.D Rabbi of Chicago Sinai Congregation, Chicago, Il1.; Professor of ° (Ch airman of ny Faea ) = Rabbinical Literature and Philosophy, University of Se enue ; Chicago; Editor of bb The Reform Advocate.” Editor-in-Chief of the STANDARD DICTIONARY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE, ete. JOSEPH JACOBS, B.A. (Departments of the Jews of England and Anthropology: FRANK H. VIZETELLY, F.S.A. Revising Editor.) (Secretary of the Board.) Formerly President of the Jewish Historical Society of Engiand ; Associate Editor of the STANDARD DICTIONARY, * The Colum- Author of * Jews of Angevin England,” ete. bian Cyclopedia,” ete. KAUFMANN KOHLER, Ph.D. WILLIAM POPPER, M.A., Ph.D. (Departments of Theology; Philosophy.) (Associate Revising Editor; Chief of the Bureau of President of Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati, Ohio; Rabbi Translation.) Emeritus of Temple Beth-El, New York. Author of ** Censorship of Hebrew Books.” AMERICAN BOARD OF CONSULTING EDITORS BERNARD DRACHMAN, Ph.D., MARCUS JASTROW, Ph.D., Rabbi of the Congregation Zichron Ephraim; Instructor in the | Rabbi Emeritus of the Congregation Rodef Shalom, Philadel- Bible and in Hebrew Grammar, Jewish Theological Semi- phia, Pa.; Author of ** Dictionary of the Talmud.” nary of America, New York. MORRIS JASTROW, Jr., Ph.D., B. FELSENTH AL, Ph.D., Professor of Semitic Languages and Librarian in the University , } of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.; Author of * Re- Rabb : : : an ; P emeritus of Zion Congregation, Chicago, 1J.; Author of ligion of the Babylonians and Assyrians,” ete. A Practical Grammar of the Hebrew Language.” J. FREDERIC McCURDY, Ph.D., LL.D., GUSTAV GOTTHEIL : Ph.D. Professor of Oriental] Languages, University College, Toronto, Canada; Author of ** History, Prophecy, and the Monnuments.”’ H. PEREIRA MENDES, M.D., HENRY HYVERNAT, D.D., Rabbi of the Shearith Israel Congregation (Spanish and Portu- Head of the Department of Semitic and Egyptian Literatures, guese), New York: President of the Board of Jewish Catholic University of America, Washington, D. C. | Ministers, New York. (DECEASED), Late Rabbi Emeritus of Temple Emanu-El, New York. MOSES MIELZINER, Ph.D., D.D. (DECEASED), Late President of the Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati, Ohio; Author of ** Introduction to the Talmud.” GEORGE F. MOORE, M.A., D.D., Professor of Biblical Literature and the History of Religions in Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.; Author of ‘“*A Commentary op the Book of Judges,” ete. DAVID PHILIPSON, D.D., Rabbi of the Congregation Bene Israel; Professor of Homiletics, Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati, Ohio; President of Hebrew Sabbath Schoo! Union of America. LITERARY DIRECTORATE | — IRA MAURICE PRICE, B.D., Ph.D., Professor of Semitic Languages and Literatures, University of Chicago, Ill.; Author of * The Monuments and the Old Testament,” ete. JOSEPH SILVERMAN, D.D., President of Central Conference of American Rabbis; Rabbi of Temple Emanu-El, New York. JACOB VOORSANGER, D.D., Rabbi of the Congregation Emanu-E]l, San Francisco, Cal.; Pro- fessor of Semitic Languages and Literatures, Uni- versity of California, Berkeley, Cal. EDWARD J. WHEELER, M.A., Editor of ‘“* The Literary Digest,’? New York; Author of ** Stories in Rhyme,” etc. FOREIGN BOARD OF CONSULTING EDITORS ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A., Coeditor of ‘‘ The Jewish Quarterly Review ”; Author of ** Jew- ish Life in the Middle Ages,” etc.; Reader in Talmudic, Cambridge University, England. W. BACHER, Ph.D., Professor in the Jewish Theological Seminary, Budapest, Hungary. M. BRANN, Ph.D., Professor in the Jewish Theological Seminary, Breslau, Ger- many ; Editor of ** Monatsschrift fir Geschichte und Wissenschaft des Judenthums.”’ H. BRODY, Ph.D., Rabbi, Nachod, Bohemia, Austria; Coeditor of ** Zeitschrift fiir Hebriische Bibliographie.” ABRAHAM DANON, Principal of the Jewish Theological Seminary, Constantinople, Turkey. HARTWIG DERENBOURG, PhL.D., Professor of Literal Arabic at the Special School of Oriental Languages, Paris ; Member of the Institut de France. S. M. DUBNOW, Author of ‘‘ Istoriya Yevreyev,”’ Odessa, Russia. MICHAEL FRIEDLANDER, Ph.D., Principal of Jews’ College, London, England; Author of “The Jewish Religion,”’ ete. IGNAZ GOLDZIHER, Ph.D., Professor of Semitic Philology, University of Budapest, Hungary. M. GUDEMANN, Ph.D., Chief Rabbi of Vienna, Austria. BARON DAVID GUNZBURG, St. Petersburg, Russia. . A. DE HARKAVY, Ph.D., Chief of the Hebrew Department of the Imperial Public Library, St. Petersburg, Russia. ZADOC KAHN, Chief Rabbi of France; Honorary President of the Alliance Israélite Universelle; Officer of the Legion of Honor, Paris, France. M. KAYSERLING, Ph.D., Rabbi, Budapest, Hungary; Corresponding Member of the Royal Academy of History, Madrid, Spain. MORITZ LAZARUS, Ph.D. (DECEASED), Late Professor Emeritus of Psychology, University of Berlin; Meran, Austria. ANATOLE LEROY-BEAULIEDU, Member of the French Institute; Professor atthe Free School . of Political Science, Paris, France; Author of *“ Israé]l chez les Nations.”’ ISRAEL LEVI, Professor in the Jewish Theological Seminary ; Editor of ** Revue des Etudes Juives,”’ Paris, France. EUDE LOLII, D.D., Chief Rabbi of Padua; Professor of Hebrew at the University, Padua, Italy. IMMANUEL LOW, Pb.D., Chief Rabbi of Szegedin, Hungary ; Author of ** Die Aramiischen Pflanzennamen.”’ S. H. MARGULIES, Ph.D., Principal of the Jewish Theological Seminary; Chief Rabbi of Florence, Italy. H. OORT, D.D., Professor of Hebrew Language and Archeology at the State University, Leyden, Holland. ABBE PIETRO PERREAU, Formerly Librarian of the Reale Biblioteca Palatina, Parma, Italy. MARTIN PHILIPPSON, Ph.D., Formerly Professor of History at the Universities of Bonn anc Brussels ; President of the Deutsch-J tidische Gemeindebund, Berlin, Germany. SAMUEL POZNANSKI, Ph.D., Rabbi in Warsaw, Russia. E. SCHWARZFELD, LL.D., Secretary-General of the Jewish Colonization Association, Paris, France. LUDWIG STEIN, Ph.D., Professor of Philosophy, University of Bern, Switzerland ; Editor of ‘* Archiv fiir Geschichte der Philosophie,”’ etc HERMANN IL. STRACK, Ph.D., Professor of Old Testament Exegesis and Semitic Languages, University of Berlin, Germany. CHARLES TAYLOR, D.D., LL.D., Master of St. John’s College, Cambridge, England; Editor of ““Sayings of the Jewish Fathers,”’ ete. SYSTEMS OF TRANSLITERATION AND OF CITATION OF PROPER NAMES * A.—Rules for the Transliteration of Hebrew and Aramaic. 1, All important names which occur in the Bible are cited as found in the authorized King James version ; ¢.g., Moses, not Mosheh; Jsaac, not Yizhak; Saul, not Sha’ul or Shatil; Solomon, not Shelomoh, etc. 2, The spellings of names that have gained currency in English books on Jewish subjects, or that have become familiar to English readers, are generally retained ; cross-references are given when topics are treated under forms transliterated according to the system tabulated below. 3. Hebrew subject-headings are transcribed according to the scheme of transliteration ; cross-refer- ences are mude as in the case of personal names. 4, The following system of transliteration has been used for Hebrew and Aramaic: x Not noted at the beginning or the end of a word ; otherwise’ or by dieresis; e.g., peer or Meir. 3 6 tT 2 G1 B (with dagesh), p w sh 1 9g mk mn m B (without dagesh), f » 8 + d olan 4 in ¥ 2 nt nih , y Ds Dk , w 3k ys ss Note: The presence of dagesh lene is not noted except in the case of p. Dagesh forte is indi- cated by doubling the letter. 5, The vowels have been transcribed as follows: = (kamez) a TU =a = e jo —- (kamez hatuf) o =~ @ ae = (O ra — i =e — a 3 U The so-called ‘‘ Continental” pronunciation of the English vowels is implied. 6. The Hebrew article is transcribed as ha, followed by a hyphen, without doubling the following letter. [Not hak-Kohen or hak-Cohen, nor Rosh ha-shshanah. ] B.—Rules for the Transliteration of Arabic. I, All Arabic names and words, except such as have become familiar to English readers in other forms, as Mohammed, Koran, mosque, are transliterated according to the following system : * Se: x above re kh ee, sh rd gh Ww 2 a dd ues eas oh i) t gy th vei! 5 4 37 Wy th J? Lt we) k es ¥ Ei je be Ji ct" sia ae en #2. Only the three vowels—a, i. u—are represented : Laie re) ts No account has been taken of the imalah; i has not been written e, nor u written o. ™ In all other matters of orthography the spelling preferred by the StanpaRD Dictionary has usually been followed. Typo- craphica) exigencies have rendered occasional deviations from these systems necessary. viii SYSTEMS OF TRANSLITERATION AND OF CITATION OF PROPER NAMES %- The Arabic article is invariably written al, no account being taken of the assimilation of the / to A, D. the following letter; ¢.g., Abu al-Salt, not Abu-l-Salt; Nafis al-Daulah, not Nafis ad-Daulah. The article is joined by a hyphen to the following word. At the end of words the feminine termination is written ah; but when followed by a genitive, at; eg., Risalah dhat al-Kursiyy, but H?at al-Aflak. No account is taken of the overhanging vowels which distinguish the cases; e.g., ‘Amr, not ‘Amru or ‘Amrun; Yatkub, not Ya‘kubun; or ina title, Kitab al-Amanat wal-I‘tikadat. C.—Rules for the Transliteration of Russian. All Russian names and words, except such as have become familiar to English readers in other forms, as Czar, Alexander, deciatine, Moscow, are transliterated according to the following system : 1. Aa a Hu n Lu sheh Boé 6) Oo 0 bb mute Bs Vv Il a p bi w Yy [tr h, v, or g Pp r bs half mute Ix d Ce $ BS ye Ke eand ye TT t a9 e ennsine: JH at zh Vy U 1O yu 3 3 % ® f fla ya Untii a XX kh 0 6 F Kk k Ii w tz Vy @ a d Uy ch Ui i M mu m Il m sh Rules for the Citation of Proper Names, Personal and Otherwise. Whenever possible, an author is cited under his most specific name; e.g., Moses Nigrin under Nigrin; Moses Zacuto under Zacuto; Moses Rieti under Rieti; all the Kimhis (or Kambhis) under Kimhi; Israel ben Joseph Drohobiczer under Drohobiezer, Cross-references are freely made from any other form to the most specific one; e.g., to Moses Vidal from Moses Narboni ; to Solomon Nathan Vidal from Menahem Meirz; to Samuel Kansi from Samuel Astruc Dascola ; to Jedaiah Penini from both Bedersi and En Bonet; to John of Avignon from Moses de Roquemaure, When a person is not referred to as above, he is cited under his own personal name followed by his official or other title ; or, where he has borne no such title, by ‘‘of” followed by the place of his birth or residence; e.g., Johanan ha-Sandlar ; Samuel ha-Nagid ; Judah he-Hasid; Gershom of Metz; Isaac of Corbeil. Names containing the words a’, de, da, di, van, von, y, of, ben, ha-, ibn* are arranged under the letter of the name following this word; e.g., de Pomis under Pomis, de Barrios under Barrios. Jacob d’Ilescas under Illescas. The order of topics is Ulustrated by the following examples : Abraham of Augsburg Abraham de Balmes Abraham ben Benjamin Aaron Abraham of Avila Abraham ben Baruch Abraham ben Benjamin Zeeb Abraham ben Azriel Abraham of Beja Abraham Benveniste * When Ipn has come to be a specific part of a name, as Inn Ezra, such name is treated in its alphabetical place under ‘* I.” Nore to tHe READER. Subjects on which further information is afforded elsewhere in this work are indicated by the use of capitals and small capitals in the text; as. ABBA ARIKA; PUMBEDITA; VOCALIZATION. LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS [Self-evident abbreviations. particularly those used in the bibliographies, are not included here. | AD wesc cceeete ..... Abot, Pirke AbD. Ro Neceeecerees Abot de-Rabbi Natan “AD, ZAPab..sceeeeee *Abodah Zarah ad or at the place; to the passage cited ae watdaktee ateeets in the year of the Hegira ale. “Zeit. des Jud.. Allgemeine Zeitung des Judenthums Am. Jew. Hist. Soe .American Jewish Historical Society Am. Jour. Semit. - Ainerican Journal of Semitic Languages Perea J ew. oo Anglo-Jewish Association is di ISG as Bop adele HE . pocalypse i acer Fels ckamtnatecordatsees ee rypha apaet Const.. . Apostolical Constitutions br or abridge nannies “Arakin (Talmud) Are. IS... ee eee ed Archives Israélites 1 Aronius, Regesten zur Geschichte der Juden Aronius, Regest€n | “in pentsehland eoreoseonerre Bacher, Ag. sie AMOP. cece eee eee Bacher, Ag. Pal. ! Bacher, Agada der Palastinensischen Amo- eed seg Nbhsaisteretn ete rier ...Bacher, Agada der Tannaiten Baba Batra (Talmud) Pe ee ee ee B.C fg ichirar sts, aaerarecn ea before the Christian era Bek osc iaisetao tee es Bekorot (Talmud) Benzinger, Arch... Benzinger, Hebraische Archaologie Be? oon buideentwe ses Berakot (Talmud) pele z reek Fest- " Festschrift zum 70ten Geburtstag Berliners Berliner’s 7 ; Berliner’s Magazin fiir die Wissenschaft des Magazin ....... ‘ Judenthums Bibl. “Rab Vinee eae Bibliotheca Rabbinica Bikov.cs cceiweee estes Bikkurim (Valmud) Be teins are Baba Kamma (Talmua@) Bo Micitenien deo cas Sane Mezt‘ z (Talmud) P alaceeit 4 Boletin de la Real Academia de la Historia BoletinAcad. Hist. + (Madrid) eet east sack § Brull’s Jahrbicher fir Jtidische Geschichte Briill’s Jabrb..... ¢ und Litteratur Bulletin All. Isr.... Bulletin of the Alliance Israéiite Universelle Cua ain whee aoe te ae about Calbia ssdnvtee tutes Canticles (Song of Solomon) Cat. Anglo-Jew. /! Catalogue of Anglo-Jewish Historical Ex- Hist. Exh...... \ hibition Cazés. Notes Bi- | Cazés, Notes Bibliographiques sur la Littéra- bliographiques.j) ture Juive-'Cunisienne CO iin lel aie cel ug Sha commen era Clits Gisaiteaeisd oes chapter or chapters Cee Bib t Cheyne and Black, Encyclopedia Bibtica , \ Recueil des Travaux Rédigés en Mémoire Ch olson Jubilee . du Jubilé saeoutaue de M, Danie) Chwol- Yolume........ { son, 1846-18 Co Le Aes ce eaedeae Corpus Shen Atticarum COG at habe kge sea Corpus Inscriptionum Greecarum Co Tea eens Corpus Inscriptionum Hebraicarum eel Ga Oana seenareerar rer eren Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum Cot S se areovae hens Corpus Insecriptionum Semiticarum COMM sess Garawsey bias compare Curinier, Dict. LK, E. Curinier, Dictionnaire National des Nal coca ects .. § Contemporains isk cies Steud avhgaeted died Det arta ad ewes’ Deuteronomist De Gubernatis, pre Gubernatis, Dizionario Bivgrafico degli Diz. Biog....... Scrittori Contemporanei De Gubernatis, ‘De Gubernatis, Dictionnaire International Ecrivains duJour f des Ecrivains du Jour De te Roi, Juden-! De‘le Roi, Geschichte der Evangelischen Mission ........ , Juden-Mission With 3504 Vee eats . Demai (Talmud) ; ee 1 é Derenbourg, Essai sur |’Histoire et la Géo- Derenbourg, Hist. ; graphie de la Palestine, ete. De Rossi, Dizio-! De Rossi, Dizionario Storico degli Autori NATO} sc teacg oot \ Ebrei e delle Loro Opere De Rossi - Ham - } De Rossi-Hamberger, Historisches Worter- berger, Hist.» buch der Jidischen Sebriftsteller und Worterh. ...... Ihrer Werke | AR air rn Elohist CCl sscewes fe-cu .. Ecclesiastes Keclus. (Sirach) .. .. Ecclesiasticus OO iscceaitte vistas austen, edition "EQUY eos aces cerca *Eduyot (Talmud) Fisenbe Ludwig Eisenberg’s Grosses Biographisches ie JiNexikon der: Deutschen Babne fan XIX E Jabrhundert MNCOVC. Briticss aa cee Encyclopedia Britannica a a a Y MDG sts os packaaeecos English Epiphanius Heeres. Epiphanius, Adversus Heereses SA Ped ees deuroe gc acatacg eek te *Erubin (Talmud) Erseh and ( Ersch and Gruber, Allgemeine Encyklopadie Gruber, Encyc.. ; der Wissenschaften und kiinste ESCs) teas awasaaeanes Esdras Cb SOG Ase Sew taheee and following Eusebius, Hist. Eccl. Eusebius, Historia Eeclesiastica Ewald, Gesch..... Ewald, Geschichte des Volkes Israel ..Frankel, Mebo Yerushalmi . Fiirst, Bibliotheca Judaica Furst, Geschichte des Karierthums Frankel, Mebo.. First, Bibl. Jud. First, Gesch. des | Kardert.... .... } Gaster, Hist. of __ ¢ Gaster, Bevis Marks Memorial Volume Bevis Marks. . Geiger, Urschrift und Uebersetzungen der Geiger, Urschrift. Bibel in Ihrer Abhangigkeit von der In- mG neren pcre des : Dea eiger’s Judische Zeitschri iir ssen- Geiger’s Jud. Zeit.) schatt und Leben Geiger’s Wiss. t Geiger’s Wissenschaftliche Zeitschrift fiir Zeit. Jiid. Theol. Jidische Thevlogie Gesch. er rere re Geschichte Gesenius, Gr.......Gesenius, Grammar Gesenius, Th....... Gresenius, Thesaurus Gibbon, Decline ese History of the Decline and Fall of and Fall........ a A Roman Empire : 10 TH insburg’s New Massoretico-Critical Text Ginsburg’s Bible.. ; of the Hebrew Bible Gites cate cated Saks Gittin (Talmud) Graetz, Hishvcscoees Graetz. History of the Jews Gritz, Gesech....... Gritz, Geschichte der Juden Giidemann, Geschichte des Erziehungs- Gece. wesens und der Cultur der Abendlindi- ae Juden AG io A ietesGiereenien Hagga aR cts Aeeseeenstes Hagigah (Talmud) HG) oiccccse us Settee Hallah (Talmud) Hamburger, | Hamburger, Realencyclopadie fiir Bibe] Re Bab evccxads und Talmud ae ae ___¢ Hastings, Dictionary of the Bible i (2) ne ene eae Epistle to the Hebrews POD i aie site shekraee whence Masoretic Text Herzog - Plitt Herzog - Hauck, Real-Encye.... ologie und Kirche (2d and 3d editions re- spectively) § Hirsch, Biographisches Lexikon der Hervor- or + ologie und kireh fiir Protestantische The- Hirsch, Biog. Lex.) “ ragender Aerzte Aller Zeiten und Vélker HOY iano tea vetatorn Horayot (Talmud) PLU 5 herds acerca emards Hullin (Talmud) BY sb oad Me wuinea een same place ROU igs) atic ahixeves same author Isr. Letterbode.. See Letterbode sabe ad tc asttave te Soscacals Jahvist Jaarboeken voor de Israeliten in Neder- iand Jacobs, Inquiry into the Sources of Spanish- Jewish History Janrbooxea ets a Jacobs and Wolf, hy acobs and Wolf, Bibliotheca Anglo-Judaica Jacobs, Sources... Bibl. Anglo-Jud. Jahrb. Gesch. der ( Jahrbuch fiir die Geschichte der Juden ung JUNO dct etacausceraes des Judenthums § Jastrow, Dictionary of the Targumim, Tal- mudim, and Midrashim Jellinek, B. H...... Jelinek, Bet ha-Midrash Jew. Chron......... Jewish Chronicle, London Jew. Encyc........ The Jewish Encyclopedia Jew. Hist. Soc. Eng.Jewish Historical Society of England Ui Ae eevee. wea end Jewish Quarterly Review Jew. World........ Jewish World, London Josephus, Ant...... Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews Josephus, B. J......Josephus, De Bello Judaico Josephus,Contra Ap.Josephus, Contra Apionem NOSie ose Sete. Joshua Jost’s Annalen...... Jost’s Israelitische Annalen Jour. Bib. Lit...... Journal of Biblical Literature viryph =. enn ; Justin, Dialogus cum Tryphone Judzeo Kaufmann Ge- Gedenkbuch zur Erinnerung an David Kauf- denkbuech...... mann Kautzsch, Apo- t Die Apokryphen und Pseudepigraphen des kryphen. pete ke Alten Testaments Kayserling, Bibl, t Kayserling, Biblioteca Espafiola-Portugueza- lead ud.. Judaica Kayserling, Die} nie Jiidischen Frauen in der Geschichte ee Frau- >" Titeratur und Kunst KOE ocd Hetero keritot (Talmud) x LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS Ket..... Stewie ... Ketubot (Talmud) K.H.C i Kurzer Hand-Commentar zum Alten Testa- CAE eee ee Oe ? ment, ed. Marti Kid......+ (Mekeet Kiddushin (Talmue) Ril gecss sce eeu eau nee re Henry Hyvernat, D.D., Professor of Oriental Languages and Arche- ology, Catholic University of America, Wash- ington, D.C. 1c Cae = 6G snes Hartwig Hirschfeld, Ph.D., Professor, Jews’ College, London, England. H. H. M..... Harry H. Mayer, Rabbi, Kansas City, Mo. bo Cy . eee H. Kottek, Ph.D., Rabbi, Homburg-vor-der-Héhe, Hesse, Ger- many. bs AON ¢ eee eee Herman Rosenthal, Chief of the Slavonic Department of the New York Public Library, New York City. pc Ot ~ eer See eee Henrietta Szold, Secretary of the Publication Committee of the Jewish Publication Society of America ; New York City. dw Da | Sere ee Hermann Vogelstein, Ph.D., Rabbi, KGnigsberg, East Prussia, Germany. I. Be.......... Immanuel Benzinger, Ph.D., Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, Uni- versity of Berlin, Germany. 7, BE ens Isaac Broydé (Office Editor), Diplomé de Ecole des Hautes Etudes; for- merly Librarian of the ANiance Israélite Uni- verselle, Paris, France; New York City. 0S eee Ismar Elbogen, Ph.D., Instructor at the Lehranstalt fir die Wissen- schaft des Judenthums, Berlin, Germany. 5 i © ene Ignatz Goldziher, Ph.D., Professor of Semitic Philology, University of Budapest; Member of the Hungarian Acad- emy of Sciences, Budapest, Hungary. TGs Ds isaee I. George Dobsevage, New York City. De adic Isidore Harris, A.M., Rabbi of West London Synagogue, London, England. AG pene ee Israel Lévi, Rabbi; Professor in the Paris Jewish Theo- logical Seminary; Editor of ‘‘Revue des Etudes Juives,’’ Paris, France. T. LO.cedeiss: Immanuel Léw, Ph.D., Chief Rabbi of Szegedin, Hungary. I. M. C...... I. M. Casanowicz, Ph.D., United States National Museum, Washington, D.C Te Me. Piven Ira Maurice Price, B.D., Ph.D., Professor of Semitic Languages and Litera- ture, University of Chicago, Chicago, Tl. De Sitadesinvss I. Schwartz, Paris, France. De Binsedes Isidor S. Beaumache, New York City. veoeseeess Lonaz Ziegler, Ph.D., Rabbi, Carlsbad, Bohemia, Austria. A Sener .-e.., 008eph Jacobs, B.A., Formerly President of the Jewish Historical Society of England; Corresponding Member of the Royal Academy of History, Madrid ; New York City. A ee © Serre eeenree See E. Ca. J. D. B...... J. D. Bravermann, Ph.D., New York City. J.D. E......3. D. Eisenstein, New York City. CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME VI Joseph Ezekiel, J.P., Bombay, India. J. F. McC...d- Frederic McCurdy, Ph.D., LL.D., ee professor of Oriental Languages, University College, Toronto, Canada. Jacob Freimann, Ph.D., Rabbi, Holleschau, Moravia, Austria. J. Friedmann, Ph.D., Rabbi, Gratz, Posen, Germany. J.G.L....- J. G. Lipman, Ph.D., ; Assistant Agriculturist, New Jersey State Ex- periment Station, New Brunswick, N. J. J.deH.....-. J. de Haas, ; Secretary of the Federation of American Zionists, New York City. J. H.G...--. Julius H. Greenstone, Rabbi, Philadelphia, Pa. Sib eer ee Morris Jastrow, Jr., Ph.D., Professor of Semitic Languages, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa. J. Frei...-- J. Ka......-. Jacques Kahn, Rabbi, Paris, France. Bee Veneer Joseph Lehman, Chief Rabbi: Principal Rabbinical Seminary, Paris, France. J. L. La..... J. L. Lait, Journalist, Chicago, IN. A Se or John P. Peters, Ph.D., D.D., Rector, St. Michael’s Church, New York City. J. SO... cease Joseph Sohn, Contributor to ** The New International En- cyclopedia”; formerly with ‘‘The Forum,” New York City. J. Sto....... Joseph Stolz, D.D., Rabbi, Chicago, IL. Je TAs ceuass Jacob Tauber, Ph.D., Rabbi, Perau, Moravia, Austria, BitGusincikes Kaufmann Kohler, Ph.D., Rabbi Emeritus of Temple Beth-Ei, New York; President of the Hebrew Union Col- lege, Cincinnati, Ohio. K. H. C......Karl Heinrich Cornill, Ph.D., Professor of Hebrew and Old Testament Exe- gesis, University of Breslau, Germany. L. B..........Ludwig Blau, Ph.D., Professor, Jewish Theological Seminary; Edi- tor of ““Magyar Zsidé6-Szémle*’; Budapest, Hungary. ....--., Louis Ginzberg, Ph.D., Professor of Talmud, Jewish Theological Sem- inary of America, New York City. L. Grii...... Lazarus Grunhut, Director, Orphan Asylum, Jerusalem, Pales- tine. L.H.G. ...L. H. Gray, Ph.D., Assistant Editor of the ** Orientalische Bibli- ographie ”; former]y on the editorial staff of “The New International Encyclopzxdia”’ ; Newark, N. J. L. G.. L. Hii....... L. Huhner, A.M., LL.B., Attorney at Law, New York City. L. Laz....... L. Lazarus, Ph.D., Rabbi, G6ding, Moravia, Austria. L.N.D......Lewis N. Dembitz, Attorney at Law, Louisville, Ky. Oa | Sane ee Ludwig Venetianer, Ph.D., Rabbi, Neupest, Hungary. as MW ecser net, L. Ysaye, Vienna, Austria. M. Bil......., Maurice Bloch, Principal of the Bischoffsheim School, Paris, . France. Dt © M. Caimi, Corfu, Greece. Xili MCs bas Max Cohen, Attorney at Law, New York City. M. F.........Michael Friedlander, Ph.D., Principal Jews’ College, London, England. MM. Biwicess: Maurice Fishberg, M.D., Surgeon to the Beth Israel Hospital Dispen- sary; Medical Examiner to the United Hebrew Charities, New York City. M. Fr........ M. Franco, Principal, Alliance Israélite Universelle School, Démotica, Rumelia, Turkey. M. Gar....... M. Garsson, New York City. M. Gr........M. Grunwald, Ph.D., Rabbi, Vienna, Austria. M.KE......... Meyer Kayserling, Ph.D., Rabbi, Budapest, Hungary. M. M........ Moses Mielziner, Ph.D., D.D. (deceased), Late President of the Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati, Ohio. M. M. E.....M. M. Eichler, Rabbi, Beth El Congregation, Philadelphia, Pa. M.R...,......Max Rosenthal, M.D., Visiting Physician, German Dispensary, New York City. M. Re........ Milton Reizenstein, Ph.D., New York City. M. Se........ Max Schloessinger, Ph.D. (Office Editor), Rabbi, New York City. M. Sel.......Max Seligsohn (Office Editor), Diplomé de l’Ecole des Hautes Etudes, Paris, France; New York City. ... Moritz Silberstein, Ph.D., Rabbi, Wiesbaden, Nassau, Germany. M. W........ Max Weisz, Ph.D., Rabbi, Budapest, Hungary. M.W.L..... Martha Washington Levy, B.A., Contributor to **The New International En. cyclopeedia,’? New York City. M. W. M....Mary W. Montgomery, Ph.D., New York City, M. Z.........M. Zametkin, New York City. N.A.........N. Almquist, StocKhvlin, Sweden. M. Si..... Ne. Dicsesass. Newell Dunbar, Newark, N. J. N.K..... ....Nehemias Kronberg, Ph.D., Rabbi, Hermanmiestec, Bohemia, Austria. N. St........ Nathan Stern, Ph.D., New York City. N.T. L...... N. T. London, New York City. 0.E.@A.G..Osmond Elim d@’Avigdor Goldsmid, M.A., LL.B., J.P., Brighton, Engiand. 0.S.S8S....... Oscar S. Straus, LL.D., Former Envoy Extraordinary and Min{ster Plenipotentiary of the United States to Tur- key; Member of the Court of Arbitration at The Hague; New York City. BP Br ce2 see Philipp Bloch, Ph.D., Rabbi, Posen, Germany. Boo Wi ei saees Peter Wiernik, New York City. R.A.S...... Rachel Hays Sulzberger, New York City. Re lo Cxicsaxs Rudolph I. Coffee, A.B., Assistant Superintendent, Hebrew Orphan Asylum, New York City. Bs. Bass ieie: Rosalie Perles, K6nigsberg, East Prussia, Germany. Xiv CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME VI Se aaiessams Isidore Singer, Ph.D., MANAGING EDITOR, New York City. S. Bac. aesee SS. Bachrach, Hameln, Hanover, Germany. S. Fra....... Salomon Frankfurter, Ph.D., Scriptor, Vienna University Library, Vienna, Austria. S. Fu........ Samuel Fuchs, Ph.D., Chief Rabbi, Luxemburg, Luxemburg. S.J..........S. Janovsky, Attorney at Law, St. Petersburg, Russia. i . Cee S. Kahn, Rabbi, Nimes, France. S. Kr........S. Krauss, Ph.D., Professor, Normal College, Budapest, Hungary. S. Le........S, Levy, M.A,, Rabbi, London, England. S. Lev.......5. Levene, Brooklyn, N. Y. S. M.........S. Mendelsohn, Ph.D., Rabbi, Wilmington, N. C. S. Man...... S. Mannheimer, B.L., Instructor, Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati, Ohio. S. M. D......S. M. Dubnow, Odessa, Russia. S.P..........Samuel Poznanski, Ph.D., Rabbi, Warsaw, Poland, Russia. ..Solomon Schechter, M.A., Litt.D., President of the Faculty of the Jewish Theo- logical Seminary of America, New York City. S.Sa..... ... Sigismund Salfeld, Ph.D., Rabbi, Mayence, Hesse, Germany. S. Sp....... . Salomon Spielmann, Iglau, Moravia, Austria. S. St...... .... Sara Straus, New York City. 8. S. W......Stephen S. Wise, Ph.D., Rabbi, Portland, Ore. S. S........ S. v. St......8. van Straalen (deceased), Late Assistant Librarian, British Museum, London, England. 10. Crawford Howell Toy, D.D., LL.D., Professor of Hebrew in Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. Dy We Once Thomas Kelly Cheyne, D.D., Litt.D., Oriel Professor of the Interpretation of Scrip- ture, Oxford University, and Canon of Roches- ter Cathedral, England ; Coeditor of ** Ency- clopedia Biblica ”’ ; Oxford, England. Di Biivicsien Tobias Schanfarber, Rabbi, Anscbe Ma’arab Congregation, Chicago, ill. ones UO, Ces Umberto Cassuto, Florence, Italy. a ae oP Vittore Castiglione, Chief Rabbi, Rome, Italy. We Bey amass Victor Rosseau Emanuel, Laurel, Md. V.R.«.... ..., Vasili Rosenthal, Kremeuchug, Russia. NW) TRY iss oi Victor Ryssel, Ph.D., Professor of Old Testament Exegesis and Semitic Languages, University of Zurich, Switzerland. W.A,.M.....William A. Miller, New York City. Wi Bieckisccs: W. Bacher, Ph.D., Professor, Jewish Theological Seminary, Buda- pest, Hungary. W. H. F.....William H. Fineshriber, Rabbi, Davenport, Iowa. W. M.M....W. Max Muller, Ph.D., Professor of Bible Exegesis, Reformed Epis- copal Theological Seminary. Philadelphia, Pa. W.N....... . William Nowack, Ph.D., Professor of Old ‘Testament Exegesis, Uni- versity of Strasburg, Germany. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME VI N. B~—In the following list subjects likely to be sought for under various headings are repeated under each heading. PAGE ‘“‘Ab, Ninth of, in a Polish Synagogue.” From a painting by Leopold Horowitz.................-. 468 Algiers, Tomb of Rabbi Isaac ben Sheshet at.... ..............2 06. ee re Se hie a Beale eens 632 Amsterdam, Printed Halizah Blank Used by ewe OE si as acest a alee San ata see ts Dende enema oats Sea teed 173 Archeology: see Corn; Hapap; HAMMURABI; HANUKKAH; Harp; Hyrcanus; Lyre; “Mepat; SEAL; Tome, Architecture; see HANOVER; HEBRON; Hovusg; Hyrcanus; Toms. Art: see ARCHEOLOGY; ARCHITECTURE; CosTUME; HABDALAH; HaGGADAH:; HANUKKAH; HEINE Memor1aL; Horowitz, LEoPpoLD; Huppau; ISRAELS, JOSEPH; MANUSCRIPTS, TYPOGRAPHY, Autograph Letter of Hushiel ben Elhanan, From the Cairo Genizah.............0.... 2c cece cena o10 Baldachin: see HUPPAH. Banner of the Inquisition at Goa, India. After Picart... 0.0.0... cee ce teens pe anuaes 601 Bar Kokba, Coin of, Bearing Lyre with Three Strings. ...... 0.0... ccc ccc ce cece cece cee ee eee eens 237 Benedict, Marcus, Diploma Conferring the Haber Degree, Issued by, 1828............. ee eee 122 Bible: see ISAIAH ; PENTATEUCH. Border to the First Illustrated Printed Haggadah, Prague, 526........ 0.26. 0c. ceeeeee cee cee eens 147 Box MOG eri Car Locus die trenty ewe awe ate e ee seel BS etieliraa whe neta, Sawa dada wad Oy ies aca Seon 184 Boxes, Spice, Used in Habdalah Ceremony................. Sustetstared 2 119, 120, and plate between 118-119 Brescia, Page from the First Edition of Immanuel ben Solomon’s “ Mehabberot,” Printed in 1491 at. . 565 Cairo: see GENIZAH. Candle Used in the Habdalah Ceremony... ........ 0.0... cece ee cee cet ee bee ne cece eee eeee 118 Caricature of Isaac of Norwich, After a contemporary manuscript. ee ee ere ee ee ree 628 Caucasus, Head-Dress of Jew of (Pig. 84) 00.0.0 0 cc ce cette eee eeetnttetereees 293 Cave of Machpelah, Entrance to the Mosque at Hebron, Containing the Traditional ............. tees O18 Ceremonial: see HaBDALAH ; HALIzAn; HanuKKAH; HuPPAH. Charity-Box, Modern .......... 0 ..........000. Pe et ee Te ee eT eee ne en ree 184 Clepsydra. as Deseribed: inthe Zohar yo. d60eeed bade dae eel aves eed ieee be eaeee ieee ees eee Lads 464 Coin of Bar Kokba Bearing Lyre with Three Strings. ............ ce cece cence eee eee e rece eee eee 207 —of Herod the Great Showing Helmet with Cheek-Pieces .......0.c ec. c cece et cece eee e eee eeeees 343 =O JONTNLH VU CANUS 8.4 wee a cdiua Gh ahead 2 cers DANA GK Beyer aode Rees ema iee senna Sb eee ee Re ead 515 ——of Simon Nasi Bearing Lyre with Six Strings............ 0. ee eee eee eee eee sea Saeed ahead 237 Columbia University Library: see Isn Ezra, ABRAHAM; IBN TrIBBON, Moses; IMMANUEL BEN SOLOMON, Constance, Head-Dress of Jew of (Fig. 10)... .. 0... cece cece cee reece nce eee n eet heen acne eeene 293 Constantinople, Page from the First Edition of Moses ibn Tibbon’s Translation of Maimonides’ “Sefer hasMigwots Printed 10 ate 2c sated aed Gawhecuse eee mentees Seen s boos waa we aaa d47 Contract Between a Sheliah and the Sephardic Congregation at Jerusalem ............. 0: eee ee eeee 183 Costume, Germany, Highteenth Century ....... ccc cee cece cece eee eee e ete ennees 172, 268, 505 —— Holland (1657).... ... aki leks “ih: aie trie alas Noarals eri Riddaeaie Sarat aed edin arene Se nace ries a auamrn aah ae mare a atete 504 —— ——FEarly Eighteenth Century .......... Oe ee ee Eee ere ee re ere eee 171, 477 as Passat. (1477 )ainsoussnta cca derwanteeacceasetum as hate dtm pacpntiee Me mnes plate between 482-483 —— Poland, Seventeenth Century.......... 0... cece cee ee cence enn e neces pia te Seale wane are ara 268 468 a VE OO TIN cil ctrace oe hb ere ee ARR SRE COREA EARS iad eis CEVEE RP CEIE ARSE CERES RS Xvi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME VI PAGE Costume, Sarajevo, Early Fourteenth Century. ........ 2. cece ete eee er ee Frontispiece —— Sternberg (1492)........... ERR er ee ee ee SAGs hap ewice GAG aay hae Oh a eee ene aed 482 —— see also HEAD-DREss, Deed: see CONTRACT. Diploma Conferring the Haber Degree, Issued by Marcus Benedict, 1828................ aS e ues erie 122 —— Rabbinical, of the Seventeenth Century................ (eweoenink seotsaca ease ee euratoute .... 268 Divinity, Representation: Of a, Aitutes, 6224 eusiwer ew (ees ites eee aed ead oes bees twed Grea Paeeee 428 -—— see also HADAD. Documents: see DIPLOMA; HaLizaAH; HALUKKAH; INQUISITION. Dress: see COSTUME. Egypt: see Cairo; Harp; HIrrite. England, Head-Dress of Jews of (Figs. 1 and 39)..... ee ee ee sic late ae ater ee ee ea 293 Europe: see CostuME; HANOVER; HUNGARY. First Editions: Page from Abraham ibn Ezra’s Commentary to the Pentateuch, Naples, 1488........ 523 —— —— Page from David Kimhi’s Commentary to the Prophets, Guadalajara, 1482.............. .. 103 —— —— Page from the First Hlustrated Printed Haggadah, Prague, 1526........... 0... ccc eee eee 147 ——- —— Page from Immanuel ben Solomon’s “ Mehabberot,” Brescia, 1491, .............. 0... eee 565 ——— ——— Page from Moses ibn Tibbon’s Translation of Maimonides’ “Sefer ha-Mizwot,” Constanti- NOPIOS OUT cee cates dyes ha aM ete: elem ied oes eee G ate ols AER ROE ow ORNs 547 ——Page from Solomon ibn Gabirol’s “ Mibhar ha- Peninim,” Printed by Soncino, 1484.......... 531 Four Types of the Haggadah........ Cee eee ee sueteed ake he aroma aaees Beadaoeauiaee ere auras . 144 France, Head-Dress of Jews of (Figs. 6-8)...... 02... cceseeeccenes Cwhuuiie cies gia al Wave Seam eeooseneees 293 Genizah, Cairo, Portion of Autograph Letter of Hushiel ben Elhanan, from the.......... Sige a a deat 510 Germany, Halizah Scene in, Eighteenth Century ............. cee cece eee r ecw eee Ou Minced eeeeGen en 172 —— Head-Dress of Jews of (Figs. 3-5, 18, 14, 18-21, and 28),.... BasasSits atataigh alg: araites sce alee acacnne ura er oene wrasse 293 Goa, Banner of the Inquisition at........ 0... cece eee wees mate sews deSraiee Cia SAS Ere aNel esos 601 Procession of the Inquisition at ............... Setehaw emia lansG weve hers Shy towtoen aeecuna sore He rieewee OU Goldfaden, Abraham, Yiddish Dramatist....... ee ee Masel Bieaee ha Renae ie base eee eee eas 23 Goldmark, Karl, Hungarian Musician......... eal isla ates 16 ass sw cat arian bas eater sel arate w boon ceeeiaek 24 Goldschmidt, Levin, German Jurist ....... cc cece cence ceucccccees Psd bh Peake eaciaw te wee ese 26 — Meir Aaron, Danish Political Writer............ ccc cccccccecce aca aet Seen hea eee eueedsen oot 2% Goldsmid, Abraham, English Financier........... Se weiss ee de atea a Nae le Niwa Gaede ete. 29 Sir Julian, English Statesman ........ cc... cece eens eee Wdieateahs saveatiew So ue ae aadeae Langapnods 31 Goldziher, Ignaz, Hungarian Orientalist....... caaenenre Letcieetiee ee eee oe Sebi Rua leebaie ie gases 35 Gomipers; Samuel; American Labor Leader.icsnsc iad hostaae ses eet essceiewa ses aeae emacs vaan orees 43 Gordon, Lord George, English Agitator and Convert to Judaism.............. ee eer 47 —— Leon, Russian Hebrew Poet..... hie Con Ariel Bw eine Ocha se ea ate area Dibra are ee Wa nee tae oes 47 Gottheil, Gustav, American Rab Dinis45 20 sacced dleceee da eee ieee ed. a ee deaeaee eta was oe heniees 52 Gottlober, Abraham Baer, Russian Hebrew Poet.............cccceccscees Siig Me wae hae be ae 55 Graetz, Heinrich, Jewish Historian. ............ ccc ccc cece cern cece teen ene e cece sc sessssens aes 65 Gratz, Rebecca, American Educator and Philanthropist............ 0. ccc cece cece cect e rete cues eucces 83 Guadalajara: Page from the First Edition of David Kimhi’s Commentary to the Prophets, Printed by Solomon ibn AlKAbIn: 1482 okt 85 oie Sad aedenG od moa ee Ma eee a bee emetk anaes eee ea 108 Guastalla, Enrico, Italian soldier. ........cccceccccecc scene Pe eee eee eT ee ee eee ee 104 Giidemann, Moritz, Austrian Rabbi... oc e ccc cc cece cect ect ac eect eeseeecace pee Geen ee Stes 105 Ginzburg, Horace, Russian Philanthropist, ...... Seiko araatis Sivan vedere Sate Dea eee a eeute cobs 111 —— Mordecai Aaron, Russian Hebrew Writer ............ Ss cia wre heels de Sirk Rete ane eae tiea 113 Habdalah Lightisccdcss terse veers aieewends bet ceGusd ae ue geek eee ee dew Lew heed ake aRaune 118 — Spice-Boxes, Various Forms of............ ccc cece ccc snc ceee sees 119, 120, and plate between 118-119 Haber, Diploma Conferring the Degree of, Issued by Marcus Benedict, 1828 ............. cee seeeuees 122 “Had Gadya,” Music of ............ bass aoe auntie aere. Gab gata enciets Serase Gun ed toate nee en ee 128, 129 Hadad, Hittite Representation of.......... Beau tay tee eee eae eee e ee eran Wndeaisose acumen Gs, rnd ote 130 Haggadah, [lluminated Page from the Sarajevo. Written probably early in the fourteenth century.. Frontispiece LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME VI XVii PAGE Haggadah, Page from a Fifteenth Century Illustrated Manuscript.. ee 148 __— Page from a Fifteenth Century Illustrated Manuscript, Showing Preparations for Passover...... 145 __ Page from the First Illustrated Printed, Prague, 1526.......... 0... cece weer ee eee etic trees 147 ___ The Four Types Of Chee oieweids duh eoe eh ed oe eee saa ee hee ees yeas 144 “Hakkafot,” Music Ol wiaeaghe chante weal wae dese eee wee etree entrees eneeee ees -seeee 161, 162 Halberstadt, Seal of Cathedral at: Jews Represented as Stoning St. Stephen ........... 0... cece eee es 165 Halberstam, Solomon Joachim, Austrian Scholar............0-.eeeeee eee reer rere Te re ee 166 Halévy, Jacques Francois, French Composer ............ silede dpe ne Saige Pe bie i netie eit ee ee eee es 167 __— Joseph, French Orientalist.<.s e668 91455 sew een oeee eae er ae ee ree eee Sta eaheoes Reese 168 Halizah Blank Used by Amsterdam Jews. ..........eceeeees Gd bs tear, reaero aes tieseche c diauaedee ge. aleoaes 173 _ Ceremony Among German Jews, Eighteenth Century ........ cc sece scence eee ence etna eeeees » 172 _ Scene in Holland, Early Eighteenth Century. ......... cece c cece cece eee cece ete ee ee cenees 171 ee, eee ee ee Seca seu aaawaulaes yistansatdess Ree ee ee ee re eye eee eee 170 “Tallel” (“Lulab Chant Wy CM AUSIC“Ol..gcke ne So haheantecdstedatatewy.)Sbae vee od meee Swiss Rhee ewes 177, 178 Halukkah BOX 6 eS Ss 56 Reo Se EAE OSES ESREES Seta. ORG 0 Vig loalos i COLA, Wine de: ot Tasso Gs esa w lu AAO N OL 8! sels Leech one aS Be ere 8 184 _— Contract Between a Sheliah and the Sephardic Congregation at Jerusalem...............0-.0005 183 “Ha-Mabdil,” Music of... 26... e cece eee cece eee eee nae e eect eee eener ene eees ee Ty eee 187, 188 Hamburg, Jewish Hawker of, Eighteenth Century ....... ee ee oe re eee ee re re 268 Hamburger, Jacob, German Rabbi and Author ............. goesrawer Cee deGee ten teac ace me tente wes 195 “Ha-Meliz,” Title-Heading of the First Number of................6-- eaeenes sielbiern Wise ai eareve vise! “alsa 196 Hammurabi Before the Sun-God ..........ccsecc cee e erence cere en eee eee reese seen seen ns sennrenenas 199 Hanover, Synagogue at 2... eee cece eee cece ee nee eee eee e eres e ee eet nae eee teense nteeees R22 Hanukkah Lamp, Bronze, French, Attributed to the Twelfth Century.................-- plate facing 226 ___. __— Bronze, Italian, Fifteenth Century ...........-.-..0.- Hiecaled Mepis taken tweed aes as 225 ___. ——— Found in Excavations at Jerusalem. .......... ccc ceec secon: err re dea race tereiees Dewi 226 ___- -—~ Silver, German, Seventeenth Century .. ... Raremuneas et es Shilee eigs teeta ecteeih anata ete reais 225 see G1 Ver: MECGIO VAL. o's a ncaa gan okeomare reer ee er er ere re ee ree plate facing 226 on Sil Ver... MOGeGnn..4524.068.ssenseseds tae PLE GS RERUNS see eee eeu eee eee nies 225 a SIIVEL SIX LECH IN CD LUNY 2.0151 e.g yeu gon tia Sisarhearea 6 Stewie obo wets arse ans Hass od were ean e oy 225 —— ——- Silver and Bronze, Seventeenth Century............... a udaleeheiea Wnamrawut Belton plate facing 226 = Yellow. Copper, Modern .450.sc0u.4ee cas dameswataw dawt beerns heal sed eel weales plate facing 226 Harkavy, Albert, Russian Orientalist and Historian...............cceeeeeeeees nts Kaleo ageedawe hen 235 Harp, Babylonian Representation of a. About 3000 B.C........ cc ccc cece erence eet re cence ene 237 —— Bedouin Playing a. After a painting in the tombs of the Beni Hassan. ..............-200ecueee 237 -——+ Egyptian Representations Of aici cscs he wea tee sees ge tans sada eelees oes ewins eect ee ie pane ares 238 —— see also LYRE. Hartmann, Moritz, Austrian Poet..... Mie esa Teel aeaes ORME pase erEoae ew Caer ak Bi ee tak 244 “Hattarat Hora’ah”: Rabbinical Diploma of the Seventeenth Century. ..........ccesccas ees ecenes 263 Hawker, Jewish, of Hamburg, Highteenth Century ...... 0... cc cece cect eee eee e ee cenenes eee 268 —— Polish Jewish, Seventeenth Century...........- Spears Ce er eC re rhe eee eee 268 “Hazzanut.” MUSIC Of 232 scsesnd elaqwien eras ceene eee Shira eure oe ee es eee nee eevee 290-292 Head-Dress Worn by Jews at Various Periods....... a eda aie mina wii naa a as Suanity Wee seate alt 293 Hebron, Entrance to the Mosque at, Containing the Traditional Cave of Machpelah ................. 313 —— General View of............ 0.0000: Oe eee re eee eee een ee eee Sea Savta 312 Heidenheim, Wolf, German Exegete..........00. err re lee Eee er ee re ero ee 319 Heilprin, Michael, Polish-American Scholar... .....cccccc cece cc cccccccccecesseceeeseverceeeseseess 325 Heine, Heinrich, German Poet..........0ccceeeeseteerescenes ee ee ere eer ere ee 327 ———= Memorial, .New: :YOrk, j0.0i50010dseaibaaene wes sees Sc PN Dee Rae ube weed 0e DANE a eee Nod 329 Helmet with Cheek-Pieces Depicted on Coin of Herod the Great........... Cate asalae eo aavass eiialveas 348, 356 Hermon, Mount, in Judea.............000.06 (usp pe nae sua uuieGe Bhs let ee eee Vain epee ene 359 Herod the Great, Coin of, Showing Helmet with Cheek-Pieces.............. testi eeowanes encase 343 So Se Copper CONS OF i265 ous anda ccaeaw ios tee aaite eoenineed + Mewban ae een ee ee tiene wenns 356, 357 Herschell, Solomon, Chief Rabbi of the Ashkenazim in England..............0006- ina nee ee eee 364 Herz, Henriette, German Leader of Society....... Pade estes er ee ee aw aeiarnsteeeeie 367 —— Markus, German Physician and Author...,.....cceecescecceeeesceeceeseees ee ee 368 Herzfeld, Levi, German THistorian...........--ecceseeececes (Acetic eee whee. Maid Seuneonewee uaa 370 Herzl, Theodor, Leader of Political Zionism .........eseceseeeseeeeeecrsetesseneecs jee eae ease 370 Hildesheimer, Israel, German Orthodox Rabbi...... cc ccc cece cece ce cceenccevescevevens Maeda aoe 395 x Vill LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME V1 PAGE Hillel the Great, Entrance to the Traditional Tomb of, ............. 0c cc eee eee (eeieed eet eesesaeaes . 397 Haran; “Fraditional Tom bof iws; ace ake te ee eG ae hiowes ioe eee Oe ee eee eine junds 200 Hirsch, Clara de, German Philanthropist ............ snidleits Sse Dupe hosts alae ogteatiaes ce Peat au acide 409 —— Maurice de, German Philanthropist. ....... 0.0... ccc ee cee cn ee eee vee ‘ibaa eeaare sGguicreuste Ne mecte 414 — Samson Raphael, German Rabbi.................6. sles gba tateue eine tren ik o gues tye gta ale epanene a iareraease ¢ 417 Hittite Divinity .2cciaw eet S.0sSF Mente setaaealsee wa ea leases ‘Std Cine saliaeree hike saws eee: ets 428 Portrait of. From an inlaid tile in the tomb of Rameses TH Da sated aaa heart et aoat nd une cane Sadness 427 -—— Representation or Hadad i. Page from the First Edition of Immanuel ben Solomon’s, Printed at Brescia, 1491.... 565 Mexico, Inquisition of, Title-Page of Process of, Against Simon Lopez, 1642............ 000. cc eeeeee 595 “Mibhar ha-Peninim, ” Page from the First Edition of Solomon ibn Gabirol’s, Printed by Son- GINO, 1484... ce cere ee ee eee eke ee ee ee ee ee eee eee ene e ee een ene Benet ee eee ees 531 Monuments: see Hapap; HEINE MEMORIAL, Moravia, Head-Dress Ol JEWLOL CEG. o0) cadoveriks seat aars tiene tes eae see eee seal eeede pass 298 Morocco, Head SDress OF COW Ol (EID Ol) x cintegseeuee dicen Sete eens ae ae maindaay wun oa tebe wees 293 Mount Hermon ATV) OCA s ake vatee hia actennera cea oes meatal Si Guate WO ashes Oa hd aera OSE nee wede own ae were mes 359 Music, &“ Had Gadya DF oa teeree «bn Daptiy BS! Gites ol woe ieee pr WB Saag ossiah oP canbe oie bis ial fae. ise ela cee bww tel lasel a Maen ierer-a ea eM Ores tarcwla tal fe acareey. ease 128-129 ____ * Hakkafot”...-..- Pu didetlausmiar bug ah diss Binh he ee a ace ie hvhea le Aare oe OE ae AR Ses 161-162 5't SMPTE A Le) ccs Vyas aoe VUEwe eR aw ewe node gt meneeen eee se hae UCP teem een aus 177-178 Lise Tae Ma DOL caeses hovee te duneaceaaneewse ta pisom baste suitesite eater aoa ieee Bees 187-188 _ Aazzant sce cece cece cece nee eee eeeeeees ee OUR ula See keen We acne eek aoe eee 290-292 Musical Instruments: Representation of a Three- Stringed Lyre on Coin of Bar Kokba................ 237 _... —— Representation of a Six-Stringed Lyre on Coin of Simon Nasi............. cece eee eee eens 237 ___. —_— Representation of Egyptian Harps. .........0 cc cccc ence eee c een ence eee eee e etna eee eenee 238 ___ —— Representation of a Harp from a Babylonian Bas-Relief, About 8000 B.C........... eee eee 237 __— ——~ Representation of a Bedouin Harp. From an Egyptian painting,.............. eee eee eee 237% Naples, Page from the First Edition of Abraham ibn Ezra’s Commentary to the Pentateuch, Printed TAOS a rh Senate Aye ok BE ce Be UA She OR Se RE Owe OEE Rae Se Ea oeiae ses §23 “Ninth of Ab in a Polish Synagogue,” From the painting by Leopold Horowitz. ..... ccc... eeew cues A468 Palace, Ruins of the,Of Hy tans cn chose cacaGsimeses ada Mens wakes ovenesene wens w+. 516 Palestine: see HermMon, Mocunt; HriLLteL; Hiram; Hyrcanvs, RUINS OF THE PALACE OF; INKHORN; JERUSALEM. Palm-Branches on Coin of Herod the Great.......-. ccc ce cece te eee e ane e es tert teat nw cece n en esenees 307 Passau, Host Desecration at, 1477. After a contemporary wood-cut...........0e008. plate between 482-483 Passover, Preparations for, Depicted on an Illustrated Haggadah of the Fifteenth Century........... 185 — see also HAGGADAH. Pedlers; see HAWKER. Pentateuch, Page from the First Edition of Abraham ibn Ezra’s Commentary to the, Naples, 1488.... 523 Periodicals: see Ha-MEuIz. . Polish Jewish Hawker, Seventeenth Century .............. er ee eee TOE eer ere it Portraits: see GOLDFADEN, ABRAHAM. GRAETZ, HEINRICH. HEILPRIN, MICHAEL, GOLDMARK, KARL. GRATZ, REBECCA. HEINE, HEINRICH. GOLDSCHMIDT, LEVIN. GUASTALLA, ENRICO. HERSCHELL, SOLOMON GOLDSCHMIDT, METR AARON, GUDEMANN, MORITZ. HERZ, HENRIETTE. GOLDSMID, ABRAHAM. GUNZBURG, HORACE, HERZ, MARKUS. GOLDSMID, SIR JULIAN, GUNZBURG, MORDECAI AARON. HERZFELD, LEVI. GOLDZIHER, IGNAZ. HALBERSTAM. SOLOMON. HERZL, THEODOR. GOMPERS, SAMUEL. HALEVY, JACQUES FRANCOIS. HILDESHEIMER, ISRAEL. GORDON, LORD GEORGE. HALEVY, JOSEPH. HIRSCH, CLARA DE. GORDON, LEON, HAMBURGER, JACOB. HIRSCH, MAURICE DE. GOTTHEIL, GUSTAY. HARKAVY, ALBERT. HIRSCH, SAMSON RAPHAEL, GOTTLOBER, ABRAHAM BAER. HARTMANN, MORITZ. ISRAELS, JOSEPH. HEIDENHEIM, WOLF. ague, Page from the First [lustrated Printed Haggadah, Printed in 1526 at........... Wittwedecaes 147 rocession Carrying Palms on “Hosha‘na Rabbah.” After Picart..........0.00csc cs eceseeeneeneees 477 ——- of the Inquisition at Goa. Atter PiCartiesc onceeieddec a eeecswe cian esse oadias ai aibihd Sewetia da laces there- in, and from whom, therefore, the owier can not secrete anything (Gen. R. xxiv.). Gol is the ar- chitect of the world (Gen R.i.); the “Torah” is the plan. God’s signet- ring is truth, MON (the Alpha and Omega of the New Testament; Gen. R. lxxxi; Shab. 55a; Yoma 69b; Sank. 64a; Yer. Tan. 18a; Deut. R.i.). All that confess “two God- heads” will ultimately come to grief (Deut. R. ii.). In a vast number of haggadic disquisitins on God, attention is called to the difference between the action of man and that of God, generaly prefaced by “Come and see that ‘shelo ke-middit basar we- dam middat ha-Kodesh baruk hu’” (ot like the motive and conduct of flesh and blood isGod’s man- ner). For instance, man selling a precious article will part with it in sorrow; not soGod He gave His Torah to Israel and rejoiced thereit (Ber. 5a). In others, again, God is likened to a king; and from this comparison conclusions are drawn (Gen. R. xxviii. and innumerable similar parables). Sometimes attention is called to the d:fference be- tween God and anearthly monarch. “ Whena king is praised, his ministers are praised wth him, be- cause they help him carry the burden of his govern- ment. Not so when God is praised. He alone is exalted, as He alone created the world ” (Yalk., Deut. 835; Midr. Teh. to Ps. Ixxxvi. 10;Gen. F.i.3). God exalteth Himself above those that exall themselves (“mitga’ah hu ‘al ha-mitga’im; Hag. 18b; Mek., Beshallah, 35b). In His hand is everything except the fear of Him (Ber. 33b; Meg. 25a; Niidah 16b). Among the descriptive attributes, “mighty,” “ great,” and “fearful” arementioned. After Moses had formulated these (Deut. x. 17), and the last had been omitted by Jeremiah (xxxii. 18) and the first by Daniel (ix. 4), in view of the apparert victory of the heathen the “men of the Great Synagogue” (Neh. ix. 32) reinstituted the mention cf all three, knowing that God’s might consisted in showing in- dulgent long-suffering to the evil-minded, and that His “fearfulness” was demonstrated in Israel’s wonderful survival. Hence their name ‘ Great Syn- agogue” for having restored the crown of the divine attributes (Yoma 69b; Yer. Ber. 1lc; Meg. 74c). These attributes may not be arbitrarily augmented; however many attributes man might use, he could not adequately express God’s greatness (Ber. 33b; see AGNOSTICISM); but man is bound to praise the Creator with his every breath (Gen. R. siv.). Stress is laid in the Talmudic theology on the res- urrection of the dead. God is “mejayyeh ha- metim,” the one who restores the dead t) life. The key to the resurrection is one of the three (or four) keys not given, save in very rare cases, to any one else, but is in the hands of God alone (Ta‘an. 2a, b; Gen. R. ]xxiii.; see EscHaTOLOGY). Israel is God’s people. This relationto Him can not be dissolved by Israel (Num. R. ii.). This is expressed in the definitim of God’s God and name as “ehyeh asher ekyeh.” The Israel. individual has the liberty to profess God or not; but the community, if re- fractory, is coerced to acknowledge Him (Ex. R. iii. 14), Asa king might fasten the key oj his jewel- Talmudic Views. God casket by a chain lest it be lost, so God linked His name with Israel lest the people should disappear (Yer. Ta‘an. 65d). Israel’s love for God, evidenced wheu in the desert, became a great treasure of di- vine grace, stored up for the days of Israel’s troubles (Midr. Teh. to Ps. xxxvi. 11). Upon Israel’s fidelity to God even the earth’s fertility is dependent (Lev. R. xlv.). God’s punishments are therefore very severe for disloyal Israel, though in His grace He provides the cure always before the blow (Meg. 13b). As a father prefers himself to discipline his son rather than to have another beat him, so God Himself is Israel’s judge (Midr. Teh. to Ps. ]xxviii. 41). God is toward Israel, however, like that king who, in- censed at his son’s conduct, swore to hurl a stone at him. In order not to break his oath, but being anx- ious not to destroy his child, he broke the stone into pieces, which one after another he threw at him (tb. to Ps. vi. 4; comp. Lev. R. xxxii.). Israel’s dis- loyalty to God involves in its consequences even the other peoples (after Haggai i. 10; Midr. Teh. to Ps. iv.8; comp. Matt. xv. 26; Mark vii. 27; Bacher, “Ag, Pal. Amor.” i. 146). The prayer-book of the Synagogue is the precipi- tate of the teachings concerning God held by the Rabbis. An analysis of its contents reveals that God was adored as the Creator, the Preserver of the world (“ Yozer Or,” the first benediction before the Shema‘). He is the Great, the Mighty, the Fearful, the Highest, the Loving, the All-Sustaining, Revi- ving the Dead (in the SHEMONEH ‘ESRER), the King, Helper, Deliverer, the Support of the Weak, the Healer of the Sick. He sets free the captives, faith- ful even to them that sleep in thedust. He is holy. Knowi:edge and understanding are from Him, a mani- festation of His grace(“ Attah Honen la-Adam” ; Meg. 17b; the “Birkat Hokmah,” Ber. 83). He forgives sin (“ Ha-Marbeh li-Saloah ”). In Hismercy He sends relief to those that suffer (“ Birkat ha-Holim ”; ‘Ab Zarah, 8a; conp. Meg. 17b). To Israel He contin- ually shows His love and abundant grace (“ Ahabah Rabbah” and “ Ahabat ‘Olam,” the second benedic- tion before the Shema‘; Ber. lib), Man’s physical perfection is God’s work (“ Asher Yazar”; Ber. 60b). In the prayer “ Modim” (the “Hoda’ah” [Meg. 18; Ber. 29, 84; Shab. 24; Sotah 68b; Sifre, Deut. 949]; see ARTICLES OF FaiTH), God’s immutability is ac- centuated, as well as His providential care of the life and soul of every man. He is “ha-tob,” the good one whose mercies are boundless; while in the version given in the Siddur of Rab Amram and the Mahzor of Rome the statement is added that “God has not abandoned Israel.” God is also hailed as the maker of peace. The thought of God’s unity, it is needless to remark, dominates throughout. The “‘Alenu,” with which, according to the Kol Bo ($8 11 and 77; Tur Orah Hayyim,; § 183), every service must conclude, is a résumé of the implica- tions of Israel’s conception of God. Tle is the Lord of the universe; the Creator. Israel by His grace was called to know Him as the King of Kings, the Holy One. HealoneisGod. It concludes with the fervent prayer for the coming of the day when idolatry shall be no more, but God shall be acknowl- edged as the one and only God. E. G. H. THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 8 In Philosophical Literature: The rise of Karaism marks an epoch in Jewish philosophical thought concerning God. The ensuing contro- versies induced Jewish Rabbinite thinkers to turn their attention to the speculative problems involved in the Jewish conception of God. Mohammedan the- ology, under the influence of Greek philosophy, which came to it by way of Syria through the Chris. tian Nestorians, had developed various schools, among them the Motekallamin or schoolmen, occu. pying a middle position between the orthodox be- lievers in the dogmas of the Koran and the Free- thinkers or Philosophers. According to Shahrastanj (ed. Cureton, German transl. by Haarbriicker), they were the defenders of the fundamental truths of the Koran. They did not appeal solcly to Motekalla- the wording of the book, but formu- min and lated arationalsystem, thatof the Ka- Motazi- lam (hence their name, = Hebrew “ Me- lites. dabberim” = “loquentes”), in which through speculation the positions of the Koran were demonstrated as logically and intel- lectually necessary. An offshoot from the Motekallamin were the Motazilites, who differed from the former in their doctrines concerning the divine attributes. Desig- nating themselves as the proclaimers of the unity of God, they contended that the divine attributes were in no way to be regarded as essential; they thus emphasized God’s absolute unity, which was regarded by them even as numerical. Over and against them the Asm‘anrrya urged deterministic views in opposition to the ascription of freedom to man, and pleaded for the reality of the divine at- tributes. These three schools were in so far ortho- dox as they all regarded the Koran as the source of truth and did not intend to abandon its fundamental authority. The Philosophers alone, though in ex- ternals observant of the religious ritual, ventured to take their stand on points other than those fixed by the text of the Koran; and they did not care whether their conclusions agreed with or differed from the positions of current theology. Jewish philosophers in the Middle A ges (900~1800) display, on the whole, the methods and intentions of these orthodox Mohammedan schools. Thesame problems engage their interest. The attributes of God—His unity, His prescience, the freedom of human action—are the perplexities which they at- tempt to solve. That the teachings of the Bible and the theology of the Synagogue are true, they assume at the very outset. It is their ambition to show that these fundamental truths are rational, in conformity with the postulates of reason. Aristote- lians for the most part, they virtually adopt the propositions of Al-Kindi, Alfarabi, and Al-Ghazali, as far as they are adherents of the Kalam; while those who are not resort to the Neoplatonic elements contained in Arabic Aristotelianism to sharpen their weapons. Ibn Sina (AvicENNA) and Ibn Roshd (AVERROES), also, must be remembered among the tutors of the Jewish Aristotelians. The first of the Jewish writers to treat of the Jewish faith from the philosophical point of view was Saapta, the great anti-Karaite (see his contro- | versies with Anan, Nahawandi, Ibn Sakawai, and THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 9 Jeroham), in his famous work “Kitab al- |-I‘tikadat” (Hebrew, “Sefer Emunot we-De‘ot”). He shows his familiarity with the positions of the Motazilites as well as with Greek philosophy and h Christian theology. His purpose in com- - » the treatise was to sct forth the harmony be- ies the revealed truths of Judaism and the reason - ne “In its controversial chapters he attacks : ealooy of Christianity with greater vehemence the theology aah rile estes aor a than that of Islam (see Geiger, Wiss. Zeit. J tid. Theol.” i. 192). His philosophical point of view has rightly been characterized as eclectic, though strongly influenced by Aristotelianism. He prefaces his presentation of the God-concept with a discus- sion of the theory of human knowledge, which lat- ter, according to him, proceeds from the perception of the grossly sensual elements common to men and animals. But when a man perceives an object, merely the accidents come to his vision. By com- parison, however, he learns to know the quantity of bodies, thus forming the notion of space; while through the observation of motion he arrives at the perception of time (“Sefer Emunot we-De‘ot,” ed. Amsterdam, ii.). In this way man, through contin- ued reflection, attains to ever finer and higher degrees of knowledge, discovering the relation of cause to effect. Many men, says Saadia, reject the existence of God on the ground that the knowl- ‘‘Sefer edge of Him is too subtle and too ab- Emunot stract. But this is easily met by the we-De‘ot.” assertion of the graduation of know}l- edge, which in its ascent always reaches finer degrees, and develops into the faculty of apprehending the less concrete and more abstract. The final cause some philosophers have held to be material,an atom. But in going one degree higher, and in assuming the existence of a creator, man must know him as the highest; that is to say, God is the noblest but also the most subtile goal of speculative reflection. Many represent God as corporeal, be- cause they do not push their ascending knowledge far enough beyond the corporeal to the abstract and incorporeal. The Creator being the originator of all bodies, He of necessity must be apprehended as Supramundane, supercorporeal. Those that ascribe to God motion and rest, wrath and goodness, also apperceive Him as corporeal. The correct concep- tion culminates in the representation of God as free from all accidents (¢.). If this conception be too abstract, and is to be replaced by one more material and concrete, reflection is forced to recede. The final cause must be, by the very postulates of rea- Son, an abstract being. God-perception is thus the tise from the sensual to the supersensual and high- est limits of thought. But the Creator has revealed Himself to His Prophets as the One, the Living, the Almighty, the All-Wise, the Incomparable. It is the philosopher’s part to investigate the reality of these attributes, and to justify them before the tribunal of reason (vd, 1. 24b, 25a). The unity of God includes His being absolutely one, as well as His uniqueness, and i hecessaril y postulated by the reflection that He is ak € Creator of all. For if He were not one, He Ould be many; and multiplicity is characteristic Beu even Wit God of corporeality. Therefore, as the highest thinking rejects His corporeality, He must be one. Again, human reason postulates one creator, since for crea- tion a creator is indispensable; but, as one creator satisfies all the implications of this concept, reason has no call to assume two or more. If there were more than one creator, proof would have to be ad- duced for the existence of every one; but such proof could not be taken from creation, to account for which one creator suffices. That Scripture uses two names for God is merely due to linguistic idio- matic peculiarities, as “Jerubbaal” is also named “ Gideon.” God is living because He, the Creator of the world, can not be thought of as without life (é.e., self-consciousness and knowledge of His deeds). His omnipotence is self-evident, since He is the Cre- ator of the all: since creation is perfectly adjusted to its ends, God must be all-wise. These three attributes human reason discovers “at one stroke ” (“pit’om,” “beli mahshabah,” “mebi’ah abat”; 7d, ii. 26a). Human speech, however, is so constituted as not to be able to express the three in one word. God’s being is simple, not complex, every single attribute connoting Him in His entirety. Abstract and subtle though God is, He is not inactive. The illustration of this is the soul and its directive func- tion over the body. Knowledge is still more sub- tile than the soul; and the same is The Living again exemplified in the four elements. God. Water percolates through earth; light dominates water; the sphere of iire surrounds all other spheres and through its motion regulates the position of the planets in the universe. The motion of the spheres is caused by the com- mand of the Creator, who, more subtile than any of the elements, is more powerful than aught else. Still, Saadia concedes that no attribute may in strict construction be ascribed to God (72. ii, 28b). God has also created the concept attribute; and cre- ated things can not belong to the essence of the Creator. Man may only predicate God’s existence (“yeshut”). Biblical expressions are metaphorical. The errors concerning God are set forth in ten cate- gories. Some have thought God to be a substance; some have ascribed to Him quantity; others quid- dity (coév in Aristotle); others have assigned to Him relations and dependency (xpé¢ 1). The Eter- nal can not be in relation to or dependent upon any- thing created. He was before creation was. God is in no space (zov in Aristotle). He is timeless (zoré). God can not be said to possess (éverv): all is His. He lacks nothing. Possession, however, in- cludes lack as its negative. God is incorporeal; therefore, He can not beapprehended as conditioned by status (ketovat), Nordoes God work (rovziv). In the common sense of the term, work implies mo- tion; and motion, in the subject, can not be in God. His will suffices to achieve His purposes; and, more- over, in work matter is an element, and place and time are factors—all considerations inapplicable to God. . Nor does God suffer (raoyerv). Even God’s seeing is not analogous to human sight, which is an effect by some exterior object. Saadia controverts trini- tarianism more especially, as well as DUALISM. He God THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 10 is most emphatic in rejecting the corporeality of God, His incarnation, involved in the Christian doc- trine. For his views concerning creation see JEW. Encyc, iv. 839, 8.7. CREATION. But according to Saadia, man is the ultimate ob- ject of creation (“ Emunot we-De'ot,” iv. 45a). How is human freedom reconcilable with God’s omunipo- tence and omniscience? That the will of manis free Saadia can not doubt. It is the doctrine of Scrip- ture and of tradition, confirmed by human experience and postulated by reason. Without it how could God punish evil-doers? But if God does not will the evil, how may it exist and be found in this world of reality? All things terrestrial are adjusted with a view to man; they are by divine precept for the sake of man declared to be good or evil; and it is thus man that lends them their character. God’s omniscience Saadia declares to be not necessarily causal. If man sins, God may know it beforehand ; but He is not the cause of the sinful disposition or act. Ibn Gabirol’s theology is more profound than that of Saadia. In his “ Mekor Hayyim,” he shows him- self to be a follower of Plotinus, an adherent of the doctrine of emanation; yet, notwithstanding this pantheistic assumption, he recognizes Solomon the domination of a supreme omnipo- ibn tent will, a free, personal God. He Gabirol. views the cognition of the final cause as the end and goal of all knowl- edge. “Being” includes: (1) form and matter; (2) primal substance, the cause (God); and (8) will, the mediator between the other two. Between God the Absolute and the world of phenomena, media- ting agents are assumed. Like (God) can not com- municate with unlike (the world); but mediating beings having something of both may bring them into relation. God is on the uppermost rung of the ladder of being; Heis the beginning and cause of all. But the substance of the corporeal world is the lowest and last of all things created. The first is essentially different from the last; otherwise, the first might be the last, and vice versa. God is abso- lute unity; the corporeal world, absolute multiplic- ity and variety. Motion of the world is in time; and time is included in and is less than eternity. The Absolute is above eternity; it is infinitude. Hence there must bea mediating something between the supereternal and the subeternal. Man is the mi- crocosm (‘“ ‘olam ha-katon ”), a reflection of the mac- rocosm. The mind (“sekel”) does not immediately connect itself with the body, but through the lower energies of the soul. In like manner in the macro- cosm the highest simple substance may only join itself to the substance of the categories through the mediation of spiritual substances. Like only begets like. Hence, the first Creator could have produced simple substances only, not the sensual visible world which is totally unlike Him. Between the First Cause and the world Gabirol places five mediators (“emza‘ot”): (1) God’s will (“ha-razon ”); (2) general matter and form; (8) the universal mind (“sekel ha-Kelali”); (4) the three world-souls (“nefashot”), vegetative, animal, and thinking souls; and (5) nature (“ha-teba‘”), the mover of the corporeal world. The divine will has a considerable part in this system. It is the divine power which creates form, calls forth matter, and binds them to- The Divine gether. It pervades all, from the Will. highest to the lowest, just as the soul pervades the body (“ Mekor Hayyim,” v. 60). God may be apprehended as will and ag knowledge; the former operating in secret, invis- ibly; the latter realizing itself openly. From will emanates form, but from the oversubstance matter, Will, again, is nothing else than the totality compre- hending all formsin indivisible unity. Matter with- out form is void of reality; it is non-existent; form is the element which confers existence on the non- existent. Matter without form is never actual (“ be-fo‘al”), but only potential (“be-koah”). Form appears in the moment of creation, and the creative power is will; therefore, the will is the producer of form. Upon this metaphysical corner-stone Ibn Gabirol bases his theological positions, which may be summed up as follows: God is absolute unity. Form and matter are ideas in Him. Attributes, in strict construction, may not be predicated of Him; will and wisdom are identical with His being. Only through the things which have emanated froin God may man learn and comprehend aught of God. Between God and the world is achasm bridged only by mediatorial beings. The first of these is will or the creative word. It is the divine power activated and energized at a definite pointof time. Creation is an act of the divine will. Through processes of successive emanations, the absolute One evolves multiplicity. Love and yearning for the first fountain whence issued this stream of widening emanations are in all beings the beginning of motion. They are yearning for divine perfection and omnipotence. Ibn Gabirol may rightly be styled the Jewish speculative exponent of a system bordering on the- osophy, certainly approaching obscurity and the mystic elimination of individuality in favor of an all-encompassing all-Divinity (pantheism). His sys- tein is, however, only a side-track from the main line of Jewish theological thought. Bahya ben Joseph ibn Pakuda, in the treatise in- troducing his ex position of the “ Duties of the Heart ” (“ Hobot ha-Lebabot,” chapter “ Ha-Yihud ”), reverts in the main to the method of Saadia. According to Bahya, only the prophet and the wise Bahya can serve God in truth. All others ibn revere in God something utterly out Pakuda. of consonance with the exalted, sub- lime conception of God (22.8 2). It is therefore every one’s duty to arrive at a proper con- ception of God’s unity by means of speculative re- flection, and to be thus enabled to differentiate true unity (“chad ha-emet”) from pseudo-unity (“ehad ha-‘ober”). In consequence Bahya develops the following seven demonstrative arguments in sup- port of God's unity: (1) The universe is like a pyramid sloping up- ward from a very broad base toward the apex; or it resembles an infinite series of numbers, of which the first is one, and the last comprises so many figures as to baffle all efforts to form a conception of it. The individual beings in the world are nu- merically infinite; when these individuals are clas- sified in groups according to species, etc., the num- ber of these groups becomes smaller. Thus by proceeding in his classifications to always more com- THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 11 sive groups, man reduces the number ever more until he arrives at the number five, lements plus motion. These, again, are : nly: matter and form. Their common eal eee comprehensive than either, must ae pe smaller than two, 7.€., ONE. Pe (2) The harmony and concordance prevailing in creation necessitate the apprehension of the world as the work of one artist and creator. , (3) Without a creator there could be no creation. Thus reason and logic compel the assumption of a creator; but to assume more than one creator is irra- tonal and illogical. _ (4) If one believes in the existence of more than one God, one of two alternatives is suggested: (a) One God was potent enough to create the all; why, then, other gods? They are super- Proofs of fiuous. (4) One God alone had not the Unity. power; then God was limited in power, and a being so limited is not God, but presupposes another being through which He Himself was called into existence. (5) The unity of God is involved in the very con- ception of Him. If there were more gods than one, this dilemma would be presented: (a) These many gods are of one essence; then, according to the law of absolute identity, they are identical and therefore only one. Or (d) these gods are differentiated by differences of essential qualities: then they are not gods; for God, to be God, must be absolute and simple (non-composite) being. (6) God connotes being without accidence, 7.e., qualities not involved in being. Plurality is quan- tity, and, therefore, accidence. Hence plurality may not be predicated of God. (7) Inversely, the concept unity posits the unity of God. Unity, according to Euclid, is that through which a thing becomes numerically one. Unity, therefore, precedes the number one. Two gods would thus postulate before the number one the ex- istenceof unity. In all these demonstrations Bahya follows the evidential argumentations of the Arabic schoolmen, the Motekallamin. In reference to God’s attributes, Bahya is of those who contend that at- tributes predicated of God connote in truth only negatives (excluding their opposites), never posi- tives (2b. § 10). This view is shared also by Judah ha-Levi, the author of the “Cuzari,” probably the most popular exposition of the contents of Israel's religion, thou gh, as Gritz rightly remarks (“Geschichte,” vi. 157), little calculated to influence thinkers. He regards CREATION as an act of divine will (“Cuzari,” ii. 50). God is eternal; but the world is not. He ranges the divine attributes into three classes: (1) practi- cal, (2) relative, and (3) negative. The Judah hha- practical are those predicated of God Levi. on the ground of deeds which, though ; not immediately, yet perhaps through the intervention of natural secondary causes, were Wrought by God. God is in this sense recognized ae hae full of compassion, jealous, and aven- Relative attributes are those that arise from the relations of man, the worshiper, to God, the one worshiped. God is holy, sublime, and to be praised ; prehen more and j.¢., four € God but though man in this wise expresses his thoughts concerning God, God’s essence is not thereby de- scribed and is not taken out of His unity (“me-aha- duto ”). The third class seemingly express positive quali- ties, but in reality negative their contraries. God is living. This does not mean that He moves and feels, but that He is not unmoved or without life. Life and death belong to the corporeal world. God is beyond this distinction. This applies also to His unity; it excludes merely the notion that He is more than one. His unity, however, transcends the unity of human conceptual construction. Man’s “one” is one of many, a part of a whole. In this sense God can not be called “One.” Even so, in strict accu- racy, God may not be termed “the first.” He is without beginning. And this is also true of the designation of God as “the last.” Anthropopathic expressions are used; but they result from the humanward impression of His works. “God’s will” is a term connoting the cause of all lying beyond the sphere of the visible things. Concerning Ha- Levi’s interpretation of the names of God sce NAMES OF GOD. In discussing the question of God’s providential government and man’s freedom Ha-Levi first con- troverts FaraLisM; and he does this by showing that even the fatalist believes in possibilities. Iu- man will, says he, is the secondary cause between man and the purpose to be accomplished. God is the First Cause: how then can there Contro- be room for human freedom? But verts will is a secondary cause, and is not Fatalism. under compuision on the part of the first cause. The freedom of choice is thus that of man. God’s omnipotence is not im- pugned thereby. Finally, all points back to God as the first cause of this freedom. In this freedom is involved God’s omnipotence. Otherwise it might fail to be available. The knowledge of God is not a cause. God’s prescience is not causal in reference to man’s doings. God knows what man will do; still it is not He that causes man’s action. To sum up his positions, Judah ha-Levi posits: (a) The ex- istence of a first cause, 7.e., a wise Creator always working under purpose, whose work is perfect. It is due to man’s lack of understanding that this per- fection is not seen by him in all things. (6) There are secondary causes, not independent, however, but instrumentalities. (c) God gave matter itsadequate form. (d) There are degrees in creation. The sen- tient beings occupy higher positions than those without feelings. Manis thehighest. Israel as the confessor of the one God outranks the polytheistic heathen. (e) Man is free to choose between good and evil, and is responsible for his choice. Abraham ibn Daud, in his “Emunah Ramah,” virtually traverses the same ground as his predeces- sors; but in reference to God’s pre- Abraham science he takes a very free attitude ibn Daud. (2. p. 96). He distinguishes two kinds of possibilities: (1) The subjec- tive, where the uncertainty lies in the subject him- self. This subjective possibility is not in God. (2) The objective, planned and willed by God Himself. While under the first is the ignorance of one living God in one place concerning the doings of those in an- other, under the second falls the possibility of man's being good or bad. God knows beforehand of this possibility, but not of the actual choice. The later author RaLBaG advances the same theory in his “Milhamot ha-Shem” (ii. 2). Tbn Daud also argues against the ascription of positive attributes to God (* Emunah Ramah,” ii. 8). Moses ben Maimon’s “ Moreh Nebukim ” (“ Dalalat al-Ha‘irin”) is the most important contribution to Jewish philosophical thought on God. According to him, philosophy recognizes the existence and per- fection of God. God’s existence is proved by the world, the effect whence he draws the inference of God’s existence, the cause. The whole universe is only one individual, the parts of which are interde- pendent. The sublunar world is dependent upon the forces proceeding from the spheres, so that the universe is a macrocosm (“ Moreh,” ii. 1), and thus the effect of one cause. Two gods or causes can not be assumed, for they would have to be distinct in their community: but God is absolute; therefore He can not be composite. The corporeal alone is numerical. God as incorpo- real can not be multiple (“ Yad,” Yesode ha-Torah, i. 7). But may God be said to be one? Mai- Unity is accidence, as is multiplicity. monides. “God is one” connotesa negative, 7.¢., God is not many (“ Moreh,” i. 57). Of God it is possible only to say that He is, but not what He is (2.; “hayuto bi-lebad lo mahuto”; in Arabic “anniyyah ” = ére éore [quodditas]). All at- tributes havea negative implication, even existence. God’s knowledge is absolute (#. iii. 19). God’s knowledge is never new knowledge. Thereis noth- ing that He does not know. In His knowledge He comprehends all, even infinitude (28, iii. 20). God’s knowledge is not analogous to man’s. Evil is merely negation or privation (2d. tii, 8). God is not its author; for God sends only the positive. All that is, save God, is only of possible existence; but God is the necessarily existent (¢d. i. 57), In Him there is no distinction between essence (“‘ezem”) and existence (“ha-mezi’ut”), which distinction is in all other existing things. For this reason God is incorporeal, one, exalted above space and time, and most perfect (¢b. ii., Preface, 18, 21, 23, 24). By the successors of Maimonides, ALBo, Ralbag (LEVI BEN GERSHON), and CREsCAS, no important ‘modifications were introduced. Albo contends that only God may be designated as one, even numerical oneness being not exclusive connotation of unity (“‘Ikkarim,” ii. 9,10; comp. Ibn Zaddik, “‘ Olam Katon,” p. 49: “ehad ha-mispar eno ka-ehad ha- elahut”). He, too, enphasizes God’s incorporeality, unity, timelessness, perfection, etc. (“‘Ikkarim,” ii. 6). Crescas pleads for the recognition of positive at- tributes in God. He concedes that the unity of God can not be demonstrated by speculation, but that it rests on the “Shema‘” alone. It may be noticed that Aaron ben Elijah (“‘Ez ha-Hayyim,” ch. 1xxi.) also argues in favor of positive attributes, though he regards them in the light of homonyms. The precipitate of these philosophical speculations may be said to have been the creed of Maimonides THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 12 (see ARTICLES OF FaitH). It confesses that God is the Creator, Governor of all. He alone “does, has been and will be doing.” God is One; but His unity has no analogy. He alone is God, who was, is, and will be. He is incorporeal. In corporeal things there is no similitude to Him. He is the first and the last. Stress is also laid on the thought that none shares divinity with Him. This creed is virtually contained in the ApoN ‘OLaM and the YIGDAL, The cabalists (see CABALA) were not so careful as Maimonides and others to refrain from anthropo- morphic and anthropopathic extravagances and ascriptions (see Sa1‘un Koman). Nevertheless their efforts to make of the incorporeality of Goda dogma met with opposition in orthodox circles. Against Maimonides (“ Yad,” Teshubah, iii. 7), denying to the believers in God’s corporeality a share in the world to come, ABRANAM BEN Davip oF Pos- QUIERES raised a fervent protest. Moses Taku is another protestant (“Ozar Nehmad,” iii. 25; comp. Abraham Maimuni, “ Milhamot,” p. 25). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Schmiedl, Studien tiber Jtidische Religions- philosophie, Vienna, 1869; P. J. Muller, De Godsleer der Mid- deleeuwsche Joden, Groningen, 1898; D. Kaufmann, Attri- butenlehre, Leipsic, 1880; Guttmann, Die Retigionsphiloso- phie des Saadia; idem, Die Religionsphilosophie Abraham thn Dauds; M. Joél, Zur Gesch. der Jiidischen Religions- philosophie, Leipsic, 1872; Munk, Mélanges. E. G. H. ——The Modern View: On the whole, the mod- ern Jewish view reproduces that of the Biblical books, save that the anthropomorphic and anthro- popathic terminology is recognized as due to the in- sufficiency of human language to express the super- human. Theinfluence of modern philosophers (Kant and Hegel) upon some sections of Jewish thought has been considerable. The intellectual elements in the so-called demonstrations of God’s existence and the weakness of the argument have been fully recog- nized. The Maimonidean position, that man can not know God in Himself (min), bas in consequence been strengthened (see AGNosticisM). The human heart (the practical reason in the Kantian sense) is the first source of knowledge of God (see Samuel Hirsch, “Catechismus,” s.v. “Die Lehre”). The experience of man and the history of Israel] bear witness to God’s existence, who is apprehended by manas the Living, Personal, Eternal, All-Sustaining, the Source of all life, the Creator and Governor of the universe, the Father of all, the Righteous Judge, in His mercy forgiving sins, embracing all in His love. He is both transcendenta! and immanent. Every human soul shares to a certain degree in the essence of the divine. In thus positing the divinity of the human soul, Judaism bridges the chasm between the tran- scendental and the immanent elements of its concep- tion of God. Pantheism is rejected as one-sided; and so is the view, falsely imputed to Judaism, which has found its expression in the absolute God of Islam. The implications of the Jewish God-idea may be described as “ pan-monotheism,” or “ethical mono- theism.” In this conception of God, Israel is called to the duty, which confers no prerogatives not also within the reach of others, of illustrating in life the godliness of the truly human, through its own THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 13 aeaese and of leading men to the knowledge of i spe eternal, holy God (see Detsm; EVOLUTION). the ¢ samuel Hirsch, Die Religionsphilosophie der Me Leipsic. 843; Formstecher, Die Religion des Geistes ; J uden Te TECHISM § Rif, Der Einheitagedanke. = E. G. H. BIBLIOGRAPHY = 2 Critical View : Biblical historiography pre- ae the theory that God revealed Himself succes- he ' - to Adam, Noah, Abraham and his descend- ee a finally to Moses. Monotheism was thus mee known to the human race in general and to aa jin particular from the very beginning. Not jgnorance but perverseness led to the recognition of other gods, necessitating the sending of the Proph- ets to reemphasize the teachings of Moses and the facts of the earlier revelation. Contrary to this view, the modern critical school regards monotheism as the final outcome of a long process of religious evo- lution, basing its hypothesis upon certain data dis- covered in the Biblical books as well as upon the analogy presented by Israel's historical development to that of other Semitic groups, notably, in certain stages thereof, of the Arabs (Wellhausen, “Skizzen und Vorarbeiten,” iii. 164; Ndldeke, in “Z. D. M. G.” 1887, p. 719). The primitive religion of Israel and the God-con- cept therein attained reflected the common primi- tive Semitic religious ideas, which, though modified in Biblical times, and even Jargely eliminated, have left their traces in the theological doctrines of the Israel of later days. Renan’s theory, formulated in his “Precis et Systéme Comparé des Langues Semi- tiques” (1859), ascribing to the Semites a monothe- istic instinct, has been abandoned because it was found to be in conflict with facts. As far as epi- graphic material, traditions, and folk-lore throw light on the question, the Semites are Polythe- shown to be of polytheistic leanings. istic Astral in character, primitive Semitic Leanings religion deified the sun, the moon, and of the the other heavenly bodies. The Semites. storm-clouds, the thunder-storms, and the forces of nature making for fertil- ity or the reverse were viewed as deities. As long as the Semites were shepherds, the sun and the other celestial phenomena connected with the day were regarded as malevolent and destructive; while the moon and stars, which lit up the night—the time when the grass of the pasture was revived—were looked upon as benevolent. In the conception of Yrwu found in the poetry of the Bible, speaking the language of former mythology and theology, the element is still dominant which, associating Him with the devastating cloud or the withering, con- suming fire, virtually accentuates His destructive, fearful nature (Wellhausen, /.c. iii.77, 170; Baethgen, " Beitrige zur Semitischen Religionsgeschichte,” p. 9, Berlin, 1888; Smend, “Lehrbuch der Alttesta- ee Religionsgeschichte,” p. 19, Leipsic, The intense tribal consciousness of the Semites, however, wielded from a very early period a deci- sive Influence in the direction of associating with each tribe, sept, or clan a definite god, which the tribe or clan recognized as its own, to the exclusion of others. For the tribe thought itself descended God from its god, which it met and entertained at the sacrificial meal. With this god it maintained the blood covenant. Spencer's theory, that ancestral animism is the first link in the chain of religious evolution, can not be supported by the data of Semitic religions. Ancestral animism as in vogue among the Semites, and the “cult of the dead ” (see Witch of Expor) in Israel point rather to individ- ual private conception than toa tribal institution. In the development of the Israelitish God-idea it was not a determining factor (Goldziher, “Le Culte des Ancétres et des Morts chez les Arabes,” in “ Revue de l’Histoire des Religions,” x. 332; Oort, in “The- ologisch Tijdschrift,” 1881, p. 850; Stade, “ Ge- schichte des Volkes Israel,” i. 387). Characteristic, however, of the Semitic religions is the designation of the tribal or clan deity as “adon” (lord), “melek” (king), “ba‘al” (owner, fructifier). The meaning of “cl,” which is the common Semitic term, is not certain. Jt has been held to connote strength (in which case God would = “the strong”), leadership (“the first”), and bril- liancy (Sprenger, in his “Das Leben und die Lehre des Mohammad,” in which God=“sun”). It has also been connected with “elah,” the sacred tree (Ed. Meyer, in Roscher’s “ Ausfithrliches Lexikon der Griechischen und Rémischen Mythologie,” s.v. “ El” ; and Smend, /.¢c. p. 26, note 1). Equally puzzling is the use of the plural “Elohim” in Hebrew (ods in Phenician; comp. Ethiopic “amlak”), The in- terpretation that it isa “pluralis majestatis” with the value of an abstract idea (“the Godhead ”), as- sumes too high a degree of grammatical and philo- sophical reflection and intention to be applicable to primitive conditions. Traces of an original poly- theism might be embodied in it, were it not for the fact that the religion of Israel is the outgrowth of tribal and national monolatry rather than of poly- theism. 7 Each tribe in Israel had its tribal god (see, for in- stance, Dan; Gap; ASHER). Nevertheless from a very remote period these tribes recognized their af- finity to one another by the fact that Tribal above their own tribal god they ac- Gods. knowledged allegiance to YHwuH. This YuwuH was the Lord, the Master, the Ruler. His will was regarded as supreme. He revealed Himself in fire or lightning. In Ex. vi. 2 YawuH is identified with El-Shaddai, the god of the Patriarchs. What the latter name means is still indount (see Néldeke in “Z. D. M. G.” 1886, p. 735; 1888, p. 480). Modern authorities have argued from the statement in Exodus that Yuwu was not known among the Hebrews before Moses, and have therefore insisted that the name at least, if not the god, was of foreign origin. Delitzsch’s al- leged discovery of the name “ Yawn” on Babylonian tablets has yet to be verified. Moses is held to have identified a Midianite-Kenite deity with the patri- archal El-Shaddai. However this may have been, the fact remains that from the time of the Exodus onward Israel regarded itself as the people of YuwuH, whose seat was Sinai, where he manifested Himself amidst thunder and lightning in His unap- proachable majesty, and whence He went forth to aid His people (Judges v. 4; Deut. xxxiii. 2). It God God, Children of was YHwu who had brought judgment on the gods of Egypt, and by this act of His superior power had renewed the covenant relation which the fathers of old had maintained with Him. From the very outset the character of YawH must have been of an order conducive to the subsequent development of monotheistic and ethical connota- tions associated with the name and the idea, In this connection it is noteworthy that the notion of sex, sO pernicious in other Semitic cults, was from the outset inoperative in the worship of YuwuH. As Israel’s God, He could not but be jealous and in- tolerant of other gods beside Him, to whom Israel would pay honor and render homage. Enthroned in the midst of fire, He was unapproachable (“ko- desh”); the sacrificial elements in His cult were of a correspondingly simple, pastoral nature. The jealousy of YHwu was germinal of His unity; and the simplicity and austerity of His original desert worship form the basis of the moralization of the later theology. With the invasion of the land, Israel changed from a pastoral Into an agricultural people. The shep- herd cult of the desert god came into Change of contact and conflict with the agricul- Social tural deities and cults of the Canaan- Conditions. ites. YuHwsH was partly worshiped under Canaanitish forms, and partly replaced by the Canaanitish deities (Baalim, etc.). But YHwH would not relinquish His claim on Israel. He remained the judge and lawgiver and ruler and king of the people He had brought out from Egypt. The Nazarites and the Prophets arose in Israel, emphasizing by their life and habits as well as by their enthusiastic and indignant protest the contrast of Israel with the peoples of the land, and of its religion with theirs (comp. the Yuwa of Evian; He is “Ha-Elohim”). With Canaanitish cults were connected immoralities as well as social injustice. By contrast with these the moral nature of YHwuH came to be accentuated. During the first centuries of Israel’s occupation of Palestine the stress in religious life was laid on Israel’s fidelity to YHwu, who was Israel’s only God, and whose service was to be different from that offered unto the Baalim. The question of God’s unity was not in the center of dispute. YHWH was Israel’s only God. Other peoples might have other gods, but Israel’s God had always shown His supe- riority over these. Nor was umbrage taken at this time at the representations of Yuwu by figures, though simplicity still remained the dominant note in His cult. A mere stone or rock served for an altar (Judges vi. 20, xiii. 10; I Sam. vi. 14); and natural pillars (holy trees, “mazebot ”) were more fre- quent than artificial ones (see Smend, U.c. pp. 40 e¢ seg.). The EpHop was perhaps the only original oracular implement of the Yawn cult. Teraphim belonged apparently to domestic worship, and were tolerated under the ascendency of the YHwH na- tional religion. “Massekah” was forbidden (Ex. xxxiv. 17), but not “pesel”; hence idols seem not to have been objected to so long as YHwH’s exclu- sive supremacy was not called into doubt. The Ark was regarded as the visible assurance of YHwuH’s presence among His people. Human sacrifices, af- THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 14 fected in the Canaanitish Moloch cult, were espe. cially abhorred; and the lascivious rites, drunken. ness, and unchastity demanded by the Baalim and their consorts were declared to be abominations in the sight of YHwu. These conceptions of God, which, by comparison with those entertained by other peoples, were of an exalted character, even in these early centuries, were enlarged, deepened, refined, and spiri- The God _tualized by the Prophets in proportion of the as historical events, both internal and Prophets. external, induced a widening of their mental horizon and a deepening of their moral perceptions. Firstamongtheseis Amos. He speaks as the messenger of the God who rules all nations, but who, having known Israel alone among them, will punish His people all the more severely. Assyria will accomplish God’s primitive purpose. In Amos’ theology the first step is taken beyond national henotheism. Monotheism begins through him to find its vocabulary. This God, who will punish Israel as He does the other nations, can not condone social injustice or religious (sexual) degra- dation (Amos iv.). The ethical implications of YuHwnh’s religion are thus placed in the foreground. Hosea introduces the thought of loveas the cardinal feature in the relations of Israel and God. He spiritualizes the function of Israel as the exponent of divine purposes. YHWH punishes; but His love is bound ultimately to awaken a responsive love by which infidelity will be eliminated and over- come. Isaiah lays stress on God’s holiness: the “ko- desh,” unapproachable God, is now “kadosh,” holy (see Baudissin, “ Der Begriff der Heiligkeit im Alten Testament,” in “Studien zur Semitischen Religions- gesch.”). It is Israel’s duty as God’s people to be cleansed from sin by eschewing eviland by learning to do good. Only by striving after this, and not by playing at diplomacy, can the “wrath of God” be stayed and Jerusalem be saved. The remnant in- deed will survive. Isaiah’s conception of God thus again marks an advance beyond that of his prede- cessors. God will ultimately rule as the arbiter among the nations. Peace will be established, and beasts as well as men will cease to shed blood. Jeremiah and his contemporaries, however, draw near the summit of monotheistic interpretations of the Divine. The cultus is centralized; Deutero- nomic humanitarianism is recognized as the kernel of the God-idea. Israel and Palestine are kept apart from the rest of the world. YHwH ceases to be localized. Much greater emphasis than was insisted on even by Isaiah is now laid on the moral as dis- tinct from the sacrificial involutions of the God-idea. The prophets of the Exile continue to clarify the God-concept of Israel. For them God is One; He is Universal. He is Creator of the All. He can not be represented by image. The broken heart is His abiding-place. Weak Israel is His servant (“‘ebed”). He desires the return of the sinner. His intentions come to pass, though man’s thoughts can not grasp them. After the Exile a double tendency in the concep- tions of God is easily established. First, He is Israel’s Lawgiver; Israel shall be holy. Secondly, THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA mankind’s Father. In the Psalms the redominates. Though the post-exilic congregation is under the domination lic of national sacerdotalism (represented by P), in the Wisdom literature the universal and ethical implications of Israel’s God-belief came to the fore- In the later books of the Biblical canon the learly traceable to remove from God all an attributes and passions (see ANTHROPOMOR- saaaae and ANTHROPOPATHISM). The critical school ey nits in the final result what the traditional view aie: as the starting-point. The God whom Israel, through the events of its history, under the teachings of its men of genius, the Prophets, finally learned to proclaim, is One, the Ruler and Creator of all, the Judge who loveth righteousness and hateth iniquity, whose witness Israel is, whose true service is love and justice, whose purposes come and have come to pass. y:; Kuenen, The Religion of Israet (Eng. transl. Boar dione van Israel, Haarlem, 1869-70); idem, National Religions and Universal Religion (Hibbert Lectures, 1882); Knappert, The Religion of Israel; Duhmn, Die Theologie der Propheten, Bonn, 1875; Wilhelm Vatke, Die Religion des A. T. Berlin, 18385; Ewald, Die Lehre der Bibel von Gott, Gat- tingen, 1871-76; Wellhausen, Prolegomena zur Gesch. Israels, 3d ed., 18 Post-Exi Concep- tion. front. effort 1S € 86: idem, Skizzen und Vorarbeiten, i.-vi., 1882- 1903: Baudissin, Studien zur Semitischen Religionsgesch. Leipsic, 1876, 1878; W. Robertson Smith, Rel. of Sem. Edin- purgh, 1885; Ed. Konig, Grundprobleme der Alttest. Re- ligionsgesch. 1885; idem, Der Offenbarungsbegriff, ete.; Friedrich Baethgen, Beitrdige zur Semit. Religionsgesch. Berlin, 1888; Smend, Lehrbuch der Alttestamentlichen Re- ligionsgesch. 1893; Budde, Vorlesungen tiber die Vorex- ilische Religion Israels, 1901; Kayser-Dillmann, Alt. Test. Theologie. E.G. GOD, CHILDREN OF (“bene ha-Elohim,” per- haps = “sons of the gods”): The “sons ot God” are mentioned in Genesis, in a chapter (vi. 2) which reflects preprophetic, mythological, and polytheis- tic conceptions. They are represented as taking, at their fancy, wives from among the daughters of men. For the interpretations given to this state- ment see FALL oF ANGELS, and FLoop IN RaBBIN- ICAL LITERATURE. As there stated, the later Jew- ish and Christian interpreters endeavored to remove the objectionable implications from the passage by taking the term “bene ha-Elohim” in the sense of “sons of judges” or “sons of magistrates.” In the introduction to the Book of Job (i. 6, ii. 1) the “ bene ha-Elohim” are mentioned as assembling at stated periods, Satan being one of them. Some Assyro- Babylonian mythological conception is held by the critical school to underlie this description of the gathering of the “sons of God” to present them- Selves before Yuawu. Another conception, taken from sidereal religion, seems to underlie the use of the phrase in Job xxxv. 7. The Israelites are addressed as “the children of the Lord your God” (Deut. xiv. 1). When Israel was young, he was called from Egypt to be God’s nh (Hosea xi.1), The Israelites are designated also the children of the living God ” (db. ii. 1[R.V.i. 10]; a J er. iti. 4). They are addressed as “ backsli- Gee children ” (Jer. iii. 14) that might and should call their father (2b. iii. 19). Deut, xxxii. 6, though € text is corrupt, seems to indicate that through perverseness Israel has forfeited this privilege. Isa- » also, apostrophizes the Israelites as “children God God, Children of [of God] that are corrupters,” though God has reared them (Isa. i. 4). Asa man chastises his son, so does God chastise Israel (Deut. viii. 5); and like a father pities his children, so does God show pity (see Com- PASSION). The critical school refers this conception to the notion commonly obtaining among primitive races, that tribes and families as well as peoples are de- scended from gods regarded by them as their phys- ical progenitors; community of worship indicating community of origin, or adoption into the clan be- lieved to be directly descended from the tutelary god through the blood covenant. Hence the re- proach, “Saying toastock, Thou art my father; and to a stone, Thou hast begotten me” (Jer. ii. 27). Even in Deutero-IJsaiah (li. 2) this notion is said to prevail (“ Look unto Abraham your father,” in cor- respondence with verse 1: “the rock whence ye are hewn”). That this view was deepened and spiritualized to signify a much sublimer relation between the gods and their physical descendants than that which the old Semitic conception assumed, the following pas- sages demonstrate: “Surely they are my people, children that will not lie” (Isa. )xiii. 8). “In all their affliction he was afflicted ” (zd. verse9). “Thou art our father, for Abraham knows us not” (2b. verse 16, Hebr.). “Thou art our father; weare the clay ” (4b. Ixiv. 8). “Have we not all one father?” (Mal. ii. 10). The relation of God to the individual man is also regarded as that of a parent to his child. “For my father and my mother have forsaken me, but YHwu taketh me up” (Ps. xxvii. 10, Hebr.; comp. II Sam. vii. 14). That other peoples besides Israel are God's children seems sug gested by Jer. iii. 19, the rabbinical interpretation of the verse construing it as implying this (odin nidik—p3, Tan., Mishpatim, ed. Bu- ber, 10; Yalk., Jer. 270; Bacher, “Ag. Pal. Amor.” ii. 34, note 1). Israel as the “first-fruits” (ANIA MwR) is the “bekor,” or first-born, in the household of God’s children (Jer. ii. 8; Ex. iv. 22). In the interpreta- tion of the modern Synagogue this means that Israel shall be an exemplar unto all the other chil- dren of God (see Lazarus, “Der Prophet Jeremias,” pp. 31, 32). According to the teachings of Judaism, as expounded in the CATECHISMS, every man is God’s child, and, therefore, the brother of every other man. Mal. ii. 10 is applied in this sense, though the proph- et’s appeal was addressed solely to the warring brothers of the house of Israel. In this, modern Ju- daism merely adopts the teachings of the Apocrypha and of the Rabbis. See Ecclus. (Sirach) xxiii. 1, 4; li. 10; Wisdom ii. 18, 16, 18; xiv. 3 (comp. xvili. 18; III Macc. v. 7; Jubilees, i. 24); Job xiii. 4; Enoch Ixii. 11; Psalms of Solomon, xvii. 30; Sifre, Deut. 48 (ed. Friedmann, 84b); Ab. iii. 14; R. H. iii. 8; Yer. Ma‘as. 50c; Sifra (ed. Weiss), 98d; Midr. Teh. xii. 5 (comp. Bacher, “Ag. Tan.” ii. 487). See Son oF GOD. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Dalman, Die Worte Jesu, pp. 150 et seq., Leip- sic, 1898: Taylor, The Sayings of the Fathers, to AD. iii. 14; Schreiner, in Jahrbuch, 1899, pp. 61-62; idem, Die Jtingsten Urteile, ete., in Jahrbuch, 1902, pp. 21, 22; Perles, Bousset 's Religion des Judentums, pp. 127 et seq., Berlin, 1903 E. G. H. Goad, Names of Godliness GOD, NAMES OF. Sec Names or Gop. GOD, SON OF. Sce Son oF Gop. GODEFROI, MICHAEL H.: Dutch jurist and minister of justice; born at Amsterdam Jan. 13, 1814; died at Wiirzburg June 27, 1882. He devoted him- self to the study of jurisprudence, and at a very early age secured employment under thestate. When but thirty-two, upon the death of Boas, he became by royal appointment judge of the provincial court for North Holland; and two years later (1848) he was elected in the city of Amsterdam a member of the second chamber of the States General of the Nether- lands, which position he held until the year 1881. In 1860 he prepared a new code of judicial practise and procedure; this was adopted, and in recognition of his labors thereon the king decorated him with the cross of the Order of the Netherlands Lion. On several occasions at the formation of ministries he had been offered a portfolio, but had each time declined, until in Feb., 1860, the king himself joining the finance minister, Van Hall, in soliciting Godefroi to aid in the formation of a cabinet, he accepted the ministry of justice. He has the distinction of being the first Jew to till a cabinet position in Holland, and this is the more noteworthy since he was a con- sistent and outspoken adherent of his faith, occupy- ing the prominent position of president of the Jew- ish consistory and having been a member of the Institut zur Forderung Israelitischer Literatur dur- ing the eighteen years of its existence. Godefroi in his public life was a very ardent friend of his people. At one time he exposed in the cham- ber the abuses of the missionary efforts in Amster- dam, and protested vigorously against the excesses of the proselytizing zealots. As minister of justice he contributed greatly toward securing the eman- cipation of the Jews in Switzerland; the commer- cial treaty between the Netherlands and Switzerland was not ratified until assurance had been given of the establishment of the legal equality of Jews and Christians in the latter country. Again, on Sept. 23, 1872, and in Dec., 1876, he delivered exhaustive speeches in the chamber, insisting that the commer- cial treaty with Rumania should not be ratified un- til guaranties should have been given that Nether- land Jews in that country should enjoy perfect equality before the law. The influence of this atti- tude upon his Christian colleagues in the chamber was evidenced after his death, when, early in July, 1882, the Rumanian commercial treaty was again the subject of discussion in the chamber. A member, Von Kerwijk, dwelt with fervor upon the intoler- ance manifested in Rumania against the Jews, re- ferring with indignation to the awful persecutions they had endured in Russia, Germany, and other countries. With creditable pride he pointed out that Holland embodied the true spirit of religious free- dom; and he illustrated the contention by showing the honor and respect manifested toward Godefroi, paying a loving tribute to the great Jewish states- man, BIBLIOGRAPHY: Kayserling, M. H. Godefroi, in Allg. Zeit. des Jud. 1882, pp. 524, 529. 8 M. Co. GODFATHER: Primarily, one who assists in the performance of the rite of circumcision by hold- THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 16 ing the child upon his knees; secondarily, one who ina measure takes the place of the father, interess. ing himself in the lad’s welfare. In the first senge the function of the godfather undoubtedly has its origin in Hebrew antiquity, and arose naturally from the necessity of having some one to assist the mohel, or circumciser, by holding the child firmly during the performance of the operation. In Ta]. mudic literature the godfather is called “sandik” or “saudikus,” a term which is usually identifieg with the Greek ofvd:xoc (Latin, *syndicus”), in the sense of “representative,” “patron,” “advocate.” Kohut (“ Aruch Completum,” vi. 84) and Léw (“Le. bensalter,” p. 84) claim, on the authority of the me. dieval rabbinical works “ Rokeah ” and “ Or Zarua‘,” that the correct reading is D°3)73D, and identify it with the Greek otv7exvoc (“ companion to the father”: comp. the German “Gevatter,” French “compére,” Spanish “padrino,” which all contain this idea of association with the father). A number of references in Midrashim and other early rabbinical works tes. tify to the existence of the godfather in the Talmudic age (see the Midrash to Ps. xxxv. 10, and passages in interpretation of Gen. xviii. 1 and of Neh. ix. 8. also a reference in Pirke R. El.). The version of the Targum of Jonathan ben Uzziel to Gen. |. 28 is also an apparent allusion to the office. In medie- val rabbinical literature the references to the office are numerous, and it appears to have been well established and highly esteemed. Thus the “ Hag. gahot Maimuniyyot” (on the “Yad,” Milah, iii.) mentions that many “covet and eagerly desire to hold the child upon their knees as it is circumcised.” The godfather became known in medieval times by many names in addition to the ancient designa- tion of “sandik.” Heis called “ ba‘al berit ” (master of the covenant), “ba‘al bérit ha-milah ” (master of the covenant of circumcision), “tofes ha-yeled” (holder of the child), “ab sheni” (second father), and also “shaliah” (messenger). The office was sur. rounded with marks of honor, . No. 15; “Immu- nitit Gegen Influenza Durch Vaccinirung mit Ani- maler Lymphe,” 7b. No. 45; “Behandlung und Heilung der Lepra Tuberosa mit Europhen,” in “Therapeutische Monatsschrift,” 1893; “Zur Aetio- logie und Prophylaxis der Lepra,”-in “ Berliner Klinische Wochenschrift,” 1894. He is also the author of the following works: “Madére, Etudiée Comme Station d’ Hiver et d’Eté,” 2d ed., Paris, 1884; “ Madeira und Seine Bedeutung als Heilungsort” (with Mittermeyer), 2d ed., Leip- sic, 1885; “Die Lepra auf Madeira,” 7b. 1891; “La Lépre,” Paris, 1894. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Pagel, Biog. Lex. s.v., Leipsic, 1901. 8. F. T. H. GOLDSCHMIDT, LAZARUS: German wri- ter; born at Plungiany, Lithuania, Russia, Dec. 17, 1871. He received his rabbinical education at the Talmudic school in Slobodki, near Kovno. In 1888 he went to Germany, and in 1890 entered the Berlin University, where, under the guidance of Professors Dillmann and Schrader, he devoted himself to the study of Oriental languages, especially Ethiopic. Goldschmidt, who at present (1903) lives at Berlin, has published the following works: “Das Buch Henoch,” retranslated from the Ethiopic into He- brew, and edited with introduction, notes, and explanations (Berlin, 1892); “Bibliotheca Aethio- pica,” a list and description of all the known Ethiopic prints (Leipsic, 1898); “Das Buch der Schopfung (MVY" IBD),” critical text, translation notes, ete (Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1894); “Baraita de-Ma‘age Bereshit,” the story of the Creation, ascribed to Arzelai bar Bargelai (Strasburg, 1894; this sup. posed Midrash is an Aramaic translation of the Ethi. opic “ Hexaemeron” of Pseudo-Epiphanias, edited by Trumpp in Ethiopic with a German translation, Munich, 1882, and the name of the supposed author is an anagram of Goldschmidt’s Hebrew name, Elie. zer ben Gabriel); “ Vita do Abba Daniel,” Ethiopie text, published, translated, and annotated in col. laboration with F. M. E. Pereira (Lisbon, 189%), “Die Aethiopischen Handschriften der Stadtbibli. othek zu Frankfurt a. M.” (Berlin, 1897). In the year 1896 Goldschmidt commenced the publication of the Babylonian Talmud (from the edito princeps), with German translation, variants, and explanations, Up to the present (1903) the sections Zera‘im and Mo‘ed have been published, together with a part of the section Nezikin. Both the edition of the text and the translation have been severely criticized by David Hoffmann in Brody’s “Zeitschrift fir Hebrifische Bibliographie,” i. 67-71, 100-108, 152- 155, 181-185. Goldschmidt replied in a pamphlet, “Die Recension des Herrn Dr. D. Hoffmann iiber Meine Talmudausgabe im Lichte der Wahrheit,” Charlottenburg, 1896. See also “Theologische Li- teraturzeitung,” 1896, pp. 477-479, and 1897, pp. 63 1-633. D. L. Grt. GOLDSCHMIDT, LEVIN: German jurist; born at Danzig May 30, 1829; died at Wilhelmshdhe July 16, 1897. From 1847 to 1851 he pursued his studies at the universities of Berlin, Bonn, and Heidelberg, receiv. ing his doctor’s de- gree in 1851 from the University of Halle. He practised for sev- eral years in the courts of Danzig, be- came privat-docent at the University of Heidelberg in 1855, and was appointed associate professor in 1860. In the years 1857-60 he published “Kritik des Ent- wurfs eines Handels- gesetzbuchs fiir die Preussischen Staat- en” and “Gutachten tiber den Entwurf eines Deutschen Handelsgesetzbuchs nach den Besch- lissen Zweiter Lesung,” which at once attracted at- tention to him as acritical jurist. During the same period he published “Der Lucca-Pistoja-Aktien- streit,” Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1859 (Supplement, 1861). He is the founder (1858) of the “ Zeitschrift fiir das Gesammte Handelsrecht.” Goldschmidt’s scholarship was next displayed in his “ Encyclopidie der Rechtswissenschaft im Grund- riss,” Heidelberg, 1862. He then began the great Levin Goldschmidt, THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 27 : cupied him during the remainder of work yh ne which he did not live to complete, his lifetin Hlandbuch des Handelsrechts,” Er- pamelys on 68. This is the work with which his ee a historical jurist is identified, it being rec- am wed as a masterly presentation of the general Coy of commercial law. = 1866 Goldschmidt was promoted toa professor- a idical faculty at Heidelberg. He next 1 i jul ate eke appointment of “Justizrat” in the Bun- Hesgericht at Leipsic, afterward occupying a judicial ‘tion at the Reichsoberhandelsgericht. In 1875 ange came professor of commercial law in Berlin ae esl and received the title “Geheimer Justiz- a From 1875 to 1877 he was also a member of ae German Reichstag, representing the city of eas further publications the following deserve special mention: “Das Dreijahrige Studium der Rechts- und Staatswissenschaften,” Berlin, 1878; «Erwerbs- und Wirtschaftsgenossenschaften, Stu- dien und Vorschlige,” Stuttgart, 1882; “ Rechts- studium und Prifungsordnung,” 7. 1887; “Die Haftpflicht der Genossen und das Umlageverfahren,” Berlin, 1888; “System des Handelsrechts,” Stutt- gart, 1887, 4th ed., 1891. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Riesser, Geddichtnissrede, Berlin, 1897 (with portrait); Pappenheim, Vachruf, in Zeitschrift ftir Han- delsrecht, xlvii.; Deutsche Juristenzeitung, li., No. 15; Ad- ier, Levin Goldschmidt, in Bettelheim, Biographisches Jahr- ake ii, 119-122, M. Co. GOLDSCHMIDT, MEIR AARON: Danish political writer and journalist; born Oct. 26, 1819, at Vordingborg, an ancient cat! edral town situated on the south coast of the island of Seeland, Denmark; died at Copenhagen Aug. 15, 1887, The dream of his youth was to become a famous physician, but as Danish church orthodoxy pre- vented him, because he was a Jew, from taking his B.A. degree (1836), Goldschmidt gave up the academic course, and in 1837 started the “ Nastved Ugeblad” (later called “Sjallandsposten ”), a polit- ical weekly. He at once came into conflict with the authorities, and was fined heavily, and condemned to submit his publication to censorship for a year. Goldschmidt sold the paper, and as the Danish king (Frederick VI.) died at this time and a liberal gov- ernment was expected under his successor (Christian VIII.), he moved to Copenhagen, and again entered Into politics, with a new paper, the “Corsaren ” (Oc- tober, 1840). This journal was a brilliant but reck- less paper, representing extreme republicanism or socialism, and taking a strong stand against the crown, which had failed to grant the expected liber- ties. For this the government promptly condemned Goldschmidt to imprisonment on bread and water for twenty-four days, and to the permanent cen- sorship of his paper. But he was undaunted and ea the publication of the “Corsaren.” It Buble ae aoe into conflict with individual ine ana ee Beery rare won him well (i846) ac ke novels of his to sell so (1847), | at he went abroad on the proceeds * in Coppet he met the reformed priest Goldschmidt, Julius Goldschmidt, Mer Aaron Piguet and was much influenced by him. Gold- schmidt himself admits that an unconscious Chris- tian influence is perceptible in “ Nord og Syd,” which he edited 1847-59. This magazine was also polit- ical, but of a much more moderate tone. In 1861 Goldschmidt started another magazine, “Ude og Hjemme,” but soon discontinued it, and, thoroughly disgusted with Danish affairs, he moved to England in 1861. He returned, however, in 1862, but from that time on remained outside of politics. His career is not unlike that of Georg BRANDES, with this dif- ference, that Gold- schmidt used politics where Brandes used literature to rouse the Danish apathy, hoping to change its philistine attitude toward the problems of life. Gold. schmidt’s social-polit- ical influence was imn- mense, though nega- tive as far as visible and systematic results were concerned, be- cause he stood alone and had to fight the crown as well as the forces of mediocrity. After his return in 1862 Goldschmidt devoted himself entirely to literature, in which he became especially remarkabie as a master of In style. As a man he was romantic- Literature. mystic as much as he was Jewish, but his mysticism was Oriental in cast; and his romanticism was original and neither ecclesias- tical nor medieval. These traits are evident in “En Jéde ” (1845), which has been translated into sev- eral European languages; “Ravnen” (1868-69); “ Wjemlés” (1859); “I den anden Verden” (1869). He wrote also “Fortallinger og Skildringer” (18638- 1865), “ Arvingen ” (1867), and several plays, among which “ Rabbineren og Ridderen ” (1869) and “Sve- denborg’s Ungdom” (1863) were staged at the Royal Theater. Goldschmidt endeavored to construct a philosoph- ical world-system on the basis of Nemesis, but his work on this subject has not yet been published. It isa noteworthy attempt to translate Hebrew theism into abstract thought and enliven that thought with moralsentiment. Goldschmidt called the last volume of his autobiography “ Nemesis ” (2 vols., 1877), and everywhere in it points to Nemesis as shaping his life. Thesame thought is found in “ Ravnen ” (1868- 1869) and “ En Skavank ” (1867). In the latter novel he connects his doctrine with ancient Egyptian wor- ship. Goldschmidt is remarkable for his psycholog- ical insight and his masterly delineation of Jewish character, especially in its profounder aspects. Typical in this respect are his “Maser” and “ Av- rohmda Nattergal.” BIBLIOGRAPHY : Goldschmidt, Livserindringer og Resultater, 1877; S. Kierkegaard, Bladartikler, 1857: O. Borchsenius, Fra Fyrrerne, 1880; G. Brandes, Kritikker og Portrdter, (Works i., 1899); Jos. Michaelsen, Fra min Samtid, 1890; Biografisk Lexicon, vi.; Salmonsen's Konversations- ree ue P. Hansen, Illustreret Dansk Litteratur His- €, 1902, i. Ss. Cc. H. B. Meir Aaron Goldschmidt. Goldschmidt, Otto Goldsmid THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 28 ee OE ne eee eG an a a ana GOLDSCHMIDT, OTTO: German pianist and composer; born at Hamburg Aug. 21, 1829. He studied under Jacob Schmidt and F. W. Grund; with Hans von Biilow under Mendelssohn at the Leipsic Conservatorium ; and in 1848 under Chopin in Paris. In1849he played at a concert given in Lon- don by Jenny Lind; in 1851 he accompanied her on a tour through America; and on Feb. 5, 1852, was married to her at Boston. From 1852 to 1855 they lived in Dresden, and from the latter year until Madame Goldschmidt’s death (1887), in London and at Malvern, Worcestershire. In 1861 Goldschmidt was elected an honorary member of the London Philharmonic Society; in 18683 he was appointed vice-principal of the Royal Academy of Music (London); in 1863 and 1866 he conducted musical festivals at’ Diisseldorf and Ham- burg respectively ; and in 1875 he founded the Bach Choir in London. His principal works are: “Ruth,” an oratorio, performed at the Hereford musical festival of 1867; pianoforte concerto, op. 10; trio for pianoforte, op. 12; 12 studies for the same instrument, op. 18; 12 songs, op. 8, 9; and some part-songs. With Bir William Sterndale Bennett he edited “The Chorale Book for England.” BIBLIOGRAPHY: Riemann, Musik-Lexikon; Meyers Konver- sations-Lexikon ; Grove, Dict. of Music and Musicians. s. GOLDSCHMIDT, SIEGFRIED: German Ori- entalist; born at Cassel Oct. 29, 1844; died at Stras- burg Jan. 31, 1884. He was educated at the universi- ties of Leipsic, Berlin, and Tiibingen, graduating (Ph.D.) in 1867. His doctor’s dissertation, “ Der Vilte Prapathaka des SAmaveda-Arcika in der Nai- geya-Cakhaé Nebst Andern Mitteilungen tiber Die- selbe,” published in the “ Monatsberichte der Koénig- lichen Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften ” (1868, pp. 228~248), was an edition of the single portion which has been preserved of the Kauthuma recension of the Sama-Veda. Goldschmidt contin- ued his studies, first at Gdttingen and later in Paris, where he gained a thorough mastery of the French language. On the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian war he returned to Germany and enrolled as a vol- unteer. Hetook part in the siege of Paris. At the close of the war Goldschmidt was appointed assist- ant professor in the newly created University of Strasburg, with which he was connected during the remainder of his life. He became professor Sept. 12, 1881, but was fated never to sit in the faculty. Spinal consumption, the disease which ended his life, had already sapped his vitality, and after two and a half years of suffering death came as a welcome relief. Siegfried Goldschmidt was not a prolific writer, He published but fourteen scientific studies, mostly short notes in Kuhn’s “ Zeitschrift fir Vergleichende Sprachforschung” and the “ Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenliandischen Gesellschaft.” His interest was centered upon Prakrit, and brief as his articles were they formed valuable contributions to the investiga- tion of the medieval languages of India. His most important work was his edition of the great Prakrit poem ascribed to Kalidasa, the Ravanavaha or Sétu- bandhu (Strasburg, 1880-84). This is in two vol- umes, the first of which comprises the text and an index of the Prakrit words, in preparing whic, Siegfried was assisted by his brother Paul. while th, second part contains the German translation, The only other book published by this scholar was a yg}, ume of “Prakrtica” (7d. 1879), containing gray, matical studies on Prakrit. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Literaturbiatt fiir Orientalische Biblig, graphie, i, 379-380. g, L. H. G, GOLDSCHMIEDT, GUIDO: Austrian chen, ist: born in Triest Oct. 5, 1850; studied at Vienna and Heidelberg. First as assistant, later as assoc. ate professor at the chemical laboratory of Vienna University, he published a number of importay articles on organic chemistry, for which he receiveg the Lieben prize of the Imperial Academy of Sci. ences on different occasions. After a short activity as professor at the High School for Agriculture in Vienna, he was called as professor to the univer. sity at Prague in 1892, He won distinction by his demonstration of the constitution of papaverin, of which he had made a thorough study. In con. junction with several of his pupils, as well as ip. dependently, he published a large number of treatiseg on substances of the pyridin and quinolin order, be. sides essays in other departments of organic chem. istry. The University of Prague elected him dean of the philosophical faculty in 1900. He is also a member of the council of the university and of the Imperial Academy of Sciences. 8 A. Kt. GOLDSMID: A family of English financiers, who trace descent from a certain Uri ha-Leviof Em- den, as shown in the pedigree on opposite page. The following were some of the prominent mem- bers of the family: Aaron F. Goldsmid: London merchant and founder of the Goldsmid family of England; born at Amsterdam; died June 3, 1782. He was the son of Benedict Goldsmid, a Hamburg merchant. In 1765 he left Holland with his family to settle in London, where he founded the firm of Aaron Gold- smid & Son, subsequently Goldsmid & Eliason. The firm of Aaron Goldsmid & Son experienced seri- ous reverses through the failure of Clifford & Sayer, one of the principal housesin Holland. Hence only George, the eldest son, entered into partnership with his father. The other sons founded new businesses for themselves in which they amassed large fortunes. Goldsmid left four sons and four daughters. The second son, Asher, was one of the founders of the firm Mocatta & Goldsmid, bullion-brokers to the Bank of England. Benjamin and Abraham were famous as financiers and philanthropists. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Levy Alexander, Memoirs of, Benjamin Gold- smid of Roehampton, 1808; James Picciotto, Sketches of Anglo-Jewish History. J. I. H. Abraham Goldsmid: English financier and philanthropist; born in Holland in 1756 (2); died at Morden, near London, Sept. 28, 1810; third son of Aaron Goldsmid. About 1765 he went to England with his father, and soon entered into partnership with his brother, Benjamin Goldsmid, the tw? starting in business as bill-brokers about 1777. They afterward took a house in Capel street, and soon be came successful bidders for the national loan. It THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA don the Stock Exchange as an unprece- + that men, till then scarcely known, jd succeed in wresting the negotiation of gov- shoult 7 ans from the hands of the banking clique. ernment Be e first step in their rise to eminence; and been very successful in negotiating sev- they acquired considerable wealth. afrer the death of his brother Benjamin in 1808, Abraham continued the operations of the firm. In was regarde Goldschmidt, Otto Goldsmid pean Magazine, lviii.. The Morning Post, Loudon, Oct. 9, 1810; Young Israel, vol. i., No. 6; Picciotto, Sketches of An- glo-Jewish History, pp. 232-254, 259, London, 1873; Jet. World, March, 1878. Albert Goldsmid: Major-general in the British army; born in 1794; died Jan. 6, 1861; son of Ben- jamin Goldsmid. He entered the army in 1811 as cornet in the 12th Light Dragoons, and the follow- ing year went on active duty in Spain, where he continued to serve until the close of the war in 1814. Uri ha-Levi of Emden (¢. 1593) Benedict cone of Hamburg Aaron Goldsmid, London merchant (d. 1782) George = «+». Cohen Asher = .... Keyser Sir Isaac Lyon, Bart. (1841) == 1804 Isabel ‘eae Sir Francis Henry Frederick David (b. 1812) Moses Goldsmid Benjamin = Jessie Salomons Abraham = .... Eliason 4 daughters Rachel] = Count Solomon Emma = 1850 Nathaniel (2d bart.) = Caroline Samuel Henry Avigdor (d. 1902) Monteflore l Elim Henry d’Avigdor Claude Joseph Montefiore Sir Julian (a.1896) Helen = Mary = : : (3d bart.) = Lionel Frederick D, Osmond eae ie ca Virginia, daugh- Lucas Mocatta Goldsmi ter of A. Philipson | ] son and 8 daughters 1 daughter O. E. v’A. G. J. 1810 the house of Baring & Goldsmid contracted for the government loan of £14,000,000 ($70,000,000). Sir T. Baring, with whom the Goldsmids had been connected in business, died at this juncture; and his death added greatly to Goldsmid’s many burdens, he having now to struggle alone. In addition, a | powerful organization had been formed against the loan, and the resources of the two houses of Baring & Goldsmid combined were scarcely sufficient to combat it.. The price of scrip fell : daily, and the fortunes “AG § of Goldsmid fell with a Eh, ee ¢ it. At the same time, "4 We 27 the East India Com- pany, which had placed in his hands for sale bills of exchange ue to the value of half & million, became alarmed, and claimed the price of on ate - The payment was fixed for Sept. 28, ay Goldsmid was unprepared, and on the fol- ee morning he was found dead, with a pistol Y his side, oe Goldsmid firm Subsequently made great ef- ‘8 to discharge their liabilities. By 1816 they had ae fully fifteen shillings on the pound; and in 1820 a setae on the petition of the creditors, annulled aiming portion of the debts. BIBLIOGRAPHY ; . : Dict. National Biography: : a : graphy; Gentleman's gazine, 1xxx.: The Morning Chronicle, London, Sept. and t., 1810; The Times, London, Apri! 12 and 18, 1808; Euro- Abraham Goldsmid. He was present at the cavalry affairs of Castrajon, Quintare de Puerta, and Monasterio, and at the bat- tles of Salamanca, Vittoria, Nivelle, and Nive, and was awarded the silver medal and four clasps. He served also during the campaign of 1815, and was present at Waterloo. In June, 1826, he retired on half-pay with the rank of major, but was ga- zetted lieutenant-colonel Nov. 28, 1841; colonel June 20, 1854; and major-general Oct. 26, 1858. BIBLIOGRAPHY: The Times, London, Jan. 9, 1861. Albert Edward W. Goldsmid: Colonel in the British army; born at Puna, Bombay, Oct. 6, 1846; son of Henry Edward Goldsmid. In June, 1866, he was gazetted from Sandhurst, England, to his first commission in the 104th Foot of the Bengal Fusiliers. He became adjutant of battalion in 1871, captain in May, 1878, major in 1883, lieutenant-colonel in 1888, and colonel on April 21, 1894. In 1892 Colonel Goldsmid was selected by Baron de Hirsch to supervise the colonies in Argentina, but retired from the task to take up his appointment as colo- nel-in-command of the Welsh regimental district at Cardiff in 1894. In 1897 he was promoted chief of staff, with the grade of assistant adjutant-general in the Thames district. At the departure of the Aldershot staff with Sir Redvers Buller in the con- flict with the Boers in 1899, he acted as chief staff- officer at the camp at Aidershot, and was entrusted with the duties of mobilization. In Dec., 1899, when the sixth division of the South-African field force was mobilized, Goldsmid was selected as chief staff-officer to General Kelly-Kenny with the grade of assistant adjutant-general, and in that capacity was present at the battle of Paardeberg. During Gcldsmid the earlier stages of the war he was commandant of the Orange River, Herbert, and Hay districts, 1900. Colonel Goldsmid was an ardent Zionist, and was chief of the Chovevei Zion of Great Britain and Ire- land. The success of the Jewish Lads’ Brigade in London and the provinces is mainly due to Gold- smid’s initiative. In 1903 he became president of the Maccabeans, of which he had been one of the founders. He died in London, March 27, 1904. Sear Jew. Chron. Dec. 8, 1899; Young Israel, i. 0. ° Anna Maria Goldsmid: Writerand communal worker; born in London Sept. 17, 1805; died there Feb. 8, 1889; daughter of Sir Isaac Lyon Goldsmid, Bart. She wasa pupil of the poet Thomas Camp- bell, and translated (1839) into English twelve ser- mons delivered by Dr. Gotthold Salomon at Ham- burg, Ludwig Phillipson’s “ Die Entwickelung der Religidsen Idee” (1853), and J. Cohen’s “Les Déi- cides” (1872). Miss Goldsmid also published many original pamphlets on educational and other ques- tions, and the formation of the Jews’ Infaut-Schools was largely due to her enthusiasm and support. She was also interested in University College School and Hospital and the Jews’ Deaf and Dumb Home. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jew. Chron. and Jew. World, Feb. 15, 1889; Allibone, Dictionary of Authors. Benjamin Goldsmid: English financier and philanthropist; born in Holland 1755; committed suicide April 15, 1808; eldest son of Aaron Gold- smid, a London merchant. In 1777 Benjamin and his brother Abraham established themselves in busi- ness as bill-brokers. Their means increased on the death of an uncle in Holland who bequeathed to them £15,000. The marriage of Benjamin Gold- smid to Jessie, daughter of Israel Levin Salomons of Clapton, with a dowry of £100,000, placed the credit of the firm on a solid footing. Large sums passed through the hands of the Goldsmids in the purchase and sale of bullion, stocks, navy and ex- chequer bills, and in negotiating English and foreign bills of exchange. They became the largest loan- contractors of their day in England. Benjamin’s great wealth brought him much social recognition, and he was intimately connected with Pitt, whose financial schemes were largely carried out through him, and with several members of the royal family, who visited him at Roehampton. Goldsmid was the founder of the Naval Asylum, which for a time was under his management. ‘The two brothers collected a fund for a Jewish hospital. This was never erected, but some of the money raised was used in building and endowing the Neweh Zedek at Mile End. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Ge2tleman’s Magazine, |xxviii.; L. Alexan- der, Memoirs; Young Israel, i., No.6; Jew. World, March, 1878; Picciotto, Sketches of Anglo-Jewish History, pp. 249- 252, London, 1875. Sir Francis Goldsmid: English philanthropist and politician; born in Spital square, London, May 1, 1808; died May 2, 1878. The eldest son of Sir Isaac Lyon Goldsmid, Bart., he was educated pri- vately, and was called to the bar in 18838, becoming queen’s counsel in 1858. In 1859 he succeeded to his father’s honors, which included a barony of Portugal. He entered Parliament in 1860 as mem- ber for Reading, through a by-election, and repre- THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 80 cc ae sented that constituency in the Liberal interest unty his death. While still a young man he active) cooperated with his father to secure to the Jews fyj emancipation from civil and political disabilitig, In 1839 he wrote “ Remarks on the Civil Disabiliticg of the Jews,” and in 1848 “A Reply to the Argy, ments Against the Removal of the Remaining Digg bilities of the Jews.” He was one of the chief Sup. porters of University College, and gave material aig to University College Hospital. He was associated with various Jewish relig. ious and charitable organizations. He was cop. nected with the Reform movement from its com. mencement, and was elected president of the Coungjj of Founders of the West London Synagogue. He was vice-president of the Anglo-Jewish Association from its establishment in 1871, and was president of the Rumanian Committee which originated in the association. His greatest services to his race were, however, in the direction of improving the social condition of the Jews in those countries in which they were oppressed. The condition of the Poles in 1863 moved him to organize meetings for the pur. pose of securing some alleviation of their sufferings, and he also forcibly protested on several occasions in Parliament against the oppression of the Jews, notably that in Servia and Rumania. Goldsmid was deputy lieutenant for Berks and a justice of the peace for Berksand Gloucester. Hay. ing no children, the baronetcy devolved upon hig nephew, Julian Goldsmid. His writings include, besides those already mentioned : “Two Letters in Answer to the Objections Urged Against Mr. Grant’s Bill for the Relief of the Jews” (1830); “A Few Words Respecting the Enfranchisement of British Jews Addressed tothe New Parliament” (1833); “A Scheme of Peerage Reform, with Reasons for the Scheme ” (1835). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Marks and Liwy, Life of Sir Francis Gold- smid, 1882; Jew. Chron. and Jew. World, May 10, 1878; The Times (London), May 4, 1878. Frederick David Goldsmid: English member of Parliament; born in London 1812; died there March 18, 1866. Hewas the second son of Sir Isaac Lyon Goldsmid, and was educated at University College, London, After his marriage (1834) he spent a year in Italy, and on returning to England, became a member of the firm of Mocatta & Gold- smid. Goldsmid was an active member of the Metropolitan Association for Improving the Dwell- ings of the Laboring Classes, as well as of a large number of Jewish charities. He was also a mem- ber of the council of University College, London, and of the committee of the college hospital, as well as president of the Jews’ Hospital and of the West Metropolitan Jewish School. Goldsmid was member of Parliament for Honiton from July, 1865, until his death. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jew. Chron. March 23, 1866; Boase, Modern English Biography, Truro, 1898. Henry Edward Goldsmid: Indian civil serv- ant; born in London May 9, 1812; died at Cairo, Egypt, Jan. 8, 1855. He entered the service of the East India Company in 1882, and three years later became assistant revenue commissioner for Bom- bay. While occupying this post he devised the THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 31 Goldsmid : d assessment system, Puna be- Sir Julian Goldsmid: English baronet, privy urvey au ent Paded in its organization. “Goidsmid’s in »ag it was called, was a great boon to the iturists of the presidency ; and it was nently established by the Bombay legislature permal It was incorporated in the Bombay revenue : ee 1879, and was also adopted by the Berars ae native state of Mysore. . _ mG Idsmid’s health proke down owing to his in- : t labors; and after holding the positions of aie ; secretary and chief secretary to the governor Ponies) he went to Cairo, where he died. Ten : rg later @ memorial rest-house was erected by y bic subscription at Decksal, near the place where Fyoldsmid’s survey had commenced. BIBLIOGRAPHY : Young Israel, i., No. 10. reve ing Survey; ; oor agricul Sir Isaac Lyon Goldsmid: English financier and the first Jewish baronet ; born in London Jan. 13, 1778; died there April 27, 1859. He was the son of Asher Goldsmid, and nephew of Benjamin and Abraham Goldsmid, the financiers. Educated at an English school in Finsbury square, he received a sound financial training in the technicalities of his father’s business of bullion-broking. At a later period his association with Ricardo made him famil- iar with the leading questions of political science. He became in due course a partner in the firm of Mocatta & Goldsmid, bullion-brokers to the Bank of England and tothe East IndiaCompany. His early ventures on the Stock Exchange were unfortunate, and, after losing on one occasion £16,000, he aban- doned speculation and contented himself with steady business as a jobber. Goldsmid gradually rose to eminence as a financier, and ultimately amassed a large fortune. His most extensive financial opera- tions were connected with Portugal, Brazil, and Turkey; and for his services in settling an intricate monetary dispute between Portugal and Brazil he was, in 1846, created Baron de Palmeira by the Portuguese government. Goldsmid was one of the founders of the London Docks. The main effort of his life was made in the cause of Jewish emancipation. He was the first English Jew who took up the question, and he en- listed in its advocacy the leading Whig statesmen of the time. Soonafter the passing of the Act of 1829, which removed the civil disabilities of the Roman Catholics, he secured the powerful aid of Lord Hol- land, the Marquis of Lansdowne, the Duke of Sus- Sex, and other eminent members of the Liberal party, and then induced Robert Grant to introduce in the House of Commons a similar measure for the Jews. During more than two years from the time as Jewish emancipation was first debated in Par- ‘ament, Goldsmid gave little heed to his ordinary erate! devoting himself almost exclusively to the ancement of the cause. He was one of the chief agents in the establishment of University College, seas purchasing at his own risk the site of the Iversity. Bai was a liberal supporter of the Reform Sue and of all Jewish institutions. BIBLIOgR 7 APRY: The Banker's Magazine, xix., XxX.; Jew. ron. May 6 and June 1 . 1878; Dict. National Boece ; Jew. Worid, March 8, councilor, member of Parliament, and philanthro- pist; born Oct. 2, 1838; died at Brighton Jan. 7, 1896. He was the eldest son of Frederick D. Gold- smid, M.P. Educated privately up to the age of seventeen, he entered University College, of which he became a prizeman. He received his B.A. degree with honors at the Univer- sity of London in 1859, and in 1861 obtained his M.A., with the first place in classics, In 1864 he was made a fellow of University College, and in the same year was called tothe bar. Forashort time he went on the Ox- ford circuit, but aban- doned legal practise when elected M.P. for Honiton in March, 1866. When Honiton was disfranchised by the Reform Bill of 1867 Goldsmid stood unsuccessfully for Mid- Surrey, but was returned ix 1870 for Rochester, and sat for that constituency till 1880. He was defeated at Sandwich, but in 1885 was returned for St. Pan- cras South. During 1894 Goldsmid, who belonged to the Liberal party, often had the honor of presi- ding over the deliberations of the House of Com- mons as deputy chairman of committecs. In this capacity he showed great boldness and prompti- tude in the use of his extensive knowledge of the rules of Parliament, and acted with an authority born of his experience as the ruling spirit of impor- tant financial undertakings. Asthe Liberal Unionist candidate for St. Pancras South, Sir Julian Gold- smid was returned in 1895 by an overwhelming majority. The Jewish communal institutions with which Goldsmid was most prominently identified were the Anglo-Jewish Association and the Russo-Jewish Committee. He was elected a vice-president of the former at its foundation in 1871, which office he held till 1886, when he was unanimously chosen to suc- ceed Baron de Worms in the presidency. His thor- ough knowledge of foreign affairs enabled him to present in the clearest light the situation of the Jews in Eastern countries; and his intimacy with minis- ters was utilized by him to carry through many a difficult and delicate diplomatic negotiation. The period of his presidency wasthe most brilliantin the history of the Anglo-Jewish Association. In 1895 the state of Goldsmid’s health obliged him to give up many of his responsible positions. He resigned his presidency in that year, and also relinquished many of his financial interests. Goldsmid was chairman of the Russo-Jewish Committee from its foundation in 1882 until 1894; a member of the visitation committee of the Jewish board of guardians; president of the Jews’ Infant- Schools from 1883; and a member of the committee of the Jews’ Free School. He was warden, and oc- Julian Goldsmid. Goldsmith, Lewis Goldstein, Joseph casional lay preacher, at the West London Synagogue of British Jews, and was subsequently elected chair- man of the council. In the general community the institutions in which he took most interest were: University College, of which he was treasurer in 1880-81; University College Hospital, of which he served as a mem- ber of council: and the University of London, of which he was vice-chancellor at the time of his death. In 1878 Goldsmid succeeded his uncle, Sir Francis Goldsmid, Q.C., M.P., in the family honors and estates, in Sussex, Kent, Berks, and elsewhere. He filled many offices, among them that of deputy lieutenant for Kent, Sussex, and Berks; magis- trate for Kent, Sussex, and Lonclon; colonel of the 1st Sussex Rifle Volunteers, and honorary colonel of the 1st Sussex Artillery Volunteers; chairman of the Submarine Telegraph Company, and of the Imperial and Continental Gas Association; and director of the London, Brighton, and South Coast Railway. His chief country-seat was at Somerhill, near Tun- bridge, once the home of Sir Philip Sidney. In 1868 he married Virginia, daughter of A. Philipson of Florence, by whom he had eight daughters. The entailed Goldsmid estates devolved upon Osmond Elim d’Avigdor. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jew. Chron. Jan. 10, 1896; Jew. World, Jan. 10, 1896: The Times, London, Jan. 8, 1896. J G. L. GOLDSMITH, LEWIS: English political wri- ter and agitator; born 1768; died Jan. 6, 1846. Educated in London, he was trained for the legal profession, but soon abandoned this profession for the writing of political pamphlets and satires. He started his career as an enthusiastic defender of the French Revolution. His first literary venture was an edition of Barlow’s “ Advice to the Privileged Orders in the Several States of Europe” (1792). This was followed (1801) by “State of the French Republic at the End of the Year 1800,” a trausla- tion from the French. In the same year he pub- lished “The Crimes of Cabinets, or a Review of the Plans and Aggressions for Annthilating the Liberties of France, and the Dismemberment of Her Territories.” So unpopular in England were the views which he held that the London booksellers scarcely dared to offer his books for sale. Being threatened with prosecution for this last work, he sought safety in flight, and went to Paris (1803). There he offered the French government the help of his pen against England. The offer was accepted, and resulted in the publication of an English journal at Paris—“ The Argus, or London Reviewed in Paris.” But there were limits to his denunciations, and because he refused to do as his employers wished. they negotiated with the English government to sur- render him in exchange for a French political pris- oner in England named Peltier. He continued to reside in France, however, and was taken back into the confidence of Napoleon, who employed him upon various secret missions. In 1809 he was con- veyed to England, formally tried for treason, and discharged. Embittered by the treacherous conduct of the French government, he started (1811) a Sun- THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 89 eS day newspaper called the “ Anti-Gallican Monitor » in which he denounced the French Revolution as Vio. Jently as he had formerly espoused it. He went go far as to propose the assassination of Napoleon. Jy his “Secret History of the Cabinet of Bonaparte» and his “Secret History of Bonaparte’s Diplomacy » he brought the most serious charges against hig former employer. Jn pursuance of his new policy he advocated the restoration of Louis XVIII, ang when this event took place that monarch rewardeg Goldsmith with a pension for life. The latter pay of his life was spent principally in Paris. He hag one daughter, Georgiana, who became the sccong Lady Lyndhurst. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Didot, Biographie Générale; J. H. Rose, Big. graphical Dictionary; Querard, La France Littéraire. Picciotto, Sketches of Anglo-Jewish History, pp. 230-23]: Dict. Nat. Biog. ‘ J. I. H. GOLDSMITH, MILTON: American merchant and author; bornat Philadelphia May 22, 1861. I 1877 he went to Europe and studied three years at Zurich. Goldsmith has written two novels: “ Rabb} and Priest,” 1891; “A Victim of Conscience,” 1908 and in addition several librettos for comic operas and several dramatic pieces. He has also contributed short stories to newspapers and poems to the mags. zines. A GOLDSMITHS AND SILVERSMITHS: The earliest descriptions of productions of the gold- smnith’s art refer to the work of Jewish. goldsmiths, The Bible, which coutains these descriptions, gives also the names of the workers—Bezaleel b, Uri and Aholiab b. Ahisamach (Ex. xxxi., xxxvi.). [mpor- tant as were their achievements, the Jewish gold- smith’s art did not reach its height until the time of King Solomon. Although he used foreign skill to a certain extent in the making of the utensils for his house and for the Temple, yet Hiram, the overseer of the whole work, was of Jewish extraction, at least on his mother’s side. Even after the downfall of the Jewish state Jewish goldsmiths were heard of everywhere. Thus the Talmud relates that the syn- agogue of Alexandria had a section reserved for gold- and silversmiths, just as for the other trades. It is also related of the Jewish tribe Kainuka‘ in north- ern Arabia in the sixth century, that it engaged in the goldsmith’s trade and in money-changing (Gratz, “Geschichte,” v. 84). In the eleventh cen- tury the Jewish goldsmiths in Languedoc bought the church treasure of Narbonne, and the tombstone of the goldsmith Joseph b. Joziz (1100) evidences the existence of Jewish goldsmiths in Spain (“C. J. H.’ No. 175). In the thirteenth century Jews carried 0 the goldsmith’s craft in England (Jacobs, “Jews of Angevin England,” p. 207; Levy, in “Jew. Chron.” April 4, 1902), and toward the end of the fourteenth century there were Jewish goldsmiths in Avignon, in the county of Venaissin (Bardinet, in “Rev. Hist.” 1880, Sept.-—Oct.), in Navarre, where in the larger towns like Tudela and Pan In the Mid- plona they had their own shops (Kay: die Ages. serling, “Die Juden in Navarra,” pP- 59, 73), and in Lyons, whence, how ever, they were expelied. The refugees from Lyons settled in Trevoux, whither they carried the art 0 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 7 and making it into wire (Depping, Mittelalter,” pp. 200 e¢ seq.). Jewish goldsmiths at this time in Castile may one of whom (Solomon) Ercole after he had gone over to Chris- for himself by his rich ornamen- “ Les Israélites de Constantinople ”), as ro were ainong the original inhabitants of Krem- a ankl-Griin, “Geschichte der Juden in Krem- i i. 10); there were many also in Poland (“ De- ee des Galizischen Landtags,” 1868, p. 72). Pe- AG Teixeira (Kayserling, in Benjamin, “ Acht Jahre in Asien und Afrika, ” p. 44) states they were also in Aleppo, and Leo Africanus (“ Africe Descriptio ay that they were in Morocco. There were goldsmiths also in Venice, and Lecky declares that many of those who cultivated the art of carving were Jews (* Rationalism in Europe,” ii. 287, note). In Rome, however, Jewish goldsmiths are first mentioned in 1726 (Vogelstein and Rieger, “ Geschichte der Juden in Rom,” ii. 821). There were numerous Jewish goldsmiths in Prague, where they formed a separate gild until the middle of the nineteenth century, just as did the Jewish shoemakers, tailors, and butchers (Jost, “Neuere Geschichte der Israeliten,” i. 341). Ac- cording to the gravestones in the old cemetery of Prague, twenty-one goldsmiths were buried there in the years 1601-1700, and twenty-six in 1701-80 (“Zeitschrift fiir die Geschichte der In More Juden in Deutschland,” v. 351), In Recent 1847 the Prague directory gave the Times. number of Jewish gold- and silver- smiths as twenty-one. In the seven- teenth century the French ambassador St. Olon found in Morocco “a comparatively large number of Jews, most of whom were goldsmiths” (Schudt, “ Jtidische Merckwtirdigkeiten,” i. 90). In the same century (1664), Jewish goldsmiths are spoken of in Poland, six of whom—among them a woman, Joze- fowa—met with a loss of more than 26,000 gulden by plunder at the time of the Jewish persecution in Lemberg (Caro, “ Geschichte der Juden in Lemberg,” pp. 74, 168 e¢ seg.). In the eighteenth century the Jews of Bucharest seem to have included many skilful goldsmiths (see Jew. Encyc. iii. 441-412). In Germany for a longer period than in any other Country Jews were strictly forbidden to practise any trade, and Jewish goldsmiths are mentioned only as living in Berlin, at the beginning of the eighteenth century (Geiger, “Geschichte der Juden in Berlin,” i. 26, 43); beyond Berlin they were found only in the former Polish provinces, in Posen as early as the seventeenth century; but they do not eG have been very numerous, since they did batehe 4 corporation as did the Jewish tailors, (Perl Ts, furriers, and haberdashers of that town “ries, In “ Monatsschrift,” 1864, p. 420, and 1865, p. ), oe one Jewish goldsmith, Baruch, soy Goldsmith, Lewis Goldstein, Joseph does appear in East Franconia, who, on being re- ceived in Schwarzach in 1587, promised to live only by his craft (" Monatsschrift,” 1880, p. 463). At present there are many Jewish goldsmiths in Russia, who, according to Rilf (* Drei Tage in Jiidisch-Russland,” pp. 55 et seg.), are highly skilled workers. The number is still greater in Rumania, where in 1879, in Bucharest, out of a total of 212 goldsmiths, 164 were Jews (Jacobs, “Jewish Statis- tics,” p. 26). In Jerusalem, where in 1865 L. A. Frankl found only five Jewish goldsmiths and sil- versmiths, the number has recently increased to twenty-seven (73.). According to Andree (“ Volks- kunde der Juden,” p. 191), Jewish goldsmiths and silversmiths are found in Benghazi (Barca), Jebel Ghurian, Bagdad, Arabia, and Persia. In 1898 eleven gold-workers belonged to the Jewish commu- nity in Berlin, forty-four to that in Vienna, For illustrations of the goldsmith’s and silver- smith’s art, relating to Jewish ceremonial, see the following articles: AMULET; BETROTHAL; BInp- ING; CIRCUMCISION; CROWN OF THE LAW; CUP; Estuer; Erroe; HaspaLaAH; HaANuKKAn; LAVER; ‘OMER; Passover; Rincs, ENGAGEMENT AND WEpD- DING; SABBATH; SCROLLS OF Law (for breastplates, mantels, and pointers); SEDER; SYNAGOGUE, BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. Wolf, EHtwas thher Jitidische Kunst und Aeltere Jlidische Ktinstler, Hamburg, 1901. A. A. W. GOLDSTEIN, EDUARD: Russian musician; born at Odessa 1851; died at Leipsic Aug. 8, 1887. He was an accomplished pianist at the age of thirteen, and obtained a position in the Italian opera-house of Kishinef. In 1868 he was sent to the Leipsic Conservatorium, where he studied under Moscheles and Reinecke. Goldstein graduated with honors in 1872, and soon afterward madea successful tour through Germany. In 1874 he returned to Odessa and became leader of the orchestra in the Berner Theater. Later he occupied for some time the position of director of the opera in Kharkof, and in 1876 went to St. Petersburg, where he soon attracted attention asa pianist. Goldstein struggled for official recognition for ten years, until Anton Rubinstein returned to the St. Petersburg Conserva- tory of Music as its director (1886) and appointed him professor of music and leader of the Philhar- monic Society. Goldstein wrote various songs and melodies, and began the composition of “Count Essex,” an opera, which he left unfinished. He was the musical critic of the “Golos” and the “ Pravi- telstvennyj Vyestnik.” BIBLIOGRAPHY: Ha-Asif, iv. 66-67. H, R. P. Wr. GOLDSTEIN, JOSEPH: Austrian cantor and composer; born at Kecskemét, Hungary, March 27, 1836; died in Vienna June 17, 1899. He occupied the position of chief cantor at the Leopoldstidter Tempel), the largest synagogue in Vienna, for forty years. He was one of the ten children of Hazzan Goldstein of Neutra, Hungary, who died when Joseph was buteleven. Attheage of twelve he was so well acquainted with the liturgy and possessed such a phenomenal tenor voice that the congrega- tion of Neutra elected him as his father’s successor, Goldstein Goldziher THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 34 SS ay ts aS ee Bg gg pr pe ee a ee oe ae OG egg Ife remained there for two years, and then made a four years’ tour through Austria and Germany, officiating in some of the largest congregations. Upon his return an admirer of his voice sent him to Vienna to be educated for the stage. On the com- pletion of his course, and when about to enter upon his first engagement in Florence, he decided to re- turn to the position of cantor, and received an ap- pointment at the Leopoldstidter Tempel in Vienna in 1857, retaining the position until his death. Among Goldstein’s published works are: “Shire Yeshurun,” a collection of songs for the Sabbath and festival service, 1865; a requiem, 1892; a col- lection of “ Festgesinge.” BIBLIOGRAPHY: Die Neuzeit; Ungarische Cantorenzeitung, June, 1899. 8, A. Kat. GOLDSTEIN, JOSEPH: Political economist and statistician; born in Odessa, Russia, Jan. 9, 1869. After completing his studies at the gymna- sium of his native town, he entered the technolog- ical institute in Carlsruhe, Baden, and took a diploma as chemist. He next studied political economy at the University of Munich, graduating (Ph.D.) in 1895. He continued his studies in England and France until 1898, when he was appvinted privat- docent in political science at the University of Zurich. In 1899 and 1900 he revisited France and England, and went to Russia in the winter of 1901- 1902, when he submitted to the Russian minister of commerce, W. Kowalewski, and to the minister of finance, at the request of the former, an expert opin- ion with reference to the renewal of the commercial treaty between Germany and Russia. Before re- turning he took the degree of A.M. at the Univer- sity of Moscow, which practically conferred upon him the right to lecture in any university in Russia. Goldstein’s “Deutschlands Sodaindustrie in Ver- gangenheit und Gegenwart,” Stuttgart, 1895, occa- sioned the introduction of a bill by the German gov- ernment effecting a50 percent reduction in the duty on soda. Among his other works may be men- tioned: “Berufsgliederung und Reichthum in Eng- land,” inaugural dissertation, 1897; “Die Zukunft Deutschlands im Lichte der Agrarischen Beweis- fiihrung,” 1898; “Dic Vermeintlichen und die Wirk- lichen Ursachen des Bevodlkerungsstillstandes in Frankreich,” 1898; “Die Statistik und Ihre Bedeu- tung ftir das Moderne Gesellschaftsleben,” 1899; “Bevélkerungsprobleme und Berufsgliederung in Frankreich,” 1900; “ Gewerbefreiheit und Ihre Licht- und Schattenseiten,” 1901. ‘ GOLDSTEIN, MICHAEL YULYEVICH: Russian chemist; born at Odessa 1858; educated in the Richelieu Gymnasium of Odessa, and graduated from the Medico-Surgical Academy of St. Peters- burg. In 1877 he went abroad and obtained the degree of doctor of philosophy. On his return he became assistant in chemistry in the St. Peters- burg medical academy. In 1880 Goldstein passed the examination for master of chemistry, and in 1890 obtained his degree, his dissertation being on the rise of salt-solutions in capillary tubes, “ Materialy K Voprosu o Vysotakh,” etc. In 1891 he became privat-docent in theoretical and physical chemistry | at the University of St. Petersburg, but in 1901 wa, compelled, by circumstances of a political natu to discontinue his lectures, The researches of Gotg. stein, mostly in theoretical and physical chemist; have been published in the folowing magazingg. “Zhurnal-Russkavo Fisiko-Khimicheskavo Obgh, chestva”; “ Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen @,, sellschaft ”; “ Annales de Chimie et Physique”; anq “Zeitschrift fir Physikalische Chemie.” Goldstejy also published in the “ Nauchnoe Obozryenie” fo, 1898-99 a portion of his work, “Elementy Filosog; Chimii,” on the elements of chemical philosophy. and, between 1894 and 1900, under the psecudonyy “ Cardanus,” several articles in the “Novosti.” has published in book form “Zhivoye i Mertvoe» (Living and Dead) and “ O Fisicheskom Dukhovnoy Vospitanii” (On Physicai and Intellectual Edueg. tion). He has translated into Russian Daneman’, sketches of the history of natural science, publisheg with supplementary notes in “Mir Bozhi,” 1897 At present he is the editor of the department of physics, chemistry, and technology of the “Bol. shaya Entziklopedia.” BIB TIOGRARIEY : Bolshaya Entziklopedia, vii., St. Petersburg H. R. J. G. L. GOLDSTUCKER, THEODOR: German San. skritist; born at Kénigsberg, Prussia, Jan. 18, 1821. died in London March 6, 1872. In 1840 he gained his degree of Ph.D. at Konigsberg University, where he first studied Sanskrit under Bohlen, con. tinuing his studies in that language at Bonn and Paris. In 1842 he published a German translation of the Sanskrit drama “ Prabodha-Chandrodaya” At Paris he collected materials foran extensive work on Indian philosophy and for a new edition of the great epic poem “ Mahabharata.” In 1850 he went to England, where he assisted Professor Wilson in preparing a new edition of his Sanskrit-English dic- tionary. This edition outgrew all practicable pro- portions, and, having reached page 480 without completing the first letter of the alphabet, it was abandoned. Goldstiicker was professor of Sanskrit at Univer- sity College, London, from 1851 until his death, and was the chief founder of the Sanskrit Text Society, established in 1866. He was also president of the Philological Society, and was well known in many of the literary societies of London. He left an edi- tion of the “Nyaya-mala-Vistara,” an important work on mimansa philosophy, and an edition of the “ Mahabhashya,” the well-known commentary 01 Panini’s grammar (London, 1874); he had previously written a monograph on Panini (1861). From 186? to 1868 Goldstiicker was a contributor to “ Chambers’ Encyclopedia” and the “Westminster Review." ilis essays were collected under the title “Literary Remains,” 1879. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Goldstticker’s Literary Remains, 1879: The Times, London, Mareh 12 and 14, 1872; Dict. Nat. Blog. Meyers Konversations-Lexthkon. J. G. L. GOLDSZMIDT, JOSEPH: Polish lawyer; born at Hrubieszow, government of Lublin, 1846; died 1896; graduate of the University of Wat saw. He wrote: “ Wizerunki Wslawionych ZydoW THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 35 cketches of famous Jews of the nine- century (Warsaw, 1867-68); a biography of pth cen vopwicz, in “ Tygodnik [lustrowany ”; ee ai Talmudic law, under the title veld pees Rozwodowego Podlug Ustaw aS ae -o-Talmudyeznych ” (¢. 1870); an essay MO) eS oats of the Jews in Spain, under the title on the St ani Pobytn Zydow w Hiszpanji” (@. : ee essaVv on marriage according to law and 1805 eau the title “O Malzenstwie pod Wzgle- custony nym iObyezajawym ” (¢b. 1874), He also dom navies many Jewish articles to “Izraclita.” eee ae HY: Eneyklopedya Powstechna, vi., Warsaw, 1900. Xl X Wieku. ; lee Lukas4 4 comment a G. LL. H. R. GOLDZIEHER, WILHELM: Hungarian ocu- + halmological writer, born at Kopesény es eae oe Jan. 1, 1849. He studied Seaaicine at Vienna, Berlin, Prague, and Heidelberg, graduating (M.D.) at Vienna Dec. 25, 1871. In 1874 ne settled in Budapest as an oculist ; was appointed privat-docent at the University of Budapest in 1878; and became professor in 1895. While a student he published an essay written by him in Helnholtz’s laboratory, “Zur Theorie des Elektrotonus,” in « Archiv fir Physiologie,” 1870. He has since writ- ten many monographs and articles for medical period- ‘cals. He is one of the chief contributors to Eulen- purg’s “Realencyclopadie der Medicinischen Wis- senschaften,” for which he prepares most of the ma- terial relating to practical ophthalmology. He also wrote “Die Therapie der Augenkrankheiten ” (1881 ; 2d ed., 1900), and “Szemészet Kézikényve ” (1890), a manual of ophthalmology written in Hungarian, the first work of the kind in that language. In April, 1903, he was decorated by the Austrian em- peror with the officer’s cross of the Order of Franz Joseph. BIBLIOGRAPHY : Ocsterreichische Wochenschrift, May 8, 1903. 8. W. B. GOLDZIHER, IGNAZ: WUungarian Oriental- ist; born in Stuhlweissenburg, Hungary, June 22, 1850; attended the gymnasium in his native town, and continued his studics at the universities of Bu- dapest, Berlin, Leipsic (Ph.D., 1870), and Leyden. In 1872 he became privat-docent at the University of Budapest. In 1873, commissioned by the Hun- garian government, he undertook a scientific jour- ney through Syria, Palestine, and Egypt, spending several months at the Azhar mosque in Cairo, where he attended the lectures of learned sheiks on Mo- hammedan theology and the science of law. In 1894 he was promoted to a professorship—the first Instance in the history of the Budapest University of a Jew being admitted to the faculty. Goldziher samember of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, corresponding member of the Imperial Academy of an Petersburg, honorary member of the Royal Asiatic ae of England, and corresponding member of Jewish Historical Society of England and of ae societies, He was appointed to rep- * seas Hungarian government and the Academy Msi é.g., at the first meeting of the the Oriental es Académies, held in Paris (1901). At ceived eh Congress in Stockholm (1889) he re- é large gold medal. He holds the office of Goldstein Goldziher secretary of the Jewish community at Budapest, and since 1900 has )cen leeturer on religious phi- losophy at the Budapest rabbinical seminary. Goldziher’s chief importance for Semitic history and philology rests on the fact that he was the first to give a critical history of Arabic traditions (“ Mu- hammedanische Studien,” ii.), and that his esti- mates of Arabic civil and religious law have withstood the test of criticism. He has likewise placed the various theolog- ical movements which have arisen within Islam in their true light, and _ his knowledge of ancient Arabic poetry has enabled him to make valuable — contribu- tions to the know}l- edge of pre-Moham- medan paganism. Jewish science is likewise indebted to him; he has pointed out the traces of Hebrew mythology in the Bible, and has presented comparative studies of Jewish and Arabic folk-lore and culture in the Middle Ages. Goldziher’s principal writings are the following: “Studien tiber Tanchum Jeruschalmi,” Leipsic, 1870; a second edition of Ballagi’s Hebrew gram- mar, Budapest, 1872; “ Beitriige zur Geschichte der Sprachgelehrsamkeit bei den Arabern,” in three parts, Vienna, 1871-73; “Beitrige zur Literatur- gesch. der Schi‘a,” 7b. 1874; “Der Mythos bei den Hebréern und Seine Geschichtliche Entwickelung,” Leipsic, 1876: English transl. by R. Martineau, “Mythology Among the Hebrews and Its Historical Development,” London, 1877; “Az Iszlam,” Buda- pest, 1881; “Die Zahiriten, Ihr Lehirsystem und Ihre Geschichte,” Leipsic, 1884; “ Muhammedanische Studien,” two vols., Halle, 1889-90; “Der Diw4n des Hoteia,” Leipsic, 1892; “Abhandlungen zur Arabischen Philologie,” two vols., Leyden, 1896- 1899; “Die Legende vom Monch Barsisa,” Kirch- hain, 1896; and many treatises on Oriental history and the science of religion, published in the col- lections of the Hungarian Academy. He has con- tributed numerous articles and reviews to German, French, Enghsh, and Hungarian periodicals, among which may be mentioned the following: “ Matcria- lien zur Kenntnis der Almohadenbewegung in Nord- afrika,” in “Z. D. M. G.” xli. 80-140; “Das Prinzip des Istishtb in der Muhammedanischen Gesetzes- wissenschaft,” in “W. Z. K. M.” i. 228-236; “Ara- bische Beitrage zur Volksetymologie,” in “Zeit- schrift fiir Vélkerpsychologie,” xviii. 69-82; “Tn- fluences Chrétiennes dans la Littérature Religieuse de 1’Islam,” in “Rev. de ) Histoire des Religions,” xviii. 180-199; “Das Arabische Original von Mai- muni’s Séfer Hammiswot,” in “W. Z. K. M.” iii. 77-85; “Muhammedanisches Recht in Theorie und Wirklichkeit,” in “Zeitschrift fir Verglei- Ygnaz Goldziher., Golem Goliath THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 3g Fe a a Ee a a ge ae ee eg ee be Oy ee ee ae a ge a eee av ee chende Rechtswissenschaft,” vili. 406-423; “Der Chatib bei den Alten Arabern,” to “ W. Z. Js. ML.” vi, 97-102: “Der Divan des Garwal b. Aus Al- Huteja,” in “Z. D. M. G.” xlvi. 1-53, 178-225, 471- 527; xlvii. 48-85, 163-201; “Le Dénombrement des Sectes Mohamétanes,” in “Rev. de VHistoire des Religions.” xxvi. 129-137; “La Notion de la Sakina chez les Mohamétans,” in 7}, xxviii, 1-18; “Salih b. ‘Abd al-Kudditis und das Zindikthum Wiihrend der Regierung des Chalifen Al-Mahdi,” in “ Transactions of the Congress of Oriental Languages,” 1892, ii. 104-129; “Mohammedan Propaganda in America” (Hungarian), in “Budapesti Szemle,” 1xxix. 45-60; “Sa‘d b. Mansfir ibn Kammifina’s Abhandlung tiber die Seele,” in “ Steinschneider Festschrift,” pp. 110- 114; “Neue Materialien zur Litteratur des Ueber- lieferungswesens bei den Muhammedanern,” in “Z. D. M. G.” 1, 465-506; “Ueber eine Formel in der Jiidischen Responsenlitteratur und in den Muham- medanischen Fetwas,” in “Z. D. M. G.” Ixxx. 645-652; “Die Sabbathinstitution im Islam,” in “Kaufmann Gedenkbuch,” pp. 86-102; “ Proben Muhammedanischer Polemik Gegen den Talmud,” in Kobak’s “ Jeschurun,” viii. 76, ix. 18; “Ibn Hud, the Muhammedan Mystic, and the Jews of Damas- cus,” in “J. Q. R.” vi. 218; “Bemerkungen zur Neuhebriischen Poesie,” in 7), xiv. 719; “Sa‘id b. Hasan d’Alexandrie,” in “R. E. J.” xxxi. 1; “Meé- langes Judéo-Arabes,” in 73. xliii, 1, xliv. 63, xiv. 1, xl vii. 41. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Brockhaus, Konversations-Lexikon ; Meyers Konversations-Lexikon; Pierer, Universal-Lexikon; Gu- bernatis, Dictionnaire International; Pallas Lex.; La Grande Encyclopédie. 8. M. Sc. GOLEM (pbs): This word occurs only once in the Bible, in Ps. cxxxix. 16, where it means “em- bryo.” In tradition everything that is in a state of incompletion, everything not fully formed, as a needle without the eye, is designated as “ golem” (“ Aruch Completum,” ed. Kohut, ii. 297). A. woman is golem so long as she has not conceived (Sanh. 22b; comp. Shab. 52b, 77b; Sanh. 95a; Hul. 25a; Abot v. 6; Sifre, Num. 158). God, father, and mother take part in the creation of the child: the skeleton and brain are derived from the father; the skin and muscles from the mother, the senses from God. God forms the child from the seed, putting the soulinto it. If the male seed is emitted first, the child is of the male sex; otherwise it is of the female sex (Nid. 31a). Although God impresses all men with the seal of Adam, there is no resemblance between any two of them (Sanh. 37a). In the womb the navel is first formed, and from this roots spread out, until the child is fully devel- oped. According to another opinion the head is first developed. The two eyes and the two nostrils of the embryo resemble the eyes of a fly; the aper- ture of the mouth is like hair (or a barleycorn). RK. Jonathan says: “The two arms are like two pieces of string; the other members are combined in a mass” (Yer. Nid. 50d; comp. Nid. 25a; Sotah 45b). Women that eat much mustard give birth to glut- tonous children; those that eat many dates, to blear- eyed children; those that eat much small fish, chil- Embryo. dren with unsteady eyes; those that eat cla, naughty children; those that drink beer, dark. skinned children; those that cat my Causes meat and drink much wine, heaitp Influencing chiJdren; those that eat many eggs the Embryo. children with large eyes; those that eg, much large fish, beautiful childrep. those that eat much celery or parsley, children wig, fine complexions; those that eat oleander, well-noyy, ished children; those that eat paradise-apples, fr. grant children (Ket. 6la), The same Babylonia, amora, of the fourth century, also indicates wh, epileptic and otherwise defective children are boy, (Brecher, “Das Transcendentale, Magie und Ma. gische Heilarten im Talmud,” pp. 174 et seg.). Moral not physical, reasons are given as the principal fae. tors in the birth of healthy or sickly children. De cent behavior produces male children (Sheb, 18p. comp. Nid. 71a), who are also regularly produceg under certain conditions (‘Er. 100b; B. B. 10b; Nig. 3la, b). A dwarf should not marry a dwarf (Bek 46a). Other references to the embryo are found jp Nid. 15a, 17a, 81b, 37b, 38a, 45b, 66a; Bezah %. Bek. 44b-45a; Hul. 127a; Ned. 20a; Pes. 112a, ang passim, Unfounded hatred causes abortion and the death of the child (Shab. 32b). The imagination of the ancient Israelites fre. quently turned to the birth of the first man, who was formed of dust and not born of woman, 4A principal passage reads as follows: “ How was Adam created? In the first hour his dust was collected. in the second his form was created; in the third he became a shapeless mass [golem]; in the fourth his members were joined; in the fifth his apertures opened; in the sixth he received his soul; in the seventh he stood up on his feet; in the eighth Eve was associated with him; in the ninth he was trans. ferred to paradise; in the tenth he heard God’s con- mand; in the eleventh he sinned; in the twelfth he was driven from Eden, in order that Ps. xlix. 18 might be fulfilled” (Ab. R. N., ed. Adam Schechter, Text A, i. 5; comp. Pesik. as Golem. R. ed. Friedmann, 187b, and note 7; Kohut, in “Z. D. M. G.” xxv. 13). God created Adam as a golem; he lay supine, reach- ing from one end of the world to the other, from the earth to the firmament (Hag. 12a; comp. Gen. R. viii., xiv., and xxiv.; Jew. Encyc. i. 175), The Gnostics, following Irenzeus, also taught that Adam was immensely long and broad, and crawled over the earth (Hilgenfeld, “ Die Jiidische Apokaly ptik,” p. 244; comp. Kohut, de. xxv. 87, note 1), Al beings were created in their natural size and with their full measure of intelligence, as was Adam (R. H. ila). According to another tradition Adam was only one hundred ells high (B. B. 75a); according t¢ a Mohammedan legend, only sixty ells (Kohut i.e. xxv. 75, note 5; the number “sixty ” indicate Babylonian influence). When he hid from the fact of God, six things were taken from him, one of thes being his size, which, however, will be restored % him in the Messianic time (Gen. R. xii.; Num. xiii. ; Kohut, Jc. xxv. 76, note 1; 91, note 8). Other conceptions, for instance, that Adam was created § hermaphrodite (see ANDROGYNOS), or with tw? faces (DIDO = detpdowroc: Gen. R. viii. 7), be THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 37 Golem Goliath ture of Gnosticism. For similar | Israel Ba‘al Shem-Tob, but apparently the claims litera ae Plato and Philo, see Freudenthal, views, &* ». Fellenistische Studien,” p. 69 (see ADAM). . G. Brecher, Das Transcendentale, Magie BIBLIOGRAPHY « Fiettarten im. Talmud, Vienna, 1850; A. Ko- und eee -Miriraschische Adamssage in Ihrer Jong to t a Tiseh oe : te Fos ut die Persische Yima-und Meshiasage, 5 uf. ‘ Riickt ed Si - 59-94: M. Grinbaum, Newe Beitrdige zur in Z.D. Me Sage nkunde. pp. d4 et seq. Leyden, 1893; JEW. Semitiscne Lii3; A. Hilgenfeld, Die Jtdische Apokalyptik, Eycyc. 1. 6 L. B. Jena. loo: E. C. In Medieval Times: In the Middle Ages anes the belief in the possibility of infusing life arose clay or wooden figure of a human being, es ficure was termed “golem” by writers of ye eighteenth century. The golem grew in size, nd could carry any message Or obey mechanically = order of its master. It was supposed to be ee by the aid of the “Sefer Yezirah,” that is, . ‘ combination of letters forming a “Shem” (any ope of the names of God). The Shem was written on a piece of paper and inserted either in the mouth or in the forehead of the golem, thus bringing it into life and action. Solomon ibn Gabirol is said to have created a maid servant by this means. The king, informed of this, desired to punish him, but Ibn Gabirol showed that his creature was not a real being by restoring every one of its parts to its origi- na] form. Elijah of Chelm, in the middle of the sixteenth century, was the first person credited with having made a golem with a Shem, for which reason he was known asa “Ba‘al Shem.” It is said to have grown to be a monster (resembling that of Franken- stein), which the rabbi feared might destroy the world. Finally he extracted the Shem from the forehead of his golem, which returned to dust (Azulai, “Shem ha-Gedolim,” i., No. 168). Elijah’s grandson, known as the “hakam Zebi,” was so con- vinced of the truth of this that he raised the ques- tion as to whether a golem could be counted as one ina “minyan” (quorum; Responsa, No. 93, Amster- dam, 1712; Baer Heteb to Shulhan ‘Aruk, Orah Hayyim, 55, 1). The best-known golem was that of Judah Léw b. Bezaleel, or the Golem of “hohe Rabbi Low,” of Prague (end of Hohe 16th cent.), who used his golem asa Rabbi Liw. servant on week-days, and extracted the Shem from the golem’s mouth every Friday afternoon, so as to lect it rest on Sab- bath. Once the rabbi forgot to extract the Shem, and feared that the golem would desecrate the Sab- bath. He pursued the golem and caught it in front of the synagogue, just before Sabbath began, and hurriedly extracted the Shem, whereupon the golem fell in pieces; its remains are said to be still among the débris in the attic of the synagogue. Rabbi Low 18 credited with having performed similar wonders before Rudolph II. (“ Sippurim,” p. 52; comp. Gans, i ue Dawid,” p. 46a, Frank fort-on-the-Main, a A legend connected with his golem is given _ man verse by Gustav Philippson in “ Allg. Zeit. des Jud.” 1841, No. 44 (abridged in “Sulamith,” ae 254; translated into Hebrew in “Kokebe Yiz- nak,” No. 28, p. 75, Vienna, 1862). a : 8 sometimes alleged that Elijah of Wilna also ace a golem, and the Hasidim claim the same for are based on the similarity in the one case of the name “Elijah” and in the other of the appellation “Ba‘al Shem” to the name and appellation of the rabbi of Chelm. The last golem is attributed to R. David Jaffe, rabbi in Dorhiczyn, in the government of Grodno, Russia (about 1800), This golem, unlike that of R. Léw, was not supposed to rest on Sab- bath. Indeed, it appears that it was created only for the purpose of replacing the Sabbath goy in heating the ovens of Jews ou winter Sabbaths. All orders to make fires were given to the golem on Friday, which he executed promptly but mechanic- ally the next day. In one case a slight error in an order to the golem caused a conflagration that des- troyed the whole town. From this story it becomes probable that the whole of the golem }egend is in some way a reflex of the medieval legends about Vergil, who was cred- ited with the power of making a statue move and speak and do his will. His disciple once gave orders which, strictly carried out, resulted in his destruction. The statue of Vergil saved an adul- teress, just as did the golem of R. Léw in Philipp- son’sabove-mentioned poem (J. A. Tunison, “ Mas- ter Virgil,” p. 145, Cincinnati, 1888). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Ha-Maggid, 1867, Supplement No. 42; Pasche- les, Sippurim, pp. 51-32, Prague, 1870; Rubin, Ma‘ase Ta‘atuim, p. 117, Vienna, 1887; Tendlau, Sagen und Le- genden der Jtidischen Vorzeit. J. J. D. E. GOLGOTHA (literally, “the skull”): Locality mentioned in the New Testament as the scene of Jesus’ execution (Matt. xxvii. 83 and parallels). The name is an Aramaic emphatic state, and corre- sponds to the Hebrew nbabs. In the Greek trans- literation of the Gospels the “1” iselided except in one manuscript (Codex Bez); “Golgotha ” is the proper form. It was outside the city wall (John xix. 20), near a tomb, a gate, and a road, and in a promi- nent position (Mark xv. 29, 40; John xix. 20, 41). Two places answer to this description: (1) The Church of the Holy Sepulcher, which is identified by tradition with Golgotha; it lay beyond the second wall and was near tombs and a road. F. IL. V. HEIL, WILLIAM §&.: American physi- n in Berlin Feb. 5, 1859; eldest is x : ottheil. He was educated at Chor!- epee eee Manchester, England; New are Eniversity, and Cornell University (A.B. } =9): and took his special training at the College of Pcacane and Surgeons, New York (M.D. 1882). From 1882 to 1883 he held the post of house surgeon of the Charity Hospital, New York; and from 1885 to 1888 he lectured on dermatology at the New York In 1890 Gottheil was appointed pro- athology at the New York College of Vet- pee Saerrd in 1893 professor of dermatol- pay ai the New York School of Clinical Medicine. In the following year he published a “ Manual of General Histology,” and in 1897 “Illustrated Skin Diseases.” Gottheil was editor of “ The Clinical Re- corder” in 1898, and has conducted the department of dermatology in “ Progressive Medicine.” He is consulting dermatologist of Beth Israel Hospital, and visiting dermatologist at the Charity and Leba- non hospitals, New York. In 1896 he was elected president of the Eastern Medical Society, and in 1899 president of the Manhattan Dermatological Society. A F. H. V. GOTTINGEN : City in the province of Hanover, Germany; formerly capital of the principality of Grubenhagen under the dominion of the Guelfic dukes. Jews settled in Gottingen in the thirteenth century, as is shown by a document dated March 1, 1289, by which Dukes Albrecht and Wilhelm per- mitted the council of the city to receive the Jew Moses and his legal heirs and grant them the rights of citizenship. On March 10, 1848, at the time of the Black Death, Duke Ernest issued a patent of protection to the Jews of Gdttingen; but they did not escape persecution. On Dec. 24, 13850, the house which had been the Jewish “Schule” was given to the city by the same duke. Jews settled once more in GOttingen, and the city council in 1370 announced its willingness to protect them, but de- manded that the Jews on their part should perform their civic duties. A Jew named From the Meyer is mentioned asof Géttingen in Thirteenth a record dated. Oct. 1, 1885; and in tothe 1894 three Jews lived in the city, and, Fifteenth according to an entry in the registry Century. of receipts, had to pay three marks annually as protection-money. The amount paid as protection-tax for the year 1899-1400 was 6 marks 14 pfennigs. When Duke William took over the government of the territory of Géttingen paid a 1437), and pledged himself to pay 10,000 aa or the debts and engagements of Duke Otto, the es to the latter the Jewish protection-money, ae . of Gottingen, as regards the Jewish tribute, S excluded from the agreement. , atone of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries cde lan seen of a long and a short Jews’ street ‘i ee oedenstrate, “de _korte Joedenstrate ” ; as also called “die Kipper”). The houses mo Gott cian: bor Polyclinic. were often damaged, especially on New-Year's eve and Shrove Tuesday, when the young members of the Bourse Society, whose place of meeting was in the neighboring Barfiissenstrasse, went through the city committing all sorts of depredations, until the Jewsappealed tothe magistracy for aid. In 1447 they obtained a decree to the effect that the depre- dations against them should cease; and in return each Jewish house and the Jewish school paid a stoop and a half of wine to the members of the Bourse. On July 11, 1457, the council of Gottingen ap- plied to the council cf Hildesheim in behalf of the Jew Nahman Cynner for a safe-conduct for his mother, Gele Cynner, and his sister, who desired to sojourn for two months in Hildesheim. Jn the lat- ter city, also, lived Meier (Meyer, Meyger, Meiger) of Gottingen (1423-47), and a woman from Gottingen called “ Michelsche ” (1429-34). When on June 28, 1591, Duke Heinrich Julius issued an edict revoking the protection and safe-conduct even of those Jews whose patents explicitly extended over a longer period, the council of Gottingen tried From the to defend its rights. On Ang. 13 of Fifteenth the same year it addressed to the gov- to ernor, chancellor, and counselors at the Eight- Wolfenbiittel a remonustrance concern- eenth ing the proposed expulsion of the Century. Jews, in which it pointed out that by the charter granted to the prece- ding council there were still some years of sojourn legally due to these Jews, and that, moreover, the proposed expulsion would be a hardship for the in- digent citizens of G6ttingen in that it would not al- low them sufficient time to redeem their pledges from the Jews. The governor, V’olf Ernst, Count of Stolberg, senta very ungracious answer (Aug. 18). In the following century only a few Jews lived in G6ttingen, among them Eliezer Liepmann Géottin- gen, father of Judah Berlin (Jost Liebmann) and of Rabbi Wolf, author of “ Nahalat Binyamin.” One of his two sisters was Leah, mother of Liepmann Cohen (Leffmann Behrens) of Hanover. The seven Jews enumerated by Freudenthal in “ Monats- schrift,” 1901, p. 480, as having attended the Leip- sic fairs between the years 1678 and 1699, probably lived in Géding, Moravia. The respected Gum- precht ha-Levi (c. 1720) and Elijah Magdeburg (c. 1737) lived in Gottingen. The latter is landed asa benefactor by Wolf Ginzburg, who studied medi- cine in the same place. Light is thrown on the social conditions existing at the beginning of the eighteenth century by an edict promulgated Jan. 5, 1718, which declared that no Jew could own a house in the duchies of Gét- tingen and Grubenhagen. During the first few years after the founding of Géttingen University (1787) there were only three Jewish families -in the city; and the authority of the university was requisite for the issue of almost all patents of pro- tection. Gradually the number of Hebrews in- creased to ten or eleven families. In 1786 the Gét- . tingen Jews held a patriotic celebration at the “ festival of thanksgiving for the deliverance of his Majesty . . . George III.” Géttingen Gottschalk THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 54 ee ee ee yw ws ae Py eae a ep gt ES Sr ee ee ae a ye Sy ade ee ee tp Most of the Jews of Géttingen attained a certain prosperity through their financial dealings with the students, to whom they gave credit and loaned money on pledges, although they were forbidden, under penalty of losing their right of protection, to go to the students’ rooms, or to address them on the street orin public places in regard to money mat- ters. As certain Jews were accused of having con- tributed to the ruin of students by advancing money for which the notes given by the latter ex- ceeded the amount actually received, it was decreed in 1796 that only three Jewish families might live in the university city. The chancellor (“ Grossvogt ”), Von Beulwitz, energetically executed this decree, expelling even those against whom no complaint had ever been made. At the time of the Franco-Westphalian dominion (1806-138) Reuben Meyer from Gottingen was one of the Jewish deputies presented to Min- In ister Siméon by Jacobson at Cassel. the Nine- In 1812 the district (“Syndikat”) of teenth Gottingen included about 160 families, Century. of which only three were resident in the city itself. August Wilhelm Ni- ander, ecclesiastic historian, formerly David Mendel, was born in Gottingen. Moritz Abraham Stern, appointed professor of mathematics at Géttingen University in 1859, was the first Jew to be appointed to a full professorship ina German university. In 1902 there were 600 Jews in the community of Gét- tingen, which now includes the towns of Gaismar and Roésdorf, and belongs itself to the district rabbin- ate of Hildesheim. The present rabbiis Dr. B. Jacob. He was preceded by Dr. Loevy. Persons bearing the name “ Géttingen” have lived in various places, e.g., in Frankfort-on-the-Main, Halberstadt, Ham- burg, Altona, Hildesheim, and Hanover. The community possesses a synagogue and the fol- lowing institutions: Israelitischer Briderschafts- vereir, which cures for the sick and buries the dead; Israelitischer Frauenverein; and Benfey’sches Stipendium, for the support of the poor and of stu- dents. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zeif- und Geschicht-Beschreihbung der Stadt Gottingen, Hanover and Géttingen, 1754, part i., book it., p. 61; 1786, part ii., book i, p. 63; Jung, De Jure Recipiendi Judcwos, p. 150, Gottingen, 1741; Beitriige zur Statistth von Gittingen, pp. 65, 246 et seq., Berlin, 1785; Awuszug aus Hini- gen Chur-Haimnoverischen Landes-Ordnungen Besttitigten Statuten und Observanzen der Stadt Gottingen, 1790, p. 57, 8 164; p. 58, 3 165b (Zinsen der Jude); Billerbeck, Geseh. der Stadt Gottingen, W9T, p. 25; Brandes, Ueber den Gegen- wéirtigen Zustand der Universitédt Gottinyen, 1802, pp. 294, 298 ; Cohen, Ueher die Lage der Juden, etc., p. 17, Hanover, 1832: Schmidt, Urkundenbuch der Stadt Gottingen bis zum Jethre 1400, passim; idem, Urkundenhuch der Stadt Got- tingen vom Jahre 1401 bis 1500, p. 127, Nos. 179, 419, note 33; Oesterley, in Hannoverisches Magazin, 1836, No. 83, p. 659; Havemann, Gesch. der Lande Braunschweig wid Liine- burg, i. 637; idem, in Zeitschrift dex Historischen Vereins ftitr Niedersachsen, 1857, p. 206; Wiener, in Jahrbuch fiir die Gesch. der Juden, i. 170, 173, 213 (ote 7), 214 (note 12); idem, in Zeitschrift des Histor. Vereins filr Niedersachsen, 1861, pp. 260, 287; Hansische Geschichtsblidtter, 1878, p. 13; Doebner, Urkundenbuch der Stadt Hildesheim, iv. and vi., passim; vii., No. 277; Thimme, Dic Inneren Zustdinde des Kurfiirstentums Hannover, ete., 1895, it, 229+; Horwitz, Die [sraeliten unter dem Kénigreich Westfalen, pp. 9, 99: Bodemeyer, Die Juden, 1855. p. 7; Landshuth, Toledot An- she Shem, p. 2; Kaufmann, Die Memoiren der Glilckel von Hamelin, 1645-1719, p. 79, remark 1; Lewinsky, in Monats- schrift, 1900, p. 872; Jacob Emden, She’ilat Ya'‘bez, i., re- sponsum 41; Maggid, Sefer Toledot Mishpahot Ginzburg, p. 52, St. Petersburg, 1899; Roest, Cat. Rosenthal. Bibl. i. 677, s.v. Levy: Horowitz, Frankfurter Rabbiner .. . tii. 95, iv. 35; idem, Die Inschriften des Alten Friedhofs der Israclitischen Gemeinde zu Frankfurt-a.-M. p. 708, gy Gottingen and Gautingen; Auerbach, Geach. der Targg. litischen Gemeinde Halberstaadt, p. 107, Halberstadt, 1866, G. A. Lew, GOTTLIEB, ABRAHAM: Civil engineer ang contractor; born at Tauss, Bohemia, June 17, 1837. died in Chicago, IL, Feb. 9, 1894. Gottlieb grad. uated from the University of Prague in 1861, ang was at once employed on the Kaiser Francis-Joseph Railroad, then in process of construction. Though pronioted to the position of principal assistant to the chief engineer of construction, he emigrated in 186¢ to the United States and settled in Chicago, Il,, where, in 1868, he was appointed chief engineer of the American Bridge Works. In 1873 Gottlieb became Western agent of the Keystone Bridge Company; in 1877 he was elected president of the company, removing to Pittsburg, During his presidency he constructed the Susque. hanna River bridge at Havre de Grace for the Balti. more and Ohio Railroad; the Point Pleasant bridge over the Ohio River for the Ohio Central Railroad; the Plattsmouth bridge over the Missouri River for the Burlington and Missouri River Railroad (the first steel-truss bridge erected in America); the Missouri River bridge at Blair Crossing, Nebraska; the New River Viaduct for the Cincinnati Southern Railway; the Monongahela River bridge at Pitts. burg for the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago and St. Louis Railroad; the Madison Avenue bridge, New York city; the train-shed at Broad Street Station, Philadelphia; the Mexican Government Ex- position and Mining Building at the New Orleans Exposition; the Sixth Avenue Elevated Railroad, New York city; and the New York approach to the East River bridge. In 1884 Gottlieb resigned the presidency and re- turned to Chicago to engage in civil engineering and contracting and to act as consulting engineer and Western agent of the Edgemoor Bridge Works. In Chicago he supplied the ironwork for the Ma- sonic Temple, the Tattersall Horse Market, and the Administration and Fine Arts buildings of the Columbian Exposition. In 1890, when work on the World’s Fair was begun, Gottlieb was appointed consulting engincer, and was afterward appointed chief engineer of the construction department, which position he resigned in September, 1891, when his plans had been largely carried out and the more important buildings eventually erected in Jackson Park were well under way. Gottlieb became a member of the American Soci- ety of Civil Engineers in 1872, and at the time of his death was one of its directors; he wasa charter mem- ber and twice president of the Engineers’ Socicty of Western Pennsylvania; president of the Western Society of Engineers; president of Rodeph Shalom congregation of Pittsburg; and president of Zion congregation, Chicago. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Transactions of American Society of Civil Engineers, 1891; Columbian Exposition Dedication Ceré monies, Chicago, 1898 ; Joseph Stolz, In Memoriam of Abra- ham Gattlieh, Chieago, 1894. A. J. STo. GOTTLOBER, ABRAHAM BAER (pseudo- nyms, Abag and Mahalalel): Russian-Hebrew poet and author; born at Starokonstantinov, Volhynia, THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 55 1811; died at Byelostok April 12, 1899. -was a cantor who sympathized with the His fathet : dv Gott] ‘ ogressive mov ement, and young Gott ober was red ted in that spirit to the extent of receiving educa tion in Biblical and modern Hebrew as an jnstrucho : rs ddition to the usual Talmudical studies. At the ‘ of fourteen he married the daughter of a wealthy aad ” in Chernigov, and settled there. When his ot inclination for secular knowledge became known, his father-in- law, on the advice of a Hasidic rabbi, caused the young couple to be divorced, and Gott- lober, who had joined the Hasidim after his marriage, now became their bitterenemy. He married again, but found his second wife unbearable and soon divorced her. In 1830 he married for the third time and settled in Kre- menetz, where he formed a lasting acquaintance with Isaac Bir Lewinsohn. Gottlober traveled and taught from 18386 to 1851, when he went to Jitomir and passed the teachers’ examinations at the rabbinical school. After teach- ing for three years at a government school for Jewish boys in Kamenetz- Podolsk, he was transferred to a similar position in his native city, where he remained for about eleven years. In 1865 he became a teacher in the rabbin- ical school in Jitomir, and remained there until it was closed by the government in 1873. He then set- tled in Dubno with his son-in-law, Bornstein, who was the official rabbi of that town. Thence he re- moved to Kovno, and subsequently to Byelostok, where the aged poet, who in later years had become blind, ended his days in poverty and neglect. Gottlober was a prolific writer and one of the fore- most of Neo-Hebrew pocts. The first collection of his poems, which was entitled “Pirhe ha-Abib,” ap- peared in Yozefov in 1886. A second collection, en- titled “Ha-Nizanim” (Wilna, 1850), was followed by “‘Anaf ‘Ez Abot,” three poems, on the death of Emperor Nicholas I., on the peace of 1856, and on the coronation of Alexander II., respectively (db. 1858). Soon afterward he visited Austria, where he published “Shir ha-Shirim,” a translation of a Passover sermon delivered by Adolph Jellinek (Lem- berg, 1861), and “Mi-Mizrayim,” a translation of Ludwig August Frankl’s account of his travels in the Orient, with an appendix by Max Letteris (Vienna, 1862). His next important work was the “ Bikkoret le-Toledot ha-Kara’im,” a critical investigation of the history of the Karaites, with notes by Abraham Firko- vich (Wilna, 1865), In the same year were published his Yerushalayim,” a translation of Mendelssohn’s ao with an introduction, and his allegor- a Graina “Tif’eret li-Bene Binah” (Jitomir, 1867), oe after Moses Hayyim Luzzatto’s “La-Ye- : un Tehillah.” His “Iggeret Za‘ar Ba‘ale Hay- yim" (7. 1868) is a polemic against Kovner’s critical Jan. 14, Abraham Baer Gottlober. Traveling and Teaching. Géttingen Gottschalk work “Heker Dabar.” His “Toledot ha-Kabbalah weha-Hasidut” (2). 1869), which purports to be a history of Cabala and of Hasidism, is His Works. only a diatribe against Cabala in which the history of Hasidism is scarcely mentioned. He also wrote several short Hebrew novels, and translated Lessing’s “ Nathan der Weise,” to which he added a biography of the author (Vienna, 1874). Gottlober was the founder and editor of the He- brew monthly “ Ha-Boker Or,” to which some of the best contemporary writers contributed poems, arti- cles, and stories. It had an interrupted existence of about seven years, first appearing in Lemberg (1876- 1879) and then in Warsaw (1880-81), in which place also the last five numbers were issued in 1885-86, His most important contribution to this magazine was undoubtedly his autobiography “Zikronot mi- Yeme Ne‘urai,” containing much material for the culture-history of the Jews of Russia, which was re- printed in book form at Warsaw, 1880-81. The last collection of his poems is entitled “Kol Shire Mahalalel,” 3 vols., Warsaw, 1890. Like Levinsohn, Gordon, and other leaders of the progressive movement, Gottlober wrote in Yiddish for the masses. Among his works in that dialect are: “Das Lied vun’m Kugel,” Odessa, 1868; “Der Seim,” Jitomir, 1869; “Der Decktuch,” a comedy, Warsaw, 1876; and “Der Gilgul,” Warsaw, 1896. Most of these works were written a Jong time be- fore the dates of their publication. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Ha-Asif, iii. 430-489; Sefer Zikkaron, p. 14, Warsaw, 1890; Ahiasaf, 5660 (= 1900), pp. 386-388: Sokolov, Sefer ha-Shanah, 5660, pp. 808-314; Wiener, Yiddish Liter- ature in the Nineteenth Century, Index, New York, 1899. H. R. P. Wu. GOTTSCHALK, LOUIS MOREAU: Ameri- can pianist; born at New Orleans May 8, 1829; died at Rio de Janeiro Dec. 18, 1869. He completed his musical education at Paris (1841-46), and was but sixteen when he wrote his well-known compositions “Le Bananier,” “La Savane,” “La Bamboula,” and “La Danse Ossianique.” From 1845 to 1852 he made successful tours through France, Switzerland, and Spain. In 1853 he traveled through many parts of the United States, playing and conducting his own compositions; and such was the success of these concerts that Max Strakosch engaged him fora tour extending through the United States, the West Indies, and Spanish America. Among other deco- rations, Gottschalk was honored with the Order of Carlos ITT., presented to him by the Spanish minis- ter at Washington at the request of Queen Isabella. Gottschalk was the first American pianist to at- tain to cosmopolitan fame. The original element in his compositions was derived from the Spanish, Cuban, and negro folk-songs, and certain dances, which he had heard in his boyhood; and this mate- rial he skilfully developed into a distinctive genre. His principal orchestral works are: two operas, “Charles IX.” and “Isaura de Salerno” (never per- formed); two symphonies, “La Nuit des Tropiques ” and “Montevideo”; “Gran Marcha Solemne” (to the Emperor of Brazil); “Escenas Campestres Cu- banas”; and “Gran Tarantella.” His pianoforte works, about ninety in number, include: “Jota Ara- Gottstein Government THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 356 ae Re ee ge TE a eg ee ee a eg eg eae Tt GN ee Roe PS pee, gonesa” (banjo), “Caprice Espagnol,” “Caprice Americain,” “Last Hope,” “Marche de Nuit,” “Marche Solennelle,” “Berceuse,” and “ Pasqui- nade.” BIBLIOGRAPHY: Luis Ricardo Fors, Gottschalk (in Spanish), Havana, 1880; W. J. Henderson, in the Nation, xxxiv. 16; Music, ii. 117-182 ; Baker, Bioy. Dict. of Musicians. s. J. So. GOTTSTEIN, ADOLF: German physician; born at Breslau Nov. 2, 1857. He was educated at the gymnasium of his native town, and at the uni- versities of Breslau, Strasburg, and Leipsic, obtain- ing from the last-named the degree of doctor of medicine in 1881. In the same year he became as- sistant at the hospital of the city of Breslau, which position he resigned in 1883. He then removed to Berlin, where he is still practising (1902). He has written several essays in the medical jour- nals, especially on bacteriology and epidemiology. Gottstein is also the author of “ Epidemiologische Studien tiber Diphtherie und Scharlach,” Berlin, 1895, and of “ Allgemeine Epidemiologie,” Leipsic, 1897. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Pagel, Biographisches Lexikon, s.v. S. F. T. H. GOTTSTEIN, JACOB: German pibysician; born at Lissa, Austria, Nov. 7, 1882; died at Bres- lau, Prussian Silesia, Jan. 10, 1895; graduated (M. D.) from the University of Breslau in 1856. Gott- stein devoted himself especially to diseases of the throat and ear, giving up his general practise in 1864. Admitted in 1872 to the medical faculty of his alma mater as privat-docent, he received the title of professor in 1890. He is the author of “Die Krankheiten des Kehlkopfes und der Luft- rohre,” Vienna and Leipsic, 1st ed. 1884, 4th ed. 1893, Among his contributions as a specialist to the medical journals may be mentioned: “ Ueber Ozaena und eine Einfache Behandlungsmethode Dersel- ben,” in “Berliner Klinische Wochenschrift,” 1878; “Ueber die Abtragung der Adenoiden Vegetation,” ib, 1886. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Pagel, Biographischer Lexikon, s.v. S. F. T. H. GO6TZ, JOSEPH ISSACHAR BAER BEN ELHANAN : German rabbi; born at Frank fort-on- the-Oder about 1640; died at Jerusalem after 1701. In 1675 he was rabbi of his native town, and in 1687 became rabbi of Kremsir, in Moravia, where in 1694, with David Oppenheim as associate rabbi, he organ- ized the district rabbinate. In 1696 he resigned the rabbinate of Kremsir, and started toward Jern- salem by way of Nikolsburg and Vienna. At Vienna he spent a short time at the house of Samson Wertheimer. Leaving Vienna, he spent two years at Venice before reaching Jerusalem. He wrote: “ Arba‘ Harashim,” cabalistic discourses and com- ments on the earlier Prophets, Frankfort-on-the Oder, 1680; “Sheloshah Sarigim,” comments on the Haftarct, Venice, 1701. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Frank!-Griin, Gesch. der Juden in Kremsier, p. 81, Breslau, 1896: Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 1455; Bu- ber, Kiryah Nisgabanh, p. 49, Cracow, 1903. K. B. FR. GOUDCHAUX, ABRAHAM. See METz, Ty. POGRAPHY. GOUDCHAUX, MICHEL: French statesmap. born at Nancy March 18, 1797; died at Paris Dep 27, 1862. After having been established for some time as banker in his native town, he settled jy Paris in 1826. His reputation for probity and phj. lanthropy won for him the confidence of his corelig. ionists in Paris, and he was soon elected vice-pregj. dent of the Central Consistory of France. A democrat by nature and education, Goudchaux was s00n ip. volved in the political movements of his time, ang became one of the founders of the “ National,” g paper established in the interests of the workin classes. He took an active part in the Revolutioy of July (1830), and foughtat the barricades. In 183; the government of Louis Philippe appointed him paymaster-general at Strasburg, a position which he resigned in 1834, being dissatisfied with the pol. icy of the government. In 1848, urged by Lamar. tine and Arago, Goudchaux accepted the portfolio of minister of finance in the provisional government, but resigned his office ten days later. Recalled by General Cavaignac, he remained in the ministry until Dec. 20 of the same year. As the representa- tive of Paris in the Constituent Assembly, he op. posed the politics of the Elysée. Jn 1857 he was elected deputy to the legislature, but did not take his seat because of his refusal to swear allegiance to Napoleon ITT. BIBLIOGRAPHY : La Grande Eneyclopédie ; Carmoly, in Arch, isr. 1863, p. 608, where the year of Goudchaux’s birth is given as 1789; Univ. Isr. 1868, p. 200. 8. T. Br. GOUDSMIT, JOEL EMANVEL: Dutch ju- rist; born in Leyden June 13, 1818; died there March 17, 1882. He graduated in law May 12, 1842. Alter practising Jaw for some time he was, on the rec- ommendation of his former teacher, Van Assen, ap- pointed professor of Roman law at the University of Leyden (Dec. 31, 1858). As a writer Goudsmit is especially known through his “Pandect System,” the first volume of which appeared in 1866, the second in 1880. This work was never completed; it was the first to treat the system in the Dutch language, and was translated into the French, Eng- lish, and Russian languages. In 1873 Goudsmit made a tour of the United States, and described his impressions and experiences, especially those of New York, in “De Gids,” 1874, it. 79. THe was made a member of the Dutch Royal Academy of Sciences, the Utrecht Society, the Society of Liter- ature (Leyden), and the Academy of Jurisprudence (Madrid), and a knight of the Order of the Nether- lands Lion. Goudsinit was also active in all Jew- ish matters; in 1863 he addressed an open letter on the Jewish question to J. J. L. van d. Brugghen, and he also exerted his efforts in behalf of the Jews of Rumania. He was president of the board of examiners of rabbis and Hebrew teachers in Ley- den, and chairman of the Society for the Promotion of the Interests of the Jews of Holland. BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. A. Levy, in Mannen van Beteekenis i Onze Dagen; Allg. Zeit. des Jud. 1882, pp. 231-232; A- Winkler Prins, Geillustreerde Encyclopedie, vii. 8. A. RB. GOURD, See Borany, THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 57 GOVERNMENT. Biblical Data: The only od of political institution extant among the kip ites before the time of the Kings was the divi- Jsrae : to tribes, according to tradition twelve in ce es corresponding to the sons of Jacob, who oD ded as the respective progenitors of the were regar : . se Organized, therefore, like the modern Bed- tribes. pastoral Hebrews held the theory, also ouins, the pastoral Hebrews held t y; nd in the genealogies of the ancient Arabs, that Lee > grows into the clan by natural accessions ; the family : . the clan develops into the tribe; and the tribe be- comes & people and splits up into several constitu- ent tribes. This theory is based among the He- prews and Arabians on the correct assumption that the tribe is not held together by some external bond of union, but primarily by the sense as blood relation- ship. “Our blood has been spilled,” they say when one of them has been slain; and the duty of aven- cing the blood was originally not confined to the next “ kin, in the true sense of the word, but was ip- cumbent upon all the members of the tribe. Blood relationship, however, was not necessarily natural ; st was regarded as existing also among persons that had entered into the “blood covenant.” The family also enlarges through the acquisition of slaves, the accession of freedmen, and the absorp- tion of isolated families; all these “artificial ” adop- tions, taking the tribal name, regard and revere the father of the tribe as their progenitor, Tribes hav- ing their fixed pasture districts entertain close rela- tions with neighboring clans and families that share with them the privileges of watering their flocks at certain wells. Moreover, a permanent or accidental community of other interests occasionally unites entire tribes into one body, called “hilf,” existing for a longer or shorter period. . Sheshet in his responsa. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Weiss, Dor Dor we-Dorshaw, 1. 161: Nel- bauer, Cat. Bodl. Hebr. MSS. No. 22184; Zunz, Notes 0% Benjamin of Tudeta, ed. Asher, ii. 5. G. M. SEL. GRACIAN, SOLOMON BEN MOSES (HEN): Talmudist of Barcelona; lived at the end of the thirteenth and beginning of the fourteentl centuries; died in 1807. He was one of the sy2 that signed with R. Solomon b. Adret the decree ° excommunication against Maimonides’ partizat’ THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 63 s also one of those who, after Bedersi’s Iet- U ae tried vo reconcile the two parties (see oe . EXC. ii. 626). His name occurs three times in Minbat Kena’ot,” under letters 81, 83, and 87. ca pacny: Minhat Kena’ot, letters 81, 83, 87; Gratz, BIBLIO ad. fuden, 3d ed., vil. 241, oo M. SEL. “ RACIAN, ZERAHIAH BEN ISAAC BEN sHEALTIEL (HEN): Physician, philosopher, nsiator, Hebraist; flourished about the end of a thirteenth century; born either at Barcelona or Confounded with Zerahiah b. Isaac ha- Grace Gradis BIBLIOGRAPHY : Steinschneider, Hebr. Uebers. pp. 111-114, 125, 146, 160, 262, 205, 652, T64, 765; idem, Hebr. Bibl. iv. 125, viii. 89, X. 50, xi. 42, 91, 186, xii. 43, 47, xvi. 86; Zunz, G. S. iii, 269; idem, Notes on Benjamin of Tudela. ed. Asher, ii. 32; Ozar Nehmad, ti. 229-245, iti. 109-111; Geiger. in Jitd. Zeit. vii. 149; Carmoly, Revue Orientale, i. 448-445: Michael, Or ha- Hayyim, p. 370; Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, pp. 337, 338. G. M. SEL. GRADIS: Name of a family of prominent mer- chants in southern France, originally from Spain; flourished in Bordeaux in the eighteenth century. The following family tree indicates the relationship of the members of the great Bordeaux firm: Diego Gradis (1650) = Sara Henriques Bocarro Antoine = .... Mendes Samuel = .. Abraham (d. 1738) Benjamin Moses II. (d. 1825) Abraham parid II. (1742-1811) Benjamin the .. Mendes David (d. 1751) = .... Mendes Moses (d. 1788) Abraham Samuel (d. 1780) (d. 1732). Jacob Younger (1789-1858) Benjamin the Elder Esther = Isaac (b. 1780) Rodrigues Henry Moses | Hippolyte Esther Eugenia, = Halévy authoress (the (°° Mary composer) Fitzgerald ’’) Levi Saladin, a translator. Zerahiah went to Rome about 1277, and wrote all. his works there before 1290. In writing to the physician Hillel of Verona e makes the point that while commenting upon h kes tl t that whil t the difficult passages of the “Moreh” he followed the criticisms of Nahmanides. It may be inferred from his commentary to Job that Arabic was his native language. He wrote a philosophical com- mentary to Proverbs, finished Nov. 28, 1288; an- other to Job, in which he derives many words from the Arabic. Both commentaries were published by Schwarz: the former in “Ha-Shahar” (ii. 65-80, 105-112, 169-176, 209-240, 281-288, 300-314) under the title of “Imre Da‘at”; the latter in his “Tikwat Enosh” (Berlin, 1868). He wrote also a commen- tary on difficult passages of the “Moreh” of Mai- monides, comparing the work with that of Aristotle. Zerahiah was a prolific translator from Arabic into Hebrew of philosophical and medical works. Among his translations are the following: ‘ (1) Aristotle's ** Physics’? under the Hebrew title ‘Sefer ha- = ; i) ‘* Metaphysics *? under the title of ‘* Mah she-Ahar oe ’; (8) “De Colo et Mundo” under the title of ** Ha- Shamayim weha-“Olam’’; (4) ‘*De Anima’ under the title of Bie! ha-Nefesh”’; (5) “De Causis” under the title of “ Ha- oe ha-Gamur’”’; (6) Averroes’ Middle Commentaries i Aristotle’s Physics,” ‘* Metaphysics,’? and ‘De Ccelo et =a and the commentary of Themistius to the last-named : a) the first two books of Avicenna’s ‘Canon’; (8) Al- Pity Ns “Risalah fl Mahiyyat al-Nafs’ (Treatise on the Sub- Mite of the Soul), the Hebrew title of which is ** Ma’mar be- tase ha-Nefesh ” (published by Edelmann in his “* Hemdah Hier, Konigsberg, 1856); (9) a medical work of Galen * Ha the title of ** Sefer he-Hola’im weha-Mikrim ’ (The Book Ishak (are and Accidents), from the Arabic of Hunain ibn titie in 7 three chapters of Galen’s Karayery%, with the same ae ebrew characters: (11) Maimonides’ treatise on sexual ne ei (Fi al-Jima‘’’); (12) the ** Aphorisms ” of Maimone- ie Musa”), terminated at Rome in 1277. Zerahiah’s O08 Were mostly ade for Shabbethai b. Solomon in 1284, H. Gor, David Gradis: Naturalized in Bordeaux in 1781; died in 1751. In 1696 he had established the great mercantile house whose trade relations extended to England, Holland, southern France, Canada, and the French West Indies, nearly all the transoceanic trade being in its hands. In return for sugar and indigo, the firm exported to Cayenne, Martinique, and Santo Domingo cargoes of alcohol, linen, meal, pickled meat, and wine. ‘The serious financial crises of the years 1715 and 1719 did not materially in- jure any of the firm’s commercial interests. In 1724 David Gradis, known as “ the Portuguese merchant,” opened a branch in Santo Domingo, despite the antagonism toward Jews on the island, where the Jesuits held sway. The influence of the firm of Gradis soon stifled all race feeling, and when Samuel Gradis, son of David and the representative of the family at St. Pierre, Martinique, died there, in 1782, he was buried in the garden of the Brothers of Mercy. Abraham Gradis: Eldest son of David, who on his father’s death became the senior member of the firm. He isdescribed asaman of great genius, who not only maintained but vastly increased the pres- tige of the firm of Gradis in the commercial world. He became intimate with personages of the highest official rank, M. Maurepas, confidant of Louis XVL., among them. In the wars between England and France he despatched vessels carrying valuable car- goes of war supplies to Canada at the expense of the firm, being reimbursed only in part after hostil- ities had ceased. In 1748 he founded the Society of Canada, @ commercial organization under the aus- pices of the French government, and erected maga- zines in Quebec. In 1758 the trade of the firm with the French colonies alone aggregated 2,369,326 Gradi | putes Graetz THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 64 Se Rays Le Pg francs. From 1759 to 1763, after Canada had ceased GRAETZ, HEINRICH (HIRSCH): German to bea French possession, the export trade of the firm amounted to 9,000,000 francs. Nor is it unim- portant to mention the activity of the firm of Gradis in the exchange of French prisoners held in Eng- land; these prisoners were supplied with food and clothing at the expense of the firm through agents stationed in London. The coffers of the state having been depleted ow- ing to the cost of the wars, the house of Gradis was more than once seriously embarrassed. Upon one occasion, being hard pressed for funds, Abraham Gradis urged Minister Berryer to honor his claims. The lattcr insinuating that the request was but a pretext to extort payment, Gradis proudly replied: “The name of Gradis, better known in the four quar- ters of the globe than that of the minister of France, is free from dishonor.” Berryer relented, presented his claims, and they were duly honored, Louis XV., through his minister, acknowledging in glowing terms Gradis’ services to the state. Exceptional privileges were granted him and his family in the colonies; full civil rights were accorded him in Mar- tinique in 1779. The abbé Grégoire, in commenting upon Gradis’ generosity and benevolence, urged, as one of his pleas in favor of Jewish emancipation, the fact that during the fearful faminein the French colonies Gradis had despatched seventeen shiploads of suppHes to the sufferers. The insurrections in Santo Domingo and Mar- tinique, where the firm of Gradis owned considera- ble property, together with losses at home occasioned by the French Revolution, caused the downfall of the house. Their West-Indian estates, estimated at 3,000,000 francs, were utterly ruined. The other members of the firm involved in the fall of the house were Benjamin, David (the second), and Moses Gradis. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Henri Gradis, Notice sur la Famille Gradis et sur la. Maison Gradis et Fils de Bordewux, 1875: Gritz, Die Familie Gradis, in Monatsschrift, xxiv. 447-459; th. Xxv. 78-85; idem, Gesch. xi. 190, 200, 202, 223, Leipsie, 1870; Abraham Cahan, Les Juifs de ta Murtinique au XVITe Siécle, in R. EF, J. ii. 93; George A. Kohut, Enterprise and Influence of the Gradis Family in the West Indies, and During the Canadian Wars, in 8S. Wolf’s The American Jew as Patriot, Soldier, and Citizen, pp. 476-482, Philadel- pbla, 1895; Jacobs, Sources, xiii.-xiv. 5; R. Gottheil, in J. Q. D. XV. 233. G. A. K. GRAES, ORTUIN DE (called also Ortui- nus Gratius): Anti-Jewish writer of the six- teenth century; born at Holtwick in Westphalia in 1491; died at Cologne May 21, 1542. He was the son of a priest, and became one of the chiefs of the Dominican party in Cologne, Ortuin was a rabid Jew-hater, and wrote much against the Jews. He took sides with Pfefferkorn during the latter’s con- troversy with Reuchlin, and with the assistance of Victor von Karben, a baptized Jew, wrote “De Vita et Moribus Judseorum ” (1504); he afterward trans- lated it into German, This book is a fanatical dia- tribe against Jews and Judaism. Ortuin translated Pfefferkorn’s anti-Jewish writings into Latin. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gratz, Gesch. ix., passim; L. Geiger, Reuch- lin’s Leben und Werke, in Ul. Hutteni Opera, iii. 359- 361, Leipsic, 1871; idem, in Alig. Deutsche Biographie, ix. 600-602; Kohut, Gesch. der Deutschen Juden, p. 466. D. A. M. F. historian and exegete; born Oct. 31, 1817, at Xiong province of Posen; died at Munich Sept. 7, 189) He received his first instruction at Zerkov, whith, his parents had removed, and in 1831 was sent 4, Wollstein, where he attended the yeshibah up to 18386, acquiring secular knowledge by private study The “ Neunzelhn Briefe von Ben Uzicl” (see Samson Raphael HrrscH) made a powerful impression On him; and he resolved to prepare himself for agg. demic studies in order to champion the cause of Op. thodox Judaism, His first intention was to go ty Prague, to which place he was attracted by the fame of its old yeshibah and the facilities afforded by the university. Being rejected by the immigration off. cers, he returned to Zerkov and wrote to 8. R Hirsch, then rabbi of Oldenburg, intimatiug his de. sire. Hirsch offered him a home in his house Graetz arrived there May 8, 1837, and spent three years with his patron as pupil, companion, and amanuensis. In 1840 he accepted a tutorship with a family at Ostrowo, and in Oct., 1842, he entereg the University of Breslau. At that time the controversy between Orthodoxy and Reform wasat its height, and Graetz, true to the principles which he had imbibed from Hirsch, began his literary career by contributions to the “ Orient,” edited by Julius First, in which he severely criti. cized the Reform party, as well as Geiger’s text. book of the Mishnah (“ Orient,” 1844), These con. tributions and his championship cf the Conservative cause during the time of the rabbip- Orthodox ical conferences made him popular with Champion. the Orthodox party. This was espe. cially the case when he agitated fora vote of confidence to be given to Zacharias Frankel after he had left the Frankfort conference because of the stand which the majority had taken on the question of the Hebrew language. After Graetz had obtained his degree of Ph.D. from the Univer. sity of Jena (his dissertation being “De Auctoritate et Vi Quam Gnosis in Judaismum Habuerit,” 1845; published a year later under the title “ Gnosticis- mus und Judenthum ”), he was made principal of a religious school founded by the Conservatives. In the same year he was invited to preach a trial ser- mon before the congregation of Gleiwitz, Silesia, but failed completely (“ Allg. Zeit. des Jud.” 1848, p. 683). He remained in Breslau until 1848, when, upon the advice of a friend, he went to Vienna, purposing to follow a journalistic career. On the way he stopped at Nikolsburg, where 8. It. Hirsch was Tesi- ding as Moravian chief rabbi. Hirsch, who then con templated the establishment of a rabbinical seminary: employed Graetz temporarily as teacher at Nikols: burg, and afterward gave him a position as princk pal of the Jewish school in the neighboring city © Lundenburg (1850). In Oct., 1850, Graetz married Marie Monasch of Krotoschin. Itseems that Hirsch $ departure from Nikolsburg had an influence 0 Graetz’s position; for in 1852 the latter left Lunde burg and went to Berlin, where he delivered a cours of lectures on Jewish history before rabbinical st dents. They do not seem to have been success! (ib. 1858, p. 506). Meantime his advocacy of Frat THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 65 a wa gp PP ED SN SP SO? -- course had brou ght him into close contact with kee sr, for Whose magazine he frequently wrote the a and accordingly in 1854 he was appointed articles r of the teaching staff of the seminary at a mrennve Breslau, over which Frankel presided. In this position he remained up to his death, teaching history and Bible exe- gesis, With a preparatory course in Tal- In 1869 the government conferred upon him ie of professor, and thenceforward he lectured CUniver- professor at Breslau. mud. the tit at Breslau ae 1872 Graetz went to Palestine in the company of his friend Gottschalck tevy of Berlin, for the purpose of study: ing the scenes of the earliest period of Jewish history, which he treated in volumes i. and ii. of his history, pub- lished in 1874-76; these volumes brought that great work to a close. While in Palestine he gave the first im- petus to the founda- tion of an orphan asylum there. He also took a great interest in the progress of the Alliance Israélite Universelle, and par- ticipated as a dete- gate in the conven tion assembled at Paris in 1878 in the interest of the Ruma. nian Jews. Graetz’s name was promi: nently mentioned in the anti-Semitic con- troversy, especially atter Treitschke lad published his “Hin Wort tiber Unser Judenthum” (1879- 1880), in which the latter, referring to the eleventh volume of the history, accused Graetz Attacked of hatred of Christianity and of bias by against the German people, quo- Treitschke, ting him as a proof that the Jews ; could never assimilate themselves to their surroundin gs. This arlaignment of Gractz had a decided effect Upon the public. Even fricnds of the Jews, like Cmmsen, and advocates of Judaism within the ewish fold expressed their condemnation of a S passionate language. It was due to this as ee unpopularity that Graetz was not in- of 9 Join the commission created by the union oe Jewish congregations (Deutsch-Israeli- T—5 Heinrich Graetz. tischer Gemcindebund) for the promotion of the study of the history of the Jews of Germany (1885). On the other hand, his fame spread to foreign countries ; and the promoters of the Anglo-Jewish Exhibition invited him in 1887 to open the Exhibition with a lecture. The seventieth anniversary of his birthday was the occasion for his friends and disciples to bear testimony to the universal esteem in which he was held among them; and a volume of scientific essays was published in his honor (“Jubelschrift zum 70. Geburtstage des Prof. Dr. H. Graetz,” Bres- lau, 1887). WDD. Sabbionetta. (1597 : paps.) 1537, Immanuel Benevento.—jn m5. Mantua. 1597. Heilprin, Joseph b. Elhanan.—7>°n DN. Prague. Cracow, 1598: pisps3n md.) 1602. Archevolti, Samuel.—5w137 Many. Venice. (Amsterdam, 1730.) 1605. Finzi, Jacob.— 138 wa. Venice. 1627. Isaac b. Samuel ha-Levi.—pns1 mw. Prague. 1627. Uzziel, Isaac.—yiw Tayo. Amsterdam. (1710; Groningen, c. 1720.) 1633. Abudiente, Moses ben Gideon.—Gramm. Hebr. Part 1., Onde se Mastrao Todas as Regras.... Hamburg. 1655. Anonymous.—7rcN Mov. Amsterdam. 1660. 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Prague. 1864. Reicherssohn, M.—71929 ppd. Wilna. 1884; own mpbn. Wilna. 1868, Felsenthal, B.—A Practical Grammar of the Hebrew Lan- guage. New York. 1868. Mappo, Abraham.—31)75 yytN. K6nigsberg. 1868. Kobak, Joseph.—Praktischer Lehrgang der Hebraischen Sprache. Bamberg. 1869, Kassas, I.—o:sb.n Sinb. Hebrew Grammar, with expla- nations in Tatar. Odessa. 1870. Goldberger, I.—n7350 pwd. Gyakorlati Héber Nyelotan. Budapest. 1870. Sachs, N.—Hebraische Grammatik nach Ollendorfs Me- thode. Frankfort. 1871. Goldschmidt. _Kurzgefasste Hebraische Grammatik. Ber- lin. 1872. Arnheim, H.—Grammatik der Hebraischen Sprache, Her- ausgegeben von D. Cassel. Berlin. 1874. Papirna, Abraham.—pw>s ray mew pips 545 sss spin (Russian). Warsaw. 1875. Bak, Isr.—Magyar-Héber Nyelotan. Budapest. 1876. Deutsch, Solomon.—Hebrew Grammar. New York. 1879. Goldberger, I.—iny yw53 42700. Cracow. 1884.—Steinberg, 1.— 3) Jw? wd7yR. 1889. Cassel, David.—Kurzgefasste Hebriische Grammatik. Breslau. 1889. Manassewitsch, B.—Die Kunst die Hebréische Sprache Durch Selbstunterricht zu Erlernen. Vienna. 1889. Stern, Abraham.—Héber Nyelotan. Budapest. 1892. Kahana, Z. A.—Own miaon. Wilna. 1893. Margolis, Max L.—An Elementary Text-Book of Hebrew Accidence. Cincinnati. 1894. Unna, Simon.—Kurzgefasste Grammatik der Hebraischen Sprache. Frankfort-on-the-Main. (1901.) 1897.—Levi, I.—Grammatica ed Eserciti Prat. di Lingua Ebra- ica. Milan. 1897. Wijnkoop, I. D.—Manual of Hebrew Syntax. London.— 1897. Manual of Hebrew Grammar. London. Rosenberg, J.—Hebraische Conversationsgrammatik. Vi- enna. Adler, Michael.—Students’ Hebrew Grammar. London. Fischmann, P. L. (and M. Liebermann).—7°n now. Riga. Kahana, A.—m° 43) ned Pres (after Luzzatto). Warsaw. Rosenfeld, Henr.—Rendszeres Héber Nyelotan. Paks. 1898. 1900. 1900. 1900. 1900. 1901. Szenhok, Samuel.—Gramatyka Jezyka Hebrajskiego. Warsaw. 1903. Lucas, Alice, and Abrahams, Israel.—Hebrew Lesson Book. London. The grammar of Neo-Hebrew, as found in the Mishnah and cognate works, has been Neo- treated by the Jewish scholars Dukes, Hebraic Geiger, and J. H. Weiss. The text- and book of Siegfried has been mentioned Aramaic above in the first list. Grammars. The Aramaic of the books of Daniel and Ezra was not grammatically treat- ed during the exclusively Jewish period of Hebrew philology. Some Christian grammarians at an early period treated this so-called Chaldee in connection with the Hebrew. Amoug the Aramaic works of more recent times are the following: Wiener, G. B.—Grammatik des Biblischen und Targumischen Chaldaismus. (2d ed., Leipsic, 1842; 3d ed., 1882.) Petermann.—Porta Chaldaica. (2d ed., 1872.) Kautzsch, E.—Grammatik des Biblisch-Aramiischen. Leipsic, 1884. Strack, H. L.—Grammatik des Biblisch-Aramf@ischen. (3d ed., Leipsic, 1901.) Turpie, David McCalman.—A Manual of the Chaldee Lan- guage. London, 1879. Brown, C. R.—An Aramaic Method. Morgan Park, IIl., 1884, 1886. Marti, K.—Kurzgefasste Grammatik der Bibl.-Aram. Sprache. Berlin, 1896. Granada Gratz By Jewish authors: Fiirst, Julius.—Lehrgebaiude der Aramitischen Idiome. Leip- sic, 1835. Bliicher, E. T.~--n38 pwd expr. Vienna, 1838, Luzzatto, S. D.—-Elementi Grammatieali del Caldeo Biblico e del Dialetto Talmudico Babilonese. Padua, 1865 (German by Kriiger, Breslau, 1873; English by Goldammer, New York, 1877). Lerner, H. Zebi.—ma9N pw prypt pd. Warsaw, 1875. te as rere Erne nee The above-named Aramaic grammars partly in- clude also the Targumic dialect. A larger field of Jewish-Aramaic literature is comprised in the work by G. Dalman, “Grammatik des Jiidisch-Paldsti- nensischen Aramiisch ” (Leipsic, 1894). After the compendium of Luzzatto, the Aramaic dialect of the Babylonian Talmud was first treated system- atically from the point of view of grammar in C. Levias’ “A Grammar of the Aramaic Idiom Con- tained in the Babylonian Talmud” (in “Am. Jour. Semit. Lang.” xiii., xiv.; reprinted separately, Chicago, 1899). See Aramaic Lanauack AMONG THE JEWS. BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. Bacher, Die Anfdinge der Hebriischen Grammatik, Leipsic, 1895; idem, Die Hebritische Sprach- wissenschaft vom 10, bis zum 16. Jahrhundert, Treves, 1892 ; Gesenius, Geschichte der Hebrdischen Sprache und Schrift, Leipsic, 1815; Diestel, Geschichte des Alten Testamentes in der Christlichen. Kirche, Jena, 1869; Ludwig Geiger, Das Studium der Hebréischen Sprache in Deutschland, Breslau, 1870; Luzzatto, Prolegoment ad una Grammatica Ragionata della Lingua Ehbraica, Padua, 1886: Stein- schneider, Bibliographisches Handbuch, Leipsic, 1859, with the additions and corrections thereto cited above. G. W. B. GRANADA (703873, AID; also p19 or D5 39D): Capital of the Spanish province of the same name. It is said to have been inhabited by Jews from the earliest times; hence it was also called “ Villa de Judios” (City of Jews), and, like Cordova, it was entrusted by the Arabian conquerors to the Jews for guardianship. Granada, which was chosen for the capital of the ancient kingdom of the same name (1013), instead of the neighboring Eivrra, reached the height of its glory under the calif Habus, who raised Samuel ibn Nagdela to the position of vizier or minister of state. As in all Mohammedan coun- tries, the Jews lived in Granada in perfect freedom; and several of them—Joseph ibn Migash (who was sent on diplomatic missions), Isaac ben Leon, and Nehemiah Ashcafa, for example—occupied influen- tial positions. Since the Jews of Granada were rich and powerful, they interfered at times in the dynas- tic quarrels. “Who did not see the splendor of the Jews in Granada, their good fortune, and their glory,” says a Jewish chronicler, “never saw true glory; for they were great through wisdom and piety ” (““Shebet Yehudah,” p. 3), With the downfall and murder of Joseph ibn Nagdela, who had succeeded his father as vizier, an outbreak against the Jews occurred: their houses were plundered; and all of the Jews, except a few who escaped by flight, were killed. More than 1,500 Jewish families, numbering 4,000 persons, fell in one day, Tebet 9 (= Dec. 30), 1066. This was the first persecution of the Jews since the dominion of Islam in the Pyreneav peninsula. The Jews throughout the kingdom were forced to sell their houses and lands and to leave the country; but they soon returned. THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 80 So The Jews in Granada suffered severely. also, from the persecutions of the Almohades; and only op pretending to accept Islam were they Under the allowed to remain in the city, [y Al- order to shake off the hard yoke ang mohades. to overthrow the dominion of the fanatical Almohades the Jews formeg a conspiracy with the Christians, who were likewige persecuted. Ona certain day the revolutionists aq. vanced with a considerable following before Gra. nada, and the Jews of that place, under the leader. ship of a champion of freedom named Aben Ruiz aben Dahri, helped them to capture this important stronghold. Their joy was, however, of short durg.- tion: the Almohades reentered the city, and the Jews were severely punished. They were more successful a few years later. The brother of the emir Al-Ma’mun, Ya‘kub al-Mansur, advanced with an armed force, and, with the aid of the Jews, drove the Almohades out of Granada and back to Africa (1282). The situation of the Jews in Granada, the only Spanish kingdom that remained independent under the califs for some centuries longer, took on its former aspect. Of their political status very little is known. In 1806 the calif Mohammed built hig bath out of the income from Jews and Christians in Granada; and in 1812 his successor levied a new tax on their houses and baths. It is difficult to believe what the Arabian chroniclers state, that Isma’il Abu al-Walid ibn Abu-Zaid Faraj (1815-26) com. manded tne Jews to wear a badge distinguishing them from Mohammedans. In the great persecution of the Jews in 1391 many refugees found shelter and protection in Granada. After a long struggle Granada was forced to suc- cumb to Castilian power (Jan. 2, 1492). The Jews also had a part in the victory. According toa com- pact entered into Nov. 25, 1491, by the contending rulers, all Jews in the city and suburbs of Granada, as well as all living in other cities and towns in the kingdom, were allowed to depart like the Moors. Those Jews who had accepted Christianity were granted a month for withdrawal. It was in Gra- nada, at the Alhambra, that Ferdinand and Isabella signed the edict (March 31, 1492) expelling the Jews from Spain. Granada was for some time a seat of Jewish learn- ing. Samuel ibn Nagdela, who himself bad written grammatical, exegetical, and poetical Jewish works, and who, like his son, sup- Scholars of ported Jewish scholars, gathered Granada. about him a large circle of Jewish grammarians and poets. Granada was the birthplace of the synagogal poet Moses ben Ezra, of Judah ibn Tibbon, of Saadia ben Maimon ibn Danan, of Solomon ben Joseph ibn Ayyub, and of other famous authors. It was the home, too, of Isaac Hamon, of Abraham ben Isaac, author of 4 cabalistic work, and of the Gavison family. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Shebet Yehudah, passim; Sefer ha-Kab- balah, ed. Neubauer, p. 72; Munk, Notice sur About Walid Merwan tbn Dijana’, p. 93; Alfasi, Responsa. No. 131; Dozy, Gesch. der Mauren in Spanien, ii, 303; Ersch a2 Gruber, Encyc. section ii., part 27, p. 208; Rios, Hist. 1. 317; ii. 198: iii. 302: Gratz, Gesch. vi. 59, 190; Schechter. 12 J. Q. R&R. xii. 118. xii M. K. + Sree erp 81 — ; GRANTOR AND GRANTEE. See Girts. GRAPE: The fruit of the grape-vine. The gen- eral Hebrew term for ripe grapes when not in clus- ters is Day (Gen. x]. 10-11), and of grapes in clus- ters, biown (Num. xili. 23). There are other terms for different kinds of grapesand for grapesin differ- ent stages of development ; as "D3 for unripe or sour grapes (Isa. xviii. 5); D'wiea for wild grapes (Isa. V: 2,4); wb for grapes that fall off when ripe Lev xix. 10); midby for gleaned grapes (Judges viii. 2); DYpYOS for dried grapes or raisins (I Sam. xxv. 18; If Sam. xvi. 1). According to R. Judah, soy and 3 (Num. vi. 4) respectively represent the skin and the seed of the grape; but according to R. Jose, whose interpretation has been accepted by later commentators, 3} is the skin, p°9y4Mm the seed (Naz. 34b). A word which has given rise to discus- sion is WDD (Cant. ii. 138, 15; vii. 12). According to Gesenius (“Th.”), who is followed by other com- mentators, it means “grape-blossom,” while Ibn Janah and David Kimhi thought it meant the young grape which appears immediately after the opening of the blossom (see Rubens Duval in “R. E. J.” xiv. 277 e¢ seg.). KR. Jose, prohibiting the “semadar” in the first three years, likewise consid- ered it as a fruit (‘Orlah i. 7). Grapes are referred to in the Bible and Talmud in symbolical senses. As grapes can not be found after vintage, neither can the good and upright man be discovered by diligent searching in Israel (Micah vii. 1,2). “The fathers have eaten sour grapes and the children’s teeth are set on edge” (Kzek. xviii. 2); “When the vintagers come to thee they will not leave even the grape-gleanings” (Jer. xlix. 9, Hebr.); that is, when the enemy comes he will carry off every - thing. Aman who marries his daughter toa scholar (‘talmid hakam”) igs like one who mingles vine grapes with vine grapes, but he who marries his daughter to an ignorant man (“‘am ha-arez ”) is like one who mingles vine grapes with the berries of the thorn-bush (Pes. 49a). According to R. Aibu, the forbidden fruit which Eve ate was that of the vine (Gen. R. xix. 8). J. M. SEt. GRASSHOPPER. See Locust. GRATZ: Town in the province of Posen, Prus- sia, with a population of 3,784, of whom 3819 are Jews (1903). The Jewish community there is one of the oldest in the province. Jews are mentioned in the city charter of April 9, 1594. In 1684 the lailors’ gild of Gritz permitted two Jews of Posen to settle in the city and to open a tailor-shop. The Chmielnicki rebellion brought disaster upon the Jews of Gritz. On May 14, 1668, the overlord of the city issued a “Jews’ privilege,” regulating the affairs of the Jews. During the “northern war” (1700-21) the community was almost entirely des- troyed, and its rabbi, Judah Lob, who had been called in 1701, was obliged to flee to Frankfort-on- the-Oder. The great conflagration of 1711 was also a heavy affliction to the community, which had to ‘pply for aid to coreligionists at Posen, who afforded relief to the best of their ability, although them- ‘elves impoverished and in debt through a succes- ‘lon of misfortunes, VIL.—6 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Granada Gratz — — ae SAA a, In 1797 it was decided that the officials of the community should consist of the following: one chief rabbi, one assistant rabbi (dayyan), three elders, one “schulklopfer,” one synagogue attendant, two undertakers, three hospital nurses, two cantors, three school-teachers, and one bathhouse superin- tendent. The debts of the community in that year amounted to 10,151 thalers, repayable in yearly sums of 441 thalers. For that year, also, the rabbi re- ceived a salary of 88 thalers, while 666 thalers were paid to the overlord. Ih 1798 a Jew was permitted to live in the house of a Christian. At the end of the eighteenth century there were 1,185 Jews, nearly half of the whole number of inhabitants; the num- ber had risen from 1,499 in 1816 to 1,634 in 1820, the largest in the history of the city; by 1840 and 1850 the number had decreased to 1,548 and 1,532 re- spectively. The Polish uprising of 1848, during which the Jews on the whole remained neutral or sided with the Germans, destroyed much property in the city. The following were rabbis in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries: Simon b. Israel Ashkenazi (ec. 1677); Benjamin Wolf b. Joseph Joske (ce. 1689); Judah Léb b. Solomon, previously dar- shan at Prague, and subsequently rabbi at Schneide- mtihl (¢. 1699); Phinehas Selig b. Moses (dayyan of the German community at Amsterdam in 1708); Sanvel Spira of Lemberg; Gershon b. Jehiel of Landsberg, who at Friedberg in 1742 called himself ex-rabbi of Gritz; Jacob b. Zebi Hirsch (1748); Marcus Baruch Auerbach. Among those of the nineteenth century were: Benjamin Schrei- ber (d. 1889); Elijah Guttmacher of Borek, for- merly at Pleschen, the “Gritzer Rav,” whose counsel and aid were sought by thousands from far and near (d. 1874); Dr. B. Friedmann, subse- quently at Berlin (d. 1902); Dr. Silberberg, subse- quently at Kénigsberg; and the present (1903) in- cumbent, Dr. J. Friedmann. In the first half of the nineteenth century there was a famous Talmudic school at Gritz. The liter- ary and philanthropic societies include: sukkat shalom, hebra kaddisha, and bikkur holim—united in 1901; in 1898 a society for the study of Jewish history and literature was founded; and there are also a Women’s society, and funds for the poor, in- cluding one especially for poor travelers. The large city hospital, built by the heirs of Dr. M. Mosse, receives patients regardless of creed. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Wuttke, Stdidtebuch des Landes Posen, 1864; Warschauer, Die Stddtischen Archive der Provinz Posen, 1900; Perles, Gesch. der Juden in Posen, 1864-65. D. J. FRI, GRATZ: American family prominent in the af- fairs of the city of Philadelphia and of the state of Pennsylvania. According to some authorities, the name “Gratz” is derived from a town in Styria, Austria; according to others, from a city in Posen, Prussian Poland. Both suppositions, however, are probably wrong. The true place of origin is most likely the town of Gratz in Austrian Silesia, whence the family or some of its members removed to Lang- endorf (since 1745 in Prussian Silesia), which town was known then and later by its old Slavonic name. The name of the family was then “Gratza,” that Gratz Gratzer THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 89 See a ee a eT ey ep ag eae ee ge tae ae fem Tang Se iy Poe Et Sam Ra oro ee en ce is, “of Gratz.” The origine | members of this family in the United States were Barnard Gratz and his brother Michael Gratz; the former had two children: Rachel Gratz, who married Solomon oo n — bas Aim & sess 5 g #2829 nee ~ AV 3B eee ge snd ant 7a N x pm 6 «mS wm #2 § 3_— 8 aero wh Boers ws Oo moe PR BS gn ~~ ——_— VS HT Aeoe _ ies i ae E088 Y~ — 2255 ie mUscd par) | < = Fe Dusscass ASR ges s —gZ8ESSens < mo ss AauT pe dd LGAANS a) 5 if an 2 ents 8 +e ft NFS ONDS BH grag 2 isang ore g 5 O fF in & ~§e60 aL gas eo faba PS AQ S2een Wes me BTes. | g5e5 Fe) et “shes | eBe2 a a Hoss i) 4 oD oom gts o "4 Sxt Qe chs 2 Sa Aer —ssn4asr eZ Z BOs NEUE a edgy © O EES —gsk Ses Py ad or f=) [i Mm ~~ -_ NORS UBS ESERSHSFe “Se 72a @ BU Soh Rsdo oo 3 ~~ . t~ Sage yee ator Ege Cagas Cagvtg PER SaaS: BRo2om Os a O85, Ag5Ss Bosses g2e5 aaa eaAA. onl ane 28 S A] BIBLIOGRAPHY: Morais, The Jews of Philadelphia, Philadel- phia, 1894. | J. E. N. 8. Etting of Baltimore; and Fanny Gratz, who died atanearly age. Michael Gratz, who married Miriam Simon, daughter of Joseph Simon of Lancaster, had twelve children, of whom the following May Lye mentioned: Frances (“Fanny ”), wife of Reubep Etting; Simon; Richea, wife of Samuel Hays. Hyman, Sarah, and Rebecca, all unmarried’ Rachel, the wife of Solomon Moses; Benjamiy’ who removed to Lexington, Ky. Barnard Gratz: American merchant; bory at Langendorf, Upper Silesia, Germany, 1738; died a Baltimore, Md., April 20, 1801. When about seyep. teen years of age he emigrated to the United States arriving in Philadelphia in 1754. Fora time he Wag engaged in the counting-house of David Franks but subsequently he entered into partnership with his brother Michael, trading with the Indians ang supplying the government with Indian goods. Qp Oct. 11, 1768, he became a naturalized British sup. ject. He was one of the merchants who signed the Non-Importation Resolutions adopted Oct. 25, 1765, After the outbreak of the Revolutionary war he took the oath of allegiance to the commonwealth of Pennsylvania (Nov. 6, 1777). Gratz was also one of the signers of a petition presented to the govern. ment in 1783 for the abolition of an objectionable oath of office. About the time of the outbreak of the American Revolution he was appointed parnag of an unorganized congregation of Philadelphia Jews, which was ultimately known as the Congre. gation Mickveh Israel, on whose board of trustees he later served. Benjamin Gratz: American soldier and lawyer, born in Philadelphia, Pa., Sept. 4, 1792; died at Lexington, Ky., March 17, 1884; educated at the University of Pennsylvania, graduating (M.A.) in 1815. At the outbreak of the War of 1812 Gratz enlisted under Gen. Thomas Cadwalader, and in 1818 joined Capt. John Smith’scompany of Pennsy!vania Volunteers as second lieutenant. Soon after the close of the war he was admitted to the bar of Penn- sylvania (1817). He subsequently removed to Ken- tucky, and was elected trustee of the Transylvania University, Ky. Hyman Gratz: American merchant and philan- thropist; born in Philadelphia Sept. 23, 1776; died Jan. 27, 1857; educated in the public schools of his native city. In 1798 he joined his brother Simon in partnership as wholesale grocer, and later turned his attention to life-insurance. In 1818 he was elected director of the Pennsylvania Company for Insur- ance on Lives and Granting Annuities, and twenty years later was elected president of the company. On the founding of the Pennsylvania Academy for Fine Arts, in which his brother Simon Gratz took some part, he served on the directorate of the insti- tution (1836 to 1837), and held the office of treas- urer from 1841 to 1857. On the retirement of Hyman Marks as treasurer of the Congregation Mickveh Israel of Philadelphia Sept. 19, 1824, Gratz succeeded him, and was reelected annually until 1856. When thetirst Jewish Publication Society of America was projected in Philadelphia (1845) he was one of its managers. On the receipt in the United States of the news of the persecution of Jews 2 Damascus, Gratz was elected chairman of the meet ing of the Congregation Mickveh Israel, called AUé- 27, 1840, to protest against that persecution. By a deed dated Dec. 18, 1856, Gratz set aside 33 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Gratz Gratzer ji eeeeneE EEE EERE GEER stocks, bonds, and other property for the purpose of establishing “a college for the education of Jews residing in the city and county of Philadelphia ” (see GRATZ COLLEGE). Jacob Gratz: American merchant; born in Phil- adelphia Dec. 20, 1788; died there Feb. 3, 1836; educated in the University of Pennsylvania (M.A. js11). He was president of the Union Canal Com- any, and a director of the Institution for the In.- struction of the Deaf and Dumb (1820). He became a member of the Pennsylvania legislature and en- rered the state senate in 1839. Jacob was also one of the officers of the Congregation Mickveh Israel. of Joseph Gratz little is known except that he was secretary of the Congregation Mickveh Israel for a long period and a director of the Institution for the Instruction of the Deaf and Dumb. Michael Gratz: American trader and merchant; porn in Langendorf, Upper Silesia, Germany, 1740; emigrated to London, England, and thence to the United States (1759), where he resided in Philadel- phia and in Lancaster, Pa. With his brother Bar- pard he engaged in trade with the Indians, supply- ing the United States government with Indian goods. Resolutions adopted Oct. 25, 1765. He was also one of the signers of the memorial of the Jewish Con- gregation of Philadelphia to the President of the United States, dated Sept. 12, 1782, announcing that the Congregation Mickveh Israel had erected “a place of public worship which they intend to con- secrate,” asking “the Protection and Countenance of the Chief Magistrates in this State to give sanc- tion to their design,” and stating that the petitioners “will deem themselves highly Honoured by their Presence in the Synagogue whenever they judge proper to favour them.” He succeeded his brother Barnard in the counting-house of David Franks. Rebecca Gratz: American educator and philan- thropist; born in Philadelphia March 4, 1781; died 4 ‘ Aug. 27, 1869. She consecrated her life and labors to the well-being of her kind, and was the promoter of relig- ious, educational, and charitable institutions for their benefit. Elected (1801) secretary of the Female Associa- tion for the Relief of Women and Children in Reduced Circum- stances, Rebecca Gratz soon saw the need of an institution for orphans in Philadel- phia, and she was among those instrumental in founding the Philadelphia Orphan Asylum in 1815. Four years later she was elected secretary of ts board of managers, which office she continued to hold for forty years. Under her auspices were Started a Hebrew Sunday-school (of which she sub- nea became superintendent and president, Signing in 1864) and a Female Hebrew Benevolent Oclety (about Nov., 1819). In 1850 she advocated ae a: t, x SS Rebecca Gratz. (By permission uf D, Appleton & Co.) Gratz was a signer of the Non-Importation in “The Occident,” over the signature “ A Daughter of Israel,” the foundation of a Jewish Foster Home; and her advocacy was largely instrumental in the establishment of sucha home in 1855. Other organ- izations due to her efforts were the Fuel Society and the Sewing Society. Rebecca Gratz is said to have been the model of Rebecea, the heroine of the novel “Ivanhoe” by Sir Walter Scott, whose attention had been drawn to her character by Washington Irving, with whom she wasacquainted. The claim has been disputed, but it has also been well sustained in an article en- titled “The Original of Rebecca in Ivanhoe,” which appeared in “The Century Magazine,” 1882, pp. 679-682, Of Simon Gratz little is known beyond the fact that he was one of the founders of the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, and acted as treasurer of the Congregation Mickveh Israel about 1820 and trustee of the same congregation in 1828. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Morais, The Jews of Philadelphia; Journals of the Continental Congress, vols. ii., v.; Pennsylvania Ar- chives, Ist series, x. 7381; Proceedings Am. Jew. Hist. Soc. passim. A, F. H. V. GRATZ COLLEGE (Philadelphia): Jewish institution of higher learning, founded under a deed of trustexecuted by Hyman Gratz, dated December, 1856, which, under certain contingencies that after- ward arose, became vested in the Congregation Mickveh Israel of Philadelphia. This trust became operative in 1893, and the congregation appointed a board of trustees for its management. In accord- ance with the terms of the deed requiring the estab- lishment of a “college for the education of Jews residing in the city and county of Philadelphia,” it was decided that the college should be devoted to the dissemination of the knowledge of Jewish his- tory, the Hebrew language, Jewish literature, and the Jewish religion, with the understanding that the curriculum should be especially designed for teach- ers, thus creating it a Jewish teachers’ college. Pending the beginning of actual instruction, three courses of lectures were given: the first in 1895 by Prof. 8, Schechter, then of Cambridge, England, on “ Rabbinic Theology” ; the second, a general course of lectures by American scholars; and the third, a course on the “Philosophy of Jewish History,” by Joseph Jacobs, then of London, England. Regular instruc- tion began in 1898, the teaching staff consisting of Rabbi Henry M. Speaker, Arthur A. Dembitz, A.B., and Isaac Husik, Ph.D. There have been in attendance 27 pupils, and nine graduates have received teachers’ certificates. Gratz College also has a course preparatory to the Jewish Theological Seminary of America. Moses A. Dropsie has been the president of the board of trustees since the foundation of the trust. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Publications of the Gratz College, No. 1, euiadelDns, 1897; American Jewish Year Book, 5660 and A. GRATZER, JONAS: German physician; born at Tost, Upper Silesia, Oct. 19, 1806; died at Bres- lau Nov. 25, 1889. He graduated (M.D.) from the University of Breslau in 18382. The following year he settled as a physician in Breslau, where he prac- tised until his death. Gravestones Greek Language He wrote: “ Die Krankheiten des Foetus,” Breslau, 1837; “Gesch. der Israelitischen Krankenverpfle- gungsanstalt,” 7d, 1841 ; “ Ueber die Organisation der Armen-Krankenpflege in Grésseren Stidten,” 7. 1851; “Gedanken iiber die Zukunft der Armen- Krankenpflege,” 7. 1852; “Edmund Halley und Caspar Neumann: Zur Gesch. der Bevélkerungssta- tistik,” 2b. 1888; “ Daniel Gohl und Christian Kund- mann: Zur Gesch. der Medicinalstatistik,” 7b. 1884; “Qebensbilder Hervorragender Schlesischer Aerzte aus den Letzten Vier Jahrhunderten,” 7b. 1889. 8 F. T. H. GRAU, MAURICE: American impresario; born at Brunn, Austria, in 1849; died at Croisy, France, March 14, 1907. Grau was the first to make a finan- cial success of operatic productions in New York, and was sole lessee and manager of the Metropolitan Opera House there until forced to retire by ill-health in Feb., 1903. F. H. V. GRAVESTONES. See TomBsToneEs. GRAZIANI, AUGUSTO: Italian economist; born at Modena, Jan. 6, 1865. He obtained his edu- cation at the university of his native town, devoting himself especially to economic studies, and gradu- ating as doctor of lawsin 1886. He became professor of financial science at the University of Sienna (1894) and professor of political economy at the University of Naples (1899). Graziani wrote: “Di Alcune Questioni Intorno alle Imposte ed Egli Effetti Economici” (1889); “Sulla Teoria Generale del Profitto” (1887) ; “Storia Critica della Teoria del Valore in Italia” (1890); “Sulle Operationi di Borsa” (1890); “Istituoni de Scienza della Finanze” (1897); “Studi sull Teoria del!’ Interese ” (1898) ; “Tratto di Economica Poli- tica ” (1904). 5. GRAZIANO, ABRAHAM JOSEPH SOLO- MON BEN MORDECAT: Italian rabbi; died at Modena in 1685; cousin of Nathanael b. Benjamin Trabot. He probably belonged to the Gallico family, the name “Graziano” being the Italian equivalent of “Johanan.” Graziano, who was rabbi of Modena, was the author of the following works: “Sha‘are Efrayim,” explaining all the passages in which the particles NN aud D3 are found in the Pentateuch; “ Haggahot we-Hiddushim,” annotations and novelle on the Shulhan ‘Aruk, cited by Ishmael Coen in “ Zera‘ Emet ”; “ Likkute Dinim,” various halakic de- cisions; and a collection of poems. Of his works only two elegies on the death of Rabbi Aaron Benoit Modena, inserted in the “Ma‘abar Yabbok,” and some responsa included in the “‘ Afar Ya‘akob” of Nathanael ben Aaron Jacob Segre were published. Graziano was very broad-minded, and the ultra- orthodox rabbis disapproved of some of his halakic decisions. He permitted the use of an organ in the synagogue (“ Haggahot we-Hiddushim” on Shuthan ‘Aruk, Orah Hayyim, 560, § 3). As a poet he was highly appreciated, his style being both easy and elegant. Graziano signed his works 4'§ vx, the initials of his name and that of his father. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Nepi-Ghirondi, Toledot Gedole Yisrael, p. 3: Mortara, Indice, p. 28; S. Jona, in Rev. Et. Juives, iv. 179; Kaufmann, in Monatsschrift, xxxix. 350. G. I. Br. THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 84 GREAT SYNAGOGUE, GREAT. GREECE: Country of southeastern Europe The number of its Jews is not more than 9,099 distributed as follows: Corfu, 3,500; Zante, 175. Chaicis, on the island of Eubcea or Négropont, 29. Volo, 1,100; Larissa, 2,500; Trikala, 1,000; Arta 300; Athens, 300. Besides these Jews of Greece proper—who form the subject of this article—there is also a Jewish population of about 4,000 in Janing and Prevesa in Epirus; these people are Teally Greeks, for they have lived in the country since q very remote period, and speak only the Greek lan. guage. Theterm “Greek Jews” might also be made to include the Jews of the island of Crete and thoge of Chios, off Smyrna. Jews settled in Greek territories in early days, ag is proved by numerous anecdotes in the rahbin. ical literature (see Levy, “Neuhebr. Worterb.” 99 syne). In the Acts of the Apostles it is said that Jews had synagogues at Corinth and Athens, where they lived peaceably and enjoyed social influence, The Greeks seem to have taken great interest in the new religion, brought from Judea, that had made proselytes even on the ancient Areopagus. The Jews, on their side, held Greek culture in high esteem, and during the pre-Christian time many of their number, including Josephus, Philo, Aristobulus, and Ezekiel the tragedian, enriched classical literature with their works. But there was more than mere social and intellectual inter. course between the two peoples; for, according to Josephus, King Arius of Sparta made an alliance with the high priest Jonathan (“ Ant.” xiii. 5, § 8; comp. Schitrer, “Gesch.” 8d ed., i. 236). Alexander the Great, who through his education had_thor- oughly imbibed the Greek spirit, treated the Jews with great kindness. Under the Roman emperors, too, the Greek Jews enjoyed the same privileges as the other citizens. But their position was not so pleasant under the Byzantine emperors: at first they were even forbidden the free exercise of their relig- ion (723). Many were converted to Christianity, while others left the country. Gritz (“Gesch.” v. 228) thinks that the permission for the free exercise of their religion was probably granted to them by the empress Irene (780-797). In 840 the Jews of Greece were very prosperous, and were engaged in rearing siikworms, planting mulberry-trees, and in silk- weaving. With the exception of their enjoyment of religious liberty, the Greek Jews were always subjected to the same political restrictions as under the first em- perors, and were not allowed to hold any positions under the state. Pethahiah of Regensburg, wlio visited Greece in the twelfth century, relates that there were almost as many Jews there as Palestine could have held. Benjamin of Tudela, on visitivg Greece about the same time, also found many Jews there, especially in Arta, Patras, Corinth, Criss (where they were engaged in farming), and Thebes, whose 2,000 Jews included the best dyers and silk- manufacturers of Greece. The silk industry must have been of great importance, and the Jews gaged in it were very rich; for, according to the Greek historian Nicetas, even the Byzantine ¢?* See SyNAGOguR U 85 jerors had to buy their costly goods in Athens, Thebes, and Corinth. The downfall of the commu- nity at Thebes was due chiefly to King Roger of sicily, who, after capturing the city (1147), led the pest silk-weavers as prisoners to Palermo and prob- ably to the island of Corfu (which he had also con- ered), Where they taught their art to the Normans. The Jews of Greece proper, who seem to have enjoyed great tranquillity at all times, cultivated Hebrew study so thoroughly that even before the Spanish emigration several renowned rabbis were designated as Greeks. Among these were: Baruch ha- Yewani (“the Greek ”), in the fourteenth century ; qechariah ha-Yewani, author of the “Sefer ha- Yashar ” (1840); Dossa ben Rabbi Moses ha-Yewani, in the fifteenth century, author of “Perushe we- Tosafot.” Franco, in his “Essai sur |’ Histoire des Israélites de l’Empire Ottoman,” p. 41, Paris, 1897, says that during the same period the Jews of Thebes were renowned for their Talmudical learning; and he mentions David ben Hayyim ha-Kohen, grand rabbi of Patras—originally from Corfu—whose in- fluence extended to Italy and throughout the Orient. Moses Capsali was grand rabbi of Constantinople at the time of the Ottoman conquest (1453); another rabbi of the same period was Eliezer Capsali. Theodore Reinach, in his “ Histoire des Israélites,” pp. 225, 226, relates that, beginning with the fifteenth century, there was a revival of Talmudical studies in Turkey, caused by a twofold current coming from Spain and Greece, the communities of which —especially those of the Morea—took on a sudden growth after the conquest of the Morea by the Vene- tiang in 1516. Isaac Abravanel, who visited Corfu toward the end of the fifteenth century, remained there some time in order to complete his commentary on Deuteronomy (see his preface thercto), which proves that he must have found a library and Jearned men there. Considering, however, that there are now only 5,000 Greek Jews who speak Greek—i.e., those of Janina, Prevesa, Zante, Arta and Chalcis— the question arises what has become of the pre- Spanish Greco-Jewish population. It has evidently been absorbed by the Spanish, which was far more numerous in Thessaly and the Turkish territories, while the Judeeo-Greek population of Corfu has been absorbed by the Apulians. ‘Traces of the an- cient Greek origin of the Judxo-Greek population still exist. Thus there are Greek synagogues (“kehal Gregos” or “de los Javanim”) in Corfu, Constantinople, Salonica, and Adrianople; and many Greek words are found in the Spanish lan- guage of the Oriental Jews and in the Apulian of the Corfiotes. Many Greek feminine proper hames are also used, such as KaAopoipa (“ Calomira ” = “good luck”) and Kvpé (“Kyra” = “ princess”); and there are family names of similar origin, as Politi, Roditi, Mustachi, and Maurogonato. Fur- ther, there are still to be found in Corfu songs and elegies in the Qreek language which were recited in the synagogue until about thirty years ago. P to the time of the Greek insurrection (1821) there Were several Jewish con sregations in Greece proper, oe in Vrachori (Agrinion), Patras, Tripolitza, “stra, Thebes, and Livadia; but most of their mem- "rs Were killed by the insurgents, who thus vented THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Gravestones Greek Language upon these peaceful citizens their inveterate hatred of the tyrant of their fatherland. A few of those who escaped went to Corfu; others to Chalcis, which remained under Turkish dominion until 1882. Very little is known to-day of these congregations that have disappeared, but there are still some He- brew epitaphs, which have not yet been collected. Of all these communities Thebes was undoubtedly the most celebrated, owing to its distinguished Tal- mudic scholars and its extensive silk-manufactories. Dubois, a Frenchman who visited the city in the seventeenth century, praises in 4 letter to the famous Ménage the beauty of the Jewish women of Thebes (Pougueriche, “ Voyage en Gréce,” vol. iv., book xi., ch. iii.). To the history of the Jews of Greece belongs also Don Joseph Nasi (Juan Miques), who was created Duke of Naxos and of the twelve most important Cyclades by Selim II. (1574). It was probably due — to his having noted the great success attending the manufacture of silk in Greece, that Nasi, who al- ways had the welfare of his coreligionists at heart, introduced the trade into the city of Tiberias, which had been granted to him and which he raised from its ruins. The existing Jewish communities of Greece may be divided into five groups: (1) Arta (Epirus); (2) Chalcis (Euboea); (8) Athens (Attica); (4) Volo, Larissa, and Trikala (Thessaly) ; (5) Corfu and Zante (Ionian Islands). The community of Arta is the oldest in Greece. It has a small elementary school and a benevolent society. Children desiring an education attend the Greek higher schools. There are also two syna- gogues, the older of which is called the Grecian; and avery ancient cemetery, no longer used, called the cemetery of “Rabbané Arta.” See ARTA; ATHENS; CHaALCIS; CORFU. D. M. C. GREEK LANGUAGE AND THE JEWS: This article will be confined to the Greek material found in rabbinical works, since the language of the Septuagint and the New Testament requires sep- arate discussion, and does not belong here. Latin was made accessible to the Jews in Talmudic times by means of Greek, and will be treated here in this relation. For general cultural conditions see AL- EXANDRIAN PHILOSOPHY ; BYZANTINE EMPIRE; HEL- LENISM. In the Talmud, Midrash, and Targum the Greek and Latin letters are transcribed according to purely phonetic principles; this transcription may there- fore assist in some measure the work of solving the probable original pronunciation of Greek, still a matter of dispute. While the Greek elements found in rabbinical works must be classed for the greater part with the vernacular, they are for that reason most instructive from a phonetic point of view. The pronunciation of the Greek sounds has in general been faithfully preserved; and only in a few points—including, however, the im- Surds and portant one of iotacism—does the pro- Sonants. nunciation represent that stage which is generally designated as modern Greek, but which, nevertheless, may have been the original one. Surds and sonants are always distin- Greek Language guished; e.g., 7 was written and pronounced 0, aud 6, “3, not vice versa, a practise that must be espe- cially noted in view of the fact that sonants and surds are confounded in Egyptian Greek (Blass, “Aussprache des Griechischen,” 3d ed., 1895), in demotic papyri, and in Gnostic manuscripts (Thumb, in “Indogerm. Forschungen,” viii. 189), as well as in the Coptic; in Syriac the same accuracy has been observed. On the other hand, as in the Egyptian Koh (é.g., KaAKxov = yasxov), surds and aspirates are frequently confounded; thus yaZ7xarvvo¢e always ap- pears as pinapdp; Véazpov is represented by JITDON'D. though the form with f also occurs. This is all the more striking as surds and aspirates represent the same sounds in both languages, and this leads to the important conclusion that in Hebrew 3 and p, ® and 7m, were similar in sound. The aspirate 4, which oceurs not only as © but also as 3 and even 4), had already become a fricative sound, and hence had reached in Hebrew mouths the modern Greek stage. The same is not true in the case of 6, however, but fricative pronunciation appears in the sonants £, y, J; since, forexample, 337} occurs for ouapaydog side by side with faq}, the modern Greek pronunciation of d as a voiced spirant, corresponding to the Eng- lish “th” in “these,” “bathe,” must be assumed. As regards the nasals, the exact pronunciation of the sounds yy, yx, yv is reproduced in @ manner en- tirely analogous to the Latin, Syriac, Nasals and Arabic, Romanic, etc., as can be seen Sibilants. in * door (dyyeAoc), 3D3IN (avayxy), 3351p (Koy), etc. Otherwise, the nasals were treated with considerable license, and were frequently suppressed by assimilation and re- duction, as in modern Greek. For example, just as réxvoc is used for réurroc, so the Jews said DDD in- stead of Méudic, NINT9DP for compendiaria, etc. From transcriptions such as * by for * oraddy- pov and pygmy for * capdoviyeov there must be as- sumed for the letter o (which is in other cases tran- scribed by D, }, and ¥) the pronunciation “sh,” a sound the existence of which in Greek philologists have denied. Further proof in this regard is fur- nished by the transcription of NMwy as Meooiac (comp. Schtirer. “Gesch.” 3d ed., ii. 526, note). lotacism of the vowels ¢, ¢, 7, and the diphthongs ez, oc is found in almost all cases, except before 7; hence, v3, Népor, must be pronounced “ Neron,” and not “Niron.” But az, av, evhad very nearly reached the modern Greek stage. In contrast with Iotacism _ tliis is the scrupulous retention of both and As-_ the spiritus lenis and the spiritus asper ; piration. and the aspirated (is also clearly in- dicated by means of preaspiration; while even internal aspiration occurs, as, for ex- ample, in the frequently repeated word } 79D, ovvédpiov, There are even some almost certain ex- amples of the digamma, a sound peculiar to archaic Greek and to some dialects. The vowels are not always kept intact, but are often interchanged without regard to rule. The Jewish idiom shares vowel-resolution (¢.9., MYDD yt instead of dyudora, where 7 has been resolved into 77) with Syriac (¢.g., DYDD. ort2oc, in Bar-Bahlul) and Armenian (“Tiuros” = Trpoc). As generally in ver- nacular idioms, hiatus does not occur. THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 86 See a ge The omission of the hiatus, together with th, frequently occurring elision of syllables by APOCOpe, apheresis, and especially syncope, gives to the for. eign word-forms a certain Semitic coloring ; Dindyy for Pot? moc is more in agreement with Seine phonetics than is the Syriac pina: NON for Bipvz7o¢ is more acceptable than, for instance, * odin would be. The other consonantal changes to which the Greek words have been subjected are such as may occur also in Greek, as, for instance, adequation, assimilation, dissimilation, metathesis, elision, prothesis, etc. In order to Semitize Greek words, new forms, analogous forms, and popular etymologies were resorted to. Espe. Semitiza- cially frequent is the Hebrew ending tion fs €.g., POMS, Nexddnuwoe; BMP, cam. of Greek pus; but compare the Greek kdotpoy Words. for «dorpa; and in Egypt jutov jg found for jucov, as well as nby (t.¢,, aAvov) for ad440. Compare with this, furthermore, the frequent occurrence of diminutives in -vov, ex. amples of which are found in the Jewish idiom that have not been preserved elsewhere. Next in popularity among new formations was p), hence pew, XM, occurs side by side with MIMD), matrona ; mond was used for Aévriov = lin- teum, etc. By the employment of such forms a certain Semitic coloring was given to the words, Other peculiarities of Semitic speech—e.g., the He- brew and Aramaic conjugation of verbs formed from Greek noun-stems, the employment of status em- phaticus and status constructus, the addition of He- brew and Aramaic affixes and suffixes, the plural formations, the determination of grammatical gender (though seldom according to the regular laws of the language)—all these the borrowing language had to employ in so faras it had in view the needs of actual intercourse and not academic usage. As the Jew- ish idiom of the Talmudic period made use of Greek words only in case of need, its laws held good for the borrowed forms, at least as far as the con- struction of sentences was concerned. In addition to the forms of the words borrowed from the Greek, it is also important to determine their meanings; for some of these borrowed terms acquired in the mouth of the Jewsa deeper religious and moral sense; ¢.9., yewuerpia, a certain norm for the interpretation of Scripture (but compare GEMA- TRIA); PyjAov, Latin velum, “heaven”; cyodaorexde, “teacher of the Law”; orparnyéc, “soldier” in gen- eral; obu3o20v, “covenant” and “ wedding present”; rouoc, “book of the Law.” The Jewish usage is sometimes supported by the Septuagint and by the New petameny: e.g., Karhyop, “Satan”; ravdoxae, “whore”; BAacdnuia, “ blasphemy.” These semasi- ological differences justify one in speaking of 4 rabbinic Greek. Other prominent characteristics that are also found in all the popular Greck dialects are: the frequent occurrence of diminutives of material nouns in -46s; the ending in -:«év; combinations with dAo- (62.6xpveos, bAaanpiKee, etc.); and the ending -o¢ instead of -ov, The Greek spoken by the Jews of Palestine was the Hellenic xov#; although it contains also elements that are not Attic, these had become Hel- The Vo- cabulary. a7 jenized at the time of their adoption. Some words found in rabbinical works occur elsewhere only in modern Greek. The Greek words found in the idiom of the Tal- mud and the Midrash refer to all conditions of life, although, of course, there is a preponderance of po- tical concepts that came into Palestine only with the gdvent of the Greeks and the Romans, and of names of foreign products introduced into the country through commerce. Some of the borrowed words refer to cosmography and geography; ¢.g., dp = air,” introduced at an early date; others refer to minerals, plants, and animals; e.g., ytwor = “ gyp- sum”; todtee =a plant used for dyeing; rdpdadi = * panther.” Many refer to public life; ¢.9., 6xA0¢ = “mob”; KoAwvia = colonia, “colony”; maAdrioy = palatium, “palace”; Anyarov = legatum, “legate”; xjvoog == census, “census”; ojueiov = “sign” or “standard.” Others again refer to the house and thecourt; €.g., Paotdinh = “basilica”; orda = “stoa,” “ceolonuade”; others to commerce and intercourse, coins and weights; ¢.g., tpayzateia = “commerce ”; carrum, “Wagon”; dyvapiov = “denarius”; pdévyra - moneta, “coin.” There are also names of weap- ons, tools, vessels, raw material, furniture, food, ornaments, and jewelry. wr:; comp. Griinbaum, “Jiid.-Deut. Chrestomathie,” p. 494), and Abraham Zacuto, as well as by other medieval authors. R. Isaac of Siponte was more successful in explaining several expressions in the Mishnah Greek Law Greeting THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 83 Pe ae Se ee ee ee ee Se ee ee in Greek; e.g., Ma‘as. v. 8. There were no Greek works by Jews in the Middle Ages, aside from the new translations of the Bible. But Greek Ety- Jews read Greek authors in the original mologies. at Byzantium; e.g., Asaph, who ren- ders botanical names in Greek, and Judah Hadassi the Karaite, who quotes entire sen- tences from the philosophical works of the Greeks (P. Frankl, in “ Monatsschrift,” 1884, xxxili. 449, 513 et seg.). In regard to some translations from the Middle Ages it is still doubtful whether they were made directly from the Greek text. It has by no means been proved that terms occurring in Jewish philosophical works have been borrowed from the Greek, as Steinschneider asserts (“ Hebr. Uebers.” p. 420, Berlin, 1898); ¢.g., novSw for oréoyore, found in Samuel ibn Tibbon, is merely a translation of the corresponding Latin or Arabic word. Although Joseph b. Abraham (Steinschneider, J.c. p. 453, § 267) uses Greek words, it must be assumed that he lived in the vicinity of Greece; for only Jews so situated could have been familiar with that language. BIBLIOGRAPHY: 8S. Krauss, Lehnworter, Berlin, 1898-90; A. Thumb, Die Griechische Sprache im Zeitalter des Hellenis- Wie passim, Strasburg, 1901; Perles, in Byz. Zeit. ti. 570- a. S. Kr. GREEK LAW, INFLUENCE OF THE. See Law, CIVIL. GREEN, AARON LEVY: English rabbi; born in London Aug., 1821; died March 11, 1888. A precocious student, at the age of fourteen he was successful as candidate for the post of reader in the Great Synagogue, and at seventeen was appointed minister of the Bristol congregation. One of his first compositions, entitled “ Dr. Croly, LL.D., versus Civil and Religious Liberty,” 1850, was an attack on Dr. Croly, who had opposed the admission of Jews to Parliament. In March, 1851, Green was elected second reader of the Great Synagogue, London; and when in 1855 the Old Portland Street branch syna- gogue was opened, Green was elected its first reader and preacher. In that capacity he made many im- provements in the service of the synagogue, and for nearly thirty years cooperated in all the new move- ments that helped to organize the London Jewish community. Green was a member of the council and of the edu- cation committee of the Anglo-Jewish Association, and assumed a leading part in the foundation of Jews’ College, acting as honorary secretary from 1852, and for some years as chairman of the education com- mittee. He was one of the first to arouse public interest in the Russian atrocities of 1881, and was a meniber of the Rumanian Mansion House and Russo-Turkish relief committees. In religion Green was extremely liberal-minded. In 1868 he delivered a series of sermons which evoked many remonstrances; and ten years later an- other series by him, on “ Miracles,” so agitated cer- tain circles that a movement was set on foot to de- nounce the preacher at public indignation meetings. He was a regular correspondent of the Jewish news- papers, and, under the pseudonym “ Nemo,” wrote for the “Jewish Chronicle” many severe criticisms of contemporary movements which attracted con- siderable attention. He collected a large and valy. able library of Judaica and Hebraica, which is now in Jews’ College, London. BIBLIOGRAPHY : Jew. Chron, and Jew. World, March 16, ggg. J. G. I. GREENBAUM, SAMUEL: American lawyoy and jurist; born Jan. 23, 1854, in London; went to the United States with his parents in his infancy. educated at the New York public schools and the College of the City of New York, graduating jy 1872. Thereafter he studied law at the Columbia College Law School until 1875, and from 1872 to 1877 was a teacher in Grammar School No. 59, New York. Then he commenced to practise law, which he did alone until 1894, when he entered into part. nership with Daniel P. Hays. In May, 1901, he re. sumed separate practise, which he continued until he was elected judge of the Supreme Court of the State of New York Jan. 1, 1902. Greenbaum is a member of the New York State Bar Association; the Society of Medical Jurispru. dence; the Jewish Historical Society, etc. He was president of the Aguilar Free Library Association, and is first vice-president of the Educational Alli. ance, and trustee of the New York Public Library and of the Jewish Theological Seminary of America. J F. HV. GREENHUT, JOSEPH B.: American soldier; born in Germany. He enlisted as a private in the 12th Illinois Infantry at Chicago April, 1861. He served with this regiment throughout Grant’s cam- paigns in Kentucky and Tennessee. At Fort Donel- son, Greenhut was badly wounded in the right arm and had toretire. In Aug., 1862, he was appointed captain of Company K, 82d Dlinois Infantry. He then fought in the Virginia campaigns under Burn- side, Hooker, and Meade, and was at Gettysburg. He was transferred to Hecker’s staff as adjutant- general, and with this command he took part. in some very severe battles, notably that of Lookout Mountain. Greenhut resigned his commission on Feb. 24, 1864, and entered mercantile life. He was one of the three Illinois commissioners for monu- ments on the battle-field of Gettysburg. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Publications Amer. Jew. Hist. Soc. iii. 3: Wolf, The American Jew as Patriot, Soldier, and Citizen, p. 143, Philadelphia, 1895. A A. M. F. GREETING, FORMS OF: Fixed modes of address on meeting acquaintances. With the an- cient Hebrews the form of greeting depended upon the relationship of the persons. It expressed in- terest and sympathy, love and affection, or rever- ence and honor. It included any or all of the fol- lowing: inquiry regarding health; embracing and kissing; blessing; bowing; kneeling; prostration. ——Biblical Data: Joseph asked his brothers about their welfare (Gen. xlili. 27) when they sup- posed him to bea stranger. David sent a message of greeting to Nabal: “Peace be both to thee, and peace be to thine house, and peace be unto all that thou hast” (I Sam. xxv. 6). Elisha sent Gehazi when meeting the Shunammite to inquire: “Is it well with thee? is it well with thy husband? is it well with the child?” When hastening Gehazi 60 revive the child, Elisha told him; “Go thy way: if 89 thou meet any man, salute him not; and if any salute thee, answer him not” (II Kings iv, 26, 29). Xo time could be lost in so urgent a matter. “4 more intimate form of welcome was to embrace and kiss, as Laban did Jacob (Gen, xxix. 13). David and Jopathan exchanged kisses (I Sam. xx.41). A more passionate form was to fall on the neck and cry for joy (Gen. Xxxili. 4). Kissing a female in public was apparently against the prevailing custom (Cant. viii. 1; but comp. Gen. xxix. 11), The kissing of the hand is mentioned in Job xxxi. 27 (see K1ssine). A specially reverential form of greeting was to pow toward the ground (Gen. xviii. 2). Jacob ren- dered homage to his brother by bowing seven times as he approached (Gen. xxxiii. 3). On meeting a prince or a king the custom was to bless him, as Welchizedek blessed Abraham, and Jacob blessed Pharaoh (Gen. xiv. 19, xIvii. 7). The angel greeted Gideon with the words: “The Lord is with thee, thou mighty man of valor” (Judges vi. 12). Boaz creeted his field-workers with: “The Lord be with vou,” and they answered him, “The Lord bless thee” (Ruth ii. 4; see Ber. ix. 1). __-In Rabbinical Literature: In the ethics of the Fathers it is said: “ Be beforehand in the saluta- tion of peace to all men” (Abot iv, 20), Greeting to Gentiles is the road leading to peace (Git. v. 9). Johanan b. Zakkai anticipated in salutation those whom he met, even Gentiles on the street (Ber. 17a). R. Judah greeted the Gentiles at work by saying “Ahaziku” (strength to you). R. Sheshet greeted them with “Asharta ” (success). R. Kahanah said “Peace, sir” (Git. 62a). The dignity of a teacher must not be lowered by greeting him or by answer- ing his greeting in the ordinary manner. A teacher should be greeted with, “ Peace to thee, my master!” His greeting should be answered by, “ Peace be with thee, my master and teacher” (Ber. 27b and Rashi ad loc.; 76. 8a; comp. Shulhan ‘Aruk, Yoreh De‘ah, 242, 16). R. Joshua b. Levi gives an object-lesson by relating this legend: “When Moses ascended to heaven he found the Almighty en- Moses’ gaged in crowning the letters of the Greeting. Law. Moses was silent, and God said to him: ‘ Bringest thou no peace from thy town?’ Moses replied, ‘May aservant greet his lord?’ to which God rejoined, ‘Even so, it was proper to wish Mesuccess.’ Then Moses said: ‘And now, I beseech Thee, let the power of my Lord be Sreat, according as Thou hast spoken’” (Shab. 89a; see Num. xiv. 17). _ The Babylonian rabbis held, contrary to the opin- lon of the Palestinians, that it is improper for one person to greet another more prominent than him- self before being recognized by him (Yer. Shek. ii. 7). Other rules are: “One must not send a message of steeting to a woman, unless through her husband ” (B. M. 87a). One must not greet a person at night If the speaker can not be recognized (Meg. 3a). One must not greet a person in a bath-house or in a lavatory (Shab. 10b). One engaged in his work need hot greet nor answer greetings. Abba Hilkiah, the standson of Honi ha-Me‘aggel, being a very pious nan, the rabbis sent two of their representatives to au him to pray for rain. They found him plowing in the field and greeted him, but he did THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Greek Law Greeting not turn hisface toward them. Afterward he apolo- gized by explaining that being a laborer for hire he did not wish to waste his master’s time (Ta‘an. 28a, b). Greeting by kissing on the mouth or cheek was not approved by the rabbis. They usually kissed on the forehead. KR. Akiba said he Methods. favored thecustom of the Medians, who kissed only the back of the hand (Ber. 8b). ‘Ula, on his return home from the rabbinical academy, kissed his sisters on the chest or bosom: according to another statement, ou the hand (Shab. 18a). The wife of R. Akiba, meeting him after a prolonged absence, kissed him on the knee, as did his father-in-law Kalba Shabua‘ (Ket. 68a). Prostration was deemed the most reverential form of greeting. It is related of R. Simcon b. Gamaliel that he prostrated himself in the following manncr: He stuck his big toes in the ground and, bowing straight downward, kissed the earth. There was no one who could imitate this “kidah”; R. Levi, an athlete, who attempted to do so before Rabbi ha- Nasi, became a cripple (Suk. 58a), On taking leave of a dignitary it was the custom to take three steps backward, and to bow with each step, to right, left, and center respectively. This form is observed at the end of the “Shemoneh ‘Hsreh ” prayer, as though the worshiper were taking leave of the Almighty King (Yoma 53b). At the consecration of the New Moon, after re- citing the outdoor benediction, the members of the congregation greet each other with “Shalom ‘ale- kem,” and answer “‘Alekem shalom,” which is the form of greeting used on returning from a journey, or when meeting a stranger. When Formulas. meeting on New-Year’s eve the usual grecting is: “A good year,” or, “May thou be inscribed [in the Book of Life] for a good year.” Late in the nineteenth century it became the custom to send to acquaintances New-Year’s greeting-cards of various designs, colors, and in- scriptions. The ordinary daily greetings are: “Good morn- ing”; “Good day ” (not “Good evening,” as night is ominous); “Good Shabbat”; on the eve following Sabbath, “Good week”; “Good hodesh” (new moon); “Good yom-tob” (holiday). In Jerusalem and the Orient the Sephardic custom is for men to greet each other before prayers with, “Good morn- ing, sir,” and, after prayers, with “Peace” (“Sha- lom”), answered by “ Peace, blessing, and good ” (“Shalom berakah we-tobah”). At night the form at parting is, “Sleep well, sir”; it is answered by, “Awake, sir, with His help and grace”; on Sab- bath, “A peaceful and blessed Shabbat”; on Sab- bath night, “A good and blessed week,” answered by, “On youand ourselves ”; on holidays, “ Time of gladness,” answered by, “ Festivals and seasons of joy ”; on intermediate holidays (“hol ha-mo‘ed ”), “Many good and sweet years,” answered by, “ Long life and happiness.” The greetings to bride and groom and at births and on other joyful occasions is, “ Mazzal tob” (good star, or Juck), answered by, “ May God let thee jive to enjoy the same at thy off- spring’s wedding.” One who has finished reading the portion of the Torah assigned to him in the syna- Grégoire Grenoble THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 90 ea ea a ae ee ee gre ee ee eG aT Fa why Se ee WG Ee ge Ser TP eee ea 6 rpg ee pu Sew ems emcee gogue, or who has delivered a lecture, is greeted with, “Strength and blessings,” answered by, “Be strong and mighty ” (Luncz, “Jerusalem,” i. 10). On entering a house one is greeted with, “ Blessed be he that cometh.” If he find the host at table he says: “Blessed be he who sits [at the table].” It will be noticed that the answer invariably differs from the greeting. This is to distinguish the saluter from the one saluted, so that one may run no risk of being considered ill-bred through leaving a greeting unanswered. See ETIQUETTE; PRECEDENCE. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Wunderbar, in Orient, Lit. 1846, pp. 215-247, E. C. J. D. E. GREGOIRE, HENRI: Jesuit priest, politi- cian, and advocate of the Jews; born at Veho, near Lunéville, Dec. 4, 1750; died at Paris May 28, 1881. Grégoire was a typical representative of the human- itarian ideas of the eighteenth century. Notwith- standing his Jesuit training and associations he stood consistently throughout his life for the inde- pendence of the Gallican Church, and for equal rights for all men regardless of creed and national- ity. When in 1788 the Royal Society for Arts and Sciences in Metz offered a prize for the best essay on the improvement of the condition of the Jews, Gré- goire wrote his famous “Sur la Régencration Phy- sique, Morale, et Politique des Juifs” (Metz, 1789). A year later he was elected a member of the States General, and was among those who agitated for the formation of the National Assembly, although he had been one of the clerical delegates. In the assembly he put the motion for the emancipation of the Jews (“ Motion en Faveur des Juifs, par M. Grégoire, curé d’Emberménil, deputé de Nancy, precédée d’une notice historique sur les persécutions qu’ils viennent d’essuyer en divers licux,” etc.; Paris, 1789). Inhis somewhat theatrical style he exclaimed (Oct. 1, 1789), when a special day was given to the deliber- ation of the bill concerning the Jews: “Fifty thou- sand Frenchmen arose this morning as slaves; it de- pends on you whether they shall go to bed as free people.” The arguments advanced in his book in favor of the Jews are in no way original; they repeat the often-advanced statements that the Jews are not worse than the average, and that the injustice of medieval legislation was largely responsible for whatever faults are peculiar tothe Jews. He there- fore demanded for them full enfranchisement, in- cluding political rights. What gave special weight to Grégoire’s pamphlets was the fact that he spoke asa professing Catholic and as a Catholic priest who advocated the enfranchisement of the Jews from the point of view of canonical law, and desired to prove that the Church had always been favorable to the Jews. BIBLIOGRAPHY: La Grande Encyclopédie ; Gritz, Gesch. x1. 197; Kahn. Les Juifs d Paris, pp. 61 et seq., Paris, 1889: R. E. J. iii. 308. is GREGORY I., THE GREAT: Pope from 590 to 604: born about 540; died 604. Descended from an old Roman senatorial family, he had held various high official positions when he suddenly retired to one of the cloisters which he had founded. Sent as ambassador to Constantinople by Pelagius II., on his return became an abbot, and soon afterwarg when Pelagius died from the plague, he was elected pope. He materially strengthened the authority of the papal see both by his personal influence and p his adroit policy; and in many respects he deter. mined the standards of the Catholic Church for the following centuries. Gregory had a deep-seated aversion to Judaign which to him was Jewish superstition (“ superstitig ny depravity (“ perditio”), and faithlessness (“ perfidia”, He discarded the literal interpretation of the Bib}, which prevailed among the Jews, and designateg their attacks upon Christianity as idle prattle. Ho forbade the literal observance of the Sabbath law wide-spread among the Christians, on the ground that it was Jewish; and his decpest grievance againgt the Nestorians was that they were like the Jews. He extolled the Visigothic king Reccared for hig severe measures against the Jews and for his firm. ness against their attempts at bribery. Gregory was very zealous in his efforts to cop. vert the Jews, and tried to influence them by prom. ising a partial repeal of taxes and by offering other material support to converts. He was very em. phatic against enforced baptism, however, prefer. ring conversions brought about by gentleness and kindness. He protected the rights of the Jews, and assured to them the unhindered celebration of their feasts and the undisturbed possession of their syna- gogues. On the other hand, he repeatedly opposed the possession by Jews of Christian slaves. Chris. tian slaves and those who wished to accept Chris. tianity were to be taken away from their Jewish masters. Indeed, he earnestly begged the Frankish kings to issue a decree forbidding Jews to hold Christian slaves. He was obliged, however, to mit- igate the strictness of some of his measures. The principle of Gregory’s policy in regard to the Jews is expressed in the following sentence, which was adopted by later popes as a fixed introductory formula to bulls in favor of the Jews: “Just as no freedom may be granted to the Jews in their com- munities to exceed the limits legally set for them, so they should in no way suffer through a violation of their rights” (“ Epistole,” vii. 25, “Sicut Judeis,” etc.). Oenturies later his policy toward the Jews was still designated as the standard (Jaffé, “ Biblio- theca Rerum Germanarum,” p. 338). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gregorii I. Pape Registrum Epistolarum, ed. Ewald and Hartmann (Monumenta Germ. Histor.: Epistolw, i. ii.); Gregory’s works in Migne, Patrologie Cursus Completus, Latin Series, Ixxv.-lxxix.: Wiggers, De Greqgoria. Magno, 1838-40; Lau, Gregor I. 1845; Pfahler, Gregor der Grosse und Seine Zeit, 1852; Baxmann, Politik der Ptipste, 1868, vol. i.; Pingaud, La Politique de St. Grégoire le Grand, 1872; Clausier, St. Grégoire le Grand, 1887; Vogelstein and Rieger, Gesch. der Juden in Romi. 133; Grisar, Gesch. Roms und des Papsttums, 1901, vol. i. a. H. V. GREGORY XIII. (UGO BUONCOM- PAGNI): Pope from 1572 to 1585; born at Bo- logna Feb. 7, 1502; died at Rome April 10, 1589. His attitude toward the Jews was that of a man possessed of natural goodness warped by strong feelings of intolerance and fanaticism. Soon after his election Gregory, in spite of ecclesiastical opp sition, allowed the Jews to return to Venaissin, from which they had been banished by a decree issué THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 91 eb. 26, 1569. Like Paul Ill., Gregory granted 1581) gafe-conduct to Jews traveling through Italy ; he also repealed the prohibition against interest. By g writ jssued Jan. 10, 1577, he confirmed the regula- tions of Clement VII. which organized the commu- nity under a council of sixty, and he sanctioned a gystem Of communal taxation by which each mem- her Was assessed according to the degree of his rosperity. Gregory, however, was the author of a series of pulls and ordinances of the most hostile character. He compelled (Sept. 4, 1578) the Jews of Rome to contribute 1,100 scudi toward the maintenance of the Casa dei Catecumeni (Home for Converts to Christianity) ; renewed (1581) the prohibition against the attendance of Jewish physicians upon Chris- tian patients; ordered (1581) the surrender to the in- uisitors of all copies of the Talmud; and com- manded (1584) all Jews to listen every Saturday in their synagogues to the sermons of missionaries. BIBLIOGRAPHY : Stern, Urkundliche Bettrdgezur Stellung der Papste, ete., p. 153; Gratz, Gesch. ix. 465; Berliner, Gesch. der Juden in Rom, ti. 17; Vogelstein and Rieger, Gesch. der Juden in Rom, ii. 169, D. I. Br. GREGORY BAR HEBRZZDUS (“son of a He- brew”), ABU AL-FARAJ IBN HARUN: Jaco- bite Syrian historian, physician, philosopher, and the- ologian ; bornat Malatia, Asiatic Turkey, 1226; died at Maragha, Persia, 1286. Gregory first studied med- icine under his father, Aaron, a Jewish physician who embraced Christianity; he then devoted himself to theology and philosophy, at the same time study- ing other sciences. He was successively Bishop of Guba (1246), of Lakaba (1247), and of Aleppo (1258). In 1264 he was named “ mafriana,” or “ primate,” of the eastern Jacobites, with his seat at Tekrit on the Tigris. It does not appear that, beyond his surname, Gregory showed any traces of his Jewish origin; even his works (thirty-one) give no proof that, though master of Syriac, Arabic, and perhaps of Greek, he had ever studied Hebrew. On the con- trary, in the beginning of his chronicle he ascribes to such Biblical names as Noah, Jacob, etc., aSyriac origin. Nor is there anything to show that his studies were pursued under Jewish influence, though he did not entirely ignore Jewish doctrines, Gregory was a prolific writer on theology, phi- losophy, ethics, history, grammar, medicine, mathe- matics,and astronomy. He wasalsoa poet. Some of his works were written in Arabic, but most of them In Syriac. He was the last great Syriac writer, though he is important rather as a collector than as an independent writer. He is best known for his yriac grammar (“ Ketaba de Semhe ”); his “ Chroni- cle,” in two parts, ecclesiastical and political; his Menarat Kudshe,” a compendium of theology, Philosophy, medicine, physics, and metaphysics; and his scholia on the Old and the New Testa- Ment (“Auzar Raze”). In the last-named he occa- Sionally cites readings from the Samaritan text; it is Mteresting to note that in a scholium to II Kings Wil. 28 he says: “The law [7.e., text of the Penta- leuch] of the Samaritans does not agree with that of ath Jews, but with the Septuagint.” He occasion- Y cites opinions of Jews, but probably only at Grégoire Grenoble second hand (e.g., to Ps. viii, 2, on the “Shem ha- Meforash”; comp. “Z. D. M. G.” xxxii. 465). In the introduction to his commentary on Job he men- tions as a writer the priest Asaph (brother of Ezra the Scribe), who identifies Job with Jobab. In speak- ing of the apocryphal account of the death of Isaiah, he cites “one of the Hebrew books” as authority (Nestle, “Marginalien,” ii. 48). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Assemani, Bibliotheca Orientalis, ii, 244- 320; Eug. Bore, in Journal Asiatique, 2d series, vol. xiv., pp. 481-508: R. Gottheil, in Hebraica, iii, 249-254: Nodldeke, Orientalische Skizzen, pp. 250 et seq., Berlin. 1892; J. Godtts- berger, Barhebraus und Seine Scholien, Freiburg-im-Breis- gau, 1900; and the literature cited in Duval, Littérature Syriaque, p. 409 and passim, Paris, 1899 M. Se..—G. GRENOBLE (xb21993): Capital of the depart- ment of [sére, France. It possessed a Jewish com- munity from the end of the thirteenth century. Jacob ben Solomon, a Grenoble Jew (Zunz, “Z. G.” p. 208, erroneously calls him “Tsaac”), died a mar- tyr to his faith in 1296. When the Jews were driven out of France (1306) by Philippe le Bel, a certain number of them fled to Grenoble, where they were hospitably received by the dauphin Humbert J., who allowed them to es- tablish banking-houses there. Two of them espe- cially, Amyal of Tours and Morel of Amboise, ob- tained important privileges on paying an annual tax of 10 livres. In 1388, in consequence of numerous accusations against the Jewish bankers of the region addressed to the governor of the Dauphiné, all the Jews of the province were called together at Greno- ble, and on their refusal to comply with this sum- mons the dauphin condemned each of them to pay a silver mark annually. Further, he imposed a fine of 10,000 francs on all the Jews, for the payment of which the “maistre de la loy,” Rabbi Samuel, ad- dressed an urgent appeal to all the Jewish bankers of the Dauphiné. Among the most important of these were Moses Aaron and Samson of Yenne, resi- dents of Grenoble. In 1896, during the dauphinal council at Grenoble, a criminal suit was instituted against three youths, Samson of Jerusalem, Crescent of Voiron, and Perret Levi, who were accused of having committed a crime against a Christian and of having blasphemed Jesus. They were condemned to pay a fine of 200 francs in gold. On March 4, 1413, at the request of the states general of the province, the council decided that Jews should be obliged to keep their places of wor- ship, their ovens, their wells, and their markets separate from those of the Christians. In addition, the men were required to wear as a badge a round piece of variegated cloth, placed upon the outer gar- ment at the chest, and the women to put a dis- tinctive token in their head-dress. It was forbid- den for either men or women to appear in public or to keep their doors and windows open on Pas- sion Sunday or during Holy Week; and they were not allowed to employ Christian servants. During the reign of Charles VII. the Jews of Grenoble and its environs were accused of having associated with the enemies of the dauphin during his exile and of having used disrespectful language concerning him. They were therefore condemned by him to pay a fine of 1,500 crowns in gold. lt was Grieshaber Grodno THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 99 SS ae eg ee Soe ee at this period that the Jews left Grenoble defini- tively. Only a few Israelite families now reside there (1908). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Valbonais, Histoire du Dauphiné, i., ii.; Preuves, No. 181; Ordonnances des Rois de France, xi.: Prudhomme, Les Juifs en Dauphiné, pp. 12, 51, 54, 58; Depping, Les Juifs dans le Moyen Age, pp. 162 and 196; R. E. J. ix. 239, 254, 256, 260, 261; Gross, Gallia Judaica, p. 143. G. S. K. GRIESHABER (KRIEGSHABER), ISAAC: Polish-Hungarian rabbi at Paks, Hungary; born at Cracow. He was the author of “Makkel No‘am” (Vienna, 1799), in which he sharply criticized Aaron Cuorin for declaring the sturgeon permissible food. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Liw, Gesammelte Schriften, ti. 263-267 5 Schreiber, Reformed Judaism, pp. 68-70; First, Bibl. Jud. 1. 348; Zeitlin, Bibl. Post-Mendels. p. 57, D. S. Man. GRILICHES, ABRAHAM AVENIRO- VICH: Russian engraver; born at Wilna 1852; educated at the Wilna rabbinical school; gradu- ated from the Wilna School of Designs in 1869, and from the St. Petersburg Academy of Fine Arts in 1876, when he was appointed engraver to the Impe- rial Mint. He became a noted medalist. Among the medals he engraved may be mentioned those in com- memoration of the deaths of Alexandra Feodorovna and Emperor Alexander II., the jubilee of Duke Nicholas Leuchtenberg, the catastrophe at the rail- road station of Borki, Oct. 17, 1888, and the 200th anniversary of the 65th Infantry Regiment of Mos- cow. Griliches produced on onyx portraits of Baron Horace Giinzburg, the Grand Duke Vladimir, the Grand Duchess Alexandra Georgievna, the Emperor Nicholas [I., Queen Louise of Denmark, Empress Alexandra Feodorovna, and Emperor Alexander II. His exhibits were awarded a gold medal at the Paris Exposition of 1900. He now (1903) holds the posi- tion of senior engraver to the Imperial Mint with the rank of aulic councilor. H. R. GRILICHES, AVENIR GIRSCHEVICH: Russian engraver; father of Abraham Avenirovich Griliches; born at Wilna April, 1822. Untilthe age of sixteen he studied the Talmud, and later, without the aid of a teacher, becamean engraver. In 1871 he was employed as an engraver by the Imperial Mint of St. Petersburg; three years later his portrait of Levensohn, engraved on rock-crystal, won him a nomination to the St. Petersburg Academy of Fine Arts; in the same year he was appointed engraver to the Imperial Mint. He soon gained a wide reputa- tion, and is now considered one of the best engravers in Russia. Among his engravings may be mentioned the state seals of the emperors Alexander III. and Nicholas IT, Avenir holds the rank of court councilor, and was decorated with the Order of St. Stanislas, second class. H. R. GRODNO: Russian city; capital of the govern- ment of the same name; formerly one of the chief cities of Lithuania and, later, of Poland. It hada Jew- ish community about the middle of the fourteenth century, for in the “ Privilege” granted to the Jews of Grodno by Grand Duke Vitold of Lithuania, dated Lutsk, June 18, 1889 (document No. 2 in Bershaq. ski's “Russko-Yevreiski Arkhiv ”), it is seen that the Jews occupied at that time a considerable ates in the city, that they owned land and houses, ang had a synagogue and a cemetery. This important document, which was later confirmed by Sigismung August (1547), by John Casimir (1655), and by Stgp. islas August Poniatowski (1785), is, with one eXcep. tion, the oldest one extant relating to the history of the Jews in Lithuania. It confirms the Jews in ay their possessionsand rights; permits them toengage in all business pursuits and occupations; eXemptg the synagogue and the cemetery from taxation; ang ends by conferring on the Jews “all rights, liberties and privileges given to our Jews of Brest ” in the pre. ceding year. The Jews, who were thus practical] enjoying equal rights with the other inhabitants, apparently lived undisturbed, even after Casimir Jagellon in 1444 granted the city its independence in the form of the “Magdeburg Law.” Jews continued to farm the taxes and to own real estate until their unexpected expulsion by Alexander Ja. gellon in 1495. The estates and houses owned by Jews were then given by the grand duke to his favorites, but they were soon reclaimed. The decree issued by Alexan- der Jagellon when he became King of Poland, per. mitting the Jews to return to Lithuania, is dated March 22, 1503. It is issued to two Expulsion Jews from Grodno, Lazar Moisheye. and vich (styled “our factor”) and Isaac Return. Faishevich, and permits all Jews who had been expelled to return to Grodno and once again enter into possession of their estates (2b. No. 89). A decree by Alexander, dated April, 1508, in which the Jews of Grodno are especially mentioned, again orders that everything formerly belonging to Jews which had been sequestrated for gifts must be returned to them, and that all the debts owing to them must be paid; and four years later (Nov. 3, 1507; 7b. No. 50) an edict again decrees that whatever belonged to the Jews of Grodno be- fore their expulsion must be returned to them. In 1525 the king confirmed the right of Judah Bogdano- vich to land in the district of Grodno which his father Bogdan had acquired before the expulsion. The same subject is referred to in another document (2b. Nos. 94, 100). In a decision rendered by Queen Bona (Sforza), dated May 22, 1549, the following regulations, modi- fying and defining the rights of the Jewish commu- nity of Grodno, are introduced: (1) Jews are to pay 17 per cent of the taxes the government assessed against the city; (2) they are freed from some spe cial taxes paid in kind; (8) houses and lands for- merly bought by Jews from citizens are freed from citizens’ taxes; those bought by citizens from Jews are freed from Jewish taxes. But thenceforth n0 Jew may buy a house from a citizen without spe cial royal permission (7). No. 352). The first rabbi and the first quarrel in the com- munity of Grodno date from the year 1549. It seems that the influential Judich family had forced ou the community as rabbi a relative of the name of Mordecai. Queen Bona, on Oct. 28 of that yea! ordered her governor Kimbar to assemble the Jews 93 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Grieshaber Grodno peer eee te ge a a ee ee of Grodno to elect a rabbi who was no relative to the Judichs, and decreed that in case this could not. be donc without opposition, the op- ponents of the Judichs were to elect a separate rabbi with the same rights and privileges as enjoyed by the one chosen by that family. Another decree, dated Nov. g of that year, deals with the trouble caused because the Jews would not permit Rabbi Mordecai to offici- ate in the synagogue (7. Nos. 353-354). The name of Rabbi Moses b. Aaron, Mordecai’s rival, has also peen preserved. After the Union of Lublin (1569), when Lithuania became part of Poland, Grodno shared the general de- cline of that unhappy kingdom. It flourished again under King Stephen Bathori (1576-86), who was the friend of the Jews who resided there; and the great synagogue, which was destroyed by fire Aug. 3, 1599, was erected at that period. The arrival of the Jesuits in 1616 marks the beginning of oppress- ive measures and exactions, and frequent recur- rences of blood accusations. Grodno was saved from the devastation and massacres of the first Cossack war in 1648-49, but suffered terribly in 1655, when it was taken by the Russians and held two years; and its lot was not improved during the four years following, when it was held by the Swedes. The community was impoverished and sunk heavily in debt, from which it has not been freed even to this day. From 1703 to1708 Grodno was held by Charles XII. of Sweden, and the Jews suffered as they al- ways suffered in times of war and disorder. Jews did not share in the benefit Grodno derived from the administration of the starost Anton Tiesenhaus (1762-85), who made an effort to revive the commerce and industry of the decaying city. He was hostile to the Jews, and when he became bankrupt his in- debtedness to the Jewish community, representing only a part of the money which he had extorted from it, was declared by a court to be over 34,000 rubles. Two of his estates in the district of Pinsk were given to the “kahal” of Grodno in lieu of the debt, but they were confiscated on a technicality by the Russian government in 1795. The last tragedy in Grodno of which there is record occurred on the second day of Pentecost, May 20, 1790, when Eleazar b. Solomon of Wirballen was quartered for the alleged murder of a Christian The First Rabbi. girl, The king refused to sign the death-warrant, being convinced of the man’s inno- Murder cence, but could not prevent the ex- Ac- ecution. A ritual murder trial is also cusations. known to have occurred there in 1820, but the details have not been pre- Served, Grodno came under the dominion of Rus- sia in 1795. The most important event in its recent history is the disastrous conflagration of 1885, when about half of the city was destroyed. A complete list of the Jewish inhabitants of Grodno in 1560 is reproduced in the above-mentioned Arkhiv ” (ii.). It includes the names of about sixty Jews, who lived mostly in the “Jewish street” and In the “ Jewish School street.” It also gives the loca- tion of the Jewish hospital, which was then on “ Ple- banski street.” The total number of houses in rodno at that time was 548; if figured at one fam- ily for cach house, this would make the Jewish pop- ulation about 10 per cent of the inhabitants. The “Russian Encyclopedia” (s.v.), which gives for the second half of the sixteenth century 56 Jewish houses out of a total of 712, makes the proportion still smaller. But the Jewish population increased in the following two centuries much faster than the Christian, and of the 4,000 inhabitants in 1793 a majority were Jews. The increase went on under Russian rule, and in 1816 the city had 8,422 Jewish, and only 1,451 non-Jewish, inhabitants. In 1890 there were 29,779 Jews in a total population of 49,- 952, and in 1897 about 25,000 Jews in a total pop- ulation of 46,871. The rabbinate of Grodno was next in importance to that of Brest-Litovsk, and in the records of the council of Lithuania the rabbi of Brest-Litovsk always signed first and the rabbi of Grodno second. Rabbis Mordecai and Moses ben Aaron, who are known only through records of litigation, were followed by an eminent rabbinical authority, Nathan Spira Ash- kenazi (d. 1577), author of **Mebo She‘arim.’’ He was suc- ceeded by Mordecai Jaffe, author of the ‘** Lebushim,” who is known to have been in Grodno during the reign of Stephen Bathori. When he left Grodno is not Known, and the date of the rabbinate of his successor, Judah, who is known only from the mention made of him in contemporary responsa, is also somewhat uncertain. The next rabbi was Ephraim Solo- mon Shor, author of “ Tebu’ot Shor” (d. 1614). He was suc- ceeded by Abraham b. Meir ha-Levi Epstein, who left Grodno in 1634 to become rabbi of Brest-Litovsk. Isaac b. Abraham is known to have been rabbi of Grodno in 1634-44, but part of that time Joshua b. Joseph, author of “ Maginne Shelomoh,”’ later of Lemberg and Cracow, was also in Grodno, before he went to Tikotzyn. Jonah b. Isaiah Teomim, author of “Kikayon de-Yonah,” was rabbi in 1644-55, when he left Poland, dying in Metz in 1669, aged 73. Moses Spira, son of R. Nathan, author of ** Megalleh ‘Amukot,”’ ard great- grandson of the above-named Nathan Spira, was rabpi after 1655, and Judah b. Benjamin Wolf of Troppau held that position about 1664. Haika b. Samuel Hurwitz was rabbi from 1667 to 1673, and was followed by Moses Zebi, author of * Tif’eret le-Moshebh,” who died in 1681. His suc- cessor, Mordecai Stisskind Rothenberg, remained in Grodno until 1691, when he went to Lublin. Simhah b. Nabman Rapoport, formerly of Dubno, who succeeded Mordecal, held the position for nearly a quarter of a century until he too became rabbi of Lublin (about 1714). Baruch Kahana Rapoport was called from Fiirth to assume the rabbinate of Grodno, but he preferred the ‘‘ small rabbinate “’ of the German town and soon returned there. Aryeh Lob b. Nathan Nata of Slutsk (d. 1729) became rabbi of Grodno in 1720, and was succeeded by his son Zechariah Mendel (d. 1746, aged 39). Jehiel Margaliot (d. 1751), a disciple of Israel Ba‘al Shem, became rabbi. He was followed by Moses Joshua Hurwitz. The latter’s successor, Ben- jamin Braudo (Broda) (d. 1818, aged 73), was the last rabbi of Grodno, the office being then abolished, as was the case in Wilna, as the result of quarrels between two factions of the community. Among the rabbinical scholars and other eminent Jews of Grodno were: Elhanan Berliner, who corre- sponded with Zebi Ashkenazi early in the eighteenth century; Elisha b. Abraham, author of “Kab we- Naki,” on the Mishnah, and of “Pi Shenayim,” on Zera‘im, who died at an advanced age in 1749; Alexander Siisskind, the author of “ Yesod we-Sho- resh ha-‘Abodah”; Daniel b. Jacob, who was a day- yan or “moreh zedek ” for forty years, and died in 1807; Joseph Jozel Rubinovich, phy- sician and favorite of King Poniatow- ski, died 1810; Simhah b. Mordecai, who was head of a yeshibah and died in 1813: his son Hillel, who was a son-in-law of R. Hayyim of Volozhin and died in 1833; Tanhum, the son of Rabbi Eliezer of Urle, who was a candidate Rabbis. Scholars, etc. Grodno Grossman for the rabbinate, was “rosh bet-din.” and became the rival to some extent of R. Benjamin Braudo, mentioned above; his name is signed first on the record of the convention held in Wilna in 1818 for the purpose of selecting delegates to St. Petersburg ; Sundel Sonenberg, head of the delegation referred to above, died 1858; Jacob b. Moses Frumkin, died in Grodno 1872. Eliezer Bregman and his son Shab- bethai are among the prominent citizens of Grodno, as are the Epsteins, the Neches, and the Ratners. The best-known Hebrew writers in the city of Grodno were: Meir Ostrinski, Menahem Bendetson, Israel David Miller, Abraham Shalom Friedberg, the poet Issachar Baer Hurwitz, Samuel Yevnin, Isaac Andres, Simon Friedenstein (the historian of the Grodno community), and Hirsch Ratner. Hur- witz, the translator of the Siddur into Russian, was the city’s “ government rabbi” in the seventies. He was succeeded by Moses Kotkind, who in his turn was followed by Shemariah Lewin. Among the five “more hora’ah,” R. Eliakim Shapira, and R. Wolf, a son-in-law of R. Nahum, are the best known. The Jewish community of Grodno is one of the poorest in Russia. There is little industry, and a large percentage of the business establishments is conducted by women. It has the usual number of educational and charitable institutions, two Tal- mud Torahs (the older one having a trade-school as an adjunct), a gemilut hasadim, a “ Volksktiche” for the poor, and a similar institution to provide kasher food for Jewish soldiers. There is also an older trade-school founded by Samuel Lapin. Inaddition to the government school there are (1903) an excel- lent private school, conducted by B. Shapira, and a modern heder founded by the Zionists, who have re- cently developed great activity in communal work. —~—Typography: Baruch b. Menahem, a book- dealer, established a Hebrew printing-press in Grodno, the first in Lithuania, in 1789, Ten years later he removed to Wilna, where he died in 1803. The establishment was inherited by his son Mena- hem Man Romm, who in 1885 commenced, in part- nership with Simhah Zimmel of Grodno, to publish anew edition of the Talmud. The first few volumes bear the imprint of Wilna-Grodno, but in 1837 the business was removed to Wilna, and, under the man- agement of the Romm family, became one of the largest of its kind in the world. P. WL. The following isa list of the Jewish agricultural colonies in the government of Grodno, from “ Selsko- Khazaistvenny Kalendar Dlya Yevreyev Kolonis- tov” (ii. 281, Wilna, 1902): . e wm 0) at So) a =a P Name of 5 SZ} Pola § SSDP Settlement. a |S8|S2] 88 st Aa®o] So as Fx Aa jf g Brest-Litovsk ..| Abramove......../Rented.| 25 179 | 264 ty ne ..| Sarovskaya....... ss 12 64 | 366 Volkovysk...... Galileiskaya...... $3 29 1 214 | 37 eon tT Izrailskaya ....... sa 9 61 146 Kobrin......... Yakovlevo....... 4 31 202 |} 270 Pruzhany ......|SosnovkKa......... Owned. 6 60 &5 Sokolka ........(Odolsk .......006. Rented.| 29 | 221 452 SION 3.553.452% PAVIOVO. ceo ca ¥s i 51 | 3382 | 623 at age aces Konstantinovka.. de 25 76 | 563 Fm ee eb area Sinaiskaya........ - 25 | 183 } 195 M. R THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 94 eA a ae hg ES PoPULATION By DISTRICTS OF THE GOVERNMEy? oF GRroDNO (CENStS 1897), ———. | Total | Jewish —_————_._-— District. | saad ae aes ercentage, GTOUNG sa5.0r2ccseheesdees 204,778 41,181 20.11 Brest-Litovsk ............ 218,366 45,902 21.02 BYCIOSUOR o04 oh acbewednees 207,258 59,643 28.97 BYGISE ic ci cccrovwscravers 165,238 23.444 14,19 VOIKOVISK iecieccceccssaces 148,159 17,802 12,02 BOUTIN Gis cane eee ah ek 183,515 23,080 12.58 Pruzoany .cssa send ees 138.807 17,67 12.74 SHOWIN 6. icasaveranescace Po, Lok 34,776 15.38 SOKO RA. causa seovecemuen 110,406 13,377 12,12 MGtalsss ies dua caseacese 1,602,681 | 276,883 7 B ad VaR BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bershadski, Russko-Yevreiskht Arkhiv, st. Petersburg, 1882; Entziklopedicheski Slovar; Friedenstejn, ‘Ir Gibborim, Wilna, 1880; idem, in Keneset ha-Gedolah, jj. 125-127, iii. 66-69 ; Hurwitz, Rehobot ‘Ir (criticism of Frieden. stein, based on review in Briill’s Jahrb. vii. 182-183), Wilna, 90; Ha-Shahar, No. 5, pp. 268 et seq.; Ha-Meliz, 1879, No, 42; Ha-Zefirah, 1899, Nos. 166, 167; 1900, No. 143. Hi. R. P. Wy, GRONEMANN, SELIG: German rabbi; born at Flétenstein, West Prussia, Dec. 7, 1848; attended the gymnasium at Konitz and the seminary and university at Breslau; became rabbi at Strasburg (1872) and at Danzig (1878), and district rabbi of Han- over (1884). His works include: “De Profiatii Durani (Ephodei) Vita et Studiis,” inaugural dis. sertation (Breslau, 1869); “Die Jonathan’sche Pen- tateuchiibersetzung in Ihrem Verhiltnisse zur Ha- lacha” (Leipsic, 1879); “Zibhe Shelamin: Die Vorschriften titber das Schichten und die Untersuch- ung der Lunge von R. Jakob Beck, Neu Heraus- gegeben, Durch Zusitze Erginzt und mit einer Deutschen Bearbeitung Versehen” (Frankfort-on- the-Main, 1899). He also contributed to Frankel’s “Monatsschrift ” and Rahmer’s “ Familienblatt,” and published some sermons in the latter’s “ Predigt- Magazin.” Gronemann is (1903) a member of the Cen- tral Committee of the German Zionist organization. G. M. K. GROSS, CHARLES: American author; born at Troy, N. Y., Feb. 10, 1857; educated at the Troy High School; at Williams College, from which he received the degree of M.A.; and at the universities of Paris, Berlin, and Gottingen, receiving from the last-named the Ph.D. degree for his study on the ‘Gilda Mercatoria.” He was also an honorary M.A. of Harvard, in which university he held a pro- fessorship of history 1888-1909. Gross displayed great originality and industry as an investigator in medieval and English history, in which field he wrote the following: ‘Gild Merchant,” 2 vols., 1890; “Select Cases from the Coroners’ Rolls,” 1896 (for the Selden Society); “Bibliography of British Municipal History,” 1897; “Sources and Literature of English History,” 1900; “The Early History of the Ballot in England,” in “ Political Science Quar- terly,” 1898; “ Modes of Trial in the Medieval Bot- oughs of England ” (Harvard Law Series, May, 1902). Gross lectured at the Anglo-Jewish Exhibition of 1887 on “Exchequer of the Jews in England in the Middle Ages,” this lecture being a valuable cont! bution both to English and to Jewish history. He translated into English Kayserling’s “Christophe! A A erat RT PT RETIN GET a 95 ae a columbus,” New York, 1893. He was a vice-prest- dent of the American Jewish Historical Society, and , committee member of the Jewish Publication society of America. He died December 3, 1909. pLIOGRAPHY: Harvard Graduates’ Magazine, x. 169; B Who's Who in America, 8.v. A GROSS, FERDINAND: Austrian writer; born in Vienna April 8, 1849; died at Kaltenleutgeben, near Vienna, Dec. 21, 1900. His ancestors lived in Italy; hisfather emigrated from Padua to Hun- gary, and went from there to Vienna. Ferdinand pegan his literary activity when a boy of fifteen. He joined the editorial staff of the “ Extrablatt ” in 1872, and in 1877 won the first prize of the Berliner Lite- yarisches Centralbureau for his feuilleton “ Litte- rarische Zukunftsmusik.” In1879 he went to Frank- fort-on-the-Main to become feuilleton editor of the “Frankfurter Zeitung.” In 1881 Gross returned to Vienna and joined the editorial staff of the “ Wiener Allgemeine Zeitung.” For a time he was the feuil- letonist of the “Neue Wiener Tageblatt,” and ed- itor of the “ Extra-Post.” He was president of the Concordia, an association of Vienna journalists, from 1898 until 1900. Among his works are the follow- ing: “Geheimnisse,” one-act comedietta, Vienna, 1877; “Kleine Miinze,” sketches, Breslau, 1878; “Oberammergauer Passionsbriefe,” 7b. 1880, new ed. 1900; “Nichtig und Flichtig,” sketches, Leipsic, 1880; “Die Neuen Journalisten,” comedy, with Max Nordau, Leipsic, 1880; “ Mit dem Bleistift,” sketches, Breslau,1881; “Der Erste Brief,” comedy, Vienna, 1888; “ Heut und Gestern ” ana “ Aus der Bicherei,” Vienna, 1883; “ Blatter im Winde,” Vienna, 1884 (2d ed., 1888); “ Aus Meinem Wiener Winkel,” Leipsic, 1885; “ Lieder aus dem Gebirge,” Vienna, 1885; “ Lit- terarische Modelle,” Berlin, 1887 ; “ Gedichte,” 1887; “Goethe’s Werther in Frankreich”; “ Was die Biich- erei Erzahlt,” Leipsic, 1889; “Zum Nachtisch,” Leip- sic, 1889. In 1891 Gross began his editorial connection with the “ Wiener Fremdenblatt,” and on Dec. 21 of the same year his adaptation of Daudet’s “ L’Obsta- cle” was produced at the Hofburg Theater. In 1892 another collection of stories and sketches, “Im Vorbeigehen,” was published at Leipsic, and his drama, “Um Drei Uhr,” was produced. His later works are: “Augenblicksbilder” and “Ungebun- den,” Vienna, 1895; “Blatter im Walde,” Leipsic, 1896; “Wer Ist Frei von Schuld?” (one-act sketch), 1896; “In Lachen und Liacheln,” Stuttgart, 1898; “Von den Leichten Seiten,” Leipsic, 1900. BIBLIOGRAPHY : Eisenberg, Das Geistige Wien, s.v.; Meyers onversations-Lexikon. 8. M. Co. GROSS, HEINRICH: German rabbi; born at Szenicz, Hungary, Nov. 6, 1835; pupil in rabbin- cal literature of Judah Aszod. After graduating from the Breslau seminary and from the University of Halle (Ph.D. 1866; his thesis on Leibnitz obtain- ng the university prize), he was engaged as private teacher by Baron Horace Gtinzburg at Paris. Dur- ing a residence of two years in that city Gross col- écted in the Bibliothéque Nationale the material for 'S great work “Gallia Judaica.” In 1869 he went to erlin, where he associated much with Zunz, whose Methods of research he admired and adopted. In THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Grodno Grossman 1870 he was called tothe rabbinate of Gross-Strelitz, Silesia; aud since 1875 he has occupied the rabbinate of Augsburg. Gross’s activity in the domain of literary history, especially of that of the French Jews of the Middle Ages, has been very extensive. His “Gallia Ju- daica” (Paris, 1897), which deals with the medieval geography and literary history of the Jews of France, has become a standard work. Gross has also enriched the Jewish scientific periodicals with many valuable contributions, which of themselves constituteimportant works. Of these the most note- worthy are: “Abraham ben David aus Posqui¢res, ein Literarhistorischer Versuch,” in “ Monatsschrift,” 1873-74; “Zur Gesch. der Juden in Arles,” 73. 1878, 1879, 1880; “Eliezer ben Joel ha-Levi, ein Literar- historischer Versuch,” 2d. 1885, 1886; “Jehudah Sir Leon aus Paris: Analekten,” in “ Magazin,” 1877, 1878, iv. 174, v. 179; “Etude sur Simson ben Abra- ham de Sens,” in “R. E. J.” 1888. Gross is also the author of “ Lehrbuch der Israe- litischen Religion fiir die Oberen Klassen der Mittel- schulen.” s, I. Br. GROSS, JENNY: Austrian actress; born at Szanto, Hungary. Educated for the stage by Cesa- rina Kupfer, she made her début in 1878 at the Carl- theater at Vienna; in 1880 she appeared at the Stadttheater, and in 1885 at the Berlin court theater, from which she went in 1889 to the Lessings Thea- ter, where she is at present (1903) engaged. Her rolesinciude: Mudame Sans Géne, Komtesse Guckerl, Niobe, Josephine, Sonja in “ Raskolnikow,” Wolfgang in “Konigsleutnant,” Jeanne in “Die Welt in der Man sich Langweilt,” Marianne in “Die Geschwis- ter,” mire in “Tartiffe,” and the well-known women in Shakespeare. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Eisenberg, Biog. Lex. s, F. T. H. GROSS-KANIZSA. Sec Nacy-KaAnizsa. GROSSER, JULIUS: German physician; born at Freistadt, Prussian Silesia, Oct. 25, 1835: died at Prenzlau, Prussia, Oct. 25,1901. He studied at the University of Berlin, where he graduated in 1859 as doctor of medicine. In 1861 he established a prac- tise in Prenzlau. He served through the Franco- Prussian war in the capacity of surgeon, and was decorated with the Iron Cross. In 1880 he founded the “ Deutsche Medizinal-Zeitung,” which he edited until his death, contributing many articles to this and other medical journals. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Pagel, Biog. Lex. s.v., Vienna, 1901. 8 F. T. H. GROSSMAN, RUDOLPH: American rabbi; born at Vienna, Austria, July 24, 1867; B.L., Uni- versity of Cincinnati, Ohio, and Rabbi and D.D., He- brew Union College, Cincinnati. Grossman was as- sociate rabbi of Temple Beth-El, New York, from 1889 to 1896, and since the latter year he has been rabbi of Temple Rodef Sholom, in the same city. He was corresponding secretary of the Central Con- ference of American Rabbis (1902), and has written a number of essays for Jewish and other magazines. He was grand chaplain of the grand lodge of the Masonic Order, New York (1898-1900). A. Grossmann Groves GROSSMANN, IGNACZ: Hungarian physi- cist; born in Génez-Ruszka, Abauj county, Feb. 16, 1823; died in Budapest May 21, 1866. He attended the University of Prague, devoting himself espe- cially to mathematics and pedagogics. From 1847 to 1851 he was a teacher in Gyér-Sziget; for the two following years he attended the Josef technical school in Budapest, and in 1854 he was appointed principal of the girls’ school of the Pester Israelitische Religionsgemeinde. In 1857 Grossmann was called to a professorship in the commercial school, where he remained until 1862, when he was made engineer of the Pest-Losoncz- Zélyom Railroad Company. Grossmann was the actual inventor of the mercurial pneumatic pump. In 1854 he discovered a new method of gasometer construction. He wrote “Fiihrer in der Geometri- schen Analyse der Krystallographie,” Leipsic, 18957. 8. M. W. GROSSMANN, IGNAZ: American rabbi; born at Trencsen, Hungary, July 30, 1825; died March 18, 1897,in New York city. He received his education at the yeshibah of Presburg, and in 1863 was called as rabbi to Koritschan, Moravia, which position he in 1866 changed for that at Warasdin, Croatia. In 1873 he was called to Brooklyn, N. Y., where he officiated in the Congregation Beth Elo- him, and later in the Congregation B’nai Abraham. He wrote: “ Drei Predigten,” Warasdin, 1868; “Die Sprache der Wahrheit,” 2b. 1870; “Mikraot Ketan- not,” Cincinnati, 1892, The last work is a presenta- tion of the 618 commandments with their Biblical bases, their rabbinical definitions, and their moral lessons. He also contributed very frequently to “Deborah.” Of his sons, Louis Grossmann, in Cin- cinnati, Ohio; Rudolph Grossman, in New York city ; and Julius Grossmann, in Ipolysagh, Hungary, are rabbis. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Deborah, April 1, 1897. D 8. : GROSSMANN, LOUIS: American rabbi and author; born at Vienna, Austria, Feb. 24, 1868; edu- cated at the University of Cincinnati (B.A.) and at the Hebrew Union College (D.D.). Grossmann is descended from a family of rabbis. In 1884 he be- came rabbi of the Temple Beth El at Detroit, Mich- igan, retaining this office until 1898, He then suc- ceeded Isaac M. Wise as rabbi of the Congregation . B’nai Yeshurun at Cincinnati, and also as professor of theology at the Hebrew Union College. Gross- mann is the author of the following: “Judaism and the Science of Religion,” New York and London, 1889; “ Maimonides,” New York and London, 1890; “Hymns, Prayers, and Responses,” Detroit, 1892; “The Jewish Pulpit,” Detroit, 1894; “Isaac M. Wise, His Life and Writings,” Cincinnati, 1900. He has also contributed to Jewish periodicals. A. GROSSMANN, LUDWIG: Austrian mathe- matician and political economist; born at Leito- mischl, Bohemia, March 14, 1854. As a boy he showed unusual aptitude for physics and mathemat- ics; and he continued his studies in these branches at the University of Vienna, graduating as doctor of philosophy in 1878. In the same year he founded and edited the “ Mathematisch-Physikalische Zeitschrift ” THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 96 at Vienna. He is the discoverer of the mathematica) analytical curve of the probable length of the of man. Grossmann has devoted himself large] to literary work, and is an aclive opponent of any. Semitism. He is now (1903) a resident of Vienna and editor of the “Controlle,” a journal devoted t, political economy. Of Grossmann’s works may be mentioned: « Die Mathematik im Dienste der Nationalékonomie,” yj. enna, 1886-1900; “Allgemeine Integration der Line. aren Differentialgleichungen Hoherer Ordnung » Leipsic, 1889-91; “Compendium der Praktischep Volkswirthschaft und Threr Mathematischen Digg. plinen,” Vienna, 1892-1903. 8. F. T. GROSSWARDEIN (NAGY-VARAD): Hu. garian city, with a population of 51,000, about one. fourth of whom are Jews. The hebra Kaddisha wag founded in 1735, the first synagogue in 1808, and the first communal school in 1889. The old Jewish quarter, known as the “Katona Varos,” is in the neighborhood of the fort. It still bears its ancient aspect and is still occupied mainly by Jews. The old synagogue remains, though no longer used for worship. The Jewish hospital also stands there. Not until the beginning of the nineteenth century were Jews permitted todo business in any other part of the city, aud even then they were required to withdraw at nightfall totheirown quarter. In 1835 permission to live at will in any part of the city was granted them. The Jewish community of Grosswardein is divided into an Orthodox and a Reform congregation. While the members of the Reform congregation still retain their membership in the hebra kaddisha, they have used a cemetery of their own since 1899. The Jews of Grosswardein have won prominence in the public life of the city; there are Jewish manufacturers, merchants, lawyers, physicians, and farmers; the present chief of police (1902) is a Jew; and in the municipal council the Jewish element is proportion- ately represented. The community possesses, in ad- dition to the hospital and hebra kaddisha already mentioned, a Jewish women’s association, a gram- mar-school, an industrial school for boys and girls, a yeshibah, a soup-kitchen, etc. The following are among those who have held the rabbinate of Grosswardein: Joseph Rosenfeld (Orthodox); David Joseph Wahrmann (Ortho- dox); Aaron Landesberg (Orthodox); Moricz Fuchs (Orthodox: still officiating, 1903); Alexan- der Rosenberg (Reform: removed to Arad); Al- exander Kohut (Reform: removed to New York, 1885; died, 1894); Leopold Kecskeméty (Reform: still officiating, 1903). D. G. KE. GROTIUS, HUGO (HUIG VAN GROOT): Dutch Christian diplomat, theologian, and scholar; born at Delft, Holland, April 10, 1588; died at Ros- tock, Germany, Aug. 28, 1645. In the religious combat between the Gomarists and Arminians GT tius was a follower of Arminius. When in 1619 the Arminians were thrown into prison, he was Sel tenced to imprisonment for life, and escaped 1? 1621 only through a stratagem of his wife. He be: THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 97 jeved all his life in the doctrines of Arminius, and xpounded his master’s views in his religious qritings, which were collected after his death in i, “ Opera Omnia Theologica,” Amsterdam, 1679. In 1644 appeared in Paris in three volumes his « Annotationes in Yetus Testamentum,” including the Apocrypha (ed. Déderlein, Halle, 1775-76). This great work was at first read by the Arminians only; but it soon became well known through its philological-historical character. In the course of his religious researches Grotius, through Isaac Vossius, became acquainted with Manassch ben Israel. He corresponded with Manas- seh, aSking many questions concerning the Hebrew language, literature, and interpretation of the Old Testament. Manasseh auswered his inquiries, and the two exchanged many letters. Not being a theologian proper, Grotius was not pound by any dogimatic views; and his explanations of sentences and phrases are consequently based en- tirely upon the original text itself. The Jewish exegetes became known to Grotins through Manas- seh ben Israel; and be frequently cites and follows them in his annotations. He often mentions that the Hebrew scholars explain a sentence as he does; and even where he differs from them he gives their views. It was a favorite accusation against Gro- tius’ commentary that he Judaized, or followed Jew- ish rather than Christian methods of exegesis. It is possible that Grotius knew of Manasseh’s plan to induce Queen Christina of Sweden to open north Scandinavia to the Jews, as he was Swedish am- bassador at Paris from 1635 to 1645, Grotius highly esteemed Manasseh, whom he compares with Ibn Ezra, Maimonides, and Abra- vanel. He studied his works, and was much im- pressed by them. Especially was Manasseh’s “Conciliador ” (Amsterdam, 1641) admired by Gro- tius. In a letter to Manasseh he says: “I implore you to spend all your spare time in explaining the Law. You will do a great favor to ail scholars” (“Grotii Epistole,” No. 564, Amsterdam, 1687). Again, in a letter to Vossius under date of Oct. 30, 1688: “Manasseh, whom I wish well, is a man of great usefulness to the state and toscience” (23. No. 476). Writing from Paris, he says: “His books, which I know, are much read and highly thought of here.” BIBLIOGRAPHY: Encye. Brit. s.v.; Schaff-Herzog, Encyc. 8.v.; Graetz, History of the Jews (Am. transl.), v. 21, 22, Phila- delphia, 1895: Adler, 4 Homage to Manasseh ben Israel, in Trans. Jew. Hist. Soc. Engl. 1893-91, i., London, 1895; Kay- serling, Menasse ben Israel, in Jahrbuch ftir die Gesch. der Juden, ii., Leipsic, 1861; Grotii Epistolee, Nos. 390, 423, 452, 454, 476, 564, 570, Amsterdam, 1687; Grotii Epistole Ineditce (supplement to the foregoing), Leyden, 1809. KE. C. (Ey a. GROVES AND SACRED TREES: By many Oriental as well as Occidental peoples, whether of Semitic or non-Semitic stock, groves and single trees (oaks, terebinths, tamarisks, palms, etc.) were re- garded and revered as favorite abodes of the gods, and were therefore set aside for worship and marked by the erection of altars in, under, or near them. ehind this conception was the belief, wide-spread among primitive races, that trees were animated (See Mannhardt, “Die Wald- und Feldkulte”). i odified, this idea reappears in the form in which Vi—i Grossmann Groves —_— the trees are held to be the dwellings, and groves the haunts, of benevolent or malevolent spirits and deities. Moreover, trees were suggestive of fertil- ity, of life, and (in winter) of death. This induced their worship as visible manifestations of the secret powers of nature controlling generation and decay. Among the Hebrews, also, this notion seems to have prevailed in remote times. At all events, groves and trees are found connected with the- ophanies (Gen. xn. 6 [A. V. 7]), and with the giving of judgment—that is, the oracular consultation of the deity (Judges iv. 5; [ Sam. xxii. 6). The Hebrew “elon” and “ eshel,” denoting the oak and tamarisk respectively, are mentioned as groves, or perhaps in stricter accuracy as sin- Trysting- gle trees, where Yawn revealed Him- Trees. self (Gen. xii. 6 [A. V. 7], xxi. 38); more definitely described as “elon mo- reh” (= “oak of the revealing oracle”; “moreh” from the root 7°, whence also “Torah”; but see Barth, “ Etymologische Studien,” pp. 13-14); some- times in the plural “elone moreh” (Deut. xi. 30); also “elone mamre” (Gen. xiii. 18, xiv. 18, xviii. 1). “Elah ” (Isa. i. 80), “allah ” (Josh. xxiv. 26), “allon” (Gen. xxxv. 8), “tomer” (Judges iv. 5), and “rim- mon” (I Sam. xiv. 2) occur in connections indicating that trees which were regarded as sacred, eitber in groves or singly, are meant. Under such sacred trees treaties were solemnly confirmed (Judges ix. 6), sacrifices were offered (7b. vi. 11), and, as stated above, judgments were rendered (zd. iv. 5). The sound made by the trees is mentioned as an auspi- cious omen (JI Sam. v. 24; comp. Gen. xii. 6; Judges ix. 37). Yuwu is described as dwelling in the (burning) bush (Deut. xxxiti. 16; comp. Ex. iii. 1-6). Joshua erectsa memorial stone underneath an oak “that was by the sanctuary of Yawu” (Josh. xxiv. 26). Among the Patriarchs, Abraham is more especially brought into relations with such groves or sacred trees (Gen. xiii. 18, xviii. 1, xxi. 58). The opposition evinced by the Later Prophets to such groves and trees confirms the theory that originally they were connected with the cult of the deities presiding over the generative processes of nature. These deities and their worship (see Baaum and comp. Deut. xii. 2) were dominant factors in the Canaanitish religion, the “high hills” and “green trees” being characteristically identified with the corrupt practises of the Israelites’ neigh- bors and symbolic of their pernicious influence upon the people of Yuwu (I Kings xiv. 23; II Kings xvi. 4, xvii. 10; II Chron. xxvii. 4; Isa. lvii. 5; Jer. ii. 20; iii.6,138; xvii. 2; Ezek. vi. 18, xx. 28; Hosea iv. 13). The “ gardens,” which are also mentioned with disapproval, served similar purposes and for the same reasons (Isa. i. 29, Ixv. 3, Ixvi. 17). The ASHFRAH—usnally (following LXX. and the Vulgate) ren- dered “ grove’ or, when in the plural, “groves” (“asherim”’; I Kings xiv. 23; II Kings xvii. 10; Jer. xvii. 2), as even the con- text might have suggested, it not being likely that a “grove” would be “under every green tree’’—modern scholars ac- knowledge to have been pillars or stakes, imitations of trees, probably trunks of trees ‘ planted,” i.c., fixed into the ground. near the altars, and thus symbols of the deity, Baal or Asherah ; perhaps even in their form suggestive of the obscene lasciv- iousness of the Canaanitish cult (Deut. vii. 5, xvi. 21; Judges vi. 28, 30: I Kings xv. 13; II Kings xvii. 10, xxiii. 14; Micah v- 32: Hosea fii. 4). The goAdess Asherah was not identical with Growth Griinebaum Astarte, as Stade (‘*Gesech. des Volkes Israel,” i. £60) contends, but was originally a tree-coddess, while Astarte was a sidereal deity. They had many traits in common, however. The Asherah tree or pillar had many forms, ranging froma real tree through various imitations of parts of the tree to an- thropomorphie suggestions (see Max Ohnefalsch-Richter, “* Ky- pros, die Bibel und Homer,” 1898, plates lxix.; Ixxv.. Nos. 1, 3,5, IxXxxXiii., No. 20a, b). Compare ASHERAH. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Schrader, in Zeiischrift fiir _Assyriologie und Verwandte Gebiete, iii. 353-3864; Eduard Meyer, in Roscher’s Lexicon, i. 646, 647, 654; Riehm, Handworterb. des Bibli- schen Altertums, i. s.v. Hain; Mannhardt, Wald- und Feldkulte, 2 vols., 1875, 1877; Frazer, The Golden Bough, 2d ed., 1900, vol. i. On Semitic tree-eults see Baudissin, Studien zur Semitischen Religionsgesch. ii. 184-222: Movers, Die Phinizier, vol. i: Osiander, Studien tiher die Vorislamische Religion der Araber, in Z. D. M. G. vol. vii.; Wellhausen, Reste Arah. Heidentums, p. 10L; The Sacred Trees of the Assyrian Monuments, in the Babyl. and Oriental Record, vols. iii., iv.; Tylor, The Winged Figures of the Assyrian and Other Ancient Monuments, in Proceedings Soc. Bibl. Arch. vol. xii.; Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and As- syria, p. 662. For the Hebrews specially: Scholz, Gdtzen- dienst und Zauherwesen bei den Alten Hebriiern, p. 292; Baudissin, l.c. pp. 228-230. The best comparative study of Hebrew tree-worship is that of W. Robertson Smith, Ret. of Sem. 2d ed., 1894, s.v. Trees. E. G. H. GROWTH OF THE BODY: From thestudies of Majer for Galicia, Weissenberg for South Rus- sia, Sack for Moscow, and Yashchinsky for Poland, which give uniform results, it is found that Jewish children grow very rapidly up to the age of six, whereas usually development slackens at four; from six to eleven growth is slower; from eleven to six- teen the body again increases rapidly, when growth again becomes slower, but still continues up to the age of thirty. At this age the maximum height is attained, whereas with Germans this height is reached at the age of twenty-three (Gould). At forty the body begins to decline and grow shorter. This is seen from the figures in the table, and in the diagram representing graphically the process of growth of Jewish children in South Russia and in Moscow, given by Weissenberg (“ Die Siidrussischen Juden,” p. 17). GROWTH OF THE Bopy. Jews of South|| Jews of Cen- Jews of Russia (Weis-|| tral Russia Poland senberg). (Sack). (Elkind). Age. . 3 ‘ re . re] o> a v aa o> a So) &e | 85 22] 85 | 8 R=] < 3 wy S < a wn & < = ht — ome | BO icoeakearakeuas 1,016 Dale Soe te) aden 1,086 70 Chivas caas cues «| 1.4121 35 NaOsiee esac eeseel 1,156 35 Bis a eeeb hea eine 1,202 46 9-10...... ee ee 1,247 45 1,278 1U-11...... evSsakies 1,280 33 1,300 | 27 5 Fy Ds b-peeeeer remne e pareer 1,345 65 1,340 40 LPNS siheed ceases 1,377 32 1,378 38 iC eer 1,448 71 1,454 76 jC) Gs eee 1,482 34 1,516 92 WGHNG oes acctswee he 1,558 7 1,585 39 16-17....... eenida ts 1,601 4° 1,622 37 LSI ee reat saccsae 1.611 10 1,643 21 SHOE ica en eetteers 1,641 30 1,648 5 1D 0 iain a eats 1,640 | ~1 1,638 | —10 SR eD iss be to: Beate es 1,648 8 1,606 BOBO ig sieves ache ab 4,659 il 1,606 | —- 5) | | 1,643 | —16 1,612 6 41-50... . eee 1,642 | ~1 1,617 5 51 and over........} 1,686 | —6 1,606 | —11 Sack compared the stature of Jewish school-chil- dren in Moscow with that of non-Jewish children attending thesameschools. He found that the Jew- THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 98 ish children were shorter. But Yashchinsky, Who took measurements of Jewish and non-Jewish Schoo}. children in Warsaw, Poland, found the contray. According to his investigations the Jews are taller than the Poles between the ages of twelve and soy. enteen notwithstanding the known fact that adult Poles are taller than aduit Jews. | In so far as Bavaria is concerned Ranke (“Kg pergrésse in Bayern: Beitriige zur Anthropologi. Bayerns,” iv.) has shown that the stature is lowest in those parts of the kingdom in which the infantile mortality is highest. From measurements taken by Fishberg from Jew. ish school-children in New York city, it appears that those born in the United States grow faste; and at maturity attain a greater stature, than those born in Europe. There are two reasons for this phenomenon. First, the Jewish child in America jg brought up amid better sanitary and hygienic gyp. roundings; it is better nurtured, and the unhealthy heder is replaced by modern hy gienic public schools, The second and more important reason is that there is a process of selection at work. The stature of the Jewish immigrant to America is greater than the average of those left at home. This is a fact ob. served also among the immigrants of other races, It is the strongest physically who venture to change their place of abode. These taller Jews transmit their superior stature to their descendants. The body grows not only in height but also in GIRTH, which is best measured by the chest. From the investigations of Sack and Weissenberg it has been found that the growth of the body in stature does not go hand in hand among Jews with its in- crease in breadth, but that they progress alternately. Up to maturity the height increases at the expense of the girth of the chest. After this period the body begins to broaden. The maximum girth of the chest is attained only between forty and fifty years ofage. After this there is a recession. The growth of the limbs has been shown to pro- gress rapidly up to sixteen years of age. It then proceeds slowly up to the age of thirty, when the maximum is attained. After this time there is a recession. BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Majer, Roezny Przyrost Ciala wu Zydow Galicyjskich, Zbior Wiadomosci do Antropol. Krajowe), tom iv., dzial ii., Cracow, 1880; N. B. Sack, Fizicheskoye Raz- vitye Dyetei, Moscow, 1892: 8. Yashchinsky, A ntropomel- ritcheskia Materialy k Izycheniu Razvitiya Rosta Vyesd, etc., s Polyakov i Yevreyev, Warsaw, 1889; S. Weissenberg, Die Stidrussischen Juden,in Archiv fiir Anthropologié, xxxiii. 3,4: A. D. Elkind, Yevret, Trudy Antropotogiches- kao Otdyela, xxi., Moscow, 1903. J M. Ft. GROZOVSKI, JUDAH LOB BEN ISAIAH REUBEN: Russian Hebraist; born at Pogostt, government of Minsk, in 1861. After having at- tended the yeshibah of Volozhin, Grozovski studied pedagogics in the Institute for Hebrew Teachers at Wilna. When twenty-seven years of age, he went to Palestine, teaching Hebrew in various places: in 1896 he received an appointment as teacher © Hebrew in the agricultural school of Jaffa. Three years later he removed to the Mikweh Yisrael col- ony, and filled the same office there. Grozovsk) published a series of text-books, among which are: “Bet ha-Sefer li-Bene Yisrael,” Jerusalem, 1891; 99 » Sha‘ashu‘im,” 2. 1891: “Bet Sefer ‘Ibri,” three eraded courses in Hebrew, 1895-97; and “ Millon,” Hebrew-Russian-German dictionary, Warsaw, 1900. g. M. Fr. GRUBER, JOSEPH: Austrian physician; born at Kosolup, Bohemia, Aug. 4, 1827; died at Vienna yarch 31, 1900. He graduated (M.D.) from the rniversity of Vienna in 1855. In 1860 he settled in Vienna as & specialist in aural diseases, and became rivat-docent in 1863. In the succeeding year he pecame Chief surgeon of the aural depart:rent at the jligemeines Krankenhaus. In 1870 he was ap- ointed assistant professor, and in 1873 became chief surgeon of the newly founded aural clinic of the university. In 1893 he was elected professor, which position he resigned in 1898. Gruber was the author of many essays and works (numbering in all nearly 200), and was for many ears one of the editors of the “Monatsschrift fiir Ohrenheilkunde Sowie ftir Kehlkopf-, Nasen- und Rachenkrankheiten.” Among his writings may be mentioned: “Zur Pathologie der Himatocele,” Vi- enna, 1859; “Zur Pathologie und Therapie der Otitis Interna,” 2d. 1860; “ Anatomisch-Physiologische Stu- dien tiber das Trommetfell und die Gehérknéchel- chen,” 2b. 1867; “Lehrbuch der Ohrenheilkunde,” ib. 1870, 2d ed. 1888. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Pagel, Biog. Lexikon, Vienna, 1901, s.v. 8. F. T. H. GRUBY, DAVID: French physician; born at Neusatz (Ujvidék), Hungary, Oct. 10, 1810; died in Paris Nov. 16, 1898. He studied medicine at the University of Vienna, and graduated in 1884. Al- though at that time a Jew was rarely permitted to hold a position in the university hospital, Gruby was appointed assistant surgeon upon the recommenda- tion of the well-known physician Wattmann. Soon after, he went to London, and in 1839 to Paris, where he engaged in private practise. Gruby was one of the leaders in microscopical re- search, and gave free public lectures, which were largely attended, on microscopy, experimental phys- iology, and pathology. The results of his experi- ments are embodied in: “Observationes Microsco- pice ad Morphologiam Pathologicam Spectantes,” Vienna, 1839; and “ Morphologia Fluidorum Patho- logicorum,” 7b. 1840. As a practitioner Gruby was very successful. He was physician to the younger Dumas and to Hein- tich Heine. BIBLIOGRAPHY : Hirsch, Biog. Lez. s.v.: Pagel, Biog. Lez. s.v. 8. F. T. H. GRUN, MAURICE: Russian painter; born at Reval, Russia, in 1870. He studied art at Munich and Geneva, and in 1890 went to Paris. There he became a pupil of Jules Lefébre and Benjamin Con- stant, receiving the Academy medal and several honorable mentions. When but twenty-four years of age Grin was appointed principal of the School of Arts at Bahia, Brazi}. In 1896 he returned to Urope and again settled in Paris, but removed in 1898 to London, where he has since resided. Among In many paintings may be mentioned: “Brittany nterior,” “Peaceful Moments,” “For Queen and THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Growth Griinebaum Empire,” “Overhauling the Nets,” “Oh, Bother!” “Idle Moments,” “The Unexpected Return,” “ First Start in Life.” He is also well known as a portrait- painter. H. R. HE: A. GRUNBAUM, MAX (MAIER): German Ori- entalist; born in Seligenstadt, Hesse, July 15, 1817; died in Munich Dec. 11, 1898. Griinbaum studied philology and philosophy at Giessen and Bonn. In 1858 he became superintendent of the Hebrew Or- phan Asylum in New York city. He returned to Europe in 1870, and spent the remainder of his days in Munich. After 1862 nearly all his papers on Oriental philology and folk-lore appeared in the “ Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenlindischen Gesell- schaft”; and after his death they were reedited by Felix Peries under the title “Gesammelte Aufsitze zur Sprach- und Sagenkunde,” Berlin, 1901. The following are among his larger works: “ Jiidisch- Deutsche Chrestomathie,” 1882; “ Mischsprachen und Sprachmischungen,” 1885; “ Neue Beitriige zur Semitischen Sagenkunde,” 1893; “Die Jiidisch- Deutsche Litteratur in Deutschland, Polen, und Amerika,” 1894; “Jiidisch-Spanische Chrestoma- thie,” Frankfort, 1896. He had nearly completed the recataloguing of the works in the Hebrew depart- ment of the Munich State Library when he died. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bettelheim, Biographisches Jahrbuch, 1899, pp. 235-236; Allgemeine Zeitung, Munich, 1898, Beilage No. 285, pp. 5-6; Miinchener Neueste Nachrichten, 1898, No. 591, p. 4; Perles, in Gesammelte Aufsdtze, Preface. 8. N. D. GRUNEBAUM, ELIAS: German rabbi; born in the Palatinate Sept. 10, 1807; died in Landau Sept. 25, 1893. In 1823 he went to Mayence, where he became a pupil of the Talmudist Lob Ellinger, and in 1826 continued his Talmudic studies at Mann- heim; in 1827 he went to Frankfort-on-the-Main, where he attended the rabbinical lectures of Solomon Trier, Aaron Fuld, and Bir Adler, and prepared himself for the university. In 1831 he entered the University of Bonn, where he became intimately acquainted with Abraham Geiger. In 1832 he went to Munich to continue his studies. In 1885 he was appointed to the rabbinate of Birkenfeld, and the next year became rabbi of the Landau district, a position which he held till his death. Griinebaum was one of the most zealous and determined repre- sentatives of Reform Judaism. It is due to his ef- forts that the so-called “ Jews’ oath” was abolished in Bavaria (1862). In appreciation of his work for the improvement of the Jewish school-system, Lud- wig IT. of Bavaria bestowed upon him the Order of St. Michael. Besides contributing to Geiger’s various magazinesand to the “ Allgemeine Zeitung desJuden-- tums,” Jost’s “Annalen,” and Stein’s “ Volkslehrer, ” Griinebaum published: “ Die Sittenlehre des Juden- thums Anderen Bekenntnissen Gegentiber Nebst dem Geschichtlichen Nachweise tiber Entstehung des Pharisdismus und Dessen Verhiltnis zum Stifter der Christlichen Religion,” Mannheim, 1867; “Zu- stinde und Kimpfe der Juden, mit Besonderer Be- zichung auf die Rheinpfaiz,” 2. 1843; “ Gottesdienst- liche Vortrige,” Carlsruhe, 1844; “Israelitische Gemeinde, Synagoge und Schule,” Landau, 1861; Griinfeld Guadalajara “Reden ” (delivered on various occasions). Many of his sermons were published in Kayserling’s “ Biblio- thek Jiid. Kanzelredner.” 8. M. K. GRUNFELD, ALFRED: Austrian pianist; born at Prague July 4, 1852; studied under Hoger, under Krejci at the Prague Conservatorium, and under Kullak at the Neue Akademie der Tonkunst, Berlin. In 1878 he settled at Vienna, where he re- ceived the title of “Kammervirtuos.” He has made tours through Europe and the United States. During a visit to Germany Griinfeld was ap- pointed court pianist to Emperor William I. Since 1897 he has been professor at the Vienna Conserva- torium. Of his compositions may be mentioned the following works for the pianoforte: Octave-study, op. 15; Minuet, op. 31; and Spanish Serenade, op. 37. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Musikalisches Wochenblatt, xiv. 343; Ehr- pO woe Pianists of the Past and Present, pp. + 8. J. So. GRUNFELD, HEINRICH: Austrian violon- cellist; born at Prague April 21, 1855; a brother of Alfred Griinfeld. Educated at the Prague Conserva- torium, he went to Berlin in 1876, and for eight years taught at the Neue Akademie der Tonkunst in that city. In conjunction with Xaver Scharwenka and Gustav Hollander (later with Sauret, M. Pauer, and F. Zajic), he arranged trio soirées which became very popular. In 1866 Griinfeld was appointed court violoncellist to King William of Prussia. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Riemann, Musik-Lexikon; Baker, Biog. Diet. of AMuste and Musicians. 8. J. So. GRUNFELD, JOSEF: Austrian physician and writer; born at Gyénk, Hungary, Nov. 19, 1840. After graduating from the gymnasium at Kaschau, he went successively to the universities of Budapest (1861) and Vienna (1863), graduating (M.D.) from the latter in 1867. He became privat-docent at Vi- enna in 1881, and chief of division at the Poliklinik of Vieunain 1885. He published a ‘‘ Compendium der Augenheilkunde” that has gone through four editions, and (in ‘* Deutsche Chirurgie ’’) “ Die En- doskopie der Harnréhre und Blase.’”’ He was the first to use the endoscope. He was known for his many surgical innovations as wellas through numerous monographs in his special department. Professional] activities did not hinder Griinfeld from interesting himself in the affairs of the Jewish community. Le was one of the founders, and for more than eight years president, of the Oesterreichisch-Israelitische Union. He died May 14, 1910, 8. GRUNHUT, DAVID: German rabbi of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries; born at Frank- fort-on-the-Main, where his father was secretary of the congregation, and his maternal grandfather, Simon Ginzburg, was a member of the rabbinate. In 1682 he edited Hayyim Vital’s book on transmi- gration, “Gilgulim.” This brought upon him the censure of the rabbinate, which was opposed to Shab- bethai Zebi and, therefore, to the Cabala. He never- theless reprinted this work in 1684. He also pub- lished “ Tob Ro’i,” rules on shehitah in the form of a catechism, together with “ Migdal Dawid,” homilies on the Pentateuch, and notes on some Talmudic trea- THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA tises (Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1712), and a commen tary on Abraham ibn Ezra’s grammatical puzz}e in the 1712 (Frankfort) edition of the “Sefer Hasidin, » which commentary was reprinted in the 1713 (ib edition of Samuel Uccda’s commentary on Abot én: titled “Midrash Shemuel.” He was rabbi in Au Hesse-Nassau, and perhaps also in Heimerdinge, He was on good terms with the anti-Jewish writ, J. J. Schudt and Johann A. Lisenmenger, g wrote a preface to the latter’s edition of the Bible. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Horowitz, Frankfurter Rabbiner, ii, 54 seq.; Maggid, Zur Gesch. und Genealogie der Gtinzbyr< p. 15 and Index, St. Petersburg, 1899. Ue, D GRUNHUT, KARL SAMUEL: Austrian jy. rist; born at Bur-St. Georgen, Hungary, Ang. 9 1844. He became associate professor in the jurid. ical faculty of the University of Vieuna in 1872 after having published “Die Lehre von der Weg}. | selbegebung nach Verfall,” Vienna, 1871. In 1879 “Das Enteignungsrecht ” appeared, and he founded the “Zeitschrift fiir das Privat- und Oeffentliche Recht der Gegenwart,” a quarterly. In 1874 he wag promoted to the professorship of commercial law. “Das Recht des Kommissioushandels” was pub. lished at Vienna in 1879, since which date his liter. ary activity has been devoted chiefly to the subjects of notes and bills, to the literature of which he hag contributed “ Wechselrecht,” 2 vols., Leipsic, 1897, constituting part of the “Systematisches Handbuch der Deutschen Rechtswissenschaft,” edited by Karl Binding; in addition, he has published a short “Grundriss des Wechselrechts,” 2. 1899, which simi. larly forms part of the “Grundriss des Oesterreich- ischen Rechts in Systematischer Bearbeitung,” ed- ited by Finger, Frankl, and Ullman; and, for practical purposes, “Lehrbuch des Wecliselrechts,” ab. 1900. Griinhut has the title of “ Kaiserlicher Hofrath,” and has been since 1897 a life-member of the Austrian House of Lords (Herrenhaus). He has been decorated with the star of the Order of Francis Jaseph (1902). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Meyers Konversations-Lexikon, 8.v.; Kohut, Bertihmte Israelitische Miinner und Frauen, part 16, p. 8, M. Co. GRUNHUT, LAZAR: Hungarian rabbi and writer; born at Gerenda, Hungary, in 1850. Re- ceiving his diploma asrabbi while a mere youth, be went to Berlin, where he attended the lectures of Dr. Israel] Hildesheimer at the rabbinical seminary, a well as those at the university. He graduated (Ph.D.) from the University of Bern. For eleven years he officiated as rabbi at Temesvar, Hungary. In 18% he was appointed director of the Jewish orphan asy- lum at Jerusalem. Griinhut’s works include: “Kr tische Untersuchung des Midrasch Kohelet Rabbah” (Berlin, 1892); “Das Verbot des Genusses von Ge siiuertem am Riisttage des Pessachfestes,” in “Zell. fiir Evangelische Theologie,” 1894-98; “ Midrash Shir ha-Shirim” (Jerusalem, 1897); “Sefer ha-Lik- kutim,” i.-vi. (Jerusalem, 1898-1908); “Ezra ud Nehemia, Kritisch Erliutert,” part 1 (2. 1899); “Saadia Gaon und Sein Commentar zum Buche Daniel” (St. Petersburg, 1899); “Saadia Gaon und Sein Commentar zu (Daniecl,) Ezra und Nebems (ib. 1902); “Yalkut ha-Machiri zu den Sprtiche? ‘Y 109 101 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Grunfeld Guadalajara galomos » (Jerusalem, 1902); “Die Reisebeschrei- pungel des R. Benjamin von Tudela,” published from manuscripts, with translations and introduc- BIBLIOGRAPHY : Das Rabbiner-Seminar zu Berlin, p. 41, perlin, 1898. ss GRUNWALD, MAX: German rabbi and folk- lorist ; born at Zabrze, Prussian Silesia, Oct. 10, g7i; educated at the gymuasium of Gleiwitz and 1889) at the university in Breslau, where he also attended the lectures of the Jewish theological semi- nary. In 1895 he accepted the rabbinate of the Hamburg Neue Dammthor Synagogue, where he remained until 1903, when he became rabbi of the Fifteenth District of Vieuna. Since Jan., 1898, he has been editor of the “Mittheilungen der Gesell- schaft fiir Jiidische Volkskunde,” which society was founded by him in 1897 and of which he is presi- dent (1903). He was also one of the principal found- ers of the Hamburg Jewish Museum. In addition to a large number of essays on gen- eral literature, folk-lore, and Jewish history, which appeared chiefly in the “ Mitthcilungen,” Grunwald wrote the following. “Das Verhiltnis Malebranche’s zu Spinoza,” Breslau, 1892; “ Die Eigennamen des Alten Testamentes in Ihrer Bedeutung ftir die Kennt- nis des Hebriiischen Volksglaubens,” 7. 1895; “Spinoza in Deutschland,” Berlin, 1897; “ Portugie- sengriber auf Deutscher Erde,” Hamburg, 1902; ‘Juden als Rheder und Seefahrer,” Berlin, 1902; “Hamburger Deutsche Juden bis zur Auflésung der Dreigemeinden in 1811,” Hamburg, 1908; “ Die Mo- derne Frauenbewegung und das Judenthum,” Vienna, 1908. GRUNWALD, MORITZ: Austrian rabbi; born March 29, 1853, at Ungarisch Hradisch, Moravia; died in London June 10, 1895. After a short stay in Prague he entered (1878) the Breslau Jewish the- ological seminary, In 1881 he was called to the rab- binate of Belovar, Croatia; in 1884-87 he was rabbi of Pisek, Bohemia, in 1887-93 of Jung-Bunzlau, Bohe- mia. In the latter year he became chief rabbi of Bulgaria, with his seat at Sofia. He was at the same time director of the national rabbinical semi- nary, teaching Talmud and Midrash. Griinwald was an able linguist, and a member of several scientific societies, including the Sociéte de Numismatique et d’Archéologie, and was highly esteemed by Prince Ferdinand and the Bulgarian government. Of his numerous writings the following may be mentioned: “Die Bibel, der Talmud und die Evan- gelien” (1877); “Zur Gesch. der Gemeinde Dyhern- furth” (1882); “Zur Geseh. der Jiidischen Gemeinde In Ragusa ” (1883); “Gesch. der Juden in Bohmen ” (Ist part, 1886); “ Ueber das Verhiltniss der Kirchen- vater zur Talmudischen und Midraschischen Lite- Tatur ” (1891); “Ueber den Einfluss der Psalmen auf die Entwicklung der Christlichen Liturgie und Hymnologie ” (1892); “Rabbi Salomo Efraim Lunt- Schitz” (1892); “Sitten und Briiuche der Juden im Orient” (1894). Griinwald was the founder and editor of the “Ja- disches Centralblatt ” (1882-85). BIBLIOGRAPHY : Jew. Chron. June, 1895. GRUNWALD -ZERKOWITZ (née Zerko- witz), SIDONIE: Austrian authoress; bornin To- bitschau, Moravia, Feb. 17, 1852. Her early educa- tion she received from her father, a physician. With her parents she removed successively to Holleschau, Vienna, and Budapest. She is well versed in French, Italian, Hungarian, Czech, and English, and obtained a diploma as teacher of languages. After teaching for a few years, she received (1874) from Ludwig IL. of Bavaria a free scholarship at his the- atrical school in Munich. Her studies were inter- rupted by her marriage to Prince Theodore Koloko- tronis of Greece. Joining the Greek Catholic Church, she accompanied her husband to Athens, where both she and her husband were disowned by the latter’s family. Disappointed, she returned to Moravia, be- came a teacher, and, after securing a divorce, mar- ried (1877) a wealthy Vienna merchant by the name of Griinwald. Since then she has lived in Vienna, where for some time she edited “La Mode.” | When only thirteen years of age she published her first essays on literature, in German and Hungarian, in the newspapers of Budapest. In 1874 appeared, in Vienna, “Zwanzig Gedichte von Kalman Toth,” translated from the Hungarian. These were fol- lowed by “Die Lieder der Mormonin,” Dresden and Utah, 1886, 7th ed. 1900; “ Die Mode in der Frauen- kleidung,” Vienna, 1889; “ Das Gretchen von Heute,” Zurich, 1890, ith ed. 1900; “Achmed’s Ehe,” 1900; “Doppel-Ehen,” 1900; “Poetischer Hirt,” 1901; “Schattenseiten des Frauenstudiums,” 1901. She is also the author of songs against anti-Semitism, and has contributed many articles to the newspapers, among which may be mentioned those contributed to the Berlin “Bitthne und Welt”: “ Toilettenktinst- lerinnen auf der Bithne”; critical essays on Sarah Bernhardt, Wolter, Dusé, Réjane, Jane Hading, etc. BIBLIOGRAPHY : Wurzbach, Biographisches Lexicon, lix. 340- 3841; Madame Kolokotronis, in Neue Freie Presse, Dec., 1874, Nos. 3708 and 3709; Blaustrumpf und Kirsten, in Kak- tus, 1874, No. 34. S. ET. A. GUADALAJARA (7752758 4815 TINTON TI): City in Castile, Spain. When Tarik ibn Zaid con- quered the city in 711, he found Jews there, as in Toledo and other places, and gave the conquered city to them to guard. In the “fuero” (charter) which Alfonso VII. gave to the city in 1189, Jews were placed on an equality with the knights: two- thirds of them had to follow the king in battle, while the other third stayed behind for defense. Guadalajara had a considerable Jewish community in the thirteenth century, and in 1290 paid as much in taxes as Ciudad Real. It was very much reduced through the persecution of 1391 and through the enforced baptisms due to it, so that in 1476 it could hardly pay one-third of the former taxes. The num- ber of Maranos in the city was so large that King Juan II. issued a command to the city to treat bap- tized Jews like persons who were born Christians and to give them official positions. In 1482 a Jew established a Hebrew printing- press in Guadalajara, at which Solomon ben Moses Levi ibn Alkabiz was engaged as printer and cor- rector. He brought out in that year an edition of David Kimhi'’s commentary to the Later Prophets, Guaranty Guardian THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 109 -——— ee TT AM and (c. 1482) Jacob ben Asher’s Tur Eben ha-‘Ezer. Meir ben Solomon ben Sahulah, who carried on a correspondence with Solomon Adret and Samuel Motot, lived in Guadalajara, and Moses de Leon and Isaac ben Harun Sulaiman were born there. Many of the Jews who were driven out of Guadala- jara in 1492 went to Algiers, where they had their own synagogue with a special ritual. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Rios, Hist. i. 194, ii. 406, iii. 121; Ersch and Gruber, Hneyc. section ii., part 28, p. 37; Sachs, Die Religiose Poesie der Juden in Spanien, p. 3827; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl., col. 869; Habler, Iconographie Iberique, a G. GUARANTY. See ASMAKTA. GUARDIA, LA, THE HOLY CHILD OF: Subject of a story invented by the Spanish Inquist- tion shortly after its institution. A Christian boy, whose name, age, and family vary in different ac- counts, is said to have been crucified and killed by six Maranos and five Jews—not to use his blood for ritual purposes, but to employ his heart for the pur- pose of working charms. The following persons were accused of the crime: The four Franco brothers, who were draymen; the wool- comber Benito Garcia, a baptized Jew, who had traveled a great deal; and John de Ocafia; also five Jews: Ca (Isaac) Franco, aged 84 years, formerly resident in Tembleque and after- ward in Quintanar; his two sons, Mose and Yuce Franco, the latter a shoemaker in Tembleque; David de Pereyon, a poor man in La Guardia, who appears to have had charge of the ritual ceremonies in the little community ; and the Tembleque pbysi- cian Maestre Yuce Tazarte. The accused were arrested by the Inquisition in 1490, either in Segovia or Astorga, and were sum- moned before the tribunal at Avila. The physician Yuce Tazarte, Mose Franco, and David de Pereyon died before the beginning of the trial, which lasted from Dec. 17, 1490, to Nov. 16, 1491, and terminated with the condemnation of the accused. The chief witness was Yuce Franco, a young Testimony man hardly twenty years old and of of Yuce limited intellect, upon whose testi- Franco. mony the tribunal laid especial em- phasis—all other testimony in the case has been lost or destroyed. Another interesting character in the suit was Benito Garcia, who had been baptized when he was forty, but soon repented his apostasy and returned to Judaism. The confes- sion of Yuce Franco, either voluntary (as was pre- tended) or forced (through fear of martyrdom and the application of torture), showed that the accused had crucified a child at night in aden situated on the street of La Guardia; that they had put acrown of thorns on his head, opened his veins, caught his blood in a basin, and then torn out his heart with imprecations upon Jesus. Thereupon they were said to have taken the dead child from the cross and to have buried him the same night in a place which could never be found again. Some days later the same persons again gathered at night in the same den to utter curses and, with the assistance of the physician Tazarte, to practise magic by means of the child’s heart and a consecrated host. The object of these charms was to bring about the death of all Inguisitors and Christians, to destroy the Christian faith, and to make the Jewish faith prevail gener- ally. Since the charm had no effect, the conspira- tors met a third time, and sent Benito Garcia With the child’s heart and a new host to Rabbi Moses Abenamias in Zamora and to another rabbi of that city, in the hope that they might be more succeggfyj in their witchcraft. This was the crime laid to th, charge of the Jews and Maranos. The accused and the witnesses, who were hearg separately by the Inquisitors without being brought face to face, contradicted one another in regard to the age of the child, the names of his parents, the place of his birth and residence, and the place where the crime was committed. The child wag Dis- missed nowhere, was sought nowhere. crepancies one person testified that he had been in taken in Lille; another that he haq the Story. been kidnaped in Toledo; a third that Moses Franco had seized him in Quin. tanar. Only one person knew that the child’s father was called Alonzo Martin and that he resided jn Quintanar. Through fright the innocent Yuce Franco became seriously ill; and the Inquisitor sent a physician, Antonio de Avila, to attend him. Antonio under. stood Hebrew and was probably a baptized Jew, Franco asked that the Inquisitor send a rabbi to him, Instead of a rabbi a priest was sent, who pretended to be the rabbi Abraham. In Antonio’s presence Franco is said to have confessed to this priest that he had been arrested for the murder of an eleven- year-old boy. He made the priest promise to en- trust this confession to no one but Rabbi Abraham Senior. Abraham Senior is known to have been that business friend of Isaac Abravanel who later ac. cepted baptism. All the further proceedings were founded on this fabrication. The child of La Guardia never existed, but the unjustly accused persons were either strangled and then burned or were burned alive (Nov. 16, 1491). The supposed martyrdom of the child of La Guar- dia, in which even Spanish scholars of modern and of most recent times still believe (Rios, “ Hist.” iii, 318), has caused wide discussion. BIBLIOGRAPHY: El Nifio Inocente, hij de Toledo y Martir dela Guardia por el Licenciado Sebastian de Nieva Calvo, Comisario de S. Oficio de la Inquisicion y Natural de Tem- bleque, Toledo, 1628; Antonio de Guzman, Historia del Ino cente Trinitario, el Santo Nifio de la Guardia, Madrid, 1720; Martin Martinez Moreno, Historia del Martirio de Santo Nifio dela Guardia, Sacada Principalmente de los Procesos Contra los Reos, ete., Madrid, 1786; Paulino Her- rero, Breve Resumen de la Historia del Santo Nifio Ino cente, Cristdbal, por un Devoto Suyo, Toledo, 1853; Felipe Gareia, El Sepulero del Santo Nitio de la Guardia, 1. 1883; Lope de Vega, Comedia Famosa del Nifio Inocente de la Guardia; Fidel Fita, in Boletin de la Real Acad. Hist. xi., who gives the testimony, with many references; idem, Estudios Historicos, vii., Madrid, 1887; Isidor Loeb, in R. E. J. xv. 203 et seq., who was the first to demonstrate the folly of the accusation; Lea, in Hnglish Historical Re view, iv. 239, London, 1889. The whole tragedy is represente on glass in a painting at the entrance to the Cathedral of Toledo. G. M. K. GUARDIAN AND WARD: The Biblical joN or “nursing-father” (Isa. xlix. 23; Esth. ii. 7), is uD known to the Mishnah; a guardian is called “apo tropos” (the Greek éairporoc); the ward is simpl¥ “vatom” (“orphan” or “fatherless”),. The Mishnah (Git. v. 4) says: “A guardian appointed by the father {which seems to include any other transmitter of 1- heritance] must swear [at the end of his trust] that he has kept back nothing; one appointed by thé PAGE FROM THE FIRST EDITION OF DAVID KIMHI’S COMMENTARY ON THE PROPHETS, PRINTED BY SOLOMON IBN ALKABIZ AT GUADALAJARA, 1482, Guardian Guetta court need not swear.” Abba Saul says just the contrary, and is sustained by the Talmud (Git. 52b). A man who has minor children, or whose wife is pregnant, should, when nearing death, name a guardian, which he may do by word of mouth, He may appoint a minor, @ woman, or a bondman (Git. 51a), or, according to later views, he may order his estate to be turned over to his minor heirs direct. When the father fails to act, the court, as “ father of the fatherless,” should appoint a guardian, who must be a free man and of full age. He should be of good repute, trustworthy, able to assert the rights of his wards and plead their cause, and versed in worldly affairs. Ifa kinsman, he can not take over real estate (Maimonides, “ Yad,” Nahalot, x. 6; Shul- han ‘Aruk, Hoshen Mishpat, 290, 2). When the court finds that the guardian is wasting the estate of the wards, or when, in the case of a guardian ap- pointed by the court, he falls under suspicion by living beyond his own means, he should be removed (Git. 52b). Under later rulings the appointing court takes an inventory of the ward’s estate, of which it keeps one copy, the guardian holding the other. The rule regarding persons of unsound mind and deaf-mutes is the same as that regarding minors; and an apotropos, who in Anglo-American law would be known as a “committee,” should be ap- pointed for them, with like powers Committee. and duties to those of guardians proper (Ket. 48a; Yeb. 118a). But if an or- phan adult shows the habits of a spendthrift, the court has no power to keep his estate from him, or to appoint a committee for him, unless it was so or- dered by his father (Nahalot, x. 8). A person appointed either by the father or by the court may resign his trust provided he has not taken possession of the ward’s property; but after taking possession he may not resign unless he is about to remove from the ward’s place of residence; in which case he should turn the property over to the court, in order that it may appoint another guardian. The Mishnah, in the scction above quoted, speaks of “children who rely on the master of the house,” that is, on some adult, man or woman, in whose family they live. The person so chosen assumes all the du- ties and has many of the powers of a guardian. Such a person can recover the cost of feeding and clothing the ward when the latter comes of age. Generally speaking, the guardian “receives and disburses, builds and tears down, leases or plants, and does whatever he finds to be in the interest of his wards; he gives them to eat and to drink, and makes all outlays according to the estate in hand and to their station—neither too liber- Powers ally nor too scantily” (Hoshen Mish- and Duties.: pat, 290, 7, following Nahalot, xi. 4). For money left to infants a guardian is not necessary; the court may invest it upon proper security orin land; but itis the later opinion that for money also a guardian should be found. Movable property may be sold by the court after an appraise- ment, but a guardian may sell it without the inter- vention of a court. If a market is near at hand, he should take the movables there and sell them, and invest the proceeds. In cases of doubt—if, for in- Appoint- ment. THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 164 stance, he has wine on hand which, kept, might sour, or which, taken to a distant market, would pb, exposed to risk of loss—the guardian should act ag he would with his own. The guardian may ang should sell cattle, slaves, fields, and vineyards jg necessary to feed the ward, and should sell them in the order here given; but he should not sell suc}, property to lay the money away, nor should he ge} fields to buy slaves, or vice versa, or a poor field to buy a better one, for the venture might miscarry . but one field may be sold to get oxen with which to till the remainder. If the orphan is sued, the guardian should not himself undertake the defense, for he might loge. but if he does appear and defeats the claim, the judgment is binding. He has no power to manumit a slave, even on the prospect of the slave paying for himself afterward. He should (in Palestine) tithe and take out the “terumah ” from the ward's crops, He provides the ward with sukkah, lulab, a scroll] of the Law, phylacteries, etc., but does not dispense alms or charity In any form on his behalf, not evey for the redemption of captives. But the court ap. pointing the committee for a lunatic or deaf-mute may assess payments for charity out of the estate (Git. 51a). As shown above, only an appointee of the court has to clear himself on oath—the “solemn oath.” But when the ward, on coming of age, makes a dis- tinct claim of what is due him, every Ac- guardian must clear himself by oath, counting. A guardian is not required to render to the ward or to the court detailed accounts; but religion demands that he should keep a very accurate one for “the Father of the fatherless” who rides the heavens, The guardian is not liable for anything stolen or lost, but he is liable for neg- ligence or fraud. Shulhan ‘Aruk, Hoshen Mishpat, 290, covers nearly the whole subject. 5. 8. L. N. D. GUASTALLA, ENRICO: Italian soldier; born at Guastalla 1828; died at Milan Sept. 28, 1908. Though brought up to a commercial life, he joined the army as a volunteer in 1848. He took part in the de- fense of Rome, and for his bravery in the bat- tle of Vascello was ap- pointed lieutenant. He afterward went to Piedmont, but, sus- pected of revolutionary tendencies by the gov- ernment, fled to Lon- don, where he came in connection with Maz- zini. In 1859 he re- turned to Italy and joined Garibaldi at Como. He was wounded in the leg at Volturno (Oct. 1, 1860). he became a membcr \ ith ji WY \ i \\\ ALYY ANA LAVA if Enrico Guastalka. After a month’s inaction of Garibaldi’s staff. At 105 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Guardian Guetta a re ak aE me a ee ae ee Be rc en ie ae eg eee ee, Aspromonte the whole staff was captured and im- prisoned. Guastalla again saw active service in 1866, and fought under Garibaldi at Como, Brescia, Lonoto, Salo, and Desenzano. He retired from the army with the rank of major and the insignia of knight commandant of the Order of St. Maurice and Bt. Lazarus. He was member of the Italian Parliament for Varese. BIBLIOGRAPHY : Juden als Soldaten, 1897, p. 117; Jew, Chron. (London), May 10, 1895; L’Illustrazione, Oct., 1903. S. J. GUATEMALA. AMERICA. GUDEMANN, MORITZ: Austrian rabbi; born at Hildesheim, Germany, Feb. 19, 18385. He was educated at Breslau (Ph.D. 1858), and took his rab- pinical diploma (1862) at the Jewish Theological Seminary of that city. In the latter year he was called to the rabbinate of Magdeburg; in 1866 he went to Vienna as preacher, where he became rabbi in 1868, and chief rabbiin 1890. Giidemann has especially distin- guished himself by his in- vestigations into the his- tory of Jewish education and culture. He has pub- lished: “Die Geschichte der Juden in Magdeburg,” 1865; “Die Neugestaltung des Rabbinenwesens,” 1866; “Sechs Predegten,” 1867; “Jtidisches im Christenthum des Refor- mationszeitalters,” 1870; “Jiidisches Unterrichts- wesen Wihrend der Spanisch-Arabischen Periode,” 1873; “Religionsgeschichtliche Studien,” 1876; “Gesch. des Erzichungswesens und der Kultur der Abendlindischen Juden,” 3 vols., 1880-88; “ Nach- stenliebe,” 1890; “Quellenschriften zur Gesch. des Unterrichts und der Erziehung bei den Deutschen Juden,” 1894; “Das Judenthum in Seinen Grundzii- gen und nach Seinen Geschichtlichen Grundlagen Dargestellt,” 1902; “Das Judenthum im Neutesta- mentlichen Zeitalter in Christlicher Darstellung,” 1908. In his “ Nationaljudentum” (Vienna, 1897) he Wrote against the tendencies of Zionism to lay more stress on the national than on the religious character of Judaism, for which he was severely attacked by the friends of the Zionist movement. As far back as 1871, however, he had strongly protested against the pro- bosal of the Jewish community of Vienna to strike from the prayer-book all passages referring to the Teturn of the Jews to the Holy Land (compare his Sermon “ Jerusalem, dic Apfer und die Orgel,” 1871), and had even gone so far as to threaten to resign from the board of trustees if his protest should remain Unheeded. 8. See SouTH AND CENTRAL Moritz Gudemann. L. B. GUENEE, ANTOINE: French priest and Christian apologist; born at Etampes 1717; died 1808. He wrote, besides various apologetic works, “ Lettres de Quelques Juifs Portugais, Allemands et Polonais, 4 M. de Voltaire,” Paris, 1769, often re- printed and translated into English and other lan- guages. The letters are a defense of the Bible, not of Judaism. PipToekauNs La Grande Encyclopédie; Gratz, Gesch. xi, D. GUERON, YAKIR (PRECIADO): Turkish rabbi; born in 1813; died at Jerusalem Feb. 4, 1874. He was the sixth rabbi of Adrianople descended from the Gueron family. He became rabbi in 1835, and eleven years later met Sultan ‘Abd al-Majid, whom he induced to restore the privileges formerly con- ceded to the non-Mussulman communities. Gueron, with the rabbis of Smyrna and Seres, was made an arbitrator in a rabbinical controversy at Constanti- nople, and was chosen acting chief rabbi of the Turkish capital in 1863. Both ‘Abd al-Majid and his successor ‘Abd al-‘Aziz conferred decorations upon him, Gueron resigned his office in 1872, and proceeded to Jerusalem, where he died two years later. BIBLIOGRAPHY : Ha-Lebanon, x., No. 30. 8. A. D. GUERTA DE JERUSALAIM. See Perrop- ICALS. GUESTS. See Hospiratrry. GUETERBOCK, KARL EDUARD: German jurist; born at Koénigsberg, East Prussia, April 18, 1880. He studied history, later law, at the univer- sities of Kénigsberg, Bonn, Munich, and Berlin, graduating in 1851. He was admitted to the bar in 1859, and became a judge in his native town, where he was appointed privat-docent in Prussian law in 1861. Two years later he was elected assistant pro- fessor, in 1868 professor, in which year he resigned his position as judge. He has embraced the Chris- tian faith. Gueterbock has written various essays for jour- nals, professional and general, and is the author of: “Die Englischen Aktiengesellschaftgesetze von 1856 und 1857,” Berlin, 1858; “ Weber Einige in der Praxis Hervorgetretene Miingel des Preussischen Konkurs- verfahrens,” 7b. 1860; “ Henricus de Bracton und Sein Verhiltniss zum Roémischen Recht,” 2b. 1862 (English transl. by Coxe, Philadelphia, 1866); “De Jure Maritimo quod in Prussia Seculo XVI et Or- tum Est et in Usu Fuit,” Kénigsberg, 1866; “Die Entstehungsgeschichte der Carolina,” Wurzburg, 1876. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Meyers Konversations-Lexikon; De le Roi, Juden-Mission, p. 282. 8. ¥. T. H. GUETTA, ISAAC: Talmudic scholar and pro- moter of Jewish learning, whose ancestors went to the Orient from Huete, Spain; born June 5, 1777; lived for several years in Triest. In his old age he went to Safed, where, as in Tiberias, he founded Talmudic seminaries, and died Feb. 2, 1857 (8 Shebat, 5617). The scholars of Palestine extol him for his learning and generosity. He is the author of four volumes of novell to the Babylonian Talmud, pub- lished in Leghorn 1846-47 and in Vienna 1851-06, under the title “Sedeh Yizhak.” The modern He- Guggenheim Guizo THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 106 FS ee gy at ee ee aes a brew poet David Ara of Triest, author of the collec- tion “Kol Dawid” (Venice, 1880), is his grandson. BIBLIOGRAPHY: S. D. Luzzatto, Note to Joseph ha-Kohen’s ‘Emek ha-Baka, p. 1; Nepi-Ghirondi, Toledot Gedole Yis- rael, pp. 215 et seg.; Zedner, Cat. Hebr. Books Brit. Mus. pp. 276, 809; David Ara, Kol Dawid, p. 78. G. M. K. GUGGENHEIM, MEYER: American mer- chant and mining magnate; born in Langenau, Switzerland, 1828. In 1847 he went to America with his father, who settled at Philadelphia; there Guggenheim began business life in the humblest way, dealing, as a traveling salesman, in such com- modities as stove-polish and glue, which he after- ward learned to manufacture and thus sold at a greater profit. Next he turned his attention to em- broideries, gaining a large fortune by importing the Swiss products. In 1881 hetransferred his business to New York city under the name of “M. Guggen- heim’sSons.” About this time he became interested in a silver-mine; in order to work it profitably he bought up a smelting-plant in Denver, Colo., and, with the aid of his sons, devoted himself almost ex- clusively to smelting operations, building a smelter, in 188%, at Pueblo, Colo. The firm then extended its operations throughout the United States, and even into Mexico, where it built the first complete smelter at Monterey, and another at Aguas Calientes. It was further found necessary to build refining- works, which was done at Perth Amboy, N. J. By this time the firm had become the most important silver-smelting company in the world; it soon en- tered into a combination of smelting firms known as the “American Smelting and Refining Company ” (1900), the firm of M. Guggenheim’s Sons retaining a controlling interest. The firm became interested in mining, and a separate firm, called the “Guggen- heim Exploration Company,” was formed, Meyer Guggenheim died March 15, 1905. Of Guggenheim’s eight sons, Daniel, born in 1858, in Philadelphia, Pa., entered the embroidery business in Switzerland, but is now chairman of the executive committee of the American Smelting and Refining Company. Simon, born in Philadelphia, Dec. 80, 1867, entered the smelting business in 1889, in Colorado, where he has since lived, being nomi- nated for lieutenant-governor (1894), for governor (1898). Elected to the 62d Congress (1910). BIBLIOGRAPHY: National Cyciopedia of American Biogra- phy; The Cosmopolitan, New York, Aug., 1903; Who's Whoin America. E. C. J. GUGGENHEIMER, RANDOLPH: Ameri- can lawyer; born at Lynchburg, Va., July 20, 1846. His family originally settled in Virginia, where his father was engaged in the cultivation of tobacco. Guggenheimer removed to New York city in 1865, and entered the law school of the New York Univer- sity, graduating in 1869. Making a specialty of cor- poration and real estate law, he soon built up a con- siderable practise. In 1882 he formed a partnership with Isaac and Samuel Untermyer; by the accession of Louis Marshall in 1893 the firm became known as “Guggenheimer, Untermyer & Marshall.” Gug- genheimer in 1887 was appointed commissioner of the common schools, an office he held for nine years, during which he originated the evening high-school system peculiar to New York city. The establigh. ment of the system of free lectures is likewise dye largely to his efforts; and he secured the retention of the German language as 4 part of the schoo] curriculum, Guggenheimer was the pioneer in introducin large office-buildings on Broadway, New York. Jp 1897 he was nominated by the democracy of Greater New York to the office of president of the municipa} council, and was elected. In that capacity Guggen- heimer acted as mayor of New York city during the absence of the incumbent. He died Sept. 12, 1907, BIBLIOGRAPHY: Who's Who in America, 1901-02. E. C. F. H. Y. GUGLIELMO, BENJAMIN (?): Italian dan. cing-master; flourished in the fifteenth century at Pesaro. His master was Domenico di Ferrara, in whose “Liber Ballorum” (1460) he is mentioned, Guglielmo himself wrote a treatise on dancing, “Trattato dell’ Arte del Ballare,” edited by F. Zam- brini, Bologna, 18738; 2d ed. by Messori Boncuglia, 1885. It is one of the earliest in existence; and in it Guglielmo refers to dances devised by himself and by one “Giuseppe Ebreo.” BIBLIOGRAPHY: M. Lattes, in Mose, 1879, p. 263; Steinschnei- oO in Hebr. Bibl. xix. 75; idem, in Monatsschrift, xii, G. J. GUHRAUVUER, GOTTSCHALK EDUARD: German philologist and writer; born at Bojanowo, Prussian Poland, 1809; died at Breslau Jan. 5, 1854, He studied philology and philosophy at Breslau and Berlin; and in 1837 passed his examination and be- came a teacher at the Kollinsche Gymnasium in Ber- lin. The following two yearg he spent in Paris, studying especially Leibnitz’s works, and then re- turned to Germany to become librarian of the Uni- versity of Breslau. He became privat-docent in 1842, and professor in 1843, which position he held until his death. Among his works may be mentioned: “Mémoire sur le Projet de Leibnitz Relatif 4 1’Expedition d’Egypte Proposé 4 Louis XIV, en 1672,” Paris, 1839; “Kurmainz in der Epoche von 1672,” Ham- burg, 1839; “essings Erziehung des Menschenge- schlechts, Kritisch und Philosophisch Erortert,” 70. 1841; “Das Heptaplomeres des Jean Bodin,” 70. 1841; “G. W. v. Leibnitz, eine Biographie,” Breslau, 1842, Supplement 1846; “Joachim Jungius und Sein Zeitalter,” Stuttgart, 1850. He edited “ Leibnitz’s Deutsche Schriften ” (1888-40), and “Goethe’s Brief- wechsel mit Knebel” (Leipsic, 1851), and completed Lessing’s biography, begun by Danzel (2 vols., Leipsic, 1853). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Meyers Konversations-Lexikon. 8. F. T. H. GUIDACERIUS, AGATHIUS: Italian Chris- tian Hebraist; born at Rocca-Coragio, Calabria, in the second half of the fifteenth century. Having studied Hebrew under a Portuguese rabbi at Rome, he was appointed teacher of that language at the university. In 1580 he was appointed by Francis I. professor at the Collége de France, where he inter- preted both the Hebrew and Greek texts of the Scripture. Guidacerius wrote the following: “ID- stitutiones Grammatice Hebraice Lingue,” compile 107 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Guggenheim Guizolfi CT CE from the grammar “ Petah Debarai” and the “ Mik- lol” of Kimhi (Rome, 1514; Paris, 1529, 1539, and 1546); “Peculium Agathi,” on the Hebrew letters, vowels, accents, and syllables (Paris, 1537); “ Versio Latina Grammatice David Kimchi” (Paris, 1540); commentaries to the Psalms; a commentary to Can- ticles, with the Hebrew and Latin texts (Rome, 1524) ; a commentary to Ecclesiastes (Paris, 1581). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Woif, Bibl. Hebr. ii. 608, iv. 289; Stein- schneider, Bibliographisches Handbuch, p. 56; Hoefer, Nouvelle Biographie Générale. Dp. I. Br. GUIDE, THE. See PERIODICALS. GUILLAUME OF AUVERGNE: French scholastic; bishop of Paris from 1228 to 1249. He was one of the originators of Christian scholasticism in the thirteenth century. In his writings he dis- played an extensive knowledge of Hebrew litera- ture; and, although he never cites Maimonides by name, he was on many occasions influenced by the “Moreh Nebukim.” Thus the anonymous Hebrew philosopher cited by Guillaume on the superiority of the matter of heavenly bodies (“ De Universo,” I., parti., ch. iii., p. 631) is none other than Maimonides (ic. II., ch. xxvi.). Maimonides’ work was frequently utilized by Guillaume, especially in the first part of his “De Legibus.” He follows Maimonides’ theories on the symbolism of the sacrifice worship and the rational motivation of the Biblical commandments (“De Legibus,” xvi. 46; comp. “ Moreh Nebukim,” iii., ch. xxxi.). Starting with Deut. iv. 6, Guillaume, like Maimonides, concludes that, besides their exoteric sense, the precepts have an esoteric meaning (70.). The numerous commandments were intended to di- vert the Israelites from certain ideas and customs which were in vogue among the idol- De- atrous nations, especially from the pendence teachings of the Sabeans (/.c. i. 24; on Mai- comp. “Moreh Nebukim,” iii. 388). monides Guillaume combats Maimonides’ view and that the sacrifice was to be considered Gabirol. only as a concession to the ideas of antiquity; but he accepts this view with regard to some prescriptions concerning the sacrifices (/.c. vii. 88; comp. “ Moreh Nebukimn,” iii. 365). The Jewish philosopher whom Guillaume revered most highly was Solomon ibn Gabiro], whose “ Fons Vite ” he often cited under the title “Fons Sapien- tie.” Gabirol, who was known to Guillaume by the name “ A vicebron,” was believed by him to have been a Christian who lived in an Islamic country. Guil- laume was much impressed by Gabirol’s theory of the will, which he considered to be the Christian “ Lo- 80s.” Thus, although he combated Avicenna’s the- ory of emanation on the ground that God would not be the immediate cause of all created beings, he did Rot object to that of Gabirol which leads to the same Tesult (“De Universo,” I., part i., ch. xxvi.). Even When he deems it necessary to combat Gabirol’s Views, he does it without mentioning his name; ¢.g., when he objects to the theory that there are no im- Material substances, or that even the intellectual substances consist of matter and form (7d, II., part i, ch. vii., p. 850). Guillaume’s attitude toward the Jews was far from benevolent. During his bishopric and through his personal influence the Talmud was burned in Paris (1242). Nor did he spare the Jews in his wri- tings. For him, the omission in the Bible of certain very important dogmas, such as the creation of angels, the immortality of the soul, etc., was due to the narrowness of the intellectual perception of the Jews and to their moral depravity. Guillaume distinguishes three periods in the intel- lectual development of the Jews: (1) the Biblical period, when the Jewish nation contented itself with the Bible; (2) the Talmudic and Midrashic, which he calls “the period of the fables”; and (8) the period of the philosophers (7d. L., part iii., ch. xxxi., p. 805, col. 2). BIBLIOGRAPHY: N. Valois, Guillaume d’ Auvergne, Evéque de Paris, Sa Vie et Ses Guvres, p. 238, note 1, Paris, 1880; Baumgartner, Die HErkenntnisslehre des Wilhketm von Auvergne, p. 100, Minster, 1893; J. Guttmann, Die Scholas- tik des Dreizehnten Jahrhunderts in Ihren Beziehungen ler Nahas und zur Jidischen Literatur, p. 13, Bres- au, 1902. G. I. Br. GUILT-OFFERING. See ATONEMENT. GUIMARAES: City of Portugal. In the four- teenth century it had a wealthy Jewish community, whose quarter was located on the site of the pres- ent fish-market, “ praca do peixe,” and extended to the Holy Ghost street. A few years previous to the expulsion of the Jews from Portugal this commu- nity paid a yearly tax of 25,000 reis, For centuries Maranos were living in the city, and it was the native place of the poet Manuel Thomas and of Manasseh ben Israel's wife. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Kayserling, Gesch. der Juden in Portugal, pp. 49, 57 et seq., 280, 311. G M. K. GUIZOLFI (GIEXULFIS), ZACHARIAS DE: Prince and ruler, in the fifteenth century, of the Taman peninsula on the east coast of the Black Sea; descendant of Simeone de Guizolfi, a Genoese Jew, who, by marriage with Princess Bikhakhanim and under the protection of the Genoese republic, be- came ruler of the peninsula in 1419, Beset by the Turks in 1482, Guizolfi and his Cir- cassian subjects were compelled to retire from his stronghold Matriga (Taman), and sought refuge on the island of Matrice, whence (Aug. 12) he informed the directors of the Bank of St. George in Genoa of his position, and called for 1,000 ducats with which to retain the friendship of his allies, the Goths, who had exhausted his resources; he stated that unless he received the support of the republic he would remove to Wallachia, where the waywode Stefan had offered him a, castle. Notwithstanding the fact that the Turks had cap- tured Tana (Azov) and most of the settlements in Chazaria, Guizolfi continued the war from Matrice, but with only a small measure of success. Learn- ing that he had expressed a desire to come to Rus- sia, and glad of an opportunity to attract the Cir- cassians, the czar Ivan III., Vassilivich, directed Nozdrovaty, his ambassador to the Tatar khan Mengli Girei, to forward a message “sealed with the gold seal” to Zacharias (Skariya) the Jew, at Kaffa. | This message, dated March 14, 1484, and forwarded Guizolfi Ginzburg by Luka and Prince Vasili, both court dignitaries, reads as follows: ** By the grace of God the great ruler of the Russian country, the Grand Duke Ivan Vassilivich, Czar of all the Russias, ... to Zacharias the Hebrew. ** You have written to us through Gabriel Petrov, our guest, that you desire to come to us. It is our wish that you do so, When you are with us we will give you evidence of our favor- able disposition toward you. If you wish to serve us, our desire will be to confer distinction upon you; but should you not wish to remain with us and prefer to return to your own country, you shall be free to go”? (“‘Sbornik Imperatorskavo Ruskavo Istoricheskayo Obschestva,”’ xli. 40. For a second message, dated Oct. 18, 1487, see ib. p. 71). From a despatch in Latin dated Conario on the Ku- ban, June 8, 1487, and signed “ Zachariah Guigursis, ” it is clear that Guizolfi, intending to accept the czar’s hospitality, started for Russia, but while on the way was robbed and tortured by Stefan, the waywode of Moldavia, and returned home. Not- withstanding this experience, Guizolfi and his men declared themselves ready to join the czar provided that guides were furnished them. Replying to this despatch, March 18, 1488, the czar repeated his in- vitation, and informed Guizolfi that he had notified Dmitri Shein, his ambassador at the Crimean court, that he had requested Mengli Girei to send to Tscher- kassy two men to guide Guizolfi to Moscow. He directed Shein to add to this number a Tatar from his own suite. Several years passed before guides were sent, but in the spring of 1496 they reached the mouth of the Miyusha and Taigana rivers, where Guizolfi was to meet them four weeks after Easter. It had been arranged that in the event of either party reaching the rendezvous before the other, the first should wait until Whitsuntide, and if need be until Peter and Paul’s Day. The guides waited until St. Nich- olas’ Day (Dec. 6), when they learned that Guizolfi was unable to advance on account of disturbances among his people, for “the man Zacharias is sub- stantial, his family is great, and probably it is difii- cult to induce them to move.” In his report to the czar the Crimean ambassador declares that, out of friendship for his royal master, the khan Mengli Girei would take Guizolfi under his protection, but fear she dare not do so, since Guizolfi has antago- nized the Turks, who are the khan’s protectors (zd. pp. 77-114). From subsequent events it is evident that Guizolfi entered the service of the khan, for further negotia- tions were carried on, and in April, 1500, the czar, instructing his ambassador, refers to Guizolfi as “ Zacharias the Fryazin (7.e., “the Italian ”], who had lived in Circassia and is now in the service of Mengli Girei, but who never reached Russia” (2d. p. 309). The czar’s.repeated invitations to Guizolfi seem to indicate that he hoped the latter’s services would be valuable to him in extending Russian influence on the Black Sea. Yet it is strange that during a period of more than eighteen years Guizolfi did not succeed in reaching Russia. Whether the fact that Guizolfi was a Jew had anything to do with the im- pediments put in his way, it is difficult to ascertain, for no mention of him is to be found in Jewish wri- tings. The different spellings of Zachariah’s name in Italian and Russian documents — “ Guizolfi,” THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 108 “Guigursis,” and “ Guilgursis ”—may be attribute to errors of the Russian scribes. BIBLIOGRAPHY: In addition to the works cited in the article, Atti della Societa Ligure adi Sloria Patria, iv. 127, 128, Gen: oa, 1866: Léwe, Die Reste der Germanen am Schwarzen Meere, pp. 42, 86, 89, Halle, 1896; Sbornik Gosudarstven. nykh Gramot t Dogovoror, ii. 24. IL Rk GUMPERZ, AARON SOLOMON (also calleg Emrich or Emmerich): German scholar and phy. sician; born Dee. 10, 1723; died 1769. In March, 751, Gumperz graduated as M.D. from the Univer. sity of Frankfort-on-the-Oder, his dissertation being “Ueber die Temperamente.” He was the first Prus- sian Jew who obtained a doctor’s degree. Gumperz was especially known for having been Mendelssohn’s teacher of philosophy and for having inspired him with a love for literature. He wrote a calendar for the year 5509 (1748-49), and “ Megalleh Sod,” a gu. percommentary on Ibn Ezra to the Five Scrolls. Of the latter work that part dealing with Ecclesiastes was the only one published (Hamburg,1765; Wilna, 1836). It is followed by an essay entitled “Ma’mar ha-Madda‘,” on religion and philosophy. Mendels. sohn strongly recommended this work in his “ Bi’ur Millot ha-Higgayon” (§ 14). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gritz, Gesch. 2d ed., xi. 6; Kayserling, Moses Mendelssohn, pp. 14-20; idem, in Allg. Zeit. des 99, p. 463; Wertheimer’s Jahrb. 1856-57, pp. 181-141; Jud. 1899, Die Gegenwart, 1867, pp. 318-365. G. M. SEt. GUMPLIN: German satirical poet of unknown date. The only poem of his that has been preserved is a satire of seven strophes, ending with a refrain in which he very wittily criticizes the inhabitants of the Rhine province. Although his vocabulary is not always pure, the versification is perfect and betrays great ability. The name “Gumplin” is given in acrostic. Abraham Geiger published the poem, together with a German translation, in his “Melo Chofnajim.” BIRLIOGRAPHY: Zunz, Z. G. p. 167; A. Geiger, Melo Chof- najim, p. 102. G. I. Br. GUMPLOWICZ, LUDWIG: Christian histo- rian and jurist; born at Cracow March 9, 1888; studied at the universities of Cracow and Vienna, and practised law at Cracow. In 1876 he was ap- pointed docent, in 1882 assistant professor, and in 1893 professor, at Graz University. He is the au- thor of a work on jurisprudence, and also of a work entitled “Prawodawstwo Polskie Wzgle- dem Zydow,” which treats of Polish legislation concerning Jews. The author introduces new ma- terial and advances original views. According to him, the history of Poland is divided into three periods, the Pyast, Yagellon, and Elected King periods, in each of which the three estates, king, clergy, and legislature, were in constant, frequently in violent, opposition. In the first period the legis- lative power was in the hands of the king, in the second in the hands of the nobility, and in the third in the hands of the Catholic clergy and of the Jesu- its. The kings, the author is inclined to believe, were generally favorably disposed toward the Jews, while the nobility was not altogether unfavorably disposed toward them. The third period is that of the domination of the clergy and of the Jesuits. 109 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Guizolfi Giinzburg ee ee ee ae ee eee er ee ey ae On a pe se ee ee The views of the clergy as regards the Jews always remained the same, but until the third period they Jacked the power to enforce them. On assuming the education of the Polish youth the clergy taught them to regard the Jews as the enemies of the Church (see POLAND). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bershadski, Litovskiye Yevret, p. 135, St. Petersburg, 1883. H. R. J. G. L. GUMURJINA: Town in European Turkey, west of Adrianople. It has a population of 26,000, including 1,200 Jews. The Jewish community pos- sesses separate schools for boys and girls with a roll of 200 children, a synagogue, and five charitable so- cieties. A few Jewish artisans dwell in Gumurjina, put the majority of Jews there live by commerce, and several fill public offices. The community is ad- ministered by a council of twelve, but is without an appointed rabbi. Religious questions are ad- dressed to the grand rabbinate of Adrianople. According to local traditions, the foundation of the Jewish community of Gumurjina goes back to the first half of the seventeenthcentury. The earli- est chief rabbi of the city was Rab Judah, said to have died in 1673. In times of distress the Jews go to his tomb to pray. A proof of the presence of Jews in this town at that epoch is the fact that Nathan of Gaza, the acolyte of the pseudo-Messiah Shabbethai Zebi, fled there after the conversion of his master to Islam. About the year 1786 an inci- dent occurred that placed the Jews of Gumurjina in grave peril. Motos-Agha, at the head of the brig- ands who infested the neighboring mountains, won possession of the fort, and when the governor, Ali Effendi, recaptured it, he accused the Jews of having favored the brigands, and threw the most prominentamong them into prison. They, however, succeeded in proving the falsity of the accusation and were restored to liberty. In memory of this double deliverance from siege and imprisonment the Jews of Gumurjina observe the 22d day of Elul as afestival under the name of the “ Brigands’ Purim.” Up to 1865 this festival was celebrated with great solemnity; but the arrival of new Jewish settlers who were strangers to the tradition has caused the custom to fall into comparative disuse, though the older inhabitants still maintain it. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Yosef Da‘at,ed. Abraham Danon, Adrianople, Dec. 20, 1888. D. M. Fr. GUNI (9939): 1. Ason of Naphtali (Gen. xlvi. 24; I Chron. vii. 18), and founder of the family of the Gunites (Num, xxvi. 48). In Hebrew, “Guni” is used for the individual and for the family. 2. A descendant of Gad, and the father of Abdiel, who was a chief in his tribe (I Chron. v. 15). E. G. H. M. S21. GUNSBERG, ISIDOR: English merchant and Chess-master; born in Budapest Nov. 2, 1854. hen nine years old he went to England, in which Country he has since resided, competing in numer- ous chess tournaments as an English representative. Tn 1885 he surprised the chess world by capturing the first prize at the Hamburg Chess-Masters’ Tour- Rament, beating Blackburne, the English champion. and Tarrasch. His principal subsequent tourney successes have been: 1885. British Chess Association. First prize. 1887. British Chess Association. Tied with Burn for first prize. 1888, Bradford. First prize, beating Mackenzie and Bardeleben. 1888, London. First prize. In matches he has beaten Bird by 5 to 1, and Blackburne by 5 to 2; drawn with Tschigorin, 9 all; and scored 4 to 6 against Steinitz. He is also very successful in simultaneous play. Gunsberg is chess editor of the “ Daily News,” London, in which city he now (1903) resides. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Cheshire, The Hastings a p. 338. J. A. P GUNSBURG, KARL SIEGFRIED: German author and preacher; born Dec. 9, 1784, at Lissa; died at Breslau Jan. 23, 1860. He studied philology and philosophy at Berlin, and for a time he published with Ed. Kiley “ Erbauungen, oder Gottes Werk und Wort” (1818-14). For a few years he also preached in the Jacobson Temple at Berlin, and in 1819 set- tled at Breslau. He took an active interest in the Jewish community, and presented his library (Aug. 19, 1859) to the Lehr- und Leseverein, which Abra- ham Geiger founded in 1842. He is the author of “Parabeln,” 2 vols., Berlin, 1820 (3 vols., Breslau, 1826); “Der Geist des Orients,” Breslau, 1880. In conjunction with Kley he published a prayer-book, “Die Deutsche Synagoge,” etc., in 2 parts, Berlin, 1817-18. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Kayserling, Bibliothek Jtidischer Kanzel- redner, i. 15 et seg.: Nowag, Sehlesisches Schriftsteller- Lexikon, s.v.; Winter and Winsche, Die Jiidische Littera- tur seit Abschluss des Kanons, tii. 773. 8. B. P. GUNZBURG : Town of Bavaria, in the province of Swabia, on the Danube. A small but flourishing Jewish community existed there in the sixteenth century. In 1566 the Jews of Gtinzburg petitioned Emperor Maximilian II. to recognize as rabbi Isaac ha-Levi, who had officiated in that capacity for thirty years. The official recognition was sought in consequence of family quarrels between members of the community, which the rabbi was powerless to settle so long as his authority was unrecognized. Among these members was the rich and influential Simeon Ginzburg, ancestor of the Ginzburg family. Solomon Luria (ReSHaL; Responsa, No. 11) ex- presses his astonishment that discord could have found room in such a pious and learned congrega- tion as that of Giinzburg. The community has long since ceased to exist: but the name of the town is familiar to the Jews from the fact of its having been the birthplace of the Ginzburg, Giinz, and Gaunz families. BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. Kohut, Gesch. der Juden in Deutschland, p. 561; David Maggid, Zur Gesch. und Genealogie der Gtinzburge, St. Petersburg, 1899; Keneset Yehezkel, 64b. D. IT. Br. GUNZBURG (also spelled GINZBURG, GINSBERG, GINZBERG, GINSBURG, GUNSBERG): Family which originated in the town of Gtnzpurc. It is believed that the family went thither from the city of Ulm, Wirttemberg, and that for this reason the best-known progenitor of the family and some of his immediate descendants, as well as certain others, called themselves “ Ulma- Gunzburg THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 11Q SS ee ee ee a ge aR, Se Sp aay Fe eg ee Ln 9 Te ee, Ginzburg.” The Ulm, Ulma, and Ullman families are supposed to be branches of the Ginzburg family. Kaufmann (“R. Jair Chajim Bacharach und Seine Ahnen,” p. 45, Treves, 1894) proves that “Gunz” and “Gaunz” are simply variants of “Ginzburg.” When, early in the emancipation period, the Jews of Russia and of Austria were ordered by their gov- ernments to adopt family names, it was natural that many of them should choose a name so respected and pleasing as that of Giinzburg. There is on record a lawsuit instituted by Baer Giinzburg of Grodno against a Jewish family of that city who had adopted the same name under the decree of 1804 (Maggid, “ Toledot Mishpehot Ginzburg,” p. 239, St. Petersburg, 1899). The court sustained the right of Jewish families to adopt any name they chose, and the number of Ginzburg families accordingly increased. The following isa part of the genealogical tree constructed by Maggid in the work quoted above: GUNZBURG, ASHER BEN LOB. See Loy ASHER, ‘ GUNZBURG, BENJAMIN WOLF: Polis}, physician; Talmudic scholar of the eighteenth cep. tury. Contrary to the custom of the Polish Ta). mudists of that time, Ginzburg turned his mind tp the study of secular sciences. He studied medicing in the University of Gottingen, but did not negleg, the Talmud. In 1787 he applied to Jacob Emden to determine the question whether he was alloweg to dissect on Saturdays the bodies of dead animals Emden’s answer (“She’elat Ya‘abez,” No. 45) shows that heheld Ginzburg in greatesteem. Giinzburg’s medical work is entitled “De Medicina ex Ta). mudicis [llustrata,” Géttingen, 1743. Hillel Noah Maggid thinks that Benjamin Wolf Ginzburg of Ostrog, whose novelle are to be found in Joshug Falk’s “Goral Yehoshua‘,” may be identified with the physician of the Gottingen University. Jehiel of Porto Abraham (or Eliezer) Simeon Ulma-Ginzburg (d. 1586) Asher Aaron Jacob Ulina, teacher of R. Lipman Heller Simeon (Scholtes) Isaac of is as (1615) Naphtali Hirz, rabbi of Simeon Aaron ‘‘ Shtadlan” Pinsk and Slutsk i of Wilna Naphtali, Isaac Léb Saul, aes Pinsk (1 we) author of Asher (R. saa aia 1687) Asher of Vizun Isaac {and Pinsk ?) Kalonymus Kalman Aryeh Lob, author of vf Pinsk **Sha’agat Aryeh.” Asher (d. 1791) Aaron Judah Lib (RIF: d. 1804) Mordecai Klaczko Napbtali Hirz (d. 1797) (da. 1842) Gabriel Jacob (1793-1853) Hayyah Zlata, | m. Moses Rosenthal . 1864 Elka, m. Hayyim Josef Yozel, Baron Heschel Rosenberg 1812~78) Leon Shemariah Rosenthal (1818-87) Naphtali Hirz, Baron Theofilia, m. Horace (b. 1833} Sigmund Warburg Hannah, m. Baron Horace Gulnzburg Rose, m. Joseph yon irs Mathilde, Louise, David m. Gutmann m. Sassoon | Apne Joseph Yozel Sophie GENEALOGICAL TREE OF THE GiinzBuRG FAMILY. BIBLIOGRAPHY : Eisenstadt-Wiener, Da‘at Kedoshim. pp. 198- 212, St. Petersburg, 1897-98; Belinsohn, Shitlume Emune Yisrael, Odessa, 1898; Ein Wort tiber die Familie Guenz- burg, St. Petersburg, 1858. Thechief source is Maggid’s work, quoted above. P. Wt. KE. C. BIBLIOGRAPHY : Sternberg, Geschichte der Juden in Poland, p. 148; Maggid, Toledot Mishpehot Ginzburg, pp. 52-53. H.R. M. SEL. GUNZBURG, DAVID, BARON: Russiat Orientalist and communal leader; born at Kamen 111 ‘THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Gunzburg ee I ee ee a ee a a etz-Podolsk July 5, 1857. He was educated at nome, his teachers being Adolph Neubauer, Senior Sachs, and Hirsch Rabinovich. At the age of twenty he received the degree of “candidate” at St. petersburg University, after having attended the lec- tures of Stanislas Guyard at Paris and Baron Rosen at St. Petersburg; later he studied Arabic poetry under Ablwardt at Greifswald (1879-80). He edited the “Tarshish” of Moses ibn Ezra in a fascicle which was issued by the Mekize Nirdamim Society, and prepared for the press the Arabic translation of the same work, with acommentary. He published also “Ibn Guzman” (Berlin), and wrote a series of articles on “ Metrics,” published in the memoirs of the Oriental Department of the Russian Archeological Society (1893) and of the Neo-Philological Society (1892), in the “ Journal” of the Ministry of Public Jnstruction of Russia, and elsewhere. Ginzburg was an enthusiastic patron of Jewish art, and published, with Stassov, ‘“‘ L’Ornement Heé- preu” (Berlin, 1903). In this book he gave exam- ples of Jewish ornamentation from various manu- scripts from Syria, Africa and Yemen. He edited a catalogue of the manuscripts in the Institute for Oriental Languages. Besides, he contributed largely to the ‘“‘ Revue des Etudes Juives,” to the “ Revue Critique,” to “‘ Voskhod,”’ to ‘‘ Ha -Yom,”’ and to the collections of articles in honor of Zunz, Steinschnei- der, Baron Rosen, etc. Giinzburg’s library was one of the largest private libraries in Europe, containing many rare books and manuscripts. He was one of the trustees of the St. Petersburg community, a member of the Commit- tee for the Promotion of Culture Among the Jews of Russia, the central committee of the Jewish Coloniza- tion Association, the Society for Oriental Studies, the Scientific Committee of the Russian Department of Public Instruction, and a life-member of the Arche- ological Society of St. Petersburg and of the Société Asiatique of Paris. He died December 22, 1910. H. R. S. J. GUNZBURG, GABRIEL JACOB BEN NAPHTALI HIRZ: Lithuanian financier and phi- Jantbropist; born at Wilna about 1793; died at Sim- feropol, Crimea, May 2, 1853. After Ginzburg had been married at Vitebsk, he settled at Kamenetz- Podolsk. But his business was distributed over many other places, and he lived for a certain time at St. Petersburg. Ginzburg applied his philan- thropy to four towns, Wilna, Vitebsk, Kamenetz- Podolsk, and Simferopol; in the last-named town he built a hospital. On the proposition of the Russian Minister of finances, Nicholas I. conferred on Giinz- burg the title of “honorary and hereditary citizen ” (Oct. 22, 1848). BIBLIOGRAPHY Fuenn, Kiryah Ne’emanah, p. 283; Magegid, Toledot Mishpehot Gingburg. pp. 78-8], 145-147. sia H. R. M. SEL. GUNZBURG, HORACE, BARON: Russian Philanthropist; born Feb. 8, 1833, in Zvenigorodka, government of Kiev, Russia, where he received his education. After the Crimean war his father, Jo- Seph Ginzburg, then a wealthy merchant and army Contractor, settled with his family in St. Petersburg. orace first came before the public in 1863 as one of the founders of the Society for the Promotion of Culture Among the Jews of Russia, the only society of the kind in Russia. He was one of the charter members of the society, and after the death of his father in 1878 succeeded him in the presidency, which office he still holds. He was the largest con- tributor to its support and one of its most energetic workers. The work which made him so widely popular among the Jews was his unre- mitting effort, in which frequent ap- peals to the Russian government were in- volved, toward the improvement of the legal status of his i i NAR ee coreligionists, and for _{|//Kgi ait LATE DAT the securing by legis- Bh HN ANS | lation, as well as by ‘' *¢ Nt Hiietiess other means, of their Ni NG economic and moral NWA Y welfare. \\ IVA In the year 1870 he was summoned as an expert before the commission on the “ Jewish ques- tion,” which met under the auspices of the Ministry of the Interior. He was chairman of the Jewish congress which, by permission of the government, assembled in St. Petersburg in 1882. In 1887 he was invited to par- ticipate in the discussions of the high commission on the Jewish question, under the presidency of Count Pahlen. In 1880 he became a member of the board of governors of the temporary commission for the organization of a society for the purpose of encouraging Russian Jews to engage in agricul- ture and trades. Since 1893 he has been chairman of the central committee of the Jewish Agricultural Society. One of the colonies in Argentine is named in honor of Baron Giinzburg. Jn 1890 he was elected president of the Hygienic and Low-House-Rent So- ciety of St. Petersburg. In 1901 he became presi- dent of the board of directors of the Jewish Agricul- tural Farms in Minsk, and director of the Jewish Agricultural School in Novo-Poltavka. The Jewish community of St. Petersburg is also under obligation to Baron Ginzburg for its syna- gogue, of which he is president. Heisalso the head of the new school erected in honor of the wedding of Czar Nicholas II. This institution is non-sec- tarian. Baron Giinzburg is also closely identified with other institutions of a non-sectarian character. He has been an honorary member of the committee of the Prince Oldenburg Infant Asylum since 1863, and honorary member of the Society for Improving the Condition of Poor Children of St. Petersburg since 1876. Between 1868 and 1872 he was consul-general of Hesse-Darmstadt. In 1871 the title “baron” was bestowed upon him by the Grand Duke of Hesse- Darmstadt, permission being given by the czar to accept that title of nobility. In 1880, 1884, and 1888 he received successively the titles of “counsel S 5 ' y Horace Glnzburg. Ginzburg Gurland THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 119 i eg Ge ee eee eg Pe peg a geiic Pra ne ee ee, Seg Pd eg MEE we BG ep ee een ty ’ of commerce,” “secretary of state,” and “member of the council of commerce of the Treasury Depart- ment.” For many years he was an alderman of St. Petersburg, but, upon the passage of a statute pro- hibiting the election of Jewish aldermen, vacated that office. Baron Giinzburg was repeatedly elected trustee of the charitable affairs of the Stock Ex- change of St. Petersburg and member of the council of the Stock Exchange Hospital, He con- tributed heavily to the erection of the latter institu- tion. In 1898 he was elected member of the com- mittee of the Society for the Dissemination of Commercial Knowledge, and in the same year be- came chairman of the house committee of the Women’s Sewing-School of the Czarina Maria Alex- androvna. In 1899 he was made trustee of the School of Commerce of Czar Nicholas I]. In 1900 he was chosen a member of the committee of the Russian Society for the Protection of Women. He is (1903) a member of the board of the Treasury Department of the Stock Exchange, and a member of the executive board of the St. Petersburg Arche- ological Institute. Even at his present advanced age he is often invited by the government to sit on commissions for the revision of general legislation. Very recently (1895, 1900-01) he has been associated with such imperial comiissions for theamendment of the laws governing the Stock Exchange, stock com- panies, corporations, and mining companies. The seventieth birthday of Baron Ginzburg, which was coincident with the fortieth anniversary of his entry upon an educational career, was celebrated all over Europe and also in New York and many other cities of the United States. On this occasion the Russian government conferred on the baron the medal of St. Anne (ist class). In New York a Baron de Giinz- burg Fund has been started, the interest. of which will be given periodically as a premium for the best work on Jewish history and literature. H. R. M. R. GUNZBURG, ILYA YAKOVLEVICH: Rus- sian sculptor ; son of Meyer Jacob; born at Grodno May, 1859. The seulptor Antokolski, on his way through Wilna in 1870, happened to notice one of young Giinzburg’s attempts at sculpture. Struck by the evidence of ability, he took the boy with him to St. Petersburg. Ginzburg was then but ten years of uge. He studied for a time with Anto- kolski, Ryepip, and Semiradski, and later accom- panied his patron to Italy. On his return to St. Petersburg he entered the high school, and gradu- ated in 1878. In 1886 he was graduated from the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts, winning the small gold medal. In 1889 he was awarded a prize for his exhibits at the Paris Exhibition. Since then his work has ap- peared regularly among the annual exhibits of the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts, and also at other Kuropean exhibitions. He has executed about twenty studies in child life, besides a number of portraits and statuettes of famous Russians, such as Tolstoi, Rubinstein, Tchaikovski, D, P. Mendeleyev, and others, as well as a number of busts. He ex- hibited twelve studies at the Paris Exposition of 1900, and was awarded a gold medal. His elder brother, Boris Yakovlevich Giinz- burg, isa railway engineer and constructor in the service of the Russian government. BIBLIOGRAPHY : Mir Bozhi, May and June, 1902 (an aunty. biographical sketch). H. BR. D. G. GUNZBURG, JOSEPH BEN MORDEcay. Russian Talmudist; lived at Brest-Litovsk jn the second half of the seventeenth century and at the pe. ginning of the eighteenth. His father officiated ag rabbi of Brest from 1664 until 1685, and Joseph o¢. cupied for many years the position of commung] leader. He was the author of “ Leket Yosef,” a Jex;. con for preachers, giving in alphabetical order aj] the haggadot and the moral sentences found in rap. binical literature, published first in 1688 (Ham. burg ?). He wrote also novelle on the Pentateuch, “Hiddushe Torah,” which were published togethe; with those of Isaac Benjamin Wolf, author of “Na. halat Binyamin,” under the title “Leket Yoset,» Offenbach, 1716. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 1471; First ae Jud. i. 848; Zedner, Cat. Hebr. Books Brit. Mus. p. G. I. Br, GUNZBURG, JOSEPH YOZEL BEN GA. BRIEL JACOB: Russian financier and _ philan- thropist; born 1812; died at Paris Jan. 12, 1878. Having acquired great wealth during the Crimean war, Ginzburg established a banking firm at St. Petersburg. There he began to labor on behalf of the welfare of the Jewish community. In Noy., 1861, he was appointed by the Russian government member of the rabbinical commission, the meetings of which Jasted five months. Heexerted himself to raise the standard of the education of the Jews, and to this effect he founded in 1863 with the permission of the Russian government the Society for the Pro- motion of Culture Among the Jews, of which he filled the office of president till his death. Owing to Giinzburg’s efforts, the regulations concerning the military service of the Jews were in 1874 made identical with those of the peoples of other creeds. He also instituted a fund for the Talmud Torah of Wilna, his father’s native town. Ginzburg was ennobled by the Grand Duke of Hesse-Darmstadt Nov. 9, 1870, and created baron Aug. 2, 1874. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Fuenn, Keneset Yisracl, p. 460; Archives Israélites, 1878, p. 89. H. R. M. SEt. GUNZBURG, MORDECAI AARON BEN JUDAH ASHER: Russian Hebrew writer; born at Salanty, government of Kovno, Dec. 8, 1795; died at Wilna Nov. 5, 1846. Having studied Hebrew and Talmud under his father, he continued theif study at Shavly, until 1816, under his father-in-law. Thence he went to Polangen and Mitau, Courland, where he taught Hebrew and translated lega}) paper into German. His conscientious and exact teaching won him considerable influence over the Jews of Courland, where, because of his thorough know! edge of German, he came to be known as the “ Ge!* manist.” He did not stay in Courland long, but after a period of wandering settled at Wilna. His philosophy of religion was based on the only two books which were within his reach when he was a young man: a Hebrew translation of Mendels- 413 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Gunzburg Gurland ee tg Pg, gepent Nay ge We Bee ty ay eG ee eRe Sees give ee het) eR ae gy ee eee FS a pie gohn’s “ Phaédon ” and the “Sefer ha-Berit ” of Phine- pas Hlijah b. Meir. He struggled energetically against Cabala and superstition as the sources of the Hasidic movement; but he was at the same time opposed to freethinking, and regarded the German rabbis as unfit for the rabbinical office. Ginzburg was the creator of the modern Hebrew prose style. He never hesitated to borrow expressions from Talmudic litera- ture oreven from the modern languages, but the ex pressions he borrowed never con- flicted with the spirit of the Hebrew. He begins a chapter gen- erally with a fable. Gunzburg’s style is in its form somewhat archaic, put is at the same time simple and clear. He exerted asalutary influence over the masses of his coreligion- ists, and especially over the younger generation. He wrote: Gelot ha-Arez ha-Hadashah, on the discovery of America, adapted from Campe. Wilna, 1823. Toledot Bene ha-Adam, a universal history, adapted from Politz’s ‘* Weltgeschichte.” First part ib. 1832. A few chapters of the second volume were published in the * Leket Amarim,” a supplement to “ Ha-Meliz,”’ 1889 (pp. 53-81). Kiryat Sefer, a collection of 102 model letters in Hebrew. Wilna, 1835. Mal’akut Filon ha-Yehudi, an adaptation of Eckhard’s Ger- man translation of Philo’s embassy to Caligula. Wilna, 1837. ‘Ittote Russiya, a history of Russia. Wilna, 1839. Ha-Zarfatim be-Russiya, a history of the French invasion of Russia in 1812-18. Wilna, 1842. Mageid Emet, a refutation of Lilienthal’s ** Maggid Yeshu‘ah.”* Leipsic, 1843, Debir, a collection of letters, tales, and sketches, mostly trans- lations from the German. Wilna, 1844-62. Pi ha-Hirot, a history of the Russian invasion of France in 1813-15. Wilna, 1844. Yeme ha-Dor, a history of Europe from 1770 to 1812. Wilna, 1860, , Hamat Dammesek, a history of the Damascus affair of 1840. Konigsberg, 1860. Abi‘ezer, autobiography. Wilna, 1864. Tikkun Laban ha-Arami, a Satirical poem. Wilna, 1864. Ha-Moriyyah, a collection of brief essays. Warsaw, 1878. Lel Shimmurim, a vision, adapted from Zschokke’s *' Aben- teuer.’? Wilna, 1884. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Giinzburg, Abi‘ezer, Wilna, 1864: Maggid, Toledot Mishpehot Ginzburg, pp. 86-116, St. Petersburg, 1899; Slouschz, La Renaissance de la Littérature He- braique, pp. 88-89, Paris, 1903. H. R. M. SEu. GUNZBURG-ULMA, SIMON BEN ELI- EZER: German scholar; communal worker; born at Ginzburg, Bavaria, 1506; died at Burgau Jan. 9, 1585. He was the first who adopted and transmitted to his descendants the name “Giinzburg ” asa family name, He wasa rich merchant, and traveled around In Germany and Poland in the interests of his busi- hess. He was also a great Talmudist, and had some knowledge of secular sciences. It is probably ow- Mg to these facts that Simon Giinzburg is variously described by different historians. Albertrandy, Quoted by Sternberg (“Gesch. der Juden in Polen,” P. 148), says: “Simon, also called Selig Ginzburg, Mordecai Aaron Ginzburg. He wrote many works, and was the head of the rab- binate and yeshibah.” It seems that Albertrandy confused Simon Giinzburg with the physician Selig Giinzburg of Slutsk. Czacki cites him as the court physician of King Sigismund August and chief of the community of Posen (Griitz, “Gesch.” ix. 448). But Simon Gtinzburg never settled at Posen. His residence was first at Gtinzburg, where he built a synagogue and established a cemetery; and then he settled at Burgau, a neighboring town. There also he worked for the welfare of the com- munity, for which reason his name is commemorated in a special prayer. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sternberg, Geschichte der Juden in Polen, p. 148; Gritz, Gesch. 3d ed., ix. 448; Maggid, Toledot Mish- pehot Ginzburg, pp. 4 et seq.; David Kaufmann, ib. p. 178. H.R. M. SEt. GURLAND, JONAH HAYYIM: Russian and Hebrew writer; born at Kleck, government of Minsk, in 1848; died at Odessa March 14, 1890. At the age of ten Gurland entered the rabbinical school of Wilna, from which he graduated as rabbi in 1860. Then he went to St. Petersburg, and was admitted to attend the lectures of the philological faculty, de- voting himself to the study of Semitic languages under the direction of Chwolson. During his stay at the university Gurland translated into Russian the fables of Lokman, and published a dissertation on the influence of the Arabian philosophy on Moses Maimonides—a subject proposed by the faculty, and for his treatment of which Gurland received a gold medal. On obtaining in 1864 his first degree (“candidatus”) from the university, Gurland de- voted three years to the study of the Firkovich collection of Karaite manuscripts in the Imperial Library. The result of his study was the publica- tion, in Russian, of a work on the life of Mordecai Comtino and his contemporaries, which gained for its author the degree of “magister.” Gurland was then charged with the cataloguing of the Hebrew books of the Imperial Library. In 1869 he went to Yekaterinoslav, where he was appointed examining magistrate inone of the precincts. In 1878 Gurland was appointed inspector of the normal colleges for teachers at Jitomir, a position which he held for seven years. The government conferred upon him two orders and the title of “college councilor.” In 1880, in consequence of illness, Gurland went to Germany, where he sojourned for three years, On his return, he settled at Odessa, and founded there a classic aud scientific college of eight classes, with a curriculum including Jewish history and Hebrew literature. In 1888 Gurland was elected govern- ment rabbi of Odessa. Gurland was the author of the following: (1) “O Viiyanii Filosofii Musulmanskoi Religii na Filosofiyu Religii Moiseya Maimonida,” St. Peters- burg, 1863. (2) “ Ma’amar ha-Tammuz,” Chwolson’s explanation of the term “ Tammuz” as it is used by the prophet Ezekiel, translated from German into Hebrew, Lyck, 1864. (38) “Ginze Yisrael be Sankt Petersburg,” on the Karaite manuscripts of the Imperial Library of St. Petersburg. The work is divided into four parts, containing the following subjects: (a) a description of voyages to Palestine was known as a celebrated architect and geometer. | made by three Karaites of the Crimea in the sev- VI.—8 Gutah Gutzmann enteenth and eighteenth centuries, published at Lyck, 1865; (2) a description of the manuscripts of the Imperial Library dealing with mathematics, astronomy, and astrology, published in Russian and German, St. Petersburg, 1866; (¢) extracts from the writings of Mordecai Comtino, Caleb Afendopolo, and Abraham Bali, published as an appendix to Gur- Jand’s dissertation “Novyye Materialy dlya Istorii Yevreiskoi Literatury XV Stolyetiya. M. Kuma- tiano, Yevo Zhizn, Sochineniya i Sootechestvenniki,” St. Petersburg, 1866; (d) “Penine ha-Melizot,” a collection of sentences, proverbs, and maxims of divers sages, 7b, 1867, (4) “Tif’eret Je-Mosheh, Gloire & Moise,” in honor of Moses Montefiore, St. Petersburg, 1867. (5) “Luah Yisrael,” a Jewish al- manac in Russian and Hebrew, published first (only Russian) at Kiev, 1877; secondly, at Warsaw, 1878; thirdly, at St. Petersburg, 1879; fourthly, ¢. 1880, (6) “Luah ¥eshurun,” Hebrew and Russian calen- dar for the year 1884, St. Petersburg, 1888. (7) “Le-Korot ha-Gezerot be- Yisrael,” a collection of memoirs, documents, and elegies on the persecu- tions of the Jews in Poland in 1648, with historical annotations, published in “ Ozar ha-Sifrut,” 1887-89. His brother, Jacob Gurland, rabbi of Poltava, is the author of “Kebod ha-Bayit,” on the rabbin- ical school of Wilna, 1858. BIBLIOGRAPITY: Sokolov, Sefer Zikkaron, pp. 133 et seq.; Zeit- lin, Bibl. Post-Mendels. p. 131. H, R. I, Br. GUTAH, ZERAHIAH: Talmudic author of the seventeenth century; died at Cairo in1647. He was a pupil of Jehiel Bassani and Joseph di Trani while living in Constantinople. He removed later to Jerusalem, and thence to Hebron, and finally settled in Cairo. Among his disciples was Judah Sharaf. Two years after Gutah’s death his remains were taken to the Holy Land and there buried (see AzuLAl). Under the title “Zera‘ Ya‘akob” Gutah wrote a commentary on the “Bet Yosef” of Caro; he also composed various haggadic works and made collections of responsa. One volume of these, with the approbations of Bassani and Trani, has been preserved to the present day. Gutah’s works are in manuscript only. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Conforte, Kore ha-Dorot, p. dla, Berlin, 1846 ; eawlal Shem ha-Gedolim; Benjacob, Ozar ha-Sefarim, D. 2 L. Gri. GUTERBOCK, LUDWIG: German physician; born at Berlin Oct. 23, 1814(University of Berlin, M.D. 1837); died there Feb. 28, 1895. He settled in his native city, and practised there until his death. Giiterbock wrote several essays for the medical journals, and was one of the collaborators on the “ Jahresberichte tiber die Fortschritte der Gesamm- ten Medicin'in Allen Lindern.” He was also the author of “Schdnlein’s Klinische Vortrige in dem Charité-Krankenhause zu Berlin,” Berlin, 1840 (8d ed., 1844), and “Dr. Schénlein als Arzt und Kili- nischer Lehrer,” 22. 1842. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Pagel, Blog. Lex. 8. KF. T. H. GUTERBOCK, PAUL: Germansurgeon; born at Berlin June 2, 1844; died there Oct. 17, 1897. He was educated at the universities of Wurzburg and THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 114 Berlin, graduating (M.D.) in 1865. After postgrag, uate courses in Vienna, Paris, London, and Edin. burgh, he began to practise in Berlin in 1866, pe. coming at the same time assistant at the surgigg) clinic of the university. In 1873 he was admitteg to the medical faculty of the university as priyas. docent in surgery; in 1884 he was appointed asseggo, to the health board of Brandenburg; in 1894 he ye. ceived the title of “professor,” and in 1896 of “@p. heimer Medizinalrath.” His special surgical proy. ince was in male genital diseases. He was one of the collaborators of the “Jahresberichte tiber qje Fortschritte der Gesammten Medicin in Allen Lgp. dern,” and has written many essays in the medica] journals. Among Giiterbock’s works the follow. ing may be mentioned: “Die Neueren Methodey der Wundbehandlung auf Statistischer Grundlage » Berlin, 1876; “Die Englischen Krankenhiuser,” 79, 1881; “Die Chirurgischen Krankheiten der Harp. und Mannlichen Geschlechtswerkzeuge,” Vienna, 1890-97. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Pagel, Biog. Lex.; Anton Bettelheim, Biog, Bidtter, 1898, p. 75. 8. F. T. H, GUTMANN, DAVID, RITTER VON: Aus. trian merchant; philanthropist; brother of Wilhelm von Gutmann; born at Leipnik, Moravia, Dec. 24, 1834. As president of the Israelitische Allianz of Vienna he did much for the relief of his persecuted coreligionists in Russia in 1882, as well as in Ru- mania in 1900, and after the Kishinef outrages in 1903. He is president of the Jews’ poorhouse and of the Baron de Hirsch school-funds for Galicia, and is a member of the board of trustees of the Jewish congregation. In 1879 Gutmann was created Knight of the Iron Crown and raised to the hereditary nobility. BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. Wiedmann, Festschrift Anldsslich des Vierzigjtihrigen Geschiftsjubildums des Hatuses Gut- mann. Ss. EK. J. GUTMANN, MOSES: Bavarian rabbi; born in Baiersdorf 1805; died at Redwitz Feb. 1, 1862; son of Yom-Tob Gutmann. Moses Gutmann was educated at Erlangen University, and when twenty- two years old was elected district rabbi of Redwitz, which office he held for thirty-five years. He was the first rabbi of Bavaria with an academic educa- tion as well as a thorough Talmudical training who espoused the cause of Reform, to which fact his con- tributions to Geiger’s “Zeitschrift fir Jiid. Theolo- gie,” Stein’s “ Volkslehrer,” and several of his re- sponsa, bear witness. He published a translation, with notes, of the Apocrypha, under the title “Die Apokryphen des A. Testaments aufs Neue aus dem Griechischen Text Uebersetzt” (Altona, 1841). His translation of Josephus with a scholarly Latin commentary has remained in manuscript. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Allg. Zeit. des Jud, xxvi. 150 et ae s GUTMANN, WILHELM, RITTER VON: Austrian merchant; philanthropist; born at Leip- nik, Moravia, Aug. 18, 1825; died at Vienna May 17, 1895. Destined for a teacher, the unlooked- for death of his father made it necessary for him to enter into commerce to support his mother and two 115 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Gutah Gutzmann ————— nO ee rounger children. Utter failure was the result of his first venture, and the savings of his parents were entirely lost. As manager of a lime-works his atten- tion was directed to the coal-deposits of Silesia, and be planned for their development. In 1858 he and nis brother David established the firm which, dur- ing the war of 1859-60, despite the difficultics then surrounding business ventures, supplied coal for all the railroads, for all the great factories throughout the empire, and for the cities of Vienna, Budapest, and Briinn. Gutmann Bros, leased some coal-mines from the Rothschilds in 1865, and pur- chased outright other valuable carboniferous prop- erties in Silesia, Galicia, and Hungary. The close connection between coal and the production of jron easily led the Gutmanns to combine their in- terests with the Witkowitz iron-works, which they afterward owned conjointly with the Rothschilds and the counts Larisch and Andrassy. With Kuffner they built (1871) the first sugar-factory in Austria. In philanthropy Gutmann displayed no less en- thusiasm and activity than in business. Numerous institutions for the care of the poor and the sick either owe their foundation solely to him or are under obligation to his generous beneficence for assistance. Of such may be mentioned: girls’ or- phanage at Dobling, founded by the brothers Wil- helm and David, and endowed with 300,000 fi. ($120,000) ; a hospital! for children, with fifty beds, at the Polyklinik in Vienna, to which organization they also gave 60,000 fl. ($24,000) for the erection of the premises. They founded also a hospital at Krems, which accommodates 60 cripples. Wilhelm von Gutmann was elected to the Lower Austrian Diet, where he gave impetus to the reform of the poor-laws. The community conferred upon him its highest honors. He held the offices of presi- dent of the community (1890-92) and of the Jewish Theological Seminary. Through a daughter by a second marriage he became father-in-law to Sir Francis Montefiore. By will he left 200,000 f1. ($80,000), the interest of which was to be divided equally among the indigent Jews and Christians of Vienna. Gutmann was delegate of the Vienna Chamber of Commerce in the Diet of Lower Aus- tria, and honorary citizen of Liepnik and Mihrisch- Ostrau. BIBLIOGRAPHY : Jewish Chronicle, May 24, 1895: Wiedmann, Festschrift Aniliisslich des Vierzigjihrigen Geschidftsju- biltiums des Hauses Gutmann. a, F. 8. W. GUTTMANN, JAKOB: Hungarian sculptor; born in Arad 1811; died in Vienna April 28, 1860. In his early childhood he carved toys, and in 1838 went to Vienna to satisfy his artistic cravings. Here he became an engraver, and worked for three years With his burin. He then received a scholarship from Prince Metternich, which enabled bim to study at the Vienna Academy of Fine Arts. He remained here until 1843, receiving awards for an embossed Profile in wax of the emperor Joseph II. and for a steel-engraving of Metastasio. In 1844 Guttmann produced a bronze statuette of Baron Solomon von Rothschild from a portrait, and was commissioned by the baron to execute a rep- fica in marble. The baron also paid Guttmann an an- nuity, thus enabling him to go to Rome. Here he modeled his bust of Pope Pius [X., and completed his masterpiece, “ Der Blumenspender.” While in Rome, Guttmann was deeply interested in the ghetto, which he described in letters to his father. Later he went to Paris; and in 1857 he be- came insane. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Miller and Singer, Allgemeines Kiinstler- Lexicon, ii. 110, Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1896 ; Wertheimer’s Jahrbuch, iv. 87 et seq. 8. A. M. F. GUTTMANN, PAUL: German physician and medical author; born at Ratibor, Prussian Silesia, Sept. 9, 1833; died in Berlin May 24, 1898. He re- ceived his education at the gymnasium of his native town and at the universities of Berlin, Vienna, and Wurzburg, graduating from the last-named as doc- tor of medicine in 1858. The following year he engaged in practise as a physician in Berlin, becom- ing a privat-docent at the university in 1867, and in 1879 chief physician of the Moabit municipal hospital. Guttmann’s reputation as a clinician was widely extended. He was the author of about eighty essays on different medical subjects. The following are his principal works: “Die Physiologie und Patho- logie des Sympaticus” (with Albert Eulenburg), which was published in Berlin in 1878, and which, on its republication in London in 1879, received the Astley-Cooper prize; and “ Lehrbuch der Klinischen Untersuchungsmethoden,” Berlin, 1884. From 1885 to 1893 Guttmann was the editor of the “Journal ftir Practische Aerzte.” BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jew. Chron. June 9, 1898; Hirsch, Biog. Lez. s.v., Vienna, 1884; Pagel, Biog. Lex. s.v., Vienna, 1901. s. F. T. H. GUTTMANN, SAMUEL: German gynecolo- gist and medical writer; born at Ostrowo, Prussia, 1839; died at Berlin Dec. 22, 1893. After comple- ting his course at the gymnasium he entered the University of Berlin, graduating thence as doctor of medicine in 1864. In 1866 he settled as a physician temporarily in Drebkau, Prussian Silesia, but sub- sequently removed to Berlin, where he succeeded in building up a large practise, and became a specialist in gynecology. For a few years he was a regular contributor to the “Jahrbuch fiir Practische Aerzte,” and was also assistant editor of the “Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift,” succeeding Paul Albrecht Boerner in the editorship on the death of the latter in 1885. At this time he was also editing the “ Reichsmedi- zinal-Kalender.” He was one of the collaborators in the series of publications, edited by Leyden, on the “Influenza Epidemie von 1890-91.” Guttmann wrote many essays on medical sub- jects; but his forte lay in organization, for which he found a wide field in connection with the jour- nals with which he was editorially associated. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jew. Chron. Jan. 5, 1894; Hirsch, Biog. Lex. s.v., Vienna, 1884; Pagel, Biog. Lex. s.v. 9. F. T. H. GUTZMANN, HERMANN: German physi- cian; born at Biitow, in Pomerania, Jan. 29, 1865. He received the degree of doctor of medicine from Guzikov Habakkuk the University of Berlin in 1887, and since 1889 has practised as a specialist in diseases of the vocal organs. Gutzmann has published: “ Verhtiittung und Be- kimpfung des Stotterns in der Schule,” Berlin, 1889; “Vorlesungen tiber die Stérungen der Sprache,” 2d. 1893; (with Th. 8. Flatau) “ Die Bauchrednerkunst,” 7b, 1894; and “ Ueber das Stottern,” 74. 1897. Since 1891 he has been editor and publisher of the “ Mo- natsschrift fiir die Gesammte Sprachheilkunde.” BIBLIOGRAPHY: Pagel, Biog. Lez. s.v., Vienna, 1901. 8. F. T. H. GUZIKOV, MICHAEL JOSEPH: Russian musician; born at Shklov 1806; died at Brussels Oct. 21, 1837. He was descended from a family of talented inusicians, and became while still a youth a skilful performer on many instruments. Accom- panied by his father and other members of the fam- ily, he .nade concert tours in Russia, played before HAARBLEICHER, MOSES M.: German author; born in Hamburg Nov. 14, 1797; died there Sept. 25, 1869. Following the example of his father, the founder of the Jewish School of Hamburg, and under the influence of his guardian, the father of Gabriel Riesser, he interested himself early in the affairs of the Jews. He took an active part in the establishment of the Tempelverein, being one of the collaborators in the revision of its prayer-book ; and he founded the Verein zur Beférderung Niitz- licher Gewerbe Unter den Juden, which he directed from 1823 to 1840. In 1840 he became secretary of the congregation of Hamburg. MHaarbleicher, who possessed an extraordinary knowledge of Romance and Germanic languages, and wrote with ease in Hebrew, was an acute and clever critic. Forty of his songsand poems are contained in the hymn-book of the Hamburg congregation. His poem “Hag- bahah” was often ascribed to Gabriel Riesser. Some years prior to his death he published the first part of “Zwei Epochen aus der Gesch, der Deutsch- Israelitischen Gemeinde in Hamburg,” Hamburg, 1866, a valuable work which remained unfinished. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Allg. Zeit. des Jud. xxxiii. 893 et seq. Ss. HAAS, ROBERT: German Lutheran minister; lived in the first half of the nineteenth. century, in the duchy, of Nassau; pastor in the villages of Gritvenwiesbach, Dotzheim near Wiesbaden, Dick- schied near Langenschwalbach. He was interested in Jewish affairs, and advocated the civic equality of the Jews. Among his friends was Abraham Geiger. He indorsed the rabbinical convention held at Wiesbaden in 1837. In the same year he addressed a circular letter to “all Christians in Ger- many” to aid in establishing a faculty of Jewish science and a Jewish seminary in a German uni- versity. He was the author of “Das Staatsbir- THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 116 See the emperor Nicholas and the empress in 1828, ang after successful concerts in Moscow and Kiev, yig. ited Odessa, where he met Lamartine and wag ad. vised by him to make a tourof Europe. He reside in Vienna for five months, where he was digtiy. guished by the emperor and Prince Metternich, and befriended by artists and musicians. Guzikov nex} visited Prague, Dresden, and Berlin, and wag Wel] received at the court of Berlin. From Berlin he went to Paris, and thence to Brussels. Here he fgj] a victim to nervous prostration, of which he died, Guzikov was the inventor of the straw violin, on which he played with such masterly skill as to create great enthusiasm wherever he went. There aye many talented musicians among the Guzikov family in Russia, BIBLIOGRAPHY: Schlesinger, Ueber Guzikov, Vienna, 183. Allg. Zeit. des Jud. 1837, p. 436. ; H. R. J. G. L, GYMNASIUM. See GLADIATOR. H gertum der Juden vom Standpunkt der Inneren Politik,” Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1837, and of other works. S, M. §&). HAAS, SIMHAH BEN JOSHUA: Traveler and preacher; born in Dobrowitz, Bohemia, 1710; died in Brahilov 1768. He was father-in-law to Sol- omon Dubno, and was @ preacher in Brahilov. In 1764 he wrote an account of his journey to Pales- tine, “ Ahabat Ziyyon” or “Sippure Erez ha-Galil” (Grodno, n.d.). A large portion of this book in its printed form was, however, written by the Karaite Samuel ben David, an earlier traveler in Palestine. Haas also published “ Neti‘ah shel Simhah,” speci- mens of Hebrew poetry and rhetoric (Grodno, 1753), and “ Leb Simhah,” on morals and ascetics (70. 1757). BIBLIOGRAPHY : Luncz, Jerusalem, iv. 7, 186 et seq.; Benjacob, Ozar ha-Sefarim, p. 18; First, Bibl. Jud. iti. 320. K a. M. K. HAAS, SOLOMON BEN JEKUTHIEL: Moravian rabbi of the first half of the nineteenth century. Haas was successively dayyan at Holle- schau and rabbi of Strassnitz, Moravia, He was the author of “Kerem Shelomoh,” novelle on the Shul- han ‘Aruk, Orah Hayyim, Yoreh De‘ah, and Eben ha-‘Ezer (Presburg, 1840-46), BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 2389; Zednel Cat. Hebr. Books Brit. Mus. p. 277, J. M. SEL. HA-ASIF (“The Harvest”): Hebrew yeal- book, edited and published by Nahum Sokolow 12 Warsaw. Its first volume (5645) appeared in 1884; it continued to appear regularly every year unl 1889, when the fifth volume (5649) came out at the end instead of at the beginning of the Jewish ye The sixth and last volume (5654) appeared in 1899. The “Sefer ha-Shanah” (Book of the Year), which 117 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Guzikov Habakkuk ee ne ee a now annually published by Sokolow, is considered a continuation of “ Ha-Asif.” The “ Sefer Zikkaron,” a biographical dictionary of contemporary Jewish authors, was published as a supplement to the fifth volume of “ Ha- Asif,” Most of the better-known Hebrew writers of the day have contributed to the six volumes of “Ha- Asif,” which form an important collection of literary, historical, biographical, and popular scientific es- says. ‘They also contain poems, sketches, and novels, some of which possess considerable merit: while its yearly reviews, obituaries, and descriptions of Russo-Jewish communities are of great value to Jewish biography and history. Samuel Alexan- drow’s “ Masseket Nega‘im ” (Warsaw, 1886) is a crit- icism of the first two volumes of “ Ha-Asif.” A list of other reviews of one or more of its numbers is given in the “Bulletin of the New York Public Library,” vi. 259. E. ¢. P. Wi. HABAIAH or HOBAIAH (713n, 723M): Head of a family of priests who returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel; not being able to prove their genealogy, they were excluded from the priesthood (Ezra ii. 61; Neh. vii. 68). In I Esd. v. 38 the name is given as “ Obdia.” E, G, HH, M. SEL. HABAKKUK (pipan; LXX. ’Aufaxoip; Vul- gate, “Habacuc”): Prophet; author of the eighth in the collection of the twelve minor prophet- icat books. The etymology of the name of the prophet is not clear. It seems to be a loan-word representing the Assyrian “hambakiku,” a garden- plant (Friedrich Delitzsch, “ Prolegomena,” p. 84; Konig, “ Historisch-Kritisches Lehrgebiude der He- briischen Sprache,” ii. 1, 473, on the vocalization), and has the appearance of being a writer’s pseudo- nym (F. E. Peiser, “Der Prophet Habakuk,” in “Mitteilungen der Vorderasiatischen Gesellschaft, ” 1903, 1. 12). That he was a Levite has been urged on the strength of the postscript to ch. iii. (verse 19, “on my stringed instruments”), which indicates that he owned instruments: only a Levite was author- ized to use an instrument to accompany his songs in the Temple. The superscription of the Septuagint apocry phon B7A Kat Apdxwv, in the Codex Chisianus, also designates him a Levite. The absence of exact information concerning his life left a vacuum that has been filled by myths and legends (see Franz Delitzsch, “De Habacuci Pro- phete Vita”). The above-named apocryphon makes him a contemporary of Daniel, whom he was mirac- wously privileged to visit in the lion’s den and sup- ply with food. In this Greek story his father’s hame is given as “Jesus” (Joshua). Jewish tradi- tion makes him the son of the Shunammite woman (see Extswa), but nevertheless a contemporary of Daniel (see “ Seder ha-Dorot ”; Abravanel’s commen- lary to Habakkuk: Zohar, Lek Leka; Neubauer, “The Book of Tobit,” Appendix). Of the many Conceits current among the cabalists with reference to this prophet, the most curious was that which declared him to be the reincarnation of Adam. His grave was shown at several places (see HUKKOK). Peiser (1.c.) contends that Habakkuk is the pseudo- nym of a Judean prince held asa hostage in Nineveh, and who witnessed the attack of the Medes, in alli- ance with Chaldea and Babylon, in 625 n.c. But his book announces a second attack. The Age This prince may have been the son or and Home grandson of Manasseh. Peiser shows of Ha- that Habakkuk displays remarkable bakkuk. familiarity with Assyrian literature, his similes indicating quotations from, and adaptations of, Assyrian mythological writings. By others, Habakkuk is made the contemporary of Jeremiah and a resident of Jerusalem, after the “discovery ” of Deuteronomy (621 B.c.), but before the death of Josiah (609 B.c.). By many Jewish commentators he is assigned to the reign of Manas- seh. He is, however, clearly under the influence of Isaiah; and the view which makes him a younger disciple of the greater prophet, advanced by Walter K. Betteridge in “Journal of American Theology,” Oct., 1908, seems to meet best the situation reflected in the book. The Assyrians, originally regarded by the Prophets as appointed agents of Yuwu, looked upon themselves as “gods” (Isa. xiv.); but under Sennacherib, through a rebellion of the Babylo- nians (the Chaldeans), the plans of the conqueror are thwarted. E. G. HL HABAKKUK, BOOK OF.—Biblical Data: One of the twelve minor prophetical books. It readily falls into two parts: (1) ch. i. and ii. ; (2) ch. iii, The first part is a “massa” (a condemnatory. prophecy). But contrary to the usage in other prophetical books, it is not stated against what people the prophecy is spoken. As it now stands in the Masoretic text, the first part is in the form of a dialogue. Ch. i. 2-4 laments the prevailing moral corruption, which God does not seem to heed; i. 5-11 contains the divine announcement of an impending judg- ment through the Chaldeans; 1. 12-17 gives the prophet’s complaint of the excessive pride and cruelty of the enemy. In ch. ii. God admonishes Habakkuk not to judge hastily that evil is trium- phant, but to remain confident (1-4). Five “wos,” the contents of the “mashal” or “taunting prov- erb” (5-6), phrased by the very people oppressed by the conqueror, are enumerated (6, 9, 12, 18, 19). Ch. ili, is a psalm reciting various theophanies, describing God’s warlike power, which bends earth, mountains, and rivers to His purposes—yea, even sun and moon, in behalf of His people. The song concludes with a declaration that though the bless- ings of nature shall fail in days of dearth, the singer will rejoice in the Lord (17-19). The book abounds in striking ex pressions and rare words, ¢.g., the description of the invasion of the Chaldeans (i. 6 ef seqg.); of God as having “eyes too pure to behold evil” (i. 13); of “men as fishes of the sea” (i. 14); of the worship of the fisherman’s implements (i, 16); of “the stone that crieth out” Gi. 11); of the folly of idolatry (ii. 18-19). Ch. iii. especially is rich in striking similes (14-15), The book Is re- markable also for originality. The author departs from the usual method of the Prophets. In their addresses the nation is central; in Habakkuk’s it Contents. Style. Habakkuk Habdalah is God and His government of the world, He at- tempts to unravel the meaning of God’s tolerance of tyranny and wrong. In his questions Habakkuk voices doubts to God, though not against God (G. A. Smith, “The Twelve Prophets,” ii. 130 et seq.). Critical View: Ch. i. and ji., on the whole, are regarded as the work of one prophet. Still, the text as now presented has been found to contain certain difficulties. Taking i. 2-4 to be descriptive of Israe]’s moral corruption, critics have argued that this section could not have been part of a prophecy devoted to the setting forth of the wrongs under which Israel was suffering, a different sense thus at- taching to the “wicked” and “righteous” in i. 4 and i. 18 respectively. Gicsebrecht (“ Beitriige zur Jesaiakritik,” pp. 197 et seg.) and Wellhausen (“ Kleine Propheten,” in “ Vorarbeiten und Skizzen”) therefore consider i. 5-11 to be an older and inde- pendent prophecy written previous to the remainder of i. and ii.; ch. i, 12 is regarded as the sequel to i. 4. The subject of the complaint in i. 2 is different from that in ii. 1. Kirkpatrick (“Doctrine of the Prophets,” p. 268) holds the book as a whole to be the fruit of religious reflection, giving con- clusions reached only “after a prolonged mental struggle.” That i, 5-6, where the power of the Chaldeans is represented as still of the future, and i. 13-16, ii. 10, 17 disagree, though their descriptions of foreign nations appear to be based on actual observation, is another difficulty raised by critical scholars. Budde (in “Studien und Kritiken,” 1898, pp. 383 e¢ seq.), reverting to a certain extent to Kuenen’s disinclina- tion to assume an earlier and a later section (see Kuenen, “ Historisch-Critiseh Onderzoek,” ii. 886 e¢ seq., Leyden, 1889), showed that Habakkuk had in mind two world-powers: an oppressor (i. 2~4), and the Chaldeans, appointed to punish him (i. 5 e¢ seg.). But this necessitates the placing of i. 5-11 after ii. 4. The oppressor to be destroyed is Assyria, and the Chaldeans are the implement of God’s judgment. It is of the Assyrian’s pride that the prophet speaks, not of the Chaldeans’ presump- tuousuess. Ch. iti. is a psalm, not free from mythological elements and not by Habakkuk. It must have formed part of a liturgical collection, accidentally incorporated with Habakkuk’s prophecies (Stade’s “ Zeitschrift,” iv. 157 et seq.). The text is corrupt in many places (Wellhausen, “ Die Kleinen Propheten,” 3d ed.). Verses 17-19 are additions by later hands, verse 18 being a eulogy, such as is frequently found at the close of liturgical songs. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Nowack, Die Kleinen Propheten, Gottingen, 1897; Rothstein, in Studien und Krittken, 18984; Budde, in The Expositor, May, 1895. E. G. H. See ZOROASTRI- HABAR or HABBAR. ANISM. HABAZINIAH (A '3y3n): The head of a family of Rechabites. His grandson Jaazaniah was a chief of the Rechabites in the time of Jeremiah (Jer. xxxv. 8). E. G. H. HABAZZELET. See PERIODICALS. M. Set. THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 118 HABDALAH or ABDALAH or ABDALD A (adsan, adtax. xndqas = “separation”; “disting. tion”): The rabbinical term for the benedic. tions and prayers by means of which a division is made between times of varying degrees of holinegg é.g., between Sab- bath and work-day, festival and work- day, or Sabbath and festival. The rabbin- ical law requires that a formal separation be made between holy and profane times, and prohibits the resumption of or- dinary work after a holy day until such division shall have |. been made. This is |. accomplished by pro- nouncing the Habda- ‘ lah, At theevening |. service of a day fol- SS lowing one of greater = holiness, words ex- |<: pressing the distinc- = tion are inserted in oe the “‘Amidah”; and |- just before the con- |= clusion of the service = a special Habdalah | - ceremony is per- Sie formed. This is be- ae gun, in all cases, by et pronouncing a bene- = diction overacup of = |-:. wine, or, if wine can not be obtained, over any other beverage ; except water ordi- narily used in the country where the ceremony takes. place. Attheconclu- ue sion of the Sabbath | ~ are added brief bene- S dictions over spices and a freshly kindled ” light. Theseare fol- : lowed by a lengthier De benediction in which 2 the distinction be- tween the holy and the profane is em- phasized, and thanks are given to God as the Author of this distinction. While pronouncing the benediction over the light it is customary to open and close the hands and to gaze atthe finger-nails. For this, three Blessing reasons are given: (1) in order to obey Over Light. the Talmudic precept which prohibits the pronunciation of a benediction over light unless one derives some advantage therefrom (“En mebarekin ‘al ha-ner ‘ad she-ye’otu le-oro”; Ber. 53b); (2) because the nails in their unceasi0g Habdalah Light. Hosted by Google Fue Jewish Eneyelopedia, Vol. VE. bofai the possession of Maurice Herrmann, New York, o * ewe In the British Museum, London. and Athert Musedii, Loodun. oe. giz < r HABDALAT ” ? ae te 4 a B56 UE da tae MUBRE TT os 2 Sis . serop, Frabee I, Tn the possession of Weinrieh Praubercer. r we fe Mae ti dn the posession of Salv | firth. - Copyright, 1904 by Funk & Wagnalls Company New York and London a i ne | Bie 8) 30) oa : the possession of Foly Raunheim. New York. & 14. In the possession of Leonard L. Cohen, London, i. Tre the Vietorta ee Temple Shoarith bsraek New York, 45. dnethe Bevis Marks Svinagowue. Lotion, “Vy leet ey, . 7 U States National Museum, Washington, Hosted by Google 119 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Habakkuk Habdalah a a a a a i EL LL£,« AR a rowth are a symbol of the prosperity which, it is poped, the week will bring (“ Tur,” in the name of Hai Gaon); (3) because the blood, 7.¢., the life, can pe seen through the fingers. Some modern rabbis consider the blessing over the light as a recognition of the importance of the ele- ment fire as an instrument designed by God for the economic subjugation of the world (S. R. Hirsch, “Choreb,” p. 109). The usual interpretation is that light having been created by God at the beginning of the week, it is therefore proper to pronounce a benediction over it at the beginning of each recur- ring week (Gen. R. xii.). A more natural explana- tion seems to be that, since fire may not be used in any form on the Sabbath, its employment is a dem- onstration of the fact that the Sabbath has ended and the working-days have recommenced ; its use, therefore, is very appropriate in a Habdalah or sep- aration ceremony. Thisexplanation is corroborated by the fact that the blessing over the light forms no part of the Habdalah after festivals on which the use of fire is permitted, while in the Habdalah after the Day of Atonement, which resembles the Sab- bath in the prohibition of the use of fire, this bene- diction is inserted. The candle or taper over which the blessing is spoken must have at least two wicks, giving two or more lights, since the language of the benediction is plural, “who creates the lights of fire” (“bore me’ore ha- esh ”). All varieties of spices and odorifer- ous plants are suit- able for the benedic- tion of the spices, except that they must not have been used for any obnoxious purpose, as, for in- stance, to disguise the odor of decom- position or other foul smells, or for idol- atrous worship. Some authorities pro- hibit the use of sharp, acrid spices, such as pepper. The use of myrtle is en- joined, in allusion to Isa. lv. 13, “In- Stead of the brier shall come up the myrtle,” but it isnot obligatory. The reasons usually given for the employment of spices in the Habdalah Habdalah Spice-Box and Taper- Holder. (In the Musée de Cluny, Paris.) Use are that perceptions and enjoyments of Sweet- through the sense of smell are the most Smelling delicate; that they afford not a gross, Herbs. material pleasure, but rather a spir- itual one; and that the perfume of spices is, therefore, a comfort to the over-soul of the Sabbath (“neshamah yeterah ”), which grieves when the holy day departs (Shulhan ‘Aruk, Orah Hay- yim, 297; Bahya to Gen. xxxii.-xxxvi.). The order of benedictions in the Habdalah is indi- cated by the mune- monic word 7'9'3), formed from the initial letters of 9%, DOwa, 2, asan = “wine, spices, light, separa- tion-formula.” It is customary to sing hymns at the Hab- dalah service after the close of the Sabbath. Of these, several con- tain references to the prophet Elijah, who, according to one view, will appear after the conclusion of that day. These hymns are some- times accompanied by instrumental music, which, forbidden on the Sabbath, is ap- propriate for the Hab- dalah. Perhaps the best known of these hymns is that begin- ning “May He who distinguishes between holy and profane for- give our sins” (“ Ha- mabdil ben kodesh le-hol hatotenu yim- hol”). Rabbi Moses Sofer, following Mor- decai ben Hillel on Yoma, has pointed out that this hymn was originally intended for the Habdalah service after the Day of Atonement (“Hatam Sofer, Orah Hay- yim,” No. 67), and it is so employed among the Sephardim when the Day of Atone- ment falls on the Sab- bath. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Tur and Maginne Erez, Orah Hayyim, § 297; Levinsohn, Mekore Minhagim, Berlin, 1846; §. R. Hirsch, Choreb, Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1889: Dembitz, Jew- ish Services in Synagogue and Home, Philadelphia, 1898 ; Landshuth, Hegyon Leb, Kiénigsberg, 1845; Seligman Baer, ‘Abodat Yisrael, Rédelheim, 1868, A. B. D. The Habdalah benediction reads: “Blessed art Thou, O Lord, our God, King of the Universe! Who hast made a separation between what is holy and what is profane (Lev. x. 10; Ezek. xlii, 20]; be- tween light and darkness [Gen. i. 4, 18]; between Israel and other nations [Lev. xx. 26]; between the seventh day and the six working-days. Blessed art Thou who hast separated the holy from the pro- fane.” According to another, and apparently older, Silver Spice-Box for Habdalah. (In the possession of S, Heilbut, London.) Habdalah Haber THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 129 SSS ee pe ee a ee a es tradition, these words were added: “between clean and unclean [ Lev. xi. 47, xx. 25}; between the upper and the lower waters [Gen. 1. 6, 7]; between land and sea [Gen. i. 10]; between the priestly tribe of Levi and the common people of Israel [Deut. x. 8]” (see Pes. 104a). The questions as to whether the benediction over the spices or that over the light was to be recited first, and as to whether the benedic- tion should precede or follow grace after meals, were matters of contro- versy between the schools of Shammai and Hillel. The Hab- dalah formula was originally recited in the home at the opening of the eve- ning meal or before each course (comp. Ta‘an. iv. 8, which shows that there was no Friday or Satur- day evening service in the Temple; see also Herzfeld, “Gesch. des Volkes Israel,” iii. [ii] 209); soon, however, it came to be recited in the synagogue also: sometimes as a special benediction of the Shemoneh ‘Esreh (this was the view of R. Akiba); sometimes inserted in the last benediction but one (this was the view of R. Eli- ezcr); but it finally became the custoin to insert it in the fourth benediction (Ber. v. 2). The Habdalah benediction was afterward ascribed to the “men of the Great Synagogue,” and if was held to have been originally instituted as a synagogal benediction; in times of prosperity for the Jews it was the custom to recite it over the Origin of cup of wine at the home meal, but Habdalah. when distress befell the people it was recited in its original place (Ber. 38a). The many differences prevailing among the Tannaim and Amoraim concerning the Habdalah (see Pes. 108b ef seg.; Hul. i. 7; Shab. 150b; Yer. Ber. v. 9b) indicate either the Jack of any fixed custom or the want of an authority able to establish the custom permanently. While Abba Arika declared the Hab- dalah in the synagogue to be of greater importance than that at the table over the wine-cup (Ber. 38a), others promised future salvation (Pes. 118a), family continuity through male descendants (Sheb. 18b), Habdalah Spive-Box. (In the possession of H. Frauberger, Frankfort-on-the-Main.) and material blessings (Pirke R. El. xxi.) to hin who recited the Habdalah over the wine-cup, No one was allowed to eat before the Habdalah cere. mony (Pes. 10%a). Especial importance was attached to the Habdalah light, the reason given being that it was created on the first day (Pes. 58b, 54a). Opinions differeg however, as to whether it was preferable to recite the benediction over a light produced afresh by frie. tion between pieces of wood or stone, oy over a light that haq been burning before (Ber. 52b; Pes. 54a), A blazing, torch-like light was considered most appropriate (Pes. 8a). The fol. lowing Jegend, obvi. ously based on the connection of the Habdalah with the fourth benediction of Shemoneh ‘Esreh— the thanksgiving for the reason with Which God has en- dowed man—is told by Jose, the pupil of Akiba: “Fire was one of the things God had left uncreated when Sabbath set in; but after the close of the Sabbath, God endowed man with divine wisdom. Man then took two stones, and by grinding them together produced fire: after which he recited the benedic- tiou: ‘Blessed be He who createth the blaze of the fire’” (Pes. 58b). This is elaborated in Gen. R. xi. (comp. Pesik. R. 28; Yer. Ber. viii. 12b): “ The light which God created on the first day lit up the world for man from the time he was created until the sunset of the following day, when the Habdalah darkness surrounding hii filled him Light. with dread and the fear that the tempting serpent would altogether overpower him. Then God furnished him with two bricks, which he rubbed together until fire was pro- duced; whereupon he offered a benediction over the fire.” According to Pirke R. El. xx., God sent him a pillar of fire, and, holding His hands against it, said the benediction over fire; then, removing His hands, said the Habdalah benediction. Stress 1s also laid on the fact that one recites the benediction on seeing the blaze of the fire reflected either in the wine-cup or on the finger-nails; if there is no fire, 4 121 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Habdalah Haber J SS SS ee a lt glance at the reflection of the stars on the finger-nails should prompt the benediction (comp. Midr. Teh. to Ps. Xxxv. 2). Healing powers were also ascribed to the Habdalah wine when put upon the eyes (Pirke R. El. Zc; comp. Shab. 113b for the “ Kid- dush ” wine). Many other customs sprang up with regard to the Habdalah light, for which a wax candle came into use later on (see “ Tanya,” xxi., and Tur Orah Hay- yim, 298). The spices formed another subject for mystic spec- ulation. The remark of Resh Lakish that Adam was given a higher soul on Sabbath and was de- prived of it at the close of the day, was connected with the custom of reciting a benediction over spices (see Samuel b. Meir, Pes. 102b; Maimonides, “Yad,” Shabbat, xxix. 29). A myrtle was pref- erably chosen, cabalistic reasons being given for it (Kol Bo xH.; comp. Zohar, Wayakhel, and Kizzur Shene Luhot ha-Berit, Hilkot Shab- The Spices, bat). According to the German cus- and tom, Isa. xii. 2-8, Ps. iti. 9, xlvi. 12, Habdalah Esth. viii. 16, and Ps. exci. 18 are re- Legends. cited before the Hlabdalah. The Ro- man Mahzor and the Portuguese use different verses. With Isa. xii. 3a legend is con- nected, according to which water from the won- drous well of Miriam may be drawn at that time, and healing for diseases be obtained by drinking it (Kol Bo xli.). According to another legend Elijah the Prophet, who does not appear on the eve of Sabbaths or of holy days (‘Mr. 48b), but who is eager to reward faithful Sabbath observance, is expected wappearat the beginning of anew week and fortify those who wait for the redemption of Israel (Abudra- ham, Hilkot Moze’e Shabbat, and Ibn Yarhi, in Ha- Manhig, Hilkot Shabbat, 71). Many songs and reci- tations, as well as conjurations referring to Elijah the Prophet, are recited before and after the Hab- dalah ceremony, together with prayers for the new week’s work. Itis especially significant that a lit- tle prayer in the German vernacular is said, because many pious Jews of old would speak only Hebrew, as the holy language, on the Sabbath day. See Ha-Mappin and ELWAHW IN MEDIEVAL FoLK-Lore, BIBLIOGRAPHY: Baer, ‘Abodat Yisrael, 1868, pp. 310 et seq.: M. Briick, Pharisdische Volkssitten und Ritualien, pp. 108-123; Geiger, Lehr- und Lesebuch zur Sprache der Mischnah, pp. 66 et seq.; idem, Jild. Zeit. vi. 105-116. A. K. As one of the chief home ceremonies of the Jews itis natural that a certain amount of superstition Should have grown up around the custom; but whether such superstitions were derived from the surrounding peoples or not, it is difficult to say. Thus both in Russia and Galicia it is believed thatif a girl drink of the wine of Habdalah she will get a mustache (“Urquell,” 1893, p. 74), and the same belief is held among the Jews of Baden (“ Mitteil- ungen,” iii. 9). If yousprinkle the table-cloth with the wine of Habdalah you will have a “full week” (“Urquell,” 1893, p. 88), and if the Habdalah candle burns until consumed you will get good sons-in-law 0b, PB. 81). Where spirits are used instead of wine, 88 In Kiev, it is customary to pour what remains Super- Stitions. after the Habdalah is completed into a metal pan, and set it afire with the Habdalah light. If it burns completely away gocd luck willresult. Asit burns, some dip their fingers into the flame and convey their fingers to their pockets, in order to gain a “ full week,” J. HABER (93h = “associate”; “colleague”; “ fel- low ”): Term ordinarily used in rabbinica! lore in its original Biblical sense, “companion,” “friend ” (Ps, cxix. 68; Ab. ii. 9,10). A Talmudic proverb says, “'Phy haber has a haber, and thy haber’s haber hasa haber; thy words will thus circulate and become public” (B. B. 88b; ‘Ar. 16a). The Rabbis urgently recommend study in company, asserting that only in this way can knowledge be acquired (Ber. 68b; Ned. 81a); therefore, if necessary, one should even expend money for the purpose of acyuiring a companion (Ab. R. N. viii. 8). A prominent teacher of the sec- ond century declared that, while he had learned much from his masters, he had learned more from his “haberim” (Ta‘an, 7a). Hence the term came to mean a “companion in study,” a “colleague”; and when preceded or followed by the term “ talmid” (pupil) it denotes one who is at once the pupil and colleague of a certain teacher, a scholar who from being a pupil has risen to be a colleague or fellow (comp. B. B. 158b; Yer. Shek. iii. 47b). ‘‘Scholar” Eventually “haber” assumed the gen- in General. eral meaning of “scholar” (B. B. 75a), and appears as a title subordinate to Hakam (comp. Kid. 33b). The title “haber” was known in comparatively early times (11th cent.), when it probably referred to a member of a court of justice (see Schechter, “Saadyana,” p. 81, note 2); but in Germany in later centuries it indicated that its possessor had devoted many years to the study of sacred literature. In congregational life it was conferred as a rule on married men, but often also on yeshibah graduates who were single. It is worthy of note that Jonathan Eybeschiitz conferred it on the Christian professor Tychsen. “Haber” also denotes a member of a society or order (“haburah,” “haburta,” “keneset” = “ag- gregation,” “company,” “union”), or of a union of Pharisees for the purpose of carrying out the observ- ance of the laws of “clean” and “unclean” to their fullest possible development. In their eyes, any person about whom there was a doubt as to whether he was particular in the observance of these laws or those concerning the tithes was an ‘AM HA-AREZ, whose contact was defiling. But the term “haber” is by no means synonymous with “ Parush ” (Phati- see), since not all Pharisees were haberim, though sometimes the generic term “ parush ” is used in its stead (Tosef., Shab. 3. 15). Occasionally the more specific term “ne’eman” (trusty) takes the place of “haber” (Dem. iv. 5, 6). On the Scriptural saying, “He shall .. . cleanse it and hallow it” (Lev. xvi. 19), rabbinical ethics bases the maxim, “ Cleanliness leads to holiness” (Yer. Shab. i. 8¢; comp. Sotah ix. 15). But cleanliness was understood to be closely connected with Levitical purity; of this there were several degrees, there being sections in the commu- nity which observed its rules more strictly and ex- tensively than did others. Some even extended all Haber THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 129 a a Se SaaS CRS eR Sa a NI aS Ea a aa ETS the precautions necessary for the priest in eating holy things to the layman who lived on secular food (Hag. ii. 6, 7; see PHARISEES),. The Bible (Lev. xxvii. 30-32; Num. xviij. 21-28; 4 z eS Ny gal asthe 2 £ di : «ae ee: tite SLE a f aE clean,” were doubtless familiar to the people at large; but not all people found it convenient or nog. sible to comply with them. Particularly difficu must their observance have been in the unsettleg DIPLOMA CONFERRING THE HABER DEGREE, ISSUED BY MARCUS BENEDICT, 1828. (In the possession of Prof. G. Deutsch.) Deut. xiv. 22-29) lays on the products of an Israel- ite’s farm and on his herds certain imposts to be paid respectively to the priest, the Levite, and the poor (comp. Tobit i. 6-8), but which were not universally paid. The rules governing these imposts, as well as the rules of “clean” and “un- state of affairs during the Maccabean wars. It is suggested by some that it was at this time that the so-called “‘am ha-arez” (who included the great majority of the people), either driven by circum stances or seduced by temptation, neglected them; | and that a certain more rigorous minority, not 123 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Haber A a knowing whom to trust in such matters, formed among themselvesassociations (“haburot”), the mem- bers (“haberim”) of which pledged Levitically themselves to keep faithfully the rules Pure. of Levitical purity and those regard- ing the tithes. Accordingly the haber is one who strictly observes the laws of “ ma‘aserot ” (tithes) and of Levitical cleanness (see Git. v. 9). To pe admitted asa haber the candidate must declare nis determination never to present the “terumah ” or the “ ma‘aser ” toa priest or a Levite who is classed as an ‘am ha-arez; nor to allow his ordinary food to pe prepared by an ‘am ha-arez; nor to eat his ordi- nary food (“hullin,” grain and fruit from which terumah and ma‘aser have been separated) except in , certain state of Levitical cleanness (Tosef., Dem. ji, 2). This declaration must be made before three members of the order, and if they are satisfied that the candidate has lived up to the rules in his private life, he is accepted at once; otherwise he is admitted as a “ben ha-keneset ” (son of the union, neophyte; comp. Bek. v. 5; Zab. iii. 2) for thirty days. Ac- cording to Bet Shammai, this period suffices only when membership is sought for the lesser degrees of purity, while for the higher degrees the period of probation must be extended toa year. After this period, if the candidate has proved his constancy, he becomes a haber or ne’eman. And in this respect po distinction is made between the learned and the ignorant; all must make this declaration. An exception is made only in favor of a scholar at- tached to a college, it being presumed that he took the pledge when he first joined the college (Bek. 30b). As there are several degrees of Levitical cleanness, so there are several classes of haberim and ne’emanim, pledging themselves to corresponding Degrees of observances. The lowest class is that Haburah. which pledges itself to practise Levit- ical cleanness of “kenafayim” (lit. “wings”). This is a very obscure term, for which no satisfactory explanation has been found. It is generally assumed to mean “hands”; and inasmuch as the Pharisaic maxim is, “ Hands are always busy,” touching without intention on the part of their owner both clean and unclean things, they are re- garded as being in a state of uncertain cleanness; hence one must cleanse them before eating anything Levitically clean (Toh. vii. 8; comp. Mark vii. 3 e¢ seg.). This may be legally accomplished by pouring on them one-fourth of a log of water. But that proc- ess suffices only where a person wishes to eat hullin, ma‘aser, or terumah. If he desires to eat the sacri- ficial portions, he must dip his hands into forty Seahs of water; and if about to handle the water of lustration, he must first subject his whole body to Immersion (Hag. ii. 5; Gem. 18b ef¢ seg.). As the ordinary Israelite and the Levite are not permitted to handle the most sacred things, it naturally follows that not all men are eligible for the higher degrees; and even of those whose descent does not bar their admission, not all are willing to assume the corre- Spondingly greater precautions incident to the priv- lege, Provision is therefore made for general ad- Mission to the lower degrees, of which most people availed themselves. It is ordained that if one de- Sires to join the order of haberim, but does not wish to subject himself to the duties devolving upon the members of the higher degrees—the pre- cautions necessary to keep himself Levitically clean, as for the more sacred things—he may be ac- cepted; but where, on the contrary, one seeks admission to the higher degrees while refusing to pledge himself to strict observance of the rules governing the lower degrees, he must be rejected (Bek. é.c.). Having been admitted as reliable in matters of ma‘aser, a haber must tithe what he consumes, what he sells of his own producing, and what Separation he buys for the purpose of selling, and from must not eat at the board of an ‘am the ‘Am _ha-arez, lest he be served with victuals ha-Arez. that have not been properly tithed. If he would become a full haber, he must not sell to an ‘am ha-arez anything that mois- ture would render subject to uncleanness (see Lev. xi. 38; Maksh. i.), lest the ‘am ha-arez expose the goods to contamination; for rabbinical law forbids the causing of defilement even to things secular in Pal- estine (‘Ab. Zarah 55b). Nor must he buy of an ‘am ha-arez anything so rendered subject to un- cleanness, nor accept invitations to the board of an ‘am ha-arez, nor entertain one who is in his ordinary garments, which may have been exposed to defile- ment (Dem. ii. 2, 3). A haber’s wife, and his child or servant, are consid- ered, in respect to religious observances, as the haber himself (‘Ab. Zarah 89a); therefore the admission of a candidate into the order embraces aJl the members of his family. Even after the haber’s death his family enjoy the confidence previously reposed in them, unless there be reason for impugning their fidelity. The same is the case when one of them joins the family of an ‘am ha-arez; as long as there is no reasonable suspicion to the contrary, it is pre- sumed that the habits acquired under the influence of the observant head of the family will not be dis- carded, even under different circumstances. Simi- larly, the presumption of habit governs the case of members of the family of an ‘am ha-arez joining that of a haber; they are not considered trustworthy unless they pledge themselves to live up to the rules of the haburah. However, the child or servant of an ‘am ha-arez entering the house of a haber for the purpose of study is exempt from the operation of that presumption as long as he remains under the haber’s direction. On the other hand, when the pupil is the son orservant of a haber and the teacher is an ‘am ha-arez, the presumption is extended in the pupil’s favor. Again, where a man is recognized as reliable while his wife is not—as when a haber marries the widow or daughter of an ‘am ha-arez— haberim may unhesitatingly buy of him articles of food, but must not eat at his board if itis presided over by his wife. If, on the contrary, the wife is reliable, being the widow or daughter of a haber, while the husband is an ‘am ha-arez, haberim may eat at his table, but must not buy from him (Tosef., Dem. ii. 14-18). As to the haber himself, once he has been recog- nized as such, he continues so as long as he is not found guilty of backsliding. If suspicion of back- Haber Habib THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 124 SSS Se eS Spee ge ea en a ag Gg es aera sliding is reasonably aroused against him, he is sus- pended from the haburah until he reestablishes his trustworthiness. Similarly, where a Suspension haber accepts an office that is consid- from ered suspicious—as that of tax-col- the Order. lector or publican—he is suspended from the haburah, but is reinstated upon surrender of the office (Bek. 31a). The exact date when the haberim first appeared can not be determined. That they existed, how- ever, as a haburah in ante-Maccabean days, and are identical with those cited in I Macc. xiv. 28 as the “reat congregation of priests” (Geiger, “ Ur- schrift,” p. 124), is not very probable, since in the later period of the Medo-Persian rule over Pales- tine no great formative events are on record which could account for so great a separation from the body of the people. The precise period of the ha- burah’s organization should be sought, therefore, in the last decades of the second pre-Christian cen- tury. See ‘Am HA-AREZ; Demat; MA‘ASEROT. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Geiger, Urschrift, pp. 121 et seq.; Gratz, Gesch. 3d ed., iii. 74 et seq., and notes 9, 10, 13; Hamburger, R. B. T-. ii. 126; Leopold Low, Nachgelassene Schriften, it. 140; Maimonides, Yad, Ma‘aserot, ix.-xii.; Semag, precept 135; Schiirer, Gesch. 3d ed., ii. 387; Monteflore, Hibbert Lectures, p. 498; Bacher, in Monatsschrift, xliii. 345-360; idem, Aus dem Wo6rterbuch Tanchum Jeruschalnis, p. 20, Ss. 8. S. M. HABER, SOLOMON VON: German banker; born at Breslau Nov. 3, 1760; died Feb. 20, 1839. The son of poor parents, he rose to a position of wealth and eminence by his talents andenergy. He settled at Carlsruhe during the stormy years at the end of the eighteenth century. Many of the larger German national loans were effected through him, and he was instrumental also in founding some of the industrial enterprises of the grand duchy of Baden. After being appointed court banker by Grand Duke Karl] (1811-18), Grand Duke Ludwig conferred upon him (1829) a patent of hereditary nobility. Jn 1816, and again in 1819, the ancient prejudice against the Jews that was threatening to break out into open hostility in Carlsruhe was held in check by Haber, who used his influence and posi- tion to shield his coreligionists. Haber was instru- mental in the founding (1818) of a “ Cultusverein,” which conducted services on the Hamburger Tem- ple plan. The services, however, were soon discon- tinued; but the result was that in 1824 the Grossher- zogliche Oberrat, which had been founded in 1809, and of which Haber was a member, introduced officially the German sermon. Until his death Ha- ber was a member of the Grossherzogliche Oberrat fiir die Staatsbtirger Mosaischen Glaubens in Baden. One of his sons, Louis, became a member of the Austrian House of Lords (Herrenhaus), having pre- viously embraced Christianity. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Friedrich Weech, Badische Biographien, i. 324; A.Chorin, Iggeret al-Asaf, pp. 2846, Prague, 1826; Ben Chananja, 1863, p. 72; Kayserling, Bibliothek Jiidischer Kanzelredner, p. 350. ; 8. A, BLUM. HABERKASTEN, KALMAN (KALONY- MUS): Polish rabbi of the sixteenth century. He is the first known rabbi of the city of Ostrog, Vol- hynia, where he settled after having previously pre- sided over a yeshibah in Lemberg. His daughter Lipka married Solomon Luria, who succeeded to the rabbinate of Ostrog when Haberkasten went to Palestine, about 1560. Haberkasten is known to have made the acquaintance of the great cabaligtg who then flourished in the Holy Land, and is men. tioned by Hayyim Vital Calabrese in the manuscript work * Likkute Torah.” BIBLIOGRAPHY : Gans, Zemah Dawid, 1557, part i.; Buber, 4 y. she Shem, p. 201, Cracow, 1895; Nissenbaum, Le-Korot hq. Yehudim be-Lublin, p. 20, Lublin, 1899. K, P. Wr. HABIB, JACOB (BEN SOLOMON) IBN: Spanish Talmudist; born at Zamora about 1460. died at Salonica 1516. In his youth Habib studieq the Talmud under R. Samuel Valensi. In 1492 when the Jews were expelled from Spain, he settleq at Salonica, where he wrote his “‘En Ya‘akob” jn the house of Don Judah ben Abraham Benveniste, who placed his rich library at his disposal. Habib also availed himself of the library of Don Samuel Benveniste, which contained, among other great works, a large collection of novelle on the Talmud by many distinguished commentators. By the aid of the works from these two libraries Habib col- lected all the haggadic passages from the Babylo- nian, and many from the Palestinian, Talmud. The publication of this work began in 1516 in the print- ing establishment of Judah Gedaliah, the author himself carefully reading the proof-sheets; but he died just as the first two orders (Zera‘im and Mo‘ed) came from the press. His son, R. Levi, completed the labors of his father, but the work appeared be- fore the public without the notes of the author to the last four orders (“sedarim ”), and without the index, which the author originally intended to cover the entire work. The haggadot of the Jerusalem Tal- mud are also Jacking. The “‘En Ya‘akob” is the only work Habib left to the world. The object of the author was to familiarize the public with the ethical spirit of Tal- mudic Jiterature; at the same time his notes were intended to refute the charges brought against the Talmud by the numerous Spanish converts. The book, which thus appealed to the mass of the un- learned, became very popular. It was often edited and annotated, and served as a text-book of re- ligious instruction. There are over thirty editions known; the latest (Wilna, 1883) contains twenty commentaries, among them one which consists of selections from more than one hundred homiletical works. Of the additions, the most important one is that of Leo di Modena, under the title “ Ha-Boneh,” which has appeared in all editions since 1684. The author’s intention was chiefly to propagate a more rationalistic view of the Talmudic Haggadah. In some editions the title of the whole work is “‘En Yisrael.” BIBLIOGRAPHY : Besides the bibliographical works s.v. 2/3) ]°}: see the introduction of the author and the various commen- tators in the Wilna edition of 1883: Zunz, G. V. p. 94; Miel- ziner, Introduction to the Talmud, p. 76; Gratz, Gesch. x. 35; Rabbinovicz, Dikduke Soferim, Introduction to Megiliah. D.—B. FR. HABIB, JOSEPH IBN (called also J OSEPH HABIBA): Spanish Talmudist; flourished in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. Like his prede- cessor, R. Nissim b. Reuben (RaN), Ibn Habib wrote 125 Haber THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Habib ne 4 commentary on the halakot of Isaac Alfasi, en- titled “ Nimmuke Yosef,” published with the text aud the commentary of R. Nissim (Constantinople, 4509). Against the opinion of Conforte (“ Kore ha- DPorot,” p. 26a) that Ibn Habib commentated only those treatises which R. Nissim had omitted, Azulai (“Shem ha-Gedolim”) proved that Ibn Habib’s “ Nim- muke Yosef” covered the entire halakot of Isaac Alfasi, but a part of it had remained unpublished, and that the commentary to the halakot of Mo‘ed Katan and Makkot, attributed to R. Nissim, belongs to Ibn Habib. The latter quotes Asher b. Jehiel, Yom-Tob ben Abraham, his master RaM, and R. Nissim himself. The “Nimmuke Yosef” on Ketu- pot and Nedarim was also included in the work “Tshshe Adonai ” (Leghorn, 1795), and the portion on Shebu ‘ot in the “ Bet ha-Behirah ” (20. 1795). Azulai says that Ibn Habib was the author of novelle on the whole Talmud. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Azulai, Shem ha-Gedolim; Cassel, in Ersch and Gruber, Eincyce. section ii., part 31, p. 73; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 1449; Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, p. 470. K M. SE. HABIB, LEVI BEN JACOB IBN: Rabbi of Jerusalem; born at Zamora, Spain, about 1480; died at Jerusalem about 1545, Under King Manuel of Portugal, and when about seventeen, he was com- pelled to submit to baptism, but at the first oppor- tunity fled to Salonica, where he could follow the dictates of his consciencein safety. In 1523 he went to Jerusalem, but in a short time returned to Salo- nica. In 1525 he settled permanently at Jerusalem, where his learning won him the position of chief rabbi. There he met Jacob BERAB, with whom he often came into conflict on questions of rabbinical law. . Fe Roest, Cat. Rosenthal. Bibl. pp. 688-695; 8. Wiener, Biblio. Bibl. ane 52). The l ortuguese and South-Arabian graphite der Oster-Haggadah, 1500-1900, St. Petersburg, 1902. (Yemen) rituals do not include either the Eaap M1 Bacher, in Zeit. ftir Heb. Bibl. vii. 88-89. : r ‘ “Ty, Nadwa?- On the origin of the Had Gacdya and its parallels, see, als, YopeEa‘or the “Had Gadya”; though one Yemen | ine tonowing works: Wolf, Bibl, Hebr. ti. 1287, iv. 104371042. : x , Darmesteter, Neubauer, and G. Paris, in Roumania, 1872.) said to contain the latter, added by a later hand, and 218-225; A. Sabatier, Chansons Hébr. Proveng. dex Juifs, Zunz found the former in a mahzor of Avignon No, 1, Nimes. 1874 ; stinenncider, ve Bibl. v. 68, vii, 8, “ TF ay moss ; iQ] : ix. 92, xiv. 52; Jacobs, English Fairy Tales, New York, 1893; ( Allg . Zeit. des Jud. i. ‘ 469) ? Itis Inter ESE 40 G. A. Kohut, Le Had Gadya et tes Chansons Similaires, in note that a German version of the “Had Gadya” is to be found in Von Arnim and Brentano’s anthology pp. 12-17: April, 1902, pp. 274-276; idem, in Jewish Hapo- nent, April-June, 1906; see also JEW. ENCYC. VY. 78, 8.v, EHAD MI Yopra‘, and sources there given; Schwab, Réper- toire, pp. 69, 109, 210, 271, 291; A. A. Green, The Revised Haggada, pp. 98-99, 105, notes, London, 1898; I. 8. Moses, Haggada, with musical notes, New York, 1902; Keane, Rhp- 420, 1598 ; Zedner, Cat, Hebr. Books Brit. Mus. pp. 440-446. manuscript, in the Sutro Library, San Francisco, is Sanders, in Busch’s Jahrbuch fiir Israeliten, vi. 267 et seq.: R.E. J. xxxi. 240; idem, in Helpful Thoughts, Sept., 1901, “Des Knaben Wunderhorn.” BIBLIOGRAPHY: Moses b. Jacob Aberle, nba odipn 2 r2D ho aM Ow apna ap, Altona, 1770; Anonymous, }7*NN NM NHK NTI AN Attn yn ys, Amsterdam, 1762 (on the title-page it is stated that the author, in deep humility, wishes to with- “4lig. Zeit. des Jud. April, 1902. hold his name.’ The preface states that the interpretation ape is A. G. A. K. came to him in a vision); Asher Anshel, 3m Sy psapn cyNe2 x12, London, 1785; Moses b. Simeon Blumenfeld, O°9W ) "2D Music: The “Had Gadya ? tg usually chanted Be A SD SN 2 ADO el eee Pee in the traditional style of cantillation, a typical Ozar ha-Sefarim, p. 289, No. 358); Judah Jiidel (Ga) : ue ees 4 2 7 Piet oa rangement of which may be seen in A. Schonfeld’s Engel, xv an xppren Sy sp mya ON ADD, Altona, 1779; | TANSCMer ; Jonathan ben Nathan (Nata) Eybeschiitz, p’w asain by wren Recitative und Gesinge zum Vortrige am Ersten HAD GADYA desia, London, 1902 (contains a Malagasy version; comp. I, Abrahams in Jewish Chronicle, London, Jan. 10, 1902, p. 27); 1A Kid - ling, a Kid-ling! "Twas pur-chased by my Fa- ther; Two 2.A Stick was ly - ing’ by there That 3. But soon a rush of Wa- ter Came 4. The Slaugh-ter - er soon seized him, That 5. The Ho - ly One _ se-eth! He bade Death cease from slay - ing, When eee J (Slower. ) a a 9 2 a = SS se — 4a ge of $a a fs nd eS PES ES RE a ee ee Adagio. mf dante moderato. | —|-§--——_$ pai Pe De RE TAD tra pie- ces was the price (Of Kid- ling, of Kid-ling); The Cat crept up so owed the Dog a_ grudge (For Kid- ling, for Kid-ling); He gave him such 4a pour-ing from a spout (For Kid- ling, for Kid-ling); It hissed a - bout the man with knife so keen (For Kid- ling, for Kid-ling): He drew that knife,and thus the Bntch-er died (Like Kid - ling, like Kid-ling) Thatkilled the Ox so 129 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Had Gadya sly - ly And ate it in a trice (Poor Kid-ling, poor Kid-ling). In thrash-ing Be - fore hethencecouldbudge (For Kid-ling, for Kid-ling). But em - bers And put the Fire right out (For Kid-ling, for Kid-ling) A quick-ly The Ox hadslaugh-tered been (For Kid-ling, for Kid-ling), But thirst-y That drank the Wa-ter’s tide (For Kid-ling, for Kid-ling) That 5 eee J = Sh RATS PR BE erent [ eae BS a ae a a a ee mae ee) Vamenta teen se een. a _. See, #5 iss ses Py AS, AA ORY = | —#- eee —~,-=—-—— pote ceaeaaacaae = es a a "e° rushed the Dog, but too late To save the lit-tle Goat (Poor Kid - ling, poor in the glow-ing em- bers The Stick his judge soon found (For Kid - ling, for thirst-y Ox that saw this From drink-ing did not stop (For Kid - ling, for then drew near Death’s An - gel, For die is what men must (Like Kid - ling, like quench’d the Fire that burnt up The Stick that beat the Dog (For Kid - ling, for See! Po RUN” RE ae f - -i—__—___ va Kid-ling); He sprang up - on the Cat then, And bit her in the Kid -ling); ‘The Fire burst out and burnt him To ash - es on the Kid - ling) Till there was no more Wa - ter: He left no sin - gle Kid-ling); He in his turn was van-quished, The Butch -er soon was Kid - ling) That bit the Cat that ate th’ Kid My Fa - ther bought of _ 4+] Se es ns a SS -@- throat (For Kid-ling, for Kid-ling). ground (For Kid-ling, for Kid-ling). drop (Poor Kid-ling, poor Kid-ling). dust (Like Kid-ling, like Kid-ling). yore, A Kid-ling, a Kid-ling. Last time Da Capo. Hadad Hadamard THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 130 rr ——-~Oowrorrrr 00 0m und Zweiten Abende des Ueberschreitungsfestes,” No. 31, Posen, 1884. A melody of great interest was traditional in the home or J. Offenbach, the elder, hazzan at Cologne; and it may be found, with pianoforte accompaniment, in his edition of the Hag- gadah (Cologne, 1838). This arrangement is said to be due to Jacques Offenbach, the younger, the well- known composer of opera-bouffe. The textis given in the German version “Ein Laimmchen”; and the setting, slightly abbreviated, reappears in Abraham Baer’s “Ba‘al Tefillah,” No. 773, Géteborg, 1887. An English version, here reproduced, was given in “Young Israel,” ii., No. 14, London, 1898. A. PL. “©, HADAD: Name of an Aramaic, and possibly of an Edomitish, deity. It occurs asan element in per- sonal names, for instance, in “Hadadezer,” “ Ben- hadad” (see Baudissin, “Studien zur Semitischen Religionsgesch.” i. 310). In these compound names, the variant reading occasionally gives “Hadar” for “Hadad.” The connection of “Hadad” with “FEizer” is the more usual, and “ Ben-hadad ” seems originally to have been a secondary form of the com- mon name “ Hadadezer,” in Assyrian inscriptions “Hadad-idri” (“idri” = Wy; Schrader, “K. G. F.” pp. 871, 588-539; dem, “K. A. T,” 2d ed., p. 200). “Hadad ” may have been identical with “ Rimmon,” or “ Raman,” since for “ Hadad-idri” the equivalent “Raman-idri” is also found. The meaning of this name is apparent from that of the root 397 (= “to make a loud noise”; in Arabic “hadd,” used of a falling building, of rain, of the sea, etc., so that “haddah” connotes “thunder”). The name desig- nates the Aramaic weather- or storm-god; as such this element is met with in names on the Zenjirli inscription (see Lidzbarski, “ Handbuch der Nordse- mitischen Epigraphik,” Index), in such compounds as Samay (Scholz, “Gédtzendienst,” etc., p. 245; comp. Euting in “Sitzungsberichte der Kéniglichen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin,” p. 410; Baethgen, “Beitrige zur Semitischen Religious- gesch.” p. 68), and in names on the El-Amarna tablets (Bezold, “The Tell el-Amarna Tablets in the British Museum,” p. 155, London, 1892). As to its occurrence in Arabia, see Wellhausen, “Skizzen und Vorarbeiten,” iii. 31. According to Halévy (“ Etudes Sabéennes,” p. 27), “Hadad” represents also a Sa- bean deity. In the Old Testament “Hadad,” without the ad- dition of a qualifying word (verb), occurs as a per- sonal noun, designating the Edomites. It is proba- ble that where “Hadad” is found alone the second element has dropped out, and “Hadad” must be regarded as denoting the deity (Schréder, “ Die Phonizische Sprache,” 1869, p. 254; Nestle, “Die Israelitischen Eigennamen,” 1876, pp. 114-116; Kerber, “ Die Religionsgesch. Bedeutung der Hebri- ischen Eigennamen,” 1897, p. 10). Variants of this name are “Hadar,” “Hadad” (Wellhausen, J.c. p. 55), “Haddam” (?) in Himyaritic inscriptions (“C, I. S.” Him. et Sab. No. 55), and “ Hadu,” in Nabateean (G. Hoffmann, in “ Zeit. fiir Assyr.” xi. 228). “Hadad” combined with “Rimmon” is found in Zech. xii. 11; the context of the verse shows that the mourning of, or at (see below), Hadadrimmon represented the acme of desperate gricf. The older exegetes agree in regarding “Hadadrimmon” a, denominating a locality in the neighborhood o¢ Megiddo. The lamentations of Sisera’s mother (Judges v. 28), and the assumed weeping over Aha. ziah, King of Judah, who died at Megiddo (II Kings ix. 27), have been adduced in explanation of the ar lusion, The most favored explanation is that givep by the Peshitta, that the plaint ye. Earlier ferred to was for King Josiah, who had Inter- _ fallen at Megiddo (II Kings xxiii. 29), pretations. The Targum to Zech. xii. 11 combines two allusions, one to Ahab, Supposed to have met his death at the hands of a Syrian by another to the name of “Hadadrimmon,” and Josiah’s fall at Me- giddo, These various references to public lamentations over one or the other Biblical personage have been generally abandoned by modern scholars. Following Hitzig, it is now held that Zech- ariah had in mind a public mourning for the god Hadad- rimmon, identified with the Phenician Adonis (Ezek. viii. 14. “Tammuz ”), whose yearly death was the occasion for lament. This theory, plausi- ble on the whele, is, however, open fo ob- jections arising from the text of the verse in Zechariah. “ Hadadrimmon ” is certainly a compound of two names of de- ities. The Masoretic text identifies the second element with Rimmon, “the pome- granate,” and among modern scholars the attempt has been made to justify this reading on the as- sumption that the pomegranate was a symbol of the Hadad-Ado- nis cult. This view, however, still awaits con- firmation. In the pictorial representations of Hadad (see “ Mitteilungen aus den Orient, Sammlungen, ” p- 84, plate vi.) the god is shown bearded, wearing 4 cap and having horns on his head; while the de- scription of the god of Heliopolis (identitied with the Aramean Hadad by recent writers like Baudissin) which is found in Macrobius shows him with a whip. or lightning-bolt, in one hand, and with ears ° grain in the other. These data, in which the pom granate is missing, confirm the opinion that Hadac was a god of thunder, corresponding thus to the 4* Hittite Representation of Hadad. (In the Royal Museum, Berlin.) 131 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Hadad Hadamard ee Eg ee ee ee ig oe ogee ee ee ee sumed Assyrian god Raman (“the thunderer ”), and that the second element probably read, originally, “Raman.” Adonis-Tammuz, however, A Thunder- was a solar deity; the thunder-god is God. not believed to have died, and why a lament should have been instituted over him and should have become typical of mourn- ing is one of the unsolved riddles in the way of the interpretation now generally favored. It is true, Baudissin (in Herzog-Hauck, “ Real-Encyc.” vii. 292) deduces from the place-name, Heliopolis, and the material of the statue, gold, as described by Macro- pius, that Jater, as a result of Egyptian influences, the Aramean thunder-god was conceived of as a sun- god. He adduces other pictorial representations, including a seal with the legend “Hadad” (“C. I. 9.” Aramaic, No. 75). Still, the transformation of the thunderer Hadad into a dying (solar) Adonis- Tammuz appears to be problematic. Of ceremonies, such asare known to have been centralin the Adonis cult, in connection with the worship of Hadadrim- mon, nothing isknown. Nor, evenif Hadad, identi- fied with the Adonis of Byblus, or worshiped along- side this Adonis and thus gradually confounded with him (see Baudissin, /.c. p. 294), was believed to die every year, are data at hand to prove that such a lament took place at Megiddo. In view of these uncertainties the explanation of “Hadadrimmon” as the name of a locality in the plain of Megiddo has come again to Difficulties the front, modified by the supposition of Identi- that the place derived its name from fication. a sanctuary supposed to exist there for the worship of Hadad-Raman. Still, a locality of this name is not known, notwith- standing Jerome’s equation “ Adadremnon” =“ Maxi- mianapolis.” Perhaps the modern Rummanah, in the plain of Jezreel, might serve to locate the Biblical (Hadad) Rimmon, Then “ Hadadrimmon” would be analogous to such names as “ Ba‘al-Lebanon,” “ Ashtart-Karnayim,” and would signify the Hadad of the place Rimmon, which place received its name from an old (Canaanitish; see Judges i. 27) temple or altar erected to a deity (Rimmon, or Raman) by later Aramean settlers, and identified with their god Hadad, so that finally it came to be known by the double name. This leaves open the question as to what mourn- ing could have been observed at this place. The death of Josiah seems to afford the most plausible explanation of the prophet’s simile. But even if the mourning is regarded as having taken place Where the king died and not at the place of his burial (Jerusalem), it is difficult to believe that the one historical mourning should have been vivid enough in the minds of the people to evoke such an allusion; especially so if Zech. xii. belongs to the apocalyptic writings. The mourning at Hadadrim- moh must have been constant and excessive. George Adam Smith (“The Twelve Prophets,” ii. 482) calls the locality the “classic battle-field of the land”; the mournin g, then, would have reference to the thousands slain in the various battles fought there. But this fails to account for the prominent Mention of Hadadrimmon. Perhaps the difficulty would be removed, without recourse to such forced textual emendations as those proposed by Cheyne (in Cheyne and Black, “Encyc. Bibl.”), by taking into consideration the fact that Hadad had the qual- ities of Moloch (see Baudissin, “ Moloch,” in Herzog- Hauck, “ Real-Encyc.” xii.). At his sanctuary hu- man sacrifices were usual. Hence the lament both of the victims and of the mothers. As“ Gehinnom,” the name of a Moloch furnace, occurs as a common apocalyptic simile, why should not “ Hadadrim- mon” be associated with similar horrors’ The murder of him whom the inhabitants of Jerusalem have pierced (Zech. xii. 10, 11), for whom they shall lament as for an only son, as for a first-born, carries out the analogy to the Moloch cult. The first-born (that is, the only son) was offered to this Hadad- Melek-Raman. E. G. H. HADAD (357): Name of several Idumean kings, the meaning of which is “a loud noise.” It was primitively the name of an Aramean divinity and formed a part of various Aramean theophorons names, as “ Hadadrimmon” and “ Hadadezer.” The name was borne by: 1. The third [dumean king, who reigned before the time of the first king of Israel, and who gained an important victory over the Midianites (Gen. xxxvi. 35; I Chron. i. 46). 2. The last Idumean king (I Chron. i. 51). In Gen. xxxvi. 39 the name occurs as “Hadar.” 3. A member of the royal house of Edom, who escaped the massacre under Joab and fled to Egypt (1 Kings xi. 14 et seq. ; see Epom). 4. (73M) One of the sons of Ishmael (Gen. xxv. 10 [A. V. “Hadar”]; I Chron. i. 30). E. G. H. M. SE. HADADEZER or HADAREZER (77y557, sayosn): Son of Rehob, and King of Aram-zobah, who, while he was on his way to establish his do- minion on the Euphrates, was defeated by David, suffering great loss in chariots, horses, and men (II Sam. viii. 3-12; I Chron. xviii. 3,4; I Kings xi. 28). After the first repulse of the Ammonites and their Syrian allies by Joab, Hadadezer seized an apparent opportunity to avenge himself. He sent his army to assist the people of Maachah, Rehob, and Ishtob (R. V. “the men of Tob”; II Sam. x. 15; I Chron. xix. 16). They crossed the Euphrates under the command of Shobach (Shophach), the chief of Had- adezer’s host. On this occasion David himself commanded. The rout of the Arameans was com- plete; forty thousand horsemen were slain, inclu- ding Shobach, the commander-in-chief (II Sam. x. 16-18; I Chron. xix. 16-18). E. G. H. M. SEL. HADADRIMMON. See Tammuz; Hapap. HADAMARD, AUGUSTE: French painter; born at Metz 1823; died in Paris 1886. = “ writings”) : The third part of the Old Testament canon, the other two being the Law (A M1) and the Prophets (Q°x"33). It includes the three books n"p"& (Hebrew initials of odin, ben, 3Y), which in a special sense are designated as the poetic books par excellence, Job, Proverbs, and Psalms; the five Megillot (= “rolls”), which are read on five different festivals, and which include Canticles, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, and Esther; the books of Daniel, Hagiographa Hagiz, Moses THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 150 — On en nm nk eel eee Ezra-Nehemiah (considered as two parts of one book), and Chronicles—eleven books in all. The order of the Hagiographain the Talmud is as follows: Ruth, Psalms, Job, Proverbs, Canticles, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Daniel, Esther, Ezra, Chronicles (but see “Halakot Gedo- Talmudic lot,” ed. Hildesheimer, p. 633). The Sequence. first place was given to the Book of Ruth on the ground, probably, not only that it contained an episode in the history of the house of David, but also that the genealogy at the end of the book, reaching down to David, was a suit- able introduction to Psalms, ascribed to David. The Book of Job followed the Psalms because, on the one hand, the three great hagiographs should be grouped together, and, on the other, Proverbs should not be separated from Canticles, both being ascribed to Solomon. Ecclesiastes was for the same reason placed with the earlier books; and the three later books, Esther, Ezra, and Chronicles, were placed after Daniel because it was assumed that the latter was Written earlier (by Daniel himself) at the Perso- Babylonian court. Thissequence is found in differ- ent manuscripts, with the exception that in some, Proverbs immediately precedes Job, or Canticles precedes Ecclesiastes, and Esther precedes Daniel. The sequence differs among the Masoretes, who, ac- cording to Elijah Levita (“ Massoret ha-Massoret,” p. 120; ed. Ginsburg, p. 67), follow the Sephardic arrangement, which is as follows: Chronicles, Psalms, Job, Proverbs, Ruth, Canticles, Ecclesiastes, Lamentations, Esther, Daniel, Ezra. The German manuscripts give another sequence: Psalms, Prov- erbs, Job, the five Megillot, Daniel, Ezra, and Chron- icles, the five Megillot following the order in which they are now read in the synagogue—Canticles, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Estber. Many other variations, however, are found in the different manuscripts. The sequence of the Hagiographa in the Alexan- drian canon must also be mentioned, as it not only differs from the Jewish canon in the order of the several books, but also includes a number of works not recognized as canonical in Palestine. Here the Book of Ruth follows Judges; I Ezra and II Ezra (Ezra and Nehemiah) follow the Chronicles; and Esther follows the apocryphal Tobit and Judith, which follow Iand II Ezra; of the other books, Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Canticles, as the specifically poetical books, are placed together; Lamentations is an appendix to Jeremiah (between Baruch and the Letter of Jeremiah); and the Book of Daniel follows, and ranks with, the three greater prophets. Through the Vulgate this sequence was, on the whole, adopted by Luther in his Bible. The existence of the Hagiographa collection as a third part of:the canon is first stated in the prologue (about 130 B.c.)to Sirach, with which Origin of the translator and grandson of the au- the thor of EHcclesiasticus prefaced his Collection. Greek translation. At the very be- ginning mention is made “ of the many and important things which were transmitted to the Jews through the Law, the Prophets, and the others that followed them.” There isno doubt that in this summing up of the Old Testament literature the authors of the Hagiographa are meant by “those that [kar’ avrotg = “as authors ”] followed the Proph. ets.” A confirmation of the fact that this Hagiog. rapha collection ranked even then with the older books of the canon is found in a passage in I Mac. cabees (vil. 17; written probably 100 B.c.), where two verses of a psalm (Ixxix. 2-8) are quoted us Moly Scripture; and as all the books of the Hagiog. rapha as now known date back at least to the second half of the second century B.c., it may be inferred that the collection included even then—that is, in the beginning of the first century B.c.—the same books as now, with the exception, perhaps, that single detached portions may have been added later. Again, it is known that the canonicity of certain books of the Hagiographa was disputed— Canticles, Ecclesiastes, and Esther. The canon, including, of course, the Hagiographa, was de- fined at the Synod of Jabneh about 90, the point at issue being not the admission of new books into the canon, but the exclusion of certain books—Canticles, Ecclesiastes, Esther, Proverbs, Ruth, and even Ezekiel, books that had already been included, but that were deemed by some unworthy of that position. The energetic advo- eacy of Akiba in behalf of all the books, and the fact that the Mishnah recognized the twenty-four books as of equal canonicity, finally decided the issue. Another point to be considered is the gradual growth of this collection. Although any conclu- sions in reference thereto are mainly based on con- jecture, it may safely be assumed that the nucleus of the Hagiographa, Psalms, Proverbs, and Job, ex- isted and was held in high esteem at the time when the books of the Prophets were officially read in the synagogue, and that other books were added in the course of time. As in the passage mentioned above (I Macc. vii. 17) an unmistakably Maccabean psalm is quoted, it follows that a Maccabean psalm had previously been admitted into the Psalter, which had then been in existence for a long time and was regarded ascanonical. The formula with which the writer of I Maccabees (about 100 B.c.)introduces the passage showsthis. Tothisnucleus the other books were gradually added, none being admitted, how- ever, Which an author who lived after the time of Ezra and Nehemiah (with which the period of canon- icity ended) wrote under his own name. Thus it happened, for instance, that the highly valuable Book of Sirach was excluded, while Ecclesiastes, because ascribed to Solomon, and the Book of Daniel, because ascribed to the Daniel of the Perso- Babylonian court, were admitted, although the lat- ter at least was certainly written in the period of the Maccabees. That earlier works, becoming increasingly appre- ciated, were included at a later date, may be seen in the case of the Chronicles, which were the last ad- mitted, although they form the first part of the great historical work which concludes with the Book of Ezra-Nehemiah. The present sequence of the books of the Hagiographa is by no means identical with the order of their admission, as may be seen in the case of the five smaller books, Canticles, Ruth, Lam- entations, Ecclesiastes, and Esther, which were ee ee me — 151 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Hagiographa agiz, Moses subsequently grouped together for the reason that they were read at the synagogal services on Pass- over, Pentecost, the anniversary of the destruc- tion of Jerusalem, the Feast of Tabernacles, and Purim; they were written on special scrolls, like the Torah, deriving thence their special name “ Hamesh Megillot ” (Five Rolls). The Hagiographa was called also mpsn (“ Wis- dom”), and in later Jewish literature wap 3% (“ Words of Holiness”). It can not now be ascer- tained when the name “ Ketubim” and the Greek designation “Hagiographa” were first given to the collection. They could not have been current at the time when the translator of the Book of Sirach wrote his prologue; otherwise he would not have used such general expressions as “the Law, the Prophets, and the others that followed them,” or “the Law, the Prophets, and the other books of the fathers.” On the gradual development of the term “ Ketubim,” however, see Blau, “Zur Einleitung in die Heilige Schrift,” p. 22. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Buhl, Kanon und Text des Alten Testa- mentes, Leipsic, 1891; G. Wildeboer, Het Ontstaen van den Kanon des Quden Verbands, 2d ed., Groningen (Ger. transl. by F. Risch, Die Entstehung des Alttestamentlichen Ka- nons, Gotha, 1891); H.N. Ryle, The Canon of the Old Testa- ment, London, 1892; T. Mullen, The Canon of the Old Testa- ment, New York, 1898; the various introductions to the books of the Old Testament; Marx, Traditio Rabbinorum Veter- rima, Leipsic, 1884; H.L. Brack, Kanon des Alten Testa- ments, in Herzog-Hauck, Real-Eneyc. ix. 741-768. E. G. H. V. Ry. HAGIZ, JACOB: Palestinian Talmudist; born of a Spanish family at Fez in 1620; died at Constan- tinople 1674. Hagiz’s teacher was David Karigal (*“Korban Minhah,” No. 105), who afterward be- came his father-in-law. About 1646 Hagiz went to Italy for the purpose of publishing his books, and re- mained there until after 1656, supporting himself by teaching. Samuel di Pam, rabbi at Leghorn, calls himself a pupil of Hagiz. About 1657 Hagiz left Leghorn for Jerusalem, where the Vega brothers of Leghorn had founded a bet ha-midrash for him (Gritz, “Gesch.” x. 212), and where he became a member of the rabbinical college (Moses ibn Habib, “Get Pashut,” p. 129). There a large number of eager young students gathered about him, among whom were Moses ibn Habib, who became his son- in-law, and Joseph Almosnino, later rabbi of Bel- grade (Moses Hagiz, “ Mishnat Hakamim,” No. 624). Another son-in-law of his was Moses Hayyun (Azulai, “Shem ha-Gedolim ”). Shabbethai Zebi’s chief opponent was Jacob Hagiz, who put him under the ban (Gritz, Jc. x. 475, note 3). About 1678 Hagiz went to Constanti- nople to publish his “ Lehem ha-Panim,” but he died before this was accomplished. This book, as well as many others of his, was lost (Moses Hagiz, in the introduction to “ Halakot Ketannot”). Healso wrote: “Tehillat Hokmah,” on Talmudic methodology, published together with Simson of Chinon’s “Sefer Keritot ” (Verona, 1647); “Orah Mishor,” on the Conduct of rabbis (an appendix to the preceding work; 2d ed., with additions by Moses Hagiz, Am- sterdam, 1709); “Petil Tekelet,” on the “ Azharot ” of Solomon Gabirol (Venice, 1652; 2d ed., London, 1714); “‘Ez ha-Hayyim,” on the Mishnah (Leghorn, 1654-55; 2d ed., Berlin, 1716). Hagiz also translated the “Menorat ha-Ma’or” of Isaac Aboab into Spanish (1656). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gratz, Gesch. x. 212 et seq., and note 3. D. L. Gri. HAGIZ, MOSES: Palestinian rabbi and author; born at Jerusalem in 1671; died at Safed after 1750. His father, Jacob Haciz, died while Moses was still achild. The latter was therefore educated by his maternal grandfather, Moses GALANTE the younger, who had succeeded his son-in-law. With the death of Moses Galante (1689) support from Leghorn was withdrawn, and Hagiz found himself in very strait- ened circumstances. He went to Safed to collect a claim which his mother had against the congrega- tion, but succeeded only in making bitter enemies, who later persecuted him. Returning to Jerusalem, he was given letters of recommendation, through which he expected to obtain support for a bet ha- midrash which he intended to establish. At Rashid (Rosetta), Abraham Nathan gave him 80,000 thalers to deposit at Leghorn forthis purpose. Arriving at Leghorn, he secured from Vega, the protector of his family, a promise of further support; but his Pales- tinijan enemies slandered him and ruined his pros- pects. He subsequently wandered through Italy, and edited at Venice (1704) the “ Halakot Ketannot ” of hisfather. Somewhat later he went to Amsterdam, where he supported himself by teaching, and occu- pied himself with the publication of his works. In Amsterdam he made the acquaintance of Zebi Asu- KENAZI, then rabbi of the Ashkenazic congregation, and assisted him in unmasking the impostor Nehe- miah Hayyun. This step, however, made more enemies for him, and, like Zebi Ashkenazi, he had to leave the city (1714). Until 1738 he resided at Altona; he then returned to Palestine, settling first at Sidon, and later at Safed, where he died. He married a daughter of Raphael Mordecai Malachi, and was therefore a brother-in-law of Hezekiah da Silva. He had no children. Moses Hagiz was not only a great Talmudic scholar, but alsoa man of wider secular learning than most of the rabbis of his time. According to Wolf, who knew him personally (“ Bibl. Hebr,” iii. 908), he understood several languages and was somewhat familiar with modern history (see his “ Mishnat Ha- kamim,” Nos. 627 and 682); he advocated the study of secular sciences (#2. No. 114), and admitted that the Zohar has been interpolated by later scribes (75. No. 108). In regard to his character reports differ; some represent him as filled with sincere religious zeal, others as a contentious wrangler (Gritz, “Gesch.” 3d ed., x. 479-482). Jacob Emden de- scribes him as a time-server, and even as religiously insincere, though he respected him as a friend of his father (“ Megillat Sefer,” pp. 117-122, Warsaw, 1896). Hagiz wrote: “Leket ha-Kemah,” novelle to the Shulhan ‘Aruk (Orah Hayyim and Yoreh De‘ah, Amsterdam, 1697 and 1707; Eben ha-‘Ezer, Hamburg, 1711 and 1715); “Sefat Emet,” on the re- ligious significance of Palestine (Amsterdam, 1697 and 1707); “Eleh ha-Mizwot,” on the 613 command- ments (Wandsbeck, 1713); “Sheber Posh‘im,” polem- ics against Hayyun (London, 1714); “Leket ha- Kemah,” commentary or the Mishnah (Wandsbeck, Hagiz, Samuel Hai ben Sherira THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA — 152 Se SS SS 6 00800080 rs 1726); “Perure Pat ha-Kemah,” commentary to Daniel (Amsterdam, 1727); “Zeror ha-Hayyim,” ethics (Wandsbeck, 1728); “ Mishnat MHakamim,” ethics (7b. 1733); “Shete ha-Lehem,” responsa (éd. 1733), Other works of his remained unpublished. He also wrote numerous prefaces to the books of others. His writings are signed mp7, the initial letters of “ Moses ibn Jacob Hagiz.” BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gratz, Gesch. x., passim, especially pp. 4793- 482, where the older sources are quoted; Jacob Emden, Me- gillat Sefer, Warsaw, 1896. L. Grt.—D. HAGIZ, SAMUEL BEN JACOB BEN SAM- UEL, OF FEZ: Father of Jacob Hagizand grand- father of Moses Hagiz; according to an epitaph, died in 1634. He edited Solomon Duran’s “ Tif’eret Yis- rael” about 1596, and wrote: “Debar Shemu’el,” a haggadic commentary, especially on Deuteronomy Rabbah (Venice, 1596); and “Mebakkesh ha-Shem,” sermons on the Pentateuch (ib. 1596). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 2411; First, Bibl. Jud. i. 155. J M. Sc. HAGUE, THE. See NETHERLANDS. HAHIROTH. See Pi-HAnIROTH. HAHN, AUGUST: German theologian and Orientalist; born at Grossosterhausen, Saxony, March 27, 1792; died in Silesia May 18, 1863. He studied theology and Oriental languages at Leipsic, devoting special attention to Syriac. His treatise on Ephraem the Syrian, published in 1819, led to his appointment as professor at Kénigsberg, where he published “ Bardesanes Gnosticus Syrorum Primus Hymnologus” (1819) and, in conjunction with his colleague Sieffert, “Chrestomathia Syriaca sive S. Ephraemi Carmina Selecta ” (1825). In 1826 he was called to Leipsic as professor of theology and preacher, and there began a vigorous campaign against the rationalism prevailing in theology and the Church. In 18383 he became professor anda member of the consistory of Breslau, and in 1844 was made general superintendent of the province of Silesia, which post he retained until his death. He was best known by his stereotyped edition of the text of the Old Testament, published by the Tauch- nitz firm in Leipsic (1833), and of which hundreds of thousands of copies have been sold. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Alig. Deutsche Biographie, x. 356-358. , KK. H. C. HAHN, JOSEPH YUSPA NORDLINGER (JOSEPH BEN PHINEHAS NORDLINGEN);: German rabbi; born at Frankfort-on-the-Main in the latter half of the sixteenth century; died there April 3, 1687. He received a good education from his father, the learned rabbi Seligmann. The name “Hahn,” as his grandson, Joseph ben Moses Kos- man, says in the preface to “ Noheg ka-Zon Yosef,” is derived from the family house called “Zum rothen Hahn.” Hahn was the author of “ Yosif Omez,” which was published at Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1723 by Moses Reiss Darum, son-in-law of Joseph ben Moses Kosman. This interesting work treats of liturgical questions, of the most important moments of religious life, of education, charity, morality, the Christian holidays, and the civil calendar. It is written in a popular style; and short remarks show the author to have been a master of the Halakah. As such he was acknowledged by his contempo. raries Isaiah Horowitz, author of “Shene Luhot ha- Berit,” and Joel Sairkes, author of “ Bayit Hadash.» He expresses rational views in regard to pedagogics, He recomniends adherence to the old rule given ig Prov. xxii. 6, “Train up a child according to its way” (A, Y. “in the way he should go”), and that the scope, method, and subject of instruction be adapted to the capacity of the child: it should not be compelled to learn what is beyond its compre. hension. If not fit for the study of the Talmud, it should receive thorough instruction in the Bible, which is plain and wins the heart for the fear of God. In this work Hahn also tells of the troubles that befell the Frankfort Jews beforeand duriug the persecutions caused by Vincent FETTMILcH, of their expulsion in 1614, and of their readmission in 1616. Hahn was a member of one of the forty families to which the privilege of returning was first granted, In communal affairs Hahn also displayed great activity. He founded a society, Gomel Hesed, whose duty it was to render the last honors to the dead, especially to such as had no relatives. The congregation conferred upon him offices of honor; and he officiated as rabbi when the rabbinate was vacant. His name is inscribed in the “memorial book,” and his Hebrew epitaph (No. 1590) is found on one of the monuments of the Jewish cemetery of Frankfort. Another work of Hahn’s, containing explanations and glosses to the four codes of the Shulhan ‘Aruk, is still in manuscript. BIBLIOGRAPHY: First, Bibl. Jud. i. 355; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 1519; Horovitz, Frankfurter Rabbinen, ii. 5-18. D. S. Man. HAI BEN DAVID: Dayyan, and later gaon in Pumbedita from 890 to 897. He is mentioned in Isaac ibn Ghayyat’s “ Halakot,” in connection with the curious Bagdad custom of reciting the “ ‘Abo- dah” on the morning of the Day of Atonement, which custom even Hai b. David was unable to abol- ish. It is probable that he wrote in Hebrew. Ac- cording to somewhat doubtful Karaitic sources, he wrote an anti-Karaitic book with the purpose of justifying the Rabbinite calendar, the calculation of which is ascribed perhaps by him, if not by Hai ben Sherira, to R. Isaac Nappaha (comp. Pinsker, “ Lik- kute Kadmoniyyot,” pp. 148 e¢ seg.). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider, Die Arabische Literatur, p. 101, note 1; Furst, in Orient, Lit. x. 262; Neubauer, M. J. C. i. 65, 66, 188; ii. 224; Harkavy, Teshuhbot ha-Geonim, p. 384; idem, in Ha-Goren, iv. (1903) 80; Weiss, Dor, iv. 184, 189. note 23: Halévy, Dorot ha-Rishonim, iii. 240, 248, 282; see also JEW. ENCYC. VY. 571, &v. GAON. 1 opmer es M. Sc. HAI BEN NAHSHON: Gaon of Sura (889- 896) and president of the school of Nehardea. He was, according to a manuscript in the Vatican Li- brary, the author of opinions on many Talmudical tractates. He protested against reciting “Kol Ni- dre ” (Rosh, on Yoma, end; Tur Orah Hayyim, 619: Kol Bo, § 68). His father, R. Nahshon, and grand- father, R. Zadok, were both geonim. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Rechts-Gutachten der Geonen, ed. Cassel, P- 9; First, in Orient, Lit. x. 261; Rapoport, in Bikkure ha- ‘Ittim, x. 37, xi. 82; Steinschneider, Die Arabische Litera- 153 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA tur, p. 101, note 1; Neubauer, M. J. C. i. 39, 189; Lands- buth, ‘“Ammude ha-~-'Abodah, i. 62; Harkavy, Teshubot ha- Geonim, p. 384; Halévy, Dorot ha-Rishonim, tii. 282; see also JEW. ENCYC. V. 571, 8.U. GAON. E. C. M. Sc. HAI BEN SHERIRA: Gaon of Pumbedita; born in 939; died March 28, 1038. He received his Talmudic education from his father, Sherira, and in early life acted as his assistant in teaching (Schech- ter, “Saadyana,” p. 118). In his forty-fourth year he became associated with his father as “ab bet din, ” and with him delivered many joint decisions. AS @ consequence of the calumnies of their an- tagonists they were imprisoned together, and their property was confiscated, by the calif Al-Kadir (997; see Abraham ibn Daud in “M. J.C.” i. 67). The im- prisonment, however, seems not to have lasted very long. Sherira, then old and sick, appointed his son to the position of gaon (998). Hai’s installation was greeted with great enthusiasm by the Ap- Jewish population. An old tradition pointment (Abudarham, ed. Venice, p. 70c) says as Gaon. that on the Sabbath after Sherira’s death, at the end of the reading of the weekly lesson, the passage (Num. xxvii. 16 et seg.) in which Moses asks for an able follower was read in honor of Hai. Thereupon, as haftarah, the story of Solomon’s accession to the throne was read (I Kings ii, 1-12), the last verse being modified as follows: “ And Hai sat on the throne of Sherira his father, and his government was firmly established.” Hai remained gaon until his death in 1088 (accord- ing to Abraham ibn Daud, /.c. p. 66). He was cele- brated by the Spanish poet Solomon ibn Gabirol and by Samuel ha-Nagid (see “ Ha-Karmel,” 1875, p. 614), Hai ben Sherira’s chief claim to recognition rests on his numerous responsa, in which he gives deci- sions affecting the social and religious life of the Diaspora, Questions reached him from Germany, France, Spain, Turkey, North Africa, India, and Ethiopia (see Miller, “ Mafteah,” pp. 197-201 e¢ seq. ; Harkavy, “Studien und Mittheilungen,” iv. 225), His responsa, more than eight hundred in number, deal with the civil law, especially the His laws concerning women, with ritual, Responsa. holidays, etc. Many of them contain explanations of certain halakot, hag- gadot, and Talmudic matters. In halakic decisions he quotes the Jerusalem Talmud, but without ascri- bing any authority to it (“ Teshubot ha-Ge’onim,” ed. Lyck, No. 46). Many of his responsa may have been written in Arabic; only a few of them have been preserved (“Sha‘are Zedek,” Salonica, 1792; Har- kavy, “Teshubot ha-Ge’onim,” Nos. 83-117, 197, 198, 201, 208, 3825, 410, 421; Derenbourg, in “R. E. J.” xxii. 262; Steinschneider, “Hebr. Uebers.” p. 909; idem, “ Die Arabische Literatur der Juden,” p. 101; Miller, Z.c.). Hai ben Sherira codified various branches of Tal- mudic law. He wrote in Arabic a treatise on pur- chases, translated into Hebrew by Isaac Albarge- loni with the title “Ha-Mekah weha-Mimkar” (1078); “Sefer ha-Mashkon,” a treatise on mortgage, anonymously translated into Hebrew ; “ Mishpete ha- Tanna’im,” a treatise on conditions, alsoanonymously translated into Hebrew. These three treatises were published together (Venice, 1604); later editions also agiz, Samuel al ben Sherira contain commentaries by Eleazar ben Aryeh (Vienna, 1800) and by Hananiah Isaac Michael Aryeh (Salo- nica, 1814). Another anonymous trans- Legal lation of them exists in manuscript Treatises. under the title“ Dine Mamonot.” ieraeo coal ORS Se @—-—-_---@-_. Ho - sha‘ - na! Le .- Save Us now! For the PROCESSIONAL, a € —~3 er Se oe ee fie es a Caer Ass 7S WLS Pe ma-‘an a- mit-tak; le - ma-‘an be - ri - tak(etc.) Le - ma-‘an te-hil - Ila . CONGREGATION. Con moto. tak: Ho - sha‘ - na! A - ni term “hakkafot” is also applied to the sevenfold pro- cessional during which the scrolls are carried seven times around the synagogue in the service of the Rejoicing of the Law. The traditional chants for this are comparatively modern. The Sephardim make circuits (also called “hakkafot ”) on HosHa‘Na RasBau and at the entrance to the cemetery, around a coffin about to be interred. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sulzer, Shir Ziyyon, No. 69, Vienna, 1866; Baer, Ba‘al Tefillah, Nos. 898-902, 926, G6teborg, 1877; Cohen and Mosely, Handbook of Synagogue Music, Nos. 156 and 15/7, 186 and 187, London, 1889; Cohen and Davis, Voice of Prayer and Praise, Nos. 168 and 185, London, 1899. A. F. L, C. HAKKOZ (yipn): 1. A priest, chief of the sev- enth course, appointed by David (I Chron. xxiv. 10). In this passage the 7 is considered by the Sep- tuagint to be the definite article, the name being “Koz.” 2. Progenitor of a post-exilic priestly fara- ily which, not being able to prove its genealogy, was removed from the priesthood (Ezra ii. 61; Neh. vii. 63). *“8. Grandfather of Meremoth, who assisted Nehemiah in reconstructing the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. tii. 4, 21). E. G. H. M. SEL. HAKMAN IBN ISHMAEL: Egyptian rabbi of the sixteenth century. He wrote novelle on the Talmud and on Maimonides’ “ Yad,” some of which were included by R. Mas‘ud Hai b. Aaron Rokeah in his “Ma‘aseh Rokeah,” a commentary on the first part of the “ Yad” (Venice, 1742). ev - K pe eee Fo oon Srna ea A sl Sa UO eee ae sees | A Sa e200 oe —|-* be z= = Saotet ene erred a ey ——se| Se ... wa- hot ho - shi - ‘ah na! er the same! O.... save Us now! ee ee ee 5 SSE eo BIBLIOGRAPHY: Azulai, Shem ha-Gedolim, p. 111; Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, p. 674. K. N. T. LL. HA-KOL. See PERIODICALS. HALAFTA: Nameof several tannaim and amo- raim; frequently interchanged with Halfa, Halifa, Hilfa, Hilfai, Dlfa, and Tahlifa. HALAFTA: Scholar of the firstand second cen- turies (second tannaitic generation), always cited without patronymic or cognomen; his descent is traced back to Jonadab the Rechabite (Yer. Ta‘an. iv. 68a; Gen. R. xcviii. 4). He was a senior contem- porary of Gamaliel II. and Johanan b. Nuri (Tosef., Shab. xiii. [xiv.] 2; 7. Ma‘as. Sh. i. 18), and con- ducted a rabbinic school at Sepphoris. Here he in- troduced some ritual reforms (Ta‘an. ii. 5; R. H. 27a). Tradition relates that, together with Hananiah b. Teradion and Eleazar b. Mattai, he saw the mon- uments which Joshua had placed in the Jordan (see EvLEAzAR B. Marral). MHalafta seems to have at- tained an advanced age. He communicated to Gamaliel II. an order given by his grandfather Ga- maliel I., and which he had himself heard in the last years of Judea’s independence (Shab. 115a); he sub- sequently participated in the ‘Akabia controversy (see “R. E. J.” xii. 41), and later he is met with in the company of Eleazar b. Azariah, Huzpit the inter- preter, Yeshebab, and Johanan b. Nuri, when they were old (Tosef., Kelim, B. B. ii. 2). But few halaket ™ Tot nt +) mene tate ARN tte LE Et ie ek gas ae ee See + 163 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Hakkafot Halakot are preserved in his name, and most of these were transmitted by his more famous son, R. Jose (Kil. xxvi. 6; Tosef., Ma‘as. Sh. i. 18; 2. B. B. ii. 10; 28. Oh. v. 8; Bek. 26a). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Briill, Mebo ha-Mishnah, i. 189: Frankel, Darke ha-Mishnah, p. 182: Heilprin, Seder ha-Dorot, ii.; Weiss, Dor, ii. 122; Zacuto, Yuhkasin, ed. Filipowski, p. 64. S. M. E. C. HALAFTA OF HUNA (HUGA, HEWAH, HEFA): Palestinian amora of the third century; senior of R. Johanan. The latter communicates to Halafta’s sons a halakah in their father’s name (Git. 86b; Yer. Git. ix. 50b). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Frankel, Mebo, 85a. Be C; S. M. HALAFTA (HILFAI) B. KARUYA, ABBA (also known as HALFA): 1. Tanna of the second century, contemporary of Gamaliel II. Gamaliel once visited him at Karuya (Kiryava; see Neubauer, “ G. T.” p. 277), and solicited his prayers; whereupon Halafta pronounced over him the blessing of Psalm xx. 5 (A.V. 4) (Midr. Teh. ad loc.). As “Hilfa” or “Filfai” he is cited in connection with some hala- kot (Tosef., Ma‘as. Sh. iv. 5; Yer. Ma‘as. Sh. iv. 54d), and it appears that one of his halakot was taught and practised in Rome (?2.). 2. Palestinian amora of the third century, con- temporary of Hiyya b. Abba (B. B. 123a). They both endeavored to reconcile the apparent discrep- ancy between the statement of Gen. xlvi. 27, “ All the souls of the house of Jacob, which came into Egypt, were threescore and ten,” and the list pre- ceding it (8-26), which contains one less. Hiyya would have it that the person unnamed in the list was a twin sister of Dinah. This view Halafta re- jects, arguing that a twin sister might as well be ascribed to Benjamin. Finally, Hiyya quotes Hama b. Hanina as authority for the assumption that Joche- bed was born soon after Jacob and his party entered Egypt, and is therefore reckoned among the souls that originally came with Jacob; with her the full count of seventy is completed (B. B. 128a; see also Gen. R. Ixxxii. 8). Bacher (“Ag. Pal. Amor.” ii. 177) locates the meeting of these rabbis in Rome. It is nowhere shown, however, that the younger Halafta ever visited Rome, and the context from which Bacher draws the inference speaks of Halafta the elder. Asto the praenomen, it appears variously as “Tifa,” “Tilfai,” “Halifa,” “ Tahlifa.” Once it is altogether omitted, leaving only the title and cog- nomen (Gen. R. xix. 83; comp. Pesik. Zutarta to Gen. iii. 1). It is probable that to Halafta b. Karuya belongs the remark headed with the curious name of R. Barkirya. Seeing a procession of coftins contain- ing the remains of people who had died in foreign lands, R. Barkirya remarked to Eleazar: “ What benefit can they derive from being buried here? To them Iapply the words: ‘ Ye made mine heritage an abomination [since ye did not choose to live here],’ and ‘when ye entered, ye defiled my land [since ye en- tered as corpses|’ ” (Jer. ii. 7). Eleazar, however, told him that as soon as such processions reach Pal- estine, clods of Palestinian earth are laid on the coffins, and that that makes atonement, as the Bible Says, “His earth will atone for His people” (Deut. Xxxii. 43, Hebr.; Yer. Kil. ix. 32d; comp. Pesik. R. i. 8; Tan., Wayehi, 6 fed. Buber, p. 214], where “Kazrah” occurs in place of “Barkirya”). The custom of sprinkling Palestinian earth on the dead is still common (see BURIAL). EK. €, 5S. M. HALAFTA OF KEFAR HANANIAH, R. or ABBA: Tanna of the second century; junior of R. Meir, in whose name he transmits the legal maxim: When the condition is expressed before an obligation depending on it, the condition is valid; but when the obligation precedes the condition, the condition is void (see CONDITIONS). From him the Mishnah (Ab. iii. 6) preserves an interesting homily on the number of persons constituting a quorum for the study of the Law. In the treatise Abot, usually incorporated in the Jewish rituals, the name of the author of this mishnah is “R. Halafta b. Dosa of Kefar Hananiah”; in Mahzor Vitry (ed. Berlin, 1893, p. 508), however, the patronymic does not appear, but there are also some other variants. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Heilprin, Seder ha-Dvorot, ii. Zacuto, Yu- hasin, ed. Filipowski, p. 64. . KE. C. S. M. HALAKAHB (7357): Noun, derived from the verb son, “to go,” “to walk.” The act of going or walking is expressed by 773 4m, while the closely rela- ted aon is used only in the sense of “ way of acting,” “habit,” “usage,” “custom,” and especially “ guid- ance ” and the norm of practise. For instance, when it is said in the Talmud that a halakah is according to this or that rabbi, it is meant that the opinion of the rabbi referred to, though in opposition to other opinions, is decisive for the practise. Sometimes it is used with the meaning of “tradition,” as, for in- stance, when the Rabbis said: “If this is halakah [¢.e., tradition] we will accept it; butifit is merely a ‘din’ [v.e., an argument] it is open to question” (Ker. iii. 9). “Halakah” stands sometimes for the whole legal part of Jewish tradition, in contradis- tinction to the Haggadah, comprising thus the whole civil law and ritual Jaw of rabbinical litera- ture and extending also to all the usages, customs, ordinances, and decrees for which there isno author- ity in the Scriptures. In modern works occurs also the term “midrash halakah,” covering interpreta- tions, discussions, and controversies connected with the legal part of the Scriptures (see MiprasH Haua- KAH). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Dictionaries of Kohut, Jastrow, and Levy; Zunz, G. V. 20 ed., p. 44. J HALAKOT: The body of religious law which constitutes one of the three main divisions of Jew- ish oral tradition. Later, the singular form “ hala- kah” was generally adopted, even in reference to a whole collection of halakot, just as “haggadah” took the place of “haggadot.” The Halakot were codified by R. Judah ha-Nasi and formed the jurid- ical body of his Mishnah. Thereafter the term “ Mish- nah” displaced the term “Halakot,” except in Pal- estine, where, even after the codification, the use of the term “Halakot” was continued, so that the Mishnah was known there as “Halakot” (Lev. R. iii.). | BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bacher, Die Aelteste Terminologie der Jidischen Schriftausleguig. pp. 34, 42, Leipsic, 1899. E. C. M. Sc. Halalah Halberstadt THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 164 SS eg ee eS ee a ne Y HALALAH: The female issue of a priest's con- nection with a divorced woman or widow, a con- nection regarded as illegal. According to the Bib- lical law, a priest (“ kohen”) could not marry a harlot, or one “ profaned ” (“halalah ”), ora divorced woman, while the high priest was also forbidden to marry a widow (Lev. xxi. 7-14). The priest who married a woman that had been previously illegally married to another priest was guilty of two transgressions. For instance, if a priest married a divorced woman, she became a halalah, and her issue also was considered “profane.” If another priest married her afterward, he transgressed two commandments, that against marrying a divorced woman and that against marry - ing a halalah (Kid. 77a; Maimonides, “ Yad,” Issure Biah, xix. 1; Shulhan ‘Aruk, Eben ha-‘Ezer, vii. 12). The name is restricted to those women with whom connection is regarded as illegal for priests, and is not applied to such as are illegal for all. The fe- male offspring of an incestuous or adulterous con- nection of a priest is not called halalah, since such a connection is forbidden also to ordinary Israelites (Kid. 7ib; “Yad,” dc. xix. 5). The punishment prescribed for the marriage of a priest with a halalah is stripes. Authorities differ as to whether the same punishment was meted out to him if he had had intercourse with such a woman without marriage (“ Yad,” f.c. xvii. The Pun- 2; RAbD and Maggid Mishneh ad ishment. Joc.). The priest himself, although punished for his transgression, was not disqualified from the priestly office, but the male issue of such a connection was considered “halal,” and was not permitted the privileges or the duties of the priest. The halalah was not regarded as an illegitimate child; the only restrictions upon her were that she could not enjoy the advantages of a daughter of a priest—that is, she could not eat of the heave- offerings (“terumah ”) or of the sacrificial meats— and that she could not be married to a priest. If she married a non-priestly Israelite, her daughter was not regarded as halalah, and might marry a priest. The issue of the halal, however, retained the same status forever, even to the thousandth generation. The female children of a halal were also regarded as profane, and could not be married into the priesthood (Kid. 77a; “Yad,” U.c. xix. 14, 16; Eben ha-‘Ezer, vii. 16). The daughter of a priest was not forbidden to marry a halal, nor into any Other class that was unfit for the priesthood (Kid. 72b; “Yad,” U.c. xix. 11; Eben ha-‘Ezer, vii. 22). See ILLEGITIMACY; PRIESTLY CODE. E. C. J. H. G. HALASZ (FISCHER), IGNAZ: Hungarian philologist; born at Tés in 1855; died at Budapest April 9,1901. He studied at the gymnasia of Vesz- prim and Stuhlweissenburg, and at the University of Budapest. From 1877 to 1892 he taught at the Ober- gymnasium of Stuhlweissenburg; in 1898 he was appointed professor of Hungarian philology at the University of Klausenburg. Between 1880 and 1890 he was sent three times by the Hungarian Academy of Sciences to the Swedish and Norwegian Laplanders, among whom he gathered much material relating to folk-poetry and comparative philology. Tho following are the most important of his philolog. ical works: “ Ritkabb és Homalyosabb Képzék” (oy rare formative sounds; crowned by the Academy), “Magyar Sz6k az Eszaki Szlav Nyelvekben” (on Hungarian words in North-Slavic languages). “Svéd-Lapp Nyelv” (on the language of the Swe. dish Laplanders); “Az Ugorszamojed Nyelvrokon. sig” (on the relationship of the Ugro-Samoyed languages). He collected and translated Finnish folk-songs, translated Grimm’s “Household Tales,” and published original Hungarian fairy-tales. BIBLIOGRAPHY: _ Szinnyei, Mag) ar Irhik Elete; Magyar Genius, 1893; Budapesti Naplo, April 10, 1901. -— 8. . Vz. HALAYO, DAVID BEN SAMUEL: Proba. bly a son of the Samuel Halayo of Bersak (qw53) who was in correspondence with Simon ben Zemah Duran. David, who was 2 hazzan or cantor, was a pupil of Simon Duran, and it was at his suggestion that the latter wrote the commentary on Isaac Ghay- yat’s “Baruk Asher Ashash.” David extols this commentary in verses. BIBLIOGRAPHY: T. Morali, Zofnat, i. 8, Berlin, 1897. Con- cerning a David Halayo who flourished about 1363, see Stein- schneider, Hebr. Bibl. xiii. 75. G. H. B. HALBAN, HEINRICH, RITTER VON: Austrian statesman; born at Cracow 1846; died at Gastein Aug. 13, 1902. Halban, whose name was originally Blumenstock, studied law at Cracow, and went to Vienna some time before 1870, where he devoted himself to journalism. When Potocki be- came president of the Council of Ministers (1870) he appointed Blumenstock to a position in the press bureau, where he advocated in the Polish papers the policy of the government. He rose to great prominence under the ministry of Count Taaffe (1878), who made him a court councilor in 1885, and a year later appointed him chief of the Reichsrath’s office, in which capacity he had the important task of representing the government in its transactions with the parliamentary parties. |Blumenstock, whom Count Taaffe had ennobled with the title of “Ritter von Halban,” rose to the height of his power under the ministry of his Galician countryman, Count Badeni (1895), and was considered the real leader in the government. After the resignation of Badeni (1897) he became very unpopular, and retired from public life in 1898. He had been converted to Christianity in the beginning of his career, and was married to a sister of the socialist deputy Victor Adler. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Neue Freie Presse, Vienna, Aug. 14, vos 8. : HALBAN, LEO VON. See BLUMENSTOCK von HALBAN, LEo. HALBERSTADT: Townin the Prussian prov- ince of Saxony. The earliest documentary evidence of the presence of Jews in Halberstadt is contained in a letter of protection from Bishop Volrad, dated 1261 (Bishop Volrad decreed that the jurisdiction of the Jews should be upheld “ . . . prout et antiquo in civit. Halb. dinoscitur consuetum, ...”). The ee de ees ee RY Al Nn cn ae Laat fen mln Re CONN Fae 8 corte TE ASO ORR cP sm? py cnn np Ld ance sayy as nde Penne} teh ented on A. 165 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Halalah Halberstadt scant reports concerning the Halberstadt Jews da- ting from the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries make them appear as a subject of liti- Thirteenth gation between the bishop and the to city council. In the middle of the Sixteenth fifteenth century the Jewish commu- Century. nity must have been in a flourishing condition. It received a_ setback through the edict of Bishop Ernest ITI. (who was also Archbishop of Magdeburg) expelling the Jews from his archbishopric in 1498. Seal of Halberstadt Cathedral; Jews Represented as Stoning St. Stephen. After some time, however, Jews were permitted to return to Halberstadt; and about the middle of the sixteenth century the Jewish population was again a considerable one, swelled by the immigration of Jews expelled from Nordhausen. Bishop Henry Julius, after harassing the Jews of Halberstadt in the most reckless manner, again expelled them in 1594; but the prospect of an increased tax revenue induced him to readmit them under letters of pro- tection. Heeven allowed them to build a synagogue. This friendly attitude was brought about at great pecuniary sacrifice by Jacob ben Israel Naphtali, one of the many “shtadlanim ” who represented the com- munity. It wasonly fora comparatively short time, however, that the community enjoyed the possession of a synagogue. The disturbances of the Thirty Years’ war set in, which caused the “mad” bishop Christian to impose heavy taxes upon the people. The infuriated mob wreaked vengeance upon the helpless Jews by destroying the synagogue (1621), although the Jews were the victims of extortion to even a higher degree than the rest of the popula- tion. During the Swedish régime the constitutional es- tates ordered an expulsion of Jews not possessing letters of protection; but in spite of all During hardships the community continued to the Thirty increase in numbers. By the treaty Years’ of Westphalia (1648) Halberstadt was War. annexed to Brandenburg. Elector Frederick William began his adminis- tration with the introduction of measures favorable to the Jews; but he, too, would not have “the Jews increase to intolerable numbers”: their number at this time was 280. In 1660 he allowed them to build a schoolhouse, which permission the Jews con- strued to extend to the erection of a synagogue also. The estates appealed to the elector, who then de- clared that the building of a synagogue was not in- cluded in the permit. This declaration was seized upon by the populace asa pretext for demolishing the beautiful synagogue in the Joeddenstrasse (Marcb 18, 1669), in which work of devastation they were aided by the military. The hammer with which the synagogue was forced open is still preserved in the parish house. Although the elector was very in- dignant at this high-handed action, he refused per- mission to rebuild the synagogue, bidding the Jews hold their services at their homes. Notwithstanding the animosity which the people showed toward the Jews, and in spite of the heavy taxes imposed upon the latter, the community still continued to grow. The numberof Jewish families at about this time was 120. The burial society still existing dates back to 1679. In this period flourished Issachar ha-Levi BerMANN. At the instance of Bermann, Zebi Hirsch BraLen (“Uarif”), a noted scholar, went to Halberstadt as rabbi (see Buber, “Anshe Shem,” p. 179, Cracow, 1895); and under his direction the Talmud school greatly prospered. The congregation meanwhile groaned under the bur- den of a heavy debt contracted in previous times in order to meet the demands of the extortionate taxa- tion. In addition to the enormous The taxes (amounting to about 2,500 thalers Burden of in 1794) the community spent large Taxation. sumsin behalf of the Talmud school and in aid of needy communities. During the Seven Years’ war Halberstadt received the unwelcome visit of a French skirmishing party (1760), which laid the Jewish congregation under contribution; and as the sum demanded was not raised, the house of one of the trustees of the con- gregation was set on fire, and two Jews, together with several prominent citizens, were carried off as hostages. After an interesting legal contest Hirsch Géttin- gen, who filled the position of counsel at the Jewish court, as well as that of teacher, was elected by the congregation in 1782 as “ Klaus” scholar in opposition to the wishes of the grandson of the founder anda trustee of the fund, who favored another candidate. This gave a footing to the Goéttingen family (after- ward bearing the name of “ Hirsch ” for its ancestor) in Halberstadt, which family during nearly a whole century furnished directors to the community, while contributing materially to its general welfare. At the close of the eighteenth century Hirsch Ké6slin founded the Hazkarat Zebi, a school in which, “ be- sides the Bible and Talmud, instruction is given by a head teacher and an assistant teacher in German, arithmetic, and all the branches yielding knowledge requisite in socialintercourse.” It is one of the old- est Jewish schools in Germany conducted on modern principles. At the beginning of the nineteenth century Hal- berstadt was annexed to the kingdom of West- phalia, and its Jewish community came under the jurisdiction of the newly established consistory of Cassel. As president of the consistory was ap- pointed (1808) Israel Jaconson, a native of Halber- stadt, who did much toward bettering the condi- tion of the Jews. In 1811 the special Jew-tax was abrogated in Westphalia; and in 1812 the emanci- pation of the Jews throughout Prussia was an- nounced. Two years later Halberstadt came again under Prussian rule, and the old burdens were not Halberstadt Halévy renewed. Thenceforward the congregation, which during the Westphalian régime had greatly declined, steadily increased, mainly owing to immigrations, until the number of Jews exceeded 800. The “Klaus” was reorganized in 1858, the synagogue was renovated in 1879, and on the occasion of the centenary of the school in 1898 a spacious new school-building was erected. The Jews of Halber- stadt number at present 820 out of a total population of 42,792. Previous to 1661 the rabbinical functions were discharged by scholarly members of the congrega- tion, and often also by the directors. The follow- ing is a list of rabbis since 1661: Solomon ben Johanan Reinbach (1661-91); Abraham ben Judah Berlin (1692-1715; later in Amsterdam); Zebi Hirsch Bialeh (“ Harif’’) (1718-48); Moses Brisk (1748-57); Meyer Barby (1757-63; later in Presburg); Hirshel Levin (1764-70; formerly in London and afterward in Berlin); Acting Rabbi Eliezer Lichtenstein (1770-72); Jacob Schwanfeld (1772-753 formerly in Peine, near Hanover); Lob Eger (1775-1814); Akiba Eger (1814-24; nephew of the preceding and formerly a ‘Klaus’? scholar); Matthias Lewian (1824-62); B. H. Auer- bach (1862-72: formerly in Darmstadt); Selig Auerbach (1873~ 1901; formerly director of the Jewish town-school at Furth) ; Isaac Auerbach, the present (1903) incumbent. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Auerbach, Gesch. der Israelitischen Ge- meinde Halberstadt, Halberstadt, 1866. D. B. A. HALBERSTADT, ABRAHAM BEN MENKI: German Hebraist and Talmudic scholar ; died at Halberstadt about 1780. Uis “ Pene Abra- ham ” (unpublished), a treatise on the most difficult halakot of the Talmud, shows him to have been an authority in Talmudic matters. Besides this there exists a collection of very interesting letters written by him to his friend R. Jeremiah at Berlin. A Ger- man translation of these letters was published by Auerbach in his “ Gesch. der Israelitischen Gemeinde Halberstadt,” pp. 187-197. In a long letter dated 1770 Halberstadt defended warmly the memory of Jonathan Eybeschiitz, whose pupil he was. In an- other letter, dated 1774, he defended the study of synonyms, which study was deprecated by R. Jer- emiah; and in one dated a year later he expressed his admiration for Wessely and Mendelssohn. In the same letter he severely censured rabbis who have no knowledge of mathematics or astronomy, with- out which it is impossible to explain many passages in the Talmud. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Auerbach, Gesch. der Israelitischen Ge- meinde Halberstadt, pp. 78, 99, 187-197. K. M. SEL. HALBERSTADT (also STADTHAGEN), JUDAH BEN BENJAMIN: Rabbinical author of the eighteenth century. He was the author of “Minhat Yehudah,” giving explanations of all pas- sages in Rashi on Berakot in which the word “ ke-lo- mar” occurs, me (a .———— =. aS aye an WARCRY Md 4 ; By v Oa : =F : Saw wah, yi ere A PS ‘i f 71 ed's Q --.a—5 new eene WAAeaewee PReeresani ‘3 wo 2 SET bs; ee ott eo = 7, ~ EEN ou~} ‘ J ite 4 = a =) I C) att RNG HALIZAH CEREMONY AMONG GERMAN JEWS, EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. (From Bodenschatz, ‘* Kirchliche Verfassung,’’ 1748.) The relationship of the parties must be clearly es- tablished and their maturity ascertained. If he or she is a minor, a deaf-mute, a mute, or an idiot, or makes a public declaration that he has not been forced by any outside influence to submit to the halizah, but that he does it of his own free if his foot is crooked or turned to one side, the hali- The will, the actual ceremony commences. zah can not be performed. The court must also Halizgah The shoe, which is usually the prop- know whether she is left-handed or whether he is Shoe. erty of the community, is brought left-footed, and must be convinced that more than forth and examined as to its cleanli- ninety-one days have passed since the death of her husband (see Divorce; LeviraTE). To establish these matters it is not necessary to have legally eli- gible witnesses. Even those who are otherwise dis- ness and construction, in accordance with the pre- cepts of the law. The halizah shoe is made entirely of leather, usually from the skin of a clean animal. It is made of two pieces, the upper part and the sole, WUD Ayo pi ee de BH DUNK MIAN Daa 1S a2 fnnsash gry: Sori nfo vel gon al nga 272 BNR DI? WH Wp» SE te aN. - Let APN fobs ro fala 8 . ayy fain’ yi Ish Saf Dinar ee ADE mbes hy: aoe eee Pe PRINTED HALIZAH BLANK USED BY MODERN AMSTERDAM JEWS. (In the possession of Prof. G. Deutsch.) pas alle-on-the-Saale THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 174 sewed together with leather threads. Three small straps are attached to the front of the shoe, each of which hasa knot (“ humrata”) at the top to fit a hole made on the other side of the shoe. ‘T'wo white leather straps are attached to either side of the shoe, by which it is fastened to the leg. The yabam must have his right foot, on which the shoe is placed, washed very scrupulously, and after he has strapped it on he must walk four cubits in the presence of the judges. Then the chief of the judges reads the following passage, which the yebamah repeats word for word: “My brother-in-law refuses to raise unto his brother a name in Israel; he will not marry me”; then the yabani is required to repeat the sentence: “I do not wish to take her.” He then presses his right foot against the floor while she loosens the straps with her right hand and, holding his leg in her left hand, takes off the shoe and throws it some distance away. Then she places herself in front of the yabam, spits on the floor in front of him, and repeats these words after the presiding judge: “So shall it be done unto that man who will not build up his brother's house, and his name shall be called in Israel, ‘the house of him that hath his shoe loosed.’” She repeats the last phrase three times, the assembly The reciting it three times after her. Formulas. Then the yabam returns the shoe to the court, and the judges say: “May it be the will (of God] that Jewish women be no more subjected to halizah or to yibbum.” As they rise, the chief of the judges says: “Blessed be He who sanctified us with the commandments and stat- utes of Abraham our father.” All the passages re- cited by the yabam and by the yebamah must be read in Hebrew as they are found in the original in Deu- teronomy, and if the parties do not understand He- brew the passages must be translated for them (Eben ha-‘Ezer, 169; “Seder Halizah” and commentaries ad loc.). Various reasons have been offered for the cere- mony of loosening the shoe. From the incident re- lated in the Book of Ruth (iv. 7, 8), which certainly refers to this ancient custom, it would seem that the loosening of the shoe was a symbol for a transfer of rights, and had no stigma attached to it. Some of the later rabbis (Jehiel of Paris, for instance) say that the removal of the shoe symbolized the entrance into a state of mourning. From the time when the yabam actually refused to marry his brother’s widow and thus perpetuate his name in Israel, his brother was considered dead, and the yebamah, by drawing off his shoe, thus declared to him that from that time on he was a mourner (“ Perush Seder Halizah,” 82; comp. Weill, “La Femme Juive,” part iv., ch. v., Paris, 1874). In order to prevent the yabam from extorting money from the widow who wishes to be released from the shackles of perpetual widowhood, the Rab- bis established the institution of the “shetar hali- zah” (see DEED). This institution provides that at the marriage of a young couple all the brothers must sign a document in which they pledge themselves to submit to the act of halizah without claiming any remuneration in case their brother dies childless (“ Nahalat Shib‘ah,” p. 22, Warsaw, 1884). Shetar Halizah, If at the time of marriage there wasa minor brother, who could not legally sign the document, there was the institution of the “shetar bithon halizah,” es- tablished by the Rabbis for such cases, by which the father of the bridegroom promises to pay to the bride a certain sum of money if this son should re- fuse to submit to the ceremony of halizah (74. 23: comp. “ Pithe Teshubah ”; Eben ha-‘Ezer, 165, note 10; see INHERITANCE). Notwithstanding this, cases often occur where brothers-in-law demand money before they will submit to the ceremony. The Reform view, as expressed in various trea- tises written by the leaders of the movement, and as adopted at the different rabbinical conferences held in Germany and in America, is that the cere- mony of halizah is not essential to the remarriage of the widow. The Philadelphia conference (1869) re- solved that “The precept of levirate marriage and of halizah has lost to us all meaning, import, and binding force.” The Second Israelitish Synod, held in Augsburg (1871), also passed a resolution to the same effect, with the addition that “For the sake of liberty of conscience, however, no rabbi will refuse, on request of the parties, to conduct the ceremony of halizah in a proper form.” The great majority of Jews, however, still cling to this ancient institution and observe it in all its details. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hastings, Dict. Bible, s.v. Marriage; Ham- burger, . TI. s.v. Schwagerehe; Saalschiitz, Das Mo- saische Recht, ch. ciy., Berlin, 18538; Michal of Cracow, Seder Gittin wa-Halizah, with Pithe Teshubah, Wilna, 1896; Buchholz, Die Famitie, pp. 65-67, Breslau, 1867; Reds- lob, Die Levirats-Ehe bei den Hebrdern, Leipsic, 1836; Duschak, Das Mosaisch-Talmudische Eherecht, 8 5, Vienna, 1864; Bergel, Die Eheverhdltnisse der Alten Juden, ch. x., Leipsic, 1881; Mielziner, Jewish tLaw of Marriage and Divorce, §§ 22-238, Cincinnati, 1884; Verhandlungen der Zweiten Israetitischen Synode, Berlin, 1873; Rosenau, Jewish Ceremonial Institutions and Customs, Baltimore, E. ©. J. H. G. HALLAH: The priest’s share of the dough. The Biblical law in the case of hallah (Num. xv. 17-21; comp. Neh. x. 88), asin the case of the heave- offering (“terumah”; Num. xviii. 11), is indefinite. It enjoins the separation of the hallah “from the first of your dough,” but does not specify how much dough there should be, or what proportion of the dough should go to the priest. The Rabbis, how- ever, made the law more explicit by limiting it. According to their definition the dough, in order to be subject to the law of hallah, must consist of at least one omer (14 cabs, or enough to fill a vessel 10 x 10 x 31 inches in size; see WEIGHTS AND MEas- URES) of flour (Hal. ii. 5; comp. ‘Eduy. i. 2), the portion due to the priest being 3, of the dough of a private household and +; of that of a baker (‘Eduy. i. 7). The priest’s share was taken from the dough and not from the flour (comp. Yer. Hal. iii. 1). The obligation rested upon the person to whom the dough belonged, and not upon the person who kneaded it. Hence if the dough belonged to a non- Jew, and it was prepared by a Jew, no portion of it went to the priest, even if the non-Jew afterward presented itto the Jew. AJew, how- Obligation ever, was obliged to separate hallah on Owner. from his dough even when it was prepared by a non-Jew (Hal. iii. 5). Dough prepared as food for animals was not subject to this obligation, unless it was also partaken of by 175 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Halizah Halle-on-the-Saale men (fal. i. 8). The priest’s portion was taken only from dough made from the flour of one of these five kinds of cereal: wheat, barley, spelt, oats, and rye (Hal. i. 1). Dough made from the flour of rice, nillet, or peas was excepted. The dough must have been prepared for the baking of bread, but not for pastry or cakes of any kind (Hal. i. 4). If the separation of the hallah from the dough had been forgotten, it could be made after the bread was baked (Sifre to Num. xv. 21). The Biblical expression “when you eat of the bread of the land” clearly indicates that the law of hallah applies only to Palestine; but, in order that this institution should not be forgotien in Israel, the Rabbis ordained that it should also be observed be- yond Palestine and for all time. Since, however, it can no longer be observed as a priestly offering, be- cause everything now is in a state of impurity, the portion taken from the dough is thrown into the fire and need not be proportionate to the amount of the dough; the obligation can be discharged with the smallest portion (Hal. iv. 8-11). When the dough is thrown into the fire a blessing should be pro- nounced. At present the laws pertaining to the separation of hallah are very lenient, both with re- gard to the separation and with regard to the holi- ness attached to it (Maimonides, “ Yad,” Bikkurim, v.-vill.; Shulhan ‘Aruk, Yoreh De‘ah, 322-3380), See PRiEstLY Cope; for hallah as sacrifice see Sac- RIFICE; THANK-OFFERING. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Saalschtitz, Das Mosaische Recht, ch. xli., note 441, Berlin, 1853. ake H. G. E. C. HALLE-ON-THE-SAALE: University town in the Prussian province of Saxony. Jews settled there soon after the city was founded, in the begin- ning of the twelfth century, the wealthy members of the community having business relations with the nobility in the vicinity. The Jews, who were at first subject to the archiepiscopal court and then to the mayor, lived in a quarter of their own, called the “ Judendorf,” and had a synagogue and ceme- tery. Like their coreligionists in other parts of Ger- many, they were repeatedly plundered and _ perse- cuted. It is doubtful whether they suffered much up to the time of the Second Crusade (1145), but they certainly did in 1206, 1261, 1849, and 1492. Several times, as in 1814 and 1446, they had to leave their homes, and in 1498 they were peremptorily ex- pelled by Archbishop Ernst. Two centuries later a new community was formed, the authorities per- mitting some exiled families from Halberstadt to settle at Halle in 1692. They laid outa cemetery in 1693, and builtasynagoguein 1700, They were still subjected to medieval restrictions: they were for- bidden to acquire real estate or to attend the uni- versity, and their commerce was limited by special laws. The general privilege granted by Frederick William I. of Prussia, dated Feb. 26, 1704, regu- lated their civic status; yet in 1724 the synagogue and houses of the Halle Jews were demolished dur- ing a conflict with the students, and special taxes were laid upon them during the Seven Years’ war. The Westphalian government granted full citizen- ship to the Jews in a roya! decree of 1808, by which the body-tax, the protection money, and other extra taxes were abolished. When Halle came again under Prussian rule, the Jewish community of the town included about 150 persons. By the law of July 28, 1847, separating the Jews into synagogal districts, some neighboring communities were atlli- ated with the community of Halle, for which a rep- resentative constitution was drawn up. The first rabbi, Dr. Fréhlich, was installed in 1860. In 1864 anew cemetery was laid out and a new synagogue was built, to which an organ was added in 1900. The school, attended by 180 children (1908), is under the direction of the local rabbi, Dr. Fessler, There are ahebra kaddisha, a women’s society, a “Rat und Tat” society (for the relief of business men in dis- tress), a B’nai B’rith lodge, etc. Halle has (1908) a population of 156,624, cluding 1,800 Jews. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Aronius, Regesten : Salfeld, Martyrologium ; Auerbach, Gesch. der Israelitischen Gemeinde Halherstaat, Halberstadt, 1866; Dreyhaupt, Ausfithrliche Beschreibung des Saathreises, 2 yols., Halle. 1755; Hertzberg, Gesch. der Stadt Halle-a.-S.im Mittelalter, Halle, 1889; Jsraelit, iv. (1863), Nos. 2 and 6; Statistisches Jahrbueh des Deutseh- Israelitischen Gemeindebundes, Berlin, 1903: Freudenthal, Aus der Heimat Moses Mendelssohns, pp. 175 et seg., 246 et seq. (on Hebrew printing establishments in Halle). D. S. Sa. —Typography: Moses Benjamin Wulff, court Jew at Dessau, obtained in 1694 a privilege from the Prince of Dessau to establish a printing-office in that city. He began to publish books in 1696, but financial difficulties compelled him to abandon the business, One of his typesetters, the proselyte Moses ben Abraham, was called to Halle in 1706 to assist J. H. Michaelis in the printing of the Bible. The citizens protested against the presence among them of a Jew without a royal letter of protection, and the king sustained their objection. Michaelis, however, procured registration at the university for the printer’s son Israel Moses, who thereby became exempt from the jurisdiction of the city authorities, and upon the intercession of the uni- versity the king permitted the father to reside in Halle so long as the printing of the Bible was in progress, but under the stipulation that he should do no other work. Moses ben Abraham nevertheless printed various other books there: Jacob Reischer’s responsa, “Shebut Ya‘akob” (1709); five Talmudic tractates, which were to form part of an edition of the Babylonian Talmud already planned by his former employer, Moses Benjamin Wulff, who gave him the necessary type and machinery; some Tal- mudic works; a prayer-book; two descriptions, in Judzeo-German, of the conflagrations at Altona and Frank fort-on-the-Main; ete. Altogether sixteen books were issued by the press of Halle. In 1711, the university, provoked because Moses ben Abraham printed other works than those issued by the university press, complained to the king, but without effect. In 1714, however, the university drew the king’s attention to the fact that Moses had printed a prayer-book containing the ‘ALENU, which had recently been prohibited by royal order. Moses and Berechiah Berak, the au- thor of the last book printed in Moses’ office, were arrested, and further printing was prohibited. In 1717 the university endeavored to obtain a grant for the reopening of the establishment, but the king re- fused to give it, Of special interest is the fact that Halle Hallel THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 176 Moses ben Abraham employed exclusively members of his family, and that his daughter Gella, who was an experienced typesetter, wrote little verses in Judgo-German in which she invited people to pur- chase her father’s books. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Wolf, Bibl. Hebr. iii., passim, quoted by Steinschneider in Ersch and Gruber, Hneye. section ii., part 28, p.86; Freudenthal, dus der Heimat Moses Mendels- sohn’s, pp. 175-188, 246-249, Berlin, 1900. D. HALLE, AARON BEN WOLF (called also Wolfsohn): Translator and commentator of the Bible; born 1754 at Halle; died at Firth March 20, 1835; son of Dr. Wolf of Firth. He was a follower of Moses Mendelssohn; editor (1797) of the period- ica] “ Ha-Meassef ” (in which he signed himself ‘q's or 31); and professor at the Kénigliche Wilhelms- schule at Breslau from 1792 to 1807. He was also one of the founders of the Gesellschaft der Freunde in Berlin (1792). Together with his friend Joel Léwe he edited Mendelssohn’s German translation of the Song of Solomon (Berlin, 1788). His transla- tions of Lamentations, Ruth, and Esther were pub- lished (Berlin, 1788) with a Hebrew commentary by Joel Lowe and a Hebrew introduction. With Isaac Euchel, Friedlander, and others, he made a transla- tion of the Haftarot (2b. 1790); he also translated Kings (Breslau, 1800); Job, which he provided witha Hebrew commentary (Prague, 1791; Vienna, 1817- 1818); and the first two chapters of Habakkuk (“Je- didja,” ii. 107). He further published: “ Abtalion,” a Hebrew primer, containing the grammatical elements, with a preface by David Friedlander (Berlin, 1790, and frequently reprinted); “Exegetisch-Kritische Anmerkungen iiber die Vision Habakuks” (Breslau, 1806); “Jeschurun,” a refutation of the newly made charges against Judaism (edited, with Gotthold Sal- omon, Breslau, 1804); “ Leichtsinn und Frémmelei,” a family scene in three acts (Amsterdam, 1796-98). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Franz Delitzsch, Zur Gesch. der Jtidischen Poesie, p. 107: Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. cois. 2782 et seq.; Gratz, Gesch. ed. 1900, xi. 120, 289; First, Bibl. Jud. ili. as eae Cat. Rosenthal. Bibl. p. 1152; Monatsschrift, x . 8. M. K. HALLEL (lit. “ praise”): The name given in the Talmud and in rabbinical writings to Ps. cxiii.- cxvili. considered as a single composition, which they undoubtedly are. They are more distinctively known as the “Hallel of Egypt,” as distinguished from Ps. exxxvi., the “Great Hallel,” and from Ps. cx] vi.-cxlviii. (in a baraita apparently designated as a kind of Hallel: Shab, 118b). These psalms were evidently written to be sung publicly on some day of thanksgiving, as appears from the verse: “This is the day which the Lord hath made; we will rejoice and be glad in it” (Ps. exvili. 24). The Aramaic word “tagmulohi” would seem to indicate a late date; the thrice-repeated cry “T shall cut them down,” with “the Lord hath cha- stened me sore,” points to a bloody war, at first unsuccessful; the words “open to me the gates of righteous- ness” point to the recovery of the Temple: allthese together make it probable that the “ Hallel” psalms were written for the Feast of Hanuk- kah, during which they are still recited every morn- ing. Hallel is also recited on the night of the Pass- over as part of the family service, as it was in the Late Origin. days of the Temple (Pes. x. 4); on the first day of the Feast of Unleavened Bread; on Pentecost; and on the Feast of Booths (see Suk. iv. 1). Of course, where the festival days are doubled, one night and three days are added (Ta‘an. 28b), making (aside from the nights) twenty-one days on which Halle) is deemed obligatory. But a Palestinian of the first generation after the Mishnah speaks (Ber. 14a) of certain days on which the entire Hallel is not recited, and on which the recital is of lesser sanctity. These days are: (1) the days of Unleavened Bread after the first, or first and second; (2) all New-Moon days other than the New Moon of Tishri, which is kept as the Day of Memorial. On these days Ps. exv, 1-11 and ecxviii, 1-11 are omitted to show fhe later rise and the lesser sanctity of the custom of saying Hallel upon them. The early sages boldly undertook to give this custom the foree of Scriptural command by prefix- ing the benediction, “ Blessed . . . who has sancti- fied us by His commandments and commanded us to read the Hallel.” This, at least in the German ritual, is the form used on all occasions, while with the Sephardim it is used only before the Benedic- incomplete “half-Hallel”; onthedays tion of the “full Hallel” they bless Him Preceding. “who commanded us to complete the Hallel.” These, benedictions were in general use during the eleventh and twelfth cen- turies, and though both Rashi and Maimonides (“ Yad,” Megillah, iii. 7), the greatest authorities on Jewish law, protested against the use of such a ben- ediction before half-Hallel as unauthorized, on the ground that the recital of Hallel on New Moons, etc., was not even a commandment of the scribes, the benediction has kept its placein the prayer-book.. Ps. cxviii, opens and ends with a much older verse: “O give thanks unto the Lord; for he is good: for his mercy endureth for ever.” This verse dates back not only to the days of Ezra, but to the days of Jeremiah and to Solomon’s Temple. Jt was well known even to those otherwise wholly ignorant of the sacred tongue. Hence it grew to be the custom when Hallel was recited in public for the people to repeat after the leader only the first verse, even when he gave out the second, third, and fourth —‘“ Let the house of Israel,” etc., “Let the house of Aaron,” etc., “Let them now that fear,” etc.—and this usage is still in force (Suk. 88b). Beginning with Ps. cxviti, 20, the reader gives out every verse to the end of the chapter, the congrega- tion repeating it after him; but in ‘¢ His countries where the Polish minhag is Mercy En- usedevery one says each of these verses dureth twice. The verse “We beseech thee, for Ever.” O Lord, savenow,” etc. (Ps. cxviii. 25, Hebr.), is cut up into its hemistichs, each of which is given out separately. On Sukkot the palm-branch is shaken in all direc- tions while the first hemistich is chanted (“ Hoshi- ‘ahna ”), Hallel is closed with this benediction: “O Lord, our God, may all Thy works praise Thee, and Thy saints who do Thy will, and all Thy people Israel, in glad song, bless and honor... Thy glorious name; for to thank Thee is proper, and pleasant is 177 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Halle Hallel it to play melodies to Thy glorious name, for from everlasting to everlasting Thou art God: Blessed be Thou, O Lord, the King praised in hymns!” For the Hallel in the Passover night service see HaGGADAH. BIBLIOGRAPAY: Kohler, The Psalms and T heir Place in the Liturgy, pp. 31 et seq. (Gratz College Publications, 1897) ; Dembitz, Jewish Services, book ii., ch. 13; Maimonides, Yad, ie cols iii; Caro, Shulhan ‘Aruk, Orah Hayytimn, 422, — L. N. D. All trace is lost of the chants to which the Hallel was intoned before a comparatively modern date. HALLEL Allegro moderato. Ps. cevii. 1. Ha - - Ia - ln et A - . Ki ga - bar ‘A - > pease ie hu - hu kol ha - um - mim. In consequence there is no general tradition: every composer of synagogue music offers hisown setting. In the medieval period the folk-song of the day was reproduced in the Hale], where the contemporary expression of joyousness always sup- planted the older cantillatory intona- tions, as Ps. cxvii. and exviii., at least, were approached. Many such melodies, often of marked beauty, have been pre- served in the synagogues of the Sephardic ritual. A rich store of them will be found in the collections of De Sola and Aguilar (“ Ancient Melodies of the Liturgy of the Spanish and Portuguese Jews”), and Consolo (* Libro dei Canti d’Israel”),. Typical, and of particular interest because of their use in many Ashkenazic and Reform synagogues, are the two VI.—12 Musical Setting. do - nai kol go ~- well-contrasted old melodies here presented (comp. De Sola and Aguilar, “ Ancient Melodies,” Nos. 42, 43; Salaman and Verrinder, “ Music of the West London Synagogue of British Jews,” i.; Cohen and Davis, “ Voice of Prayer and Praise,” Nos. 62, 63; Pauer and Cohen, “Traditional Hebrew Melodies,” No. 12). The first of these is wide-spread among the northern Jews as a tune for table-hymns (see ZEMIROT),. The earlier part of the Hallel was rarely chanted at length, being usually read through in a rapid under- Spanish Tunes. (Sephardic) ——— a = a shab - be - Dal Segno al Fine. REF eee has - do. tone. Where the chant took a definite form it was simple in outline and usually plaintive in character. A good traditional example is given in Cohen and Davis, “ Voice of Prayer and Praise” (No. 57); it is reminiscent of the “Tonus Peregrinus” of the Church, the irregular chant which, utilized princi- pally for Ps. cxiv., is believed to be of French origin and to date from about the ninth century. The chief hymn-tune of each festival has now be- come indissolubly associated with the first verses of Ps, cxviii., and is often finely worked into the choral setting of the preceding passages, as in the deserv- edly esteemed Hallel settings by J. L. Mombach (comp. Cohen and Davis, @.c. Nos. 64 [Hanukkah], 147 [Passover], 153 and 154 [Pentecost]). In the case of the Feast of Tabernacles the wa- Hallel Halukkah ving of the palm-branch (see LuLaB) is the most char- acteristic feature of the celebration of the festival; and consequently the chant associated with the ceremony has been taken as the “representative theme” for the festival. As such it is employed for the response M1-Kamoxau (Ex. xv. 11, 18) in the eve- ning service, which is also chanted to the “ represent- Festival Themes. THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 178 tion, often associated with the majestic old theme (comp. Marksobhn and Wolf, “ Auswahl Alter Hebra- ischen Synagogal-Melodien,” No. 8, and note; Baer, “Ba‘al Tefillah,” No. 816a, b, c, d). In the theme itself may be detected analogies withan old Proven- cal strain utilized by Bizet in his music to “ L’Arlé- sienne,” and with the melodies quoted in JEw. En- cyc. s.c. ASHRE HA-‘AM and GESHEM. HALLEL (‘‘Lulab Chant’’) Lento muaestoso. 4——-|-|-o- te — | = 4 — Sete = Ps, cxviiti. 1. Ho - to (Sees - du _ lado- RESPONSES. 1 Ho An le - ‘o - - lam has - ~ - - do. 25. An ~ « = Dales. ~Rlveeeetee tob, ki le-‘o - lam _ has - do. na A-do - - nai, haz - li - hah... na. i a a a = sS ee ee aT a 3 os =a oe Oe a i ho - = 8 - - | ghi - : Go ee ? ace Sa Renee eatin (el Pee aN! bs cee “Rirosse A-do - - ative eas according to the following general scheme for days on which the Hallel is sung: New Moon (no general tradition). Feast of Dedication (Ma‘oz Zur). Festival of Passover (ADDIR HU). Festival of: Pentecost (AKDAMUT). Festival of Tabernacles (lulab chant). The last has been handed down in two forms, a major and a minor, and exhibits traces of the inter- vals smaller than a semitone, which, with its mys- tical character, resulting from unenunciated vocal- ization between the syllables of the text, seem to point back to an original framework derived from the Orient. In most incongruous juxtaposition, several poor, jingling tunes are, in the North-German tradi- bad bad na.... og _-e-#-| = 2 FF |S os — | —— I —~— Saas aa —S ho = bead shi - = ‘oh na! Among eminent modern composers, J. Meyerbeer and F. Halévy have contributed settings for the Hallel and other texts to S. Naumbourg’s “ Zemirot Israel,” Paris, 1863. Halévy’s Hallel has become so familiar to French Jews that it has furnished main themes for a set of quadrilles founded by Henri Cohen on festival melodies, and entitled “Zemannim le-Sason” (“Le Temps de Rejouissances,” Paris, 1883). Similarly Mombach’s fine adaptation of the Akdamut for the Pentecost Hallel found favor in England as 2 pianoforte duet. A. F, LL. ¢. HALLELUIAH (79-4553 or mbbn, the dagesh in the first 5 being dr opped according to the Maso- 179 retic rule by reason of the shewa and the second G following it; ’AAAnAotvia in the Septuagint): A doxological expression signifying “Praise ye the Lord,” the sacred name being shortened to its first two letters. Except in Ps. cxxxv. 3 it is found only at the beginnings or ends of psalms; namely, civ., cv., end; cvi., beginning and end; cxiii., beginning; CXV., CXVi., cxvii., end; cxxxv., cxlvi., cxlvii., cxlviii., cxlix., cl., beginning and end. Jn some of these psalms, e.g., cxili., cxiviii., cl., this opening phrase is developed in the words which follow it; in others, such as cxi. and cxil., it does not run nat- urally into the psalm, and seems to have been pre- fixed by the authorities of the Temple to fit the psalm into public worship. The Hebrew words have been retained in the Vulgate, and through it have come not only into Christian psalteries, but also into modern hymns; the English versions, how- ever (both A. V. and R. V.), render them always as “Praise ye the Lord.” E. G. H, L. N. D. HALPERINE-KAMINSKY, ELY: Russian writer; born at Vassilkof April 9, 1858. After having completed his studies at the University of Odessa he went (1880) to Paris, where he has since resided. The French secretaries of state and of commerce have on several occasions drawn upon his knowledge of French and Russian affairs, and entrusted him with important commissions, which he has very successfully fulfilled. Since 1888 he has been editor of the “Franco-Russe,” a Parisian publication printed in both French and Russian. In 1888-85 he was secretary of the “Médecine Popu- laire,” “Science Populaire,” and “Science Pour Tous.” Halperine-Kaminsky has translated into French the works of many of the important Russian authors, such as Pushkin, Gogol, Tolstoi, Turgenef, Dosto- jevski, Nekrassov, Boborykin, and Stchedrin; he is also a regular contributor to the foremost French and Russian journals. Among his works are the following: “Les Mam- miféres Ovipares” (1885); “Pushkin et Sa Corre- spondance” (1887); “Le Grand-Due Constantin, Poétte ” (1892); “Chez Tolstoi ” (1898-1900). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Curinier, Dict. Nat. H. R. F. T. H. HALPHEN, FERNAND: French composer ; born at Paris Feb. 18, 1872; pupil of J. Massenet, G. Fauré, and André Gedalge. In 1895he won the first “accessit” for fugue at the Conservatoire, and in 1896 the second “Grand Prix de Rome ” for his cantata “ Mélusine.” Hischief worksare: a Sicilian, a suite for orchestra, 1896; asymphony, Monte Carlo, 1897; a sonata for piano and violin, 1899; “Le Cor Fleuri,” lyric opera in one act, based on the play by the late Ephraim Micaél. He has also composed several songs, and pieces for the piano, violin, horn, etc. s, A. A. G. HALPHEN, GEORGES-HENRI: French army officer and mathematician; born at Rouen Oct. 30.1844; died at Versailles May 21,1889. He studied at the Ecole Polytechnique, and afterward at the Ecole de Metz, becoming lieutenant in 1866 and cap- THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Hallel Halukkah tain in 1870. He was decorated on the battle-field of Pont-Noyelles, and fought also at Bapaume and ‘Saint-Quentin. In 1873 Halphen became tutor at the Ecole Polytechnique, and in 1880 the Académie des Sciences of the French Institute awarded him the chief mathematical prize for his “Mémoire sur la Reduction des Equations Différentielles Linéaires aux Formes Intégrales.” In 1881 his work on the classification of curves (“Journal de l’Ecole Poly- technique,” lvii. 1) was crowned by the Academy of Berlin. In 1886 Halphen was made a member of the Académie des Sciences, Hereturned to active serv- ice in 1887 as major. Of Halphen’s many mathe- matical treatises may be mentioned: “Sur la Théorie des Points Singuliers des Courbes”; “Sur les Con- gruences”; “Sur les Equations Différentielles”; “Sur les Courbes Gauches, les Fonctions Ellip- tiques,” etc. He devoted the last three years of his life to his “Traité des Fonctions Elliptiques et de Leurs Applications” (Paris, 1886-89; the third vol- ume posthumous). A full list of his works is given in the “Journal des Mathématiques,” 1889. BIBLIOGRAPHY: La Grande Encyclopédie; Nouveau La- rousse Iltustré. S. V. E. HALTERN, JOSEPH: One of the Meassefim; died in Berlin Sept. 5, 1818 (1817, according to Philippson in “Allg. Zeit. des Jud.” ii. 216). He wrote “Esther,” a Hebrew adaptation of Racine’s drama of the same name. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zeitlin, Bibl. Hebr. pp. 234, 454; Allg. Zeit. des Jud. ii. 216. 8. M. SEL. HALUEKAH (lit. “division,” “distribution ”): An organized collection of funds for distribution among the indigent Jews in the Holy Land, and for the aid of those who, moved by religious motives, desire to journey thither. Sympathizing corelig- ionists of almost every congregation in the “out- land” (“huz la-arez ”) form a standing committee, presided over by an officer variously called “ gab- bai,” “amarkol,” or “ pakid” (chief, governor, or ap- pointee), under whose supervision collections in his city or district are made, the money being remitted by him semiannually to the proper “menahalim ” (leaders) in Jerusalem, who distribute it among the needy—learned, elderly men, the destitute, and widows and orphans taking precedence. The history of the halukkah may perhaps be said to date back to the earliest rabbinical periods, when the academies in the Holy Land were supnorted mainly by voluntary contributions from congrega- tions elsewhere, and by the fees received for decisions in Jewish civil suits and for the performance of re- ligious offices, In the Middle Ages R. Jehiel (1257) transferred his yeshibah from Paris to Jerusalem. We was accompanied by his three hundred disciples, consisting of Frenchand English Jews who had been maltreated in their native countries. But Jehieland his pupils soon found themselves with- out means of support. Consequently he sent R. Jacob of Paris as a repre- sentative “meshullah” (messenger) to solicit relief in Palestine and Turkey. R. Jacob appears to have been the first Palestinian meshullah recorded, al- though the term “messenger of Zion” (“sheliah Ziy- Origin. Halukkah yon”) was applied in the period of the Amoraim (4th cent.) to R. Hama b. Ada (Bezah 25b), who trav- eled between Babylon and Palestine delivering de- cisions and messages, and probably soliciting re- lief. Another early feature throwing light on the halukkah is the charity-box, the introduction of which, though attributed to R. Meir Ba‘al ha-Nes (“the miracle-worker ”), was due to meshullahim, who toward the end of the seventeenth century used it for the collection of the halukkah fund; such boxes are placed in Orthodox Jewish dwellings and synagogues all the world over, and are stated to ex- ceed 250,000 in number at the present time, all bear- ing the name of R. Meir Ba‘al ha-Nes. This R. Meir, contrary to the popular notion, is not R. Meir the Tanna, but R. Meir ha-Kazin (“the chief”), whom R. Jacob of Paris, in describing his tomb at Tibe- rias, called “ Ba‘al ha-Nes.” Under Egyptian rule the Jews of Palestine in- creased both in number and in prosperity. The halukkah contributions until the fifteenth century came mostly from Turkey, Egypt, and other coun- tries in Asia and Africa. In the famine of 1441 the Jewish community of Jerusalem, probably for the first time, senta meshulah to European countries; the meshullah’s name was ‘Esrim we-Arba‘ah (“twenty- four ”)—a surname; not, as Gritz supposes, a title of honor indicating his knowledge of the twenty-four books of the Bible. The meshullah was directed to go first to Constantinople, to obtain there the neces- sary credentials from the central committee headed by Moses Capsali, who, however, had to withhold his sanction, the war between Turkey and the Egyptian Mamelukes, who ruled Palestine, making the latter a belligerent state, the exportation of money to which was prohibited. Under the Ottomans in the sixteenth century the Jews of Palestine were settled mostly in Galilee, toward which there set a stream of exiles from Spain; and the halukkah contributions appear to have come in regularly without the intervention of meshullahim. About this time Joseph Caro of Safed established a precedent in Jewish charity- law, based on the verse, “If there be Influence among youa poor man of one of thy of Joseph brethren within any of thy gates in Caro. thy land,” etc. (Deut. xv. 7). Accord- ing to his interpretation, “thy gates” refers to the city of Jerusalem, and “thy land” to the Holy Land (Palestine), which, therefore, have a prior claim upon Jewish charity (“Bet Yosef” to Tur Yoreh De‘ah, 251, 3); formerly it had been held that the passage referred to any residential city or adopted country (Sifre, Deut. 116 [ed. Friedmann, p. 98|). The reputation of Safed as the home of famous Talmudists and cabalists, including Caro and Luria, brought abundant support from abroad for scholars in the Holy Land. To provide for a permanent increase of the haluk- kah, the communities of Palestine, early in the seventeenth century, adopted an ordinance (“tak- kanah ”) invalidating any will not made in the pres- ence of the parnas ; this had the effect of reminding testators of their duty toward the community of Jerusalem (Lunez, “Jerusalem,” ii. 87). Another takkanah was afterward issued which practically THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 180 amounted to a confiscation, for the benefit of the ha- lukkah, of the chattels, money, and accounts of a de. ceased Jew who left no resident heirs, The There were many evasions, and in Takkanah several instances the well-to-do, before of 1625. taking up their residence in the Holy Land, stipulated a certain sum which was to be paid to the community upon their death in place of the fulfilment of the decree. This so-called “inheritance tax” was strenuously opposed by the richer classes, and it was spasmodically abolished and reenacted. Theincome from this tax, however, never amounted to one-third of the halukkah, and to sup- ply the deficiency there was no alternative but to resort to the meshullahim, who as a result became so numerous, and such frequent visitors in the Euro- pean congregations, that they were regarded as wandering tramps, a nuisance and a reproach. Moses Hagiz, a typical meshullah, in his “Sefat Emet” (Amsterdam, 1697), deplores the low estimate of the meshullah entertained by the general public, and in reply to a Spanish contributor, (1) shows why the Holy Land is religiously superior to other coun- tries, (2) urges the duty of settling there even prior to the fulfilment of the prophecies, (8) speaks of the calamities and tribulations of the Jews in Jerusalem, and (4) explains why the funds contributed in all parts of the world are insufficient. Referring tothe meshullahim, he says: “They are sent abroad to ac- quaint our people in foreign countries of Jewish conditions in the Holy Land, and to enlist sympathy and support for the standard-bearers of the Taber- nacle of God, who keep alive Jewish hopes and in- spirations in the Land of Israel.” He points out that the fact that “Christians will remit thousands of pounds annualiy for the maintenance of a Christian settlement is a challenge to the Jews who neglect to provide for the beloved sons of Zion.” Hagiz estimated the appropriation of the haluk- kah for 1,500 souls in Palestine, including 1,000 in Jerusalem, to be 10,000 lire. Toward this sum there was an income from communal taxes of 2,000 lire; from legacies 2,000 lire; collected by meshulla- him 2,000 lire; leaving a deficiency of 4,000 lire; Jewish indebtedness already amounted to sixty thousand “shekalim ” (florins?). Hagiz was aware of the fact that the meshullahim were not liked, that they were abused no less than were the “hakamim” in Jerusalem, who were suspected and accused of “Jeading a luxurious life and spend- ing the funds of the halukkah in drinking coffee and smoking tobacco.” Nevertheless he was ready to state under oath that the halukkah barely supplied one-third of their actual necessaries of life. The main sources of the halukkah at that timein Europe were London, Amsterdam, Venice, and Leghorn. To meet the drain on the halukkah, the Jerusalem community borrowed from Gentiles at an enormous rate of interest, up to 45 per cent per Borrowing annum, mortgaging their communal from property ; and when they failed to meet Gentiles. the obligationsat maturity, the leaders of the congregation were imprisoned and held for ransom. R. David Melammed, a me- shullah of Hebron, rendered a decision to the effect that inasmuch as the representative Jews of He- 181 bron were held under bail for taxes and other indebt- edness of the community, they came under the cat- egory of “ captives held for ransom,” whose claims, therefore, took precedence over all other charitable matters having a special fund for disposal, and were nota perversion of charity (his responsa, in Ezekiel Silva’s “ Mayim Hayyim,” Amsterdam, 1718). Till the middle of the eighteenth century the man- agement of the halukkah was entirely in the hands of the Sephardim, who were classed as (1) rich or dependent on their own relatives, (2) working men and employees, and (8) hakamim and scholars of the yeshibot. The third class took one-third of the halukkah; one-third was appropriated for poor widows, orphans, and for temporary relief to helpless men; one-third was used in defraying the communal expenses. The distribution was made semiannu- ally, before the Passover and the New-Year festi- vals. The meshullahim kept up their work in the Levant, in Italy, Germany, France, Holland, and England, with occasional visits to Russia, Poland, and America. A regular legal contract was drawn up between the community and the meshullah. The community undertook to provide for the meshullah’s family during his absence and to advance his initial traveling expenses. The meshullah on his part un- dertook to devote his attention and Contracts best endeavors to arousing the people with the by lectures, to urging the gabbaim to Meshullah. increase their remittances, and to open- ing up new sources of income. The commission was usually fixed at 45 per cent on all contributions coming direct from him or that were due to his influence, and 10 per cent on all income from his territory during the ten years following his return. It generally took the meshullah from three to ten years or longer to complete his mission. In an important city he sometimes accepted a rabbinate or the position of a “maggid ”-preacher, and held it forsome time. Occasionally he undertook the promotion of.a business enterprise. He was also useful as a news-gatherer before newspapers came into existence. In short, the services of the average old-style meshullahim were distinctly valua- ble, in spite of the shortcomings of some among them who thought chiefly of personal gain, and cared little for the cause they represented. Pseudo- meshullahim, who represented no community, but traveled on their own behalf, also contributed largely to bring discredit upon the office and duty they had fraudulently assumed. Among the early meshullahim to America were R. Moses Malki of Safed, who visited the Newport con- gregation in 1759, and R. Samuel Cohen of Jerusa- lem (1775), An interesting meshullah was Raphael Hayyim Isaac CarreGcaL of Hebron, who was in Newport in 1771 and 1778, after visiting the West Indies (Curacao, 1764). These meshullahim are mentioned by Ezra Stiles in his Diary (“ Publications Am. Jew. Hist. Soc.” No. 10, pp. 18-82). Carregal refers to David Melammed as his teacher. The Ashkenazim at that time formed but a small minority of the Jewish settlers in Palestine. The efforts of Jehiel of Paris to maintain a yeshibah in Palestine in the thirteenth century, as already ob- served, had failed; and a second attempt, by R. THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Halukkah Judah ha-Hasid of Siedlce, Poland, who with many followers emigrated to the Holy Land in 1701, was likewise futile. Not till the Among’ middle of the eighteenth century was the Ash- the presence of the Ashkenazim felt. kenazim. They came from the ranks of the Hasidim in Poland and South Russia; using the same liturgy and ritual as the Sephardim, they were easily assimilated with them, and received a share of the halukkah. The share, however, they asserted, was not in proportion to their numbers. They complained to the Ashkenazic gabbaim in Europe, and finally seceded from the Sephardim. With the aid of the Council of the Four Lands, they established headquarters for their separate haluk- kah at Lublin, Poland. Later, R. Abraham Gershon Kutawer, leader of the Hasidim in Hebron, sent meshullahim to Metz and diverted the halukkah revenue from that source to his own section of the Holy Land. Ina letter of Aryeh Judah Meisels of Apta, written in Jerusalem, the Ashkenazim accused the Sephardim of bad faith, declaring that, in spite of assurances to the contrary, the Ashkenazim were discriminated against and compelled to rely entirely upon their own resources (Luncz, “Jerusalem,” ii. 148-157). While the Ashkenazim at Jerusalem and Hebron separated from the Sephardim and managed their own halukkah, the Ashkenazim at Safed were still united with the Sephardim and drew from the general halukkah, the headquarters for which were in Con- stantinople. A letter dated 1778, and written from Safed by Israel Perez Polotzker to the gabbaim of Vitebsk, Russia, states that their meshullahim came to the house of Baruch Ananio, the head gabbai of the central committee at Constantinople, and re- ceived 3,000 lire. Out of this sum they paid 2,000 lire to the pasha for taxes and 250 lire for expenses of the meshullahim, the balance (750 lire) going to the halukkah (MS. in New York Public Library). In the credentials issued to R. Abraham ha-Kohen of Lask, a Jerusalem meshullah sent to Poland in 1783, the Sephardic central committee writes that Ashke- nazim in the Holy Land were taken care of and given a proportionate share of the halukkah (Schwarz, “Tebu’at ha-Arez ”). A section of the Hasidinn from South Russia set- tled in Tiberias. Their leader was R. Menahem Mendel of Vitebsk, who sent a meshul- At lah regularly to Poland and Volhynia, Tiberias. and ina businesslike manner rendered receipts for past donations signed by the leaders in Tiberias, with requests for further as- sistance. Contributions poured in, and the only dif- ficulty experienced by the meshullah was the safe delivery of the funds at Tiberias and Jerusalem, as the roads via Constantinople were infested by bands of robbers. He had to wait sometimes for three or four months for a protected vessel sailing from Constantinople to Haifa or Acre; and thence a safe- conduct with armed soldiers to Tiberias and Jerusa- lem was necessary. Meanwhile, the halukkah being exhausted, the Hasidim had to borrow money in anticipation of the next remittances. The require- ments of the halukkah at that time exceeded 700 ducats (“ Hibat ha-Arez,” p. 61). Halukkah THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 182 A systematic propaganda for the halukkah was introduced by R. Abraham Kalisker, leader of the Hasidim in Tiberias. He secured the assistance of R. Mordecai of Niesvizh, who issued a proclamation, dated “22 Adar I., 5556 [1796],” and addressed to all Jews of Poland, imploring every male and female, adult and minor, whether living in cities or villages, to subscribe a fixed sum every week for the support of their countrymen who had settled in the Holy Land. The amount was to be paid quarterly, in addition to special donations at weddings, circum- cisions, and other religious rejoicings. This proc- lamation was approved by other rabbis in Poland, and the result was a substantial increase in the halukkah. Nowadays the halukkah is distributed among the four cities Jerusalem, Hebron, Tiberias, and Safed. The Perushim-Ashkenazim, coming from Lithu- ania, Russia, were then few in number and without organization in the Holy Land, and consequently were without an adequate share in the halukkah. R. Menahem Mendel and R. Israel, both of Shklov, together with twenty other Perushim (disciples of R. Elijah of Wilna) left Russia and settled in Safed in 1801. R. Israel, in order to establish a permanent income for the halukkah of the Perushim congrega- tion, constituted himself the meshullah for Lith- uania and White Russia; he succeeded in his task (introduction to his “Pe’at ha-Shulhan,” Safed, 1887). The halukkah of the Perushim was increased by R. Aryeh Léb Katzenellenbogen of Brest- Litovsk and by Hayyim of Volozhin, who issued proclamations to the effect that the contributions put in the boxes bearing the name of R. Meir Ba‘al ha-Nes should not be used for candles in the syna- gogues, as was the custom in some cases, nor for any but the specific purpose of supporting the poor in the Holy Land. This movement tended to trans- fer all property rights in the Ba‘al ha-Nes boxes to the halukkah fund. The headquarters for the halukkah of the Perushim were then removed from Shklov to Wilna. Similarly the headquarters of the rest of the Continent were removed from Metz to Amsterdam, where the central committee combined the halukkah interests of the Sephardim and Peru- shim (Luncz, “Jerusalem,” ii. 148-157). After 1850 the Ashkenazic congregations, or “kolelim,” at Jerusalem began to split into various sections, beginning with the Hollandish-German kolel, followed by the Warsaw and the Hungarian kolelim, until now there exist no less than twenty- five kolelim in Jerusalem. The motive for each sep- aration has invariably been self-interest, to enlarge the halukkah portion of that particular kolel] whose menibers are few in comparison with the contribu- tions derived from their native land. It can not be denied, however, that the splitting up of the Ashkenazic community into many small congrega- tion-groups has stimulated the tendency to home rule and aroused the spirit of emulation, and that the result has been greater economy, a more effect- ive and energetic management, and a general in- crease of the halukkah. Some kolelim give certain of their beneficiaries an advance share over other members (“kedimah ”), the privileged ones being men of learning and dis- tinction. Children are generally allowed half a share, The share of an individual is sometimes mortgaged for several years in advance, the beneficiary assign- ing his right through a regular form of contract called “shi‘bud,” which is discounted at from 5 to 10 per cent, according to the reliability of the kolel which recognizes the assignment. The separation of the kolelim, each working for itself and managed by its own committee in Jerusa- lem, caused no little anxiety to those who had no kolel to care for them, as, for instance, those from foreign countries without a representative congrega- tion in Palestine. The secession also gave the com- munity much concern regarding general expenses, such as the salaries of the rabbis, the The Wa‘ad Turkish military taxes, and the ha-Kelali. usual bakshish to the Turkish officials. For these purposes the central com- mittee, or “ wa‘ad ha-kelali,” was organized in 1866 in Jerusalem by Rabbi Meir Auerbach, who was suc- ceeded by R. Samuel Salant in 1878. This commit- tee represented the genera] interests of all the Ash- kenazim in Palestine, while the Sephardim continued the management of their affairs under the guidance of the hakam bashi of Jerusalem. | The wa‘ad ha-kelali employed special meshulla- him, whom they sent to countries without a represent- ative kolel in Palestine. This plan resulted in open- ing up many new sources for the halukkah in South Africa, Australia, England, and particularly in America. Thus the meshullahim of the Sephardim found themselves in direct competition with the meshullahim of the Ashkenazim. The friction be- tween the two sections increased their expenses and tended to lessen the revenue. In 1871 the Sephar- dim and Ashkenazim compromised on the following basis of settlement regarding the American contribu- tions: (1) Jerusalem to be the point for all remit- tances; (2) the Ashkenazim in Jerusalem to re- ceive from the halukkah fund an advance of $500 per annum; (3) 15 per cent of the remainder to be advanced for the poor of both parties in Jerusa- lem; (4) the remainder to be divided: 60 per cent for both parties in Jerusalem and Hebron, and 40 per cent to Safed and Tiberias. The distribution by the central committee, irrespective of the kolel affil- iations, is knownasthe “minor halukkah ” (“haluk- kah ketannah”), and averages about one dollar per person. R, Joseph Riwlin, as secretary of the central com- mittee, reorganized it in 1885, introduced a modern system of bookkeeping, and issued printed reports of the receipts and expenditures of the haJukkah, thus coming into touch with the gabbaim Publica- and the contributors. These reports, tion of knownas“shemesh zZedakah ” (the sun Accounts. of righteousness), contain items of historyrelative toalmostevery country in the world. At the time of the earliest reports the contributions intended for division between the Sephardim and the Ashkenazim were usually sent to Nathan Marcus Adler, chief rabbi of Eng- land, who forwarded the proper amounts to the hakam bashi, Raphael Meir Fanijil, and R. Samuel Salant, in Jerusalem. The North-American Relief Society for the indigent Jews of Jerusalem, whose ve ut iy te CONTRACT BETWEEN A SHELIAH AND THE SEPHARDIC CONGREGATION AT JERUSALEM. (in the possession of J. D. Eisenstein, New York.) Halukkah THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 184 members were Portuguese and German Jews, sent about $750 per annum through the chief rabbi of Eng- land, with instructions to divide the amount between the two parties. Contributions in- American tended for Ashkenazim only were sent Con- to R. Samuel Salant. The New York tributions. Society for the Relief of the Poor in Palestine forwarded to him about $1,250 yearly. Baltimore was the next best center, sending about $500 yearly through the congrega- tions Chizuk Emoonah and Shearith Israel. Alto- gether the American contributions to the halukkah did not exceed $5,000 per annum up to 1885. But through the energetic work of Riwlin the increase of the Ashkenazic halukkah from America was soon apparent, and was largely due to the reports and the activity of the meshullahim, who covered every state from Maine to Cali- fornia. The agree- ment of 1871 with the Sephardim had be- come obsolete by that time, and to strengthen their posi- tion in America the Sephardim, folowing the example of their opponents, began to issue, in 1891, similar reports, entitled “ Ha- Moreh 1i-Zedakah” (The Guide for Char- ity). The Sephardim, tired of opposing the Ashkenazim in North - America, retired, and confined their atten- tion to Italy, the Barbary States, Turkey, Egypt, Ye- men, Persia, India, Turkestan, etc, The result was that the two factions entirely Separated as regards the halukkah, each working in its own sphere. The American Jews in Palestine, following the examples of the other kolelim, strove to organize their own kolel. J. G. Wilson, the United States consul at Jerusalem, in his approval of the project dated Feb. 10, 1879, said that “a responsible agency for the distribution of their charities may be the means of great and lasting good,” and promised co- operation to the best of his power. But the central committee would not allow this new kolel to exist, and, instead, satisfied the few American claimants for assistance. After several other attempts the Amer- icans finally succeeded in organizing their kolel (Aug., 1895), and induced RabbiJoshua L6b Diskin in Jerusalem to accept their rabbinate and to receive all contribu- tions for the American kolel. The members in New York contributing to the Amer- ican kolel were incorporated Dec. 17, 1897, as ‘¢ Kolel America.” Halukkab Box. “The American Congregation, the Pride of Jerusa- lem.” The receipts were, in 1898, $948; in 1899, $1,255; in 1900, $1,762. The central committee, fearing the consequence of the separation, effected a settlement in 1901 on a basis of two-thirds for themselves and one-third forthe Kole] America from all collections made in the United States and Canada. The two-thirds were to be used for gencral expenses, and the balance divided into three parts, one part for the Perushim, one part for the Hasidim, and the remainder for Safed and Tiberias. The total amount of the American collections for the halukkah is now about $20,000 per annum, and the number of American applicants in the Holy Land in 1902 was nearly 800. After deducting the expenses of the me- shullahim, etc., they receive about $5,500 yearly. In the above-mentioned incomes are included those from certain houses (see JERUSA- LEM, MopERN). A good deal has been said and written against the haluk- kah. The Hebrew and Jewish news- papers and_ period- icals are almost unan- imous in criticizing the method, princi- pally for the reasons: (1) that the halukkah promotes mendican- cy and pauperism; (2) that it encourages idleness and _ thrift- lessness; (8) that it fosters differences be- tween the Sephardim and Ashkenazim; (4) that it gives to the rabbis who con- trol the distribution too much power to hamper and prevent modern schools for manual Jabor and secular knowledge; (5) that the distributions are made unjustly, many who do not need or deserve aid being beneficiaries, while others, like the Ye- Objections menites and the extremely poor, are to the ignored. Itiseven claimed that the ha- Halukkah. lukkah managers oppose the introduc- tion of agriculture as a means of ame- liorating the condition of the poor, and that they are hostile to the Zionist movement for fear it might in- terfere with them and end their power. All these accusations may have some basis of fact. The rabbis, however, disclaim any intention on their part to oppose agriculture and industry for the young and coming generation, so long as a proper religious training is not neglected. They say that the purpose of the halukkah is only to give aid to the helpless, and especially to learned men. Indeed, the editor of “Ha-Lebanon” defended the public support of the halukkah for the settlers in the Holy Land on 185 the ground that the Christians support their clois- ters and nunneries. It is undeniable that the halukkah produces some good results. It has centralized the thoughts of the Jews in every part of the world; it preserves the tra- ditional idealism of Jewish learning; it aids the helpless, and in many cases assists the mechanic and artisan to earn a living for his family; above all, it is an inuducement to keep alive a Jewish settle- ment in the Hely Land. Nevertheless, the problem of organization is not entirely solved. A list of the best-known meshullahim, with their dates and spheres of activity, is given here: 1441, ‘Esrim we-Arba‘ah: Europe. 1600. Judah de Leon: Italy (Nepi-Ghirondi, ** Toledot Gedole Yisrae},”’ p. 166). 1650. poses b. Reuben David Spiro: Italy and Germany (ib. p. 61). 1659. Benjainin ha-Levi: the Levant and Italy (Michael, °° O ha-Hayyim,”’ No. 598). ; 1676. Joseph b. Eliezer: Italy and Germany. 1676, Shallit Riqueti: Italy and Germany (with the preceding, author of “‘Iggeret Mesapperet’’). 1690. Judah Saraf: the Levant and Italy (Michael, ic. No. 835). 1695. Abraham Yizhaki; Italy (Nepi-Ghirondi, l.c. p. 206). 1695. Samuel ha-Kohen: Italy, etc. (ib. p. 359). 1695. Abraham b. Levi Conque: Italy, Germany, and Poland (Michael, l.c. No. 154). 1700. Hayyim Asael b. Benjamin: Smyrna (ib. No. 895). 1705. Gedaliah Hayyim: Italy (ib. No. 664). 1709. Nathan Mannheim: Germany and Poland. 1709. Jacob of Wilna: Germany and Poland (with the prece- ding, author of ** Meorot Natan’’). 1710. David Melammed. 1712. Hayyim Hazzan (Michael, f.c. No. 871). 712. Abraham Rovigo (ib.). 1718. Hayyim Jacob b. Jacob David: the Levant and Europe (ib. No, 877). 1720. Ephraim b. Aaron Nabon: Italy (ib. No. 518). 1730. David Capsoto : Holland (Nepi-Ghirondi, l.c. p. 76). 1730. Moses Hagiz: the Levant and Europe for a period of 50 years (Azulai, ‘* Shem ha-Gedolim,”’ i. 34). 1740. Baruch Gad: Media and Persia (Nepi-Ghirondi, lc. p. 58). 1750. Baruch of Austria (ib. p. 62). 1750. Hayyim Joseph David Azulai: the Levant and Europe, in- cluding England, for 56 years. His ** Ma‘agal Yashar ” contains part of his itinerary. 1750. Hayyim Abraham Zebi: Italy (ib. p. 115). 1750. Hayyim Mordecai Zebi: Italy, etc. (Michael, l.c. No. 886). 1750. Rahmim Nissim Mizrahi: the Levant and Italy (Nepi-Ghi- rondi, U.c. p. 312). 1759. Moses Malki: America (*‘ Publications Am. Jew. Hist. Soc.”’ p. 18). 760. Hayyim Nissim Jeroham of Wilna: Germany (‘ Kiryah Ne’emanah,”’ p. 114, together with other meshulla- him). 1760. Yom-Tob al-Ghazi: the Levant and Italy (Nepi-Ghirondi, i.c. p. 167). 1765. Hayyim Moda‘: Holland (wrote approbation to ‘* Pe’er ha- Dor’’). 1765. Jacob al-Yashar: Persia. 1767. Issachar Abulafia: Italy (wrote approbation to ‘Yad Malachi ”’). 1770. Abraham Solomon Zalmon: Europe (Nepi-Ghirondi, l.c. p. 61). 1772. Abraham Segre: Germany (Nepi-Ghirondi, lc. p. 25). 1773. Isaac Carregal: West Indies and the British Colonies of North America. 1776, Jacob Raphael Saraval: 206). 1780. Judah Samuel Ashkenazi (i). p. 214). ; 1788. Abrabam ha-Kohen of Lask: Germany and Poland. 1790. David Hayyim Hazzan: Italy. 1796. Joseph Aben Samon: Tripoli (wrote approbation to **Hayye Abraham ’’), 1800. Israel of Shklov: Lithuania and White Russia. 1804. Israel Raphael Segre (Nepi-Ghirondi, t.c. p. 25). 1807. Hayyim Baruch of Austria: Germany (wrote approbation to “ Ozar ha-Hayyim ”’). Holland and England (ib. p. THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Halukkah 1810. Solomon David Hazzan: the Levant and Italy (Nepi- Ghirondi, l.c. p. 348). 1830. Joseph Edels Ashkenazi: Italy (id. p. 212). 1848. Isaac Covo: Egypt. 1850. Isaac Farhi: Italy (ib. p. 220). 1850. Levi Nehemias: Italy (ib.). 1850. Joseph Schwarz: the United States (author of ‘ Te- bu’at ha-Arez”’). 1856. Moses Hazzan: the Levant (author of ‘* Nahalah le-Yis- rael*’). 1865. Raphael Meir Fanijil: Europe (bakam bashi and author of ** Leb Marpe’’). 1885. Moses Riwlin: Australia. 1885. Nathan Natkin: the United States (d. 1888, in New York). 1890. Abraham ibn Ephraim : Persia (Sephardic). 1908 (at present): Shalom Hamadi: Yemen (Sephardic). Benjamin ha-Kohen: Caueasia, Russia (Sephardic), J. Meynhas: India (Sephardic). Eliezer Zalman Grajewski: the United States. Joshua Léb Siissenwein: the United States (author of ** Zir Ne’eman,”’ Jerusalem, 1898). Solomon Joseph Eliach. The following statistics, for the year 1902, give the ast number of persons in each (Ashkena- Statistics. zic) kolel, the amount of its halukkah, and the average amount per capita: TABLE OF THE HALUKKAH: 1902. : so at S | .s | os 3 KN ES os aa Sem ro aes $3 + va ar ms oO Name of Kolel. bey o> S = a= 80 rs. oes _* = & ar > < Oo ee <4 RUSSIA. 1. Wilna-Samogitia ....... $5.4 $12,000 BARTON 7 5648s Kea eex es 4.55 7,500 Oi) MATIBE sou sau teas aoe en oes 2.49 2,500 4) EUSHGA i c3 feu teabeces 4.65 3,250 6: BION 2 bis meets 9,16 1,2 6. Suwalki-Lomza......... 11.35 7.0100 fae a 1d bl 1.07 750 Be WATSAW cccitin evens ees 14.17 18,600 DP PLE SLE: Fuse Sie tin ecet eos ieee Ry 3.68 7,000 Os CAV. Sea ca scutes stnciek 1875 368 2.05 750 TT: SOM a eae: aa ee wake place 304 2.30 7 As VOINVNIGs 6 66 ie SS ie satel! "aake 1,160 1,55 1,800 13. Bessarabia.............. 56 2.23 125 14, TADOBHOL 4 sce e ae escsans 50 3.D0 175 15. KOydenow......eseceeee 180 13.89 2,500 RUMANIA. | 103 MOG VIA, oxescda ae sdasy Tk 4 le 680 7. Wallachia ...........68. 600 | 2.00 1,200 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 1G Deere... 6. cariwsaccwns 7717 10.30 8,000 1D). ROBOW sciatica va cutee » 150 5.60 840 BE ERAT Ric she ware See nae oh 125 9.60 1,200 21. Bukowina...........00. ssa ge 160 8.75 1,400 22. Siebenbiirgen .......... 60 | 26.67 1,600 es dante bacstaecategts 1,300 80.76 40,000 ary pene 180 ! BS rw 6,080 292 {| 18.50 5,400 CES Ruewaet tees 15,506 | $8.56 | $182,750 average Nos. 1-7, 22-25, are Perushim; Nos. 8-21 are Hasidim; No.1 includes Kovno, Couriand, and Finland ; No. 4includes a prov- ince in White Russia and Shklov and Moghilef; No. 8, except Suwalkiand Loiza ; No. 9, *' HaBaD,”’ initials of Hokmah, Bi- nah, De‘ah, a cabalistic name symbolizing a society of Hasidim who read the Zohar; Nos. 14 and 15, government of Minsk; No. 24, “* HoD,” initials of Holland-Deutschland. The following table shows the halukkah receipts of the Sephardim and Ashkenazim from America in 1890-99: Ham Ha-Mabdil THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 186 a Pte, 4 | ax., - ek .Sephar-' AshKe- : Sephar-| AshKe- Year. | dim, | nazim. | Year dim. | nazim. 1800) ow ssccesss $5,095 | $21,320 '/1896.......... | S13.178 | $26,384 TROLS «25 tatoo 6,840 | 26.441 1800. eee + 12,768) 28,670 LBS oy greaeeua 8,221 | 24,644 1/1898-99....... 19,907 | 63,949 TBNGac aaa ats 9,327 | 24,363 | | —_——__——. — TS nt ak sept | 14.159 | 20,070;| Average....) $10,263 $26,172 LeOsimde Peeee 4 | 13,147 | 25,981 |, The receipts of the wa‘ad ha-kelali from 1885 to 1890 were as follows : 1885, $10,276 ; 1886, $13,885 ; 1887, $15,550; 1888, $14,936 ; 1889, $20,032 ; showing a decided increase during the period. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Kontres Emet Meha-Arez, Amsterdam, 1843- 844; Ot Emet, Nos. 1-8, Amsterdam, 1854-59; Reports Shemesh Zedakah, Nos. 1-20, Jerusalem, 1885-1900; Re- ports Ha-Moreh li-Zedakah, Nos. 1-9, Jerusalem, 1891-99; Reports American Congregation, the Pride of Jerusalem, Nos. 1-3, New York, 1898-1900; Report Kolel_ America, No. 1, Jerusalem, 1901; Ha-Zefirah, 1880, No. 41; Ha-Meliz, 1883, No. 94; 1885, No. 16; 1888, No. 164; 1889, Nos. 82-88; Habaz- zelet, 1889, No. 21: Jewish Comment, xiv., No. 17; comp. Table of Halukkah with Eisenstein’s Report of Kolel_Amer- ica, 1898, No. 1, p. 5, and with Lunez, Lach, 1901, vii. 168-171 ; Jitid. Voikskalender, pp. 151 et sey., Briinn, 1903-04. A, J. D. E. HAM.—Biblical Data: Second son of Noah (Gen. v. 32); mentioned second in the table of the nations (Gen. x. 6), where his descendants are given. In Gen. ix. 24 he appears as the youngest of Noah’s sons, who treated his father with irreverence when the latter was under the influence of drink. J. In Rabbinical Literature: Ham is repre- sented by the Talmudists as one of the three who had intercourse with their wives in the Ark, being punished therefor in that his descendants, the Ethi- opians, are black (Sanh, 108b; Gen. R, xxxvi. 11). Some explained the obscure passage Gen. ix. 22-24 as follows: Ham emasculated his father, saying, “My father has three sons already; and now he wishes a fourth son.” Therefore Noah cursed Ca- naan, Ham’s fourth son, saying, “Thou hast hin- dered me from having a fourth son; I will curse thy own fourth son.” According to another opinion, Ham defiled his father, and Noah cursed Canaan be- cause Ham, with his father and his two brothers, had been previously blessed by God (Sanh. 70a; Gen. R. xxxvi. 4). Another opinion declares that the mutilation of Noah was committed by Canaan, but was really caused by Ham mentioning his father’s nakedness in the presence of Ham’s youngest son (Ex. R. xxx. 5). Possibly Ham saw Canaan’s deed and did not condemn him for it (Yalk., Gen. 61; comp. “Da‘at Zekenim” ad foc.). Ham was punished by having his descendants led into captivity with their buttocks uncovered (Isa, xx. 4; Gen. R. xxxvi. 8). J. M. SEL. —~—Critical View: The modern critics regard the story narrated in Gen. ix, 24 as having been origi- nally told of Canaan, “Ham father of [Canaan] ” being a later insertion. The ethnographic coucep- tions of the ancient Hebrews first divided the races they knew into those related to them (Shem), those inhabiting the land (Canaan), and those out- side(Japheth). Later on this threefold division seems to have been applied to all nations known to the Israclites, and then, it being impossible to regard Canaan as representative of the south, Egypt took that place. “Ham” is, according to this view, equivalent to “Egypt,” one of the names of which was “Chemi” (black, referring to the dark color of the soil of the Nile valley). Accordingly, in the table of nations Ham is reported to have four chief branches: Cush = Ethiopia, Mizraim = Egypt, Phut = Libya, and Canaan. These four divisions were then subdivided, among the descendants of Cush being the Babylonians, Accadians, and Assyrians; among those of Mizraim, the Philistines and the Cypriotes (Caphtorim); among the Canaanites, Si- don, Heth, and nine other smaller tribes like the Jebusites, and the Amorites (Gen. x. 6-20). The exact basis of this classification is not clear. It is mainly geographical, all the nations south of Pales- tine being included in the list of the descendants of Ham; but this scarcely accounts for the presence of Canaan among the sons of Ham, which may have been due to the need of reconciling the legend of Noah’s disgrace with the modern cosmogony. J. HAMA: Babylonian scholar of the fourth amo- raic generation; contemporary of Papa (Ket. 86a), — and successor of Nahman b. Isaac in the rectorate of the academy at Pumbedita (856-377 ; Gritz, “ Gesch.” 2d ed., iv. 866; comp. Sherira’s “Iggeret.”). Com- ing from Nehardea (see B. B. 7b; Rashi ad loc.), he became known as “the amora of Nehardea” (Sanh. 17b). As rector of an academy many undecided cases were submitted to him, and his decisions have been approved by later generations as good law (B. B. 7b; Shebu. 48b). On one occasion, however, he signally failed, and was severely criticized. King Shabur inquired of him, “Where does your Law prescribe burial for the dead?” Hama found no an- swer. When Aha b. Jacob heard of Haima’s failure, he exclaimed, “The world is ruled by fools! Why did he not quote the verse (Deut. xxi. 23), ‘Thou shalt in any wise bury him that day ’?” (Sanh. 46b). Hama made his living by “ tarsha,” 7.e., selling goods to venders on credit and at the prices prevailing in the higher markets, but assuming the risks of trans- portation (B. M. 65a; comp. 69b). Jost (“Gesch. des Judenthums und Seiner Sekten,” ii, 197) erroneously identifies him with Hama b. Tobiah, who is said to have caused a _ priest’s daughter to be burned for adultery (Sanh. 52b), contrary to the Pharisaic mode of execution and against the law abrogating capital punishment in the absence of the Great Sanhedrin (see CAPITAL PUNISHMENT). This Hama was a later Babylonian amora, of whom nothing more is known. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Halévy, Dorot ha-Rishonim, ii. 252; Heil- prin, Seder ha-Dorot, ii.; Weiss, Dor, iii. 204. Ss. s. S. M. HAMA B. BISA (BISAI): Amora of the third century, who formed the middle link of a schol- arly trio, and who exceeded his predecessor, as his successor in turn exceeded him, in the acquisition of knowledge. Like many other students, he left home and family, being gone twelve years. When he returned, fearing to startle his family, he went first to the local bet ha-midrash, whence he sent word to them of his arrival. While there his young son Hoshaiah soon engaged him in a discussion, neither knowing the other. Hama, admiring the logical bent of the young man’s mind, sorrowfully re- flected on his long absence from home, where he himself might have raised such a son. He at last went to his house, and there, while seated beside his 187 wife, he saw enter his late interlocutor at the bet ha-midrash. Surmising that he had come to con- tinue the discussion, Hama rose to receive him, whereupon his wife surprised him by exclaiming, “Does a father ever rise before a son?” (Ket. 72a). On another occasion father and son were discussing a point of civil law. They disagreed and submitted their views to Bisa, the father of Hama, who sided with Hoshaiah. On this occasion Rami b. Hama expressed the hope that in the learned trio would be fulfilled the Scriptural saying, “A threefold cord is not quickly broken ” (Eccl. iv. 12; B. B. 59a). According to the tosafists (B. B. 59a, 8.0. “ Weha- Hut”), the Hoshaiah here cited is identical with HosHAIAH RABBAH, Bacher (“Ag. Pal. Amor.” i. 89) adopts this view, but Frankel (“ Mebo,” p. 85b) rightly questions its tenability. There is no doubt that Hosbaiah Rabbah’s father’sname was “ Hama,” but it is cited with the addition of “Father of R. Hoshaiah ” (Yer. Sheb. ii. 38d; Yer. Niddah iii. 50c), Only once does the name “ Hama b. Bisa” appear so as to leave no doubt of his being a contemporary of Judah I., and, therefore, the father of Hoshaiah Rab- bah (Niddah 14b). But the patronymic is an error, and the parallel passage reads correctly: “Hama, the father of Hoshaiah ” (Yer. Niddah ii. 49d). Itis probable that Hama was the father of the younger Hoshaiah, and flourished contemporaneously with Rami b. Hama, the son-in-law of R. Hisda. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Heilprin, Seder ha-Dorot, ii. J. S. M. HAMA B. HANINA: Palestinian amora of the third century; contemporary of R. Johanan (Shab. 147b). Like his father, Hanina b. Hama, he directed a school at Sepphoris (Yer. Sanh. x. 28a), and was well known in the circles of the halakists (comp. Shab. Z.c.; Yer. Shab. v. 7c; Yer. Suk. ii. 52d; Yer. Meg. iii. 74b). He was distinguished as a haggadist, in which field he occupied a high post- tion, haggadists like Levi frequently quoting him (comp. Pesik. iv. 3%a, vii. 67b, xvii. 182a, xxiii. Andante. THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Ham Ha-Mabdil 1538a, b, xxxi. 195a). Who his teachers were is no- where stated. Possibly R. Hiyya the Great was one of them (see Sanh. 29a: Hiyya’s patronymic is doubtless a mistake). In his homilies Hama sought to convey practical lessons. Thus, commenting on the Scriptural com- mand, “Ye shall walk after the Lord your God” (Deut, xiii. 5[A. V. 4]), he asks, “ How can man walk after God, of whom it is written, ‘ The Lord thy God is aconsuming fire ’?” (2d, iv. 23 [[A. V. 24]). But, he explains, the Bible means to teach that man should follow in God’s ways, “As He ciothes the naked (Gen. ili. 21) so do thou clothe the naked” (Sotah 14a). According to Hama death was inflicted upon Adam not so much because of his sin as to prevent wicked men in the future from proclaiming them- selves immortal gods (Gen. R. ix. 5). Hama’s an- cestors were wealthy, and built many synagogues. On one occasion, while visiting, with his colleague Hoshaiah II., the synagogues at Lydda, he proudly exclaimed, “ What vast treasures have my ancestors sunk in these walls!” To this Hoshaiah responded, “How many lives have thy ancestors sunk here! Were there no needy scholars whom that treasure would have enabled to devote themselves entirely to the study of the Law?” (Yer. Peah viii. 21b). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bacher, Ag. Pat. Amor. i. 447 et seq; Frankel, Mebo, 85b; Heilprin, Seder ha-Dorot, ed. Maski- leison, ii. 188b ; Weiss, Dor, iii. 91. E. C, S. M. HA-MABDIL: Ahymn signed with the acros- tic “Isaac ha-Katon” (Isaac ben Judah ibn Ghay- yat, 1030-89), obviously written for the Nr‘ILAn service of the Day of Atonement, but now used in the HaspaLay at the close of the Sabbath. Of its many musical settings the finest is the fol- lowing old Spanish melody. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zunz, Literaturgesch. pp. 14, 554; De Sola and Aguilar, Ancient Melodies of the Spanish and Portu- guese Jews, No. 24; Young Israel, ii. 242 ; Pauer and Cohen, pana Hebrew Melodies, No.7; Baer, Ba‘al Tefitlah, 0. A A. F. L. C. HA-MABDIL 1. He who part - eth sa-cred and pro - fane, To for - give our sins 2. Lord, on Thee I call, O save Thou me! And the path of life 3. In Thy hand, O Lord, are we but clay! Light or grave, our faults may He deign, As the sands our make me see; From the clutch of do not weigh; Thenshall day pour as the myr-iad stars.................5- lead me forth to -~ day...................5- night de-clare the truth.................6. stock.. in - crease... a - gain, And sick - ness set..... me free, And forth.. the word... to - day, And ee 2) night; ee from...... night; 2 ais (Osh eossmee night; Then .. shall THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 188 sands our StOGK .scciiee sees in - clutch of sick = - - ness day pour FOLD ow once the crease........... & - gain,....... And BOG ck canes asa ees me TOO 0 oc e5e2 And WOE Siinadu ie das to - day,....... And Cc == eee 2 ee et aera 7 i a as the myr- iad _ stars lead me _ forth to - day night de - clare the HAMADAN: Persian city; 160 miles west- southwest of Teheran. Hamadan is generally iden- tified with the ancient Ecbatana, the Achmetha of the Bible, capital of Media Magna. It seems that the Jews settled there soon after its foundation and prospered; but with its conquest by the Arabs (6384) persecutions began. Benjamin of Tudela, who was there in the middle of the twelfth century, makes the statement that he found there fifty thousand Jews. From the following remark of Edrisi, also, it is evident that the city was inhabited by a great number of Jews: “The commerce of this place was very considerable, which accounts for the great num- ber of Jewsit contained.” Later, under the Sufi and Afghan dynasties (seventeenth and eighteenth cen- turies), the Jews of Hamadan suffered heavily. The Judeo-Persian poet Babai b, Lutaf of Kashan described in verse the persecutions of the Jews throughout Persia under Abbas I. (1595-1628), Abbas II. (1639-66), and under the first kings of the Afghan dynasty. The Jews of Hamadan suffered especially at the hands of Mohammed Bey, the fanat- ical vizier of Abbas II., who gave them the alterna- tives of embracing Islam or of leaving the country empty-handed. Those who refused to do either were put to death. The offer of rich rewards for apostasy occasioned a considerable number of con- versions among the poor Jews. Mahmud Shah (1725) massacred a great number of Jews, among them being the rabbi of Hamadan, Mulley Musa. Another massacre occurred by order of Tahmas Kuli Khan, better known as “ Nadir Shah ” (1735-47). In spite of these persecutions there was still a considerable number of Jewish families at Hama- dan at the beginning of the nineteenth century. M. L. Dubeux says: “Hamadan in the year 1818 contained about nine thousand houses and from forty to fifty thousand inhabitants, inclu- ding six hundred Jewish families.” But this number diminished considerably within twenty years, for. Flandin, who was at Hamadan in 1839 and 1840, says: “The Jews fabricate an immense quantity of imitation Greek and Sassanid coins. They number about two hundred families, and I think their predilection for Hamadan is due to the tradition that Mordecai and Esther were buried there.” Benjamin of Tudela mentions the sepul- cher: “In front of one of the synagogues of Hama- dan is the sepulcher of Mordecaiand Esther.” Ben- jamin IT. speaks of it at greater length; he says that the Jews bold it in great veneration, and visit it at the end of every month and at Purim. They even sacrificed there, and gave the sacrifices to the poor, in order to win the protection of Mor- decai and Esther. In his time (19th cent.) there were at Hamadan three synagogues and three rabbis, One of them, R. Elijah, had the title of “nasi”; the second was R. Aaron. Dr. Polak, physician to Nasir al-Din Shah from 1855 to 1860, had an oppor- tunity to observe minutely the condition of the Jews of Hamadan, as this town was the summer residence of the king. He wrote as follows: “The Jewish colony lives in aspecial quarter in the midst of the town, in a ghetto. Their sanctuary is @ small monument, built in the shape of a dome, and, according to tradition, contains the tombs of Mordecai and Esther. The Jews earn their living by all kinds of gola- and silyer-work, in which they are as clever as the Caucasians; by glass-cutting, silk-weaving, dealing in old clothes and in skins. Many of them are masons, blacksmiths, tailors, and shoemakers; some practise medicine, which they study according to the works of Avicenna, who is buried at Hamadan. They live under great difficulties, because they are considered as outcasts; they are constantly exposed to the caprices of the governor, who uses every pretext to plun- der them. . . . Should a Jew appear in the street dressed de- cently, or on horseback, the spectators are indignant at him for daring to appear Jike a true believer. Should he, on the econ- trary, be dressed miserably, he is followed by a crowd of young rascals, who throw mud and stones at him.” _If the numbers given by Dubeux and Flandin are exact, the Jews of Hamadan have increased re- markably, in spite of persecutions; for, according to the report of the director of the Alliance school at Hamadan, there are in that town about 5,000 Jews. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Babai, Diwan (Paris MS. No. 1356): Barbier de Meynard, Dictionnaire dela Perse ; Benjamin of Tudela, Itinerary, ed. Asher, i. 127; Benjamin II... Mass‘e Yisrael, p. 91; Dubeux, La Perse, p. 26; Edrisi (Freneh transl. of Jau- bert), ii. 162, 166; Flandin, Voyage en Perse, i. 383: Israel Levi, in R. HB. J. xxxvi. 237 et seq.: Monatsschrift, xvii. 110: Polak, in Arch. Isr. 1865, pp. 440 et seg. G M. SEL. HA-MAGGID. See PERIODICALS. HAMAT (commonly called Hamai Gaon): Pseudonym of a cabalist belonging, according to Jellinek, to the school of Isaac the Blind. The works which bear this name are: “Sefer ha-Yihud.” probably on the Tetragrammaton, quoted by Meir ibn Gabbai (“‘Abodat ha-Kodesh,” 9th ed., Cracow) and Moses Cordovero (“ Pardes,” 65th ed., Korez); “Sefer ha-‘Iyyun,” on the existence and unity of God, and followed by a mystical prayer in the style of the “Hekalot de Rabbi Nehunya ben ha- Kanah,” arranged in the order of the Eighteen 189 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Hamadan Haman Benedictions. The “Sefer ha-‘Tyyun” was pub- lished at Warsaw in 1798, among the “ Likkutim ” of Hai Gaon, the end of the “Sefer ha-‘Tyyun” bear- ing the special title “Sha‘are Shamayim.” A small fragment which was found embedded in R. Ga- maliel’s prayer (“Sefer ha-Yihud”) was published by Jellinek. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jellinek, Auswahl Kabbalistischer Mystik, pp. 8 et seq.; idem, Bet ha-Midrash. iii, xxxix., note 4; Steip- schneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 629; idem, Cat. Leyden, p. 1003 idem, Hebr. Bibl. iv. 47; idem, Jewish Literatare, pp. 111, 307, note 28a; Benjacob, Ozar ha-Sefarim, p. 437, No. 264. K. I. Br. HAMAN THE AGAGITE.—Biblical Data: Son of Hammedatha; chief minister of King Ahas- uerus (Hsth. iii. 1-2). As his name indicates, Haman was a descendant of AaaG, the king of the Amalek- ites. On account of his attempt to exterminate the Jews in the kingdom of Ahasuerus, he is fre- quently called “the persecutor of the Jews” (77¥ omiuwn; Esth. iii. 10; viii. 1; ix, 10, 24). His machinations against the Jews and his downfall are remembered during the Feast of Purim. Filled with annoyance because Mordecai did not bow before him, Haman resolved upon the extermination of the Jews throughout the whole kingdom, He drew lots to determine the day of the massacre, and the lot fell on the 13th of Adar (Esth. iii. 4-7). He offered the king ten thousand talents of silver for permission to do with the Jews as he pleased. The permission was granted, and he accordingly des- patched letters to all parts of the Persian kingdom to massacre the Jews on the 13th of Adar (iii. 8-15). His intrigues, however, were baflied by EstuEr. In order to throw him off his guard she invited him to a banquet to which she had also asked the king. Haman, looking upon this as an indication of special favor, in his pride went so far as to prepare a gal- lows whereon to hang Mordecai (v. 14), But in that night a sudden change occurred in Haman’s fortunes. His own answer to the king’s question what should be done to him whom the king delighted to honor, which Haman supposed referred to him- self, obliged Haman to lead Mordecai, his mor- tal enemy, clad in royal garments and seated on the king’s horse, through the streets of Shushan and to proclaim: “Thus shall it be done to the man whom the king delighteth to honor” (vi. 9). After- ward, while Haman was again drinking with the king at a banquet prepared by Esther, the latter exposed to the king Haman’s plot. The king, filled with anger, ordered his officers to hang Haman on the very gallows which he had prepared for Mordecai (vii. 9). Ahasuerus bestowed upon Esther Haman’s house (viii. 1); the ten sons of Haman were executed on the 18th of Adar and then hanged (ix. 7-9, 14). E.G. H. M. SEL. ——In Rabbinical Literature: Haman is identi- fied by the Talmudists with Memucan, the last of the seven princes “which saw the king’s face” (Esth. i. 14), giving to “Memucan” the signification of “prepared for punishment” (Targ. to Esth.; Meg. 12b). Haman wasadirect descendant of Agag in the sixteenth generation and consequently an Amalekite (Targ. Sheni; Josephus, “Ant.” xi. 6, & 5). The Septuagint, however, gives for “ha- Agagi” 6 Maxedov in Esth. ix. 24, while in the pre- ceding instances no translation whatever is given. Having attempted to exterminate the Jews of Persia, and rendering himself thereby their worst enemy, Haman naturally became the center of many Tal- mudic legends. Being at one time in extreme want, he sold himself as a slave to Mordecai (Meg. 15a). He was a barber at Kefar Karzum for the space of twenty-two years (¢b. 16a). Haman had an idola- trous image embroidered on his garments, so that those who bowed to him at command of the king bowed also to the image (Esth. R. vii.). Haman was also an astrologer, and when he was about to fix the fime for the massacre of the Jews he first cast lots to ascertain which was the most auspicious day of the week for that purpose. Each day, however, proved to be under some influence favorable to the Jews. He then sought to fix the month, but found that the same was true of each month; thus, Nisan was favorable to the Jews be- cause of the Passover sacrifice; Iyyar, because of the small Passover. But when he arrived at Adar he found that its zodiacal sign was Pisces, and he said, “Now I shall be able to swallow them as fish which swallow one another ” (Esth. R. vii., Targ. Sheniiii.). Haman had 365 counselors, but the advice of none was so good as that of his wife, Zeresh. She it was especially that induced Haman to build a gallows for Mordecai, assuring him that this was the only way in which he would be able to prevail over his enemy, for hitherto the just had always been res- cued from every other kind of death. As God fore- saw that Haman himself would be hanged on the gallows He asked which tree would volunteer to serve asthe instrument of death. Each tree, declar- ing that it was used for some holy purpose, objected to being soiled by the unclean body of Haman. Only the thorn-tree could find no excuse, and there- fore offered itself for a gallows (Esth. R. ix.; Midr. Abba Gorion vii., ed. Buber, Wilna, 1886; in Tar- gum Sheni this is narrated somewhat differently). Haman selected a thorn-tree in the king’s garden, and, singing and rejoicing, set it up before his door, and said to himself, “'To-morrow, in the morning, at the time of the reading of the ‘Shema‘,’ I shall hang Mordecai.” Then he measured the tree by compar- ing it with his own person to see whether it was suited to the purpose. Just then a “bat kot” came from heaven saying, “The tree is suited to thee; it is prepared for thee since the day of creation.” He then went to the bet ha-midrash, where he found Mordecai surrounded by his pupils to the number of 22.000, all with dust on their heads and clad in sack- cloth. Haman placed chains upon their necks and feet, and set guards over them, saying to himself, “T will first massacre these, and then I will hang Mordecai.” It was the cry of these pupils ascend- ing to heaven that brought about the sudden change in Haman’s fate (Esth. R. ix.; Midr. Abba Gorion v.). Haman tried hard to avoid the humiliation of lead- ing Mordecai through the streets of Shushan; he im- plored the king to spare him that disgrace and offered every kind of reparation to Mordecai, but the king remained inflexible (Targ. Sheni vi.). Atthe time of leading Mordecai through the streets of Shushan. Haman performed the duties of four different call- ings: barber, bath attendant, groom, and public crier. Hamath Hamburg THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 190 He was also compelled to bend forward that Mor- decai might mount from his back on to the horse (Meg. 16a), It is also said that when King Ahasue- rus rose from the banquet in anger and went into his garden he saw angels in the form of men felling the trees, who said that they were ordered to do so by Haman (72.). According to Esth. R. x., it was the angel Michael that felled the trees and who af- terward pushed Haman on to Esther’s couch. Haman was hanged on the second day of the Passover feast (Esth. R. and Meg. /.c.). The Tal- mudists did not agree as to the number of Haman’s sons; according to Rab there were thirty: ten had died, ten were hanged, and ten became beggars. Ac- cording to the Rabbis, the beggars were seventy in number; according to Rami bar Abi, there were al- together two hundred and eight (Meg. 15b). Pietro Perreau published in Steinschneider’s “ Hebr. Bibl.” (vii. 46-47) a supposed text of Haman’s circular regarding the massacre of the Jews (comp. “ Midrash Panim Aherim,” first text, ed. Buber). The manu- script, which is found in the Parma Library (No. 924), dates from the thirteenth century. See PURIM. 8. 8. M. Set. HAMATH (nn): A city and district on the northern frontier of Palestine (Num. xiii. 22, xxxiv. 8; I Kings viii. 65; and elsewhere), situated at the foot of Mount Hermon (Josh. xiii. 5; Judges iii. 3). It is once called RAN MAN = “the great Hamath” (Amos vi. 2). The inhabitants, who were cailed “ Hamathites ” (mMpnn), seem to have been a Hamitic race included among the descendants of Canaan (Gen. x. 18). There is no mention of the kingdom of Hamath till the time of David, when, it is stated, Toi, King of Hamath, warred with Hadadezer, King of Zobah; and, on the defeat of the latter by David, Toi sent his son to congratulate the Jewish king (II Sam. viii. 10). Hamath was certainly one of the tributary king- doms of Solomon (I Kings v. 4), as is evidenced by the fact that Solomon built store-cities there (II Chron. viii. 4). After the death of Solomon, Ha- math seems to have regained her independence; for an inscription of Shalmaneser II. (860 B.c.) states that Irhuleni, King of Hamath, made an alliance with the Hittites, with Damascus under Ben-hadad, with Ahab of Israel, and with others. It has been inferred from II Kings xiv. 28 that Jeroboam II. (c. 810 B.C.) recovered Hamath; but the reading of the passage is doubtful, the text apparently being corrupt. Amos, however, who prophesied in the time of Jeroboam IT. (Amos f. 1), speaks of Hamath as desolate (¢d. vi. 2). In the Assyrian inscriptions it is stated that Eni- Ilu, King of Hamath, brought tribute to Tiglath- pileser IIT’ (730 n.c.), who distributed a part of it among his generals, annexing nineteen districts to Assyria and transporting 1,228 Hamathites to the sources of the Tigris. Sargon, too, boasts of having defeated the Hamathites and of having settled in their country 4,300 Assyrians. The statement as to the conquest of the Hamathites by the kings of Assyria is confirmed by II Kings xviii. 34, xix. 18. According to the Bible, Shalmaneser, King of As- syria, transported some Hamathites to Samaria (2d. xvii. 24). On the other hand, Isaiah speaks of Hamath as one of the places containing exiled Israelites (Isa. xi. 11). The people of Hamath made an idol named “ Ashima” (2d. xvii. 30). Hamath was known to the Greeksand Romans by the name “Epiphaneia,” given to it by Antiochus Epiphanes (Josephus, “Ant.” i. 6, § 2; Jerome, “Qnomasticon,” s.r. “Aemath”). In the Midrash, Hamath is called §'35°5 (= “Epiphaneia”; Gen. R. xxxvil. 8). Still, Targ. pseudo-Jonathan to Num, xiii. 22, Targ. Yer. to Num. xxxiv. 8, and the Syriac version of I Chron. xviii. 16 render “ Hamath” by “ Antiocheia,” which was the most important Syrian town at the time of the Targumists. This place ig now known by its ancient name, “Hamah.” Burck- hardt visited it in 1812, and saw the Hittite inscrip- tions in relief on stones. He describes the place as situated on both sides of the Orontes, and as having a population of 30,000. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Poecocke, Description of the East, i. 143; Burckhardt, Travels in Syria and the Holy Land, p. 145; Robinson, Biblical Researches, Appendix, p. 116; Bade- ker-Sovin, Palestine, 8d ed., p. 424; Bubl, Geographie des Alien Palistina, 1896. E. G. H. M. SEL. HAMATH-ZOBAH: A place mentioned in II Chron. viii. 8, as having been taken by Solomon. Some conjecture that Hamath-zobah is the same as Hamath; but the rendering of the former as “ Bae- soba” by the Greek translators indicates that the two were distinct. E. G. H. B. P. HA-MAZKIR: A _ bibliographical magazine published by M. Steinschneider, twenty-one volumes of which, covering the years 1858-82, were issued, Its full title reads: ““s330m: Hebrilische Biblio- graphie: Blitter fir Neuere und Aeltere Literatur des Judenthums.” It is an invaluable aid to the student of Jewish literature and history, as it con- tains, besides bibliographical information of the most varied sort, many independent essays ancl researches by Steinschneider himself and by the leading Jew- ish scholars of the period. It was continued in 1890 by N. Brill, in Frankfort-on-the-Main, under the title “Central-Anzciger fiir Jiidische Literatur.” Brill died before the first volume was completed. This was followed in 1896 by the “Zeitschrift fiir Hebritische Bibliographie,” published by H. Brody (Frankfort-on-the-Main); frem 1900 on in conjunc- tion with A. Freimann, HAMBERGER, C. H.: Physician in Leipsic; died March 2, 1847, at an advanced age. He trans- lated G. B. de Rossi’s “Dizionario Storico degli Autori Ebrei” into German under the title “ Histo- risches Worterbuch der Jiidischen Schriftsteller und Ihrer Werke,” Leipsic, 1839. His “Nordische Gét- terlehre,” which appeared in 1826 under the pseudo- nym “H, A. M. Berger,” was republished with the title “Nordische Mythologie,” and under his own name, Zittau, 1835. BIBLIOGRAPHY: First, Bibl. Jud. i. 359; Steinschneider, Cat. Bod. col. 1031. S. M. K. HAMBRO, JOSEPH: aU Industries. i) eS Industries. & =as a as 2, = oS "2 = Ss £ me & Food .......4. 43,665 | 57,887 ||Chemicals....| 2,764) 3,617 Clothing ..... 84,915 | 193,954 ||Building......} 19,791 | 31,590 Leather ....../ 40,522 | 85,306 {/Textiles...... 10,589 | 18,428 Wood.........| 25,633 | 49,588 ||Miscellaneaus; 5,998 | 11,695 Metal-mining | 13,296 | 28,3938 || -———————- - Metal - manu- | . Totals...... 259,396 | 500,986 facturing...)/ 12,203 | 20,528 | Besides this some details have been given as to the occupations of Jewesses. It is impossible to state whether they are included in the above numbers or not, ‘ D mo be, : a eo Occupations. £ 28S || Occupations. A= =As e |E*e e | EWE Tailoresses...| 9,191 | 38,419 |/Cigarette-ma- Seamstresses..| 7,161 | 17,331 |) kers........ 991 1,732 Hose-knitters.| 3,626 5,739 |'Glove-makers 182! = 481 Modistes......} 1,686 4,062 |}Others ....... ... | 18,808 76,567 | Totals...... 22,837 | For further details see PoLAND; Russia. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Nossig, Jiidische Statistik, pp. 178-179; Die Welt, Aug. 29, 1902. J HANDWRITING. Sce WRITING. HANES (03n): City in Egypt (Isa. xxx. 4); identified by Jonathan b. Uzziel and by the modern critics with Tahpanhes or Taphne (see Cheyne and Black, “Encyc. Bibl.” 8.2.). E. G. H. HA-NESHER. See PERIODICALS. HANGING. See CAprtaL PUNISHMENT. HANINA TI. See Hanina B. HAMA. HANINA (HANANIAH) II.: Amora of the fifth century ; contemporary of the Palestinian Mani II., and of Rabina, one of the compilers of the Baby- lonian Talmud (Yer. Ber. iii. 6a; Niddah 66b). Hanina attended the schools of Palestine, his native country, and concluded his pupilage under Mani II. (Yer. Pes. i. 27d; Yer. M. K. iii. 82c). He grad- ually rose to his master’s level and discussed with him as a “fellow student” many halakic questions (Yer. Sanh. ii. 19d; Yer. Shebu. vi. 37b). Eventu- ally he removed to Sepphoris, where he became the religious head of the community; herce he is some- times cited as Hanina of Sepphoris (Yer. Ned. ix. 41b). When, in consequence of Roman persecutions at Tiberias, Mani also removed to Sepphoris, Hanina resigned the leadership in his favor—an act of self- abnegation extolled by the Rabbis as having few parallels (Yer. Pes. vi. 38a). Hanina, however, did not long remain in Palestine. As the persecutions became general and intolerable, he emigrated to Babylonia, where Asui frequently sought informa- tion from him (B. B. 25b; Hul. 189b). Hanina’s M. SEL. THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Hand Hanina b. Adda family accompanied him, and were highly respected in their adopted country. There Hanina’s daugh- ter married the son of Rabina (Niddah 66b), BIBLIOGRAPHY: Halévy, Dorot ha-Rishonim, ii. 576. J. S. M. HANINA (HANANIAH) B. ABBAHU: Palestinian amora of the fourth generation, some- times cited as Hanina of Ceesarea (Cant. R. i. 2). The Talmud relates that his father, R. Abbahu, sent him to the academies at Tiberias to study, but that he devoted himself instead to pious deeds, such as attending the dead. Abbahu thereupon wrote to him, “Is it because there are no graves in Caesarea that Ihave sent thee to Tiberias?” (sce ABBA). In the Halakah several precedents of his father’s are reported by Hanina (Yer. Yeb.iv. 6a; Yer. Ket. iv. 29b; Yer. Hal. iii. 62c). He also reports a hala- kic midrash in the name of ABDIMA oF HAIFA (Kid. 38b); occasionally he endeavors to account for a predecessor’s opinion (Yer. Niddah iii. 50c); but nothing original from him in the domain of Halakah is preserved. In the province of the Haggadah, on the contrary, he has left some original though hyperbolic remarks. Thus, commenting on Jer. ix. 9 (A. V. 10), where the prophet declares, “Both the fowl of the heavens and the beast are fled; they are gone,” Hanina says, “Seven hundred species of fish, eight hundred species of locust, and countless spe- cies of fowl accompanied the Israelites from Pales- tine into their Babylonian exile; and when the latter returned all the creatures returnal with them, ex- cept the fish called ‘shibbuta’ [mullet]” (Yer. Ta‘an. iv. 69b; see Jastrow, “ Dict.”). In his lectures Hanina occasionally uses homely illustrations. Speaking on Lam. ii. 1, he says: “A king had a child: the child cried, and the king took it on his lap; it continued crying, and he raised it in his arms; still it cried, wherefore he raised it upon his shoulders. Then the child soiled him, and the king at once put it down on the floor. How differ- ent was the child’s ascent from its descent! The former was gradual, the latter sudden. Thus it went with Israel. At first God took him by the arms (Hosea xi. 3), then He caused him to ride (Hosea x. 11); but when he sinned ‘He cast down from heaven unto the earth the beauty of Israel’ ” (Lam. R. ii. 1). Hanina also makes use of the numerical values of letters in his endeavor to reconcile bag- gadic differences. One rabbi advances the opinion that the name of Israel’s Messiah will be “ Zemah ” (nDoy = “sprout”; comp. Zech. ii. 8); another, that it will be “Menahem” (= “comforter”). Hanina thereupon observes, “There is no difference of opin- ion between them; the total value of the letters in the name suggested by the one is the same as that of the letters in the name suggested by the other.” mos (90 + 40-+ 8 = 188) corresponds with pmo (40 + 50+ 8-+40 = 1388; Yer. Ber. ii. 5a). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bacher, Ag. Pal. Amor. iii. 676; Frankel, Meho, p. 87b; Heilprin, Seder ha-Dorot, ii. 149a, 154a, War- saw, 1897. J S. M. HANINA (HANANIAH; HINENA) B. ADDA (IDDA): Babylonian scholar of the third century. He was skilled in both Halakah and Haggadah; Appa B. AHABAH appears to have been Hanina b. ‘Agul Hanina b. Dosa THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 214 his teacher in the former (Pes. 75a; ‘Ab. Zarah 40a); in the latter he seems to have beena pupil of Tanhum b. Hiyya. From Tanhum, Hanina received the fol- lowing illustration of the relative positions of the prophet and the elder (teacher, sage): “ A king dele- gated two commissioners; with respect to one he wrote, ‘ Unless he exhibits to you my signature and my seal, credit him not’; with reference to the other he wrote, ‘Even if he shows you neither my signature nor my seal, credit him.’ So it is said re- garding the prophet: ‘.. . and giveth thee a sign or a wonder’ (Deut. xiii. 2(A.V. 1)]: while of the sages it is said: ‘According to the sentence of the law which they shall teach thee, and according to the judgment which they shall tell thee, thou shalt do’” (Deut. xvii.11; Yer. Ber. i. 3b; Yer. Sanh. xi. 30b; Yer. ‘Ab. Zarah ii. 41c; Cant. R. i. 2). In the Book of Isaiah 3x! (the future: “ will say ”), instead of the usual qx (“saith ”), is used eight times (i. 11, 18; xxxiii. 10; xl. 1, 25; xli. 21, twice; Ixvi. 9). This peculiarity, according to Hanina, contains an allusion to the corresponding number of prophets that were to appear after the destruction of the (first) Temple: Joel, Amos, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi, Ezekiel, and Jeremiah (Pesik. xvi. 128b; see Buber ad loc.). An elder namesake of Hanina was a tanna, contemporary of AHAI B. JOSIAH, with whom he discussed a halakic midrash (Mek., Mishpatim, v.; comp. Sifra, Kedoshim, ix. 6, 14). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bacher, Ag. Pal. Amor. iii. 553; idem, Ag. Tan. ii. 553; Frankel, Mebo, p. 89a; Heilprin, Seder ha-Do- rot, ti. 148a, 148b, Warsaw, 1897. J. S. M. HANINA B.‘AGUL: Palestinian scholar of the third century ; junior contemporary of Hiyya b. Abba and Tanhum b. Hanilai. Hanina applied to Hiyya to explain why the expression “that it may . go well with thee,” contained in the second version of the Decalogue (Deut. v. 16), was not embodied in the first version (Ex. xx. 12). Hiyya thereupon gave him this remarkable answer: “Instead of ask- ing me that, ask me whether the expression is em- bodied in either version: I do not even know it is there! However, apply to Tanhum b. Hanilai, who has frequented the school of the expert hag- gadist Joshua b. Levi.” Hanina did so, and was told that the promise was omitted from the first ver- sion because the first tablets of the Decalogue were destined to be broken (see Ex. xxxii. 19). This is explained by a later haggadist, who stated that the inclusion of the promise in the tablets that were destined to be broken would have been very dis- couraging to the people, who would have seen in the breaking of them a foreshadowing of the cessa- tion of God’s goodness (B. K. 54b e¢ seq.). With reference to Isa. Ixiv. 3 (A. V. 4: “ Neither hath the eye seen, O God, beside thee, what he hath prepared for him that waiteth for him”), Hanina remarks: “The Jews who attended the banquet given by Ahasuerus [Esth. i.] were asked whether God would ever provide better entertainment for them; to which they replied, ‘Should God furnish us the like of this we should protest, since we have had such viands at the board of Ahasuerus’” (Esth. R. i. 5, where 5333) is corrupted to b»y). His name appears also in connection with a halakah which he reports as having originated with Hezekiah, probably the son of Hiyya (Yer. Yeb. vi. 7c). J. S. M. HANINA (HANANIAH) B. ANTIGONUS : Tanna of priestly descent; coutemporary of Akiba and Ishmael (Bek. vii. 5). It is supposed that in his youth he had witnessed the service of the Temple of Jerusalem, since he knew the fluters that played be- fore the altar (Tosef., ‘Ar. i. 15; comp. ‘Ar. ii. 4). If this were so, Hanina must have enjoyed unusual longevity, as he often appears in halakic controversy with Akiba’s latest disciples. Be this as it may, he was learned in the laws relating to the priests, and many such laws are preserved in his name (Kid. iv. 5: Bek. vi. 3, 10, 11; vii.2,5; Tem. vi. 5), while precedents reported by him regarding the services and appurtenances of the Temple influenced later . rabbinical opinions. On marital questions also he is often cited as an authority (Yeb. xiii. 2; Niddah vi. 18 [comp. 7b. Gem. 52b], viii. 2), as well as on other matters (Sheb. vi. 8; ‘Er. iv. 8). Some hala- kic midrashim also have come down from him (Bek. vii. 2, 5; Mek., Vitro, Bahodesh, 6); but of hag- gadot there is only one under his name. He says: “Whosoever practises the precept concerning the fringes on the borders of (*533) garments (Num. xv. 38 ef seg.) will realize the promise: ‘Ten men . shall take hold of the skirt of [}353) him that isa Jew, saying, We will go with you: for we have heard that God is with you’” (Zech. viii. 23). “On the other hand,” continues Hanina, “he who violates the precept concerning the skirt [433] is included in the verse ‘take hold of the ends of [m15333] the earth, that the wicked might be shaken out of it’” (Job xxxviii. 18; Sifre, Num. 115). According to him, when an aged man dies after not more than three days’ sickness, his death may be termed “ ex- cision” (nD = “cutting off”; see JEw Encyc. iv. 484, s.v. DEATH), a visitation for secret violations of the Sabbath or of the dietary laws (Sem. iii. 10). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bacher, Ag. Tan. i. 378; Briill, Mebo ha- Mishnah, i. 181; Frankel, Darke ha-Mishnah, p. 128; Weiss, Dor, ii. 121. J. S. M. HANINA B. DOSA: Scholar and miracle- worker of the first century; pupil of Johanan b. Zakkai (Ber. 84b). While he is reckoned among the Tannaim and is quoted in connection with a school and its disciples, no halakot and but few haggadot are preserved as from him (Baraita of R. Eliezer xxix., xxxi.; Midr. Mishle x. 2). His pop- ularity, however, which he enjoyed throughout his life, and which rendered him immortal among the mystics, rests not on his scholarship, but on his saintliness and thaumaturgic powers. From the several maxims attributed to him it may be seen that he was a member of the Hasidim: “ Whosoever’s fear of sin precedes his learning, his learning will endure; but where learning precedes fear of sin, learning will not endure”; “ Where a man’s works are greater than his learning, his learning will stand; but where his learning is greater than his works, his learning will not stand”; “Whosoever earns the good-will of humanity is loved of God; but whoso is not beloved of man is not beloved of God” (Ab. 215 ili. 9, 10; Ab. R. N. xxii. 1 [ed. Schechter, p. 35a]; for the corresponding Hasidean principles see JEw. Encyc. v. 225, s.¢. ESsENEs). There are, also, other teachings which betray his Hasidic schooling. Ha- nina, like all the ancient Hasidim, prayed much, and by his prayers he is said to have effected many miracles. It is related that when the son of Johanan b. Zak- Kai was very sick, the father solicited the prayers of Hanina. Hanina readily complied, and the child recovered. The overjoyed father could not refrain from expressing his admiration for his wonderful pupil, stating that he himself might have prayed the whole day without doing any good. His wife, astonished at such self-abasement on the part of her famous husband, inquired, “Is Hanina greater than thou?” To this he replied, “There is this differ- ence between us: he is like the body-servant of a king, having at all times free access to the august presence, without even having to await permission to reach his ears; while J, like a lord Influence before a king, must await an oppor- of His tune moment” (Ber. 34b), Similarly, Prayers. at the solicitation of Gamaliel IL., Hanina entreated mercy for that patri- arch’s son, and at the conclusion of his prayers assured Gamaliel’s messengers that the patient’s fever had left him. This assurance created doubt in the minds of the messengers, who promptly asked, “Art thoua prophet?” To this he replied, “I am neither a prophet nor the son of a prophet; but ex- perience has taught me that whenever my prayer flows freely it is granted ; otherwise, it is rejected.” The messengers thereupon noted down Hanina’s declaration, and the exact time when it was made; on reaching the patriarch’s residence they found that Hanina had spoken truly (¢.; comp. Ber. v. 5; Yer. Ber. v. 9d). Hanina never permitted anything to turn him from his devotions. Once, while thus engaged, a lizard bit him, but he did not interrupt his prayers. To his disciples’ anxious inquiries he answered that he had been so preoccupied in prayer as not even to feel the bite. When the people found the reptile, dead, they exclaimed, “ Wo tothe man whom a lizard bites, and wo to the lizard that bites R. Hanina b. Dosa!” His wonderful escape is accounted for by the assertion that the result of a lizard’s bite de- pends upon which reaches water first, the man or the lizard; if the former, the latter dies: if the lat- ter, the former dies. In Hanina’s case a spring miraculously opened under his very feet (Yer. Ber. v. 9a). The Babylonian Gemara (Ber. 33a) has a different version of this miracle. Hanina’s prayers were efficacious in other direc- tions also.. While traveling he was caught in a shower and prayed “Master of the universe, the whole world is pleased, while Hanina alone is an- noyed.” The rain immediately ceased. Arriving home, he altered his prayer: “ Master of the universe, shall all the world be grieved while Hanina en- joys his comfort?” Thereupon copious showers descended. With reference to his rain-governing powers it was said, “ Beside Ben Dosa's prayers those of the high priest himself are of no avail” (Ta‘an. As Rain- Producer. THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA anne b. ‘Agul] Hanina b. Dosa 24b). When, one Sabbath eve, his daughter filled the lamp with vinegar instead of oil, and then sadly told him of her mistake, he remarked, “He who hath endowed oi] with the power of burning may endow vinegar with the same power”; and the lamp burned on throughout the whole of the next day (Ta‘an, 25a). | Notwithstanding his wonder-working powers, Hanina was very poor. Indeed, it became prover- bial that, while the whole world was provided for through Hanina’s great merits, he himself sustained life from one Sabbath eve to another on a basket of carob-beans. For some time the outside world had been kept in ignorance of his privations; his wife did all that was possible to maintain au appearance of comfort, and though she had no flour with which to make dough, she would put fuel into the oven every Friday and cause columns of smoke to rise, thus making her neighbors believe that, like them, she was baking the Sabbath meals. In time, however, one woman’s suspicion was aroused, and she deter- mined to surprise Hanina’s wife and discover the truth. Buta miracle prevented exposure. When the woman appeared at Hanina’s house and looked into the smoking oven it was full of loaves. In spite of the miracle, Hanina’s wife induced him to collect from heaven an advance portion of his fu- ture lot. Hanina complied with her request, and, in answer to his prayer, a golden table-leg was miraculously sent him. Husband and wife were happy; but that night the wife had a The vision of heaven in which she saw the Miracle of saints feasting at three-legged tables the Golden while her husband’s table had only Table-Leg. twolegs. She awoke full of regret at the importunity which had deprived his table of a leg, and insisted that he pray for the withdrawal of the treasure. This he did, and the golden leg disappeared. Of thismiracle the Talmud says: “It was greater than the former, since heaven gives, but never takes” (Ta‘an. 24b et seq.). By a miracle Hanina was once prevented from partaking of untithed food. One eve of Sabbath he sat down to his frugal meal, when suddenly the table receded from him. After thinking a while he recollected that he had borrowed some spices from a neighbor and that he had not separated the re- quired tithe (See Haber). He thereupon adjusted the matter, and the table returned to him (Yer. Dem. i. 22a). It is stated that Hanina’s donkey would not eat untithed food. Thieves had stolen the animal and confined it in their yard, furnishing it with the necessary provender; but the donkey would neither eat nor drink. As this continued for several days, the thieves concluded to free the ani- mal, lest it starve to death and render their premises noisome. Qn its release it went straight home, none the worse for its long fast (Ab. R. N. viii. 8 (ed. Schechter, p. 19b]; comp. Yer. Dem. i. 21d; Shab. 112b). Once Hanina was greatly grieved at not being able, with other pious people, to present something to the Temple. In his despondency he walked out of town, and, seeing a huge rock, he vowed to carry it to Jerusalem as a gift to the Holy City. He smoothed and polished it, and then looked around anina b. Gamaliel anina b. Ika THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 216 for help to transport it. Five laborers appeared, and offered to carry the rock to its destined place for one hundred gold pieces. Hanina, who did not possess half that amount, turned away in despair. Soon, however, other laborers appeared and de- manded only five “sela‘im,” but they stipulated that Hanina himself should aid in the transporta- tion. The agreement concluded, they all seized the rock, and in an instant stood before Jerusalem. When Hanina turned to pay the laborers they were nowhere to be found. He repaired to the Sanhedrin to inquire what disposition he should make of the uncollected wages. The Sanhedrin heard his tale and concluded that the laborers were ministering angels, not human laborers, and that Hanina was therefore at liberty to apply the money to his own use. He, however, presented it to the Temple (Cant. R. 3.1; Eccl. R. i.). Thus was Hanina’s life a succession of miracles (see Pes. 112b; B. K. 50a). A comparatively late mishnah remarks, “ With the death of Hanina b. Dosa wonder-workers {‘anshe ma‘aseh’] ceased to exist” (Sotah ix. 15). His general character was likewise extolled, A contemporary rabbi, ELEAZAR oF Mop1‘m, lecturing on Ex. xviii. 21, cited Hanina b. Dosa and his colleagues as illustrations of the scope of the expression “men of truth” (Mek., Yitro, Amalek, 1). Two centuries later a haggadist, com- menting on Isa. iii. 3, said, “ By the term ‘ honorable man’ is meant one through whose merits Heaven respects [is favorable to] his generation; such a one was Hanina b. Dosa” (Hag. 14a). Nor was Hanina’s wife soon forgotten; long after her death, legend relates, a party of seafarers espied a work-basket studded with diamonds and pearls. 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Naas, 19119q Ssajua UWieudqod9] U9Q"IuaE eB 196} Sian (0 See Kpoard ud 13 Qo ud] 1497Q9)28 1194 QUA 1QUIqeU, mGonezqa8 ua 1nUIS sie doj10d 1334 udo oma ud 4j o]o Uidg (pDEpL“Ieg IewisS Ge.12A Q3I204 urd Ud 14.1913d9$ 19113} IUBYP UA S108 19B1UIQ9] HIIB4A 1338 }$1NII9IB 69 13194J3] QUA JaLIAddJ /Biad UISzog w!y aut ears £15 199 daq/meffed nf ad saguom 1436 24g usanf 13Q NYP BINS scars s9483q gne usidj seang (peu /jd eyS4 yas 12) 131013) aus |ja$s3A/13Ue 491045 UIAd Hoy Gy uEUdS Iquepdra Gojudus 19S el412A wd 1381119J1 49} u19 SBA u3q2Saq Yds se osp*froagneyp uu0da uz0gaS meljed ng wee Cf} 19 UA Yarns BIQUIAAGI0G 43Q'214 a8 vIe né IQuanSayL ela AXP PPI Gundy yyy tps Wr2= PAID CLL LLL LE \ West he Ay a Oy Hosted by Google 483 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Host, Desecration of Host of Heaven ete., which proved by the originat sources that, al- though three Jews had been burned in 1870 on the charge of having stolen a host, “pro sacraimentis punice ct furtive captis,” the original document had been changed sixty-five years later to read “pro sacramento puncto et furtive accepto,” in order to fabricate an accusation of desecration of the host, Other falsifications being discovered in the docu- ment, Pope Pius LX. felt obliged to stop the festival. In the Church of Sainte-Gudule, Brussels, are sev- eral Gobelin tapestries containing representations of the supposed desecration of the host in 1370. See BRUSSELS. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Basnage, Histoire des Juifs, ix., ch. 13; xxv. 397 et seq.; Depping, Les Juifs dans le Moyen Age, p. 125; Zunz, Literaturgesch. pp. 19, 38, 47,49; Aretin, Gesch. der Juden in Baiern, pp. 38 et seg.; Monatsschrift, viii. 49 et seq.; Ehrenberg, Verhandlungen der Koniglichen Preus- sischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1848, p. 349; 1849, p. 101; Stobbe, Die Juden in Deutschland, pp. 187, 292; Gritz, Gesch. vii. 231, 326; vili. 50, 95, 182, 197, 201, 228, 272; ix. 94, 445: Chwolson, Die Blutanklage, pp. 268 et seq.; Aronius, Regesten, p. 232; Scherer, Die Rechtsver- hdltnisse der Juden in den Deutsch-Oesterreichischen Liindern, pp. 348 et seq., Leipsic, 1901. Je M. Sc. The following appear to be the chief cases in which this particular accusation was brought against the Jews. Forabbreviations see BLooD AccUSsATION, 1260. Flanders (Usque, ‘* Consolac&o,” p. 15; Loeb, ‘‘ Joseph ha-Kohen,”’ p. 40). 126. Santarem (Kayserling, ‘* Portugal,” p. 5, note). 1292. Laa, Austria; several slain, the remainder fled (Pertz, ‘*Mon. Germ.” ix. 658; Sch. p. 350). 1297. Meissen (CsI. p. 80). 1298. ROttingen (Sch. p. 349); 100,000 Jews said to have been killed (Seb. p. 351). 1302. Austria (Csl. p. 80). [?Korneuburg, 1298-1305; happened in 1298, tried in 1805; Sch. pp. 349, 351-352. ] 1306. St.-Pdlten (Sch. p. 349). 13810. Styria (St. p. 283). 1312. Fiirstenfeld, Styria (Sch. p. 467); riots in Gritz and Ju- denburg; expulsion from Styria and Carinthia (Jost, **Gesch. der Israeliten,” x. 322; Csl. p. 80; Wertheimer, * Jahrbuch,” 1859, p. 4). 1330. Giistrow, Mecklenburg-Schwerin (Zunz, “‘S. P.”’ p, 38); Wildenkatze (CsI. p. 80). 1331. Ueberlingen (Zunz, “‘S. P.”’ p. 38). cording to Csl. p. 79.] 1334. Constance (Lowenstein, ‘* Bodensee,” p. 25). 1337 (Sept. 30). Deggendorf, Straubing, and other Bavarian and Austrian towns (Aretin, **‘Juden in Baiern,”’ pp. 21 et seq.: ZZ. p. 88; Sch. p. 368). 1338. Pulka (CsI. p. 80); Linzand and Wernatodorf (Sch. p. 349); Retz, Znaim, Horn, Eggenburg, Neuburg, Zwettl, etc. (Sch. p. 364); Wolfsburg (Pertz, l.c. ix. 688; Jost, i.c. x. 322). 1361. Coimbra, Portugal (A. R. ii. 276-277, note). 1388. Prague (CsI. p. 80). 1401. Glogau (Zunz, “*8. P.” p. 47; Csi. p. 80; St. p. 289; Worbs, “‘Schles. Prov. Blatter,” exvii. 377). 1404 (July 10). Mihlen; all Jews of Salzburg and Hallein burned (Wolf, in °* Monatssehrift,” 1876, p. 284; Sch. p. 554). 1420. Enns (Jost, l.e. x. 222: Sch. p. 411); Jews expelled from Aus- tria, Franconia, Saxony, Westphalia, the Rhine prov- inces (Zunz, “8. P.”’ p. 48 [MaHaRiL’s fast, 3 days]). 1422. Mayence (Csl. p. 80). 1432. Segovia (Gritz, ‘“*Gesch.” viii. 95, note; Loeb, ‘* Joseph ha-Kohen*’), 1474. Bavaria (Cs). p. 80). 1478. Passau (Aretin, U.c. p. 38; Csi. p. 80). 1484. Passau (Pertz, l.c. xi, 521; St. p. 292). 1510. Berlin; 26 burned, 2 beheaded (CsI. p. 80: Zunz, “*S. P.”’ p. 54; St. p. 292). 1559. Sochaczew (Zunz, **S. P.*’ p. 336). 1836. Bislad, Rumania (Loeb, ** Israelites,” p. 148). [Blood accusation ac- HOST OF HEAVEN (n° own nay): Term occurring several times in the Bible, but not always with a definite meaning. The word “zaba” usually designates an army, and thus connotes a vast body of organized and ofliccred men; it conveys, how- ever, also the meaning of a numerous throng actually engaged in warfare. The singular “zaba” has a different meaning from the plural as used in the ex- pression “ Yuw of hosts,” a frequent though com- paratively late name for the God of Israel. In this expression it is most likely that the reference is to the armies of Israel, at whose head Yuwu is march- ing to battle. All the more probable is it that the phrase “host of heaven” originally covered the idea of stars arrayed in battle-line (comp. Judges v. 20), with a mythological background, perhaps going back to remote Assyro-Babylonian conceptions (see Zimmern in Schrader, “K. A. T.” 8d ed., p. 421). The “host of heaven ” is mentioned as the recipient of idolatrous veneration (Deut. iv. 19, xvii. 8; II Kings xvii. 16, xxi. 8, 5; xxi. 4; Jer. viii. 2, xix. 13; Zeph.i.5). The express mention of sun, moon, and stars as forming the “host of heaven” in this connection leaves no doubt that astral bodies and their cult are referred to. Sidereal worship was practised among the Canaanites, as r any old names of cities (e.g., Jericho = “moon city ”) indicate, and the astral character of the Assyro-Babylonian relig- ion is well authenticated. The cult of the “host of heaven” was in favor among the Hebrews, but whether in imitation of the customs of their neigh- bors or as expressing their own original polytheistic religion (as suggested by Hommel) remains a matter for conjecture. Certain kings are mentioned as es- pecially devoted to this form of idolatry (e.g., Ma- nasseh and Ahaz; IJ Kings xxiii. 3, 5,12). Itis an open question whether DDwA naby (Jer. vii. 18, xliv. 17-19, 25) should be read “queen of heaven” or “kingdom of heaven.” If the latter reading be accepted, “host of heaven” issynonymous; and even if the pointing indicating “queen of heaven” is preferred, the phrase throws light on the connota- tions of the other phrase (Stade’s “ Zeitschrift,” vi. 123 et seg., 289 et seg.; Schrader, “Sitzungsberichte der Berliner Akademie,” 1886, pp. 477-491; “ Zeit. fiir Assyr.” iii. 858-364, iv. 74-76). Connected with this meaning as the gathering or muster of the stars, to which, singly or collectively, divine honors are paid, is the implication of the phrase in other passages, in which it has been held to designate “angels” (I Kings xxii. 19; II Chron. xviii. 18). The great stars (= gods; e.g., Ishtar) “muster” their retinue of smaller stars, who attend them. This passes over naturally into the phrase- ology of the purerand later Yuwu religion. YHws is attended by his “host,” and the originally poly- theistic term is retained in poetic expression (Ps. clii. 21, cxlviii. 2). The original star-deities having been looked uponas warriors marshaling their forces forthe fray (even YHwH is a“man of war”), the implications of an orderly army under command of a chief are naturally involved in the phrase “ host. of heaven” (comp. Josh. v. 14; Dan. viii. 10). In Isa. xxiv. 21 (Hebr.) “host of the height” is used, the term conveying the same idea as “host of heaven”; the context shows that this variant, too, is rooted in some mythological conception, perhaps apocaly ptic- ally employed, as is the case also in Isa. xxxiv. 4. Hosts House THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 484 The “host of the stars” (gods) is in the later relig- ion conceived of as the assembly of angels. BIBLIOGRAPIFY: Smend, Alttest. Religionsgesch. Index ; Ewald, Die Lehre von Gott, Index ; Stade, Gesch. des Volkes Israel, li. 236-238: Montefiore, Hihhert Leetures, p. 425, London, 1892; Baudissin, Studien, Leipsic, 1876. E. G. H. HOSTS, LORD OF. See Names oF Gop. HOTTINGER, JOHANN HEINRICH: Swiss Christian Hebraist; born at Zurich March 10, 1620; drowned in the Limmat, in Switzerland, June 5, 1667. Having studied Oriental languages and theology at Geneva, Groningen, and Leyden, Hot- tinger was in 1642 appointed professor of Church history at the University of Zurich. Six years later he was called to the chair of Oriental languages; in 16538, to that of rhetoric and logic. In 1655 he went to Heidelberg as professor of Old Testament exege- sis and Oriental languages; in 1661 he returned to Zurich, and the next year was appointed rector of Zurich University. Hottinger published many works on theology and philology, of which the most important to the Hebrew student are: “ Exercita- tiones anti-Moriniane de Pentateucho Samaritano, ” Zurich, 1644: “Rabbi J. Abarbanel Commentarium Super Danielem Prophetam,” 7). 1647; “ Erotema- tum Lingue Sancte Libri Duo,” 2. 1647; “ Thesau- rus Philologicus seu Clavis Scripture,” 2d. 1649; “De Heptaplis Parisicnsis ex Pentateucho Instituta,” 2d. 1649; “Promptuarium sive Bibliotheca Orientalis,” Heidelberg, 1658; “ Grammatica Quatuor Linguarum [Hebrew, Chaldean, Syriac, and Arabic] Harmoni- ca,” 2b. 1658; “Compendium Theologie Judaice,” in his “Enneas Dissertationum,” 7. 1662; “ Lexi- con Harmonicum Heptaglotton,” Frankfort-on-the- Main, 1661; “Grammatica Linguse Sancte,” Zurich, 1666; “Libri Jobi post Textum Hebreeum et Versi- onem Verbalem Latinam Analysis,” etc., 7b. 1689. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Nouvelle Biographie Générale; Meyers Konversations-Lexikon; First, Bibl. Jud. i. 414, 415; Stein- schneider, in Zeit. fir Hebr. Bidt. iii. 49. T. M. SEL. HOUBIGANT, CHARLES FRANQOIS: Freuch Christian Hebraist; born in Paris in 1686; died there Oct. 31, 1783. In 1704 Houbigant en- tered the order of the Congregation of the Ora- tory. The pupil of Maclef, he was imbued with his teacher’s anti- Masoretic prejudices. After lecturing at Jeuilly, Marseilles, and Soissons, he went to Paris in 1722, and lectured at St. Magloire until, at an advanced age, total deafness compelled him to retire. His “Racines de la Langue Hébraique” is of the nature of a Hebrew dictionary (Paris, 1732), in the preface to which, defending Maclef’s system, he endeavors to show the uselessness of vowel-points in Hebrew. In his “Prolegomena in Scripturam Sacram ” (2b, 1746) he maintains that the original text of the Old Testament has undergone many altera- tions in consequence of the carelessness of the copy- ists, and gives rules by which these faults may be discovered and corrected. Houbigant also wrote: “Psalmi Hebraici” (Ley- den, 1748), the Psalms corrected in accordance with the principles of his “ Prolegomena”; “Biblia He- braica cum Notis Criticis et Versione Latina” (Paris, 1758). This latter is his most important work, and shows his entire disregard of the Masorah. The text is printed without vowel-points, and his cor- - rections, in which he takes no account of the “keri” and “ketib,” are made mostly from the Samaritan Pentateuch, to which Houbigant, like Morin, at- tached great importance. These corrections, as well as his “Prolegomena,” arrayed against him such well-known scholarsas Rave, Kalle, Stridsberg, and Michaelis, who accused Houbigant of ignorance of Hebrew and of arbitrary alterations. The critical notes of the “Biblia Hebraica,” and the “ Prolego- mena” have been published separately under the title “ Nota Criticee in Universos Veteris Testamenti Libros” (Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1777). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Fiirst, Bibl. Jud. i. 4153; McClintock and Strong, Cyc. J. M. SEL. HOURWICH, ISAAC AARONOVICH: American statistician; born at Wilna, Russia, April 27, 1860; educated at the gymnasium of Minsk and the University of St. Petersburg. As a student, he became interested in the nihilistic propaganda. Arrested in 1879 on the charges of hostility to the government and of aiding to establish a secret press, he was expelled, without trial, from St. Petersburg; after the assassination of Alexander IT. (1881) he was banished, again without trial, to Siberia, as a “dan- gerous character.” Released after four years of exile, he entered the Demidov lyceum of jurispru- dence at Yaroslav, graduated in 1887, and began the practise of law. To escape a second term of exile in Siberia he left Russia in 1890, and settled in the United States. He became a student at Columbia University, New York city, and graduated in 1893 (Ph.D.), when he became a lecturer on statistics at the University of Chicago. Returning to New York city, he practised law until 1900, when he entered the service of the United States govern- ment as statistician. In addition to various essays contributed to Yid- dish and other publications, Hourwich has written: “The Persecutions of the Jews,” in “The Forum,” Aug., 1901; “Russian Dissenters,” in “The Arena,” May, 1908; “ Religious Sects in Russia,” in “The In- ternational Quarterly,” Oct., 1908. H.R. F. T. H. HOURWITZ, ZALKEKIND: Polish scholar; born at Lublin, Poland, about 1740; died at Paris in 1812. Endowed with great ability and thirsting for learning, he left his native country when a youth, lived for a time in Berlin (where he associ- ated with Moses Mendelssohn), Nancy, Metz, and Strasburg, and finally settled in Paris. He did not know French, and his only means of obtaining a livelihood was by peddling old clothes. In time, however, his condition improved, and when (1789) the post of secretary and interpreter of Oriental lan- guages in the Bibliothéque Royale fell vacant he applied for it. With his application he forwarded his “ Apologie des Juifs,” which had been crowned in the previous year by the Academy of Metz. This work so pleased the minister that, notwithstanding the distinction of some of the numerous candidates, Hourwitz received the appointment. In the same year the “Apologie des Juifs” was published and attracted much attention. Mirabeau quoted it in 485 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Hosts House his writings, and Clermont-Tonnerre, the advocate of Jewish emancipation, said of it: “Le Juif Polo- nais seul avait parlé en philosophe.” Hourwitz en- thusiastically embraced the cause of the Revolution, and became one of the most zealous contributors to the revolutionary papers. With force and wit he at- tacked all forms of oppression, but was especially active in advocating the emancipation of the French Jews. Toward the end of the cighteenth century Hour- witz, no longer secretary and interpreter at the Bib- liothéque, earned his livelihood by teaching foreign languages, and at the close of his life he was in very straitened circumstances. This, with his careless- ness in regard to his personal appearance, kept Hourwitz from taking a seat in the Sanhedrin. He was, however, frequently consulted by the commis- sion which prepared the decisions of that assembly. Besides the work mentioned above, Hourwitz wrote: “Projet d’une Nouvelle Carte de Paris,” published by the “Journal de Paris” (1799); “Polygraphie sur ]’Art de Correspondre 4 l’ Aide d’un Dictionnaire dans Toutes les Langues, Méme dans Celles Dont on ne Posséde pas Seulement les Lettres Alphabétiques ” (Paris, 1801); “Origine des Langues” (cb. 1808); “Lacographie ou Entretiens Laconiques Aussi Vite que |’On Peut Parler” (¢. 1811). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Larousse, Dict. s.v. Zalkind; Arch. Tar. 1895-96 ; Léon Kahn, Les Juifs de Paris Pendant la Révo- whale pp. 1380 et seq.; Gritz, Gesch. xi. 179; Jedcdidja, v. 19, s I. Br. HOUSE: In the warm countries of the East the house is not soimportant a factor as it is in Western civilization, the climate permitting the Palestinian to live almost entirely in the open air. Artisans do not ply their trades in the house, but directly in the street, or in an open shop looking onto the street. The Palestinian, therefore, requires few domestic conveniences beyond a sheltered place for sleeping anda quiet place for eating. The style of the house is influenced by the material. Since historic times Palestine has had no large forests, and hence no timber for building. Solomon had to import the beams for his edifices (I Kings v. 20 [A. V. 6]), and builders usually had to be very economical with wood. In the plains they generally used bricks of clay, baked in the sun (comp. “bet homer,” Job iv. 19, xiii. 12, et al.). In the mountains limestone furnished a good material, being easily quarried and worked. As these conditions have always obtained, it may be assumed that the house of the ancient Israelite did not differ materially from that of Caves the present inhabitant of the country; as indeed, it could hardly have been much Houses. more primitive. The present village of Siloam illustrates the way in which the Palestinian houses were modeled on, and devel- oped from, the cave. First, the natural cave was enlarged; then a cave was hewn in the rock; and finally a wall was built in front, converting the cave into asheltered dwelling. Houses of all these kinds are found in Siloam; some are merely enlarged caves; others have at leasta firmly built front wall; and others again are merely built against the rock. The ancient houses, with the exception of the palaces of the great, consisted of only one apart- ment. In the plains four simple brick walls consti- tuted a house. The walls were often Clay smeared with clay (Lev. xiv. 41 ef Houses. seqg.). The Webrews began to use lime also at an early date (Amos ii. 1; Isa. xxxiii. 12), and the walls of the better class of houses were plastered (Ezek. xili. 10 e¢ seq.; Deut. xxvii. 4). The roof was constructed of a few untrimmed logs, branches, and brushwood; a layer of earth was pounded into this framework, and the whole covered with a coating of clay and straw. A roof of this kind keeps off the rain, provided it is repaired and rolled before the rainy season begins. But a house of clay frequently gets so soaked with rain that it falls in, and it is not surprising that villages so built should disappear entirely soon after being abandoned. The stone houses in the mountains are more solid structures. Thesmaller houses are built of unhewn stones, the more pretentious ones of Stone correspondingly larger stones, with Houses. vaulted roofs. It isan open question how the Hvubrews of ancient times suc- ceeded in building vaulted domes over square edi- fices. Ancient ruins indicate that they knew how to meet the difficulty without resort to the dome proper: if the space was too large to be covered by slabs of stone extending from wall to wall, stone beams were laid across the corners, and the proc- ess then repeated over the corners formed by each successive series of beams, until the space was nar- rowed to the desired extent. These vaulted roofs were covered with clay on the outside; only enough space for walking was left round the dome. Fre. quently, however, the entire space around the dome was filled in so as to convert the whole roof into a flat surface. The level roof was a favorite resort in the cool of the evening (If Sam. xi. 2), and was much used as a sleeping-place in the summer (1 Sam. ix. 25), as it is to-day; small huts of branches were built on the roof as a protection against the sun (II Sam. xvi. 22; Neh. viii. 16). A person on the roof could see what was going on in the street or in the neighbor- hood without being seen himself (I Sam. ix. 25); and a flight of steps led cirectly to the roof from the street or the court. Ancient law required the roof to be surrounded with a battlement (Deut. xxii. 8); yet a person could easily step from one roof to the next, and walk the length of whole streets in that way (comp. Mark xiii. 15; Josephus, “ Ant.” xiii. 140, ed. Niese). Among the peasants the single apartment of the house served for both man and beast, the clay flooring of the part reserved for the former being slightly raised. There being no chim- ney, the smoke escaped through the windows (Hosea xili. 8, A. V. “chimney ”), which were covered with wooden lattices (Judges v. 28; I Kings vi. 4; Prov. vii. 6). The opening for the door was very low (Prov. xvii. 19). The Furxiture of the ordinary house was as simple as it is to-day. Jt included a few mats, spread upon the floor at night for sleep- ing, and rolled up during the day, ora kind of divan set against the wall; there werea table and chairs; a large jug for grain stood in the corner, and others Housebreaking Hugh of Lincoln THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 486 for water, wine, oil, etc.; a niche in the wall held the lamp. This ordinary house, however, frequently had an upper apartment (“‘aliyyah”) on the roof, either the hut of branches referred to above Upper (Judges iii. 20), or a more substantial Apart- room, where guests of honor were ment. lodged for the night (I Kings xvii. 19; II Kings iv. 10). The “palace” of the rich differed from this only in having a larger number of rooms, arranged in a suite on the ground floor rather than in stories. Special rooms for the summer and the winter are mentioned (Amos iii. 15; Jer. xxxvi. 22). The increasing luxury in the time of the later kings is exemplified in the building of palatial houses with many rooms (Jer. xxii. 14), and especially in the richness of the materials. Hewn stone was used instead of brick (Amos v. 11); in post-exilic times marble also (I Chron. xxix. 2; Cant. v. 15; Josephus, “Ant.” xv. 392, ed. Niese; “B. J.” v. 4, § 4). The walls were painted or pan- eled (Jer. xxii. 14); olive- or cedar-wood was used for doors and windows (7d.); the floor was paved, or covered with wood (I Kings vi. 15; II Kings xvi. 17); the woodwork of the walls and the jambs of doors and windows were inlaid with ivory (Amos iii, 15; I Kings xxii. 89), covered with beaten gold (I Kings vi. 20), or ornamented with carving (I Kings vi. 18). But the style of building remained, and still remains, unchanged. The Greco-Roman style, with which the Jews became acquainted in the Hellenic period, did not exert any great or last- ing influence on the domestic architecture of Pales- tine, being confined to the larger edifices—palaces, baths, and theaters. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Benzinger, Arch.; Nowack, Lehrbuch der Hebrdischen Archiiologie. E. G. WW. I. BE. HOUSEBREAKING. Sec BurGuary. HOUSEMAN, JULIUS: American financier; born at Zeckendorf, Bavaria, Dec. 8, 1832; died at Grand Rapids, Mich., Feb. 8, 1892. He attended school up to the age of fifteen, and after two years’ commercial study he sailed for America. After working as a mercantile clerk in Cincinnati, Ohio, and in other cities, he went (1852) to Grand Rapids, where he became proprietor of a clothing estab- lishment, subsequently opening branch houses in other cities of America. He afterward turned his attention to the lumber trade, and soon owned a large portion of the city. He became connected with several companies, was vice-president of the City National Bank, and a stockholder in many other concerns. He was elected mayor of Grand Rapids in 1872 and reelected in 1874, and from 1871 to 1872 he sat in the state legislature. He was member of the Forty-eighth Congress, representing the Fifth Michigan District. Houseman was interested in all matters relating to the local Jewish community. BIBLIOGRAPHY: History of Grand Rapids, 1891; American Jewish Year Book, 5661, p. 518. ie HOUSTON: Capital of Harris county, Texas; situated on the banks of Buffalo Bayou. It hada population in 1897 of 45,000, of whom about 1,200 were Jews. It has the oldest Jewish congregation in the state, the Congregation Beth Israel having been organized in 1854, while the cemetery is ten years older. Attracted doubtless by its commercial pos- sibilities, Jews were among its earliest settlers, Eu- gene Joseph Chimene went there from New York as early as 1835, just before the city was chosen as the capital of the state. He fought at San Ja- cinto, while Henry Wiener, another early settler, fought at Buena Vista. In 1847 Jacob de Cordova represented Harris county in the state house of representatives. The first settlers were mostly of German or Alsatian origin, but during the last years of the nineteenth century many Russian and Polish emigrants settled in Houston. In 1887 these seceded from the Beth Israel (Reform) congregation and founded the Orthodox congregation Adath Yeshu- run. The existing synagogue of the Reform congre- gation was dedicated in 1870, and by 1903 had be- come inadequate to accommodate its membership. There are three Jewish benevolent societies—the Ladies’ Hebrew Benevolent Society, founded in 1875; the Bikor Cholim Society, organized by the Ortho- dox Jewsin 1895; and the Beth Israel Benevolent So- ciety, organized in 1908. There are alsoa Ladies’ Re- lief Society and two B’nai B'rith lodges (Lone Star Lodge No. 210, and Houston Lodge No. 434), while the order B’rith Abraham is represented by Anshel Hirsch Lodge No. 200. The social and literary life of the community is represented by the Concordia Club, the Young Men’s Hebrew Society, and the Beth Israel Literary Society. The following rabbis of Houston may be mentioned: Samuel Raphael, Z. Emmich, E. Steiner, Kaiser, Meyer, Jacob Voorsan- ger, W. Wilner, Max Heller, S. Rosenstein, G. Lo- wenstein, A. Lazarus, and H. Barnstein (the present [1903] incumbent), BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. Cohen, The Jews of Texas. A. H. Bar. HRADISCH, UNGARISCH. A Moravian town on the river March, with a population of 5,200. See Moravia. HUBSCH, ADOLPH: American preacher; born at Lipt6é-Szent-Mikl6s, Hungary, Sept. 18, 1880; died in New York city Oct. 10, 1884. Hiibsch was descended from the Jaffe family. At the age of ten he was sent to Budapest, where he attended the evangelical gymnasium, studying He- brew at the same time. In 1845, before he bad graduated, he accepted a position at the Jewish school of Alt-Ofen. He was concerned in the Hun- garian Revolution of 1848, in which he fought as a “Honvéd” officer; at the defeat at Viligos he barely escaped with his life. After the collapse of the revolution he attended the Talmudic school of R. Julius Ungar at Paks, where he studied until 1854; his rabbinical diploma was signed by Ungar and R. Léw Schwab of Pest. Soon after gradua- tion he was called to the Orthodox community of Miawa. In 1857 he went to the University of Prague, and, after receiving the degree of Ph.D. in 1861, accepted the rabbinate of the Neu-Synagoge of Prague. In 1866 he went to America, and became rabbi and preacher of the Congregation Ahawath Chesed, New York city, then composed almost entirely of Bohe- mian Jews; under him it became one of the lead 487 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Housebreaking Hugh of Lincoln ing Jewish congregations of New York. He intro- duced a moderate Reform ritual, and the prayer-book which he compiled for his own congregation was adopted by many others. In connection with the synagogue he established a religious school, at- tended by more than 400 boys and girls, anda Young Men’s Union for the study of Jewish literature. Htibsch was specially noted as a preacher. While at Prague he issued his chief work, “Die Funf Megilloth Nebst dem Syrischen Targum... in Hebriischer Quadratschrift, mit einem Kommentare zum Texte aus einem Handschriftlichen Pentateuch Codex der K. K. Universitits Bibliothek zu Prag und einem Kommentare zum Thargum,” ete. (Prague, 1866), and contributed numerous philolog- ical and critical articles to Leopold Léw’s “Ben Chananja ” and to the “ Monatsschrift.” After going to America his literary activity was confined chiefly to a number of discourses published in various periodicals. His “Gems from the Orient” is a col- lection of Arabic aphorisms or sayings (1885). A memorial volume, published by his widow, contains translations, extracts from his sermons, and many of his poems. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Biographical sketch by Isaac M. Wise, in Rev. Dr. Adolph Hiibsch: A Memorial, New York, 1885; B. Bernstein, A Zsidék a Szabadsdgharczan, Budapest, 1901 ; Schwab, Répertoire, p. 176. A. M. W. HUESCA (anciently Osca and Wescah; hence the Hebrew ApwiN): City in Aragon. ‘Toward the end of the thirteenth century it contained a spe- cially privileged Jewish community of 160; it also had a rabbinical college of its own (Solomon ben Adret, Responsa, Nos, 300, 1179). The congrega- tion, which had imposed a special tax upon bread, meat, and wine consumed by its members, was obliged, by the indigence of the people, to remit part of such tax in 1257. During the wars of King Al- fonso III. of Aragon with Sicily and France it raised such considerable subsidies that in 1288 the king remitted part of the taxes. The Shepherd persecu- tions threatened the Huesca congregation; in 1391 it was attacked, and many members were baptized. By 1487 the congregation had declined to such an extent that it paid only 800 sueldos in taxes, The congregation had a regulated communal sys- tem; its statutes were enacted and its administrators and syndics (12) appointed with the approval of the king. Atthe disputation in Tortosait was represent- ed by Don Todros Alconstantini. Huesca was a seat of Jewish scholarship; here lived, in the thirteenth century, Jacob b. Moses Abbasi and Joseph b. Isaac Alfual, translators of portions of Maimonides’ com- mentary, and contemporaries of Isaac b. Sheshet, Hayyim Galipapa, Joseph b. Hayyim b. Ardot, Abrabam and Hayyim b. Solomon ibn Baka, Joseph Cohen, Baruch and Isaac Alitensi, Abraham Bibago, etc. Petrus Alfonsi was baptized at Huesca July 29, 1106. The Usque family, which lived in Italy, prob- ably came from Huesca, which was also the birth- place of the Almosnino family ; Abraham Almosnino of Huesca was burned at the stake on Dec. 10, 1489. The Jews of Huesca were engaged in weaving; one of the most important woolen factories at the time of the expulsion was Don Solomon Abena- qua’s. The total population in 1887 was 13,041. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Shebet Yehudah, p. 68; Rios, Hist. ii. 149, 155; Jacobs, Sources, Nos. 118, 613, 928, 1193; Isaac b. She- shet, Responsa, Nos. 217, 400 et seq., 425 et seq., 484 et seq. G. M. K. HUETE (formerly GUETE): Spanish city, in the bishopric of Cuenca. A considerable Jewish community lived there in the thirteenth century. The city is especially known because of the “ Padron de Huete,” the apportioning, in 1290, of the taxes which the Jews of Castile were required to pay to the king, or to the prelates, magnates, cathedral chapters, grand masters, etc. In 1391 many of the Jews of Huete were killed or forced to accept bap- tism. Joseph ha-Kohen says that his grandparents, who were expelled from Cuenca in 1414, found pro- tection and shelter at Huete, his birthplace. The aljama of this city paid taxes to the amount of 5,700 maravedis as late as 1474. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Shebet Yehudah, p. 88; ‘Emek ha-Bakah, pp. 1, 71, 86; Gratz, Gesch. vil. 167 et seqg.; Jacobs, Sources, pp. 141 et seg. re} M. K. HUGH OF LINCOLN: Alleged victim of ritual murder by the Jews of Lincoln in 1255. He appears to have been the illegitimate son of a woman named “ Beatrice,” and was born in 1247. He disappeared July 31,1255, and his body was discovered on Aug. 29 following in a well belonging to the house of a Jew named “Jopin” or “Joscefin.” On promise of hav- ing his life spared, Jopin was induced by John of Lexington, a priest who was present at the time of the discovery, to confess that the child had been crucified by a number of the most prominent Jews of England, who had gone to Lincoln on the pretext of a wedding. The re- mains of the lad were taken to the cathedral and were buried there in great pomp. Henry III., on arriving at Lincoln about a month aft- erward, revoked the par- don of Jopin, and caused him to be dragged around the city tied to the tail of a wild horse, and then hanged. The remaining Jews of Lincoln, including some who were there as visitors—probably to at- tend the marriage of Bel- laset, daughter of BERE- - — CHIAH DE NicoLtE—were Tomb of St. Hugh in Lincoln ‘ Cathedral. carried, to the number (From Tovey, ‘Anglia Judaica,’ 1738.) of ninety-two, to London, where eighteen of them were executed for refusing to plead. Berechiah was released, and the remain- der lingered in prison until Richard, Earl of Corn- wall, who was in possession of the Jewry at the time, made terms for them, The accusation, as usual, rested upon no particle of evidence; all that was known was that the lad had been found dead; and even if it was a murder, Hukkok Humanists THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 488 it could not have been connected with any ritual ob- servance on the part of any Jew. But the prepos- sessions of the time, and the “confession” forced from Jopin caused the case to be prejudged, and enabled Henry III. to confiscate the property of the executed Jews, and to obtain, probably, a ransom for those afterward released from captivity. The case made a great impression on the popular mind, and forms the theme of various French, Scottish, and English ballads, still existing; Chaucer refers to it at the beginning of his “ Prioress’ Tale.” A shrine was erected over Hugh’stombin Lincoln Cathedral; it was known as the shrine of “ Little St. Hugh” to distinguish it from the shrine of Great St. Hugh of Lincoln, the twelfth-century bishop whose death was mourned equally by Jew and Christian. See BLoop ACCUSATION. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Matthew Paris, Historia Major, ed. Luard, Vv. 516-518, 522, 548; Annales Monastici, ed. Luard, {. 340, ff. 346; J. Jacobs, in Transactions Jew. Hist. Soc. Eng. 1, 89- 135 (with an extensive bibliography on pp. 183-135); idem, Jewish Ideals, pp. 192-224; Francisque Michel, Hugues de Lincoln, Paris, 1834; A. Hume, St. Hugh of Linealn, Lon- don, 1849 j HUEKOK (ppn = “engraved”): Place on the borders of Naphtali, near Aznot Tabor (Josh. xix. 34). As the frontier line coincided with the western limit of Asher (.c.), it is probable that this place is identical with the Hukok that fell to the lot of Asher (I Chron. vi. 60), though the latter is written ppin. Estori Farhi (“ Kaftor wa-Ferah,” xviii.), followed by such scholars ag Schwarz and Robinson, identi- fies Hukkok with the modern Yakuk, a village 6 miies southwest of Safed and 12 miles north of Mount Tabor, where tradition places the grave of Habakkuk. Estori saw at Yakuk a Jewish syna- gogue; he says that the place must not be con- founded with the Hukok of Asher. BIBLIOGRAPHY : Zunz, Notes to Benjamin of Tudela, ed. Asher, ii. 421"; Sehwarz, Das Heilige Land, p. 144; Robinson, Re- searches, 2d ed., p. 81. E. G. H. M. SE, HULDAH (n55n).—Biblical Data: Proph- etess; wife of Shalium, the keeper of the wardrobe in the time of King Josiah. She dwelt in the sec- ond quarter of Jerusalem. It seems that Huldah enjoyed great consideration as a prophetess, for when HrLK1aH found the scroll of the Law he, with his four companions, took ittoher. On that occasion she prophesied that God would bring evil upon Jerusalem and upon its inhabitants. Theking, how- ever, was told that he would die in peace before the evil days came (II Kings xxii. 14-20; II Chron. XXxiv. 22-28). E, G. H. M. Sau. ——In Rabbinical Literature: Huldah and Deb- orah were the only professed prophetesses, although other pious women had occasional prophetic revela- tions. Both had unattractive names, “ Huldah” sig- nifying “ weasel,” and “ Deborah ” signifying “ bee” or “wasp.” Huldah said to the messengers of King Josiah, “Tell the man that sent you to me,” etc. (II Kings xxii. 15), indicating by her unceremo- nious language that for her Josiah was like any other man. The king addressed her, and not Jere- miah, because he thought that women are more easily stirred to pity than men, and that therefore the prophetess would be more likely than Jeremiah to intercede with God in his behalf (Meg. 14a, b; comp. Seder ‘Olam R. xxi.). Huldah was a relative of Jeremiah, both being descendants of Rahab by her marriage with Joshua (Sifre, Num. 78; Meg. 14a, b). While Jeremiah admonished and preached repentance to the men, she did the same to the women (Pesik. R. 26 [ed. Friedmann, p. 129]). Hul- dah was not only a prophetess, but taught publicly in the school (Targ. to II Kings xxii. 14), according to some teaching especially the oral doctrine. It is doubtful whether “the Gate of Huldah” in the Second Temple (Mid. i. 8) has any connection with the prophetess Huldah; it may have meant “Cat’s Gate”; some scholars, however, associate the gate with Huldah’s schoolhouse (Rashi to Kings /.c.). E. ¢. L. G. HULL: Seaport of Yorkshire, England. It has a population (1901) of over 241,758, including about 2,500 Jews. The earliest trace of Jews there occurs toward the end of the eighteenth century, when they acquired for a synagogue a Catholic chapel in Posterngate which had been wrecked in 1780 during the Gordon riots. Dissensions in the congre- gation led to another house of prayer being secured near the present Prince’s Dock, but the two congre- gations reunited in a Synagogue in Robinson row, built in 1826; this remained the chief Jewish house of worship until Sept., 19038, when the congrega- tion removed to a new synagogue situated in Os- borne street. When the Russian immigration set in, one of the frequent routes was from the Continent to Hull and across to Liverpool, and a certain num- ber of the refugees settled in Hull, necessitating the building of a second synagogue (1886) in Waltham street. This soon proving insufficient for the grow- ing community, another synagogue, known as the “ Western Synagogue,” was built in Linneus street, in May, 1908. The community has the usual char- itable organizations, including a Ladies’ Hebrew Benevolent Society, founded as far back as 1861, and a girls’ school, founded in 1868. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jewish Year Book, 1903, p. 151. HULLIN (HOLIN, p5yn, plural of Sym = “pro- fane,” applied to things for ordinary use): Treatise of the Babylonian Talmud, including Mishnah, To- sefta, and Gemara; it is not found in the Jerusalem Talmud. While it is included in the Seder Koda- shim, it treats mainly of non-consecrated things and of things used as the ordinary food of man, particu- larly meats; it is therefore sometimes called “She- hitat Hullin” (Slaughtering for Ordinary Use). Its place in the order varies in the several compilations. Its contents may be summed up as follows: I. As to when, and by whom, an animal must be killed to be ritually fit for food ; the instrument with which the killing must be done; the space within which the incision must be made, and the exceeding of which renders the animal ‘‘terefah.”? Inciden- tally, it discusses the differences between ** shehitah ’’ and ** me- likah”’ (pinching off the heads of birds brought as sacrifices ; see Lev. i. 12, v. 8), and the various degrees in which different vessels are susceptible to uncleanness. II. Concerning the organs that must be severed: in quadru- peds, the trachea and the guilet, or the greater part of each, must be cut through ; in fowls, cutting through one of these organs, or the greater part of one, suffices. In both cases the jugular vein must be severed. Rules as to the character of the incision follow. Then comes a series of rules regarding animals killed in honor Contents. 489 of foreign deities or of deified natural objects; regarding the localities where the formal killing of an animal might create a suspicion of idolatry ; regarding the prohibition against using as ordinary food the flesh of animals killed for sacred purposes (see SHEHITAH). III. On organically diseased animals and animals injured by accident or by beasts or birds of prey. The Mishnah here enu- merates eighteen diseases and injuries that would render an animal terefah, including perforations of the lungs or of the small intestines, and fractures of the spine or of the ribs. It also cites diseases and injuries that do not render the animal terefah, and concludes with an enumeration of the marks by which clean birds and fishes are distinguished from the unclean (see DIETARY Laws). IV. On embryos, living or dead, found in a slaughtered female animal; on the Cwsarian section. V. Cn the prohibition against killing a female animal and her offspring on the same day (see Lev. xxii. 28). If both animals have been consecrated and killed within the sacred precincts, the animal first killed may be used, but not the second; the killer of the second is subject to * karet” (cutting off, excision). If neither animal has been consecrated and both have been killed beyond the sacred precincts, the flesh of both may be used for food; but the killer of the second is subject to flagellation. To prevent an unwitting violation of this prohibition the cattle- dealer is required to notify the purchaser of the sale of the mother or the offspring for the meat-market. This notice must be given whenever meat is in greater demand than usual, as on the eve of a festival. VI. On the duty of covering the blood of ritually killed ani- mals of the chase, and of birds (see Lev. xvii. 13), and on the material with which it should be covered. This applies only to the blood cf animals which, after being slaughtered, are found to be kasher, and only when the killing has been done on legiti- mate ground (see § Y.). VII. On the prohibition against eating the sinews of animals (Gen. xxxii. 32), which is always and everywhere in force, and which extends to consecrated and unconsecrated animals, and to the live young found in a slaughtered mother (see § IV.). VIII. On the prohibition against cooking meat and milk to- gether (see Ex. xxiii. 19); by ‘meat’? is meant any animal flesh except fish and locust. While this is admittedly merely a rabbinical provision, nevertheless meat and milk should not be placed near each other on the dining-table. IX. On carcasses and reptiles that communicate Levitical un- cleanness by contact; particles from different parts of a ** nebe- lah’’ (piece of carrion) are considered as one piece, and if they are collectively of sufficient bulk they render Levitically unclean any food with which they come in contact. For example, a particle of skin and a particle of bone or sinew, if together equaling an olive in size, render food otherwise clean unclean. X. On the parts of every ritually killed animal whieh the lay- man is required to reserve for the priest (Deut. xviii. 3), and on the rules concerning injured animals that should be pre- sented to the priest or should be redeemed. XI. On the duty of surrendering to the priest the first-fruit of the sheep-shearing (Deut. xviii. 4); on the differences between this duty and that treated in the preceding chapter; on the number of sheep one must possess before this regulation comes into force, and on the circumstances under which one is ex- empt. XII. On the duty of setting free the mother of a nest of birds (Deut. xxii. 6-7). This duty devolves only when the mother is actually in the nest with her young, and when the birds are nesting in the open, where they can easily escape. Unclean birds and ** Herodian”’ birds (= doves produced by mating dif- ferent species, said to have been practised by Herod) are not included in this provision. The Tosefta and the Mishnah correspond in the first seven chapters. Ch. viii. Tosefta corresponds to ch. vili. and ix. Mishnah; ch. ix. Tosefta to ch. x, Mishnah; ch. x. Tosefta to ch. xi. and xii, Mishnah. On the other hand, the Tosefta is more prolix than its older sister compilation, and sometimes cites epi- sodes from the livesof great men in connection with the subject-matter. Thus, speaking of the forbid- ding of meat prepared for idolatrous purposes, it quotes the reports of Eleazar b. Dama’s last illness and alleged apostasy (see BEN Dama; ELIEZER BEN Hyrcants). : THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Hukkok Humanists The Mishnah of Hullin is but rarely cited in the Jerusalem Gemara; in fact, only 15 of the 75 mish- nayot from the treatise are quoted in the entire Jerusalem Talmud. This is not so in the Babylonian Gemara, which discusses and explains every section of the Mishnah and also much of the Tosefta. It affords a clear insight into the main object of the provisions of this treatise—the prevention of cruclty and pain, and the draining of every drop of blood from the body in order to render the flesh whole- some. A single illustration will suffice to prove the humanitarian motive of this treatise. Samuel Yar- hinai, a rabbi of the third century, great both asa physician and as an exponent of the Law, established thisrule: “ When the ‘tabbah’ [butcher] is not famil- iar with the regulations concerning shehitah, one must not eat anything slaughtered by him”; all the regulations concerning shehitah, on which Yarhinai lays much stress, he sums up in the following five mishnaic words: “shehiyyah” (delaying), “dera- sah” (chopping), “haladah” (sticking the knife in under the veins), “hagramah” (cutting in another than the proper part of the animal), and “ ‘ikkur” (tearing; Hul. i. 2; ii. 3, 4), against all of which one must guard himself (Hul. 9a; see SHEHI- TAH; comp. Rabbinowicz, “ Médecine du Talmud,” Introduction). As in other treatises, grave halakic discussions are interspersed with instructive and entertaining hagga- dot. Inastatement of the marks by which clean are distinguished from unclean animals, a Hagegadot. unicorn is mentioned, and is said to be the gazel of Be-Ilai. The mention of the latter suggests the “lion of Be-Hai,” and there- upon the compiler proceeds to tell an elaborate story of Cesar (the emperor) and Joshua ben Hananiah (59b ef seq.). E. C. 8S. M. The Gemara. HULSNER. See Potna AFFAIR. HULTHA or HILTHA (ynbin,) xnon= “sandy ”): One of the seven seas which, according to the Talmudists, surround Palestine (B. B. 74b; Yer. Ket. xii. 8; Kil. ix. 5; Midr. Teh. to Ps. xxiv.). In the enumeration of the seven seas in the Yalkut to Ps. xxiv., the “Sea of Acre” is substituted for “ Wultha,” thus identifying the latter with the Bay of Acre. It is identified by Lightfoot with Lac Sirbonis, south of Palestine; by Bochart, who reads nbn instead of xnbin, with the Red Sea; by Schwarz, with Lake Phiala. BIB HOGRSY AY: Reland, Palestina, i, 237; Neubauer, G. 7. p. 8. 8. M. SEL. HUMAN SACRIFICE. See SAcRIFICE. HUMANISTS: Scholars who revived the cul- ture of antiquity and the study of classical litera- ture. The Renaissance, which heightened enthusi- asm for the classics, began in Italy in the fifteenth century. From Italy humanism advanced to France, Holland, and other European countries. In the fif- teenth and sixteenth centuries it gained great influ- ence in Germany and cleared the way for the Refor- mation. The most prominent German humanists were Hutten and Reuchlin, both contemporaries of Humility THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 490 Luther. Reuchlin called attention to the impor- tance of the study of Hebrew, and gained for ita place in the curricula of the German universities. As a strong defender of Hebrew literature against the attacks of Pfefferkorn and his accomplices, he also vindicated the cause of the Jews and pleaded for the freedom of science and for humanity. Al- though not all humanists were free from anti-Jewish prejudices, humanism, and through it the Reforma- tion, brought relief to the Jews and mitigated the severity of the exceptional laws under which they had suffered in the Middle Ages. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Ludwig Geiger, Renaissance und Humanis- mus, Berlin, 1882. D. S. Man. HUMILITY: The quality of being humble. —Biblical Data: Judaism, in its conception of humility as in its conception of many other things, stands between the two extremes of self-deification and self-effacement. Jeremiah, in urging the qual- ity of humility and in denouncing boastfulness, qualifies his statement by saying, “ Let not the wise man glorify himself in his wisdom, neither let the strong man glorify himself in his might, let not the rich glorify himself in his riches: but let him that glorifieth himself glorify in this, that he under- standeth and knoweth me, that I am God who exer- cises love, justice, and righteousness” (Jer. ix. 22-23). The prophet does not consider it sinful for man to rejoice in his achievements so long as he recognizes that all blessings flow from God, that they are all gifts of God. Riches, strength, and wisdom are nothing without God. “The silver is mine, and the gold is mine, saith the Lord” (Hag. ii. 9). God hath no pleasure “in the strength of the horse,” nor in “the legs of a man” (Ps. cxlvii. 11 [A. V. 10}). “There is no wisdom nor understanding nor counsel against the Lord ” (Prov, xxi. 80). Micah reduced the duties of man to three: justice, love, and humility. Abraham was humble: he spoke of himself as “but dust and ashes” (Gen. xviii. 27). Moses’ greatest virtue was humility (Num. xii. 3). That this quality of the greatest prophet is particularly mentioned is sufficient proof of its importance in Jewish theology. But the humility of Moses shows best what this term means. While Moses at first does not wish to accept his great mission to redeem his enslaved people, because he mistrusts his ability to do so, after he has accepted it he is full of courage, en- ergy, and decision. Yet he listens to the advice of Jethro, his father-in-law, and acts on it. When Joshua asked Moses to prohibit Eldad and Medad from prophesying in the camp, Moses answered: “Wouid God that all the Lord’s people were proph- ets” (7b, xi. 29). Heathendom, with its belief in fate which ordains man’s destiny irrespective of merit, did not encour- age humility and meekness, but gave rise to man’s overbearing and arrogance. Not so Judaism. ‘*Except the Lord build the house, they labor in vain that build it’’ (Ps. exxvii. 1). “Beware that thou forget not the Lord thy God. . .. And when thy herds and thy flocks multiply, and thy silver and thy gold is multiplied, and all that thou hast is multiplied, then thine heart be lifted up and thou forget the Lord thy God, which brought thee forth out of the land of Egypt, from the house of bondage. ... And thou say in thine heart, My power and the might of mine hand have gotten me this Wealth. But thou shalt remember the Lord thy God: for it is he that giveth thee power to get wealth” (Deut. viii. 10-18). Isaiah says: “Shall the ax boast itself against him that heweth therewith ? shall the saw magnify itself against him that shaketh it? asifa rod should shake them that lift it up, or as if a staff should lift up him that is not wood”? (Isa. x. 13-15, R. V.). The same prophet pours out the vials of his right- eous indignation against the proud in Israel: ‘*‘Their land also is full of silver and gold, neither is there any end of their treasures. . . . Their land also is full of idols; they worship the work of their own hands. ... And the mean man is bowed down, and the great man is brought low... . Enter into the rock, and hide thee in the dust... . The lofty looks of man shall be brought low, and the haughtiness of men shall be bowed down, and the Lord alone shall be exalted in that day. For there shall be a day of the Lord of hosts upon all that is proud and haughty and upon all that is lifted up; and it shall be brought low ” (ib. ii. 7-12, R. V.). In the touching penitential psalm ascribed to David after his terrible arraignment by the prophet Nathan on account of his crime against Uriah and his wife Bath-sheba, humility is pointed out as the only true sacrifice acceptable to God: “For thou desirest not sacrifice; else would I give it: thou de- lightest not in burnt offering. Thesacrifices of God are a broken spirit: a broken and a contrite heart, O God, thou wilt not despise” (Ps. li. 18-19). The second Isaiah lays more stress on humility than on grand temples, churches, and mosques. “The heaven is my throne, and the earth is my footstool: Where is the house you can build me? Where is the place for my rest? For all these things has my hand made. But upon such a one will I look, upon the humble and him whois of a contrite spirit ” (Isa. Ixvi. 1-2). It may thus be seen that the Jewish conception of humility is based on a proper estimate of the world and of the worth of man. Abraham, Moses, Gideon (who refused a crown), Saul, and David are set up as types of humility and meekness. -———_In Rabbinical Literature: The Talmud has even a higher view of humility than the Bible, and the teachers of Jewish ethics urge upon man not to rely too much on his own merits, as this might lead to self-conceit or self-deification. Our greatest mer- its are the result of God’s aid. This is expressed in the daily morning prayer: “Lord of all worlds, we can not plead the merit of our deeds before Thee. What are we? What is our virtue, what is our righteousness, our power, our strength? Truly, our mighty men are as naught before Thee, and the men of fame as though they had never been: the learned appear void of knowledge, and the wise like men without understanding.” But Judaism is likewise remote from the seltf-efface- ment of Buddhism and from the contempt of life preached by Christianity. It does not look upon earth as upon @ “valley of tears” nor upon man as upon a worm creeping in the dust. God is the highest type of humility. Among the ten degrees of moral perfection humility stands high- est (‘Ab. Zarah 20b; ‘Ar. 16b). It is the expression of the highest reverence (Sanh, 48b), and the distin- guishing feature of the “disciples of Abraham” (Ab. iii.). The prophet, in order to attain inspira- tion, must possess humility (Ned. 38a). It belongs next to mercy and charity among the ornaments of the true Jew (Lev. R. ix.). “Even poverty is blessed because it leads to humility” (Cant. R.i.). “He who humbles himself, him will God elevate; he who 491 elevates himself, him will God humiliate. He who runs after greatness, from him greatness will flee; he who flees from greatness, him will greatness fol- low” (‘Er. 13a). “ Be not like the upper threshold, which can not be reached by everybody, but be like the undermost, which is accessible to everybody. Even though the building may fall, the lowest thresh- old remains unharmed” (Ab. R. N. xxvi.; Derek Erez Zuta iii.). Hillel said: “ Remove from thy place two or three rows of seats and wait until they call thee back” (Lev. R.i.). Do not underrate the bad opin- ion which the common people may entertain regard- ing you (B. K. 93a; Pes. 118b; Sanh. 37). The small should not say to the great, “ Wait” (Shab. 127; Pes. 6b; Yoma 387; Suk. 29; ‘Er. 55). “Happy is the generation in which the great listen to the small, for then the more anxiously will the small listen to the great” (R. H. 25b; Ta‘an. 15a, 18b; Meg. 11a, 13b, 14b, 18b). The reason why the high priest was not allowed to officiate in his golden garments on the Day of Atonement was to remind him of humility (Yoma vii. 4; Yer. Yoma xii.; Ex. R. xli.; Lev. R. i.). Pride humiliates man (Yalk., Sam. 3), The “miz- nefet ” (miter) atones for the sin of haughtiness (Zeb. 88b; Hul. 5b). The prayer of man will be effective only when he regards himself as dust (Sotah v. 48b, 71a, 82a; B. K, 81b; B. B. 10, 18b, 98a; Sanh. xi. 19b, 81a, 98b). “Jeroboam, the generation of the Flood, and the Sodomites were haughty” (Sanh. 106a, 108a, 109a). “Through humility calumny will cease” (‘Ar. 15a). “T am God’s creature, so is our fellow man: my sphere of usefulness is in the city; his, in the coun- try. Ihave no more right to be over- Examples bearing on account of my work than of he on account of his”—this was the Humility. motto of the sages of Jabneh (Ber. 17a). He who walks about haughtily insults the Shekinah (Ber. 43b). Humilityis a qual- ity especially appropriate for Israel (Hag. 9b; Ned. 20a; Mek., Yitro, xx. 17; Ber. 7a). Plagues come ‘on account of haughtiness (‘Ar. 17). The Messiah will not come until haughtiness shall have ccased in Israel (Sanh. 98). The haughty man, even if he be wise, will lose his power of prophecy (Pes. 6b). The haughty pollutes the land and curses God (Mek., Yitro, ix.; Sotah 4b; Kallah 7). Humility is just as important as wisdom and the fear of God (Derek Erez Rabbah viii., xi). The habit of the sage is to be humble, modest, and to bear insult (Shab. 88; Derek Erez Zutai.). Do not forget that the fly was created before man (Sanh. 38; Tan., Shemini, 9). “Be not proud on account of thy de- cisions” (Derek Erez Zuta 6; Ab. iv. 7; Sanh. 7; Midr. Teh. cxix.; Sotah 21; Pes. 50). R. Jonathan ben Amram during a famine insisted on receiving no more consideration in the distribution of bread than any other creature (B. B. 8b). Rabbi Tarphon felt sorry all his lifetime because he once saved his life by saying that he was a scholar (Ned. 62a). The ornament of the Torah is wisdom; and the ornament of wisdom is humility (Derek Erez Zuta Iv.). God said to Moses, “Because of thy self-denial, the Torah shall be called by thy name” (Shab. 89a). THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Huniility Five men were highly endowed by divine grace, but pride was their downfall; Samson suffered through his strength; Saul, through his stature; Absalom, through his hair; Asa, through his feet; and Zede- kiah, through his eyes (Sotah 10a). Wherever God’s omnipotence is found, one finds also his humility— in the Torah, in the Prophets, in the Hagiographa (Meg. 29). Learn humility from Moses (Ab. R. N. ix., Xxlii.). The spirit of God rests on the humble, as is seen in Moses (Ned. 35a; Mek., Yitro, ix.). David said: “My heart was not haughty when I was anointed king by Samuel, and when I conquered Goliath ” (Yer. Sanh. 11; Hul. 88a). Johanan ben Zakkai said: “If thou hast acquired much knowl- edge of the Torah, do not pride thyself therein” (Ab. ii. 8; Sanh, 93; Ber. 9; Meg. 26). Why were the decisions of the Hillelites accepted? Because they were humble, quiet, and meek (‘Er. 13). Saul and Judah acquired the kingdom through their humility (Tosef., Ber. iii.; Sanh. 92b). Be humble toward all people, but particularly toward thy own house- hold (Tanna debe Eliyahu iv.), While God despises what is broken among the animals, he Joves in man a broken lieart. Man is ashamed to use a broken vessel; but God is near to men whose heart is broken (Lev. R. vii.). “If you minimize your merits, people will minimize your faults” (R. H. 17a). Among three who are participants of special divine love is he who does not insist on the recognition of his virtues (Pes. 118b; Ab. i. 19). “Be pliant and flexible like the reed, because schol- arship is only with the humble” (Derek Erez Zuta viii. 1; Ta‘an. 7; ‘Ab. Zarah 6). He who humbles himself on account of the Torah will ultimately be elevated through it (Derek Erez Zuta v.). Just as water in its course seeks the low lands and not the high ground, so the words of the Torah will be real- ized only among those who are endowed with a humble spirit (Ta‘an. 7, with reference to Isa. lv. 1). The Shekinah will rest upon him that is of a meek spirit (Mek., Yitro). Hillel said: “My humility is my greatness, and my greatness is my Maxims of humility” (Lev. R.1.).. Pharaoh said Humility. boldly: “Who is God?” (Ex. v. 2); Nebuchadnezzar, “I shallascend to the heights of the clouds” (Isa. xiv. 14); and Hiram, “Like a god I dwell in the midst of the ocean” (Ezek. xxviii. 2). But Abraham said, “Tam but dust and ashes” (Gen. i. 18, 27); Moses and Aaron, “Who are we to goto Pharaoh?” (Ex. xvi. 16); and David, “Tama worm and no man” (Ps. xxi. 7); therefore God gave to them honor and greatness, and said, “When I made you great and exalted, you made yourselves lowly and humble” (Hul, 9). When man sacrifices a burnt offering he receives a reward for his offering ; but whosoever offers his humility has merit as if he had offered all the sacrifices of the earth; for “not sacrifices of animals demandest thou, neither hast thou pleasure in burnt offerings. The sacrifices of God are a broken heart” (Ps. li. 18-19; Sotah 8; Sanh. 68b; Ber. 32b). R. Levitas said: “Be of a humble spirit; for the end of manisthe worm ” (Ab. iv. 3). Even the eighth part of an eighth portion of haughtiness is an abomination in God’s eyes (Sotah 5). God intentionally selected for the purifi- cation of the leprous not only the proud cedar, but Huna also the humble hyssop (Lev. xiv. 4, 6). God ignored the high mountains and selected the small- est, Mount Sinai, for the revelation of the Ten Com- mandmenis (Sotah 8). The humble stand higher than the pious (‘Ab. Zarah 2). The spirit of God will not rest on the haughty (Suk. iii. 1; Hag. 14b; Shab. 92a; Ned. 38). He only will share in the blessings of future salvation who is humble and con- tinually enriches his store of knowledge without the least self-conceit (Sanh. 88b). But, while Judaism highly praises humility and meekness, it wisely limits and restricts this virtue, which, carried to the extreme, would be cowardice. Humility must not be practised at the expense of manhood. “The disciple of the wise,” the Rabbis say, “should have sufficient pride to stand in de- fense of the Law he represents” (Sotah da). BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. Schreiber, Die Prinzipien des Juden- thums, Leipsic, 1877. K. E. Scr. HUNA (called also Huna the Babylonian) : Babylonian amora of the second generation and head of the Academy of Sura; born about 216 (212 accord: ing to Griitz); died in 296-297 (608 of the Seleucidan era; Sherira Gaon, in Neubauer, “M. J. C.” i, 30) or in 290 according to Abraham ibn Daud (“Sefer ha-Kabbalah,” in Neubauer, é.c. p. 58). He lived in a town called n7pin7 (Ta‘an. 21b), identified by Wiesener (“Scholicn zum Babylonischen Talmud,” ii. 198) with Tekrit, but read by Gratz map (= “Diokart”). He was the principal pupil of Rab (Abba Arika), under whom he acquired so much learning that one of Raba’s three wishes was to pos- sess Huna’s wisdom (M. K. 28a). He was also styled “one of the Babylonian hasidim,” on account of his great piety (Ta‘an. 23b); and the esteem in which he was held was so great that, though not of a priestly family, he read from the Torah on Sab- baths and holy days the first passage, which is usually read by a priest. Ammi and Assi, honored Pales- tinjan priests, considered Huna as their superior (Meg. 22a; Git. 59b). Although Huna was related to the family of the exilarch (Sherira Gaon, Jc.) he was so poor at the beginning of )his career that in or- der to buy wine to consecrate the Sabbath he had to pawn his girdle (Meg. 27b). But Rab blessed him with riches, and Huna displayed great wealth at the wedding of his son Rabbah (2#.). He owned numer- ous flocks of sheep, which were under the special care of his wife, Hobah (B. K. 80a), and he traveled in a gilded litter (Ta‘an. 20b). Huna was His very generous. When the houses of Liberality. the poor people were thrown down by storms he rebuilt them; at meal-times the doors of his house would be left open, while his servants cried, “He who is hungry, let him come and eat” (20.). After Rab's death Huna lectured in his stead in the Academy of Sura, but he was not appointed head till after the death of Rab’s companion, Samuel (c. 256). It was under Huna that the Academy of Sura, till then called “sidra,” acquired the designa- tion of “metibta” (Hebr. “yeshibah”), Huna being the first “resh metibta” (Hebr. “rosh yeshibah ”; comp. Zacuto “ Yuhasin,” p. 118b, Kénigsberg, 1857; and see ACADEMIES IN BABYLONIA). Under Huna the THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 492 academy increased considerably in importance, and students flocked to it from all directions; during his presidency their number reached 800, all supported by himself (Ket. 106a). Thirteen assistant lecturers (“amora’e ”) were occupied in teaching them. When his pupils, after the lesson, shook their garments they raised so great a cloud of dust that when the Palestinian sky was overcast it was said, “IIuna’s pupils in Babylon have risen from their lesson ” (28.). Under Huna, Palestine lost its ascendency over Babylonia; and on certain occasions he declared the schools of the two countries to be equal (Git. 6a; B. K. 80a). In Babylonia, during his lifetime, the Sura academy held the supremacy. He presided over it for forty years, when he died suddenly, more than eighty years of age (M. K. 28a). His remains were brought to Palestine and buried by the side of Hiyya Rabbah (2. 25a). Huna’s principal pupil was Rab Hisda, who had previously been his fellow pupil under Rab. Other pupils of his whose names are given were: Abba b. Zabda, Rab Giddel, R. Helbo, R. Sheshet, and Huna’s own son, Rabbah (Yeb. 64b). He transmitted many of Rab’s halakot, sometimes without mentioning Rab’s name (Shab. 24a ¢ at.). His own halakot are numerous in the Babylonian Talmud, and although some of his decisions were contrary to Rab’s (Shab. 21a, b, 128a), he declared Rab to be the supreme authority in religious law (Niddah 24b), Huna’s deductions were sometimes casuistical; he interpreted the text verbatim even where the context seems to prohibit Method of such an interpretation (Shab. 20a; Deduction. Men. 36a; eé al.). According to Huna, the halakah transmitted in the Mish- nah and Baraita is not always to be taken as decisive (Ber. 24b, 59b). He had some knowledge of medi- cine and natural history, and used his knowledge in many of his halakic decisions (Shab. 20a, 54b; Yeb. 5b). He also interpreted many of the difficult words met with in the Mishnah and Baraita (Shab. 53b, 54b, e¢ al.). Huna was equally distinguished as a haggadist, and his haggadot were known in Palestine, whither they were carried by some of his pupils, Ze‘ira among them. His interpretation of Prov. xiv. 23, transmitted by Ze‘ira, is styled “the pearl” (Pesik. ii, 18b; comp. Yer. Shab. vii. 2, where also many halakot of his are preserved, transmitted by Ze‘ira). Many of his haggadot, showing his skill in Biblical exegesis, are found in the Babylonian Talmud, some in the name of Rab, some in his own. He took special pains to reconcile apparently conflicting pas- sages, as, for instance, II Sam. vii. 10 and I Chron. xvii. 10 (Ber. 7b). He endeavored to solve the problem presented by the sufferings of the right- eous, inferring from Isa. liii. 10 that God chasteneth those whom He loves (Ber. 5a). The following of Huna’s utterances may be given: “He who occu- pies himself with the study of the Law alone is as one who has no God” (inferred from II Chron. xv. 3; ‘Ab. Zarab 17b). “ When leaving the synagogue, one must not take long steps” (Ber. 6b). “He who recites his prayer behind the synagogue is called ‘ im- pious’ ” = “rasha‘” (inferred from Ps. xii. 9 [A. V. 8]; 7b.). “He who is accustomed to honor the Sab- 493 bath with light will have children whoare scholars; he who observes the injunction as to the mezuzal willhave a beautiful house; he who observes the ruleas to the zizit will have fine clothes; he who consecrates the Sabbath and the holy days as com- manded will have many skins filled with wine” (Shab. 23b). Huna was very tolerant, and on sev- eral occasions he recommended mild treatment of Gentiles (B. K. 118a; B. M. 70a). He was also very modest; he was not ashamed, before he was rich, to cultivate his field himself, nor to return home in the evening with his spade on his shoulder (Meg. 288). When two contending parties requested him to judge between them, he said to them: “Give me a man to cultivate my field and I will be your judge” (Ket. 105a). He patiently bore Rab’s hard words, because the latter was his teacher (‘Er. lia; Yer. ‘Er. i. 3), but he showed on several occasions that a scholar must not humiliate himself in pres- ence of an inferior (Ket. 69a; B. M. 38a). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bacher, Ag. Bab. Amor. pp. 52-60; Gratz, Gesch, 3d ed., iv. 291 et seq.; Halévy, Dor ot ha-Rishonim, ii. 411 et seq.; Heilprin, Seder ha-Dorot, ii.. Lichtmann, in as Yisrael, iii. 297-303 ; Weiss, Dor, iti. 182 et seq. M. SEL. HUNA, ABBA HA-KOHEN. Sce Huna Bar ABBIN. HUNA BAR ABBIN HA-KOHEN (called also Nehunya, Huna, and Hunya): Palestinian amora of the first half of the fourth century; pupil of R. Jeremiah, in whose name he reports some hala- kic and haggadic sayings (Yer. Dem. 21d; Pes. 36d; and frequently). That the name “ Nehunya,” from which are derived “Huna” and “Hunya,” desig- nates Huna is shown by the fact that a saying which is quoted in the Pesikta (xviii 174) in the name of Huna is given by his pupil Tanhuma in the Midrash Tehillim (to Ps. xiv. 6) in the name of Ne- hunya. Huna occupied a prominent position in the school of Tiberias, directed by Jose, with whom he had halakic controversies (Yer. Shek. 48b). Huna sojourned some time in Babylonia (Yer. R. H. ii. 2) and was well acquainted with the halakot of the Babylonian amoraim, often quoted by him in the Yerushalmi. It was probably during his residence there that he made the acquaintance of Raba, head of the school of Mahoza, to whom he made an impor- tant communication concerning intercalary months (Yer. R.H. 21a). With regard to certain calendary calculations, Huna relates that in consequence of the Roman persecutions (under Gallus) the rabbis of Tiberias, who had sought refuge in a grotto, delib- erated on the advisability of intercalating an addi- tional month. In the grotto they distinguished day from night by lamps, which were dim in the daytime and bright at night (Gen. R. xxxi.). Huna scems to have had some medical knowledge; he speaks of the effects of Rubia tinctorum (madder = NID) and asafetida nnbn), in which latter article he traded (Yer. Shab. 8b, 1%). Although of a priestly family Huna refused to take tithes (Yer. Ma‘as. Sh. ii. 2). Huna was an able haggadist, and his sayings are frequently quoted in midrashic literature. His hag- gadot bear the stamp of ardent patriotism. He ap- pears as a bitter enemy of the Romans, to whom, ac- cording to him, the Psalmist applied the epithet b35 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Huna (Ps. xiv. 1), because they filled Palestine with Jew- ish corpses (Midr. Teh. to Ps. ad dve.). “In three things,” he declared, “the Greeks are superior to the Romans in legislation, in painting, and in litera- ture” (Gen. R. xvi. 4). Huna held the study of the Law in such high estimation that he declared it could atone for a deadly sin (Lev. R. xxv.). Huna con- sidered envy the greatest sin. Israel was exiled only because it transgressed the tenth commandment (Pes. R. 24). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Heilprin, Seder ha-Dorot, ii. 125; Z. Frankel, Mebo, p. 83d; Bacher, 4g. Pal. Amor. iii. 272 et seq. S. I. Br. HUNA B. HANINA (HINENA): Babylo- nian amora of the fifth generation (4th cent.). His principal teachers were Abaye (in whose school R. Safra and Abba b. Huna were his fellow pupils; B. B. 167b) and Raba; KR. Papa, his senior, was a fel- low pupil under Raba (Sanh. 87a). On one occa- sion Huna and Huna b. Nahman contested Raba’s decision ((‘Ab. Zarah 57b). Hluna has transmitted a halakah in the name of Hiyya b. Rab (Ber. 80a). BIBLIOGRAPHY : Heilprin, Seder ha-Dorot, ii. S. M. SEt. HUNA B. JOSHUA: Babylonian amora of the fifth generation; dicd in 410 (Samson of Chinon, “Sefer Keritut,” p. 26a, Cremona, 1558). He was the pupil of Raba (Kid. 32b), who seeins to have been his principal teacher, and who sometimes praised him (ILor. 10b), but occasionally blamed him (Ket. 85a; Git. 78a). He appears to have been the pupil of Abaye also (R. H. 24b). His principal com- panion was Rt. Papa, from whom he was insepa- rable, both in and out of school (‘Er. 12a; Ber. 58b; etal.). When R. Papa became head of the school of Naresh (v3), Huna was appointed president of the general assembly (“resh kallah”) in the same school (Ber. 57a). As senior pupils, Huna and R. Papa took part in the halakic deliberations of their teachers. Their halakot are often mentioned in the Babylonian Talmud, and, according to Moses of Coucy (“Sefer Mizwot Gadol,” i., No. 67), Isaac Alfasi decided with them against R. Huna I., head of the Academy of Sura. Huna was wealthy (Hor. 10b); he never walked more than four cubits bareheaded (Shab. 118b); he ate very slowly, so that R. Papa consumed in the same time four times as much and Rabina eight times as much (Pes. 89b). Huna lived to a great age, outliving Raba by fifty-seven years. Once in the lifetime of R. Papa, Huna fell desperately ill, but his life was spared to him because he was for- bearing (R. H. 1%a). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Halévy, Dorot ha-Rishonim, ii. 505 et seq.; Heilprin, Seder ha-Dorot, ii.; Weiss, Dor, iii. ee S. . SEL, HUNA, MAR. Sce EXILARCH. HUNA B. NATHAN: Babylonian scholar of the fourth and fifth centuries. Hewas the pupil of Amemar IJ. and a senior and companion of Asn, to whom he repeated several of Amemar’s sayings and halakot (Git. 19); B. B. 55a, 74b). He was wealthy; but though “in him learning and dignity met,” he was nevertheless subject to Ashi (Git. 59a). He had access to the royal court of Persia, and the esteem in which he was held by King Yezdegerd is Hungary THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 494 instanced by the fact that on one occasion at court (as told by Huna to Ashi) the king himself adjusted Huna’s belt (Zeb. 19a; see AMEMARIT.). According to Sherira (Neubauer, “M. J. C.” i. 82), Huna was exilarch in the time of Ashi. Another Huna b. Nathan was a companion of Raba (Ned. 12a) and, apparently, a pupil of Nahman (Ket. 7a). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Halévy, Dorot ha-Rishonim, ii. 517; Heilprin, Seder ha-Dorot, ii.; Lazarus, in Briill’s Jahrb. x. 110, 111. Ss M. SEL. HUNGARY (in Hebrew literature, “ann ma$p [see HaGaR] ; PINIIN; WAT PINs NINA): King- dom in central Europe, forming part of the Austro- Hungarian monarchy. It is not definitely known when Jews first settled in Hungary. According to legend, King Decebalus of Dacia permitted the Jews who aided him in his war against Rome to settle in his territory. A Latin inscription, the epitaph of Septima Maria, discovered within the territory of the ancient province of Pannonia, clearly refers to Jew- ish matters. But, although it may be unhesitatingly assumed that Jews came to Hungary while the Roman emperors held sway in that country, there is nothing to indicate that at that time they had set- tled there permanently. In the Hungarian lan- guage the Jew is called “Zsid6,” a term which the Hungarians adopted from the Slavs. The first historical document relating to the Jews of Hungary is the letter written about 960 to King Joseph of the Chazars by Hasdai ibn Earliest Shaprut, the Jewish statesman of Cor- References. dova, in which he says that the Slavic ambassadors promised to deliver the message to the King of Slavonia, who would hand the same to Jews living in “the country of Hun- garin,” who, in turn, would transmit it farther (see Jew. Encyc. iv. 3, 8.0. CHAzars). About the same time Ibrahim ibn Jacob says that Jews went from Hungary to Prague for business purposes. (See CoMMERCE.) Dr. Samuel Kohn suggests that Jew- ish Chazars may have been among the Hungarian troops that under Arpad conquered the country in the second half of the ninth century. Nothing is . Known concerning the Jews during the period of the Vajdas, except that they lived in the country and engaged in commerce there. Two hundred years later, in the reign of St. Ladislaus (1077-95), the Synod of Szabolcs decreed (May 20, 1092) that Jews should not be permitted to have Christian wives or to keep Christian slaves. This decree had been pro- mulgated in the Christian countries of Europe since the fifth century, and St. Ladislaus merely intro- duced it into Hungary. The Jews of Hungary formed at first small settle- ments, and had no learned rabbis; but they were strictly observant of all the Jewish religious laws and customs. Jews from Ratisbon once came into Hungary with merchandise from Russia, and the wheel of their wagon broke on a Friday, near Ofen (Buda) or Gran (Esztergom). By the time they had repaired it and had entered the town, the Jews were just leaving the synagogue; and the unintentional Sabbath-breakers were heavily fined. The ritual of the Hungarian Jews faithfully re- flected their German origin. King Coloman (1095-1114), the successor of St. Ladislaus, renewed the Szaboles decree of 1092, add- ing further prohibitions against the employment of Christian slaves and domestics. He also restricted the Jews to cities with episcopal sees—probably to have them under the continuous su- pervision of the Church. Soon after the promulga- tion of this decree Crusaders came to Hungary; but the Hungarians did not sympathize with them, and Coloman even opposed them. The infuriated Cru- saders attacked some cities, and if Gedaliah ibn Yahya is to be believed, the Jews suffered a fate similar to that of their coreligionists in France, Ger- many, and Bohemia. The cruelties inflicted upon the Jews of Bohe- mia induced many of them to seek refuge with their treasures in Hungary. It was probably the immi- — gration of the rich Bohemian Jews that induced Coloman soon afterward to regulate commercial and banking transactions between Jews and Christians, He decreed, among other regulations, that if a Christian borrowed from a Jew, or a Jew from a Christian, both Christian and Jewish witnesses must be present at the transaction. During the reign of King Andrew II. (1205-35) there were Jewish chamberlains and mint-, salt-, and tax-officials. The nobles of the coun- try, however, induced the king, in his Golden Bull (1222), to deprive the Jews of these high offices. When Andrew needed money in 1226, he farmed the royal revenues to Jews, which gave ground for much complaint. The pope thereupon excommunicated him, until, in 1233, he promised the papal ambassadors on oath that he would enforce the decrees of the Golden Bull directed against the Jews and the Saracens; would cause both peoples to be distinguished from Christians by means of badges; and would forbid both Jews and Saracens to buy or to keep Christian slaves. The year 1240 was the closing one of the fifth millennium of the Jewish era. At that time the Jews were expecting the advent of their Messiah. The irruption of the Tatars (1241) seemed to conform to expectation, as Jewish imagination expected the happy Messianic period to be ushered in by the war of Gog and Magog. The wild Tatars treated the Jews with great cruelty, although it had been re- ported that they (the Tatars) were in reality Jews who had been secretly furnished with arms by their European brethren. Béla IV. (1235-70) appointed a Jew, Henul by name, court chamberlain (the Jew Teka had filled this office under Andrew IT.); and Wolfel and his sons Altmann and Nickel held the castle at Komarom with its domains inpawn. Béla also entrusted the Jews with the mint; and Hebrew coins of this period are still found in Hungary. In 1251 a “ privilegium ” was granted by Thirteenth Béla to his Jewish subjects which was Century. essentially the same as that granted by Duke Frederick TI. the Belligerent to the Austrian Jews in 1244, but which Béla modified to suit the conditions of Hungary (Léw, in Busch’s “Jahrbuch,” v. 63). This “ privilegium ” remained in force down to the battle of Mohacs (1526). At the Synod of Ofen (1279), held in the reign of King Ladislaus TY. (1272-90), it was decreed, in the Eleventh Century. Golden Bull. 495 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Hungary presence of the papal ambassador, that every Jew appearing in public should wear on the left side of his upper garment a piece of red cloth; that any Christian transacting business with a Jew not so marked, or living in a house or on land together with any Jew, should be refused admittance to the Church services; and that a Christian entrusting any office to a Jew should be excommunicated. Andrew IIT. (1291-1301), the last king of the house of Arpad, declared, in the “ privilegium ” granted by him to the community of Presburg (Pozsony), that the Jews in that city should enjoy all the liberties of citizens. Under the foreign kings who occupied the throne of Hungary on the extinction of the house of Arpad, the Hungarian Jews suffered many persecutions; and at the time of the Black Death (1349) they were expelled from the country (see “R. E. J.” xxii. 236). Although the Jews were immediately readmitted, they were again persecuted, and were Expulsion once more expelled in 1360 by King and Recall. Louis the Great of Anjou (1842-82) on the failure of his attempt to convert them to Catholicism. They were graciously received by Alexander the Good of Moldavia and Dano I. of Wallachia, the latter affording them special com- mercial privileges. When, some years later, Hungary was in financial distress, the Jews were recalled. They found that during their absence the king had introduced the custom of “ Tédtbriefe,” 2.¢., canceling by a stroke of his pen, on the request of a subject or a city, the notes and mortgage-deeds of the Jews, An impor- tant office created by Louis was that of “judge of all the Jews living in Hungary,” this official being chosen from among the dignitaries of the country, the palatines, and treasurers, and having a deputy to aid him. It was his duty to collect the taxes of the Jews, to protect their privileges, and to listen to their complaints, which last-named had become more frequent since the reign of Sigismund (1387-1487). The successors of Sigismund—Albert (1437-39), Ladislaus Posthumus (1458-57), and Matthias Cor- vinus (1458-90)—likewise confirmed the “ privilegi- um” of Béla IV. Matthias created the office of Jew- ish prefectin Hungary. The period following upon the death of Matthias was a sad one for the Hungarian Jews. He was hardly buried when the people fell upon them, confiscated their property, refused to pay debts owing to them, and persecuted them gen- erally. The pretender John Corvinus, Matthias’ illegitimate son, expelled them from Tata (Totis), and King Ladislaus IT. (1490-1516), always in need of money, laid heavy taxes upon them. During his reign Jews were for the first time burned at the stake, many being executed at Tyrnau (Nagy-Szom- bat) in 1494, on suspicion of ritual murder. The Hungarian Jews finally applied to the Ger- man emperor Maximilian for protection. On the occasion of the marriage of Louis II. and the arch- duchess Maria (1512), the emperor, with the consent of Ladislaus, took the prefect, Jacob Sixteenth Mendel, together with his family and Century. all the other Hungarian Jews, under his protection, according to them all the rights enjoyed by his other subjects. Under Ladislaus’ successor, Louis II. (1516-26), persecu- tion of the Jews was a common occurrence. The bitter feeling against them was in part augmented by the fact that the baptized Emerich Szerencsés, the deputy treasurer, embezzled the public funds, folowing the example of the nobles who despoiled the treasury under the weak Louis. The Turks vanquished the Hungarians at the bat- tle of Mohacs (Aug. 29, 1526), on which occasion Louis IL. was slain. When the news Under the of hisdeath reached the capital, Ofen, Turks. the court and the nobles fled together With some rich Jews, among them the - prefect. When the grand vizier, Ibrahim Pasha, preceding Sultan Sulaiman, arrived with his army at Ofen, the representatives of the Jews who had re- mained in the city appeared garbed in mourning be- fore him, and, begging for grace, handed him the keys of the deserted and unprotected castle in token of submission. The sultan himself entered Ofen on Sept. 11; and on Sept. 22 he decreed that all the Jews seized at Ofen, Gran, and elsewhere, more than 2,000 in number, should be distributed among the cities of the Turkish empire. While some of the Jcws of Hungary were thus deported to Turkey, others, who had fled at the ap- proach of the sultan, sought refuge beyond the fronticr or in the royal free towns of western Hun- gary. The widow of Louis IT., the queen regent Maria, favored the enemies of the Jews. The citizens of Oedenburg (Sopron) began hostilities by expelling the Jews of that city, confiscating their property, and pillaging the vacated houses and the synagogue. The city of Presburg also received permission from the queen (Oct. 9, 1526) to expel the Jews living within its territory, because they had expressed their intention of fleeing before the Turks. The Jews left Presburg on Nov. 9. On the same day the Diet at Stuhlweissenburg (Székesfchérvar) was opened, at which John Zapolya (1526-40) was elected and crowned king in opposition to Ferdi- nand. During this session it was decreed that the Jews should immediately be expelled from every part of the country. John Zapolya, however, did not ratify these Jaws; and the Diet held at Pres- burg Dec., 1526, at which Ferdinand of Habsburg was chosen king (1526-64), annulled all the decrees of that of Stuhlweissenburg, including Zapolya’s election as king. As the lord of Bésing (Bazin) was in debt to the Jews, a blood accusation was brought against these inconvenient creditors in 1529. Blood Although Mendel, the prefect, and the Accusation Jews throughout Hungary protested, at Bésing. the accused were burned at the stake. For centuries afterward Jews were forbidden to live at Bésing. The Jews of Tyrnau soon shared a similar fate, being first punished for alleged ritual murder and then expelled from the city (Feb. 19, 1539). In 1541, on the anniversary of the battle of Mo- hacs, Sultan Sulaiman again took Ofen by a ruse. This event marks the beginning of Turkish rule in many parts of Hungary, which lasted down to 1686. The Jews living in these parts were treated far better than those living underthe Hapsburgs. Dur- ing this period, beginning with the second half of Hungary THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 496 the sixteenth century, the community of Ofen was more flourishing than at any time before or after. While the Turks held sway in Hungary, the Jews of Transylvania (at that time an independent princi- pality) also fared well. At the instance of Abra- ham Sassa, a Jewish physician of Constantinople, Prince Gabriel Bethlen of Transylvania granted a letter of privileges (June 18, 1623) to the Spanish Jews from Turkey. On Nov. 26, 1572, King Maximilian (1564-77) in- tended to expel the Jews of Presburg, stating that his edict would be recalled only in case they accepted Christianity. The Jews, from however, remained in the city, with- Presburg. out abandoning their religion. They were in constant conflict with the cit- izens. In 1582 (June 1) the municipal council decreed that no one should harbor Jews, or even transact business with them. The feeling against the Jews in that part of the country not under Turk- ish rule is shown by the decree of the Diet of 1578, to the effect that Jews were to be taxed double the amount which was imposed upon other citizens. By article xv. of the law promulgated by the Diet of 1630, Jews were forbidden to take charge of the customs; and this decree was confirmed by the Diet of 1646 on the ground that the Jews were ex- cluded from the privileges of the country, that they were unbelievers, and had no conscience (“veluti jurium regni incapaces, infideles, et nulla conscien- tia preediti”). The Jews had to pay a special war- tax when the imperial troopsset out toward the end of the sixteenth century to recapture Ofen from the Turks. The Ofen community suffered much dur- ing this siege, as did also that of Stuhlweissenburg when the imperial troops took that city in Sept., 1601; many of its members were either slain or taken prisoners and sold into slavery, their redemp- tion being subsequently effected by the German. Italian, and Turkish Jews. After the conclusion of peace, which the Jews helped to bring about, the communities were in part reconstructed; but further development in the territory of the Hapsburgs was arrested when Leopold I. (1657-1705) expelled the Jews (April 24, 1671). He, however, revoked his decree a few months later (Aug. 20). During the siege of Vienna, in 1683, the Jews that had returned to that city were again maltreated. The Turks plundered some communities in western Hungary, and deported the members as slaves. The imperial troops recaptured Ofen on Sept. 2, 1686; and the whole of Hungary now came under the rule of the houseof Hapsburg. After the troops of Leopold had driven out the Turks, the king would not suffer any but Catholics in the reconquered coun- ties; and Protestants, Jews, and Mohammedans re- nounced their faiths. As the devas- Expelled Seven- tated country had to be repopulated, teenth Bishop Count Leopold Kollonitsch, Century. subsequently Archbishop of Gran and rimate of Hungary; advised the king to give the preference to the German Catholics in order that the country might in time become Ger- man and Catholic. He held that the Jews could not be exterminated at once, but they must be weeded out by degrees, as bad coin is gradually withdrawn from circulation. The decree passed by the Diet of Presburg, imposing double taxation upon the Jews, must be enforced. Jews must not be permitted to engage in agriculture, nor to own any real estate, nor to keep Christian serv- ants, This advice soon bore fruit and was in part acted upon. In Aug., 1690, the government at Vienna ordered Oedenburg to expel its Jews, who had im- migrated from the Austrian provinces. The gov- ernment, desiring to enforce the edict of the last Diet, decreed soon afterward that Jews should be removed from the office of collector. The order proved ineffective, however; and the employment of Jewish customs officials was continued. Even the treasurer of the realm set the example in trans- gressing the law by appointing (1692) Simon Hirsch as farmer of customs at Leopoldstadt; and at Hirsch’s death he transferred the office to Hirsch’s son-in-law. The revolt of the Kuruczes, under Francis Ra- kéczy, caused much suffering to the Hungarian Jews. The Kuruczes imprisoned and Revolt of slew the Jews, who had incurred their the anger by siding with the king’s party. Kuruczes. The Jews of Eisenstadt (Kis-Marton), accompanied by those of the com- munity of Mattersdorf (Nagy- Marton), sought refuge at Vienna, Wiener-Neustadt, and Forchten- stein (Frakné), those of Holics and Schlossberg (Sasvar) dispersed to Géding; while others, who could not leave their business in this time of dis- tress, sent their families to safe places, and them- selves braved the danger. While not many Jews lost their lives during this revolt, it made great havoc in their wealth, especially in the county of Oedenburg, where a number of rich Jews were living. The king granted letters of protection to those that had been ruined by the revolt, and de- manded satisfaction for those that had been injured; but in return for these favors he commanded the Jews to furnish the sums necessary for suppressing the revolt. After the restoration of peace the Jews were ex- pelied from many cities that feared their competi- tion; thus Gran expelled them in 1712, on the ground that the city which had given birth to St. Stephen must not be desecrated by them. But the Jews living in the country, on the estates of their landlords, were generally left in quiet. The lot of the Jews was not improved under the reign of Leopold’s son, Charles III, (1711-40). He informed the government (June 28, 1723) that he intended to decrease the number of Jews in his do- mains, and the government thereupon Eighteenth directed the counties to furnish statis- Century. tics of the Hebrew inhabitants. In 1726 the king decreed that in the Aus- trian provinces, from the day of publication of the decree, only one male member in each Jewish family be allowed to marry. This decree, restricting the natural increase of the Jews, materially affected the Jewish communities of Hungary. All the Jews in the Austrian provinces who could not marry there went to Hungary to found families; thus the over. flow of Austrian Jews peopled Hungary. These 497 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Hungary immigrauts settled chiefly in the northwestern coun- ties, in Neutra (Nyitra), Presburg, and Trencsén. The Moravian Jews continued to live in Hungary as Moravian subjects; even those that went there for the purpose of marrying and scttling promised on oath before leaving that they would pay the same taxes as those living in Moravia. In 1734 the Jews of Trencsén bound themselves by a secret oath that in all their communal affairs they would sub- mit to the Jewish court at Ungarisch-Brod only. In course of time the immigrants refused to pay taxes to the Austrian provinces. The Moravian Jews, who had suffered by the heavy emigration, then brought complaint; and Maria Theresa ordered that all Jewish and Christian subjects that had emi- grated after 1740 should be extradited, while those who had emigrated before that date were to be re- leased from their Moravian allegiance. The government could not, however, check the large immigration; for although strict laws were drafted (1727), they could not be enforced owing to the good-will of the magnates toward the Jews. The counties either did not answer at all, or sent reports bespeaking mercy rather than persecution. Meanwhile the king endeavored to free the mining- towns from the Jews—a work which Leopold I. had already begun in 1698. The Jews, Expelled however, continued to scttle near from these towns; they displayed their Mining- wares at the fairs; and, with the per- Towns. mission of the court, they even erected a foundry at Sig. When King Charles ordered them to leave (March, 1727), the royal man- date was in some places ignored; in others the Jews obeyed so slowly that he had to repeat his edict three months later. In 1785 another census of the Jews of the country was taken with the view of reducing their numbers. There were at that time 11,621 Jews living in Hun- gary, of which number 2,474 were male heads of families, and 57 were female heads. Statistics Of these heads of families 35.31 per in 1735. cent declared themselves to be Hun- garians; therest hadimmigrated. Of the immigrants 38.35 per cent came from Moravia, 11.05 per cent from Poland, and 3.07 per cent from Bohemia. The largest Jewish community, number- ing 770 persons, was that of Presburg. Most of the Jews were engaged in commerce or industries; only a few pursued agriculture. Of the 2,531 heads of families 883 were engaged in trade; 146 were tailors supplying garments to their core- ligionists. There were also a number of furriers and glaziers and 59 butchers. There were 203 brandy-distillers and 150 innkeepers. The heavy taxation imposed upon the Jews is evidenced by the fact that 23 families in the county of Abauj had to pay 88 gulden, 45 denars a year to their foreign landlords and 879 gulden to their Hungarian landlords. In several places the landlords accepted provisions instead of money in payment of the yearly tax. During the reign of Charles III. the religious af- fairs of the Jews of Hungary were directed by a chief rabbi; Samson Wertheimer, the famous factor of the court of Vienna, being chosen by his core- VI—82 ligionists to fill the office in gratitude for the interest he had shown in their welfare. His election was confirmed May 6, 1716, by the king, who also granted him permission, when he was unable to personally decide cases submitted to him, to employ refresenta- tives. Wertheimer’s representatives in the Hunga- rian communities between 1708 and 1717 were Meir b. Isaac, rabbi of Eisenstadt and author of “ Panim Me’irot”; Alexander b. Menahem; Phinehas Auer- bach; Jacob Eliezer Braunschweig ; Hirsch Semnitz ; and (after 1717) Simon Jolles. Wertheimer and his representatives judged espe- cially those cases that arose in consequence of the Kurucz revolt. The Jews had fled before Rakéczy’s troops as before their enemies, and Jewish communal life was for a time disorganized; but when peace was restored and the work of reorganizing the com- munities was begun, many difficulties arose that had to be solved by Wertheimer. Wertheimer died Aug. 6, 1724; and his death was scarcely an assured fact when his son-in-law, Bern- hard Eskeles, took steps to obtain the chief rabbin- ate. Nineteen days later he was appointed to the office by Count Georg Erdédy, and the king con- firmed the appointment Sept. 10, 1724. On the death of Eskeles (March 2, 1753) the office of chief rabbi of Hungary was abolished. Transylvania, at the present time belonging to Hungary, had in the eighteenth and nineteenth cen- turies a chief rabbi of its own, who was generally the rabbi of Gyula-Fehérvar (Karlsburg). The fol- lowing rabbis of this interesting community officiated as chief rabbis of Transylvania: Joseph Reis Auer- bach (d. 1750); Shalom Selig b. Saul Cohen (offici- ated 1754-57); Johanan b. Isaac (1758-60); Benja- min Ze’eb Wolf of Cracow (1764-77); Moses b. Samuel Levi Margaliot (1778-1817); Menahem b. Joshua Mendel (1818-23); Ezekiel Paneth (1823- 1848); Abraham Friedmann, the last chief rabbi of Transylvania (d. 1879). During the reign of Queen Maria Theresa (1740- 1780), daughter of Charles IIL, the Jews were ex- peiled trom Ofen (1746), and the “toleration-tax” was imposed upon the Hungarian Jews. On Sept. 1, 1749, the delegates of the Hungarian Jews, ex- cept those from the county of Szath- mar, assembled at Presburg and met a royal commission, which informed them that they would be expelled from the country if they did not pay this tax. The frightened Jews at once agreed to do so; and the commission then demanded a yearly tax of 50,000 gulden. This sum being excessive, the dele- gates protested; and although the queen had fixed 380,000 gulden as the minimum tax, they were finally able to compromise on the payment of 20,000 gulden a year for a period of eight years. The delegates were to apportion this amount among the districts; the districts, their respective sums among the com- munities; and the communities, theirs among the individual members. The queen confirmed this agreement of the com- mission, except the eight-year clause, changing the period to three years, which she subsequently made five. The agreement, thus ratified by the queen, was brought Nov. 26 before the courts, which were Under Maria Theresa. Hungary powerless to relieve the Jews from the payment of this “Malkegeld” (queen’s money), as they called it. The Jews, thus burdened by new taxes, thought the time ripe for taking steps to remove their op- pressive disabilities. While still at Presburg the delegates had brought their grievances before the mixed commission that was called “delegata in puncto tolerantialis tax et gravaminum Jude- orum commissio mixta.” These complaints pic- tured the distress of the Jews of that time. They were not allowed to live in Croatia and Sla- vonia, in the counties of Baranya and Heves, or in several free towns and localities; nor might they visit the markets there. At Stuhlweissenburg they had to pay a poll-tax of 1 guiden, 30 kreuzer if they entered the city during the day, if only for an hour. In many places they might not even stay over- night. They therefore begged permission to settle, or at least to visit the fairs, in Croatia and Slavonia and in those places from which they had been driven in consequence of the jealousy of the Greeks and the merchants. They had also to pay heavier bridge- and ferry-tolls than the Christians; at Tyrnau they had to pay three times the ordinary sum, namely, for the driver, for the vehicle, and for the animal drawing the same; and in three villages belonging to the same district they had to pay toll, although there was no toll-gate. Jews living on the estates of the nobles had to give their wives and children as pledges for arrears of taxes. In Upper Hungary they asked for the revocation of the toleration-tax imposed by the chamber of Zips (Szepes), on the ground that otherwise the Jews living there would have to pay two such taxes; and they asked also to be relieved from a similar tax paid to the Diet. Finally, they requested that Jewish artisans might be allowed to follow their trades in their homes un- disturbed. The commission laid these complaints before the queen, indicating the manner in which the evils could be relieved; and their suggestions were dic- tated in a rare spirit of good-will. The queen relieved the Jews from the tax of toler- ation in Upper Hungary only. In regard to the other complaints she ordered that the Jews should specify them in detail, and that the government should remedy them in so far as they came under its jurisdiction. The toleration-tax had hardly been instituted when Michael Hirsch petitioned the government to be ap- pointed primate of the Hungarian Jews in order to be able to settle difficulties that might arise among them, and to collect the tax. The government did not recommend Hirsch, but decided that in case the Jews should refuse to pay, it might be advisable to appoint a primate to adjust the matter. Before the end of the period of five years the delegates of the Jews again met the commission at Presburg and offered to increase the amount of their tax to 25,000 guiden a year if the queen would promise that it should remain at that sum for the next ten years. The queen refused; and not only did she turn a deaf ear to the renewed gravamina of the Jews, but caused still heavier burdens to be im- posed upon them, Their tax of 20,000 gulden was THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 498 increased to 30,000 gulden in 1760; to 50,000 in 1772; to 80,000 in 1778; and to 160,000 in 1813. Joseph II. (1780-90), son and successor of Maria Theresa, showed immediately on his accession that he intended to alleviate the condition of the Jews, communicating this intention to the Under Hungarian chancellor, Count Franz Joseph II. Esterhaizy, as early as May 13, 1781. In consequence the Hungarian govern- ment issued (March 31, 1783) a decree known as the “systematicagentis Judaice regulatio,” which wiped out at one stroke the decrees that had oppressed the Jews for centuries. The royal free towns, except the mining-towns, were opened to the Jews, who were allowed to settle at pleasure throughout the country. The “regulatio ” decreed that the legal doc- uments of the Jewsshould no longer be composed in Hebrew, or in the corrupt Judso-German, but in Latin, German, and Hungarian, the languages cur- rently used in the country, and which the young Jews were required to learn within two years, Documents written in Hebrew or in Judxo-German were not le- gal; Hebrew books were to be used at worship only ; the Jews were to organize elementary schools; the commands of the emperor, issued in the interests of the Jews, were to be announced in the synagogues; and the rabbis were to explain to the people the salutary effects of these decrees, Thesubjects to be taught in the Jewish schools were to be the same as those taught in the national schools; the same text- books were to be used in all the elementary schools; and everything that might offend the religious sen- timent of non-conformists was to be omitted. Dur- ing the early years Christian teachers Tolerance were to be employed in the Jewish Edict. schools, but they were to have nothing to do with the religious affairs of such institutions. After the lapse of ten years a Jew might establish a business, or engage in trade, only if he could prove that he had attended a school. The usual school-inspectors were to supervise the Jewish schools and to report to the government. The Jews were to create a fund for organizing and maintaining their schools. Jewish youth might en- ter the academies, and might study any subject at the universities except theology. Jews might rent farms only if they could cultivate the same without the aid of Christians. They were allowed to peddle and to engage in various industrial occupations, and to be admitted into the gilds. They were also per- mitted to engrave seals, and to sell gunpowder and saltpeter; but their exclusion from the mining-towns remained in force. Christian masters were allowed to have Jewish apprentices. All distinctive marks hitherto worn by the Jews were to be abolished, and they might even carry swords. On the other hand, they were required to discard the distinctive marks prescribed by their religionand to shave their beards. Emperor Joseph regarded this decree so seriously that he allowed no one to violate it. The Jews, in a petition dated April 22, 1783, expressed their gratitude to the emperor for his favors, and, re- minding him of his principle that religion should not be interfered with, asked permission to wear beards. The emperor granted the prayer of the petitioners, but reaffirmed the other parts of the decree (April 499 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Hungary 24, 1783). The Jews organized schools in various places, at Presburg, Alt-Ofen (O-Buda), Waag- Neustadt] (Vag-Ujhely), and Grosswardein (Nagy- Varad). A decree was issued by the emperor (July 23, 1787) to the effect that every Jew should choose a German surname; and a further edict (1789) or- dered, to the consternation of the Jews, that they should henceforth perform military service. After the death of Joseph II. the royal free cities showed a very hostile attitude toward the Jews. The citizens of Pesth petitioned the municipal council that after May 1, 1790, the Jews should no longer be allowed to live in the city. The government inter- fered; and the Jews were merely forbidden to en- gage in peddling inthecity. Seven days previously a decree of expulsion had been issued at Tyrnau, ity with the royal decision, was read by Judge Stephen Atzel in the session of Feb. 5: “In order that the condition of the Jews may be regulated pending such time as may elapse until their affairs and the privi- leges of various royal free towns relating to them shall have been determined bya commission tov report to the next ensuing Diet, when his Majesty and the estates will decide on the condition of the Jews, the estates have determined, with the ap- proval of his Majesty, that the Jews within the boundaries of Hungary and the countries belonging to it shall, in all the royal free cities and in other localities (except the royal mining- towns), remain under the same conditions in which they were on Jan. 1, 1/90; and in case they have been expelled anywhere, they shall be recalled.” Thus came into force the famous law entitled “De Judeis,” which forms the thirty-eighth article of the laws of the Diet of 1790-91. MEDAL OF JOSEPH II. COMMEMORATING GRANT OF RELIGIOUS LIBERTY tO PROTESTANTS AND JEWS OF HUNGARY, 1786, (From F, Szecheny, Catalogue of Hungarian Coins in the National Institute at Szegedin, 1207-10.) May 1 being fixed as the date of the Jews’ depar- ture. The Jews appealed to the government; and in the following December the city authorities of Tyrnau were informed that the Diet had confirmed the former rights of the Jews, and that the latter could not be expelled. The Jews of Hungary handed a petition, in which they boldly presented their claims to equality with other citizens, to King Leopold IT. (1790-92) at Vienna Nov. 29, 1790. He sent it the Reception following day to the chancelleries of ofthe Hungary and Moravia for their opin- Petition. ions. The question was brought before the estates of the country Dec. 2, and the Diet drafted a bill showing that it intended to protect the Jews. This decision created conster- nation among the enemies of the latter. Tyrnau addressed a further memorandum to the estates (Dec. 4) in which it demanded that the Diet should pro- tect the city’s privileges. The Diet decided in favor of the Jews, and its decision was laid before the king. The Jews, confidently anticipating the king’s de- cision in their favor, organized a splendid celebra- tion on Nov. 15, 1790, the day of his coronation; on Jan. 10, 1791, the king approved the bill of the Diet; and the following law, drafted iv conform- The “ De Judzis” law was gratefully received by the Jews; for it not only afforded them protection, but also gave them the assurance that Law ‘‘De_ their affairs would soon be regulated. Judeis.” Still, although the Diet appointed on Feb. 7, 1791, a commission to study the question, the amelioration of the condition of the Hungarian Jews was not effected till half a century later, under Ferdinand V. (1835-48), during the ses- sion of the Diet of 1839-40. In consequence of the petition of the Jews of Pesth, the mover of which was Dr. Philip Jacobo- vics, superintendent of the Jewish hospital, the gen- eral assembly of the county of Pesth drafted instruc- tions for the delegates June 10, 1839, to the effect that if the Jews would be willing to adopt the Mag- yar language they should be given equal rights with other Hungarian citizens. Simon Dubraviczky, the delegate of the county of Pesth, in the district session of March 9, 1840, ex- pressed the wish of his constituents that the Jews should enjoy all the rights of tax-paying citizens. The delegates received the words of Dubraviczky enthusiastically. A bill to this effect was passed and laid before the magnates, who agreed with the lower chamber, differing merely as to the way in which the bill should be carried out. They advised Hungary THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 500 deliberate procedure, deeming it to be sufficient if the toleration-tax should be recalled, and the following privileges be granted to the Jews: Eman- namely, permission to rent the estates cipation ofthe nobles, tosettleinany part of the Debates. country, to be admitted into the gilds and commercial associations, and to be entitled to purchase not merely property hitherto held in socage, but even the estates of citizens in the royal free and privileged towns. The lower chamber accepted this recommendation, and altered its bill accordingly. But a royal decree, issued May 10 in the interests of the royal free towns, not only did not support the legislation of the estates in favor of the Jews, but in some respects even made the condition of the latter worse. The estates were not satisfied with the decree, and again petitioned the king to ratify their bill; but the towns inter- fered. Thus the twenty-ninth article of the Law of the Diet was drafted, which Kossuth rightly called “the small result of big words.” This law granted freedom of residence—except in the mining- towns—to all native or naturalized Jews of good repute; it permitted Jews to engage in manufactures and to study for the professions; but it restricted their right to own real estate to the cities, where they already possessed this right. Although this law did not satisfy the hopes of the Jews, the favorable attitude of the Diet led them to Magyarize themselves. From now onward much attention was paid to the teaching of Hungarian in the schools; Moritz Bloch (Ballagt) trans- lated the Pentateuch into Hungarian, and Moritz Rosenthal! the Psalms and the Pirke Abot. Various communities founded Hungarian reading- circles; and the Hungarian dress and language were more and more adopted. Many communities began to use Hungarian on their seals and in their docu- ments, and some liberal rabbis even began to preach in that language. The Dict of 1889-40 unanimously condemned the toleration-tax, or the “ Kammertaxe,” as it had been called since the time of Joseph Il. The king, influenced by the Dict, was willing to remit the tax if the Jews would pay the arrears that had ac- cumulated for a number of years and amounted to 2,504,298 guiden. The Jews finally induced the king to accept 1,200,000 gulden as a compromise. In answer to a call issued by the community of Pesth the Jewish represcntatives of Hungary assem- bled in that city March 4-14, 1846, Abolition Jonas Kunewalder presiding, and of- of Tolera- fered to pay 1,200,000 gulden into the tion-Tax. treasury within five years, to secure the abrogation of the toleration-tax. The offer was accepted; and. King Ferdinand V. abrogated the “Kammertaxe” forever (June 24, 1846). The unfavorable attitude of the Diet of 1843- 1844 toward emancipation induced the community of Pesth and the commission for the apportionment of the toleration-tax to petition the king for the ap- pointment of a commission which should investigate the oppressed condition of the Jews. The king re- ferred the petition to the government, and the latter, Magyari- zation of the Jews. in turn, referred it to a commission, under Baron Nikolaus Vay At the sessions of the Diet subsequent to that of 1889-40, as well as in various cities, a decided antipathy —at times active and at Appeal times merely passive —toward the of Baron Jews became manifest. In sharp con- E6étvés. trast to this attitude was that of Baron Joseph Eétvés, who published in 1840 in the “Budapesti Szemle,” the most prominent Hungarian review, a strong appeal for the eman- cipation of the Jews. This cause also founda friend in Count Charles Zay, the chief ecclesiastical in- spector of the Hungarian Lutherans, who warmly advocated Jewish interests in 1846. Although the session of the Diet convened Nov. 7, 1847, was unfavorable to the Jews, the lat- ter not only continued to cultivate the Hungarian language, but were also willing to sacrifice their lives and property in the hour of danger. During the Revolution of 1848-49 they displayed their patri- otism, even though attacked by the populace in sev- eral places at the beginning of the uprising. On March 19 the populace of Presburg, encouraged by the antipathies of the citizens—who were aroused by the fact that the Jews, leaving their ghetto around the castle of Presburg, were settling in the city itself—began hostilities that were continued after some days, and were renewed more fiercely in April. At this time the expulsion of the Jews from Oedenburg, Fiinfkirchen (Pécs), Stuhlweissenburg, and Steinamanger (Szombathely) was demanded; in the last two cities they were attacked. At Stei- hamanger the mob advanced upon the synagogue, cut up the Torah scrolls, and threw them into a well. Nor did the Jews of Pesth escape, while those at Waag-Neustadtl especially suffered from the brutality of the mob. Bitter words against the Jews were also heard in the Diet. Some Jews ad- vised emigration to America as a means of escape; and a society was founded at Pesth, with a branch at Presburg, for that purpose. A few left Hungary, seeking a new home across the sea, but the majority remained. Jews entered the national guard as early as March, 1848; although they were excluded from certain cities, they reentered as soon as the danger to the country seemed greater than the hatred of the citi- zens. At Pesth the Jewish national Jews inthe guard formed a separate division. Hungarian When the national guards of Papa Army, . were mobilized against the Croatians, 1848. Leopold Léw, rabbiof Papa, joined the Hungarian ranks, inspiring his com- panions by his words of encouragement, Jews were also to be found in the volunteer corps, and among the honved and landsturm ; and they constituted one- third of the volunteer division of Pesth that marched along the Drave against the Croatians, being blessed by Rabbi Schwab June 22, 1848. Many Jews throughout the country joined the army to fight for their fatherland; among them, Adolf Hiibsch, sub- sequently rabbi at New York; Schiller-Szinessy, afterward lecturer at the University of Cambridge; and Ignatz Einhorn, who, under the name of “ Edu- ard Horn,” subsequently became state secretary of 501 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Hungary the Hungarian Ministry of Commerce. The rebel- lious Servians slew the Jews at Zenta who sympa- thized with Hungary; among them, Rabbi Israel . Ullmann and Jacob Miinz, son of Moses Miinz of Alt-Ofen. The conduct of the Jewish soldiers in the Hungarian army was highly commended by Generals Klapka and Goérgey, Ignatz Einhorn es- timated the number of Jewish soldiers who took part in the Hungarian Revolution to be 20,000; but this is most likely exaggerated, as Béla Bernstein enumerates only 750 Combatants by name in his work, “Az 1848-49-iki Magyar Szabadsdgharcz ¢s a Zsidék ” (Budapest, 1898), The Hungarian Jews served their country not only with the sword, but also with funds. Communities and individuals, hebra kaddishas and other Jewish societics, freely contributed silver and gold, armor and provisions, clothed and fed the soldiers, and furnished lint and other medical supplies to the Hungarian camps. Meanwhile they did not forget to take steps to obtain their rightsas citizens. When the Dict of 1847-48—in which, according to ancient law, only the nobles and those having the rights of nobles might take part—was dissol ved (April 11), and the new Parliament—at which under the new laws the delegates clected by the commons also appeared —was convened at Pesth (July 2, 1848), the Jews hopefully looked forward to the deliberations of the new body. Many Jews thought to pave the way for emanci- pation by a radical reform of their religious life, in agreement with opinions uttered in the Diets and in the press, that the Jews should not receive equal civic rights until they had re- Reform and formed their religion. This reform Eman- had been first demanded in the session cipation. of 1839-40. From this session onward the necessity of a reform of the Jewish cult was generally advocated in the press and in general assemblies, mostly in a spirit of friendliness. Several counties instructed their representatives not to vote for the emancipation of the Jews until they desisted from practising the externals of their re- ligion. Louis Kossuth voiced the wish of nearly the whole nation when he declared in the “Pesti Hirlap” in 1844 that it was necessary to convene a Jewish San- hedrin for the purpose of instituting reforms among the Jews. But the ideas of Reform found little response among the Hungarian Jews at this time, the community of Pesth being the most eager to adopt it. Among its advocates in that city were students at the university, teachers, physicians, and some merchants, who organized a Reform society similar to that which had been founded by rabbi Sam- uel Holdheim at Berlin May 8, 1845. The organ of the Pesth society was the German weekly “Der Ungarische Israelit,” founded by I. Einhorn April 15, 1848, and which included in its program not only the emancipation of the Jews and the reform of Jewish worship, but also the encouragement of Hun- garian sympathies and Hungarian culture among the Jews. The founders, desiring to extend the in- fluence of the Reform society, organized it as a cen- tral society for the propagation of Reform ideas and the direction of branch societies in the provinces. But the appeals addressed to the communities out- side of Pesth met with few responses, except at Arad, Fiinfkirchen, Grosswardein, and Nagy-Becs- kerek. The rabbi of the Reform society at Gross- wardein was Dr, Leopold Rockenstein, who soon exchanged the Bible for the sword, and rose to the rank of lieutenant during the Revolution. Moses Breck, of Nagy-Becskerek, the enthusiastic advo- cate of Reform, also took part in the Revolution as officer. For the purpose of urging emancipation all the Jews of Hungary sent delegates to a conference at Pesth on July 5, 1848; there a commission consisting of ten members was chosen, to which was entrusted the task of agitating in behalf of emancipation; but the commission was instructed to make no conces- sions in regard to the Jewish faith, even if the Par- liament should stipulate such as the condition on which civic equality to the Jews would be granted. The commission soon after addressed a petition to the Parliament, but it proved ineffective. The great indifference displayed by the Jews of the provinces did not discourage the reformers at Pesth. Aided by the counsel and en- Reform couragement of Holdheim and the Society Hungarian press, they called a general Founded. assembly, July 8, 1848, at which the founding of the Ungarischer Israe- litischer Central-Reformverein was definitely deter- mined upon. On Saturday, Sept. 238, the Reform society informed the Pesth congregation that it had chosen Ignatz EINHORN as its rabbi. Einhorn was sent to Berlin inorder to investigate the institu- tions and customs of the Reform society there; and he entered upon his pastoral duties with the begin- ning of the great festivals. The object for which the society was fighting, the emancipation of the Jews, was granted by the na- tional assembly at Szeged on Saturday, the eve of the Ninth of Ab (July 28, 1849). The bill, which was quickly debated and immediately became a law, realized all the hopes of the Reform party. The Jews obtained full citizenship; and the Ministry of the Interior was ordered to call a convention of Jewish ministers and laymen for the purpose of drafting a confession of faith, and of inducing the Jews to organize their religious life in conformity with the demands of the time, The bill also in- cluded the clause referring to marriages between Jews and Christians, which clause both Kossuth and the Reform party advocated. The Jews enjoyed their civic liberty just two weeks. When the Hungarian army surrendered at Vilagos to the Russian troops that had Reaction. come to aid the Austrians in suppress- ing the Hungarian struggle for liberty, the Jews were severely punished for having taken part in the uprising. Haynau, the new governor of Hungary, imposed heavy war-taxes upon them, es- pecially upon the communities of Pesth and Alt- Ofen, which had already been heavily mulcted by Prince Alfred Windischgritz, commander-in-chief of the Austrian army, on his triumphant entry into the Hungarian capital at the beginning of 1849. The communities of Kecskemét, Nagy-K®8rés, Cze- gléd, Irsa, Szeged, and Szabadka (Maria-Theresiopel) Hungary were punished with equal severity by Haynau, who even laid hands upon the Jews individually, execu- ting and imprisoning several; others sought refuge in emigration. The several communities petitioned to be relieved of the tax imposed upon them, The ministry of war, however, decided that the commu- nities of Pesth, Alt-Ofen, Kecskemét, Czegléd, Nagy-Korés, and Irsa should pay this tax not in kind, but in currency to the amount of 2,800,000 gulden. As the communities were unable to collect this sum, they petitioned the government to remit it, but the result was that not only the communities in question but the communities of the entire coun- try were ordered to share in raising the sum, on the ground that most of the Jews of Hungary had supported the Revolution. Only the communities of Temesvar and Presburg were exempted from this order, they having remained loyal to the existing government. The military commission subsequently added a clause to the effect that individuals or com- munities might be exempted from the punishment, if they could prove by documents or witnesses, be- fore a commission to be appointed, that they had not taken part in the Revolution, either by word or deed, morally or materially. The Jews refused this means of clearing themselves, and finally declared that they were willing to redeem the tax by collecting a certain sum for a national school-fund. Emperor Francis Joseph therefore remitted the war-tax (Sept. 20, 1850), but ordered that the Jews of Hungary without distinction should contribute toward a Jew- ish school-fund of 1,000,000 gulden; and this sum was raised by them within a few years. On the restoration of peace the Austrian govern- ment undertook to destroy all the marks of the Revo- lution, in consequence of which the Reform society of Pesth was dissolved (1852). Ignatz Einhorn emi- grated; and his successor, David EINHORN, went to America. The emancipation of the Jews remained in abey- ance while the house of Hapsburg held absolute sway in Hungary; but it was again Emancipa- taken in hand when the Austrian tion troops were defeated in Italy in 1859. Movement In that year the cabinet, with Emperor Revived. Francis Joseph in the chair, decreed that the status of the Jews should be regulated in agreement with the times, but with due regard for the conditions obtaining in the several lo- calities and provinces. The question of emancipa- tion was again loudly agitated when the emperor convened the Diet April 2, 1861; but the early dis- solution of that body prevented it from taking action in the matter. . The decade of absolutism in Hungary (1849-59) was beneficial to the Jews in so far as it forced them to establish schools, most of which were in charge of trained teachers. The government organized with the Jewish school-fund model schools at Satoralja- Ujhely, Temesvar, Fiinfkirchen, and Pesth. In the last-named city it founded in 1859 the Israelitish State Teachers’ Seminary, the principals of which have included Abraham Lederer, Heinrich DrutscH, and Joseph BAn6éczi (1908). The graduates of this institution have rendered valuable services in the cause of patriotism and religious education. THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 502 When the Parliament dissolved in 1861, the eman- cipation of the Jews was deferred to the corona- tion of Francis Joseph. On Dec. 22, Emancipa- 1867, the question came before the tion. lower house, and on the favorable report of Coloman Tiszaand Sigmund Bernath a bill in favor of emancipation was adopted, which was passed by the upper house on the fol- lowing day. This bill (article xvii. of the Laws of the Parliament session of 1867) was received with universal satisfaction not only by the Jews, butalso by the whole country. Even before the passage of the bill, Minister of Public Worship Baron Joseph Eétvés, who, asstated above, had written in 1840 an appeal for the eman- cipation of the Jews, asked the community of Buda- pest for information in regard to the wishes of the Hungarian Jews. In reply they asked him to con- sider the evils that had crept into the Jewish com- munities, and advised the convening of a general assembly of Jews to regulate these affairs, Eétvés thereupon called an assembly of Jewish delegates at Budapest (Feb., 1868), which drafted decrees relating to the organization of the communities and schools. These were subsequently discussed at the General Jewish Congress convened by the king at Budapest (Dec. 14, 1868-Feb. 23, 1869). The president of this congress, which later sat in the county house of Pesth, was the physician Ignatz Hirschler, president of the congregation of Pesth in 1861, who was highly esteemed for his activity, scholarship, and courage; and the vice-presidents were Leopold Pop- per and Moritz Wahrmann, the latter being the first Jewish delegate in the Hungarian Parliament. The discussions of the congress did not bear fruit as was expected, but resulted in bitter dissensions and a split in the Hungarian Jewry. The rules and regulations drawn up by the congress and approved by the king were to be enforced by communal district com- missioners; but these failed in their efforts in conse- quence of the bitter opposition of many of the pro- vincial communities. The Orthodox Shomere ha-Dat society encouraged many communities to petition the lower house to suspend these regulations, on the ground that they were hostile to the ancient spirit of Judaism. The Parliament decreed March 18, 1870, that in view of the principle of religious lib- erty, the petitioners were not obliged to submit to regulations of the congress which were contrary to their convictions. In consequence of this decree the Orthodox Jewish delegates drafted another set of regulations, and appointed a commission to lay them before the king, who immediately approved them. The secession of the Orthodox Jews was not the only schism in Hungarian Judaism; there were com- munities which would accept neither the decrees of the congress nor those of the Orthodox party, but adopted a neutral stand, clinging to their ancient communal! statutes, and called themselves the “Sta- tus Quo Ante” party. There were, furthermore, communities of Hasidic tendencies, which in sty- ling themselves Jewish Sephardic communities either emphasized their Sephardic ritual or merely wished to be distinguished from the Orthodox, Divisions. 5038 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Hungary with whom they were otherwise identical. Of these four factions of Hungarian Judaism, all of which, however, retained the same fundamental religious principles, two organized a central office at Pesth: those that adopted the regulations of the congress instituted a “central bureau”; while the Orthodox party established an “executive commission.” In the midst of these dissensions, which weakened Judaism and impaired its prestige, the Theological Seminary at Budapest (as the incorporated towns of Buda and Pesth were now called) was opened Oct. 4, 1877, in spite of the bitter opposition of the Orthodox party. Its body of professors, some of whom are among the foremost Jewish scholars, as po the Laws of the Parliament of 1895) reads: “The Jewish religion is hereby declared to be a legally recognized religion.” Since their emancipation the Jews have taken an active part in the political, industrial, scientific, and artistic life of Hungary. In all these fields they have achieved prominence. They havealso founded great religious institutions. Their progress has not been arrested even by anti-Semitism, which first de- veloped in 1888 at the time of the Tisza-Eszlar accu- sation of ritual murder. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Leopold Low, Die Schieksale und Bestre- bungen der Juden in Ungarn, in Busch’s Jahrb. iv, 57-76, v. 53-105; idem, Der Jilidische Kongress in Ungarn, Buda- a x ) Pil oN. os Nemesz{o ice o Bartfa ‘a, SCALE OF MILES Csdezao } : 4 , a fe. * 0 25 50 100 130 f oansKGd —— KisSeoben \ / o Rajeces Kesmark ppERIES° 6 Homdnna = A Sf olvenesén Igloo S © Varanno “Se — Kassa lhe , Galszecs Yas Ujhely © © Beszterezebanya © OMUN KAC Ps (iiaika Soe ee ; (TORALIAUJHELY = & ff SHE : Sajo-Szent-Peter OSA A- : F Na ory Sts - Losoncz J \ Ss o Nagy-Szombat o , © OSzikszo yisza-Eszlar o Huszt a \ Szered ey 0 Leva , Salgo-Tarjan ZOMBOR it ee Nyitra dpolysag ° — Miskolez ° Tokay® Nyir-Mada \ a 7 ; t Y NY. ~K: eas SEU RG oErsekujvar EGERo Hajdus +o Haj Qe Kole Vaez Nanas 0 SON -K a. , Moson 0 o O-Gya a Gyongyos BST SOL Nagy-Somkut G et Géddsis -¢ 0 © DEBRECZEN eG . pppre ayer 8 Uj-Pestf ° tee? secre Magyar-Lapos , tee se: oe Jasz-Kiser Szilagy-Somlyo° ODees Mike ie ioe BUDAPEST o Karezag* a \, sake Papa fe, 5, (Alt-Ofen) Hildamds © Ke a » Oke Janoshaz® vesprém 5% © KOLOZSVAR ‘ «he: fe) 9 c OT APO: 7 - (Kiausenburg; Zala-Lovos “ Devecser oKeeskemet pia ONagy-Szalonta } : z.) Oo een epee . : ’ y . Leer Keszthely Tapolesa Nal bogard© C Csnograd 0 oO Szentes aeeee Maros-Vasarhely ~*~ Gyonk o KS Sadi \ oO - dva LT ee Also = BeeeHeNe af Tolna SZEGEDIN y NAGY-KANIZSA ,Bonyhad 6 Make oa } KAPOSVAR , Jankovacza of o Lippa SYN PICO a eo techy } x fs4 oO O.Pees O-Kanizsa é O OFogaras ) agy-s @) , ‘Pap oO 74) € , Szigetvar © Bezdan GO. . 2 Eeteyt Vajda-Hunyad tC Brasso © f ‘Gui , hl 3 omens — ~— at oO Besce O TEMESVAR Hatszeg i 7 of a * , 8] o bea) i 323 -F ] re ’ * , * te ; x dvar gs Szecseny ai she ) Nagy-Becskerek wei mS e ve f Panesova { P 2 j bP ce JS. G.D, MAP OF HUNGARY SHOWING CHIEP CENTERS OF JEWISH POPULATION, 1901. well as the students who have received their train- ing there, have justified the expectations of its founders, After the Hungarian Jews were finally emanci- pated they endeavored to have their faith duly rec- ognized as one of the legally acknowledged religions of the country. Their demand, which had already been voiced by the congress, and as early as 1848 by Leopold Low, was frequently brought up by the Jewish central bureau and continued to form a standing subject of discussion in the Jewish press and by public men. Qn April 26, 1898, Minister of Public Worship Count Albin Csiky sent a bill ac- ceding to the demand to the lower house, which in the following year passed it almost unanimously. The upper house, after twice rejecting it, finally passed it May 16, 1896. The law (article xi. of pest, 1871; idem, Ben Chananja, i-x.; M. Zipser, Die Juden in Ungarn,in Orient, Lit. vii—-viii.; Ignaz Reich, Beth-Et Ehrentempel Verdienter Ungarischer Israeliten, 2d ed., vols. i.-iii., tb. 1868; Josef Bergl, A Magyarorszagi Zsidok Térténete, Kaposvar, 1879; Samuel Kohn, Héber Kutforrd- sok és Adatok Magyarorszdg Toérténetéhez, ib. 1881; idem, A Zsidék Torténete Maqyarorszdgon, vol. i., ib. 1884; idem, A Szombatosok, ib. 1889; D. Kaufmann, Die Letzte Ver- treibung der Juden aus Wien und Niederdsterreich, ib. 1889; idem, Samson Wertheimer, Vienna, 1888; idem, Die Ersttirmung Ofens und Thre Vorgesch. Treves, 1895; Alex- ander Biichler, Zsidé Letelepedések Eurdpdban a XVI. és XVIT. Szazadban Fotekintettel Magyarorszagra, Buda- pest, 1893; idem, A Zsidék Térténete Budapesten, ib. 1901 ; Magyar Zsidé Szemle, i.-xx.; Julius Pauler, A Magyar Nemzet Torténete az Arpdadhdzi Kirdlyok Alatt, vols. i- ii., tb. 1893; Max Pollak, 4 Zsidék Térténete Sopronban, ib. 1896; Béla Bernstein, Az 1848-49-iki Magyar Szabadsag- harez ésa Zsidok, ib. 1898; Alexander Bichler, Ignatz Acsadi, Max Pollak, Bernhard Mandl, Samuel Krausz, Béla Bernstein, and Matthias Eisler, in Evkdnyv Kiadja az Izr. Magyar Trodalmi Tarsulat, 1896, pp. 271-286; 1897, pp. 168-188 ; 1898, pp. 117-124; 1900, pp. 145-166, 286-304; 1901, pp. 166-220, 221- 244; 1902, pp. 7-20, 184-207, 298-304. _ D, A. Bw. Hunting Huppah THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 504 HUNTING: Pursuit of wild game; the common means of obtaining food before the pastoral or agri- cultural stage of development. The Hebrews of the Biblical age, however, secm to have passed this stage, as the heroes of Biblical story (Abraham, Jacob, Joseph, David) are invariably regarded as shepherds. Hunting was at that time regarded as something foreign. Nimrod was “a mighty hunter before the Lord” (Gen. x. 9), and Esau, as a cunning hunter, is contrasted with Jacob (Gen. xxxv.). Yet the pursuit of wild game was frequent even after the Israelites had settled in Canaan (comp. Lev. xvii. 18). Provision was made for the undisturbed use of the timber-lands by the beasts of the field in Sabbatical years (Ex. xxiii. 11; Lev. xxv. 7). Many wild ani- mats, like the hart, roebuck, chamois, and antclope, were used for food and regarded as clean. A few dangerous beasts of prey, like the bear and the lion, had their habitats in Palestine, and means were taken to destroy them, as shown in the well-known in- stances of Samson and David. Pitfalls as well as nets were employed to entrap the lion (Ezek. xix. 4, 8); bows and arrows (Gen. xxvii. 3) as well as the snare (Ps. xci. 3) were used against game. Nets were employed also to capture the gaze] (Isa. xxxi. 1). Other traps were also utilized (Ps. xcili. 8; IT Sam. xxiii. 15). It is doubtful whether Prov. xli. 27 refers to hunting as a sport or as a means of livelihood, though the term “zedo” seems to imply that part of the food of the Hebrews was derived from the chase. Hunting is not often mentioned after Bible times, and Herod’s proficiency in this direction (Jose- phus, “B. J.” i. 20, § 18) may have been a result of his Hellenistic tendencies. Horses were used regu- larly for the chase (¢dem, “ Ant.” xv. 7,§ 7; xvi. 10,8 3). Few references to hunting occur in the Talmud (B. B. 75a; Hul. 60b; ‘Ab. Zarah 18b). Objection to hunting seems to have arisen on the ground that it was cruel, and therefore un-Jewish. “He who hunts game with dogs as Gentiles do will not enjoy the life to come,” said Meir of Rothenberg (Responsa, No. 27). Instances occur of Jews enjoying the chase in medieval times (comp. Zunz, “Z. G.” p. 178). In Provence they were even skilled in falconry, and followed the game on horseback (Berliner, “ Aus dem Innern Leben,” p.1%7). An instance is on record in which the Jews of Colchester, in 1267, joined some Gentile neighbors in the pursuit of a doe (Jacobs, “ Jewish Ideals,” p. 226). One objection to hunting on the part of Jews was due to the fact that, owing to the requirements of the dietary laws, they could rarely enjoy the results of the hunt (8. Morpurgo, Responsa, 66b). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Abrahams, Jewish Life in the Middle Ages, pp. 375-376. J. HUPFELD, HERMANN: German Christian Biblical scholar; born at Marburg March 31, 1796; died at Halle April 24, 1866. He was professor of Old Testament exegesis at Marburg from 1825 to 1848, when he succeeded Gesenius at Halle (1843- 1866). In his “ Die Quellen der Genesis und die Art Ihrer Zusammensetzung von Neuem Untersucht ” (1853), Hupfeld, reviving a suggestion of Ilgen (1798), with fresh proofs demonstrated the distinc- tion between E and P, and the independence of J, and showed that the combination of J, E, and P was the work of aredactor. He thus refuted the then current supplementary hypothesis, established the documentary hypothesis, and permanently directed Pentateuch analysis into its present channels. His commentary on the Psalms (“ Die Psalmen Ueber- setzt und Ausgelegt,” 1855-62; later eds., 1867-71 and 1888) is highly esteemed for its grammatical an- alysis. He wrotealso “ De Rei Grammatice apud Ju- dos Initiis Antiquissimisque Scriptoribus ” (Halle, 1846), on Jewish grammatical writers, and “Commen- tatio de Primitiva et Vera Festorum apud Hebrivos Ratione ” (Halle, 1851-64), on the Jewish festivals. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Riehm, D. Hermann Hupfeld, Lehens- und Charakterbild eines Deutschen Professors, Halle, 1867; All- gemeine Deutsche Biographie, xiii. 423-426. T, K. H. C. HUPPAH: A Hebrew word signifying a canopy (Isa. iv. 5; Lev. R. xxv.; Eccl. R. vii. 11), espe- cially the bridal canopy. Subsequently it became also the term for a wedding. Originally the hup- pah was the chamber in which the bride awaited the groom for the marital union; hence the Biblical statement that the sun comes out of his tabernacle in the morning “as a bridegroom cometh out of his chamber [huppah]” (Ps. xix. 6 [A. V. 5]; comp. Joel ii. 16). The bridal procession—a festal af- fair in which the whole town participated —cul- C_tes te itd rs ie onan ¥. ee rare os LIE iydah toh ears Semeneasreneee = i eg, at, Sh nn H 8 .Weasns Huppah, or Wedding-Baldachin, Among Dutch Jews, Seventeenth Century. (From Leusden, ‘* Philologus Hebrao-Mixtus,” Etrecht, 1657.) minated in the ushering into the huppah of the bride and bridegroom, this act signifying the actual surrender of the daughter by her father to the man who was henceforth to be her lord as well as her husband (Tobit viii. 4; Kid. 5a; Yer. Ket. iv. 7, 28d; Maimonides, “Yad,” Ishut, x. 1-2). Before entering the huppah the bridegroom had to recite the seven nuptial benedictions (Tobit viii. 5; Ket. ing uppah Hunti H THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 505 ao eH 3 mS _ aime, eB) ob } @ mm 7 as: _ “x of 7S eS) 3 3 a ot ee = bride (comp. John iii. 29 in in bride had to rema de) the groomsmen and bridesmaids stood as guards awaiting the good tidings that the union had been Imes 1nsl ‘Aruk, Eben ha-‘Ezer, _ = v c ° [ Teaty ot — penne, 22 = = as Le cB) i= ° @ Ls) EAS és ww Ss co) BO wa s- oe ores “if t- OD as long ag the wedding festivities lasted (Judges xiv , “the ties ivi a hence the name of these fest ’ . 15) TVS Wass atl snp, a ay a ae ate Gay ETT Nai SEI er ras = Pe 33 Yes Dr SLE i FL = Ts essere > Ben ant ne a cme 2 ==: <=> ene noet sitcs are paneer TPL ALR * Ee, ie anc Ui ~ BS , ares WI a PO y by , YW Slits seven days of her” or “of the huppah” (Pesik. 149b). . XX11, meant 7 (From Bedenschatz, “ Kirchliche Verfassung,’”’ 1748.) Tan., Korah, ed. Buber, p. ° ? HUPPAL, OR WEDDING-BALDACHIN, AMONG GERMAN JEWS, EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. happily consummated with reference to Deut 17 (see Yer. Ket. i. 25a th the performance of other The wedding party was called “bene huppah,” en Cg (ob) (77) q o& for RN oS AS} co o oO rs A 3s ag ~ ‘see mp Cc Sow TF Steves om fw a ° 8 a s, em aS os - VY os mF im Ss 4 =e 2 pag ee 3 vo -~ 80 Cy = 96 dance Huppah Hurwitz religious obligations, such as sitting in the sukkah (Yer. Suk. ii. 53a). To it belonged, besides the groomsmen (“sushbinim ”), the respective fathers of the brideand bridegroom. The bridegroom’s father was required to build and adorn the bridal canopy for his son and to lead him into it (Sanh. 108a; Ber. 25b; Lev. R. xx.). At times the mother built the huppah for her son (Sotah 12b). When a young man reached his eighteenth year the father was obliged to lead him into the huppah (Ab. v. 21). At the circumcision ceremony the people blessed the father, wishing him to be privileged also to lead his son to the huppah (Yer. Ber. ix. 14a). The huppah was a baldachin made of precious purple cloth adorned with golden jewels of a moon- like shape (Sotah 49b; Yer, Sotah ix. 24c); later it was in the form of a bower, made of roses and myr- tles (“ Tanya,” 90). For Adam’s wedding with Eve God built, one above the other, ten (Kol Bo lv. reads “seven ”) baldachins of precious stones (Pirke R. El. xii.), the angels keeping watch outside and dancing (comp. Gen. R. xviii.). When in the course of time the character of the wed- ding ceremony changed, the huppah changed with it, and was transformed Rornpeysy ww dip A into a portable canopy \. 792 dyyp BE pradp/ resting on four poles carried by four youths. Underit the bridal couple stood during the per- formance of the wedding ceremony by the rabbi (Shulhan ‘Aruk, J.c.), the real idea of the marital union being expressed symbolically by the spreading of the tallit over them (Ibn Yarhi, “Ha- Manhig,” pp. 109-110; Kol Bo lxxv.; Shulhan ‘Aruk, Eben ha-‘Ezer, lv. 1). Even this essential custom, ex- pressing the symbolic union, has been discarded by many Orthodox Jews, while the Reform rabbis have given up the huppah, regarding it as an empty form void of mean- ing. The portable canopy came into use owing to the fact that formerly weddings took place in front of the synagogue, as it was consid- ered to be especially auspi- cious to be married under the canopy of heaven (Jacob Molin, “ Minhage Maharil,” ch. “ Minhag ha- Nissu’im”; Mordecai Jafe, in “ Lebush,” Hilk. Kid- dushin, p. 59). See MARRIAGE CEREMONIES. BIBLIOGRAPHY: M. Briick, Pharistiische Volkssitten und Ri- tualien, pp. 28-39, Breslau, 1840; Liw, Lebevisalter, pp. 188- 190, Szegedin, 1875. K. HUR (1n).—1. Biblical Data: Man of Judah, the grandfather of Bezaleel, the chief artificer of the Tabernacle (Ex, xxxi. 2, xxxv. 80, xxxviii. 22). Ac- cording to the fuller genealogy in I Chron. ii. 18-20, he was the first-born son of Ephrath, the second wife of Caleb ben Hezron. Besides Uri, Hur had three other sons, founders of Kirjath-jearim, Beth-lehem, Representation of a Huppah. (From a sampler.) Representation of a Huppah. (From a sampler.) THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 506 and Beth-gader (I Chron. ii. 50, 51). In I Chron. iv. 4, however, Hur is called the father of Beth- lehem. He is first mentioned with Moses and Aaron on the occasion of the battle with Amalek at Rephi-— dim, when he aided Aaron to uphold the hands of Moses (Ex, xvii. 10, 12); he is again mentioned as having, with Aaron, been left in charge of the peo- ple while Moses ascended Mount Sinai (Ex. xxiv. 14). According to Josephus (“ Ant.” iii, 2, § 4), Hur was the husband of Miriam; in the Targum to I Chron. ii. 19, iv. 4, Hur’s mother, Ephrath, is identified with Miriam. There is a tendency among modern critics to regard the Hur associated with Moses as another than Hur, grandfather of Bezaleel. E, G. H. M. SEL. —In Rabbinical Literature: Hur was the son of Caleb, and when Moses was about to be taken by God, he appointed his nephew Hur, with Aaron, as leader of the people. While Moses tarried on the mountain, the people came to Aaron and Hur with the request to make them a god in the place of Moses (Ex. xxxii. 1). Then Hur, remembering his lineage and high position, rose up and severely re- proved the people for their godless intentions; but they, aroused to anger, fell upon him and slew him. The sight of his lifeless body induced Aaron to com- ply with the wishes of the people, as he preferred to commit a sin himself rather than see the people burdened with the crime of a second murder (Pirke Rt. EL xliii.; Ex. R. xli. 7; Lev. R. x. 3; Num. R. Xv. 21; Tan., ed. Buber, ii. 118; Sanh. 7a; comp. also Ephraem Syrus to Ex, xxxii. 1). Asa reward for Hur’s martyrdom, his son, Bezaleel, was the builder of the Tabernacle; and one of his descend- ants was Solomon, who had the Temple built (Ex. R. xlviii. 5; comp. Sotah 11b). J. L. G. 2. The fourth of the five kings of Midian who were slain with Balaam (Num, xxxi. 8), and who are described in Josh. xiii. 21 as “princes of Midian” and “dukes of Sihon.” $. Father of the Rephaiah whoruled “thehalf part of Jerusalem,” and assisted Nehemiah in the repair of the walls (Neh. iii. 9). E. G. H. M. SEL. HUREWITZ, ISRAEL (Z. LIBIN): Russian- American playwright; born Dec., 1872, at Gorki, government of Moghilef. Between 1885 and 1888 he received some secular tuition from his brother, Hay- yim Dob Hurwitz, the Hebrew economist and jour- nalist. After working at atrade for some years, he emigrated to London (1892), and nine months later went to the United States. There he made his way, step by step, to a well-earned reputation as a writer. In 1902 his “ Yidishe Sketches” appeared, under the pseudonym “Z. Libin,” depicting with accuracy and vividness many phases of Russian-Jewish life in New York. In 1898 he successfully essayed wri- ting plays for the Judwo-German stage of New York. Since then he has been writing regularly and successfully for that stage. He has produced: “Dovid und Zain Tochter ” (1899); “ Die Gebrochene Schwue” (1900); “Die Idishe Medea” (1901); and “Gebrochene Hertzer ” (1908). H. R. M. Gar. HURWITZ. See Horwitz. 507 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Auppah Hurwitz HURWITZ, ADOLF: German mathematician ; born March 26, 1859, at Hildesheim; studied at Munich, Berlin, and Leipsic. In 1882 he became privat-docent at Gottingen; in 1884 he was ap- pointed assistant professor at the University of Konigsberg; in 1892, professor at the Polytechnicum of Zurich. He hascontributed articles to the mathe- matical periodicals, especially to the “ Mathematische Annalen,” “Acta Mathematica,” and the “ Nach- richten” of the Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Gottingen, of which society he was elected a corre- sponding member in 1892. S. HURWITZ, HAYYIM DOB: Russian econ- omist and journalist; born about 1864 at Gorki, government of Moghilef. His father, a teacher of religion, destined him for a rabbinical career, but the boy’s inclination led him to modern studies. After attending the local public schools, Hurwitz drifted, about 1880, to Berlin and Vienna, where he studied languages and general philosophy. In 1898 he began to attract attention by his occasional sketches of Jewish life in Russia, in various Hebrew periodicals, especially in “ Ha-Shiloah” (1898-99). In 1900 appeared his “Ha-Mamon” (Warsaw), in two volumes, a profound exposition, in clear He- brew, of the development and extension of the ex- isting economic system. During the year 1902 he was engaged as assistant editor of the “ Volksblatt,” a Judzo-German journal published at Warsaw, and at the beginning of 1903 became subeditor of “Der Fraind,” a Yiddish daily published at St. Peters- burg. H. R. M. Gar. HURWITZ, HAYYIM BEN JOSHUA MOSES ABRAHAM HA-LEVI: Russian rabbi in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. He was the author of: “Sefer Mayim Hayyim,” explanations of the Pentateuch and the five Megillot (Dyhern- furth, 1690); “Sefer Mayim Hayyim Sheni,” supple- ment to the above-mentioned work (26. 1708); “Sefer Nahalat Hayyim,” novelle on several Talmudical treatises, with an index (Wilmersdorf, 1718; 2d ed., without index, 1722); “Sefer Nahalat Hayyim Sheni,” commentaries on the Pentateuch (Wilmers- dorf, 1714). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Wolf, Bibl. Hebr. i., iii., No. 612; Nepi-Ghi- rondi, Toledot Gedole Yisrael, p. 102; First, Bibl. Jud. i. 409; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 827; Benjacob, Ozar ha- Sefarim, pp. 324, 396; Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, i. 347. H, R. M. Sc. HURWITZ, HYMAN: Professor of Hebrew and author; born 1770; died 1844, He was a native of Poland, in which country he acquired great pro- ficiency in Biblical and Talmudical lore. He then went to England, and, making rapid progress with the English language, was soon employed as teacher in a Christian academy, where he studied science and the classics. He gained many friends, who in 1799 assisted him in establishing a seminary for Jewish youth, which was called “The Highgate Academy.” In 1806 he produced an “ Introduction to Hebrew Grammar,” in which his critical and in- timate knowledge of Hebrew is shown to advan- tage. This was followed by a Hebrew grammar in two parts, a third edition of which appeared in 1841. Later he published “Hebrew Tales,” a selection from the writings of the ancient sages. This work was translated into various languages; and a later edition was produced at Edinburgh in 1863, nearly twenty years after his death. In 1821 he published “Vindicia Hebraica,” a work in which he blended much erudition and elegance of style. Hurwitz retired from active teaching in 1821. A few years afterward he was elected to the chair of Hebrew in University College, London. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Voice of Jacob, Aug. 2, 1844. J. G. L. HURWITZ, JUDAH BEN MORDECAI HA-LEVI: Russian physician and author; born at Wilna in the first half of the eighteenth century ; died at Grodno Nov. 12, 179%. He graduated in medicine from the University of Padua, traveled ex-_ tensively through Europe, and settled in Wilna, where he was appointed physician to the Jewish community. Later he practised medicine at Pone- deli, Zhagory, and Mitau, and finally settled in Grodno. In 1765 he traveled through Germany and to Amsterdam. He wrote: “Sefer ‘Ammude Bet Yehudah,” on moral philosophy (Amsverdam, 1765: this work was approved by Moses Mendelssohn and Hertz Wessely ; appended to it is “Gan ‘Eden ha-Ma’amin,” on the thirteen articles of belief by Maimonides); “ Zel ha- Ma‘alot,” 360 ethical sentences (K6nigsberg, 1764; 2d ed., Dubno, 1796); “Sefer Kerem ‘En Gedi,” com- mentary on“ Had Gadya” (KG6nigsberg, 1764; 2d ed., Dubno, 1796); “Sefer Mahberet Hayye ha-Nefesh,” on the immortality of the soul (Poretchye, 1786); “Sefer Megillat Sedarim,” on the differences bet ween cabalists, Talmudists, and philosophers (Prague, 1798); “Hekal ‘Oneg,” moral sentences (Grodno, 1797). He also published a Hebrew poem on the occasion of the opening of the government gymna- sium in Mitau (1775). The library of this gymna- sium preserves a number of manuscript Hebrew poems of his, chiefly translations of Lichtwer’s fables and of other German poems. BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. Rosenthal, in Ha-Meliz, 1862, P: 207; Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, p. 894; Delitzsch, Zur Gesch. der Jildischen Poesie, pp. 85, 114, Leipsic, 1836; Recke and Napierski, Allg. Schriftsteler-Lexikon, ete., iii. 538, Mitau, 1831. IL R HURWITZ, LAZAR LIPMAN: Russian scholar; born 1815; died at Wilna Oct. 21, 1882. He acted for many years as private instructor at Wilna, and then became teacher in a public school at Riga. Later he was appointed by the govern- ment head master in the rabbinical school of Wilna. With 8. J. Fuenn, Hurwitz issued a periodical entitled “ Pirhe Zafon,” devoted to Jewish history, literature, and exegesis; the first number appeared in 1841, the second in 1844. He was the author of the following works: “ Hakirot ‘al Sefer L[yyob,” studies on Job, published in Jost’s “Ziyyon,” ii. (1842); “Korot Toledot Meleket ha-Shir weha-Meli- zah,” history of ancient Jewish poetry, published in “Pirhe Zafon.” BIBLIOGRAPHY : Zeitlin, Bibl. Post-Mendels. p. 151. H. R. I. Br. HURWITZ, MOSES B. ISAAC HA-LEVI: Russian preacher; native of Krozh, government of Kovno, Russia; died in Wilna Oct. 25, 1820. He was on intimate terms with Elijah of Wilna, and Hurwitz Husband THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 508 was the teacher of his sons. He became “ maggid,” or preacher, of Wilna, and occupied that position for many years, until he lost his voice. He was succeeded by R, Ezekiel Feiwel of Dretchin (about 1811). His son Hayyim was the father of Lazar Lipman Hurwitz. The work entitled “ Mo‘ade ha- Shem” (Wilna, 1802), on the Jewish calendar, is supposed to be by Hurwitz, but the evidence for the supposition is very slight. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Fuenn, Kiryah Ne’emanah, pp. 247, 288, H.R, P. Wt. HURWITZ, PHINEHAS ELIJAH: He- brew writer; born in Wilna; died in Cracow in 1812. While a youth he went to Buchach, a ham- let in Galicia, where he began his “Sefer ha-Berit,” which afterward became widely known. Nachman Reiss, a wealthy philanthropist in Lemberg, enabled him to complete his work, which he published in Briinn, Moravia, in 1797. Although it appeared anonymously, its success was remarkable; it found its way to the remotest parts of Europe, and met a ready sale even in Egypt, Algeria, and Morocco. A Christian publisher, tempted by its popularity, took advantage of its anonymity to issue an unau- thorized and garbled edition of the work in Prague (1799). This prompted Hurwitz to issue a new edi- tion at Zolkiev (1807), with supplementary notes and textual alterations, which was republished with- out change in 1811 by the publishing firm of Romm in Wilna, and about sixty years later in Warsaw. Its popularity is due to the fact that it represents a singular combination of material, appealing to readers of varying characters and opinions. It is an encyclopedic work in two parts: the first part. contains a series of tracts on natural science and philosophy, chemistry, anatomy, physics, cosmogra- phy, and metaphysics; the second part, entitled “Dibre Emet,” is a conglomeration of mysticism, theology, and ethics, and discusses obscure cabalistic problems and the mysteries of divine revelation, etc. Hurwitz left other works in manuscript. BIBLIOGRAPHY : Voskhod, Oct., 1888. M. R. HUSAIN, IMMANUEL BEN MENAHEM SEFARDI IBN (jpn ‘}): Talmudist of the six- teenth century ; author of “ Kelale ha-Gemara,” rules of the Gemara, published in the collection of Abra- ham ibn ‘Akra (“ Sefer me-Harare Nemerim,” Venice, 1599). This small work is divided into four chapters: the first two are on the acquisition of the right meth- od of Talmudical study and on halakic phraseology and technical terms; the last two chapters deal with the study of the Talmudical commentaries, especially that of Rashi. The author advises the pupil not to consult the commentaries on any Talmudic pas- sage until he thoroughly understands the passage in question. He quotes the “Sefer Keritut ” of Simson of Chinon and the “ Halikot ‘Olam” of Joshua ha- Levi of Toledo (15th cent.). As regards the spell- ing of the name fpn see Steinschneider in “J. Q. R.” x. 539. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Nepi-Ghirondi, Toledot Gedole Yisrael, p. 282 : Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. cols. 665, 1058 ; Benjacob, Ozar ha- Sefarim. s, M. Sc. HUSBAND AND WIFE.—Legal Relations: Asa punishment for her initiative in the first sin, the wife is to be subjected to her husband, and he is to rule over her (Gen. iil. 16). The husband is her owner (“ba‘al”); and she is regarded as his posses- sion (comp. Ex. xx. 17). This was probably the case in early times, although women were frequently consulted in matters of importance, and occasionally exerted an influence in national affairs (see WOMAN). Here, as elsewhere, popular sentiment and practise soon took precedence over legal prescriptions; and in later codes the position of the Jewish wife be- came well defined, and was often superior to that of the women of many other nations. Nowhere in the Bible are the duties of the hus- band to the wife explicitly stated. Incidentally, three obligations that the husband owes to his wife are mentioned in Ex. xxi. 10 as being self-under- stood; namely, the provision of food and of raiment, and cohabitation. Upon this casual reference the Rabbis base an elaborate system of duties and of rights which accrue to the husband in relation to his wife. Besides the three obligations mentioned above, the rabbinic law imposes on the husband four, and also restricts his privilegestofour. These duties are incumbent upon him, whether they are stipulated at the time of marriage or not. The additional duties are: (1) To deliver a “ ketu- bah ” (marriage contract) providing for the settlement upon the wife, in the case of his death or of divorce, of 200 zuz, if she is a virgin at marriage, or of 100, if she is not. Thisdocument includes three conditions (ADINS SIN) which provide for the sustenance of the wife and the children after the husband’s death. These are: (a) that the wife shall obtain her support from her deceased husband’s estate as long as she remains in his house; (6) that their daughters shall be supported from the estate until they reach the age of maturity or until they become betrothed; (c) that the sons shall inherit their mother’s ketubah over and above their portion in the estate with the chil- dren of other wives. (2) To provide medical attend- ance and care for her during sickness. (3) To pay her ransom if she be taken captive. (4) To provide suit- able burial for her (Ket. 46b ez seg.; Maimonides, “Yad,” Ishut, xii. 2; Shulhan ‘Aruk, Eben ha- ‘Ezer, 69). The husband must allow for the support of his wife as much as comports with his dignity and so- cial standing. “She ascends with Support of him, but does not descend,” is the Tal- Wife. mudic principle; that is to say, she is entitled to all the advantages of his station in life without losing any of those which she enjoyed before marriage (Ket. 48a, 61a). The poor- est man must furnish his wife with bread for at least two meals a day; with sufficient oil for eating and for lighting purposes, and wood for cooking; with fruit, vegetables, and wine where it is customary for women to drink it. On the Sabbath-day he must furnish her with three meals consisting of fish and meat; and he must give her a silver coin (“ma‘ah ”) every week for pocKket-money. If hecan not afford to give hereven that much, heis, according to some, compelled to grant hera bill of divorce (see “ Hatam Sofer” on Eben ha-‘Ezer, 131, 132). Others think 509 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Hurwitz Husband that he should hire himself out as a day-laborer to provide for his wife. If he refuses to support her, the court compels him to do so (Ket. 77a). The wife is to receive her board at her husband’s table; and in the opinion of most authorities he can not send her away from his table against her will, even if he gives her sufficient money for all her requirements. She can, however, leave his house, either if he lives in a disreputable neighborhood or if he maltreats her; and in such cases he is obliged to support her wherever she takes up herabode. If the husband leaves her for some time, the court al- lows her support from his property; and even if she sells his property for her support without consult- ing the authorities, the sale is valid. If she borrows money for her actual support during his absence, the husband has to pay the debt on his return; but if some one of his own free will gives her money for her support, he “puts his money on the horns of a deer,” z.e., he can not collect it from the husband. The same law applies if the husband becomes insane (“ Yad,” Zc. xii. 10-22; Eben ha-‘Ezer, 70). The husband’s duty to furnish raiment to his wife is also regulated by his station and by local custom. He is obliged to provide Clothing a home, which must be suitably fur- and nished in accordance with his position Lodging. and with custom. Besides furnishing her with the proper garments suited to the seasons of the year, and with new shoes for each holy day, he must also provide her with bed- ding and with kitchen utensils. She must also be supplied with ornaments and perfumes, if such is the custom. If he is unable to provide his wife with a suitable outfit, he is compelled to divorce her (Ket. 64b; “ Yad,” Le. xiii. 1~11; Eben ha-‘Ezer, 78). On the duty of the wife to follow her husband when he wishes to change his abode see DomIcIL, The duty of cohabitation is regulated by the Rabbis in accordance with the occupation in which the husband is engaged (Ket. 61b). Continued re- fusal of cohabitation constitutes a cause for divorce (“ Yad,” J.c. xiv. 1-16; Eben ha-‘Ezer, 76, 77; see KETUBAH), The husband must defray all medical expenses in case of his wife’s illness. If she suffers from a disease which may be prolonged for many years, although legally he may pay her the amount fixed in her ketubah and give her a bill of divorce, such action is regarded as inhuman, and he is urged to provide all that is necessary for her cure (Ket. 51a; “Yad,” Uc. xiv. 17; “Maggid Mishneh,” ad loc.; Eben ha-‘Ezer, 79; “Be’er Heteb,” § 5; comp. “Pithe Teshubah ” to 78, 1, concerning a case where sickness follows a fault of her own). The husband is obliged to ransom his wife from captivity, even when the expense is far above the amount promised her in the marriage settlement. Ordinarily, it is the law not to pay for captives more than their market value as slaves, so as not to encourage pirates and officials in their nefarious practise (Git. 45a); but according to some, in the case of the capture of his wife the husband must, if necessary, expend all his belongings for her ransom. The priest whose wife has been taken captive, although he can not Ransom. afterward live with her (see Priest), is still obliged to pay her ransom, to restore her to her father’s house, and to pay her the amount of her ketubah. If they were both taken captive, the court may sell part of his property and ransom her first, even though he protests (Ket. 51a; “Yad,” d.c. xiv. 18- 22; Eben ha-‘Ezer, 78; Shulhan ‘Aruk, Yoreh De‘ah, 252, 10). If she die before him, he must provide for her burial according to the custom of the Jand and ac- cording to his position. He must hire mourners, if such be the custom, erect a tombstone, and make such other provisions as custom may demand. If he refuse to do so, or if he be absent, the court may sell part of his property to defray the burial ex- penses (Ket, 46a; “ Yad,” U.c. xiv. 28, 24; Eben ha- ‘Ezer, 89). The rights of the husband are as follows: He is en- titled (1) to all the wife’s earnings, (2) to all her chance gains, and (3) to the usufruct of her property, and (4) he becomes her sole heir at her death (this last principle, however, was modified in the Middle Ages in various ways). The husband’s right to his wife’s earnings is in consideration of his duty to support her; hence if she wishes to support herself, she need not deliver her earnings to him. Yct he can not compel her to live on her earnings. The wife has to do all the housework, such as baking, cooking, Married and washing, as well as nurse her chil- Women’s dren. If she has twins, the husband Duties. has to provide a nurse for one, while she nurses the other (Ket. 59b). If she brought him a large dowry, she need not do any work in the house, except such as tends to the ease and comfort of her husband and as is of an affection- ate nature, viz., prepare his bed, serve at the table, and so forth. At all times, however, she must do something; for “idleness leads to immoral- ity.” Raising animals or playing games is not re- garded as an occupation (Ket. 52b, 61b; “Yad,” de. xxi.; Eben ha-‘Ezer, 80). For the husband’s right in the usufruct of his wife’s property and for his right of inheritance see Dowry and INHERITANCE. Besides these positive legal enactments, Talmudic literature abounds with maxims and precepts re- garding the attitude of the husband toward his wife. He shall love heras himself and honor her more than himself (Sanh. 76b; Yeb. 62b). “If thy wife is small, bend down and whisper into her ear,” was @ cominon saying among the Rabbis; meaning that one should take counsel with his wife in all worldly matters (B. M. 59b; comp. Midr. Lekah Tob to Num. xvi.). He shall not afflict her; for God counts her tears. One who honors his wife will be rewarded with wealth (B. M. 59b). The husband shall not be imperious in his household (Git. 6b). God’s presence dwells in a pure and lov- ing home (Sotah17%a). The altarsheds tears for him who divorces his first wife; and he is hated before God (Git. 90b). He who sees his wife die before him has, as it were, seen the destruction of the Tem- ple: his world is darkened; his step is slow; his mind is heavy. The wife dies in the husband’s death; he in hers (Sanh. 22a). Husbandry Hugpa The rights of the wife are implied in the husband’s duties, while her duties are mainly comprised in his rights. She should not go out too much (Gen. R. Ixv. 2), and should be modest even if alone with her husband (Shab. 140b). The greatest praise that can be said of a woman is that she fulfils the wishes of her husband (Ned. 66b). See also MARRIAGE. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hastings, Dict. Bible, s.v. Marriage; Mayer, Die Rechte der Israeliten, Athener und Rimer, ii., $8 229, 230, Leipsic, 1866; Mielziner, The Jewish Law of Marriage and Divorce, ch. xiii., Cincinnati, 1884; Buchholz, Die Fa- mitie, pp. 116-131, Breslau, 1867; Duschak, Das Mosaisch-Tal- mudische Eherecht, section fii., Vienna, 1864; Weill, La Femme Juive, part ii. qh. vi.-ix., Paris, 1874; Suwalski, Hayye ha-Yehudi, ch. liii.-lv., Warsaw, 1893. EK. C. J. H. G. HUSBANDRY. See AGrartan Laws; LAnp- LORD AND TENANT; SABBATICAL YEAR. HUSHATLI (yn): Companion of David, gener- ally called the ARrcHITE. When David was pur- sued by Absalom he sent Hushai to frustrate Absa- THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 510 of president of the bet ha-midrash (Neubauer, “ M. J.C.” i. 67 et seg.)—probably after the death of Jacob ben Nissim. But an autograph letter frony Hushiel (discovered and published by 8S. Schechter, “J. Q. R.” xi. 643) addressed to Shemariah ben Elhanan, chief rabbi of Cairo (supposed by Ibn Daud to have been captured with Hushiel), tends to show that Hushiel merely went to visit his friends in Mohammedan countries, and was retained by the community of Kairwan. There is considerable difference of opinion in re- gard to Hushiel’s nativity. Griitz, Harkavy, and D. Kaufmann claim that he, with the other three scholars, came from Babylonia; while Rapoport, Weiss, and Isaac Halévy give Italy as his birth- place. This latter opinion is now confirmed by the wording of the above-mentioned letter, in which Hushiel speaks of having come from the country of the “‘arelim,” meaning “Christian” countries. PORTION OF AUTOGRAPH LETTER OF HUSHIEL BEN ELHANAN, (From the Cairo Genizah by courtesy of Prof. S. Schechter.) lom’s plans. Hushai pretended adherence to the cause of Absalom, and his advice, preferred to that of Ahithophel, caused the ruin of Absalom (II Sam. xv. 32-34, xvi. 16-18 et seg.). The Hushai whose son was one of Solomon’s commissaries (I Kings iv. 16) is to be identified with David’s companion. E. G. H. M. SEL. HUSHIEL BEN ELHANAN: President of the bet ha-midrash at Kairwan toward the end of the tenth century. He was born probably in Italy. According to Abraham ibn Daud, he was one of the four scholars who were captured by Ibn Rumabis, an Arab admiral, while voyaging from Bari to Se- baste to collect money “for the dowries of poor brides.” Hushiel was sold as a slave in North Africa, and on being ransomed went to Kairwan, an ancient seat of Talmudical scholarship (Harkavy, “Teshubot ha-Ge’onim,” Nos. 199, 210). There his Talmudical knowledge gained for him the position According to another but unreliable source (Mena- hem Meiri’s “Bet ha-Behirah”; see Neubauer in “M. J. C.” ii. 225), he came from Spain. Two of Hushiel’s pupils were his son Hanancel and Nissim ben Jacob (see Weiss, “ Dor,” iv. 265, note 1). Ac- cording to the genizah letter, Hushiel seems to have had another son, named Elhanan, if “ Elhanan ” and “Hanancel” are not identical. It is not known whether Hushiel wrote any book; but a few of his sayings have been transmitted by his pupils. Thus Nissim ben Jacob reports in his “Mafteah” (p. 18) that the story which the Talmud, without giving any particulars, mentions as having been related by R. Papa (Ber. 8b), was transmitted to him (Nissim) in full by Hushiel. Hushiel’s son ~ Hananeel quotes explanations in his father’s name (see “‘Aruk,” 8,0. 93; Isaac ibn Ghayyat, “ Hilkot Lulab,” ed. Bamberger, p. 113). Hushiel was certainly one of the greatest, if not the greatest, of the Talmudical teachers of the tenth cen- §11 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Husbandry Huzpa tury; and Samuel ha-Nagid, recognizing his im- portance and value, ordered that memorial services in his honor should be celebrated in Granada, Lu- cena, and Cordova. Samuel aiso wrote a letter of condolence to Hushiel’s son Hananeel. This has been published by Firkovich in “ Ha-Karmel,” viii. (“ Ha- Sharon,” No. 31, p. 245), and in Berliner’s “ Maga- zin,” v. 70 et seg. (“Ozar Tob,” p. 64), the German translation being by David Kaufmann. The letter, ending with a Hebrew poem in the “Hazaj ” meter, and written ina very difficult style, praises Hushiel’s knowledge and virtue, and compliments Hananeel. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Berliner, in Migdal Hananel, pp. v. et seq., xXvili. et seq., Leipsic, 1816; Gratz, Gesch. v. 288, 289, note 21; Rabinowitz’s Hebrew translation of Gratz, vol. iti., Index; Halberstam, in Berliner’s Magazin, iti. 171; Isaac Halévy, Dorot ha-Rishonin, iii., ch. 35 et seg.; Neubauer, M. J. C. i. 0, 68, 733 ii. 225, 234; Rapoport, in Bikkure ha-Ittim, xii. 11 et seq.; Schechter, in J. Q. R. xi. 643 et seg.: Weiss, Dor, iv. 265; Winter and Wiinsche, Die Jiidische Litteratur, ii. 357; Zunz, Ritus, p. 190. 8. 8. M. Sc. HUTH, GEORG: German Orientalist and ex- plorer; born Feb. 25, 1867, at Krotoschin, Prussia. In 1885 he entered the University of Berlin, and he graduated at the University of Leipsic (Ph.D.) in 1889. In 1891 he established himself at Berlin Univer- sity as lecturer in Central Asiatic languages and in Buddhism. In 1897 he undertook a journey to Siberia for the purpose of studying Tungusic, receiving a subvention from the Imperial Academy of Sciences of St. Petersburg. He went to eastern Turkestan with the Turfan expedition of the Koénigliches Mu- seum fiir Vélkerkunde of Berlin, in 1902, and spent the following year in western Turkestan studying Turkish dialects and folk-lore. He has published, among Others, the following works: “Die Zeit des Kalidasa ” (Berlin, 1889); “The Chandoratnakara of Ratnikaracanti” (Sanskrit text with Tibetan transl.), a work on Sanskrit prosody (26. 1890); “Gesch. des Buddhismus in der Mongolei: aus dem Tibetischen des ’Jigs-med-nam-mkha ” (vol. i., Tibetan text; vol. ii., German transl., Strasburg, 1892-96); “Die In- schriften von Tsaghan Baising,” Tibet-Mongolian text with linguistic and historical notes, printed at the expense of the Deutsche Morgenlindische Ge- sellschaft (Leipsic, 1894); “ Die Tungusische Volks- litteratur und Ihre Ethnologische Ausbeute,” in the Bulletin of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences (1901). S. HUTTEN, ULRICH VON: Poct and satirist; born in the castle of Steckelberg, near Fulda, April 21, 1488 ; died on the Isle of Ufnau, Lake Zurich, Aug. 29, 1523. As a humanist and one of the strongest cham- pions of the Reformation wielding a sharp and vig- orous pen in defense of religious freedom, he sided with Reuchlin in his literary feud with Pfefferkorn, Hoogstraten, and the Dominicans of Cologne. When Reuchlin’s adversaries, accusing him of heresy and partiality toward the Jews, failed in their efforts to have his “ Augenspiegel,” together with the Talmud and other Jewish books, burned by decree of the theological faculty of Mayence, Hutten hailed Reuch- lin’s victory in a satirical poem. This struggle of Reuchlin against obscurantism and intolerance in- spired Hutten to undertake the task of freeing Ger- many from the yoke of ecclesiastical tyranny and of opening the way for freedom of faith and learning. In a Latin satire he castigated the corruption and venality at the court of Pope Leo X., before whom Reuchlin and Hoogstraten were summoned to ap- pear. When the accusation against Reuchlin was pending before the council at Rome, and the long delay of the decision had brought him to despair, Hut- ten, Who then happened to be in Italy, sent him words of encouragement and inspired him with the hope of aspeedy success. In “Exclamatio in Scelera- tissimum Joannem Pfefferkorn ” (a poem) he depicted the misdeeds and crimes for which a baptized Jew named “Pfaff Rapp” was executed at Halle. As it was thought that “ Pfefferkorn ” was his real name, Hutten took occasion to satirize this base persecutor of his former brethren. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Meyers Konversations-Lexikon ; Gesch. ix. 147 et seq., 154, 157 et seq., 162, 176 et seg. D S. Man. HUYAYY IBN AKHTAB: Chief of the Baxu AL-NADIR; executed at Medina March, 627. Hu- yayy was a courageous warrior and the most invet- erate enemy of Mohammed, so that Ibn Hisham, Mohammed’s biographer, calls him “the enemy of Allah.” He was also a ‘earned man, and on one oc- casion had a discussion with Mohammed upon the mystical letters beginning some of the suras in the Koran. At first, when the Banu al-Nadir were lo- cated at Medina, Huyayy’s hostility to Mohammed was not pronounced, and when Abu Sufyan, the Kuraizite leader and an enemy of Mohainmed, pre- sented himself before Huyayy’s house. Huyayy, fearing to compromise himself, refused to admit him. But when the Jews, driven by Mohammed from Medina, settled at Khaibar, Huyayy incited them, with the Arab tribes of Kuraish and Gha- tafan, into active revolt against Mohammed. When Huyayy came to Ka‘b ibn As‘ad, the chief of the Banu Kuraiza, the latter, having sworn allegiance to Mohammed, hesitated to receive him; but Hu- yayy convinced him of the danger which threatened the Jews from Mohammed, and induced the Banu Kuraiza to support him. Later, Mohammed took Kamus, the fortress of the Kuraizites, carried to Medina from seven to eight hundred Jews, among them being Huyayy, and executed them in the market-place. When Huyayy was brought before Mohammed, he said to him: “I reproach not myself for having carried on waragainst thee.” Huyayy’s daughter Safiyyah was also captured by Moham- med, and a few months afterward embraced Islam and became a wife of the prophet. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Ibn Hisham, Kitab Sirat Rasul Allah, ed. Wiistenfeld, p. 351, passim; Caussin de Perceval, Essai sur VHistoire des Arabes, iii. 83, passim; Gratz, Gesch. 3d ed., y. 100-102, 105. G. M. SE. HUZPA: Aramaic word meaning “impudence,” used frequently in the Talmud, in late rabbinical literature, and in common parlance. In Biblical Aramaic only the verb 4¥n is found: it occurs twice (Dan. ii. 15, iii. 22) in the sense of “to be strict” (R. V. “urgent”). In Talmudic literature from the earliest times both the verb (“hazaf”) and the noun (“huzpa”)are used in many legal maxims and moral sayings in the senses respectively of “to be brazen- faced” and “impudence”: for instance, in the sen- tence, “No man would be so impudent as to fell Gratz, Hyams Hyneman a tree which is not his or to pick fruit which is not his” (B. B. 38b). If a man signs a document with his father’s name only, ¢.g., “Ben Jacob” instead of “Reuben ben Jacob,” the signature is invalid; and the plea that he did so in order to protect his signa- ture against forgery is not accepted, because no one would beso “impudent” as to use his father’s name as a ruse (Git. 87b). If a father enters into a mar- riage contract for his son, the contract is invalid, because a son would not be so “impudent” as to make his father his agent (Kid. 44b). The word “huzpa” is often used in the Talmud in proverbial sayings also; for example: “ In the foot- prints of the Messiah [before the arrival of the Messiah] impudence will increase” (Sotah 49b); “Impudence succeeds even with God” (Sanh. 105a). Similarly: “The impudent will defeat the wicked, and naturally then the best of the world” (Yer. Ta‘an. 65b), the last’ phrase, according to Levy (“ Neuhebr. Worterb.” s.v.), meaning God; “Impu- dence is a kingdom [?.¢., power] without a crown” (Sanh. ?.c.); “Impudence is a sign of wickedness” (B. M. 83b). In modern literature the word is spelled “chutzpah ” and “chuzpe.” BIBLIOGRAPHY: Levy, Neuhebr. Worterb.; Kohut, Aruch Completum ; Jastrow, Dict.; Lampronti, Pahad Yizhak. HYAMS, ABRAHAM: Beni-Israel physician; died March 20, 1897; son of Hacem Samuel, president of the Beni-Israel School, Bombay. After taking his degree of licentiate in medicine and surgery, Hyams practised as a physician in Bombay, and in addition to a flourishing private practise was from 1889 in charge of the Bohara Sanatorium in that city. He was engaged in the plague hospital, opened in the sanatorium; and it is believed that he contracted the fatal disease while employed in this service. Hyams was a member of the managing committee of the Beni-Israel School. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jew. Chron. April 16, 1897. J. G. I. HYAMS, HENRY MICHAEL: American lawyer; born at Charleston, 8. C., March 4, 1806, of English parents; died at New Orleans 1875; educated in Charleston and in New Orleans, to which latter city he went in 1828, together with Judah P. Bensa- MIN, to whom he was related. Hyams studied law at New Orleans, and was admitted to the Louisiana bar in 1830. For some time he was cashier of the Canal Bank at Donaldsonville, La. Later he re- turned to New Orleans, where he practised law and formed a partnership with B. F. Jonas. He was an original secessionist, and in 1859 was elected lieu- tenant-governor of Louisiana as a Democrat, serving until 1864. Most of his fortune was swept away by the Civil war, in which he took a very prominent part. A. I. G. D. HYENA.—Biblical Data: The translation by the Septuagint of “zabua‘” (Jer. xii. 9); the ren- dering of the Vulgate being “avis tincta,” and that of the English versions “speckled bird.” The ren- dering of the LXX., which is adopted by most com- mentators, is supported not only by the Arabic “dabu‘,” but also by the parallel passage (2d. xii. 8), which implies that by “zabua‘” some strong, fierce THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 512 animal, similar to the tion, is intended (comp. Ec- clus. [Sirach] xiii. 18). The striped hyena (Hyena streata) is common in every part of Palestine; and its former frequency is perhaps indicated by the place-name “Zeboim” (J Sam. xiii. 18; Neh. xi. 84; comp. also the personal name “ Zibeon,” Gen, XxxXvi. 20), In Rabbinical Literature: The Talmud has, besides “zabua‘,” three other names for the hyene, “bardales,” “napraza,” and “appa”; and this vari- ety of names has its counterpart in a variety of metamorphoses, each lasting seven years, through which the male hyena passes, namely, of a bat, an “‘arpad ” (¢.e., some other form of bat), a nettle, a thistle, and lastly an evil spirit (“shed ”; B. K. 16a). A similar popular fable, about the hyena changing its sex every year, is found in Pliny, “ Historia Natu- ralis,” vill. 80, 44; Aclianus,* De Animalium Natura,” i. 25. As regards dangerousness, the hyena is placed in the same category as the wolf, lion, bear, leopard, and serpent (B. K. 15b; Yer. B. K. 2, 6). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Tristram, Natural History of the Bible, p. 107; Lewysohn, Zoologie des Talmuds, p. 76. KE. G. H. I. M. C. HYKSOS: Name of aline of Egyptian kings, occurring in a passage of Manetho quoted by Jose- phus (“Contra Ap.” § 14). It is said that they ruled ford511 years. Mancthoexplains “hyk” as “kings” (which Josephus disputes) and “sos” as “shep- herds.” The latter is “shasu” on the monuments, The Hyksos came as conquerors from Syria and Arabia; and Josephus claims them as the close kin- dred of his race. They were gradually expelled in a native rebellion, which began at Thebes. They form the fifteenth and sixteenth, perhaps also the seventeenth, dynasties. During the eighteenth dy- nasty Thothmes IIT. brought Egypt to its highest power; the nineteenth embraces Rameses I., Sethos (Setoy), Rameses IL., usually taken to be the Pha- raoh of the oppression, and Me(r)neptah, the sup- posed Pharaoh of the Exodus, The words in Ex. i. 8, “ Now there arose up a new king over Egypt, which knew not Joseph,” are thought to fit the long rule of Semitic kings, one of whom, Apopy, raised Joseph to high rank and set- tled his brethrenin Goshen. If Adolf Erman, in his “History of Egypt,” has rightly fixed the beginning of the eighteenth dynasty at 1530 B.c., and if the Biblical chronology (I Kings vi. 1), placing the Ex- odus 480 years before the completion of Solomon’s Temple (¢.¢., in 1478 B.c.), is correct, then the first king of the eighteenth dynasty is clearly that “new king ” who takes measures for keeping the Israelites in check. Modern critics will not allow this; first, because the Israelites were put to build the store-city of Raamses, bearing the name of the later kings; secondly, because the Kl-Amarna letters and other monuments indicate that long after 1438 B.c., the supposed year of Joshua’s invasion, Palestine was still under Egyptian control. If the “new king” is to be placed at the end of the eighteenth dynasty rather than at its opening (which hypothesis is not in conflict with that of Joseph’s ministration under a Hyksos king), it may be explained thus: Amenophis (Amen-hotep IV.), of the eighteenth dynasty, and his two successors 513 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA . Hyams Hyneman attempted to reform the religion of the country, set- ting up a supreme god, Aten (= VIN 7%), in place of the many divinities of Egypt; this movement came to an end, and the worship of Amon, Ra, etc., was resumed; hence a king, not indeed new in race, but new in faith and in sympathies, BIBLIOGRAPHY: See EGYPT. BE. G. H, L. N. D. HYMNOLOGY. See Porrry, Rexiaciots. HYNEMAN: American family of remote Span- ish and modern German origin, the record of whose early history is fragmentary. The first authentic record of any member of it in the United Statesis the signature of Henry Hyneman to the oath of alle- giance to the state of Pennsylvania in the year 1779. Elias Hyneman: Born in Holland, whither his progenitors had fled from Spain. He was a con- temporary of Henry Hyneman. At an early age Elias emigrated to America and settled as an inn- keeper and general merchant in a Pennsylvania country town, where he remained until! his marriage, when he removed to Philadelphia and engaged in commerce. He was the father of thirteen children. Leon Hyneman: Prominent freemason; born in Montgomery county, Pennsylvania, May 14, 1808; died in New York March 4, 1879; eldestson of Elias - Hyneman. Onattaining manhood he left home and earned his living as tutor in country schools. Re- turning to Philadelphia in 1834, he became interested in freemasonry, and four years later he joined the order as member of the Lafayette Lodge of Philadel- phia, being elected master in 1840. At one time he was also a member of the Grand Lodge of Pennsy]- vania. Hyneman was the founder (1849) of the Order of Druidesses, and the author of its ritual. In 1852 he established “The Masonic Mirror and American Keystone,” which he edited until 1860. He was the author of “ The Fundamental] Principles of Science” and of sevcral works on masonic sub- jects, the chief among them being “The Origin of Freemasonry ” and “Freemasonry in England from 1567 to 1813.” In 1845 Hyneman was one of the mem- bers of the Jewish Publication Society of America. Hyneman had eight children, among them being Leona Hyneman, who marricd Jacob Lowen- grund, and, under the stage name of “ Leona Moss,” became a talented actress. Another daughter was Alice Hyneman, authoress; born in Philadelphia Jan. 81, 1840; contributor to “The North American Review”; “The Forum”; “The Popular Science Monthly ”; and the author of “ Woman in Industry,” a treatise on the work of woman in America, and of “Niagara,” a descriptive record of the great cataract and its vicinity. She married twice; her first hus- band being Henry Rhine of Philadelphia; her sec- ond, Charles Sotheran of New York. Benjamin Hyneman, the representative of an- other branch of this family, who married Rebekah Gumpert, left his home in the pursnit of his voca- tion and was never seen afterward. Rebekah Gumpert Hyneman: Authoress; born in Philadelphia Sept. 8, 1812; died Sept. 10, 1875. A non-Hebrew by birth, she embraced Judaism, and became devotedly attached to her new faith. She wasa regular contributor to “The Ma- VI.—33 sonic Mirror,” published a volume of “Tales for Children,” and wrote essays descriptive of the - women of the Bible and the Apocrypha. She also published a number of poems under the titles “The Leper and Other Poems,” “The Muses,” etc. Elias Leon Hyneman: Born in 1887; died Jan. 7, 1865; son of Benjamin Hyneman. At the out- break of the Civil war he enlisted as a volunteer in Company C, Fifth Pennsylvania Cavalry, beiug mustered in on July 26, 1861. Accompanying his regiment to Virginia in 1862, he served with dis- tinction there, and was promoted sergeant. He was present at the battle of Gettysburg, and took part in that of the Wilderness, but was subsequently taken prisoner during a cavalry raid in the vicinity of Petersburg, Va., June 29, 1864. He owed his capture to acts of heroism—surrendering his horse to a wounded comrade whose beast had been shot under him, and giving his own shoes to a bare- footed, wounded fellow soldier. Taken to Ander- sonville, Ga., he was imprisoned in the stockade there, and within six months died of disease accel- erated by insufficient food and by exposure in un- sanitary quarters. His remains were taken to Phil- adelphia for burial. Isaac Hyneman: The first member of the Ger- man branch of the family concerning whom any data have been preserved; born in Germany in 1804; died Jan., 1886. He emigrated to the United States, and there married Adeline Ezekiel of Richmond, Va. Jacob Ezekiel Hyneman: Born in Richmond, Va., Aug. 5, 1848, and accompanied his father, Isaac Hyneman, to Philadelphia in 1850. He enlisted in the army Aug. 14, 1862, and was wounded at the bat- tleof Fredericksburg. Onrecovery he was assigned to the United States Army Signal Corps—tem- porarily in April, 1863, and permanently on Aug. 17 of the same year. Hyneman took part in the bat- tles of Chancellorsville, Brandy Station (where he was wounded), Gettysburg, Mine Run (where he was again wounded), Wilderness, Spottsylvania Court House, Cold Harbor, Five Forks, Petersburg, and Appomattox Court House, and was present at the surrender of Lee. He was mustered out of service June 24, 1865. A few years after the war Hyneman joined the First Regiment of the Pennsylvania National Guard, and took part in subduing the riots at Susquehanna Station and Hazleton. When the Veteran Corps of the First Regiment of the Pennsylvania National Guard was formed, Hyneman joined it. He was elected first lieutenant April 19, 1880, and quarter- master, with the rank of captain, in 1883. He re- signed April 17, 1891. During the railroad and mining riots at Pittsburg, Scranton, and Wilkes- barre during July and August, 1877, he raised two companies of National Guards of Pennsylvania, and commanded Company G, Twentieth Regiment. In 1889 he was appointed aide-de-camp, with rank of colonel, on the staff of Gen. William Warren, com- mander-in-chief of the Grand Army of the Republic. Herman Naphtali Hyneman: Painter; born in Philadelphia July 27, 1849. At an early age he showed a taste for drawing. He studied art for eight years in Germany and France (1874), and in Paris became a pupil of Bonnat. Eyneman exhib Hypocrisy Hyrcanus ited at the Salon of 1879 a painting entitled “ Desde- mona,” which was subsequently shown at the Penn- sylvania Academy of Fine Arts in Philadelphia. Two years later another painting of his, entitled “ Juliet,” was exhibited at the Salon, and afterward in New York city at the National Academy of Design. He won the silver medal at the American Art Exhibition, Philadelphia, 1902. Hyneman’s chief work was portrait-painting. Among his imaginative works may be mentioned “It Might Have Been,” representing a young girl in contem- plation, and “ Marguerite in Prison,” a scene from “Faust.” He died Dec. 23, 1907. Samuel Morais Hyneman: Lawyer; born at Philadelphia May 26, 1854; admitted to the bar of that city June 2, 1877. He was a member of the board of managers of Mikve Israel cougregation 1879-1901, and parnas 1887-90; member of the board of trustees, Jewish Theological Seminary at New York, 1886-1902, and of the board of trustees of Gratz College, Philadelphia, 1894-1900; president of the Young Men’s Hebrew Association, Philadel- phia, 1880-82; and officer of The Hebrew Education Society, Philadelphia, 1894-1900. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Morais, The Jews of Philadelphia; The American Jews’ Annual, 5646 (1886). A. F. H. V. HYPOCRISY: A word derived from the Greek iroxpiowe = “the playing a part on the stage.” It denotes acting a false part in life; pretending to be pious or righteous when one is not. It is only in later Hebrew that “hanufah” and “hanef” refer to this failing; hence it is incorrect for the Au- thorized Version to use “hypocrisy ” as the transla- tion of the Biblical “hanufah ” and “hanef,” which really denote respectively “wickedness” or “im- piety ” and “the wicked” or “the impious”; so Isa. ix. 16 (A. V. 17), xxxii. 6, xxxiii. 14; Ps. xxxv. 16; Prov. xi. 9; Job viii. 13, xiii. 16, xv. 84, xvii. 8, xx. 5, xxvii. 8, xxxiv. 30. Hypocrisy is a vice scarcely known in primitive times when men are natural; it is practised only in a society that has established rules of piety and rectitude, and.is de- ceived by appearances. The hypocrite is rebuked in Ecclus. (Sirach) xxxii. 15, xxxiii. 2: “Let God destroy them that live in hypocrisy in the company of the saints.” “Let the ravens peck out the eyes of the men that work hypocrisy ” (Psalms of Solo- mon, iv. 7, 22-25; hypocrites are called also “men- pleasers ” in the heading of this psalm). It is especially in the rabbinical literature that hypocrites are singled out as dangerous. “One should make known the hypocrites in order to avoid the profanation of God’s name” (Tosef., Yoma, iv. 12; Yoma 89a; comp. Eccl. R. iv. 1). “Be not afraid of the Pharisees nor of the Sadducees [liter- ally “of those who are not Pharisees”], but of the chameleon-like men [“ zebu‘im”] who simulate the Pharisees, and while they do the deed of Zimri [Num, xxv. 14] claim the reward of Phinehas” (7d. xxv. 12), said the dying King Janneus to Queen Alexandra (Sotah 22b, referring probably to the same class of men as is characterized in Psalms of Solomon, iv., quoted above). Such a class of Phari- sees, who were mere pretenders and men-pleasers, is alluded to in Sotah iii. 4, and characterized in THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 514 Sotah 22b; Yer. Ber. ix. 14b. The characterization of all the Pharisees as “hypocrites,” as “whited sepulchers, which indeed appear beautiful outward, but are within full of . . . all uncleanness,” as “a generation of vipers” (originally probably also “zebu‘im” = “many-colored vipers”; Matt. xxiii. 18-83; comp. vi. 2, 5, 16; xv. 7; xvi. 3; xxii. 18; Mark xii. 15; Luke xi. 44; xii. 1, 56), betrays a spirit of rancor and partizan prejudice. Nothing was more loathsome to the Rabbis than hypocrisy. Gamaliel II. announced that no disci- ple “ whose inside is not like his outside should enter the schoolhouse” (Ber. 28a); “he must be like the Ark of the Covenant, gold within as without” (Yoma 72b, after Ex. xxv. 11). “Hanufah” in the Talmud denotes also flattery, which is another mode of simulation (so Sotah 41b); wherefore it is difficult to say whether flattery or hypocrisy is meant when it is said: “He in whom there is hanufah brings wrath upon the world, nor will his prayer be heard ” (after Job xxxvi. 18). “A just hin... shall ye have” (Lev. xix. 36) is in- terpreted to mean: “Thy yea [“hen”] shall be yea, and thy nay nay: thou shalt not speak one thing and mean another” (B. M. 49a). “I would rather rule over the whole world than over two judges wrapped up in their cloaks ”—that is, hy pocrites— said David (Midr. Teh. xviii. 84; Ab. R. N. xxv. [ed. Schechter, p. 82]). K. HYPOTHECATION. See Morreacet orn Hy- POTHEC. HYPSISTARIANS: Semi-Jewish sect found on the Bosporus in the first Christian century and in Asia Minor down to the fourth century. They wor- shiped God under the name of Ge6¢ “Yyore¢ Havto- kpatwp (the Most High and Almighty One), observed the Sabbath and some of the dietary laws, but not circumcision, and cherished a certain pagan venera- tion for fire and light, earth and sun, without ob- serving, however, any idolatrous rite (see Gregory Nazienzen, “Oratio,” xviii. 5; Gregory of Nyssa, “Contra Kunomium,” p.2). They are probably re- lated to, if not identical with, the Massalians (“ Me- zallin”), or the Euchomenoi, or Euphemitai, “the God-worshipers, who also worshiped the Almighty God at the blaze of many lights” (Epiphanius, “Panarion, Heeresis,” Ixxx. 1-3), and the so-called Ceelicole (“worshipers of heaven”: “yire’e shama- yim ”) mentioned in “Codex Theodosianus,” xvi. 5, 43; 8,19. They were undoubtedly a remnant of Jew- ish proselytes who retained a few pagan notions, but were regarded as hostile to Christian doctrines. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bernays, Gesammelte Schriften, i.: Schirer, Gesch. 3d ed., iii. 18, 124; idem, Die Juden im Bospora- nischen Reiche und die Genossenschaften der ZeBopnevor Geod ‘Yyuorov, in Sitzungsberichte der Berliner Akademie, 1897, pp. 200-225; Cumont, Hypsistos, Brussels, 1897; and the literature in Herzog-Hauck, Real-Eneyc. s.vy. Hypsistarier, Himmelanbeter, and Messatianer. K. HYRCANUS: Collector of the royal revenues in Egypt; born in Jerusalem about 2208.c.; died in 175; youngest son of the tax-farmer Joseph ben Tobiah by his second wife, the daughter of his brother Solymius. Displaying from his childhood the most extraordinary abilities and accomplish- ments, he became the favorite of his father, which predilection made his elder half-brother jealous, and 515 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Hypocrisy Hyrcanus subsequently became a source of misery to the whole nation. His father, being unable on account of his infirmities. to be present at an Egyptian court so- lemnity, sent Hyrcanus as his representative, the two elder half-brothers refusing to attend for reasons of theirown. The occasion of the solemnity is un- known. It could not have been the birth of Ptolemy V., Epiphanes (209 8.c.), as Hyrcanus was then only eleven years old. His half-brothers wrote to their friends at court to put Hyrcanus out of the way. Hyrcanus, promising his father to be very econom- ical in all expenditures, obtained from the latter a let- ter of credit to his steward at Alexandria. He soon gained favor at court by his cleverness and by his adroitness of speech. He pleased Ptolemy and his courtiers by his wit and especially by his extrava- gant presents; and when he left Alexandria he him- self was loaded with gifts. He was probably awarded also the office of tax-collector. His half-brothers, who had now still greater reason for jealousy, lay in wait to kill him; and even his father was incensed against him on account of the enormous sums he had spent. N ; and although the name “ Ahub” is a rare one, it is improbable that the poem was addressed to the subject of this article. The designation wpyonrw, found in various other forms, has not yet been explained. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Abraham b. David, in Neubauer, M. J. C. 1. 81; Joseph b. Zaddik, ib. p. 93 (where ‘“Oheb” or ‘“*Ahub” should be read instead of “* Abraham y Conforte, Kore ha- Dorot, p. 8a. On ‘“*Oheb "and ** Ahub”* see Steinschneider in J. Q. R. x. 131, 529; on “ Muhajar,” xi. 187. 1B Ca, ‘ IBN NUNEZ, JACOB: Physician to King Henry IV. of Castile and his chief judge (“juez mayor”); also rabbi, as he calls himself. In 1474 he 539 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Ibn Migas Ibn Shaprut was commissioned by the king to apportion at Se- govia the taxes which the “aljamas” of the Jews in all the King’s dominions had to pay annually. These taxes were not collected by Ibn Nufiez, but by the royal tax-collectors to whom Ibn Nufiez ap- plied for that purpose. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Rios, Estudios, p. 140; following him, Lindo, History of the Jews in Spain, p. 242, and Gratz, Gesch. viii. ; Rios, Hist. iii. 590-602, where the tax-lists of the several communities were for the first time published, from a manu- script in the National Library at Madrid. : G. M. K. IBN PALQUERA. See Fauaquera (PALA- QUERA), SHEM-TOB B. JOSEPH. IBN PULGAR (PULKAR, or POLKAR), ISAAC BEN JOSEPH: Spanish philosopher, poet, and controversialist; flourished in the first half of the fourteenth century. Where he lived is not known, for though “ Avilla” is given at the end of his translation of Al-Ghazali’s “Makasid,” the town-name as well as the date is probably the copy- ist’s (Gratz, “Gesch.” vii. 446). He was a warm de- fender of Isaac Albalag, and continued his transla- tion of Al-Ghazali’s work. Itseems from his “‘Ezer ha-Dat” that he had been a friend of Abner of Burgos; but when the latter, after conversion, sent him one of his anti-Jewish writings, he replied in a stinging satirical poem. Ibn Pulgar wrote the following: (1) Hebrew translation of the third book of Al-Ghazali’s “ Maka- sid” (completed in 1807); (2) “‘Ezer ha-Dat,” the most important of his writings (see below), a polem- ical work in five books, in the form of dialogues, and interspersed with verse; (8) “Iggeret ha-Har- fit,” a refutation of Abner of Burgos’ “ Minhat Kena’ot”; (4) a refutation in Spanish of astrology: (5) verse (see De Rossi, “ Codices,” No. 861, 3). Ibn Pulgar defended the Halakah, but said that the Haggadah did not belong to the Talmud. One of the points in dispute between Ibn Pulgar and Abner of Burgos was in regard to the immortality of the individual soul, which Ibn Pulgar denied, be- Heving only in the immortality of the universal soul (Ibn Shaprut, “Eben Bolan,” xv., § 3). Ibn Pul- gar’s theory was that laws were not instituted for the sake of God, who has no need of them, but for the sake of man, Therefore he who observes these laws must not expect any future reward, as he is rewarded in the observance of them. Thus the question, “Why are sinners often happy and the pious unhappy?” has no meaning, for virtue and wisdom contain happiness in themselves, while sin and folly contain unhappiness. Of the “‘Ezer ha-Dat,” the first book, in eight chapters (“she‘arim ”), is a demonstration of the superiority of the Jewish religion, in which Ibn Pulgar attacks both apostates and Christians: the second attacks infidels and skeptics; the third, as- trologers; the fourth, those who explain the Bible in a strictly literal sense and those who, like the Christians, interpret it in a figurative and allegorical sense; the fifth, those who do not believe in the im- mortality of the soul. The second book, a dialogue between an aged partizan of Talmudic Judaism (“Torani”) and a youthful philosopher, has been printed in Eliezer Ashkenazi’s “Ta‘am Zekenim ” (Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1855). Ibn Pulgar’s object here was to prove the superiority of philosophical Judaism; but his arguments are more clearly ex- pressed in the fourth book, in which he attacks caba- lists, sorcerers, and false philosophers. His diatribes against the first two classes have been published by Isidore Loeb (“R. E. J.” xviii. 66-70). BIBLIOGRAPITY : Gratz, Gesch. 3d ed., Vii. 291, 292, 305-308, 446; Steinschneider, Hebr. Uebers. pp. 299, 300: idem, Jewish Literature, pp. 97, 171, 296; He-Haluz, iv. 88; Isidore Loen, in R. E. J. xviii. 63-70. G, M. SEL. IBN ROSHD. See AVERROES. IBN SAHL, ABU AL-HASAN. IBN SAHL IBN RABBAN AL-TABARL. IBN SAHL, ABU OMAR JOSEPH BEN JACOB: Poct and scientist; died at Cordova 1124. He was a pupil of Isaac ibn Ghayyat, was rabbi at Curdova for nine years, and was distinguished for both learning and piety. Joseph ibn Sahl, who must not be confounded with the poet Joseph ibn Suli, is counted by Al-Harizi among the foremost poets of his time; though his verse is without any pecul- iar elegance, it is easy and fluent. He was inti- mately acquainted witk Moses ibn Ezra, who ad- dressed several poems to him. See ALI BIBLIOGRAPHY: Abraham ibn Daud, Sefer ha-Kabbalah, in Neuhauer, M. J. C.i. 753 L. Dukes, Moses ibn Esra, pp. 101 et seq.; Sachs, Die Religidse Poesie, p. 256; Gratz, Gesch. vi. 123; Steinschneider, Hebr. Uebers. pp. 912, 1024, M IBN SENEH. See ZArzan, SAMUEL IBN SENEH. IBN SHAPRUT, HASDAI. See Haspar ABu YUSUF IBN SHAPRUT. IBN SHAPRUT (SHAFRUT, not Sport or Sporta), SHEM-TOB BEN ISAAC: Spanish philosopher, physician, and polemic; bornat Tudela in the middle of the fourteenth century; often con- fused with the physician Shem-Tob ben Isaac of Tor- tosa, who lived one hundred and fifty years later. While still a young man he was compelled to debate in public, on original sin and redemption, with Car- dinal Pedro de Luna, afterward Pope Benedict XIII. This disputation took place in Pamplona, Dec. 26, 1375, in the presence of bishops and learned theo. logians (see his “Eben Bohan”; an extract, entitled “Wikkuah,” in manuscript, is in the Bibliothéque Nationale, Paris, No. 831). A devastating war which raged in Navarre between the Castilians and the English obliged Ibn Shaprut, with many others, to leave the country. He settled at Tarazona, in Aragon, where he practised his profession of physi- cian among both Jews and Christians. As a Tal- mudic scholar he carried on a correspondence with Sheshet. At Tarazona he completed his “ Eben Bohan” (May, 1880 or 1385), a polemical work against baptized Jews. As a model and guide for this work, which consists of fourteen chapters, or “ gates,” and is written in the form of a dialogue, he took the polemical “Milhamot Adonai” of Jacob ben Reuben, falseiy attributed to David Kimhi. Ibn Shaprut’s work, however, is not a partial re production of the “Milhamot,” as has been incor- rectly stated (“ Ozar Nehmad,” ii. 32); it is rather an extension or continuation of it, since it goes into details which are either not mentioned, or are men- tioned only briefly, in the other. In the fifteenth Ibn Shem-Tob THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 540 chapter, which Ibn Shaprut added later, he criticizes a work writteu by Alfonso de Valladolid against Ja- cob ben Reuben. The thirteenth chapter contains a very interesting fragment by a fourteenth-century Schopenhauer, who wrote under the pseudonym “Lamas” (“Samael”). The “Eben Bohan ” has been preserved in several manuscripts. In order to as- sist the Jews in their polemical writings, Ibn Sha- prut translated portions of the Four Gospels into Hebrew, accompanying them with pointed observa- tions; answers to the latter, written by a neophyte named Jona, also exist in manuscript. | Ibn Shaprut wrote a commentary to the first book of Avicenna’s canon entitled “‘En Kol,” for which he probably made use of the Hebrew transla- tion of Sulaiman ibn Yaish and that of Allorqui, which latter he criticizes severely. He also wrote a supercommentary, entitled “Zafnat Pa‘aneah,” to Ibn Ezra’s commentary on the Pentateuch (see M. Fricdliinder in the “Publications of the Society of Hebrew Literature,” series ii., vol. iv., p. 221, where “Shem-Tob ben Joseph Shaprut of Toledo” should read “Shem-Tob ben Isaac of Tudela”). The following works of Jbn Shaprut have been printed: “Pardes Rimmonim,” explanations of difficult Tal- mudic haggadot (Sabbionetta, 1554); “ Besorat Mat- ~ tai,” Hebrew translation of the gospel of Matthew according to the editions of Seb. Minster and I. de Tillet Mercier, reedited by Ad. Herbst (Gét- tingen, 1879). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. cols. 2548-2557 ; idem, Hebr. Bibl. xv. 82, xix. 43; idem, Hebr. Uehers. pp. 689 et seq.; Carmoly, Histoire des Médecins Juifs, p. 101; De Rossi-Hamberger, Hist. Worterb. p. 301; Nepi-Ghirondi, Toledot Gedole Yisrael, p. 852; Gratz, Gesch. viii. 23 et seq.; Isidore Loeb, La Controverse Religieuse, in Revue de V His- toire des Religinns, xviii. 145 et seg.; idem, in R. BE. J. xviii. 219 et seq. (with several extracts according to the Breslau MS.); First, Bibl. Jud. iii. 259 et seq. (where Ibn Shaprut is con- founded with Shem-Tob b. Isaac of Tortosa). G, M, K. IBN SHEM-TOB, ISAAC: Philosophical com- meutator of the fifteenth century; younger brother of Joseph ibn Shem-Tob, and a follower of Mai- monides. Isaac sided with his brother against their father, Shem-Tob ibu Shem-Tob, who, in his “Sefer ha-Emunot,” had attacked Maimonides. Isaac’s commentary on Maimonides’ “ Moreh ” is known only through a quotation by Moses Alashkar (“ Hassa- got,” p. 6, ed. Ferrara, 1556). According to Stein- schneider, he is probably identical with the Isaac ibn Shem-Tob who wrote, at Aguilar de Campo in 1459, a commentary on Ghazali’s “Metaphysics” (Paris MS. No. 906). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gratz, Gesch. viii. 180; Steinschneider, Hebr. Febers, p. 820. G. M. Sc. IBN SHEM-TOB, JOSEPH BEN SHEM- TOB: One of the most prolific Judeo-Spanish wri- ters of the fifteenth century; born in Castile; died 1480. He lived in various cities of Spain: Medina del Campo de Leon (1441); Alcala di Henares (1451); Segovia (1454). Though it is not known precisely what office he held at court, he occupied a position which brought him in contact with distinguished Christian scholars. According to the custom of the time, he held public disputations with them in the presence of the court; this probably led him to study the polemical literature of the Jews. In the preface to his commentary on Profiat Duran’s “ Al-Tehi ka-Aboteka,” he recounts a disputation with a Chris- tian scholar concerning the doctrine of the Trinity. He seems to have elaborated this disputation and to have used it later in various anti-Christian writings. In 1452 he was sent by the Prince of Asturia, Don Enrique, to Segovia to prevent an outbreak of pop- ular rage at Easter against the Jews. Hespeaks oc- casionally in his writings of great sufferings which drove him from place to place, and of passing through a severe illness. Griitz (“Gesch.” viii. 422) has discovered, from a quotation in Joseph Jabez’s “Or ha-Hayyim,” that Ibn Shem-Tob died a martyr. Ibu Shem-Tob’s numerous writings, a list of which was compiled by Munk and supplemented by Beer and Steinschneider, are divisible into (a) independent works and (6) commentaries. Among the former are: “ Hanhagat ha-Bayit,” treatise on economics, writ- ten in his youth (see his “‘En ha- Kore”); nothing further is known concerning it. According to Stein- schneider, it may be a revision of Aris- totle’s “ Economics.” “En ha-Kore,” the only medieval scientific He- brew homiletical work extant (Zotenberg, “Cat. Hebr. MSS. Paris,” No. 325, 2; Neubauer, “Cat. Bodl. Hebr. MSS.” No. 2052, 2). The book is very rich in quotations from Christian and from Mohammedan authors. It treats systematically of the science of homiletics, defines the limitations of exegesis, and expresses itself in regard to the funda- mental aim of Jewish preaching. It contains fre- quent references to Aristotle’s “ Ethics,” Ibn Shem- Tob’s favorite work. “Kebod Elohim,” on the summum bonum and the aim of life; written in 1442, printed at Ferrara in 1555. “Da‘at ‘Elyon,” a refutation of a fatalistic wri- ting of the baptized Jew Abner of Burgos (Wolf, “Bibl. Hebr.” iii. 428; the Oppenheim MS. cited by Wolf is no longer to be found in the collection at Oxford). The following are his commentaries: Commentary on Jedaiah ha-Penini’s “ Behinat ‘Olam.” Commentary on his father’s “Sefer ha-Yesodot,” known only through a citation in “‘EKn ha-Kore.” Just as “Sefer ha-Yesodot” is, proba- Original Works. His bly, only another title of his father’s Commen- “Sefer ha-Emunot,” so is this com- taries. mentary, according to Steinschneider, probably identical with the “Sefer Kebod Elohim.” Commentary on the anti-Christian letter of Profiat Duran, “Al-Tehi ka-Aboteka,” edited and printed together for the first time at Constantinople, 1577; reprinted by A. Geiger in “Kobez Wikkuhim,” Breslau, 1844. “Bittul ‘Ikkere ha-Nozerim,” a Hebrew transla- tion of and commentary on Hasdai Crescas’ refuta- tion, in Spanish, of the chief dogmas of Christian- ity. It was written at Alcala di Henares in 1451, and published anonymously at Salonica (?) in 1860. The original work by Crescas and its title have been lost (Steinschneider, “ Hebr. Uebers.” p. 462). These last two commentaries were in accord with the anti. 541 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Ibn Shem-Tob Christian polemical spirit prevailing in the Jewish rcligio-philosophic literature of the time. Commentary on Lamentations, written at Medina del Campo in 1441, after the author had recovered from an illness (Parma, De Rossi MSS. No. 177). Commentary on the “ITsavoge” of Porphyry, after Averroes, of which no manuscript has yet been found (see Steinschneider, “Cat. der Hebr. Hand- schriften in der Stadtbibliothek zu Hamburg,” p. 106; idem, “Hebr. Uebers.” p. 86). Commentary on Averroes’ treatise on the possi- bility of union with the active intellect (“Sekel ha-Po‘el”), after Moses Narboni’s translation, with a long introduction (Steinschneider, “Cat. der Hebr. Handschriften Berlin,” No. 216; Zotenberg, J.c. No. 885). Ibn Shem-Tob made ashort extract from this voluminous commentary, which he finished at Sego- via in 1454 (Neubauer, “Cat. Bod!. Hebr. MSS.” No. 1253; see Steinschneider in “ Monatsschrift,” xx xii. 459 et seq. ; idem, “ Hebr. Uebers.” pp. 194 et seg.). Commentary on part of Averrves’ “large com- mentary ” on the “De Anima” of Aristotle, cited in Ibn Shem-Tob’s commentary on Aristotle’s “ Ethics ” (Steinschneider, .c. p. 150). Short commentary on Maimonides’ “ Moreh,” ii. 68, cited in his son’s commentary on the same work. Nothing further concerning it is known. Commentary on the Sidra Bereshit, cited by him in the “‘En ha-Kore,” and a commentary on Deut. xv. 11, cited in his commentary on the “ Nicomach- ean Ethics” (according to Steinschneider these two may be only sermons). Commentary, containing minute and diffuse ex- planations of words and subject-matter, on the He- brew translation of the “ Nicomachean Ethics” of Aristotle (“Sefer ha-Middot ”). Finished at Segovia in 1455, this was probably the last and most exten- sive of his works; he worked upon it for one hundred days continuously in order that no interruption might hinder him from an understanding of the text. The commentary exists in many manuscripts and was widely circulated in the Middle Ages, It has been made use of in Satanow’s edition of the “Sefer ha- Middot” (Berlin, 1784; Steinschneider, @.¢. pp. 212 et seq.). The “ Kebod Elohim ” is Joseph’s chief work. His leading ideas and principles, scattered throughout his other writings, are here brought together. In it he compares the ethical opinions of the Greeks, espe- cially of Aristotle, with those of Judaism, a thing which had not before been earnestly or thoroughly done. For this purpose he gives many extracts (“perakim ”) from the “Ethics” of Aristotle, and translates chapters ix. and x., though from a Latin version. In answer to the question as to man’s summum bonum he concludes it to be the Torah, which teaches and promises immortality, whereas the Greeks only speculate as to man’s final goal. That the Torah and the philosophy of the Greeks have one and the same end, as some maintain, he denies, declaring the claim to be incompatible with the essence of positive religion; the Torah ordains the fulfilment of the 618 commandments, not the eth- ical teachings of Aristotle. Speculation within the bounds of the Torah is permitted, even commanded ; Ethical Views. and its province should be “the secret meanings of the Torah and of its rules, and the teachings of the Prophets.” By this he probably indicates caba- listic dogmas. The divine commands are reasonable, although explanations based on reason, without the help of tradition often fail to explain the founda- tions of the commands. Joseph ibn Shem-Tob was one of the most learned writers of his time. His knowledge of science and philosophy was intimate, and he had a very thor- ough acquaintance with Aristotle, his Characteri- chief commentator Averroes, and the zation. prominent Jewish, Mohammedan, and Christian writers. At the same time he was an independent and outspoken critic. He not only passed judgment upon Christianity and Islam, but he criticized Maimonides, with whose fundamental ideas he was not in sympathy, and maintained that the claim made by the cabalists that Simeon ben Yohai was the author of the Zohar was baseless. Nevertheless, in a discussion as to the proofs of the unity of God, he prefers the arguments of the cabalists to those of the philosophers. His attitude might be termed “ positive Jewish,” with a remarkable mixture of rationalism and dogmatism. He would allow no obscurity or confusion of ideas, and emphatically asserted that religion and philos- ophy are not identical in their final aim: “The Aris- totelian laws make men; Jewish laws make Jews.” In the strife then raging over the study of ration- alistic sciences Ibn Shem-Tob took the following position: The Jew in possession of the divine rev- elation could dispense with the sciences, although their study was useful to him, since they perfected him asa human being; but their study should be deferred to anadvancedage. In this he agreed with Solomon ben Adret. He thought it was the “soph- istry” of “Greek wisdom,” in which speculative knowledge was the chief end of life, which made materialists of so many prominent Jews, causing their defection from Judaism and the extinction of whole communities in Aragon and Castile. In other districts, he said, not affected by this spirit, there were thousands of Jews who would rather be killed than surrender their faith, BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gratz, Gesch. viii. 141, 163 ef seq., 178 et seq., 421 et seq.; Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, pp. 512 et seq.; Stein- schneider. Cat. Bodl. cols. 1529 et seg.: idem, Jewish Litera- ture, pp. 97, 100, 104, 127, 309, 317; idem, in Ersch and Gru- ber, Eneye. section ii., part 31, pp. 87 et seg.; M. Straschon, in Pirhe Zafon, pp. 84 ef seq.; Winter and Wiinsche, Die Jitdische Litteratur, ii. 790, iii. 671; Munk, Mélanges, pp. 508 et seq.; Munk-Beer, Die Philosophischen Schriftsteller der Juden, pp. 118 et seq. J. M. Sc. IBN SHEM-TOB, SHEM-TOB (BEN JO- SEPH?): Spanish cabalist; a fanatical opponent of rationalistic philosophy; president of a yeshibah in Spain; lived about 1890-1440 (Gedaliah ibn Yahya, “Shalshelet ha-Kabbalah,” ed. Venice, p. 62b). He was the father of Joseph and Isaac ibn Shem-Tob. He wrote: “Sefer ha-Emunot,” on re- ligious dogmas (Ferrara, 1556); “Sefer Yesodot” (perhaps only another title for the preceding); a commentary on the Pesah Haggadah (Steinschneider, “Cat. Munich,” 264, 3; ¢dem, “Cat. Bodl.” col. 99). The “Sefer ha-Emunot” is an attack on the Aristo- telian philosophy and on the rationalistic and specu- Ibn Shem-Tob Ibn Shu‘ai THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 542 lative conception of Judaism in vogue in the author’s day. Itisalsoaeulogy of the Cabala, “ the true teach- ing, which has lived on through tradition and which alone can help Israel.” Shem-Tob endeavors to prove that, from the standpoint of positive Judaism, there is not the agreement between religion and philosophy that is claimed by many Jewish philos- ophers. In theintroduction he makes the philosoph- ical investigators and the “enlightenment” brought about by them responsible for the defection from Judaism and for the political persecutions of the times. He renders especially severe judgments upon Maimonides (who withheld belief in resurrection), upon Abraham ibn Ezra, upon Levi ben Gershon, and upon other men of liberal views. In his survey of the historical development of the Cabala Ibn Shem-Tob cites a number of older caba- listic writers, whose existence, however, is not there- by proved. This reference to them isappended to a short passage from the Zohar. Moses ALASHKAR Vio- lently opposed Shem-Tob’s dogmatic system in his “ Hassagot ‘Al Mah She-Katab R. Shem-Tob Neged ha-RaMbaM ” (Ferrara, 1556). The “Sefer ha-Emu- not” has been much cited by both old and modern au- thors, and is valuable for the history of the Cabala. To judge from a remark on page 31b it would seem that Ibn Shem-Tob wrote other works, but nothing is known concerning them. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gritz, Gesch. Hebr. ed. of Rabbinowitz, vi. 99- 100; Kaufmann, Die Attributenlehre, Index ; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. cols. 2558 et seq.; idem, Jewish Literature, pp. 94, 304; idem, Die Polemische und Apologetische Litteratur, pp. 321], 367; idem, Hebr. Uebers. p. 120; M. Straschon, in Pirhe Zafon, ii. 77 et seq.; Winter and Wiinsche, Die Jti- dische Litteratur, iii. 281, 365. J. M. Sc. IBN SHEM-TOB, SHEM-TOB BEN JO- SEPH BEN SHEM-TOB: Spanish writer and philosopher; flourished about 1461-89; lived in Se- govia and Almazan. He was a follower of Maimon- ides, even though his grandfather Shem-Tob ibn Shem-Tob was one of Maimonides’ most uncompro- mising opponents, and though his father did not agree with Maimonides on essential points in his philosophy. Ibn Shem-Tob was the author of the following works: (1) Treatise on matter and its re- lation to form, according to the opinions of the an- cient philosophers, especially Aristotle and his com- mentators; written in Segovia, 1461 (Paris MS. No. 898, 4). (2) Commentary to book iii., ch. 4-7 of Averroes’ “middle commentary ” on Aristotle’s “ De Anima,” on the ratiocinative power of the soul; finished in Almazan, in 1478, under the title “Bi’ur ha-Koah ha-Debari” (Paris MS. No. 3). The other parts of the commentary were written by one of Shem-Tob’s pupils in tlie same year (1478), and probably were either based upon the teacher’s lec- tures or dictated by him (Paris MS. No. 967, 2). (3) Commentary on Averroes’ “ middle commentary ” on Aristotle’s “Physics”; finished in Almazan in 1480 (Paris MS. No. 967, 4). (4) “Ha-Ma’amar ba-Sib- bah ha-Taklitit,” treatise on the final cause or pur- pose of the creation of the world (Paris MS. No. 998, 2). The author quotes and discusses several of the opinions of ancient writers on this subject, and agrees with the last one cited, that the purpose of creation is the existence of mankind The end of all bumanity, according to him, is to approximate to theimage of God. (5) “ Teshubot” to Eli Habillo’s philosophical questions (De Rossi, MS. Parma No. 457, 2). (6) Commentary on Pirke Abot (Wolf, “Bibl. Hebr.” iii. 1185). (7) Commentary on Mai- monides’ “ Moreh” (Venice, 1551). This commen- tary, his chief work, was written with the purpose of reconciling “reason” (philosophy) and “law” (religion). He frequently quotes the commentary of Profiat Duran, to which his remarks are sometimes only supplementary. In the preface he states his intention to be merely to reproduce explanations and comments already given and in his opinion correct. A compendium, therefore, rather than a commen- tary, the work is very prolix (see Friedlander, “The Guide of the Perplexed,” vol. iii., p. xxii.). (8) “Derashot ha-Torah,” homilies on the Pentateuch, written in 1489 and printed three times during the sixteenth century (Salonica, 1525 or 15380; Venice, 1547; Padua, 1567). Itsoon, however, fell into com- parative oblivion. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Munk, Mélanges, pp. 508-509; Munk-Beer, Philosophie und Philosophische Schrifisteller der Juden, pp. 119 et seq.; M. Straschon, Pirhe Zafon, ii. 86; Stein- schneider, Cat. Boal. cols. 2534 et seq.; idem, Jewish Litera- ture, pp. 99, 104; idem, Hebr. Uebers. pp. 120, 150, 425; Winter and Winsche, Die Jtidische Litleratur, ii. 791. J. M. Sc. IBN SHOSHAN (Hebr. form, jwry or INL) or IBN SUSAN (Arab. form, “Susan,” both forms meaning “lily ”): Spanish family of Toledo, which can be traced back to the twelfth century and which is known to have existed up to the seventeenth cen- tury. Its first known representative was Solomon, called “Pattish he-Hazak” (= “the mighty ham- mer”), He was nasi in Toledo in the twelfth century (Graetz, “Hist.” iii, 384). Joseph ben Solomon ibn Shoshan (called also Yazid ibn Omar ha-Nasi): Communal worker in Toledo; died there 1205. He succeeded his father as nasi in that city, and stood high in the favor of the court. Graetz says that he was a favorite of Alfonso VIII. of Castile (1166-1214). He built a beautiful synagogue in Toledo, which is mentioned in “ Ha-Manhig ” (ed. Constantinople, p. 27a), and is also alluded to in the chronogram “1205,” the year of his death, in his epitaph (see 8. D. Luzzatto, “Abne Zikkaron,” No. 75; Rapoport, in “Kerem Hemed,” vii. 249-253). He gave a friendly recep- tion at his home in Tcledo to Abraham ben Nathan, the author of “Ha-Manhig.” The poet Al-Harizi composed two elegies on his death, one of which exists in manuscript, while the other is printed in the “ Tahkemoni” (cd. Warsaw, 1890, 1. 412; comp. xlvi. 850). Joseph’s sou Solomon was also nasi of Toledo, in succession to his father. BIBLIOGRAPHY : D. Cassel. in Zunz Jubelschrift, p. 125; A. Geiger, in Wiss. Zeit. Jiid. Theol. ii. 129; Gratz, Gesch. vi. 189, 328 ef seg.; Zunz, Z. G. Index, s.v. Schoschan. Among other members of the family who lived in the thirteenth century were: Abraham, who built houses of shelter for poor travelers in Toledo. Judah, known for his generosity. Sisa, grandfather of the writer Judah ben Moses of Toledo, Samuel, who provided the Talmudical high schools of Cairo and Jerusalem with oil, and who suffered in a perse- 543 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Ibn Shem-Tob Ibn Shuai cution of the Jews in Toledo. Jacob, a Jewish judge, appointed by the government. In the fourteenth century prominent members of the family were: David, a judge, son of the above- mentioned Jacob. He was associated with Asher ben Jehiel. Meir ben Abraham, representative of the community, and his son ABRAHAM (sce JEW. Encyc. i. 119b). Jacob, who in 1340 was divorced from his wife Satbona, daughter of Judah Benve- niste of Loria, Isaac, a physician; born 1824; died of the plaguc in 1899 (Graetz, l.c. iv. 118). Joseph, a thorough student of the Talmud and of theology ; author of a commentary on Pirke Abot (Neubauer, “Cat. Bodl. Hebr. MSS.” No. 885, 2; MS. Paris, No. 769, 5). Noteworthy members in the fifteenth century were: Meir ben Joseph, physician, “a helper of the poor” ; died in Toledo 1415. An Ibn Shoshan, whose given name is not known; author of a short com- mentary on Ibn Gabirol’s “ Azharot” (Neubauer, Z.c. No. 1177, 1b). Samuel ben Zadok, auther of a fes- tival prayer (De Rossi, MS. Parma No. 13877) and of a short compendium on Jacob ben Asher’s “Tur Orah Hayyim,” under the title “Sefer ‘Ez Hayyim ” (MS. Paris, No. 444). Samuel, author ot Sabbath sermons (Buxtorf, “Bibl. Rab.” p. 467) and of a supercommentary on Rashi’s commentary on the Pentateuch (Neubauer, U.c. No, 201). Another Ibn Shoshan, whose given nameis not known; died as a martyr in Seville in 1481. Judah ben Isaac, rabbi in Magnesia about 1500; quoted by several halakists; author of a commentary on Ruth. To the sixteenth century belong: Joseph, lived in Constantinopie; publisher of Midrash Tanhu- ma (1522). David, physician in Jerusalem (15386). Isaac, copyist of a cabalistic work in Safed (Neu- bauer, U.c. No. 1540). David ben Samuel, author of a commentary on Ecclesiastes (Geiger, “ Jiid. Zeit.” iii. 444). Solomon ben Samuel lived in Salonica. Issachar ben Mordecai ibn Susan: Pales- tinian mathematician; flourished 1589-72. In early youth he removed from the Maghreb, perhaps from Fez, to Jerusalem, where he became a pupil of Levi ibn Habib. From there he went to Safed, where, under great hardship, he continued his studies. But his increasing poverty induced him, in 15389, to leave Safed and seek a living elsewhere. At this time he commenced a work on the calendar, giving, among other things, tables which embraced the years 5299-6000 (1539-2240). Afterhis return to Safed he resumed his work on the calendar, in which he was assisted by the dayyan Joshua. It was pub- lished at Salonica, in 1564, under the title “ Tikkun Yissakar.” The second edition, under the title ““Tbbur Shanim ” (Venice, 1578), isnot as rare as the first. The tables in both editions begin with the year of publication. The book also contains, in two appendixes, a treatise on rites (“minlagim ”) depending upon the variations in the calendar from year to year, and a treatise on the division of the weekly portions and the haftarot according to the ritual of the different congregations. For the latter treatise the author quotes as his source ancient manuscript commen- taries, and holds that, according to the opinion of a certain scholar, the division of the weekly portions is to be traced back to Ezra. Rites, anonymously given, are, according to p. 51, 2d edition, taken from Abudarham, to w hom the author attributes great authority. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael, i. 704: First, Bibl. Jud. iii, 396; Steinschneider, Cat. Boal. col. 1061; idem, in Abhandlungyen zur Gesch, der Mathenatik, 1899, ix. 479. David ibn Shoshan: A blind and very rich man of Salonica; died in Constantinople. Of good gen- eral education, he was intimately acquainted with the Talmud as well as with philosophy and mathe- matics. He was well known for his thorough knowledge of the law-books of the Mohammedans, and many Moslem scholars and judges came to him at Salonica to be taught theirown law. Later he left for Constantinople, where he remained till his death and where, on account of his scholarship, he was highly respected by the Mohammedan stu- dents. One of his pupils was Asher Cohen ibn Ardot (d. 1645). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Conforte, Kore ha-Dorot, pp. 38b, 39a, 40a, 45a; Benjamin Motal, Tummat Yesharim, Preface, Venice, 1622; Zunz, Z. G. p. 440. Members of the family in the seventeenth century were: Eliezer, son of the above-mentioned David, in Constantinople (1622). It is related of him that every Friday he cleaned with his beard the place in front of the Holy Ark. David ben David, rabbi in Salonica about 1660. BIBLIOGRAPHY : Zunz, Z. G. pp. 486 et seq. J. M., Sc. IBN SHU‘AIB, BISHR (BASHAR) BEN PHINEHAS: Oriental mathematician; lived at the end of the tenth century. According to Hot- tinger (“ Promptuarium,” p. 96), the Arabic works of Ibn Shu‘aib are often quoted by Arabic writers. In 997 the Jacobite Abu ‘Ali ‘Isa ibn Zara‘ah ad- dressed to Ibn Shu‘aib a pamphlet against Judaism which seemed to be an answer to a pro-Jewish work by Ibn Shu‘aib (see Ibn Abi Usaibi‘a, “‘Uyun al- Anba’,” ii. 236). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Steinschneider, Polemische Literatiur, p. 145; idem, Die Arabische Litteratur der Juden, § 6 G. M. SEL. IBN SHU‘AIB, JOEL: Rabbi, preacher, and commentator of the fifteenth century; born in Ara- gon; lived also at Tudela. He wrote: “‘Olat Shab- bat,” sermons, in the order of the Sabbatical sections, written in 1469 (Venice, 1577) ; acommentary on Lam- entations, written at Tudela in 1480, and published together with Galante’s commentary on the same book (¢. 1483); a commentary on Job, mentioned in his “‘Olat Shabbat”; a short commentary on Canti- cles (1556); “Nora Tehillot,” a commentary on the Psalms, with a preface by his son Samuel (Salonica, 1568-69). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Conforte, Kore ha-Dorot, p. 28a; De Rossi- Hamberger, Hist. Worterb. p. 291; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 1400; Dukes, in Orient, Lit. ix. 302; Nepi-Ghi- rondi, Toledot Gedole Yisrael, p. 16 62. K. I. Br. IBN SHU‘AIB, JOSHUA: Preacher and caba- list; flonrished about 1828. He was a pupil of Solo- mon ben Adret and the teacher of Menahem ibn Zerah. Together with Shem-Tob ben Abraham ibn Gaon, he was accused by Isaac the Blind of Acco of Ibn Tibbon THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 544 unreliability in his accounts of the utterances and explanations of his teachers. Shu‘aib was the author of “ Derashot al ha-Torah,” homilies on the Pentateuch. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Azulai, Shem ha-Gedolim, i. 78; Steinschnei- der, Cat. Bodl. col. 1562. K. P. B. IBN TIBBON: Family of translators that lived principally in southern France in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. On the name “Tibbon” see Steinschneider in “J. Q. R.” xi, 621. The more iin- portant members of the family were: Abraham ibn Tibbon: Translator of Aristotle’s “Economics”; his exact relationship to the Tibbon family is unknown (Steinschneider, “ Hebr. Uebers.” p. 227). M. Sc. Jacob ben Machir ibn Tibbon: Provencal as- tronomer; born, probably at Marseilles, about 1236; died at Montpellier about 1804. He wasa grandson of Samuel ben Judah ibn Tibbon. His Provencal name was Don Profiat Tibbon; the Latin writers called him Profatius Judzeus. Jacob occupies a considerable place in the history of astronomy in the Middle Ages. His works, translated into Latin, were quoted by Copernicus, Reinhold, and Clavius. He was also highly reputed as a physician, and, according to Jean Astruc (“ Mémoires pour Servir a VHistoire de la Faculté de Médecine de Mont- pellier,” p. 168), was regent of the faculty of medi- cine of Montpellier. In the controversy between the Maimonists and the anti-Maimonists Jacob defended science against the attacks of Abba Mari and his party; the ener- getic attitude of the community of Montpellier on that occasion was due to his influence. Jacob became known by a series of Hebrew trans- lations of Arabic scientific and philosophical works, and above all by two original works on astronomy. His translations are: (1) the “ Elements” of Euclid, divided into fifteen chapters; (2) the treatise of Kosta ben Luka on the armillary sphere, in sixty- five chapters; (8) “ Sefer ha-Mattanot,” the “ Data” of Euclid, according to the Arabic translation of Ishak ben Hunain; (4) “Ma’amar Talkus,” treatise of Autolycus on the sphere in movement; (5) three treatises on the sphere of Menelas of Alexandria; (6) “ Ma’amar bi-Tekunah,” or “Sefer ‘al Tekunah,” in forty-four chapters, from Abu ‘Ali ibn Hassan ibn al-Haitham; (7) treatise on the use of the astrolabe, in forty chapters, from Abu al-Kasim Ahmad ibn al- Saffar; (8) compendium of the “ Almagest” of Ptol- emy, from Abu Muhammed Jabar ibn Aflah; (9) “Teecret ha-Ma‘aseh be-Luah ha-Nikra Sofihah,” from Abu Ishak ben al-Zarkalah; (10) preface to Abraham bar Hiyya’s astronomical work; (11) an extract from the “ Almagest ” on the are of a circle; (12) “Kizzur mi-Kol Meleket Higgayon,” A-verroes’ compendium of the “Organon” (Riva di Trento, 1559); (18) Averroes’ paraphrase of books xi.-xix. of Aristotie’s history of animals; (14) “Mozene ha- ‘Iyyunim,” from Ghazali. The two original works of Jacob are: (1) a de- scription of the astronomical instrument called the quadrant (Bibliothéque Nationale, Paris, MS. No. 1054), in sixteen chapters, the last of which shows how to construct this instrument; it was translated several times into Latin; (2) astronomical tables, beginning with March 1, 1800 @funich MS. No. 343, 26). These tables, also, were translated into Latin and enjoyed the greatest repute. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Munk, Mélanges, p. 489; Carmoly, Histoire des Médecins Juifs, p. 90; Steinschneider, Cat. Bodl. col. 1232: idem, Hebr. Uebers.; Gritz, Gesch. vii. 246; Renan- Neubauer, Les Rahbins Francais, pp. 599 et seq.; Gross, Gullia Judaica, p. 332. LB A R. Judah ben Moses ibn Tibbon: Rabbiin Mont- pellier; took part in the dispute between the fol- lowers and the opponents of Maimonides. He in- duced his relative Jacob ben Machir ibn Tibbon to support the Maimonidean party by pointing out that the anti-Maimonideans were the opponents of his grandfather Samuel ibn Tibbon and of the son- in-law of the latter, Jacob ben Abba Mari ben Samson ben Anatoli. In consequence of this, Jacob ben Machir ibn Tibbon protested against the read- ing of Solomon ben Adret’s letter to the commu- nity of Montpellier, which nevertheless took place in the synagogue of that city on the following day, a Sabbath, in the month of Elul, 1804 (“ Min- hat Kena’ot,” Nos. 21, 22). According to Jacob ben Machir ibn Tibbon (7). No. 89), Judah wrote various works, and made several translations which were praised even by Nahmanides. None of them are extant. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Perles, Salomo b. Abraham b. Adereth, pp. 30, 37; Gratz, Gesch. vii. 228 et seq., 248; Renan-Neubauer, Les Rabbins Francais; Zunz, Z. G. p. 477; Geiger, Wiss. Zeit. Jtiid. Theol. v. 93; Gross, Gallia Judaica, p. 333. Judah ben Saul ibn Tibbon: Translator; born at Granada, Spain, 1120; died after 1190. He left his native place in 1150, probably on account of persecution by the Almohades, and went to Lunel in southern France. Benjamin of Tudela mentions him as a physician there in 1160. Judah Jived on terms of intimacy with Meshullam ben Jacob and with Meshullam’s two sons, Asher and Aaron, whom in his will he recommends as friends to his only son, Samuel. He was also a close friend of Abraham ben David of Posquiéres and of Zerahiah ha-Levi, the latter of whom he freely recognized as a greater scholar than himself, and whose son he also wished to have as a friend for his own son. He had two daughters whose marriage caused him much anx- iety. Judah was very active asa translator, his works in- cluding the translation into Hebrew of the following: (1) Bahya ben Joseph ibn Pakuda’s “ Al-Hidayah ila Fara’iqd al-Kulub,’’ under the title ‘‘ Torat Hobot ha-Lebabot.”” He was induced to undertake this work by Meshullam ben Jacob and his son Asher, at whose desire he translated the first treatise, in 1161. After its completion Joseph Kimhi translated the other nine treatises and afterward the first one also. At the wish of Abraham ben David of Posquiéres, Judah con- Translations tinued his translation of the work. Judah’s of translation is the only one that has held its Philosophie place. That of Kimhi was gradually super- Works. seded and at last came to be forgotten entirely. Only a small fragment of it has been preserved (published by A. Jellinek in Benjacob’s edition of ‘* Hobot ha- Lebabot,”’ Leipsic, 1846). Judah’s translation of Bahya’s work was first printed at Naples in 1489 without a title. (2) Solomon ibn Gabirol's ** Kitab Igiah al-Akhlak,”’ under the title ** Tikkun Middot ha-Nefesh” (printed together with the first-mentioned translation at Constantinople in 1550). (3) Judah ha-Levi’s ‘* Kitab al-Hujjah,” under the title ** Sefer ha-Kuzari’’ (1167; printed at Fano in 1606 and many times 545 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Ibn Tibbou since). In this instance also Judah’s translation drove that of his rival, Judah ibn Cardinal, out of the field, so that only a small portion of the Jatters work has been preserved (see Cas- sel’s ed., pp. d44 ef sey.). : (4) Two Works by Ion Janah: (a) His grammar, “ Kitab al- Luma’,”’ under the title “Sefer ha-Rikmah ” (1171; edited by B. Goldberg, with notes by R. Kirchheim, Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1856). The translator’s preface is interesting for the bistory of literature, and it gives Judah's opinions on the art of Hebrew translation. (b) ** Kitab al-Ugul.”* under the title ‘Sefer ha- Shorashim ” (edited by Bacher, Berlin, 1896). Isaac al-Barce- Joni and Isaac ha-Levi had aiready translated this dictionary as far as the letter ““lamed,” and Judah finished it in 1171. (5) Saadia’s © Kitab al-Amanat wal-I‘tikadat,”? under the title **Sefer ha-Emunot weha-De'ot”’ (1186; first ed. Constantinople, 1562). Judah is also said to have translated the collection of poems **Mibbar ha-Peninim,” usually attributed to Solomon ibn Ga- birol. This translation is ascribed to Ibn Tib- Spurious bon in a very doubtful note in Neubauer, Works “Cat. Bodl. Hebr. MSS.’ No. 1975, and in Attributed manuscript Parma, de Rossi, No 1394. In no to Judah. other manuscript is Judah ibn Tibbon called the translator. Further, the note mentions Seville instead of Granada as his home. The translation of Aristotle’s “ Analytica Posteriora” is also ascribed to Judah. This translation, however, is not extant; and it is altogether improbable that Judah translated the work in question. Judah’s independent works are: (1) Sod Zahut ha-Lashon, on rhetoric and grammar. It is doubtful if this work was ever completed : and nothing but its title has been preserved (in Ibn Tibbon’s testament; see No. 2, below). It is also doubtful Whether he wrote a commentary on the last chapter of Proverbs. The remark on the subject in his will (see below), ‘* Remember also my explanation of ‘ Eshet Hayil,’ p. 9,” can refer to an oral explanation. 2) Zawwaah, his ethical will, written in 1190 or after, and addressed to his son, Samuel, who at that time already had a son of his own (published with a biographical sketch in German by M. Steinschneider, Berlin, 1852; with an English translation by H. Edelmann in ** Derek Tobim,”’ London, 1852). Judah’s testament, with its homely style and frankness, is one of the most interesting in this class of literature. It gives a deep insight His Ethical into the soul of the man and his re- Will. lation to his indisputably greater son, Samuel. Against the latter his chief complaint is that he never initiated his father into his literary or business affairs, never asked for his advice, and, in fact, hid everything from him. He recommends Samuel to practise writing in Arabic, since Jews like Samuel ha-Nagid, for exam- ple, attained rank and position solely through being able to write in that language. He exhorts him to morality and to the study of the Torah as well as of the profane sciences, including medicine. He is to read grammatical works on Sabbaths and festivals, and is not to neglect the reading of “ Mishle ” and of “Ben Mishle.” In regard to his medical practise he gives his son sage advice. He further advises his son to observe rigorously the laws of diet, lest he, like others, become ill frequently in consequence of intemperate and unwholesome eating, which would not fail to engender mistrust in him as a physician on the part of the general public. Interesting are Judah’s references to his library as his “best treas- ure,” his “best companion,” and to his book-shelves as “the most beautiful pleasure-gardens.” Headds: **T have collected a large library for thy sake so that thou nheedest never borrow a book of any one. As thou thyself Seest, most students run hither and thither searching for books Without being able to find them. .. . Look over thy Hebrew books every month, thy Arabic ones every two months, thy bound books every three months. Keep thy library In order, so that VI.—35 Z thou wilt not need to search for a book. Prepare a list of the books on each shelf, and place each book on its proper shelf. Take care also of the loose, separate Jeaves in thy books, because they contain exceedingly important things which T myself have collected and written down. Lose no writing and no letter which I leave thee. . . . Cover thy book-shelves with beautiful curtains, protect them from water from the roof, from mice, and from all harm, because they are thy best treasure.’ His fine linguistic sense and his conception of the art of translating are shown by his counsels on this subject. He advises his son to read the weekly portion in Arabic every Sabbath so as to initiate himself into the art of translating, in case he should ever feel an inclination for it. He recommends to him an easy, pregnant, elegant style, not overburdened with words; further, he is to avoid foreign words and unusual and affected constructions, and is to use words which have a har- monious sound and are easy to pronounce. He always lays great weight upon the advantages of having a beautiful, clear handwriting and of using beautiful paper, good ink, etc. The testament closes with a poem summarizing the contents of the will. Judah ibn Tibbon well understood the difficulties of the translator’s task. He says in the preface to his translation of Bahya’s “ Hobot ha-Lebabot ” that he hesitated to translate the book because he did not feel sufficiently acquainted with Hebrew, and that he undertook the task oniy in compliance with the wish of his friend. He knows that heis laying him- self open to adverse criticism with his translation, as is the case with every innovation. He attributes the imperfect character of his pred- Views ecessors’ translations from Arabic on Trans- into Hebrew to the fact that either lation. they did not have a thorough knowl- edge of Arabic or of Hebrew or that they gave in the translation their own Opinions in- stead of those of the author, Judah is also of the opinion that the Hebrew translation can not always reproduce the pregnancy of the Arabic original. He holds that a translator should first make a strictly literal rendering of the original, and then revise his translation as though it were an original production of hisown. For his creation of new word-forms (in the use of which he was not without precedents), and for the rabbinicisms in his Hebrew style, he excuses himsclif to the reader by saying that they are unavoidable. It is true that he often translated the mistakes of the original without heeding the sense, or rather lack of Sense, ex- pressed therein. His son, Samuel, in his introduction to the “ Moreh Nebukim ” justly calls Judah “the father of transla- tors”; since Gedaliah ibn Yahya he has also had the title of “chief of translators” (Wolf, “ Bibl. Hebr.” i. 455). Maimonides speaks very flatteringly of Judah in a letter to Samuel. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Abrahams, in J. Q. &. iii. 433 et seq.; Ftirst. Bibl. Jud. ili., pp. xiii. et seq.; Gritz, Gesch. vi. 264; Munk, Notice sur Saadia Gaon, p. 19: De Rossi, Dizionario, s.v. Tibbon; Steinschneider, Jewish Literature, pp. 86 et pas- sim: idem, Hebr. Uebers. pp. 47, 373, ef passim; Zunz, G. S. iii. 185; idem, Z. G. p. 2382; Renan-Nenbauer, Les Rabbing Francais, xxvii. 511, 588, e¢ passim; idem, Les Ecrivatns Juifs Francais, pp. 355, 482, 686; Winter and Winsche, Die ue Litteratur, ii. 192; Gross, Gallia Judaica, pp. Moses ibn Tibbon: Physician and author; born in Marseilles; flourished between 1240 and 1288; son of Samuel ibn Tibbon and father of the Judah ibn Tibbon who was prominent in the Maimoni- dean controversy which took place at Montpellier. Ibn Tibbon The number of vrorks written by Moses ibn Tibbon makes it probagsle that he reached a great age. With other Jewish physicians of Provence, he suffered under the order of the Council of Béziers (May, 1246) which prohibited Jewish physicians from treating Gentiles. He wrote the following works: (1) Commentary on Canticles (Lyck, 1874). Written under the influence of Maimonides, it is of a philosophical and allegorical character, and is sim- ilar to that by his brother-in-law Abba Mari ben Simson ben Anatoli, whom he quotes repeatedly. In a long preface he deals with the poetical form and the philosophical content of the book, especially discussing the three classes of poctry according to the “Organon” of Aristotle. This part of the preface, taken from Im- manuel ben Solomon’s commentary to Canticles, was published by Dukes in his “Nahal Kedumim” (pp. 55, 56; Brill’s “Jahrb.” ili, 171 e¢ seg.; Steinschneider, “ Iebr. Bibl.” xiv 99, Salfeld, in Berliner’s “ Magazin,” vi. 25). (2) Commentary to the Pentateuch, according to Isaac de Lattes’ “Sha‘are Ziyyon” (see p. 42 of Buber’s Yaroslav, 1885, edition of the latter work) and Gedaliah ibn Yahya’s “Shalshelet ha-Kabbalah (see Wolf, “ Bibl. Hebr.” i. 1055). This commentary is quoted in the Commentary on Canticles (p. 24a). Azulai, in his “Shem ha-Gedolim” (i. 144), mentions that, according to an early source, Moses ibn Tibbon composed a work of this kind. But an ancient au- thority, Judah Mosconi (¢. 1370), in his supercom- mentary on Abraham ibn Ezra, expresses some doubt as to the authenticity of this commentary on account of its often very unsatisfactory explanations. Ac- cording to Steinschneider, it was merely a super- commentary on Abraham ibn Ezra (see “Cat. Bodl.” col. 2004; “Hebr. Bibl.” xiv. 108; Berliner's “Ma- gazin,” iii. 47, 150; comp. Neubauer, “Cat. Bodl. Hebr. MSS.” No. 2282, 9). (3) “ Leket Shikhah,” mentioned by Isaac de Lattes (/.¢.) a8 contained in the foregoing work, though he does not. give any further indication of its contents. Gedaliah ibn Yahya (Le. p. 54b, ed. Venice) gives only the title. (4) “Sefer Pe’ah,” an allegorical explanation, in ninety-one chapters, of haggadic passages in the Tal- mud and the Midrash (Neubauer, “Cat. Bodl. Hebr. MSS.” No. 9389, 9). Its tendency is apologetical. After Raymund de Pennaforte had established schools, in which Arabic and Hebrew were taught, for the purpose of converting Jews and Moors, Christian clerics, in their incomplete knowledge of the rabbinical writings, attempted to cast scorn on the anthropomorphisms of the Midrashim. Moses ibn Tibbon traces this to those who took the anthro- pomorphic passages in a literal instead of, as Mai- monides had taught, an allegorical sense (sce Isaac de Lattes, 2.¢c.; Zunz, “G. V.” p. 400; Steinschnei- der and Cassel, “Jiidische Litteratur,” in Ersch and Gruber, “ Encyc.” section ii., part 28, p. 409; “Cat. Bodl.” @.¢.). (5) Commentary on the weights and measures of the Bible and the Talmud (Vatican MSS., No. 298, 4; see Assemani, “Catal.” p. 288; Steinschneider, “ Joseph ibn Aknin,” in Ersch and Gruber, “ Encyc.” Original Works. THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 546 section ii., part 31, p. 50; “Ginze Nistarot,” ili. 185 et seg. ). (6) “Sefer ha-Tanninim,” mentioned by Isaae de Lattes (4.¢.), but without indication of its contents; the Vatican MS. has the title “ Ma’amar ‘al ha-Tan- minim.” According to Assemani (/.¢), it contained explanations on the creation of the Tanninim (comp. Gen. i. 21). Gedaliah ibn Yahya (Z.c.) gives its title as “Sefer ha-Kinyanim,” which has been accepted as correct by Azulai (“Shem ha-Gedolim ”) and Ben- jacob (“ Ozar ha-Sefarim,” p. 531); it is, however, certainly incorrect, as the contents of the book show. (7) “‘Olam Katon,” a treatise on the immortality of the soul, several manuscripts of which exist (Vatican MSS., No. 292, 2; Paris MSS., No. 110. see Neubauer, “Cat. Bodl. Hebr. MSS.” Nos. 1819, 7, 1324, 10, 1385, 2, 1600, 18; see also Carmoly in “Orient, Lit.” ii. 235, 314). Moses ibn Tibbon’s an- thorship is doubtful. According to a Bodleian manuscript, No. 1318, 7, his father, Samnel ibn Tib- bon, was its author; in another passage Judah, his grandfather, is said to be its author (see Steinschnei- der, “Cat. Bodl.” cols. 2008-2004). (8) Letter on questions raised by his father, Sam- uel ibn Tibbon, in regard to Maimonides’ “ Moreh Nebukim” (Neubauer, “Cat. Bod]. Hebr. MSS.” No. 2218, 2). Gedaliah ibn Yahya (/.c.) erroneously ascribes to Moses ibn Tibbon a “Sefer ha-Kolel,” a “Sefer ha- Melek,” and a “Sefer ‘Asarah Debarim” (sce Zunz, “Z. G.” pp. 471-472; Steinschneider, Z¢.). Moses was also wrongly accredited with three other works: a commentary on Abot, a commentary on Ibn Gabi- rol’s * Azharot,” and notes on the “ Sefer ha-Madda‘ ” of Matmonides (Steinschneider, é.c.). Moses ibn Tibbon’s translations are even more im- portant and numerous than his original works. They include versions of Arabic works on philoso- phy, mathematics, astronomy, and medicine. The name of the author of the work from which the translation was made precedes, in the following list, the title by which the translation is known. His most important translations are as follows: Averroes: Commentaries, etc.,on Aristotle: “Physica Aus- cultatio”’ (about 1250; Steinschneider, ‘* Hebr. Uebers.”’ p. 109); “Kelale ha-Shamayim weha-‘Olam ” (° De Cuelo et Mundo”’; Lc. p. 126); “Sefer ha-Hawayah weha-Hefsed’’ (1250: ** De Generatione et Corruptione”’; l.e. p. 180); “Sefer Otot ‘Elyo- not”’ (* Meteora’’; Lc. p. 135); “‘Kelale Sefer ha-Nefesh” (1244: ““De Anima’; Le. p. 147); ‘“‘Bitur Sefer ha-Nefesh ” (1261: ‘The Middle Commentary”; l.c. p. 148); ** Ha-Hush we- ha-Muhash”’ (1254: ‘* Parva Naturalia’’; Le. p. 154): ‘* Mah she-Ahar ha-Teba‘*’ (1258: ‘* Metaphysica’’; lc. p. 159); “ Bi’ur Arguza”’? (commentary on Avicenna’s ‘ Arjuzah’*; Renan, ** Averroes,’’ p. 189; Steinschneider, lc. p. 699). Avicenna: ** Ha-Seder ha-Katon”’ (1272: **The Small Canon’’; Lc. p. 696, comp. p. 255). Batalyusi: ‘* Ha-‘Agullot ha-Ra‘yoniyyot” (‘* Al-Hada’ik,” on the “similarity of the world to an imaginary sphere’’; J.c. p. 287), edited by D. Kaufmann (“Die Spuren al-Bataljusi’s in der Jiidischen Religionsphitosophie,’’ Leipsic, 1880). Al-Hassar: “* Sefer ha-Heshbon”’ (1271: Treatise on Arith- netic ; Steinschneider, Lc. p. 558; “Isr. Letterbode,” iii. 8). Euclid: “*Shorashim,” or ‘* Yesodot’’ (1270: ‘ Elements”’; Steinschneider, L.c. p. 506, comp. p. 510). Alfarabi: *‘ Hathalot ha-Nimza’ot ha-Tib‘iyyim ” (1248: ‘* Book of the Principles”; l.c. p. 291, comp. p. 47), edited by H. Fili- powski, in a Hebrew almanac of 5610 (Leipsic, 1849). Geminus : ‘*Hokmat ha-Kokabim,”’ or ‘** Hokmat Tekunah ” (1246, Naples : Introduction to the ** Almagest’ of Ptolemy ; l.c. p. 539). Ibn al-Jazzar; ** Zedat ha-Derakim ” (1259: ‘' Viaticum”’). PAGE OF THE FIRST EDITION OF MOSES 1BN TIBBON’S TRANSLATION OF MAIMONIDES’ “ SEFER HA-MIZWOT,’’ CONSTANTINOPLE, 1516-18, (In the Columbia University Library, New York.) Ibn Tibbon THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 548 Hunain: ‘*Mabo el Meleket ba-Refuw’ah ’ (“ Introduction to Medical science 7; le. p. TU. Razi: ° Ha-Hilluk weba-Hilluf™ C’ Book of the Divisions [of Maladies]; Ge. p. 8G): 7° AL [krabadhbin ” (CS Antidotarium 5; Le. p. 730). For his other translations see Steinschneider, /.c. pp. 177, 231, 862. 368, 416, 542, 544, 558; ¢dem, “Cat. Bodl.” cols. 1998 e€ seq. True to the traditions of his family, Moses ibn Tibbon translated those of Maimonides’ Arabie wri- tings which his father had not translated : * Miktub’’ or “* Ma’amar be-Hanhagat ha-Beri’ut,”’ a treatise on hygiene in the form of a letter to the sultan, printed in “Kerem Hemed” (iii. 9 ef seq.), in Jacob ben Translations Moses Zebi’s * bibre Mosheh ” (Warsaw, 1886}, from and by Jacob Saphir ha-Levi (Jerusalem, 1885, Maimonides. froin his own manuscript, under the title “*Se- fer Hanhagat ha-Beriut’’). This translation (1244) was one of his first, if not the first (Steinschneider, ‘* Hebr. Vehers.” pp. 770 et seq.). Commentary on the Mishnah. CU OOSIT Oe eet acenes IBX] eae enag oulouog eeerene ***TIOQsl'] 37 eevrene ‘ ‘“Ssolden tease ete OULUOS , *"HOQSTT 37 eererae 49 eeeeaevnae “9 eee tea OULNTIOS Ore eenag +e etenae 34 “OVELT “Panu nUueg— WTOAVNOONT cesses eee ULEDIYUDS lqeg phates! 91 “AON, SAS SAME EDN ee oy SAREE! 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T8888 OB IBBT “ce ATO mp os ACW eo "SG “GOT 4, “oe Ter, eee ee ea oe -e “AON star ho "490 = soos Cnet eshtnae ee "16-067 | arame nt 49 "4% Ol giny " vere ATO “2 “IBC ,, ‘Tee SUUE 5 Ritenianes seeee ve SED “AON ,, "8. ‘AON °F earn ‘Any a “ee Ane ,, eee “AyUL = "eT eunr ,, ore eevee "61 “09 -e-gny 2 “"e ACW ,, one neveaseeves "07 "Gad BEPT "a7U TOL = SESESSESSEEEE 98 Indemnity India THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 580 legend of Simon of Trent (Hain, Nos. 7,788, 15,658), while there exists in Munich an illustrated broadside relating to the blood accusation at Passau, printed as early as 1470, Folz’s “Die Rechnung Kolper- gers von dem Gesuch die Juden” (Nuremberg, 1491; Hain, No. 7,210) may also be referred to. Chief among the incunabula of this kind, however, are those of Latin translations of the medieval Jewish scientists and philosophers, as that of Abraham ibn Ezra, “De Nativitatibus ” (1485, Venice), of Bonet de Latis, Astronomy (1498, Rome), of Maimonides, Aphorisms (Bologna; Hain, No. 10,524), and of Israeli, “De Particularibus Diectis” (Padua, 1487). One of the most interesting of Latin incunabula is the version of Abraham Zacuto’s tables published in Leiria by Abraham d’Ortas (1496). BIBLIOGRAPHY: De Rossi, Annales Hebrawo-Typographict, section Xv., Parma, 1795; Cassel and Steinschneider, Jlidische Typographie, in Ersch and Gruber, Eneyc. section ii., part 28, pp. 33-37; M. Schwab, Les Incunables Orientaux, Paris, 1883; Chwolson, Reshit Ma‘ase ha-Defut be- Yisrael, War- saw, 1897; Berliner, Ueher den Hinfluss, Frankfort-on-the- Main, 1897: Simonsen, Hebraisk Bogtryk, Copenhagen, 1901 ; Proctor, Index of Printed Books tn the British Museum, 1901; Freimann, Veber Hebriische Inkunabeln, in Central- blatt fiir Bibliothekswesen, 1902, vol. xix. (printed separately, Leipsic); Leone Luzzatto, in Vesillo, 1900, pp. 296 et ee G. INDEMNITY: That by which a surety who has been compelled to pay the debt of his principal is reimbursed, either by the principal or from other sources, The rabbinic law recognizes the surety’s right to reimbursement (B. B. 1%4a, b), and also, in certain cases, his right to take steps, before the ma- turing of the debt, to secure himself against loss. The surety can not recover in case of dispute, unless he has witnesses to the fact that he has paid a debt on behalf of the principal; the production of the joint bond is not sufficient, unless a receipt by the creditor is attached showing that the bond was sat- istied by the surety. Where the fact of debt de- pends for proof upon oral evidence, there must be also proof, by witnesses or by the debtor’s admission, of the fact of suretyship. The right to recover from the debtor’s land, sold or encumbered after the date of the bond (see Deep), does not pass by subrogation to the surety upon payment alone; the bond which carries this right must be formally assigned and delivered to him by the creditor, unless the surety has a sepa- rate bond of indemnity from the debtor in which he (the debtor) subjects himself and his estate to the surety upon the surety’s payment. Should the surety pay the joint bond, but leave the document in the hands of the creditor, he can not recover from the principal, for he is guilty of gross neglect toward him. Should the surety pay the debt and the principal debtor die before the surety can recover from him, in order to recover from the principal’s heirs the surety must show that the principal has not paid the debt himself. He may show the admission of the debtor shortly before his death; or he may show that the debtor actually died under the ban for non- payment (see EXECUTION). Should the surety pay the debt after the principal has paid it, he has no remedy; but if the creditor brings proof that he has not been satisfied, and the surety pays under compulsion, the debtor, as the cause of the loss, must reimburse the surety. The law on this subject is, however, full of exceptions and disputed points, and Is of little practical value. What applies to the surety holds good in the case of the “kablan,” or “undertaker” (one who in form is the principal contractor, though the consid- eration moves to another; as when A buys in his own name goods that are delivered to B). It also holds good of joint contractors or joint sureties; for each of them is to the extent of half (or some other share, proportionate to the number of sureties) the surety of the other or others, and has therefore the right to reimbursement for whatever he is com- pelled to pay beyond his just share. A surety, or kablan, who finds that the debtor is wasting his estate can, even before the maturity of the debt, apply to the court for indemnity against the debtor, so as to be secured against the latter’s default. A remedy of this sort (an attachment for a debt not due) is wholly unknown to the Tal- mud, and, like ForrEIGN ATTACHMENT, grew up in the age of the Geonim to meet the necessities of times when the Jews were no longer farmers and land-owners, but acted as money-lenders and traders. Whether the surety can, upon the maturity of the debt, call upon the creditor to collect from the principal, and whether the surety is exempt from liability in the event of the creditor’s refusal to bring suit, are matters nowhere discussed in the Tal- mud, and are subjects of dispute among the later authorities. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Maimonides, Yad, Malweh we-Loweh, xxvi. 6; Shulhan ‘Aruk, Hoshen Mishpat, 130-132, 8. 8. L. N. D. INDEPENDENT HEBREW, THE. See PERIODICALS. INDIA: An extensive region of southern Asia, comprising many countries, races, and sects. In- cluding about 2,800 in the settlement of Aden, which is administered by the presidency of Bombay, there are at present about 21,000 Jews in the whole of India. This number is an insignificant fraction of a population amounting to more than 280,000,000. According to the census of 1901, the following are the official numbers of Jews residing in the vari- ous states of India in that year: ASSAIN ages teens 1 Central Provinces...... 127 Baluchistan (Districts, Hyderabad ......ccseees 13 CLG) ick eves eer aigied die 48 MAIS <3 o6iewk cog ae'eeos 45 Baroda .aciwedaiees sc b4 ess 8 Madras States.......... 1,288 Bengal..... ccc sce ceeees 1,939 MYSOLE 2... cc cece eee eee 34 Bengal States........... 7 North West Frontier Berar secs Giwe sieeas 3 PrOVINCe...... 0. eees 4 BOWMDAY wi. svivudewis eye sale 12,928 PUNIAD 2 ook Ss tees huss 14 Bombay States.......... 991 Punjab States.......... 10 BUY Mess oisvn Saree bee ee 685 Rajputama. .........006 5 Central India........... 24 United Provinces....... 54 From very early times India has been accessible to the West. The navies of Kings Hiram and Solo- mon possibly visited India; for it is stated that they brought back gold, silver, ivory, apes, and pea- cocks (I Kings x. 22). These are all Indian prod- ucts, especially peacocks; and it is interesting to note that the Hebrew word for “ peacock,” “tukkiy- yim,” is of Dravidian origin. Caravans of Indian wares passed over the Palestinian frontier in ancient times. The Midianite merchants who purchased Joseph were importing spices, balm, and myrrh. 581 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Indemnity ndia The Jews of India comprise both Whites and Blacks: the former being racially pure; the latter, of mixed descent. To the White Jews belong the so-called “Jerusalem Jews” of Cochin, who have been reenforced by coreligionists from Europe, and a part of the Beni-Israel of Bombay. The Black Jews are descended from converts from the Hindu race, or are the offspring of marriages between Jews and natives. Just as the Eurasian descendants of the Portuguese of Goa resemble the natives in the color of their skin, so do the Jewish offspring of mixed unions. The Cochin Jews claim to have come to Malabar from Jerusalem after its destruction, and to have set- tled at Cranganore, a few miles north of their pres- ent location. There they acquired, about 750, a feudal property, sometimes dignified as a “state” (see, however, Cocuty). In 1523 the Portuguese seized Cranganore and fortified it. According to Zain al-Din al-Ma‘bari, the Mohammedaus in the following year attacked the Jews near Cranganore, and, after killing many of them and destroying their synagogues, drove them with the Portuguese out of the town, The ruin of the Jewish fief, after its existence for a thousand years, was brought about by strife between the White aud the Biack Jews. One tradition states that there arose dissensions be- tween the brothers of the ruler’s household, and one of them sought the aid of a powerful raja, who drove out the Jews or enslaved them. Neither Zain al-Din nor Moens (the latter was the Dutch gov- ernor of Cochin from 1771 to 1782) mentions this fraternal struggle. Whichever story is correct, it seems that Joseph Azar, the seventy-second and last feudal ruler, fled with a few faithful followers to Nabo and thence to Cochin. Their flourishing city, which, according to Alexander Hamilton’s account, had contained 80,000 families, was ruined, and the survivors went to Cochin. Even to-day the site of Cranganore isavoided by the Jews. Joan Hugo von Lindschotten, a Dutchman, visited Cochin at the end of the seventeenth century. He says: “In Co- chin the Jews have fine stone houses; they are first- rate merchants, and are advisers tothe King. They possess a synagogue.” In 1662 the Portuguese killed many of the Cochin Jews on account of the sympathy with the Dutch which they had shown when the Dutch ineffectually attacked the city. The following year Cochin was taken by the Dutch, and the Jews received religious liberty. In 1685 the Dutch Jews sent a commission from Amsterdam to investigate the condition of the Jews of Cochin. Thereport appeared in 1697 under the title “ Notisias dos Judeos de Cochim Mandadas por Mosseh Pereyra de Paiva.” In 1795 the English became possessors of Cochin. For further particu- lars of the Cochin Jews and for an account of the Beni-[srael, see Bent-ISRAEL; COCHIN, Benjamin of Tudela’s itinerary contains one of the earliest descriptions of the Black Jews of India. According to him, about 1,000 families lived “in the land of pepper, cinnamon, and ginger.” He describes them as honest people who follow the Ten Commandments and the Mosaic code, who read the Prophets, and are good Talmudists and strict ob- Servers. Benjamin made his journey between the years 1160 and 1174. Many merchants, sailors, and travelers must have visited India. The Jew Gaspar de las Indias became admiral to Sabayo, the Moorish ruler of Goa, in the fifteenth century. More than one Jew sailed with the flotillas of the Portuguese. Hucefe was the most intimate friend of Alfonso d’Albuquerque. Arecent traveler was Rabbi David di-Bet Hillel of Safed, whose travels were published in English at Madras in 1882. G. O. The first foreign Jew to settle in India was Jacob Semah of Bagdad. He settled at Surat about 1680, where the first English factory was built, and was followed by several more from the same region. Others came from Persia and southern Arabia. A small synagogue was erected and a cemetery ac- quired. Seeing Bombay growing in commercial importance, Semah removed the seat of his business thither. The synagogue at Surat is now demolished, but the cemetery remains. The new settlers in Bom- bay were very hospitably received by the Beni-Israel. An early settler was David Sassoon of Bagdad. Compelled to flee from his native place on account of persecution, he sought refuge in Bombay under British rule. Beginning with Httle capital, he built up a world-wide business, and almost lield the monopoly of the opium trade with China. About fifty years ago nearly all the Jews of Bombay were dependent upon the Sassoon family for their liveli- hood; but their position is now considerably im- proved, and they are a body of great commercial importance. There are a few petty merchants and hawkers among them, There are only two Jews in the employ of the government: one in the cus- toms, the other in the engineering department of the municipality. In Bombay there is a hebra kaddisha, of which Jacob Elias David Sassoon is the president. Though its chief object is the assistance of the poor Jews of Palestine and Bombay, it seems to have given rise to much the same condition of affairs as the Pales- tine halukkah. The Sassoon family and others reg- ularly distribute aid to the Jewish poor of the city, and Jacob Elias David Sassoon has bestowed the sum of 75,000 rupees for the erection of a building, the income of which is to be used exclusively in the aid of poor Jews. The Beni-Isracl poor are totally excluded from any share in these charities. The members of the community have no compe- tent rabbis for their religious guides; there are a few, however, who are acquainted with the Gemara and the Shulhan ‘Aruk. Their views are strictly Orthodox. Most of them are from Bagdad. On ac- count of their poverty the poor are sometimes led to change their faith and to accept Christianity, which they abjure as soon as they find some better means of support. They are careful for the Hebrew educa- tion of their children. Toward the end of the year 1855 David Sassoon opened a school in which English, Hebrew, and Arabic were taught. In 1860 it was removed to a spacious building with large class- rooms, built by David Sassoon in the compound of the Magen David Synagogue at Byculla. The vernacular of the Beni-Israel is Mahrati; that of the Cochin Jews, Malayalam. The Jews from Bag- dad, Syria, and southern Arabia use Arabic; and there are Jews from Persia who speak Persian. Indiana Inheritance There are also small communities of German, Aus- trian, and Rumanian Jews who employ the lan- guages of their respective countries. Most of the Arabic-speaking portion of the community is now adopting the use of English. The European Jews holding high government and mercantile oflices do not associate much with the others. See BeENI- ISRAEL; CALCUTTA. J. E. BIBLIOGRAPHY : Phil. Baldaeus, Beschrethung der ORB ee) Kiisten Malabar und Coromandel, Amsterdain, 16723 H. V Bellew, Inquiry into the Ethnography af Afghanistan, Woking, 1891; Bibliotheca Librorum Nororium, 1698; F.G. Cc. RUtz, in J. G. Eichhorn, Allgemeine Bibliothek, ib3 Francis Day, The Land of the Perumauls, Madras, 1863: Jonathan Duncan, Historical Remariis on the Coast of Matlahar, in Asiatic Researches, ii: Bernhard Dorn, History of the Af: ghans (Makhzanti A fghani), London, 1829; Mountstuart Elphinstone, Account of the Kingdom of Caubul, London, 1815; Alexander Hamilton, An Account of the # ‘ast Indies, Edinburgh, 1727: Adrian Gravezande, Nachrichten von den Weissen und Schwarzen Juden zu Codsehin, in Biisching’s Magazin fiir die Neue Historie und Geographie . Burnell, facsimile and translation of the Cochin grant, in fidian An- tiquary, iii; Eugen Hultsch, facsimile and translation of the grant, in Epigraphia Indica: ; G. A. Kohut, Les Juifs dans les Colonies Hollandaises; Joan Hugo von Lindschotten, 47 der Theilung der Urientalischen Indien, Frankfort-on-the- Main, 1598; F. W. Ellis, in Macdras Journal of Literature and Science, xiii., part ii.; Gundert, text and translation of the Cochin grant, “tb. part i; Gustav Oppert, Ucber die Jti- dischen Colonien in Indien; Whish, in Oriental Christian Spectator, 1839; John Wilson, The Land of the Bible. il. J. G. O. INDIANA: One of the Central States of the American Union; admitted 1816. The earliest Jew- ish congregation, the Achduth Vesholom congrega- tion, was established at Fort Wayne in 1848. Fort Wayne now (1903) has a second congregation, Shea- rith Israel, founded in 1878, and asocial club. Con- gregation Ahavath Achim was established at Lafay- ette in 1849 (present rabbi, Morris Feuerlicht, his predecessor having been Joseph Leiser). Lafayette has a second congregation and a social club. The first Jews to settle in Evansville were a family named Gumberts, who arrived there in about 1887. In 1838 Isaac Heiman settled there and was followed by his brothers in 1849. From 1849 to 1857 these men and their families held divine serv- ices in their own homes, over their storehouses, and in the court house. On August 18, 1857, the Jew- ish community organized and established a congre- gation under the name B’Nai Israel. It purchased land on which to erect a house of worship and for a cemetery. It clected five trustees, Jacob Lowen- thal, Louis Kahn, Simon Gumberts, Louis Frey, and Simon Roser. The records of this election were filed in the Recorder’s Office, Vanderburg county. On Sept. 2, 1857, the congregation ac- quired the land, and in 1865 completed the erec- tion of a temple which was dedicated by Isaac M. Wise. The first regular reader of the community was Del Banco. He was succeeded by Dr. Fuld (about 1860), and he in turn by Leon Leopold. The ministers of the congregation were Simon Hecht, Dr. Schwab, E. B. M. Browne, Falk Vida- r, Hyman Elkin, and Isaac L. Rypins. The present rabbi is Israel Klein. In 1903 the congregation B’Nai Israel] dedicated anew building, completed in 1904. Evansville has also an orthodox congregation, B’Nai Mosche, which numbers about forty fam- ilies. It owns its house of worship and has a cemetery. THE JEWISLIE ENCYCLOPEDIA 582 Indianapolis, the capital of the state, has a Jewish population of about 4,000. Its first Jew- ish settlers were Moses Woolf, and Aljexander and Daniel Franco, who went there from London about 1850. Its principal congregation was organized in 1856; services were held at first, under Rabbi M. Berman, in a rented room; before 1858 a hall was fitted up, in which, until 1861, Rabbi J. Wechs- ler officiated. In 1863 Isidore Kalish entered upon the rabbinate, which he occupied forone year. The corner-stone of the new temple was laid in 1865; in 1867 Rabbi M. Messing, the present incumbent, was clected. The building was dedicated Oct. 31, 1868. A new building, rendered necessary by the growth of the congregation, was dedicated Nov. 3, 1899. Indianapolis has four other congregations and vari- ous charitable societies, among them a ladies’ benev- olent society (founded 1859), Of the other towns in the state, Anderson has holy day services; Attica, a congregation and burial- ground; Columbia City, holy day services; El- wood, holy day services and a ladies’ Hebrew benev- olent socicty; Goshen has a congregation, founded in 1878 ; Kendallville, holy day services; Kokomo, a small congregation; Ligonier, a congregation, founded in 1864 (present rabbi, Henry Englander, whose predecessor was Julius M. Magil; there are several benevolent and social organizations in Ligo- nier); Logansport, a congregation, founded in 1900; Madison, a congregation and a burial-ground ; Marion, a congregation and a club; Michigan City, Mount Vernon, and Muncie, a congrega- tion each; Muncie has also a ladies’ aid society and a literary association; Peru, a congregation, founded in 1870; South Bend, a congregation and a ladies’ benevolent society; Terre Haute, two congrega- tious—Temple Israel (founded in 1890; Emil W. Leipziger, rabbi) and B’nat Abraham (Reuben Hor- witz, rabbi); Vincennes and Wabash, a congrega- tion each. The Jewish population of the state is estimated at 25,000. BIBLIOGRAPHY: American Jewish Vear-Book, 5661 (1900-01). A, INDIANAPOLIS. See INDIANA. INDICTMENT. See AccUsATORY AND INQUIs- ITORIAL PROCEDURE. INFAMY. See EVIDENCE. INFANCY, LEGAL ASPECT OF: Infants, the deuf, and those of unsound mind are always named together, as bot lable for torts, nor punish- able for offenses, nor competent as witnesses (see AccIDENT; ASSAULT AND BatTERY; EVIDENCE). For the difficulties encountered in suing infant heirs see Dents oF DecEDENTS. The freedom of infants from punishment for crime seems to be silently admitted. There is therefore no need to discuss anything but the validity of contracts (See ALIENA- rron). A boy over thirteen, and a girl over twelve, years old are of age, provided signs of puberty exist. The age of competency to contract differs with the kind of contract, A child having no guardian may buy and sell movable property (Git. v. 7); the very rare word “ pe‘utot ” (= “children”) used here is explained (Git. 59a) to refer to children between 583 six and ten, according to their capacity for business, and the child is given this power in order that he may obtain food and raiment. But later amoraim add that such a child may also make gifts of mova- ble property either “inter vivos” or “ mortis causa”; though such ability can not be for his good. But a child that has a guardian, or, according to ReMA’s gloss to Shulhan ‘Aruk, Hoshen Mishpat, 285, 2, one that is under the care of a householder, can neither buy nor sell without the guardian’s or householder’s consent. An infant can in no case dispose of land; but if he buys land, pays for it, and takes posses- sion, he becomes the owner; though it is not clear that he may not rescind’ the purchase (B. B. 187b). An iufant can not appoint an attorney; hence all alienations or acquisitions resting on an agency for the infant fall to the ground. An infant can not become surety for the debt of another. Before the age of twenty an infant can not dispose of lands that have come to him by descent or by gift “mortis causa” (Git. 63a), because a young person anxious to get money would sell his land too cheaply. In the purchase and sale of movable prop- erty, and in disposing of lands that have not come by descent or by gift “mortis causa,” persons under twenty, though inexperienced in business, are con- sidered as of age. In regard to an infant that has borrowed money, the opinion of later authorities {the Talmud being silent) is divided; some assert, others deny, his liability; while the best opinion distinguishes: if it can be shown that the money was borrowed for necessaries, the debt is binding; otherwise it is not; and if necessaries have been ob- tained on credit, the debt so incurred is binding. Suit, however, can be brought only after the infant comes of age. Where an infant sells land, whether acquired or inherited, by deed attested, and dies, the heirs can not impeach the deed and recover the land (see B. B. 154a). Butone who has sold ancestral land while under the age of twenty can reclaim it, either before or after that age (¢d.). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Shulhan “Aruk, Hoshen Mishpat, 285, 1-22; Maimonides, Yad, Mekirah, xxix. K, L. N. D. INFORMERS. Sce Moser™. INFRATIREA. Sce PERIODICALS. INGATHERING, FEAST OF. NACLES, FEAST OF. INHERITANCE (“yerushah,” “nahalah ”).— Biblical Data: Among the early Hebrews, as wellas among many other nations of antiquity, custom decided that the next of kin should enter upon the possession of the estate of a deceased person. The first-born son usually assumed the headship of the family, and succeeded to the control of the family property (see PRIMOGENITURE). When there were no sons, the dying man would appoint a trustec friend as his heir, sometimes to the exclusion of a near relative. Thus, Abraham, when he despaired of having children himself, was about to appoint his slave Eliezer as his heir, although his nephew Lot was living (Gen. xv.3). Even when there were children, if was within the right of the father to prefer one child to another in the disposition of his See TABER- THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Indiana Inheritance property. Sarah, not wishing Ishmael to share in the inheritance with her son Isaac, prevailed upon Abraham to drive Hagar and her son out of her house (Gen, xxi. 10); and Abraham later sent away his children by concubines, with presents, so that they should not interfere in the inheritance of Isaac (Gen, xxv. 6). Jacob, however, as it appears, made no distinction between the sons of his wives and those of his concubines (Gen. xlix.), and included his grandsons Ephraim and Manasseh among his heirs (Gen. xlviii. 5, 6). There could have been no question in those days of a widow inheriting from her husband, since she was regarded as part of the property which went over to the heirs, as is shown by the stories of Ruth, Absalom (1I Sam. xvi. 21, 22), Adonijah, and Abishag (1 Kings ii. 22: see LEVIRATE MARRIAGE). Nor could there have been a question about daughters inheriting from their father, since daughters were given in marriage either by their father, or by their brothers or other relatives after the father’s death, thus becoming the property of the family into which they married (see DAUGHTER IN JEWISH Law). An exceptional case is mentioned: Job gave ‘1is daughters a share in his estate equal to that of their brothers (Job xiii. 15). As a result of the question raised by the daugh- ters of Zelophehad, the following general rules of inheritance were laid down by Moses: Case of “If aman die, and have no son, then Zelo- ye shall cause his inheritance to pass phehad. untohisdaughter. And if he have no daughter, then ye shall give his inher- itance unto his brethren. And if he have no breth- ren, then ye shall give his inheritance unto his father’s brethren. And if his father have no breth- ren, then ye shall give his inheritance unto his kins- man thatis next to him of his family, and he shall possess it” (Num, xxvii, 8-11). Brief though this law is, it allows sufficient latitude for legitimate interpretation by the phrase, “unto his kinsman that is next to him.” According to this provision, there are four degrees of hereditary succession—that of the son, the daughter, the brother, and the father’s brother. In the case of the daughter, it is stated that when she becomes the heir of her father’s estate, she shall marry in her own clan (Num. xxxvi. 6, 7). This restriction was later repealed by the Rabbis (Ta‘an. 80b; B. B. 120a), On the right of the first- born to a double share in the inheritance (Deut. xxi. 17) see PRIMOGENITURE. In Rabbinic Law: In accordance with the principles that he who comes first in the order of hereditary succession transmits that right to his descendants, and that the father comes before all his descendants in hereditary succession (B. B. 115a), the Rabbis elaborated the incomplete provisions of the Bible and established the following order of legal heirs: (1) sons and their descendants; (2) daughters and their descendants; (8) the father; (4) brothers and their descendants; (5) sisters and their descend- ants; (6) the father’s father; (7) the father’s brothers and their descendants; (8) the father’s sisters and their descendants; (9) the father’s father’s father; and so on (Maimonides, “ Yad,” Nahalot, i. 1-8: Shulhan ‘Aruk, Hoshen Mishpat, 276, 1). To this list, which they regarded as implied in the Biblical Inheritance In passages, the Rabbis added another legal heir, the husband, whose right to the inheritance of his wife’s possessions was deduced from the term “NB (= “kinsman”; B. B. 111b). Each of the sons of the deceased receives an equal share of the estate of his father or of his mother, except the first-born of the father, who receives a double share (see PRIMOGENITURE). A son born after the death of his father (Yeb. 67a), or one born of illegitimate connections (“mamzer”; 75, 22b), is also a legal heir to his father’s estate, but the son born of a slave or of a non-Jewess is excluded (2. ; Nahalot, i. 7, comp. iv. 6; Hoshen Mishpat, 276, 6; comp. 7b. 279, 6, and “Be'er ha-Golah,” ad ¢éoc.). An apostate Jew does not lose his right of inherit- ance, although the court, if it sees fit, may deprive him of his share (Kid. 18a; Nahalot, vi. 12; Hoshen Mishpat, 288, 2). Where the laws of a non-Jewish state deprive a proselyte of the right of inheritance, the Jewish court may do likewise with an apostate (comp. responsa “Geone Mizrah u-Ma‘arab ” [ed. Miller, Berlin, 1888], § 11, and Weiss, “ Dor,” iv. 117, 129, and notes). In the case of the death of a son during his father’s life, his children inherit his portion of the estate. If one of the sons dies before his mother, and leaves no children, his brothers of the same father but not of the same mother do not inherit the estate of his mother by reason of his right to it. But if he lives even for one hour after his mother’s death, he becomes her heir, and on his death his brothers, as his heirs, inherit his portion of his mother’s estate (B. B. 114b; Nahalot, i. 18; Hoshen Mishpat, 276, 5). Where there are neither sons nor sons’ children the daughters and their descendants become the rightful heirs. The Sadducees held that the daugh- ter shared in the inheritance when there was only a daughter of a son Jiving, but Johanan b. Zakkai and the other Pharisees decided that the son and all his descendants, whether male or female, should precede the daughter in the right of inheritance (B. B. 115b; comp. Tosef., Yad. ii. 9; Meg. Ta‘an. 5). Among the Karaites the daughters always receive an equal share with their brothers in their father’s estate (First, “Gesch. des Kariiert.” part i., § 9, and note; comp. Shab. 116b). The Rabbis, while denying the daughters a share in the inheritance where there are sons, still make ample provision for their main- tenance and support as loug as they remain unmar- ried (see DAUGHTER; KETUBAN). When there are no heirs in the descending line, the property is transmitted to the nearest relative in the ascending line. Although the father is not mentioned in the Bible among the legal heirs, the Rabbis did not hesitate to make hiin precede the brothers of the deceased, mentioned as the next heirs in the absence of either sons or daughters. Philo (“ De Vita Moysis,” iii. 82) gave as a reason for this omission that if would be an evil omen for father and mother to receive any gain from the inconsolable affliction of the loss of children dying prematurely, but he indirectly intimated their right to be invited to such an inheritance when he conceded it to the uncles (comp. Bb. B. 108b; Nahmanides’ commen- tary to Num, xxvii. 8), The mother of the deceased Ex- ceptions. THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 584 and his brothers of the same mother are excluded from the line of hereditary succession, on the prin- ciple that the family is based on relationship to the father and not that to the mother (B. B. 108b). The husband inherits from his wife, but the wife does not inherit from her husband. Provision is, however, made for her support as long as she re- mains unmarried (see HUsBAND AND WIFE; JSETU- BAH). The husband’s right of inheritance extends only to property that actually belonged Husband to his wife at the time of her death and Wife. (see Dowry), but not to property that would have faleu to her had she lived, as, for instance, an expected inheritance from a rela- tive who, however, survived her, or a debt which was not secured by a pledge or by amortgage (B. B. 125b; Nahalot, i. 11, and “ Maggid Mishneh,” ad loc. ; Shulhan ‘Aruk, Eben ha-‘Ezer, 90, 1). As in the case of her sons who died before her death, the hus- baud who dies before his wife is not regarded as her heir to the extent of transmitting her estate to his relatives (B. B. 114b; see RaShBaM and Tos. ad loc.; Nahalot, i. 12). A man does not inherit from his betrothed (“arusah”; Yeb. 29b). Later au- thorities also made provision against his inheriting his wife’s property in case she died childless soon after marriage (see Dowry), The husband does not inherit from his wife if his marriage with her was illegal and carried the punishment of excision (“Kkaret”), but if the punishment involved was only stripes, as in the case of a priest marrving a divorced woman, he docs not lose liis right of inheritance to her estate (Tosef., Yeb. ii. 3). The husband is also the heir of his apostate wife (Eben ha-‘Ezer, 90, 3, gloss; Hoshen Mishpat, 288, 2, gloss). The “yabam” (see LEVIRATE MARRIAGE) who performed his duty by marrying the widow of a brother who died without children became the sole heir to his brother’s estate. But he did not receive his brother’s share in their father’s estate unless the father died before the brother (Yeb. 40a), for his right of inheritance extended only to such property as actually belonged to his brother at the time of his death, and not to property in expectancy (Bek. 52a). If, however, he did not marry his brother’s widow, but followed the alternative of performing the cere- mony of Hatrzan, he was not entitled to his broth- er’s inheritance, but took an equal share with his other brothers. Later, by an institution established in various Jewish communities as an inducement to one of the brothers to free the widow from her uncer- tain state, the property of the deceased brother was divided into two equal parts, one part being given to the widow and the other to the yabam who went through the ceremony of halizah. There is much difference of opinion regarding the de- Levirate tails connected with this institution, Con- and the court that has to deal with nections. sucha case is advised to arbitrate be- tween the contending parties (Eben ha-‘Ezer, 165, 5, gloss; Mordecai to Yeb. iv. 28; Responsa of Meir of Lublin, § 11). Where the widow died before any of her deceased husband’s brothers either married her or submitted to the cere- mony of halizah, the heirs of her deceased husband inherited the amount due to her by her “ ketubah” 585 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Inheritance Ink (marriage contract) and one-half of the dowry given (at marriage) to her by her father or his heirs (“ nikse zon barzel”; see Dowry), while the rest of her property went to her family (Ket. 80a; Nahalot, iii. 9; Eben ha-‘Ezer, 160, 7; comp. Nissim Gerondi, Responsa, §§ 46, 54). Mere presumption is sufficient to establish the identity of an heir (see Hazagxan). If two witnesses testify that a man is known as the son of the de- ceased, though they can not trace the gencalogy of the family, the man so known is regarded as the jegal heir (Nahalot, iv. 7; Hoshen Mishpat, 280, 1). If, however, the deceased said before death that the claimant was not his son, the latter, although the presumption is in his favor, can not claim a portion in the inheritance. The testimony of the deceased is valid only when it relates to a son, but not when it relates to a brother or to another relative (B. B. 184a). On the other hand, the identity of the deceased and positive proof of his death by two legal witnesses must be established before the heirs are permitted to enter upon his estate (B. M. 88b, 39a; Nahalot, vii. 4-10; Hoshen Mishpat, 285; see Trusts aNnpD TRUSTEES). If one said before his death: “This, my son, shall have no portion in my estate,” or if he appointed a stranger as his heir in the place of his Iegal heirs, his declaration is void, for this is against the pre- scription of the Bible. It is, however, possible for aman to disinherit legal heirs either Testa- _—_— by preferring one legal heir to another mentary or by bequcathing his entire estate to Dis- a stranger in the form of a gift (B. B. position. 130a, 183b). But such action on the part of a father was regarded with disfavor by the Rabbis (Kid. 53a; Nahalot, vi. 11; Hoshen Mishpat, 282; see BequrEsT; WILL). _ The heirs enter upon their possession immediately on the death of the deceased. If all the heirs are of age, the division of the property may be proceeded with at once. If, however, there are minors among the heirs, the court appoints a trustee for the minors before the division takes place. If, after the divi- sion, a new heir appears, of whose existence the others were unaware, or if a creditor of the deceased collects a debt from the portion of one of the heirs, a redivision of the whole property has to take place (B. B. 106b; Nahalot, x. 1; Hoshen Mishpat, 175, 3-4). Before the division all the heirs are regarded as partners in the estate, and if they all live together each one may spend on his person according to his needs, except in the case of an extraordinary ex- pense, as an expense incurred by marriage, which is counted against him at the division. When there are majors and minors among the heirs, and the majors have improved the property by their toil, they all share alike in the improvement. But if the majors said before they entered upon the estate, “This is what our father Jeft us,” thus taking an inventory of the estate, in the presence of the court, any improvement that came to it through their efforts belongs to them only (B. B. 148b). At the time of the division of the property, when appraise- ment is made of the estate, the garments that were provided for the heirs from the paternal estate are also estimated, but not the garments worn by their wives and children, although these also may have been supplied from the common treasury. The holi- day garments, even of their wives and children, are included in the appraisement (B. K. lla; see Ap- PRAISEMENT). Heirs whose title to the inheritance is doubtful are excluded in favor of those who can produce certain testimony to their title (Yeb. 38a). If, however, there are two sets of doubtful heirs and the facts can not be determined, the property is divided (B. B. 159b). For instance, a man and his daughter’s son were killed, and it is not known who died first; the direct heirs of the man claim that his grandson died first and therefore did not inherit from his grandfather, but left them the only legal heirs; the heirs of the grandson claim that the grandfather died first and that the grandson inherited from him, leaving them, as the heirs of the grandson, sole legal heirs to the estate of his grandfather: in such a case the prop- erty is divided between the claimants. Many simi- lar instances are recorded in the Talmud; in some cases the decision is in favor of the present possessor ; in others, as in the cas cited, the decision is that the property be divided among the various claimants (Yeb. 87b; B. B. 157-159). The property of a proselyte who has left no chil- dren belongs to the first who takes possession of it (see HEFKER). The property of a criminal who was executed for his crime is not diverted, but belongs to those who would have inherited it in the regular way (Sanh. 48b). If, however, his crime was that of treason, his property may be confiscated (7é.). See also AGNATES; FAMILY AND Faminty LIFE; PATERNITY. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bloch, Das Mosaisch-Talmudische Erbrecht, Budapest, 1890: Hamburger, R. B. T. s.v. Erbe; Hastings, Dict. Bible,s.v. Heir: Kent, The Messages of Israel’s Law- givers, pp. 162-164, New York, 1902; Mayer, Die Rechte der {sraeliten, Athener und Roémer, ii., 88 250-259, Leipsic, 1866; Mendelssohn, Ritualgesetze der Juden, pp. 1-32, Berlin, 1793; Michaelis, Mosaisches Recht, ii., § 78, 79, Reutlingen, 1785: Mielziner, The Rabbinical Law of Hereditary Succession, n.d., n.p.; Nowack, Hebrdische Archdologie, part i., § 64, Leipsic, 1894; Saalschutz, Das Mosaische Recht, ch. 109, Berlin, 1853: Wolff, Das Jiidische Erbrecht, Berlin, 1888. J. J. H. G. INITIALS. See ABBREVIATIONS. INJURIES. See DamaGeE; Tort. INK (Hebr. “deyo”): The only passage in the Old Testament in which ink is mentioned is Jer. xxxvi. 18. It would evidently, however, be a mistake to conclude that it was unknown in earlier times, for in this passage “deyo” is spoken of as something well known. Perhaps the Hebrew word “katab” pre- supposes the existence of ink; and ink was certainly known to the ancient Egyptians. It has not been determined how ink was prepared by the ancient Jews; at any rate the Talmudic “deyo” designates no fluid ink, but rather a cake of pigment which had to be made liquid before use. This ink was made chiefly from soot. Oilor balsam-gum was used to change the soot into a tough, pitchy substance (Shab. 28a); and that made with olive-oil was pre- ferred, as it gave the finest pigment. Gallnuts, first mentioned by Marcianus Capella, are unknown to the Misbnah, but are mentioned in the Gemara. A mineral ink was “kalkantus” (yaa- xavééc), which was also used occasionally in Pales- Proof of Title. Inn, Inquisition tine unmixed. As the ancient world had mixed copper sulphate with the ink of gallnuts, R. Metr (after 100 c. E.), a descendant of Greek proselytes, did the same with devo, the national ink of the Jews. His object was evidently to make the writing more permanent, since ink with a mincral mixture has the advantage of penetrating the material written upon, although it also gradually destroys it. The writing was provably done with an “ ‘et, ” which des- ignates not only a metal style, but also a reed pen which corresponds to the Arabic “kalam ” of to-day. As is still common in the Orient, the scribe used to carry the ‘et or stylus together with the “ oe ha- sofer,” or inkhorn, in his virdle (Ezek. ix. 2-11). He carried also a particular kind of penknife (* ta‘ar ha- sofer”) wherewith to sharpen his reed pen and to cut the writing-material (Jer, xxxvi. 23). BIBLIOGRAPHY: VL. Low, Graphische Requisiten und Evzewuy- nisse bet den Jiulen, i. 145 et seq., Leipsie, 1870; Blau, Sti dien zum Allhebriiischen Buchwesen, pp. 150 ct seq., Buda- pest, 1902. E, G. if. W. ON. INN: House of entertainment for travelers. In the Bible references are made to lodging-places (‘malon”) where caravans or parties of travelers stopped for the night (comp. Gen. xlil, 27, xlil. 21; Ex. iv. 24), This does not necessarily imply a sep- arate building; a wall or enclosure to prevent the cattle from straying, with room to pitch tents and with accessibility to a well, would be suflicient to constitute such a lodging-place in early tines, when it would scarcely have been to the advantage of any one individual to at- tempt to make a living out of passing travel- ers. According to tradition, there was an inn (“gerut”), built by Chimham, near Bethlehem (JI Sam. xix. 37- 40; but comp. Targum ad loc.). By New Testa- ment times the Holy Land had been sufficiently developed to afford opportunity for real inns, which are referred to in the New Testament (Luke x. 84, 85) and in the Talmud under the same word (ravdoyeiov, ITND). That in both cases the house of entertainment was strictly of the nature of an inn is shown by the fact that there was a special word for “host” or “innkeeper” (zavdoyotc, YTD). The good Samaritan left his patient at an ton (Luke x. 34), just asa company of Levites traveling to Zoar left at an inn one of their comrades who had fallen sick (Yeb. xvi. 7). The character of female inn- keepers was by no means above suspicion, as in the instance of Rahab, who is credited with being of that calling (Yer. Targ., Josh. ii. 1). Nevertheless, Rabbi Ishmael bar Jose declared that his father used to pray In an inn (Yer, Ber, iv. 7). Cattle as well as men were put up at inns (Ab. Zarah ii. 1). The ancient inn was probably unfurnished, like the mod- ern khan or caravansary, but probably had arches in the walls in which the travelers could shelter them- selves. In the Middle Ages cach Jewish community had a communal inn where wandering travelers who had THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA : y a j i i ‘Nl Hi if Modern Palestinian Inkhorn and Reed Pens. 586 no acquaintances in the town could put up fora night or two without cost. These would usually be connected with the dancing-hall, or “* Tanzhaus,” where entertainments too large for private houses were given, Jews’ inns occur in carly Spanish rec- ords, and were probably of this kind. In Paris dur- ing the cighteenth century there was a special Jews’ inn, or “auberge Juive,” where all Jewish travelers had to stop, and which often became the subject of blackmail by the police under the charge of being disreputable (L. Kahn, “Les Juifs de Paris,” ps- sim). These communal inns were maintained out of the communal funds; wandering beggars being entertained on the ground floor, while paying guests could take rooms on the upper story. The use of Christian inns was often forbidden to Jews in medi- eval regulations (G@udemann, “Gesch.” 1. 260). An instance occurs where a Jew in England himself kept an inn (Jacobs, “Jews of Angevin England,” p. 153). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Abrahatns, Jeiish Life in the Middle Ages, pp. 74, 314; Levy, Neuhebr. Worterb. G, J. INNOCENT III. (LOTHARIO CONTI): Pope from 1198 to 1216; born at Anagni in 1161; elected June 8, 1198; died July 17, 1216. A Roman writer said of him, “Thy words are the words of God; thy deeds are the deeds of the devil” (Grego- rovius, “Gesch. der Stadt Rom,” v.92). This was eminently true of his conduct toward the Jews. He ras the first pope who not only did not protect the Jews, but persecuted them with the utmost cruelty. Feeling obliged to show some pity for the vic- tims of the ex- cesses coin- mitted by the crusaders, Inno- cent, on ascend- ing the pontifical throne, issued a bull (“Sicut Judreis”) in which he renewed the prohibitions that had been issued by Clement ITT. (see Popgs). “Although,” it read, “the faithlessness of the Jews can not be too much disapproved, they ought not to be excessively oppressed by believers, for they are the living witness of the true religion.” He did not, however, conform to this maxim him- self; and at his instigation the LATERAN CoUNCIL, over which he presided, dictated the humiliating laws which rendered the Jews the pariahs of human- ity; and it especially condemned them to wear BADGES. Believing that the spread of the heretical sects, es- pecially of the Albigenses, in southern France, was due to Jewish influence, Innocent endeavored so to humiliate the Jews that the Christians should shrink from associating with them. To the common accu- gation of ritual murder, Innocent added new ones of hisowninvention. “The doors of the Jews,” writes he, “are open to bandits, and the Christians are mocked for believing ina crucified peasant ” (“ Epis- tole,” vii., No. 186, ed. Bréquigny, in his “ Diplo- mata,” ji. 610). He remonstrated with Philip Au- gustus for allowing the Jews to possess landed property and employ Christian servants and nurses - : 7 . ivan nn He Ty i. H Wh 587 (1b.). In 1205 Innocent censured Alfonso the Noble for the protection granted by that monarch to his Jewish subjects. He wrote, also, to the Count of Nevers, Whom he threatened with excommunication if he continued to protect the Jews: “The Jews, like the fratricide Cain, are doomed to wander through the earth as fugitives and yvagabonds, and their faces must be covered with shame. They are under no circumstances to be protected by Christian princes: but are, on the contrary, to be condemned to serfdom. It is, therefore, discreditable for Christian princes to recreive Jews into their towns and villages, and to employ them as usurers in order to extort money from Christians. They (the princes] arrest Christians who are indebted to Jews, and allow the Jews to take Christian castles and villages in pledge; and the worst of the matter is that the Church in this manner toses its tithes. It is scandalous that Christians should have their cattle slaughtered and their grapes pressed by Jews, who are thus enabled to take their portion and to iuipose the leavings, prepared according to Jewish religious precepts, upon Christians, It is a still greater sin that this wine, prepared by Jews, should be used in the Chureh for the sacrament of the Lord’s Supper. While the Christians are excommunicated for favoring the Jews, and their lands laid under the ban, the Jews are laughing in their sleeves because, on their aecount, the harps of the Church are hung on willows and the priests are gees of their revenues” (Epistoke x. 120, ed. Baluz. IL., p. le BIBLIOGRAPHY : Gidemann, Gesch. i. 60 et seq., ii. 85 et 8eq.; Gratz, Gesch. vii. 4 ef seq.; Vogelstein and Rieger, Gesch. der Juden in Rom, i, passim. G I. Br. INNOCENT XI. (BENEDETTO ODESCAL- CHI): Pope from 1676 to 1689; born at Como in 1611; elected Sept. 21, 1676; dicd Aug. 12, 1689. That the Jews were not excluded from the re- sults of his Keen sense of justice is evidenced in hiscompelling the city of Venice to release the Jew- ish prisoners that had been taken by General Moro- sini in 1685. Still he went so far as to forbid (Oct. 80, 1682) the Jews to engage in banking trans- actions. However, ultimatcly convineed that such a measure would cause much misery to the Jews, the enforcement of the edict was twice delayed (Feb. 26, 1683; March 21, 1684). Innocent discouraged compulsory baptisms, which accordingly became less frequent under his pontificate. But he could not abolish altogether the old practise, and on Nov. 12, 1678, the Holy Congregation declared the bap- tism of a Jewish child, performed by its Christian nurse, to be valid. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Vogelstein and Rieger, Gesch. der Juden in Rom, ii. 223-226. G. I. Br. INNSBRUCK: Capital of Tyrol, Austria. While Jews settled throughout Tyrol, especially in the southern part, as early as the beginning of the fourteenth century, no mention of them at Inns- bruck is met with until the end of the sixteenth century. As elsewhere in the country, they were engaged in business, chiefly as dealers in grain and bullion or as money-lenders and brokers. By a spe- cial privilege granted by Archduke Ferdinand IL. June 11, 1578, Samuel May, descendant of the spe- cially privileged Solomon of Bassano, was permitted to establish himself at the court at Innsbruck, at first for eight years, and then for an additional period; and this privilege was subsequently ex- tended to hischildren. May and his friends lived in the so-called “ Judengasse”; but there never was a ghetto at Innsbruck. In 1748 Maria Theresa ex- pelled from Innsbruck the Jews Uffenheimer and Landauer, although both were prominent purveyors, THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Inn ; Inquisition and the first a court factor. Wheo the Jews-swere expelled from HonEenrmnms in 1670, the Dannhauser and other families went to Innsbruck. ; ZAunz, _Although Isaac was very strict in his halakic de Zeitschrift, p. 182: Gritz, Gesch. viii. 34; Schorr, in He-Ha- cisions, he was far from being narrow-minded. He luz, i. 28: Steinschneider. Cat. Bodl. col. 1155; Heinrich has nothing to say a gainst secular knowledge; he Jaulus, in Monatsschrift, 1875, p. 820; Atlas, in Ha-Kerem, : ‘ i. 1-26; Bloch,in R. HE. J. viii. 288; Kaufmann, in Monats- disapproves the study of Aristotle only because the schrift, 1882, p. 86; 1883, p. 190; Fuenn, Keneset Yisrael.s.v. latter professed belief in the eternity of matter and 8. 8. I. Br. denied God’s providence. Isaac’s responsa evidence ISAAC IBN SID (ZAG; GAG): Spanish a profound knowledge of the philosophical wri- | astronomer; flourished at Toledo in the second half tings of his time. In one of them (No. 118) he ex- | of the thirteenth century. From the surname “ha- plains the difference between the opinion of Levi | Hazzan,” given him by Isaac Israeli (“ Yesod 633 ‘Olam,” iv. 30), it may be inferred that he was pre- centor at the synagogue. Isaac ibn Sid took a lead- ing part in the compilation of the ALFONSINE TABLES. Isaac Isracli (¢d.) states that he saw re- corded in Isaac ibn Sid’s own handwriting three observations of moon-eclipses made by him at the order of Alfonso. In official documents (De Castro, “Bibliotheca,” i, 184b) Isaac ibn Sid is termed by Alfonso “our learned Rabbi Cag.” In 1277 Isaac translated from the Arabic a work on the quadrant. His name is also connected with the invention of various instruments (De Castro, I.c. i. 144a, 156a, 157). BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gratz, Gesch. vii. 115; Steinschneider, Hebr. Uchers. pp. 617 et seq. G. I. Br. ISAAC BEN SOLOMON: Liturgical poet; lived in Germany in the first half of the fourteenth century; author of the selihah “ Ani hu ha-Geber,” on the martyrs of the persecutions of 1837, which Isaac had witnessed. The signature to this selihah includes the words “ Yifrah Samak,” which, accord- ing to Zunz, form a part of the poet’s name. BIBLIOGRAPITY: Zunz, Literaturgesch. p. 368; idem, S. P. p. 368; Revue Orientatle, i. 279; Landshuth, ‘Ammude ha- ‘Abodah, p. 127; text and transl. of ‘‘ Ani hu ha-Geber’’ in Salfeld, Martyrologium, p. 347 (comp. p. 287). G. I. Br. ISAAC BEN SOLOMON HA-KOHEN : Bib- lical commentator; lived at Constantinople in the middle of the sixteenth century. He was the author of a commentary on Job, published, with the text, at Constantinople in 1545. He wrote also a com- mentary on Pirke Abot, still extant in manuscript. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Zunz, Z. G. p. 426; Steinschneider, Jewish Literature, p. 2382; idem, Cat. Bodl. col. 1153; First, Bibl. Jud. ii. 141, G. I. Br, ISAAC BEN TODROS: Spanish rabbiand Tal- mudist toward the end of the thirteenth century. He was the teacher of Shem-Tob ibn Gaon and Nathan b. Judah, and the friend of Bahya ben Asher, who mentions him in his Pentateuch com- mentary (§ Beshallah). He is mentioned also by Mordecai ben Hillel (d. 1810); and was still living in 1805, on July 26 of which year he subscribed, with others, the excommunication launched by Solomon ben Adret against the study of metaphysics by any one before attaining the age of thirty. He was probably one of the rabbis of Barcelona. He wrotea commentary on the Mahzor (Lonsano,“ Shete Yadot,” 62a), and a halakiccommentary to the “ Azharot” of Gabirol (Paris, Bibliothéque Nationale, No. 278, 2). It is not probable that he is to be identified with the Todros ben Isaac of Gerona (Brill) who is praised by Kalonymus (1823) at the end of his “Eben Bohan,” and who wrote novelle on Nazir (Neubauer, “Cat. Bodl. Hebr. MSS.” No. 448, 1). BIBLIOGRAPHY : Steinschneider, Cat. Boal. col. 2522 ; Conforte, Kore ha-Dorot, p. 180; Solomon ben Adret, Responsa, No. mt Dukes, in Orient, Lit. 1847, p. 405; Briill’s Jahrb. viii. G. ISAAC B. TODROS: French physician at Avignon during the second half of the fourteenth century. In 1873 he was the pupil of the astron- omer Immanuel b. Jacob of Tarascon and Orange, the author of the “Shesh Kenafayim.” Isaac was THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Isaac ben Sheshet Isaacs, Abram well read in rabbinical literature and philosophy as wellasin medicine and medical literature, Eastern Africa, 1836 J. G. L. ISAACS, REBECCA: English actress and singer; born in London June 26, 1828; died there April 21, 1877. Her father, John Isaacs, an actor and singer of Covent Garden Theater, trained her for the stage, on which she first appeared March 17, 1835. She took the chief réles in the English opera season at Drury Lane Theater in 1846, and often ap- peared in concerts and operas with Sims Reeves. She produced a series of operas at the Strand Theater in 1852-55, and created the réle of Letla in the opera “Satanella,” at Covent Garden Theater, in 1858. Her voice was a soprano of great compass and sweetness. BIBLIOGRAPHY: The Players, iii. 279-280, 289, London, 1860; Ke, Era (London), April 29, 1877; Bose, Modern English J. ISAACS, SAMUEL HILLEL: American cal- endarer; born 1825 at Raczek, Poland; educated under Judah Bacharach, Moses Leib of Kutna, and others; emigrated to New York on June 380, 1847. During 1886 and 1887 he was principal of the Tal- mud Torahin New York. Isaacs has contributed arti- cles to the American Jewish press, and also a number of articles of a Talmudical nature to the “ Torah me- Ziyyon,” a monthly periodical published at Jerusa- lem, two of which articles, “Hadshe ha-Shanah ” and “ Petah ‘Inim,” have been reprinted in pamphlet form (1901-02), Isaacs is the compiler of an “ Artificial Perpetual Calendar” and of a “Civil and Ecclesiastical Per- petual Calendar ” (New York, 1891). BIBLIOGRAPHY: For a description of Isaacs’ perpetual calendars see Seminary, March, 1894, pp. 77, 91; The Sun (New York), Sept. 14, 1893; The Scientific American, May 7, 1892. A. I. G. D. ISAACS, SAMUEL MYER: Rabbi and jour- nalist; born at Leeuwarden, Holland, Jan. 4, 1804; diced in New York city May 19, 1878. His father, on the approach of the French army of occupation, removed with his family to London. For a time Isaacs was principal of the old Neweh Zedek, now the Jews’ Hospital and Orphan Asylum, West Nor- wood, London, but he left England to accept the ministry of the Congregation B’nai Jeshurun, then in Elm street, New York city (1889). Regularsermons in English in the synagogue, such as he delivered, were a novelty, Isaac Leeser of Philadelphia being the only other rabbi in the country preaching in English. In 1847 he was chosen minister of the Congregation Shaaray Tefilla, whose members had withdrawn from the Elm Street Synagogue; with that congregation he remained until his death. Isaacs contributed to the “ Asmonean” and the “ Occident”; in 1857 he founded the “Jewish Mes- senger ” as an organ of conservative Judaism, which he edited until the close of his life. To him was largely due the institution of the Board of Del- egates of American Israelites, the Hebrew Free School Association, and the United Hebrew Chari- ties, while he was one of the founders and first vice: president of the Jews’ (now Mt. Sinai) Hospital. Isaacs took a leading part in the establishment of Maimonides College, Philadelphia, and, while iden- tified with the cause of Conservatism, he was cou- rageous cnough to issue, in 1875, a call for ritual re- form on the lines suggested by Sabato Morais; his views, however, met with no support. BIBLIOGRAPHY : Morais, Eminent Israetites of the Nineteenth Century; Jewish Messenge Supplement, Jan. 6, 1882; Mag- azine of American History, March, 1891; The Memorial History of New York, iv. A. ISABELLA TI. See FERDINAND AND ISABELLA. ISAIAH.—Biblical Data: The greatest of the Hebrew prophets of whom literary monuments re- main. He resided at Jerusalem, and so contrasts with Micah, the prophet of the country districts. He was married (Isa. viii. 8), and had children (vii. 3, viii. 3). His bearing indicates that he could maintain his dig- nity in the highest society, as is shown by his free- dom toward Ahaz (vii.) and his acquaintance with Uriah, the chief priest (viii. 2). The heading in Isa. i. lt refers to Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah as the kings under whom he prophesied. This and similar headings, however, have no historical au- thority, being the work of later writers whose state- ments had no documentary basis and were purely inferential. It is true, moreover, that no prophecy can be shown to be as early as Uzziah’s time, except indeed the kernel of ch. vi, “Inthe year that King Uzziah died I saw the Lord,” etc. (vi. 1, R. V.), seems to come from a cycle of prophetic narratives, some of which (comp. viii. 1-3, 5; ii. 16), rightly or wrongly, claimed the authorship of Isaiah. Cer- tainly the whole man is reflected in the grand vision of ch. vi. No personal consideration holds him back (contrast Jeremiah) from offering himself as the Lord’s spokesman, and though assured that no ex- hortation will affect the callous consciences of his hearers, he still goes in and out among his people as if hope existed; and perhaps (human nature is in- consistent) hope still persisted even when reason altogether denied its right. The story of him who “by vileness made the great refusal” (to apply Dante’s well-known words), who might have led his people to social and personal ref- ormation, by the wise counsel of the prophet, is re- corded in ch. vii. Isaiah was no statesman, and yet the advice which he gave the king was as good from a political as from a religious point of view. For why should Ahaz pay Assyria for doing work which Isaiah an enlightened regard for its own interest. would certainly impel it to perform? Why should he take the silver and gold in the Temple and in the palace, and send it as tribute to the Assyrian king? It is to be noted that inch. viii. Isaiah’s wife is called “the prophetess.” By her solidarity with her hus- band she is detached from the unholy people among whom she dwells, and made, as it were, sacrosanct. His children, too, are “signs and omens” of divine appointment; and one may conjecture that if Isaiah ever pictured the worst disaster coming to Jeru- salem, he saw himself and his family, like Lot of old, departing in safety (for some work reserved for them by God) from the doomed city. Ch. xx. de- scribes the strange procedure by which Isaiah, as it were, “gave an acted prediction ” of the fate in store for Mizraim and Cush (Egypt and Ethiopia), or, as others think, for Mizrim and Cush (North Arabia), on which the peoples of Palestine had counted so much as allies. From ch. xxxvi.-xxxix., perhaps, much assistance can not be expected in the biography of Isatah, for in their present form they are certainly rather Jate. No more can be said of Isaiah from direct documentary information. His words are his true biography. In them is seen the stern, unbend- ing nature of the man, who loved his people much, but his God more. Isaiah has all the characteristics of a classic writer —terseness, picturesqueness, and originality. But was he also a poet? It is hard to think so. Could such a man condescend to the arts necessary to the very existence of poetry? Isa. xxxvii. 22-29 is as- signed to him. But the narration in which it is placed is thought by many critics to be late, and the phraseology of the poem itself seems to point away from Isaiah. On the late tradition of the martyr- dom of Isaiah in the reign of Manasseh see ISAIAH, ASCENSION OF, E.G. HW. T. K. C. ——-In Rabbinical Literature: According to the Rabbis Isaiah was a descendant of Judahand Tamar (Sotah 10b). His father was a prophet and the brother of King Amaziah (Meg. 15a). While Isaiah, says the Midrash, was walking up and down in his study he heard God saying, “ Whorn shall I send?” Then Isaiah said, “Here am I; send me!” There- upon God said to him, “My children are trouble- some and sensitive; if thou art ready to be insulted and even beaten by them, thou mayest accept My message; if not, thou wouldst better renounce it” (Lev. R. x.). Isaiah accepted the mission, and was the most forbearing, as well as the most ardent patriot, among the Prophets, always defending Is- rael and imploring forgiveness for its sins. He was therefore distinguished from all other prophets in that he received his communications directly from God and not through an intermediary (.). When Isaiah said, “I dwell in the midst of a people of un- clean lips” (vi. 5) he was rebuked by God for speak- ing in such terms of His people (Cant. R. i. 6). In the order of greatness Isaiah is placed immedi- ately after Moses by the Rabbis; in some respects Isaiah surpasses even Moses, for he reduced the commandments to six: honesty in dealing; sincerity in speech; refusal of illicit gain; absence of corrup- tion; aversion for bloody deeds; contempt for evil THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 636 (Mak. 24a). Later he reduced the six to two—jus- tice and charity (70.). The chief merit of Isaiah’s prophecies is their consoling character, for while Moses said, “Thou shalt perish in the midst of the nation,” Isaiah announced deliverance. Ezekiel’s consoling addresses compared with Isaiah’s are as the utterances of a villager to the speech of a courtier (Hag. 14a). Therefore consolation is awaiting him who sees Isaiah in a dream (Ber. 57b). It isrelated in the Talmud that Rabbi Simeon ben ‘Azzai found in Jerusalem an account wherein it was written that Manasseh killed Isaiah. Manasseh said to Isaiah, “Moses, thy master, said, ‘There shall no man see God and live’ [Ex. xxxiil. 20, Hebr.}]; but thou hast said, ‘I saw the Lord seated upon his throne’ ” (Isa. vi. 1, Hebr.); and went on to point out other contradictions—as between Deut. iv. 7and Isa. lv. 6; between Ex. xxxiii. 26 and IT Kings xx. 6. Isaiah thought: “J know that he will not accept my explanations; why should I increase his guilt?” He then uttered the Unpronounceable Name, a cedar-tree opened, and Isaiah disappeared within it. Then Manasseh ordered the cedar to be sawn asunder, and when the saw reached his mouth Isaiah died; thus was he punished for having said, “JT dwell in the midst of a people of unclean lips” (Yeb. 49b). A somewhat different version cf this legend is given in the Yerushalmi (Sanhedrin x.), According to that version Isaiah, fearing Manasseh, hid himself in a cedar-tree, but his presence was be- trayed by the fringes of his garment, and Mauassch caused the tree tobesawnin half. A passage of the Targum to Isaiah quoted by Jolowicz (“ Die Him- melfahrt und Vision des Prophets Jesajas,” p. 8) states that when Isaiah fled from his pursuers and took refuge in the tree, and the tree wassawn in half, the prophet’s blood spurted forth. From Talmudical circles the legend of Isaiah’s martyrdom was trans- mitted to the Arabs (“ Ta’rikh,” ed. De Gocje, i. 644), 8. I. Br. ISAIAH, BOOK OF: The chief note of the Book of Isaiah is variety—variety of tone, of style, of thought, and of historical background. The first step in the study of Isaiah is to realize this variety by taking a survey of the contents. The heading (i. 1) prepares the reader to expect a col- lection of closely related prophecies (hence called a “vision,” in the singular) concerning Judah and its capital. It is plain, therefore, that ch. xiii.- xxiii. were only inserted as an afterthought; for, with the exception of ch. xxil., they all relate to foreign nations; ch. xiv. 24-27, xvil. 12-14, xxii. 1-14, and 15-25 (which relate to Judah or Jerusa- lem) may be regarded as fragments which would have perished if an editor had not thought of insert- ing them inthis group. Ch. xxiv.-xXxvii, also, can only have been admitted through an extension of the original plan, for they speak primarily of a judgment upon the earth at large, and when they do digress to Israel] it is in obscure language, which the men of “Judah and Jerusalem” could not gen- erally have understood. Similarly, ch. xxxiv.- xxxv. can have formed no part of the original vision, for the larger part (xxxiv.) is concerned, not with Judah, but with Edom. Ch. xxxvi.-xxxix. speak of Isaiah in the third person, and largely co- ILLUMINATED PAGE OF IsAlAH FROM A MANUSCRIPT BIBLE, SAID TO BE OF THE TWELFTH CENTURY. (Lately in the possession of Henriques de Castro, Amsterdam.) Isaiah incide with II Kings xviii. 18-xx. 19. Ch. xL.-Ixvi. have for their background, at any rate to a consid- erable extent, Jerusalem In ruins and her people in captivity. In following, therefore, that instinct of order, which is, of course, not the same thing as criticism, but is at least one element in it, the first impressions of Isaiah must be obtained from ch. i.- xii. and xXviii.-xxxlii. Ch. i.: One of the finest specimens of prophetic rhetoric known. It is in its present form a gen- eral prophecy, full of edification for all periods of Israel’s history, though the prominence given in verses 29, 30 to the heathen worship practised in the recesses of gardens would not have seemed perfectly natural in the later period of strict religious purity. There are four leading ideas: Israel’s ingratitude to its God; the false repentance of oblations; the true repentance vfa changed life; purification from with- out, failing purification from within. Ch. ii.-iv.: A series of denunciations of the na- tional corruption enclosed between two pictures of the ideal age. Here Isaiah goes into greater detail, both as to the nature of Judah’s sin and as to the inevitable punishment. Like a thunder-storm the wrath of God will overthrow the proud, and sweep away the heathenish luxury of the grandees of the land; all classes will be disturbed from their pleas- ant security; the ablest citizens will go into captiv- ity, for theirs is the greatest guilt; nor shall the women of Jerusalem escape (comp. Amos iv. 1-8). Ch, v.: A briefer utterance with similar scope. It begins with a bright parable on the vineyard of God, the moral of which is the danger of Judah’s ingratitude; then follows a series of “wos” on the chief national sins, and a weird, mysterious an- nouncement of terrible invaders. Ch. vi.: This chapter might well have stood at the head of the whole book. It describes the call of the prophet. A vision, such as all The Call prophets may expect to have (though of the abundance of visions is no proof of Prophet. the goodness of a “man of God”), came to Isaiah, and in this vision—the sum of which was the glorified and idealized Tem- ple—God and Isaiah interchanged these words: “Whom shall I send?” “Send me.” No passage is so important as is this one for the true biography of Isaiah. Ch. vii.-ix. 7: Partly historical, partly prophet- ical. It is unfortunate that this precedent is not fol- lowed more frequently. Itisnow known that Isaiah sought to influence Ahaz, but was repelled by the king. Judah was in sore peril from the invaders Pekah and Rezin (not the invaders to whom he pointed so mysteriously in v. 26 e¢ seg.), and there was a conflict between the two principles—reliance on outside human help and implicit trust in Israel’s God. Ahazstood for the first, Isaiah for the second. One result there was which Ahaz could never have anticipated: the sign of Immanuel has supplied material for controversy to the present hour. It might be thought that it was a promise of safety. But Isaiah could not “speak peace when there was no peace.” It is desolation, and not deliverance, which the unbelief of Ahaz will ultimately bring on his unhappy country (vii. 17-25). In ch. viii. THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 638 1-4 Isaiah reaffirms his declaration (vii. 7-9) of a judgment swiftly coming to Damascus and Samaria. But will Judah escape? No, but the kernel of the nation will escape. Judgment will bring about purification. A detiverer already exists in the coun- sels of God, and he will restore the kingdom of David in an idealized form (ix. 1-7). Ch. ix. 8-x. 4: A highly poetical picture of the approaching ruin of the Northern Kingdom, though there are also glances at Judah. The rivalry of fac- tions in the state and the fall of the incompetent rulers on the field of battle are graphically described. Ch. x. 5-xij. 6: There is more religious thought, however, in the discourses contained in these chap- ters. The variety of imagery, too, is highly remark- able. Assyria (that is, its king; comp. the use of “France” and “England” in Shakespeare) is the staff or the ax in God’shand. Its Reliance on army is like a forest. Assyria’s lust Assyria. of conquest is like the sport of bird- nesting. See the astonishingly rapid march of the armed hosts! Some with their leader “shake their hands” at the sacred mountain. The Davidic kingdom will, as it seems, be cut down. But so, too, Assyria will be cut down; and while a “shoot” (R. V.) will “come forth out of the stock of Jesse,” no such prospect is held out for Assyria. Not to Babylon, but to Jerusalem, will the nations repair. Not in Assyria, but in the land of Israel, will the peace of paradise be exemplified. Thither will all Israel’s exiles be brought back, singing psalms of devout and grateful joy. Ch, xxviii.-xxxili.: These chapters also are full of variety. From the first the prophet alternates between judgment and salvation. The proud crown of the drunkards (princely drunkards!) of Ephraim is trodden down; for the residue there is a crown of glory (Samaria fell 722 n.c.). But there are drunk- ards (priestly drunkards!) in Judah too, trusting in a “refuge of lies” instead of in the “sure foundation” stone (xxviii. 15-17). At another time the teacher seems to have adopted a different tone. A few, per- haps, became dejected by Isaiah's frequent reference to destruction. Would this plowing and thrashing go on forever? No; an earthly husbandman is too wise for that; and the heavenly husbandman knows best of all that destruction is justified only by the object of sowing some useful plant when the soil has been prepared (xxviii. 23-29). It is true, as ch. xxix. shows, the great majority were quite otherwise impressed by [saiah’s preach- ing. A deep lethargy clouded the senses of the rulers (verses 10-12), But the crash of thunder will awaken them. Within a year Jerusalem will be besieged, and in the midst of the siege God Himself will fall upon Jerusalem and punish her (1-4, 6). But fear not; the foe will suffer most; God will not permit the nations to destroy Mount Zion (5, 7, 8). Wo to the formalists and to the unbelieving politi- cians of Judah! (13-15). But all the best blessings are to the poor and the meek. The cause of Isaiah’s wrath against the politi- cians was an alliance with Egypt which was being planned in secret. This is shown by ch. xxx. Isaiah predicts the disappointment which awaits the ambassadors, and the terrible results which will 639 THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Isaiah follow from this short-sighted statecraft. But here again the usual contrast is introduced. Storm and sunshine compete with each other. Alliance The Golden Age will yet come; Nature with will participate in the happiness of Egypt. regenerate Judah. Assyria will be crushed, and meantime the Jews will sing, as in the night of the feast-day (the vigil of the Passover; comp. Ex. xii. 42). In ch. xxxi.- xxxil. 8 the prophet still hovers about the same theme, while in xxNii. 9-20 the careless security of the women is chastised (comp. iii. 16 e¢ seq.), the des- olation soon to be wrought by the invader is de- scribed, and, as a chcering contrast, the future trans- formation of the national character and of the physical conditions of life are once more confidently announced. Ch, xxxili. is one of the most singular of the extant specimens of prophetic writing. There is no apparent arrangement, and some of the verses seem to be quite isolated. It is a kind of vision which is described. The land is being laid waste. O Lord, help! But see! the hostile hordes suddenly disappear; Zion’s God is her security. Alas! not yet. The highwaysstill lie waste. The whole coun- try from Lebanon to Sharon mourns. Yes, it is God’s time to arise. He has, in fact, arisen, and the “godless” (the converted Jews) tremble, while the righteous are assured of salvation. How happy will the retrospect of their past troubles make them! (verse 18). Then, too, it will be plain that Zion’s load of guilt has been removed. The idea which pervades the first of the five lesser books (ch. xiii.-xxiii., xxiv.-xxvii., xxxiv.-xxxv., XXXVi,-xxxix., and xl.-lxvi.) which still await con- sideration may be expressed in Isaiah’s own words (they are taken here provisionally to be Isaiah’s): “This is the purpose that is purposed upon the whole earth: and this is the hand that is stretched out upon all the nations” (xiv. 26). It is, in fact, a Book of Judgments on the nations, except that Book four passages have found admission of Judg- into it which relate, not to the world ments. outside, but to the little people which, as Isaiah may have thought, out- weighed in the eyes of God all the other nations put together. These four passages are as follows: Ch. xiv. 24-27 isa short prophecy declaring the pur- pose of Israel’s God to tread Assyria under foot upon the “mountains” of Judah, to which is appended a solemn declaration, part of which is quoted above (verses 26, 27). In ch. xvii. 12-14 there is a graphic prophecy of the destruction of the “many nations” which attack Jerusalem (comp. viii. 9, 10; xxix. 7, 8); nospecial nationis singled out. In ch. xxii, 1-14 there is an indignant rebuke of the people of Jerusa- lem, who are in no degree sobered by the danger, just now removed, from the Assyrians; instead of exam- ining into their ways, ceasing to do evil, and learn- ing to do well, they indulge in wild revelry. In ch. xxii. 15-25 an invective against the vizier of the day (Shebna) is followed by a promise of his office to a worthier man (Eliakim), to which an appendix is attached announcing this second vizier’s fall. Of the judgments upon definite nations, other than the Jewish, the first (ch. xiii.) declares the doom of Babylon, and to it is appended a fine, artistic ode of triumph on the King of Babylon (xiv. 4b-21). Observe that the prophet distinctly speaks as if the Medes were already mustering for the march on Babylon. Is it to besupposed that Isaiah was at the time in an ecstasy? Ch. xiv. 22-23 is a prophecy, summing up Babylon’s doom in more prosaic style. Ch. xiv. 28-82 contains the doom of the Philis- tines, Who are in premature exultation at the “ break- ing” of some terrible “rod.” Ch. xv.-xvi. 12 are highly dramatic; they begin with a picture of the consternation of the Moabites at the havoc wrought by an invader, describe the flight of the people in much detail, mention how an appeal to Mount Zion for help was rejected, make sympathetic references to the lamentations of the Moabites over their ruined vines, and then, without any apparent connection, assert that no appeal to Chemosh for aid will be effectual. To this is added (verses 13, 14) a solemn declaration that the prophecy which had been deliv- ered at some previous period shall be fulfilled within three years. Ch. xvii. 1-11 is directed against Damascus (that is, Syria) and Ephraim (that is, Israel). These two powers have set themse!ves against the true God, and must suffer the same doom. However, the few who are left in Israel will turn to the holy God, and give up lower forms of worship. Ch. xviii. was apparently intended to be an ad- dressto Ethiopia. But already (verse 3) the prophet turns to the world at large, and bids men take heed of the signs of the divine approach. When the power hostile to God is ripe for destruction, it will be cut off. Then will the Ethiopians send presents to Jerusalem. The doom, therefore, is really con- fined to verses 4-6. Ch. xix. describes the utter collapse of Egypt, owing to its conquest by a “cruel lord” (verse 4). The main interest, however, lies in verses 18-24, which apparently contain circumstantial predictions of the establishment of Jewish colonies in tive cities of Egypt, including the “city of the sun”; of the erection of a sanctuary in Egypt to Israel’s God; of the deliverance of the Jews (?) in Egypt in their sore distress; of the conversion of the Egyptians; and of the providential discipline of Egypt, which hence- forth will be a member of a sacred triad of closely connected nations—Egypt, Assyria, and Israel. The prophecy in ch. xx. gives a second judgment upon Egypt, and a perfectly new judgment on Ethiopia. It stands in marked contrast both to ch. xviii, and toch. xix. Its possession of a historical introduction would have led to its being grouped with ch. vii-ix. 7 and ch. xXxxvi.-xxxix.; but doubtless it was too short to stand alone. Ch. xxi. contains three “burdens” (or oracles)— that of the “ wilderness of the sea” (R. V.), relative to the destruction of Babylon by Elam and Media (contingents in the assailing army ?), that of Dumah (that is, Edom), and that of the “Dedanites” (R. V.), entitled by the early editors of the Hebrew text “in Arabia,” words apparently derived from the opening words “in the forest in Arabia.” The oracles in ch. xxi. contain great textual difficulties. The only remaining prophecy in this section is that on Tyre. It has a strongly elegiac character, and its reference is much disputed. Here, again, Isaiah textual problems have to be settled before any at- tempts at exegesis. But it is clear that the stand- point of verses {5-18 is not that of verses 1-14. It is an epilogue, and expresses a much more hopeful spirit than the original prophecy. Tyre will one day be of importance to the people of Jerusalem ; its prosperity is therefore to be desired. Here, then, the note of variety or contrast is as strongly marked asin any part of Isaiah. Still more remarkable is the variety in the contents of the second of the lesser books (ch. xxiv.—xx vil.). It is observed by R. G. Moulton that, dramatic as this fine passage is, one looks in vain for temporal suc- cession, and finds instead “the pendulum movement dear to Hebrew imagination, alternating between judgment and salvation.” However, the parts of this “rhapsody ” can not safely be distributed among the dramatis personie, for it is no literary whole, but a “rhapsody ” in a sense not intended by Moul- ton, a collection of fragments, large or small, stitched, as it were, together. It might also be caHec a “mosaic,” and, since very little, if any, at- tempt has been made to fuse the different elements, one night, with much advantage, read this compos- ite work in the following order: (1) xxiv. 1-23: The Last Judgment. (2) xxv. 6-8: The Feast of Initiation into communion with God, spread not only for Israel, but for all peoples. (3) xxvi. 20, 21: Summons to the Jews to shut themselves up, while God carries out the awful doom of the wicked (comp. EX. xii. 22b, 23). (4) xxvii. 1, 12: Mystic prophecy of the Leviathan’s doom, and the restoration of the entire body of dispersed Jews. (5) xxvii. 7-11: Conditions of salvation for the Jews. (6) xxvi. 1-19: Song of praise for the deliverance of the Right- eous, Which passes into a meditative retrospect of recent events, and closes with a prophecy of the resurrection of those who have been faithful unto death. (7) xxv. 1-5: Song of praise for the destruction of an insolent city. (8) XXv. O12: Praise for deliverance, and anticipations of the downfall of Moab. (9) xxvii. 2-5: Song concerning God's vineyard, Israel. Ch. xxxiv.-xxxv. show the same oscillation be- tween judgment and salvation which has been pre- viously noted. The judgment upon al} nations (es- pecially Edom) is depicted in lurid tints; upon this, with no link of transition, follows a picture of salvation and of the restoration of the Jewish exiles. Ch. XXXVi.~XXXIX. are a mixture of narrative, prophecy, and poetry. The great deliverance from Assyria under Hezekiah, in which Isaiah plays an important part, is related. An ode on the fall of the King of Assyria (recalling xiv. 4b-21) shows Isaiah (if if be Isaiah) to be a highly gifted poet (xxxvii. 21b-29); and a kind of psalm (see xxxviii 20), ascribed to Hezekiah, tells how the speaker had recovered from a severe illness, and recognized in his recovery a proof of the complete forgiveness of his sins.